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Cathedral

A cathedral is a church that contains the of a bishop, thus serving as the central church of a diocese, conference, or episcopate. Churches with the function of "cathedral" are usually specific to those Christian denominations with an episcopal hierarchy, such as the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, and some Lutheran churches. Church buildings embodying the functions of a cathedral first appeared in Italy, Gaul, Spain, and North Africa in the 4th century, but cathedrals did not become universal within the Western Catholic Church until the 12th century, by which time they had developed architectural forms, institutional structures, and legal identities distinct from parish churches, monastic churches, and episcopal residences. The cathedral is more important in the hierarchy than the church because it is from the cathedral that the bishop governs the area under his or her administrative authority.

Following the Protestant Reformation, the Christian church in several parts of Western Europe, such as Scotland, the Netherlands, certain Swiss Cantons and parts of Germany, adopted a presbyterian polity that did away with bishops altogether. Where ancient cathedral buildings in these lands are still in use for congregational worship, they generally retain the title and dignity of "cathedral", maintaining and developing distinct cathedral functions, but void of hierarchical supremacy. From the 16th century onwards, but especially since the 19th century, churches originating in Western Europe have undertaken vigorous programmes of missionary activity, leading to the founding of large numbers of new dioceses with associated cathedral establishments of varying forms in Asia, Africa, Australasia, Oceania and the Americas. In addition, both the Catholic Church and Orthodox churches have formed new dioceses within formerly Protestant lands for converts and migrant co-religionists. Consequently, it is not uncommon to find Christians in a single city being served by three or more cathedrals of differing denominations.

Etymology and definition
The word cathedral is derived, possibly via the French cathédrale, from the Latin ecclesia cathedralis and from the Latin cathedra ('seat'), and ultimately from the Ancient Greek καθέδρα, 'seat, bench', from κατά 'down' and ἕδρα  'seat, base, chair'.

The word refers to the presence and prominence of the bishop's or archbishop's chair or throne, raised above both clergy and laity, and originally located facing the congregation from behind the high altar. In the ancient world, the chair, on a raised dais, was the distinctive mark of a teacher or rhetor and thus symbolises the bishop's role as teacher. A raised throne within a basilican hall was also definitive for a Late Antique presiding magistrate; and so the cathedra also symbolises the bishop's role in governing his diocese.

The word cathedral, as the seat of a bishop, is found in most languages; however in Europe a cathedral church can be referred to as a duomo (in Italian) or Dom (e.g. German, Dutch, etc.), from the Latin term domus ecclesiae(house of the church) or domus episcopalis (episcopal house). While the terms are not synonymous (a duomo is a collegiate church, similar to the English "Minster") many cathedral churches are also collegiate churches, so that duomo, and Dom, have become the common names for a cathedral in those countries. It is also common in parts of the Iberian peninsula to use Sé (in Portuguese), and Seu (in Catalan, with its Spanish form Seo), all of them from the Latin term episcopalis sedes, meaning "episcopal seat".

In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Latin word cathedral commonly translates as katholikon (sobor in Slavic languages), meaning 'assembly', but this title is also applied to monastic and other major churches without episcopal responsibilities. When the church at which an archbishop or "metropolitan" presides is specifically intended, the term kathedrikós naós (lit. 'cathedral temple') is used.

The episcopal throne embodies the principle that only a bishop makes a cathedral, and this still applies even in those churches that no longer have bishops, but retain cathedral dignity and functions in ancient churches over which bishops formerly presided. But the throne can also embody the principle that a cathedral makes a bishop; both specifically, in that the bishop is elected within the cathedral and is inaugurated by being enthroned within the cathedral by acclamation of clergy and laity; and also generally, in that the bishops' essential qualifications of regular prayer, higher learning and musical worship were for many centuries, primarily accessible through cathedral functions. In this there is a distinction between those church traditions, predominantly those of Eastern Orthodox Christianity but formerly also including Celtic churches in Ireland, Scotland and Wales, whose bishops came to be made in monasteries; and those church traditions whose bishops have tended predominantly to arise through the ranks of cathedral clergy.

In the Catholic or Roman Catholic tradition, the term cathedral correctly applies only to a church that houses the seat of the bishop of a diocese. The abbey church of a territorial abbey serves the same function (that is, houses the seat of the abbot), but does not acquire the title. In any other jurisdiction canonically equivalent to a diocese but not canonically erected as such (prelature, vicariate, ordinariate, prefecture, apostolic administration), the church that serves this function is correctly called the "principal church" of the respective entity—though some have coopted the term cathedral anyway. The Catholic Church also uses the following terms.

 * A pro-cathedral is a parish or other church used temporarily as a cathedral, usually while the cathedral of a diocese is under construction, renovation, or repair. This designation applies only as long as the temporary use continues.
 * A co-cathedral is a second cathedral in a diocese that has two sees. This situation can arise in various ways such as a merger of two former dioceses, preparation to split a diocese, or perceived need to perform cathedral functions in a second location due to the expanse of the diocesan territory.
 * A proto-cathedral (lit. 'first cathedral') is the former cathedral of a transferred see.

The cathedral church of a metropolitan bishop is called a metropolitan cathedral.

The term cathedral actually carries no implication as to the size or ornateness of the building, although many cathedrals are impressive edifices simply because diocesan celebrations typically require the capacity of one of the larger churches in the diocese. Thus, the term cathedral is often applied colloquially to large and impressive churches that do not function as cathedrals (e.g. the Arctic Cathedral in Tromsø, Norway). Simon Jenkins' guidebook on European cathedrals intentionally includes several churches that have never been cathedrals (Ulm Minster and the Sagrada Família, a minor basilica in Barcelona) or that were formerly designated so (Westminster Abbey and Basel Minster).

Origins and characteristics of the first cathedrals
The history of cathedrals commenced in the year 313, when the emperor Constantine the Great personally adopted Christianity and initiated the Peace of the Church. Indeed, in strict terminology, there could not have been "cathedrals" before that date, as before the 4th century there were no Christian "cathedrae"; bishops were never seated when leading congregational worship, but instead presided standing on a raised platform or pulpitum. In the third century, the phrase "ascending the platform", ad pulpitum venire, becomes the standard term for Christian ordination. During the siege of Dura Europos in 256, a complete Christian house church, or domus ecclesiae was entombed in a defensive bank, surviving when excavated, in places to wall-top height. The Dura church had been converted out of a large urban courtyard house of standard form, in which two rooms had been knocked together to make an assembly hall, capable of holding 60-75 standing; while a tank had been inserted in a room on the opposite side of the courtyard as a baptistery, with rich wall paintings above it. The large room was indeed found to have a raised pulpitum at one end, big enough for one person in turn to read, preach and preside from; but too low to have been surmounted by a throne, and too small to have contained an altar. Otherwise the large room had no decoration or distinctive features at all.

In 269, soon after Dura fell to the Persian army, a body of clerics assembled a charge sheet against the bishop of Antioch, Paul of Samosata, in the form of an open letter. Amongst the accusations was that Paul, who had received the civil rank of ducenarius due to contacts in the imperial court, had improperly erected an enclosure, or secretum, for himself in the church of Antioch; that within this enclosure he had erected a throne from which he presided in worship; and that he had trained a female choir to sing hymns of his own devising. These practices were all condemned as innovations, improperly importing the symbols of his secular Roman magistracy into church ritual; while presumptuously and blasphemously asserting that the person of the bishop in eucharistic worship is seated in the place of Christ himself. Still in a hundred years, all bishops in the Mediterranean world had cathedrals, all sat on thrones within an enclosed sanctuary space, and all had established trained choirs to enhance eucharistic worship.

The driving principle underlying this change was the acceptance by bishops, more or less willingly, of an imperial invitation to adopt and maintain the duties, dignity and insignia proper to a public magistrate. Characteristically a Roman magistrate presided from a raised throne in a large, richly decorated and aisled rectangular hall called a basilica; and now bishops would do the same. The earliest of these new basilican cathedrals of which substantial remains are still visible (and maybe amongst the very earliest to be built) is below the Cathedral of Aquileia on the northern tip of the Adriatic sea. Dated from a mosaic inscription between 313 and 319, the complex consisted of two parallel east–west aisled halls of similar size; with a third smaller north–south cross-hall connecting them, which has been interpreted as the presence hall of the episcopium or bishop's residence. The three halls create an open courtyard, in which was originally located a separate baptistery. Surviving from both large basilican halls are rich mosaic pavements showing (amongst other scenes) Jonah and the Whale, and a series of, mainly female, donor portraits. It appears that similar cathedrals of double-basilica and baptistry were soon afterwards erected in Milan, Trier and Pavia; but that subsequently single-basilican churches became the more common cathedral model.

Constantine's declaration of imperial favour towards Christianity transformed all aspects of Christian life in the Roman Empire. From being a minority religion, largely confined to urban areas and restricted social groupings, and subject to official hostility and occasional persecution; Christianity acquired greatly expanded numbers of potential adherents of all classes, initially still within city areas, but eventually extending out to the pagus, the city's rural hinterland. The consequence was a radical expansion in the buildings, funding and personnel of associated Church establishments throughout the 4th century. The first cathedrals represent this expansion in material form.

Buildings
The location and layout of the first cathedrals varied substantially from city to city, although most, as at Aquileia, tended to be sited within the city walls but away from the urban centre; certain elements are almost always found.

Basilicas
Basilican halls had previously been characteristic of major civic complexes and military headquarters buildings; but now became the standard structure for accommodating large Christian congregations. From now on, the term basilica denotes any substantial church building. These new basilicas were wholly different in scale from earlier Christian assembly halls, as they were also different in form from any Roman non-Christian temple or religious structure. The halls were longitudinal, aisled, and flooded with light from large clerestory windows. Floors and walls were richly decorated with mosaic and inlay – usually in abstract or floral patterns. The two original double basilicas at Aquileia had both been about 37m by 17m in size, but within 30 years one hall was quadrupled to 73m by 31m. This expanded basilica now demonstrated three additional features that became characteristic of early cathedrals: an enclosure at the eastern end of the church surrounding the altar; a synthronos east of the altar facing west, and consisting of a raised dais with a centrally place bishop's throne and benches either side for the clergy of his familia; and a partitioned-off narthex at the western end into which catechumens would withdraw during the central act of the Eucharistic liturgy.

Baptisteries
The baptistery in the Dura church was about 1m square and 1m deep; baptismal candidates could stand in it, but could not be immersed. In the new cathedrals, as had been the case before, only bishops baptised; and ceremonies were held not more than twice a year to allow for suitable periods of instruction. So baptisteries needed to be greatly increased in size, with associated accommodation to ensure privacy in undressing, anointing and redressing; and the baptismal tank, commonly octagonal, was now fully deep enough for total immersion, and wide enough to accommodate both the candidate and an assisting male or female deacon. Baptisteries commonly adopted centralised plan forms derived from funerary chapels; and are invariably separate from the congregational basilica.

Episcopium
No one lived in the house church at Dura; such residential facilities as the latrine and kitchen were removed in the conversion. But cathedral complexes always included an episcopal residence. Prominent amongst the charges that had been directed against Paul of Samosata had been his alleged over-familiarity with pious women. As was common, Paul had been married when elected bishop; and again, as was universally expected for a bishop, he had then ceased sexual contact with his wife and no longer cohabited with her. But his accusers charged that, by continuing to associate with other women (even without any indication of actual impropriety) he was creating an unacceptable potential for scandal. To avoid similar such occasions arising, it was necessary for the new cathedrals to create male-only living quarters for the bishop and his entire establishment; and since, in churches in the West, all presbyters and deacons were also expected to live apart from their wives after ordination, these living quarters, the episcopium, were necessarily substantial in extent. In addition to eating and sleeping quarters for ordained boys and men, the episcopium also commonly provided private dining halls for the hospitality expected of the bishop's enhanced social status, a private oratory or chapel for the bishop, and often a bath house.

Finances
Just as the episcopal residence was integral within the complex of cathedral buildings, so too there was no distinction between episcopal, diocesan and cathedral property and endowments. In principle, all diocesan income was paid into a common fund, and divided into four fixed shares for each main area of expenditure; the Bishop himself; the cathedral clergy; the fabric and lighting of cathedral and city churches; and charitable donations. Many diocese already held substantial endowments, but income increased enormously with the Peace of the Church; partly due to imperial subsidies in kind, but mainly from private bequests and regular private benefactions (often called 'first fruits'); although at this date, tithe was never paid to the church. In addition, many individual landowners supported private chapels and oratories on their own property; and endowed independent charitable institutions, and eventually monasteries and nunneries too.

Bishop's share
Augustine of Hippo estimated his personal income as being 20 times that of his father, a minor civil servant; and Augustine was by no means the wealthiest bishop in North Africa. But in accepting from Constantine the status of civil magistrates, bishops were now also committed to substantial expenditure to maintain their new style and status; and also to fulfil the associated duties, for instance in employing qualified legal assessors to support them when sitting as civil judges.

Clergy share
All ordained clerics attached to the cathedral were paid through stipends from the general fund. This applied both to the clergy working directly within the cathedral itself, and also to the clergy, called canonici attached to churches founded by the bishop within the city. From the end of the 4th century, as the mission of the church extended more into rural areas, 'baptistery churches' were founded in more distant villages, so that rural populations could receive the bishop's baptism locally; and the clergy in these churches also counted as canonici and drew a regular stipend.

Fabric share
Plentiful donor inscriptions show that most new church building programmes; mosaics, roofs, furnishings, were financed by private donations. The costs of maintenance and lighting, however, fell on the general fund. This also applied to the churches, known as tituli, served directly by the bishop's clergy, generally also including any surviving house churches from the period before the Peace of the Church and the rural baptistery churches; but not to the chapels, called parochiae, established by rural landowners for the convenience of their tenants. The bishop, in respect of his civil status, was expected to contribute to public works of general benefit; aqueducts, bridges, watercourses.

Charitable share
In all cities, bishops dedicated substantial sums to the support of widows, orphans and the poor. Such donations had been a strong feature of the church in earlier centuries, but tended then to be specifically directed to the Christian needy. Now the charitable compass became general. Bishops were especially expected to take responsibility for raising ransom funds, where local persons had fallen captive. In addition, it was expected that each diocese would support a xenodochium, a hostel for the homeless and strangers.

Personnel
Just as the status of the bishop was transformed at the Peace of the Church; so too was that of the male clergy. With the bishop now resident in the episcopium the other male clergy came to be recognised as his formal familia, in mark of which male clergy now received the tonsure by shaving of their heads; this being originally a Roman badge of adoption. The early church had recognised the orders of bishop, presbyter (priest) and deacon, but a range of minor orders had since grown up in addition; and all were tonsured. These orders now tended to be understood as clerical 'ranks', equivalent to those in the military, such that the male clergy are now often referred to as a "clerical militia". And as in the Roman military or civil service, promotion was expected to follow the principle of cursus honorum, rising through the ranks, with the expectation that ideally, a minimum period would be served in each. The female orders of virgin, widow and (female) deacon remained explicitly outside the bishop's familia; and so they did not receive the tonsure and nor did they progress through the cursus honorum. But all orders of cathedral clergy, male and female, increased dramatically in numbers. Around 540 Justinian ordered that the clerical payroll of Hagia Sophia be strictly limited to 60 presbyters, 100 male deacons, 90 subdeacons, 110 lectors, 25 singers, 100 doorkeepers and 40 female deacons; 525 in all.

Bishops
Bishops were at the head of the local church; but not explicitly within the cursus honorum, as appointment was by election from the local clergy and people. The clergy tended to favour appointment of bishops from within the ranks of cathedral presbyters; but local lay choice often tended rather to outsiders, either a spectacular holy man, hermit or ascetic; or otherwise a senior civil servant or diplomat, who might have favourable contacts to exploit at court. But most bishops came from the curial class, that is those holding the hereditary rank of decurion with the obligation to serve on the city council, as only persons of this class and above would be likely to have a full rhetorical education in Greek and Latin grammar; without which it was not possible for a boy raised with a knowledge only of Late Antique vernacular speech to express himself in approved classical linguistic forms.

Priests and archpriests
It was expected that the normal president at both the Eucharist and Baptism would be the bishop, who would celebrate in the cathedral and in titular churches in turn. However, in practice, the bishop needed deputies for the Eucharist and also for the Divine Office of daily prayer, and this duty fell to the priests. The bishop selected a senior priest as archpriest who acted as his official deputy in all ritual matters and as head of the familia. The archpriest was also responsible for the cathedral school. After the 5th century, there were no longer state-supported secular teachers of rhetoric and grammar in the West (other than in parts of Italy) and so the church would have to educate its own.

Deacons, subdeacons and archdeacons
Just as the presbyters deputised for the bishop in ritual matters, so the deacons deputised in administrative and financial matters, especially in the raising and delivering of charity. At the head of the diaconate was the archdeacon; the bishop's main deputy in managerial affairs. Originally inferior in rank to the archpriest, the archdeacon by the sixth century had established clear pre-eminence. Subdeacons assisted the deacons, but unlike them were allowed to marry after ordination; consequently many clerics stopped the cursus honorum at this point, and it was not unusual for a subdeacon to be elected bishop; and even Pope.

Doorkeepers, exorcists, lectors, acolytes and primicerius
In practice, the first three of these orders tended to be given together, and were typically applied to boys as young as seven. These boy lectors were too young for the grammar school, but were valued as choristers, and so were included in the Schola Cantorum or choir school. Originally under the responsibility of the deacons, the organisation of choirs was reformed by Pope Gregory the Great, who introduced the office of primicerius or head cantor for this purpose. This proved a vital reform; as without any comprehensive system of musical notation, the only way that sacred music could be maintained and passed on was through professional choirs of sound musical training undertaking cathedral worship – and such skills are not guaranteed to be present in high-ranking ecclesiastics.

Women's orders: virgins, widows and deaconesses
These orders had been of considerable importance in earlier centuries; but tended to be sidelined in cathedrals from the 4th century onwards. So long as adult baptism continued as a regular occurrence, female deacons would continue to be needed for that service; but otherwise the main factor maintaining these orders was a knock-on effect from the rule of continence applied to bishops, presbyters and deacons. When a man became ordained, and moved into the episcopium with the rest of the bishop's familia; then there would usually also be a requirement for support to their mothers, wives and daughters; and the orders of widows and virgins respectively continued largely for this purpose.

Functions
Notwithstanding wide differences over time in institutional structures and wider historical contexts; the key functions established for the first cathedrals have tended to remain as distinctive cathedral functions down the centuries; a regular cycle of choral prayer; providing a forum for civic leadership; a commitment to higher learning; and the promotion and dissemination of music.

Early Middle Ages: religious communities
The history of the body of clergy attached to the cathedral church is obscure, and in each case local considerations affected its development, however the main features were more or less common to all.

Originally the bishop and cathedral clergy formed a kind of religious community, which, while not in the true sense a monastery, was nevertheless often called a monasterium, the word not having the restricted meaning that it afterwards acquired. In this lies the reason for the apparent anomaly that churches like York Minster and Lincoln Cathedral, which never had any monks attached to them, have inherited the name of minster or monastery. In these early communities the clergy often lived apart in their own dwellings, and were not infrequently married.

In the 8th century Chrodegang, Bishop of Metz (743–766), compiled a code of rules for the clergy of the cathedral churches, which, though widely accepted in Germany and other parts of the continent, gained little acceptance in England.

According to Chrodegang's rule, the cathedral clergy were to live under a common roof, occupy a common dormitory and submit to the authority of a special officer. The rule of Chrodegang was, in fact, a modification of the Benedictine rule. Gisa, a native of Lorraine, who was bishop of Wells from 1061 to 1088, introduced it into England, and imposed its observance on the clergy of his cathedral church, but it was not followed for long there, or elsewhere in England.

Late Middle Ages: monastic and secular cathedrals
During the 10th and 11th centuries, the cathedral clergy became more definitely organised and were divided into two classes. One was that of a monastic establishment of some recognised order of monks, often the Benedictines, while the other class was that of a college of clergy, bound by no vows except those of their ordination, but governed by a code of statutes or canons: hence the name of "canon". In this way arose the distinction between the monastic and secular cathedral churches. Outside Great Britain, monastic cathedrals are known only at Monreale in Sicily and Downpatrick in Ireland.

In the case of monastic cathedral churches, the internal government was that of the religious order to which the chapter belonged and all the members kept perpetual residence.

The alternative of this was the cathedral ruled by a secular chapter; the dignities of provost, dean, precentor, chancellor, treasurer, etc., came into being for the regulation and good order of the church and its services, while the non-residence of the canons, rather than their perpetual residence, became the rule, and led to their duties being performed by a body of "vicars", who officiated for them at the services of the church.

Reformation
Prior to the Reformation all cathedrals of Western Europe were of the Roman Catholic Church. In England, much of the structure of the monastic and cathedral system was reconstituted during the English Reformation. Although the cathedrals were retained by the now independent and established Church of England, the monastic cathedral chapters were dissolved by King Henry VIII and, with the exceptions of Bath and Coventry, were refounded by him as chapters of canons with a dean as the head and other clergy as minor canons.

In Germany and other parts of Europe, with the spread of the Lutheran Church, some ancient churches, like Nidaros Cathedral, Norway, and Lübeck Cathedral, Germany, became the seats of Protestant bishops, as in England. Many new churches were built which serve the regional administrative function of a cathedral. However, not all churches that function as the seat of a bishop are known as "cathedral", the custom varying from place to place, according to local tradition. Some are simply designated "church", as occurs at Budolfi Church, the Lutheran cathedral of Aalborg in Denmark.

Provosts
In most of Europe, the earliest head of a secular church seems to have been the provost (praepositus, probst, etc.), who was charged not only with the internal regulation of the church and oversight of the members of the chapter and control of the services, but was also the steward or seneschal of the lands and possessions of the church. The latter often mainly engaged his attention, to the neglect of his domestic and ecclesiastical duties, and complaints were soon raised that the provost was too much mixed in worldly affairs, and was too frequently absent from his spiritual duties.

This led, in many cases, to the institution of a new officer called the "dean", who had charge of that portion of the provost's duties that related to the internal discipline of the chapter and the services of the church.

In some cases, the office of provost was abolished, but in others it was continued: the provost, who was occasionally an archdeacon as well, remaining head of the chapter. This arrangement was most commonly followed in Germany. In England the provost was almost unknown. Bishop Gisa introduced a provost as head of the chapter of Wells Cathedral, but the office was afterwards subordinated to the other dignities and the provost became simply the steward of certain of the prebendal lands. The provost of the collegiate church of Beverley Minster was the most notable instance of such an officer in England, but at Beverley he was an external officer with authority in the government of the church, no stall in the choir and no vote in chapter.

In Germany and Scandinavia, and in a few of the cathedral churches in the south of France, the provost was the ordinary head of the cathedral chapter, but the office was not common elsewhere. As regards France, of 136 cathedral churches existing at the Revolution, 38 only, and those either on the borders of Germany or in the extreme south, had a provost as the head of the chapter. In others the provost existed as a subordinate officer. There were two provosts at Autun, and Lyon and Chartres had four each, all as subordinate officers.

Secular chapter
The normal constitution of the chapter of a secular cathedral church comprised four dignitaries (there might be more), in addition to the canons. These are the dean, the precentor, the chancellor and the treasurer. These four dignitaries, occupying the four corner stalls in the choir, are called in many of the statutes the quatuor majores personae of the church.

Deans
The role of dean (from decanus) seems to have derived its designation from the Benedictine "dean" who had ten monks under his charge. The role of dean came into existence to supply the place of the provost in the internal management of the church and chapter. In England every secular cathedral church was headed by a dean who was originally elected by the chapter and confirmed in office by the bishop. The dean is president of the chapter, and within the cathedral has charge of the performance of the services, taking specified portions of them by statute on the principal festivals. The dean sits in the chief stall in the choir, which is usually at the west end of the south side.

Precentors
Next to the dean (as a rule) is the precentor (primicerius, cantor, etc.), whose special duty is that of regulating the musical portion of the services. The precentor presides in the dean's absence, and occupies the corresponding stall on the north side, although there are exceptions to this rule, where, as at St Paul's, the archdeacon of the cathedral city ranks second and occupies what is usually the precentor's stall.

Chancellors
The third dignitary is the chancellor (scholasticus, écoldtre, capiscol, magistral, etc.), who must not be confounded with the chancellor of the diocese. The chancellor of the cathedral church is charged with the oversight of its schools, ought to read divinity lectures, and superintend the lections in the choir and correct slovenly readers. The chancellor is often the secretary and librarian of the chapter. In the absence of the dean and precentor, the chancellor is president of the chapter, and within the cathedral is usually assigned the easternmost stall, on the dean's side of the choir.

Treasurers
The fourth dignitary is the treasurer (custo, sacrisla, cheficier) who is guardian of the fabric, and of all the furniture and ornaments of the church, and whose duty was to provide bread and wine for the Eucharist, and candles and incense. The treasurer also regulated such matters as the ringing of the bells. The treasurer's stall is opposite to that of the chancellor.

Other clergy
In many cathedral churches are additional dignitaries, as the praelector, subdean, vice-chancellor, succentor-canonicorum, and others, whose roles came into existence to supply the places of the other absent dignitaries, for non-residence was the fatal blot of the secular churches, and in this they contrasted very badly with the monastic churches, where all the members were in continuous residence. Besides the dignitaries there were the ordinary canons, each of whom, as a rule, held a separate prebend or endowment, besides receiving his share of the common funds of the church.

For the most part the canons also speedily became non-resident, and this led to the distinction of residentiary and non-residentiary canons, until in most churches the number of resident canons became definitely limited in number, and the non-residentiary canons, who no longer shared in the common funds, became generally known as prebendaries only, although by their non-residence they did not forfeit their position as canons, and retained their votes in chapter like the others.

This system of non-residence led also to the institution of vicars choral, each canon having his own vicar, who sat in his stall in his absence, and when the canon was present, in the stall immediately below, on the second form. The vicars had no place or vote in chapter, and, though irremovable except for offences, were the servants of their absent canons whose stalls they occupied, and whose duties they performed. Outside Britain they were often called demi-prebendaries. As time went on the vicars were themselves often incorporated as a kind of lesser chapter, or college, under the supervision of the dean and chapter.

Relationship of chapter and bishop
There was no distinction between the monastic cathedral chapters and those of the secular canons, in their relation to the bishop or diocese. In both cases the chapter was the bishop's consilium that he was bound to consult on all important matters and without doing so he could not act. Thus, a judicial decision of a bishop needed the confirmation of the chapter before it could be enforced. He could not change the service books, or "use" of the church or diocese, without capitular consent, and there are episcopal acts, such as the appointment of a diocesan chancellor, or vicar general, which still need confirmation by the chapter, but the older theory of the chapter as the bishop's council in ruling the diocese has become a thing of the past, in Europe.

In its corporate capacity the chapter takes charge sede vacante of a diocese. In England, however (except as regards Salisbury and Durham), this custom has never obtained, the two archbishops having, from time immemorial, taken charge of the vacant dioceses in their respective provinces. When, however, either of the sees of Canterbury or York is vacant the chapters of those churches take charge, not only of the diocese, but of the province as well, and incidentally, therefore, of any of the dioceses of the province that may be vacant at the same time.

Functions of a cathedral
The role of the cathedral is chiefly to serve God in the community, through its hierarchical and organisational position in the church structure. The building itself, by its physical presence, symbolises both the glory of God and of the church. A cathedral, its bishop and dignitaries have traditional functions that are mostly religious in nature, but may also be closely associated with the civil and communal life of the city and region.

Symbolic functions of the building
The cathedral is frequently the most imposing building, and one of the most ancient buildings in its town. The great size and splendor of the cathedral may be out of all proportion to the town itself. The money and talents expended on the building are seen as honoring God, and may also demonstrate both the devotion and the status of the patrons.

Cathedrals are very often oriented east/west, so that the worshipers look towards the rising sun, symbolizing the Risen Christ. The architectural form of the building most frequently has the ground plan of a cross. This form is both functional and symbolic, its symbolism referring to the cross on which Jesus was crucified. The form is liturgically functional as it allows the building to be divided into sections where different activities take place, or that are occupied by different people, such as the clergy, the choir and the laity. The main body of the building, making the longer arm of the cross, is called the nave, and is where worshipers congregate; the term is from the Latin word for ship. The cathedral is symbolically a ship bearing the people of God through the storms of life. The nave is also used for major processions, which gather or enter at the furthest door (liturgically generally called the West Door). The aisles on each side of the nave facilitate the movement of people within the building, without disrupting worshipers in the central space.

The arms of the cross are called the transepts and often contain a number of chapels. Farthest from the main entry is the sanctuary where the Blessed Sacrament is laid on the altar or communion table for the consecration. "Sanctuary" means "Holy Place". The word has passed into modern English with an altered meaning because traditionally a criminal who could gain access to this area without capture was thereby given the sanctuary of the church.

Cathedral buildings of the Western European tradition symbolize the progression of the Christian soul towards Salvation. Many cathedrals of Eastern European tradition are centrally planned. These churches are almost always domed. The symbolism in these cathedral structures is of the hierarchy of Earth and Heaven, and often reveals its meaning through the internal decoration of the building with frescoes or mosaics.

Religious functions
Apart from its organisational function as the seat of the bishop, and the meeting place for the chapter of the diocese, the cathedral has a liturgical function in offering daily church services. Most cathedrals have at least three services of worship every day, often taking the form of matins, Holy Communion and an evening service which is often sung by the precentor and choir. There are often additional services on Sunday. Cathedrals generally have an area dedicated to the performance of choral services and with seating specifically for the choir and dignitaries of the church and town. This part of the building is called the Choir or Quire, and is generally located between the sanctuary and the nave. Because music often plays an important part in the performance of the liturgy, cathedrals generally have a pipe organ to accompany the choir.

Cathedrals always have a font or water basin at which the rite of baptism is performed, in which a person is formally accepted into the Christian church. The font is often placed towards the door because the Baptism signifies entry into the community of the church. In some cathedrals, most particularly in Italy, the rite of baptism is performed in a separate building. One of the functions of the cathedral is the reading and expounding upon the Holy Scripture. The cathedral generally has a lectern from which the scripture is read. This often takes the form of an eagle of brass or carved wood which supports the book on its outstretched wings and is the symbol of John the Evangelist. However, some cathedrals retain elaborate medieval structures on either side of the church, one for the reading of the Gospel and the other for the reading of the Epistle.

The function of expounding on the scriptures is traditionally performed from the pulpit, which is generally constructed in such a way that the voice of the preacher is projected out to the congregation. The pulpit is often decorated with the winged figures of a man, a lion, a bull and an eagle, representing the Gospel writers, Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.

The services that are held within the cathedral follow an annual cycle. The designated scriptural readings for each day of the church's year establish a pattern that alternates periods of introspection and penitence with periods of celebration, and is punctuated by the two great celebrations of Christmas and Easter.

Many cathedrals are places of pilgrimage to which people travel in order to worship or venerate a holy object or the reliquary of a saint. Many cathedrals are regarded as places that have provided rewarding religious experiences, where prayers have been answered or miracles have taken place. Pilgrimage was particularly popular in the late medieval period. Some cathedrals such as Santiago de Compostela continue to attract pilgrims.

Civic and social functions
The formal cathedral services are linked to the cycle of the year and respond to the seasons of the Northern Hemisphere, Christmas falling in the winter and Easter in the spring. Cathedrals often hold a service of thanksgiving called Harvest Festival in the autumn.

Births, marriages and deaths are often celebrated by services at cathedrals and the cathedral often acts as a repository of local history by recording these events. The cathedral marks times of national and local civic celebration and sadness with special services. The funerals of those famous within the community are invariably held at cathedrals. People who have served the community or the church are often buried within the cathedral with which they are associated. Alternatively, they may be commemorated by a memorial. Some cathedrals, such as Aachen and Reims are the traditional coronation places of monarchs.

Another civic function of the cathedral is the imparting of significant civil information. Announcements may be to the populace from the steps of the cathedral, or within the cathedral itself.

Most cathedrals have a bell or bells. These are used to announce that a service is soon to take place. They are also used to convey information and celebration. The ringing of peals signifies a time of rejoicing, such as a wedding. An extended ringing of peals or "changes" conveys a time of great civic celebration. The slow tolling of the deepest bell signifies a death or disaster. Many cathedrals have a clock with associated chimes that announce the time. The bells of a cathedral are traditionally used to signal the outbreak and the ending of war.

Cathedrals are often associated with significant secular organisations such as the office of the local mayor and council, the local court, the local regiment, schools, sporting organisations and service clubs. The cathedral often has its own school, primarily for the education of choristers, but often including other children as well.

The cathedral, often being a large building, serves as a meeting place for many people. The cathedral often forms a centre of different activities related to community service, youth activities, study, music and decorative arts.

Buildings
Cathedral buildings, especially those dating from the Medieval period, are frequently the grandest of churches in the diocese (and country). The ancient cathedrals of England, of Northern France, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Germany and Sicily, the Baroque cathedrals of South America, and many individual cathedrals from Italy and other parts of Europe, are among the largest and finest religious buildings. Many are renowned for their architecture or their decorative features such as sculpture, stained glass and frescos.

While cathedral buildings, in general, tend to be large, size and grandeur have rarely been essential requirements. Early Celtic and Saxon cathedrals tended to be of diminutive size, as is the Byzantine so-called Little Metropole Cathedral of Athens. In Italy, with a few notable exceptions such as Florence Cathedral and Milan Cathedral, cathedrals are numerous and are often similar in form and size to monastic or large parish churches. In modern times, where functionality is the foremost consideration and where church attendance is low in many countries, a cathedral church may be a modest structure.

Cathedrals of monastic foundation, and some of secular clergy, have cloisters, which traditionally provided an open area where secular activities took place protected from wind and rain. Some cathedrals also have a chapter house where the chapter could meet. In England, where these buildings have survived, they are often octagonal. A cathedral may front onto the main square of a town, as in Florence, or it may be set in a walled close as at Canterbury. There may be a number of associated monastic or clergy buildings, a bishop's palace and often a school to educate the choristers.

Artworks, treasures and tourism
Many cathedral buildings are very famous for their architecture and have local and national significance, both artistically and historically. Many are listed among the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Many cathedrals, because of their large size and the fact that they often have towers, spires or domes, have until the 20th century, been the major landmarks in cities or in views across the countryside. With highrise building, civil action has been taken in some cases, such as Cologne Cathedral to prevent the vista of the cathedral from being spoiled.

Because many cathedrals took centuries to build and decorate, they constitute a major artistic investment for the city in which they stand. Not only may the building itself be architecturally significant, but the church often houses treasures such as stained glass, stone and wood statues, historic tombs, richly carved furniture and objects of both artistic and religious significance such as reliquaries. Moreover, the cathedral often plays a major role in telling the story of the town, through its plaques, inscriptions, tombs, stained glass and paintings.

For these reasons, tourists have travelled to cathedrals for hundreds of years. Many cathedrals cater for tourists by charging a fee to any visitors outside service times or requesting a donation or making a charge to take photos. Cathedrals that are particularly popular tourist venues sometimes provide guides, leaflets, souvenirs and cafes.

title: Cathedral


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Leeuwarden

Leeuwarden (Ljouwert /; Town Frisian: Liwwadden; Leeuwarder dialect: Leewarden) is a city and municipality in Friesland, Netherlands, with a population of 127,073 (2023). It is the provincial capital and seat of the Provincial Council of Friesland.

The region has been continuously inhabited since the 10th century. It came to be known as Leeuwarden in the early 9th century AD and was granted city privileges in 1435. It is the main economic hub of Friesland, situated in a green and water-rich environment. Leeuwarden is a former royal residence and has a historic city centre, many historically relevant buildings, and a large shopping centre with squares and restaurants. Leeuwarden was awarded the title European Capital of Culture for 2018. Also, Leeuwarden has been a UNESCO City of Literature since 2019.

The Elfstedentocht (Eleven Cities Tour), an ice skating tour passing the eleven cities of Friesland, starts and finishes in Leeuwarden.

The following towns and villages within the municipality have populations in excess of 1,000 people: Leeuwarden, Stiens, Grou, Goutum, Wergea, Jirnsum, Reduzum, and Wirdum. The municipality is governed by the mayor Sybrand van Haersma Buma and a coalition of the Labour Party, Christian Democratic Appeal, and GreenLeft.

Etymology
The name "Leeuwarden" (or older variants of it) first came into use for Nijehove, the most important of the three villages (the other two being Oldehove and Hoek) which in the early 9th century merged into Leeuwarden (Villa Lintarwrde c. 825). There is much uncertainty about the origin of the city's name. Historian and archivist Wopke Eekhoff summed up a total of over 200 different spelling variants, of which Leeuwarden (Dutch), Liwwadden (Stadsfries), and Ljouwert (West Frisian) are still in use.

The second part of the name is easily explained: Warden, West Frisian/Dutch/Low German for an artificial dwelling-hill, is a designation of terps, reflecting the historical situation.

The first part of the name, leeuw, means lion in modern standard Dutch. This interpretation corresponds with the coat of arms adopted by the city, which features a heraldic lion. However, modern standard Dutch was not used in this region in the Middle Ages, when the city was called Lintarwrde. Some scholars argue that the name of the city is derived from leeu-, a corruption of luw- (Dutch for 'sheltered from the wind', cf. the maritime term leeward) or from lee- (a Dutch word for waterway). 'Sheltered landing place or harbour' could be the original meaning. This suits the watery province of Friesland and the position of the original three villages at the end of an important estuary called Middelzee.

The name is also similar to that of the French commune Lewarde, located in the Nord Department, an originally Flemish-speaking area annexed to France in the 17th century. Western Flemish was related to Frisian and also to Saxon up to the 11th century.

History
The oldest remains of houses date back to the 2nd century AD in the Roman era and were discovered during an excavation near the Oldehove. Inhabited continuously since the 10th century, the city's first reference as a population centre is in German sources from 1285, and records exist of city privileges granted in 1435. Situated along the Middelzee, it was an active centre of maritime trade. The waterway silted-up in the 13th century.

The Grote of Jacobijnerkerk (Great, or Jacobin Church) is the oldest building in the city. The 15th century was the period of the two opposing Frisian factional parties Vetkopers and Schieringers. The bastions and a moat were built in the period 1481–1494. In 1747 William IV, Prince of Orange was the last stadtholder residing in the Stadhouderlijk Hof. In the first half of the 19th century the fortifications were demolished.

From 1580 to 1752, a provincial mint operated in the city, minting gold, silver and copper coins of Friesland.

The Jewish community of Leeuwarden was one of the earliest in the Netherlands aside from Amsterdam, and was first mentioned in 1645. By 1670, the city council granted a man referred to as "Jacob the Jew" (in Dutch) permission to build a Jewish cemetery, meaning that there were enough Jews living there to require a cemetery and other communal institutions. Land for 'The Jodenkerkhof' (Jews' cemetery) was purchased in 1679, near the Oldehove tower.

The first synagogue in the city was built in the 17th century, and was also used by the city's Catholics who were not allowed to build a house of worship of their own because of the Protestant city authorities. The Jewish community enjoyed generally good relations with authorities in the 18th century and continued to expand throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, reaching a peak population of 1,236 in 1860.

In 1901 the city's population was 32,203.

Leeuwarden, like the rest of the Netherlands, was occupied by German forces in 1940–1945. This ended when elements of the Royal Canadian Dragoons seized the initiative and advanced into the heavily-defended city on 15 April 1945, ignoring direct orders to wait for supporting infantry. German forces had been driven out by the end of the next day. (The anniversary is marked by both the Dragoons and the city, by flying each other's flags every 15 April.)

Kneppelfreed (Baton Friday) was an incident on 16 November 1951 in front of the courthouse at Wilhelminaplein (Wilhelmina Square), when the police used batons against Frisian language activists during a protest against the exclusive use of Dutch in the courts. A committee of inquiry recommended that the Frisian language should receive legal status as a minority language.

On 19 October 2013, a fire broke out in a clothes shop on a busy pedestrian street. The fire started late in the afternoon and burned through the night, destroying five shops and eleven flats. The only casualty was a 24-year-old man who was living in one of the flats. The birthplace of Mata Hari was at first thought to be destroyed, but survived, albeit with considerable smoke and water damage.

Heraldry
The coat of arms of Leeuwarden is the official symbol of the municipality. It consists of a blue escutcheon, a golden lion, and a crown. The fact that Leeuwarden carries a lion in its seal seems logical, considering that "Leeuw" is Dutch for "Lion". However, it is very plausible the oldest name of the city conceals an indication of water rather than an animal, and some sources suggest that the lion may have only been added after the name became official. It is also possible the coat of arms was a gift to the city from the powerful Minnema family.

Geography
Leeuwarden is located centrally in Friesland. The military Leeuwarden Air Base lies northwest of the city. East of the city lies recreational area and nature reserve De Groene Ster. It contains the windmill Himriksmole, a golf course and AquaZoo Friesland.

Population centres
On 1 January 2014 parts of the neighbouring Boarnsterhim municipality were added to Leeuwarden. On 1 January 2018 it was enlarged by Leeuwarderadeel and parts of former municipality of Littenseradiel.

Hamlets
The hamlets within the municipality are: Abbenwier, Angwier, Baarderbuorren, Bartlehiem (partially), De Him, De Hoek, De Trije Romers, Domwier, Finsterbuorren, Fûns, Groote Bontekoe, Goatum, Hesens, Hoarne, Hoptille, It Hoflân, It Wiel, Marwert, Midsbuorren, Narderbuorren, Noardein, Oude Schouw (partially), Poelhuzen, Rewert (partially), Skillaerd, Skrins, Suderbuorren, Suorein, Tichelwurk, Truerd, Tsienzerbuorren, Tsjaard, Tsjeintgum, Vierhuis, Vrouwbuurtstermolen (partially), Wammert and Wieuwens

Demographics
As of 2020, Leeuwarden had a total population of 124,084.

Museums
Museums in the city of Leeuwarden:
 * Fries Museum. An art, culture and history museum. The building (2013) was designed by Hubert-Jan Henket.
 * Fries Verzetsmuseum, a museum that documents the impact of World War II on Friesland. The museum is part of the Fries Museum.
 * Princessehof Ceramics Museum, a ceramics museum.
 * Pier Pander Museum, an art museum dedicated to the works of sculptor Pier Pander.
 * Natuurmuseum Fryslân, a natural history museum.
 * The Other Museum. Collections: old-timers, model trains, lace and photography, radio and Meccano.
 * Tresoar, a historical centre and museum with archives about Friesland.
 * Fries Landbouwmuseum, an agricultural museum.

Architecture
There are over 800 Rijksmonuments (national heritage sites) in the municipality of Leeuwarden. The Oldehove, a leaning unfinished church tower, is a symbol of the city. Other well-known buildings in the city centre include the Kanselarij (former chancellery), the Stadhouderlijk Hof (former residence of the stadtholders of Friesland), the city hall (1715), the Waag (old weigh house), the Saint Boniface church (an important part of the neogothic movement) and the Centraal Apotheek, a pharmacy in the Art Nouveau style. The Blokhuispoort is a former prison that has been transformed into a public library, hostel and restaurant.

The Froskepôlemolen (built in 1896), is the last surviving windmill to have stood in Leeuwarden. The remains of the Cammingha-Buurstermolen were demolished in 2000. The Slauerhoffbrug is a fully automatic bascule bridge named after the poet Jan Jacob Slauerhoff. It uses two arms to swing a section of road in and out of place within the road itself. This movable bridge is also known as the 'Flying' Drawbridge.

The tallest building in the city is the 114 m Achmeatoren (Achmea insurance tower), built in 2001 and designed by Abe Bonnema – who also designed the second-tallest building, Averotoren at 77 m.

Cultural events and festivals
On 6 September 2013 Leeuwarden was voted European Capital of Culture for the year 2018. Many events were organised throughout the year. The largest art project was the 11Fountains, fountains in the Frisian eleven cities. The Love Fountain, located in front of the train station, was designed by artist Jaume Plensa. The fountain is seven metres high and consists of two white heads of a boy and a girl, their eyes closed and dreaming.

Annual music festivals are Cityrock, Dancetour, Welcome To The Village, Into the Grave, Explore the North and Fries straatfestival. Other festivals are Noordelijk Film Festival (an event for film makers), photofestival Noorderlicht and the Media Art festival. Other events are Racing Expo and a large flower market (held on Ascension Day). There is also a weekly cattle market.

Transport
Leeuwarden railway station (opened on 27 October 1863) is the main railway station of Leeuwarden. It is a terminus station of the NS railway line from Zwolle. Regional trains, served by Arriva, operate to Groningen in the east, Harlingen in the west and Stavoren in the southwest. The other stations in the municipality are Leeuwarden Camminghaburen, and Grou-Jirnsum. A fourth station Leeuwarden Werpsterhoeke was planned to be opened after 2018.

Near the train station is the bus station. Arriva runs several city, regional and national buses. Route 66 Leeuwarden-Holwerd connects with the ferry to Ameland, bus route 50 to Lauwersoog connects with the departures of the ferry to Schiermonnikoog and route 350 via the Afsluitdijk connects to Alkmaar in North Holland.

The motorway A31 passes Leeuwarden and the A32 connects Leeuwarden to Meppel. The Van Harinxmakanaal is a major canal and connects Harlingen to Leeuwarden.

Education
Leeuwarden has a number of respected schools of applied science (HBO in Dutch), (21,480 students in 2017), such as the Van Hall Instituut (agricultural and life sciences) and the NHL Stenden University of Applied Sciences (hotel management, economical and media management). In addition to higher education, the city is also home to three regional vocational schools (MBO): the Friese Poort, Friesland College, and Nordwin College.

Although the city has no university of its own, several satellite campuses are located here, including Campus Fryslân (University of Groningen), Dairy Campus (Wageningen University and Research) and the Academie voor Popkultuur (Hanze University of Applied Sciences Groningen)

Technological Top Institute Wetsus does research into water management and related technologies. Centre of Expertise Water Technology (CEW) is the knowledge and innovation centre for applied research and product development in the field of water technology and the Wadden Academy to study and research the Wadden Sea.

Economy
Among the 10 largest employers in Leeuwarden are Medical Center Leeuwarden (MCL), ING, The Central Judicial Collection Agency (CJIB), Achmea, NHL Stenden University of Applied Sciences, Leeuwarden Air Base and FrieslandCampina. WTC Expo is the largest events complex in the Northern Netherlands.

Sports
The city's local football team, SC Cambuur, are playing in the second tier Eerste Divisie. Their home ground is the Cambuurstadion, which has a capacity of 10,500. The city's basketball team, Aris Leeuwarden, has played in the Dutch Basketball League since 2004.

The Elfstedenhal is a sport venue. The stadium is used for long track speed skating, short track speed skating, ice hockey, figure skating and curling. The 400m indoor speed skating oval is named after speed skater Atje Keulen-Deelstra. The ice hockey club is IJshockeyclub Capitals Leeuwarden (IJCCL).

Leeuwarden is the starting and finishing point for the celebrated Elfstedentocht, a 200 km speed skating race over the Frisian waterways that is held when winter conditions in the province allow. it last took place in January 1997, preceded by the races of 1986 and 1985. In 1986, the Dutch king Willem-Alexander participated in the Eleven cities tour, with the pseudonym W.A. van Buren, which is the pseudonym of the royal family of the Netherlands.

Loop Leeuwarden is an annual road running competition (5 km, 10 km and half marathon races). The race was first held in 1985 and takes place in May. It attracts amateur runners. The city of Leeuwarden has two sailing boats (skûtsje) racing in the yearly sailing competition Skûtsjesilen.

Leeuwarden was to be the host of the World Flying Disc Federation 2020 World Ultimate and Guts Championships from the 11th to the 18th of July. The event was expected to have over 2500 athletes from 40 countries. The event was cancelled (COVID-19 pandemic).

Media
The Leeuwarder Courant and Friesch Dagblad are daily newspapers mainly written in Dutch (published by the NDC Mediagroep). Omrop Fryslân is a public broadcaster with radio and TV programs mainly in Frisian.

Notable residents

 * Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1836–1912), knighted painter
 * Eva and Abraham Beem (1932/1934–1944), young Jewish Holocaust victims
 * Cornelis Botke (1887–1954), painter and etcher
 * Cisca Dresselhuys (born 1943), journalist and magazine editor
 * Esmée van Eeghen (1918–1944), resistance fighter in World War II
 * Dirk van Erp (1860–1933), artisan and metalsmith
 * M. C. Escher (1898–1972), graphic artist
 * Richard Hageman (1881–1966), conductor, pianist, composer, and actor
 * Willem van Haren (1710–1768), poet
 * Havank (1904–1964), writer, journalist, and translator
 * Wilhelmina van Idsinga (1788–1819), painter
 * Johannes Henricus Gerardus Jansen (1868–1936), archbishop
 * Wijerd Jelckama (c. 1490–1523), military commander
 * Mata Hari (1876–1917), exotic dancer and courtesan, possible double agent
 * Hendrik Niehoff (1495–c. 1561), pipe organ maker
 * Piet Paaltjens (1835–1894), minister and romantic author
 * Joachim van Plettenberg (1739–1793), colonial governor
 * Tjitske Reidinga (born 1972), actress
 * Jan Jacob Slauerhoff (1898–1936), poet and novelist
 * Abraham Lambertsz van den Tempel (1622–1672), painter
 * Pieter Jelles Troelstra (1860–1930), politician
 * Cornelis Adriaan Lobry van Troostenburg de Bruyn (1857–1904), chemist
 * Saskia van Uylenburg (1612–1642), wife of the painter Rembrandt van Rijn
 * Lodewijk Caspar Valckenaer (1715–1785), classical scholar
 * Campegius Vitringa (1659–1722), theologian
 * Hans Vredeman de Vries (1527–c. 1607), architect, painter, and engineer
 * Harm Wiersma (born 1953), draughts player and politician
 * William IV, Prince of Orange (1711–1751), stadtholder
 * Joost Klein (born 1997),famous singer Participant of the Eurovision Song Contest 2024

Politics
In the Netherlands, a municipality is governed by the college of mayor and aldermen and the municipal council. Sybrand van Haersma Buma of the CDA has been mayor of Leeuwarden since 26 August 2019. Since the 2014 municipal elections, the Labour Party (3 aldermen), Christian Democratic Appeal (2 aldermen), PAL GroenLinks (1 alderman) form a coalition. The municipal council of Leeuwarden has 39 seats.

As provincial capital, Leeuwarden is also the seat of the King's Commissioner Arno Brok and the Provincial Council of Friesland.

International relations
The city of Leeuwarden is twinned with

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Leeuwarden


text:
Talk:Mutually assured destruction

older comments
added distinction between "mutual" and "mutually" which I would like to attribute - it seems obvious to me but someone may want to hear from a diplomat on it. good links sipri.se, transcend.org

I made reference to "multiparty" as a bridge term that is implied in the adverb "mutually" - as "multiparty assured destruction" no longer appears on google, the redirect could disappear. But it's interesting that literature of this period, making the arguments that two-player destructive games have third party consequences, is not visible on the net... hmm...

I'm no expert in the area, but I do read reasonably widely, and I've never seen the term "Mutual Assured Destruction" applied to the China-Taiwan or especially the Arab-Israeli conflict. They are unwinnable wars, true, but they are very different situations to the Cold War military balance.

Basically, I think everything after the first paragraph is irrelevant to MAD. Am I Robinson Crusoe here? --Robert Merkel

I think so. First, you are confusing "mutual" with "mutually". Read the text please. The two phrases reference an outcome and a process respectively.

Second, do a google search, and note that there is much use of these terms in reference to "unwinnable wars" and standoffs.

Its *because* they are "very different situations to the Cold War" that they needed a new term... -- Can you point some links to this? I've never heard the term used in this sense in the literature.

There is a discussion of the "adverb issue" re: "significantly" at http://jove.prohosting.com/~jrprager/2001top.htm and it also uses the term "mutually" rather than "mutual" and refers quite generically to weapons of mass destruction rather than nukes specifically. -- I'm sorry. To put it bluntly, that looks like the rantings of a crank rather than the arguments of someone who works in the field.

I have major problems with this article especially with regard to the China-Taiwan situation. I'm never heard MAD applied to this situation and it certainly doesn't happen often. Part of the reason is that it win the conflict without destroying itself. It is true that the first person to make a move loses, and so the situation is stalemate, but that's not MAD at all.
 * isn't* a MAD situation. It's certainly possible for one side to

peace movement is certainly full of cranks - but "someone who works in the field" doesn't necessarily have a monopoly on comprehending the meaning of a policy that affects everyone... potentially fatally... so I'm inclined to 'go crank' on this one... it's not like the diplomats really solved the problem so maybe they don't understand it? We should have the guts to quote cranks who make sense and toss out terms by 'experts' who never solved a problem...

"I have found it necessary to fire a man once he considers himself an expert." - Henry Ford.

Anyway... the adjective clearly refers to an outcome of destruction of two paarties, the adverb clearly refers to the process of escalation and assurance of destruction that involves others too, and to me the shift in usage is tautological. That may make me biased in seeing actual usage... I'm inclined to see "Mutual" as an error in modern usage, and "mutually" in older literature as a sign of a different mind-set... "the peace process" taking root...

I agree China-Taiwan is different as their debate is about re-integration and the terms of it - but again refer to the process of escalation and assurance which is the same - only the outcome is different. The two sides don't threaten to *destroy* each other as India and Pakistan or Palestine and Israel sometimes do. We might distinguish it as a case that might appear to be the same but really isn't, because of the lack of 'assured destruction' of the nation itself, as opposed to the assured destruction of the government... a quite different matter, where 'loses' is measured differently.

Or, how something can be "mutually assured destruction" of governments or regimes without being "Mutual Assured Destruction" as understood originally.

Merge: Balance of terror
I wanted to propose merging Balance of terror into this one. Generally speaking they refer to the same thing. The primary distinction between the two is really who has used which term when. From that perspective having two articles seems to violate WP:NAD. Really the only true distinction would seem to be that MAD refers to the actual threat whereas BOT refers to the perception/reaction to that threat. It doesn't seem to me that subtlety merits two articles.

Since Balace of terror is only a stub now anyway merging doesn't seem a big deal.

--Mcorazao (talk) 20:29, 17 September 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mutually assured destruction


text:
1260s BC

The 1260s BC is a decade which lasted from 1269 BC to 1260 BC.

Events and trends

 * c. 1263 BC—Ramses II, king of ancient Egypt, and Hattusilis III, king of the Hittites, sign the earliest known peace treaty.
 * 1263 BC—The approximate date traditionally offered for the biblical Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt under the leadership of Moses.

title: 1260s BC


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Fermat pseudoprime

In number theory, the Fermat pseudoprimes make up the most important class of pseudoprimes that come from Fermat's little theorem.

Definition
Fermat's little theorem states that if p is prime and a is coprime to p, then ap−1 − 1 is divisible by p. For a positive integer a, if a composite integer x divides ax−1 − 1, then x is called a Fermat pseudoprime to base a. In other words, a composite integer is a Fermat pseudoprime to base a if it successfully passes the Fermat primality test for the base a. The false statement that all numbers that pass the Fermat primality test for base 2 are prime is called the Chinese hypothesis.

The smallest base-2 Fermat pseudoprime is 341. It is not a prime, since it equals 11·31, but it satisfies Fermat's little theorem: 2340 ≡ 1 (mod 341) and thus passes the Fermat primality test for the base 2.

Pseudoprimes to base 2 are sometimes called Sarrus numbers, after P. F. Sarrus who discovered that 341 has this property, Poulet numbers, after P. Poulet who made a table of such numbers, or Fermatians.

A Fermat pseudoprime is often called a pseudoprime, with the modifier Fermat being understood.

An integer x that is a Fermat pseudoprime for all values of a that are coprime to x is called a Carmichael number.

Distribution
There are infinitely many pseudoprimes to any given base a > 1. In 1904, Cipolla showed how to produce an infinite number of pseudoprimes to base a > 1: let A = (ap - 1)/(a - 1) and let B = (ap + 1)/(a + 1), where p is a prime number that does not divide a(a2 - 1). Then n = AB is composite, and is a pseudoprime to base a. For example, if a = 2 and p = 5, then A = 31, B = 11, and n = 341 is a pseudoprime to base 2.

In fact, there are infinitely many strong pseudoprimes to any base greater than 1 (see Theorem 1 of ) and infinitely many Carmichael numbers, but they are comparatively rare. There are three pseudoprimes to base 2 below 1000, 245 below one million, and 21853 less than 25·109. There are 4842 strong pseudoprimes base 2 and 2163 Carmichael numbers below this limit (see Table 1 of ).

Starting at 17·257, the product of consecutive Fermat numbers is a base-2 pseudoprime, and so are all Fermat composites and Mersenne composites.

The probability of a composite number n passing the Fermat test approaches zero for $$n \to\infty$$. Specifically, Kim and Pomerance showed the following: The probability that a random odd number n ≤ x is a Fermat pseudoprime to a random base $$1<b<n-1$$ is less than 2.77·10-8 for x= 10100, and is at most (log x)-197<10-10,000 for x≥10100,000.

Factorizations
The factorizations of the 60 Poulet numbers up to 60787, including 13 Carmichael numbers (in bold), are in the following table.

A Poulet number all of whose divisors d divide 2d − 2 is called a super-Poulet number. There are infinitely many Poulet numbers which are not super-Poulet Numbers.

Smallest Fermat pseudoprimes
The smallest pseudoprime for each base a ≤ 200 is given in the following table; the colors mark the number of prime factors. Unlike in the definition at the start of the article, pseudoprimes below a are excluded in the table. (For that to allow pseudoprimes below a, see )

List of Fermat pseudoprimes in fixed base n
For more information (base 31 to 100), see to, and for all bases up to 150, see table of Fermat pseudoprimes (text in German), this page does not define n is a pseudoprime to a base congruent to 1 or -1 (mod n)

Which bases b make n a Fermat pseudoprime?
If composite $$n$$ is even, then $$n$$ is a Fermat pseudoprime to the trivial base $$b \equiv 1 \pmod n$$. If composite $$n$$ is odd, then $$n$$ is a Fermat pseudoprime to the trivial bases $$b \equiv \pm 1 \pmod n$$.

For any composite $$n$$, the number of distinct bases $$b$$ modulo $$n$$, for which $$n$$ is a Fermat pseudoprime base $$b$$, is
 * $$ \prod_{i=1}^k \gcd(p_i - 1, n - 1)$$

where $$p_1, \dots, p_k$$ are the distinct prime factors of $$n$$. This includes the trivial bases.

For example, for $$n = 341 = 11 \cdot 31$$, this product is $$\gcd(10, 340) \cdot \gcd(30, 340) = 100$$. For $$n = 341$$, the smallest such nontrivial base is $$b = 2$$.

Every odd composite $$n$$ is a Fermat pseudoprime to at least two nontrivial bases modulo $$n$$ unless $$n$$ is a power of 3.

For composite n < 200, the following is a table of all bases b < n which n is a Fermat pseudoprime. If a composite number n is not in the table (or n is in the sequence ), then n is a pseudoprime only to the trivial base 1 modulo n.

For more information (n = 201 to 5000), see, this page does not define n is a pseudoprime to a base congruent to 1 or -1 (mod n). When p is a prime, p2 is a Fermat pseudoprime to base b if and only if p is a Wieferich prime to base b. For example, 10932 = 1194649 is a Fermat pseudoprime to base 2, and 112 = 121 is a Fermat pseudoprime to base 3.

The number of the values of b for n are (For n prime, the number of the values of b must be n - 1, since all b satisfy the Fermat little theorem)
 * 1, 1, 2, 1, 4, 1, 6, 1, 2, 1, 10, 1, 12, 1, 4, 1, 16, 1, 18, 1, 4, 1, 22, 1, 4, 1, 2, 3, 28, 1, 30, 1, 4, 1, 4, 1, 36, 1, 4, 1, 40, 1, 42, 1, 8, 1, 46, 1, 6, 1, ...

The least base b > 1 which n is a pseudoprime to base b (or prime number) are
 * 2, 3, 2, 5, 2, 7, 2, 9, 8, 11, 2, 13, 2, 15, 4, 17, 2, 19, 2, 21, 8, 23, 2, 25, 7, 27, 26, 9, 2, 31, 2, 33, 10, 35, 6, 37, 2, 39, 14, 41, 2, 43, 2, 45, 8, 47, 2, 49, 18, 51, ...

The number of the values of b for n must divides $\varphi$(n), or (n) = 1, 1, 2, 2, 4, 2, 6, 4, 6, 4, 10, 4, 12, 6, 8, 8, 16, 6, 18, 8, 12, 10, 22, 8, 20, 12, 18, 12, 28, 8, 30, 16, 20, 16, 24, 12, 36, 18, 24, 16, 40, 12, 42, 20, 24, 22, 46, 16, 42, 20, ... (The quotient can be any natural number, and the quotient = 1 if and only if n is a prime or a Carmichael number (561, 1105, 1729, 2465, 2821, 6601, 8911, 10585, 15841, ... ), the quotient = 2 if and only if n is in the sequence: 4, 6, 15, 91, 703, 1891, 2701, 11305, 12403, 13981, 18721, ... )

The least number with n values of b are (or 0 if no such number exists)
 * 1, 3, 28, 5, 66, 7, 232, 45, 190, 11, 276, 13, 1106, 0, 286, 17, 1854, 19, 3820, 891, 2752, 23, 1128, 595, 2046, 0, 532, 29, 1770, 31, 9952, 425, 1288, 0, 2486, 37, 8474, 0, 742, 41, 3486, 43, 7612, 5589, 2356, 47, 13584, 325, 9850, 0, ... (if and only if n is even and not totient of squarefree number, then the nth term of this sequence is 0)

Weak pseudoprimes
A composite number n which satisfy that $$b^n \equiv b \pmod n$$ is called weak pseudoprime to base b. A pseudoprime to base a (under the usual definition)  satisfies this condition. Conversely, a weak pseudoprime that is coprime with the base is a pseudoprime in the usual sense, otherwise this may or may not be the case. The least weak pseudoprime to base b = 1, 2, ... are:
 * 4, 341, 6, 4, 4, 6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 10, 4, 4, 14, 6, 4, 4, 6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 22, 4, 4, 9, 6, 4, 4, 6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 9, 4, 4, 38, 6, 4, 4, 6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 46, 4, 4, 10, ...

All terms are less than or equal to the smallest Carmichael number, 561. Except for 561, only semiprimes can occur in the above sequence, but not all semiprimes less than 561 occur, a semiprime pq (p ≤ q) less than 561 occurs in the above sequences if and only if p − 1 divides q − 1. (see ) Besides, the smallest pseudoprime to base n (also not necessary exceeding n) is also usually semiprime, the first counterexample is (648) = 385 = 5 × 7 × 11.

If we require n > b, they are (for b = 1, 2, ...)
 * 4, 341, 6, 6, 10, 10, 14, 9, 12, 15, 15, 22, 21, 15, 21, 20, 34, 25, 38, 21, 28, 33, 33, 25, 28, 27, 39, 36, 35, 49, 49, 33, 44, 35, 45, 42, 45, 39, 57, 52, 82, 66, 77, 45, 55, 69, 65, 49, 56, 51, ...

Carmichael numbers are weak pseudoprimes to all bases.

The smallest even weak pseudoprime in base 2 is 161038 (see ).

Euler–Jacobi pseudoprimes
Another approach is to use more refined notions of pseudoprimality, e.g. strong pseudoprimes or Euler–Jacobi pseudoprimes, for which there are no analogues of Carmichael numbers. This leads to probabilistic algorithms such as the Solovay–Strassen primality test, the Baillie–PSW primality test, and the Miller–Rabin primality test, which produce what are known as industrial-grade primes. Industrial-grade primes are integers for which primality has not been "certified" (i.e. rigorously proven), but have undergone a test such as the Miller–Rabin test which has nonzero, but arbitrarily low, probability of failure.

Applications
The rarity of such pseudoprimes has important practical implications. For example, public-key cryptography algorithms such as RSA require the ability to quickly find large primes. The usual algorithm to generate prime numbers is to generate random odd numbers and test them for primality. However, deterministic primality tests are slow. If the user is willing to tolerate an arbitrarily small chance that the number found is not a prime number but a pseudoprime, it is possible to use the much faster and simpler Fermat primality test.

title: Fermat pseudoprime


text:
Talk:Romansh language/Archive 1

Orthography
''On the orthographic level, Heinrich Schmidt sought to avoid all 'odd-looking' spellings, in order to increase general acceptability of the new idiom and its spelling. Therefore, words with /c/ plus /e/ or /i/ have  (tgirar) instead of . Words with /c/ followed by /a/, /o/, /u/ have  (chalanda) as both speakers of Engadin (chalanda) and the Rhine territory (calanda) except a spelling with .''
 * This sentence complete confuses me on several levels. What is intended by /c/? Do you mean /C/ (real IPA /ç/), as German ich-laut? Or /tS/, as in English "charm"? Or something else? Moreover, how on earth is  not an "odd-looking spelling" of anything other than /tg/ or /tk/?

''At the same time, che and chi are - due to this rule, called "Leza Uffers Kompromiss" - pronounced /ke/ and /ki/.  on the other hand would be a grapheme deemed unfit for a Romance tongue such as Romansh.''
 * Isn't this just the same as Italian orthography?

''On the other hand, the fact that there is no <ü, ö> in Romansh may not only be due to the lack of /y/ and /2/ in most Romansh idioms, but also to the graphic form which is seen as non-Romance. This also shows that it is not always phonetics that leads to the adoption of a new grapheme, but sometimes also the lack of a grapheme that leads to a certain phonetic shape of the standard.''
 * This does not make it at all clear that the lack of the letters is not due to the rarity in Rumantsch of the sounds they represent in German.

Very unclear explanations
I can only guess as to the real sounds behind this rather unorthodox transcription. Please clarify. --Anon

 * I believe those symbols within the slashes are SAMPA and those letters within the angle brackets are orthography. --Menchi 02:16, 23 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Some [] are SAMPA, some are IPA.

 * [S] [Z] [tS] are SAMPA.

 * are IPA.

 * [c] [e] [i] [a] [o] [u] [y] are both SAMPA and IPA. — Monedula 05:40, 23 Sep 2004 (UTC)

I hate SAMPA...a pronunciation guide that nobody is actually familiar with is completely worthless. Plus, it looks ridiculous. john k 02:34, 23 Sep 2004 (UTC)

All SAMPA should be deleted and replaced with correct IPA. Chameleon 22:59, 22 Oct 2004 (UTC)

I've removed the SAMPA, and done away with the angle brackets. I've changed [c] to in accordance with Daniels and Bright The World's Writing Systems (OUP 1996). But some of the wording could still do with tidying up! rossb 18:53, 20 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Assistance
The Romansh section of Romance copula needs some attention. If you can describe how the verb "to be" works, go to it! Chameleon 22:59, 22 Oct 2004 (UTC)

New intro
Pardon me if I do not adhere to the correct stylistic conventions for talk pages; I am a relative Wikipedia novice.

I have added a slightly less-specialist introduction to this page, giving some figures and context for the language both in the country, in Europe and relative to the other Rhaetian languages. This is my first significant addition to a linguistics page on WP; I am only an interested amateur in the field.

References & sources:

 * http://www.romansh.ch/
 * http://switzerland.isyours.com/e/guide/graubunden/romansh.html
 * http://www.bartleby.com/65/rh/RhaetoRo.html

Liam Proven 00:25, 23 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Single language ?!
"Romansh is not a single language but a group of closely-related dialects"

Anyone think of an organic language which ISN'T a group of closely-related dialects?

 * It's possible there are a few cases where the language-dialect distinction is meaningless because every speaker uses the same dialect, but Romansh is clearly not an example of this. I have changed this paragraph accordingly. Jsteph 06:16, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

Sociolinguistics?
I have taken the liberty of renaming the chapter called "Sociolinguistics", as it obviously is rather on Dialects than on Sociolinguistics. --Unoffensive text or character 16:03, 25 July 2006 (UTC)

Half the size
...about half the size of Switzerland's largest community of speakers of a non-official language, with some 111,000 speakers, quoth the article, but what is this "non-official language"? Jpatokal 12:00, 11 August 2006 (UTC)

Well, well, it seems it fell victim to political correctness. It used to be Serbo-Croatian, but as today this has been replaced by a bundle of languages (Serbian, Bosnian, Croatian, and I expect we will soon see Montenegrinian), someone "corrected" the entry by deleting the word "Serbo-Croatian".Unoffensive text or character 16:32, 11 August 2006 (UTC)

 * I've tried to add an acceptable description of which language - sorry, languages - are being talked about, because the previous situation was silly. It might make more sense to delete the sentence completely. --Dtcdthingy 19:27, 17 October 2006 (UTC)

Romansh-speakers
Is it accurate to call the Romansh-speaking peoples of Switzerland and Italy "Romansh people" when designating their ethnic group, or would they better be considered Italian people, or something else? Static Sleepstorm 08:11, 23 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Italians? Certainly not, if you do not want to offend them. I have heard the term "Bündnerromanen" used (i.e. Romanic people of Graubünden) and I suppose "Romansh people" would be a good English translation. Unoffensive text or character 08:32, 23 February 2007 (UTC)

What is the name for the letter "X"?
Under the "Letters" section, the Romansh alphabet is given. Below that are the names of the letters. Mein Gott/Mon dieu! The name for "X" has been X-ed out; or perhaps, in accordance with this Letter of Mystery, it has no name! Writtenright 04:04, 15 June 2007 (UTC)Writtenright

why portuguese?
Why does the chart comparing the Rhaeto-Romansch languages of Swizterland compare them to Portuguese? Why not one of the Romance languages spoken in the area like French, Italian, or Ladin? Arthurian Legend 18:02, 11 July 2007 (UTC)

Official logo of the Confederation
The article says: "official logo of the Confederation features all four languages". What is that official logo? I don't see any languages on the Coat of arms of Switzerland. Is it some other logo? --Amir E. Aharoni 12:35, 25 July 2007 (UTC)

 * I was wondering that too. Maybe it's referring to the text next to the coat of arms on http://www.admin.ch/index.html Angelastic (talk) 22:26, 9 December 2007 (UTC)
 * Couldn't find a source. Removed the statement. Yours in friendliness, GeorgeLouis (talk) 19:18, 16 February 2008 (UTC)
 * I guess the statement came from this article, but it's still not clear what it refers to (I guess it is their letterhead, and/or the thing on admin.ch that I mentioned before), so I think we should leave it out.--Angelastic (talk) 11:43, 1 September 2008 (UTC)

Serbo-Croatian
That language does not exist... It is mentioned in the first paragraph.
 * Please sign your posts by striking the tilde key four times. Sincerely, GeorgeLouis (talk) 19:02, 16 February 2008 (UTC)

Romontsch
Is 'Romontsch' an alternative spelling for 'Romansh' or is it an other language ? Arno Lagrange ✉ 01:25, 15 March 2008 (UTC)
 * Romontsch: Language and Literature'', Douglas Bartlett Gregor, Oleander Press, 1982, ISBN: 978-0900891397
 * "Romontsch" is how Romansh is spelled in the Sursilvan variety. The book you refer to deals with Sursilvan. --Benne ['bɛnə] (talk) 09:48, 15 March 2008 (UTC)

top name
The article title is "Romansh", but the top of the Language infobox says "Romansch" (and "Rumantsch" under that). Shouldn't the two top names be the same? —Steve Summit (talk) 02:27, 8 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Fix it and see what happens. Sincerely, GeorgeLouis (talk) 14:20, 12 April 2008 (UTC)

Yugoslav languages
I am deleting the "fact" about the other languages because it lacks a source (requested since February 2008). Please reinstate, with a citation, if possible. Sincerely, GeorgeLouis (talk) 17:28, 14 April 2008 (UTC)

Romansch surname
some romansch, german-romansch and italian-romansch surname and name.¿?

Some first names: Andri, Bistgaun, Curdin, Dumeng, Flurin, Gieri, Linard, Murezi, Peider, Stiafen, Tumaisch...--151.51.60.165 (talk) 19:45, 10 May 2010 (UTC)

Excuse me, is this the french wikipedia?
Why do You always refer to "Grisons"? The Romansh inhabitants call it Grischun, the Swiss-German citizens name it Graubünden and the neighboring Italians know it as Grigioni. So why does this article use a french term?

 * No, this is the English wikipedia, therefore it uses the English term which also happens to be Grisons--unless you want to call it "the Grey League". 22:34, 14 December 2008 (UTC)22:34, 14 December 2008 (UTC)22:34, 14 December 2008 (UTC)~

Language status
Has Romansh seen a precipitous decline in the last fifty years or more? Is it holding steady? Is it growing? I know it seems there is more government support for Romansh lately, but has this translated into more or fewer speakers or about the same percentage? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 63.227.210.207 (talk) 22:37, 14 December 2008 (UTC)

The ISO 639 language codes are rm and roh.
Codes for what? Several languages or dialects are mentioned just before this sentence. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.140.57.113 (talk) 13:57, 16 March 2010 (UTC)
 * Codes for Romansh, i.e. all the dialects spoken in Switzerland. Ladin (of Italy) and Friulian have separate codes. +Angr 13:43, 5 June 2010 (UTC)

Move page
Is Romansch not the most common English spelling? —Wiki Wikardo 12:18, 28 March 2010 (UTC)
 * I think Romansh and Romansch are about equally common in English. I certainly think Romansh makes more sense, since it's a uniquely English name for the language, so we might as well use the typically English spelling of the sound . By that I mean that Romansch (with the c) is neither the native spelling (which is Rumantsch with a u and a t) nor the German spelling (which is Romanisch with an i), so it's not as if we're borrowing some other language's spelling. So since we're using English's own spelling anyway, we might as well go all the way and spell sh, as it's usually spelled in English, rather than use the sch spelling that might make people think that spelling is borrowed from some other language, which it isn't. Does that make sense? Anyway, as far as WP:COMMONNAMES is concerned, I don't think the spelling with the c is significantly more common in English than the spelling without it. +Angr 13:36, 5 June 2010 (UTC)
 * That makes sense to me too. Also the Google Ngram tends to confirm that there is no predominant spelling, so this article probably shouldn't be moved. mge o  talk 10:45, 8 January 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Romansh language/Archive 1