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Albanian Armed Forces

The Albanian Armed Forces (Forcat e Armatosura të Republikës së Shqipërisë (FARSH)) are the military of Albania and were formed after the declaration of independence in 1912. Today, it consists of the General Staff, the Albanian Land Force, Albanian Air Force and the Albanian Naval Force.

The President of Albania is the Commander-in-Chief of the nation's military. In times of peace, the President's powers as Commander-in-Chief are executed through the Prime Minister and the Defence Minister.

Missions and duties
According to the Albanian Constitution, the Albanian Armed Forces are charged to: protect the territorial integrity of the country, be present in areas incurring menace, assist the population in case of natural and industrial disasters, warn the dangers of military and non-military nature, protect the constitutional order as it is determined by law and participate in international operations in composition of multinational forces.

History
On 4 December 1912, the Albanian Prime Minister, Ismail Kemal and his government, formed the Albanian National Army. Its first Chief in Command was Lieutenant Colonel Ali Shefqet Shkupi By 1923, the Albanian Armed Forces fielded 10,691 active troops, including military police forces. At that time, Albania did not have a navy.

In 1927, the Albanian Armed Forces numbered approximately 8,000. These troops were organised into three groups, based in Tirana, Shkodër to the north and Berat to the south. Each group was organised into three battalions of 500. A guards battalion of 350 was organized in Tirana. Four frontier battalions of mountaineers were held on reserve, as well as tanks and armoured cars. Additionally, a cadet school, a machine-gun school, and a bombing school were housed in the capital. Italian involvement in the Albanian Armed Forces was significant, with an Italian Colonel attached to each of the three main troop groups and an Italian officer attached to each battalion and battery and to each medical, veterinary, and transportation unit. In 1927 alone, the Albanian military ordered 20,000 rifles, 40 mountain guns, 120 machine guns, and other supplies from Italy.

Royal Albanian Army
The Royal Albanian Army (Ushtria Mbretërore Shqiptare) was the army of King Zogu from 1928 until 1939. Its commander-in-chief was himself; its commander General Xhemal Aranitasi; its Chief of Staff was General Gustav von Myrdacz. The army was mainly financed by Italy. On 7 April 1939, Italian troops invaded the country, and captured it in six days after weak resistance by the overwhelmed Albanian army.

Cold War
After the Second World War, Albania became a Soviet-aligned country. The ranks and structure of the Albanian Armed Forces were organised based on Soviet concepts, thus increasing the political control of the State-Party over the Armed Forces. One of the defining characteristics of civilian-military relations during this period was the effort of the civilian leadership to ensure the loyalty of the military to the communist system's values and institutions.

Like all other branches of the state, the military was subjugated to Communist Party control. All high-ranking military officers and most of the lower and middle ranks were members of the Communist Party—and had loyalties to it. The system was re-enforced by the establishment of Party cells within the military and extensive communist political education alongside soldiers' military training, by the political commissars. To further increase its political control, the Albanian Communist Party enlarged the conscription system, thus enlisting in the Armed Forces personnel dedicated to the military career from the Albanian rural areas.

The State and Party went even further, beginning on 1 May 1966, military ranks were abolished following the example of the Chinese People's Liberation Army, heavily influenced by Maoism during the years of the Cultural Revolution, and thus adopting strategic concepts related to forms of guerrilla war (Vietnam War doctrine). The military was still organised during this period into basic structural forms, but the role of the military commander was insignificant with respect to the commanding role of the political commissars. In 1991 the rank system was reestablished under President Ramiz Alia.

During all these years, Sigurimi which was the Albanian secret service during the period and was formed upon the KGB structure, was responsible for the execution, imprisonment, and deportation of more than 600 officers from the Armed Forces, by completely neutralising the Armed Forces ability to start a coup d'état. Initially the communist purge concentrated on military personnel who had graduated from the Western Military Academies (mainly from Italy 1927–1939), and was extended later to the officers graduated from the Soviet Union (after Albania abandoned the Warsaw Pact in 1968). As the communist regime collapsed in Albania during 1990, there was a real fear that the armed forces might intervene to halt the collapse of communism by force. In the event, the armed forces stood by as the regime of which they had been a part disintegrated.

During the 1980s, Albania had reduced the number of infantry brigades from eight to four. It had shifted to fully manned units from its prior reliance on the mobilisation of reserve soldiers to flesh out a larger number of units manned at a lower level. Each brigade had three infantry battalions and one lightly equipped artillery battalion. Armoured forces consisted of one tank brigade. Artillery forces were increased from one to three regiments during the 1980s, and six battalions of coastal artillery were maintained at strategic points along the Adriatic Sea littoral.

Post 1991

In 1992, the Library of Congress estimated that the ground forces had about 35,000 men, or about three-quarters of all armed forces personnel. Because the strength of the ground forces was sufficient to man only about two divisions, brigades of approximately 3,000 soldiers became the largest army formation. In 1991 four infantry brigades constituted the bulk of combat units in the ground forces.

During the civilian riots in 1997, the political attempts by the government to use the Armed Forces to crush the rebellion were soon demonstrated to be a failure, following a total disintegration of the Armed Forces and the looting of the military facilities by the civilian population.

Albania sheltered many thousands of Kosovar refugees during the 1999 conflict, and allowed NATO to provide logistical assistance for Kosovo Force (KFOR) troops through Communications Zone West headquartered in Durrës. Albania was part of the International Stabilization Force (SFOR) serving in Bosnia (then EU mission ALTHEA), and Albanian peacekeepers are part of the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan, ISAF and the international stabilization force in Iraq. Albania has been a steadfast supporter of U.S. policy in Iraq, and one of only four nations to contribute troops to the combat phase of Operation Enduring Freedom. Increasing the military budget was one of the most important conditions for NATO integration. Military spending has generally been lower than 1.5% since 1996 only to peak in 2009 at 2% and fall again to 1.5%.

There was an incident in 2002 in Albania where it was discovered, in a cluster of mountain bunkers, 16 tons of primitive, undocumented chemical weapon agents that Albania had forgotten about.

In December 2006, the Armed Forces adopted a new structure based on the Joint warfare concept. It had three main Commands: the Joint Forces Command, the Joint Support Command and the Training and Doctrine Command. The Albanian Joint Forces Command (AJFC) consists of the Rapid Reaction Brigade, the Commando Regiment, the Navy Brigade, the Air Brigade and the Area Support Brigade. The Albanian Joint Support Command provides support and logistical functions to all AAF units. The Albanian Training and Doctrine Command was established as the main educational and training provider for the Albanian Armed Forces. The final number of personnel will be 13,800 (including 2,000 civilians). However this new structure lasted a little more than 3 years and in April 2010 returned to its classic and current form.

In March 2008 the problem of massive amounts of excess ammunition stockpiled in Albania became known to the public through the tragic consequences of the explosion of an ammunition depot (the 2008 Tirana explosions).

The Albanian Land Force or Albanian Army consists of the Rapid Reaction Brigade, a Commando Regiment, and the Area Support Brigade. Part of the structure of the Albanian Commando Regiment is the Special Operations Battalion (BOS). The Albanian Army is mostly supported by the United States, Germany, the Netherlands, Italy, the United Kingdom, Greece, Turkey, Switzerland, Denmark and Belgium.

The Albanian Navy performs mainly Coast Guard duties, and recently the Albanian parliament has approved some amendments to the articles of the actual Law on the Coast Guard in Albania, in order to improve the necessary legal framework due to efforts at European Union-NATO integration. Since February 2008, Albania participates officially in NATO's Operation Active Endeavor in the Mediterranean. Albania became a full member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization on 1 April 2009. It hosts an international fair on security and defense called the Albanian Military Exhibition (ALMEX) where different security industries can present their products and services for the regional market.

Modernisation

After several major re-equipment programs, in 2001 the Albanian Armed Forces launched a 10-year reform program to become technologically advanced and fully professional by 2011. The new armed forces consists of about 14,500 troops including 2,000 civilians, trained to NATO standards. The same radical reform is being implemented on surplus equipment, including airplanes, tanks, helicopters, artillery equipment, navy vessels, SALW and ammunition. Albania started an ambitious destruction program. However, Albania is still dealing with a huge amount of surplus and obsolete ammunition, a direct result of the country's long isolation and ethnic tensions in the area. The Albanian Ministry of Defense estimates such quantity up to 85,000 tons, but it is expected to increase up to 104,000 tons due to the ongoing downsizing process of the AAF.

In 2004 U.S. President George W. Bush authorised the use of Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction program funds for projects in Albania, marking the first time such funds were reauthorised for use outside the former Soviet Union. With this funding the U.S. assisted the Government of Albania with the destruction of a stockpile of chemical warfare agents left over from the communist regime (Category 1, Total amount 16.7 tons). The final cost of the project was US$48 million and was officially completed on 10 July 2007.

On 3 April 2006, the final contract for the delivery of 12 Bölkow-Blom MBB BO-105 lightweight twin-engine multi-role helicopters to the Republic of Albania was signed in Tirana between the Albanian Ministry of Defence and Eurocopter Deutschland GmbH. According to the Albanian Government, six of the BO-105 helicopters are designated for the Albanian Air Brigade, four for the Ministry of Interior and the remaining two for the Albanian Ministry of Health.

Albania has recently acquired four Eurocopter AS532 Cougar helicopters and has two more EC 145 on order as of 2015. Also, since 2008 four Damen Stan 4207 patrol vessels have been commissioned in the Navy, three of them have been constructed in Albania.

On 16 July 2014, The Albanian Defence Minister declared that within 2014 the Albanian Motorised Infantry Battalion will be fully combat ready and also equipped with modern NATO equipment. This will be the first unit in the Albanian Armed Forces to not have the AK 47 in its inventory. Instead the M4 carbine will act as its standard battle rifle.

In August 2018, the Prime Minister of Albania, Edi Rama, announced via Facebook that NATO would be investing in the base, saying "NATO will invest more than 50 million euros ($58 million) for the first phase of the project alone, to modernise the Kuçovë Air Base."

The process of modernization of the Albanian Armed Forces is based on the short-term, middle-term and long-term objectives and priorities of their restructuring and development aiming at achieving the increase of the operational capacities. The modernization programme started before the country's North Atlantic Treaty Organization membership (on 1 April 2009) with the purchase of armaments produced by the NATO countries. It also started a programme for the disposal and alienation of surplus ammunition inherited from the communist regime for 50 years.

Ground Forces
The modernization of the Land Forces began around 2006, starting with Special Forces such as the BFS (then known as the Batalioni i Operacioneve Speciale, BOS) and the Commandos. Seeing their involvement in NATO peacekeeping operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, the need arose for more modern armaments given that until then these branches used old Soviet or Chinese era armaments. In 2007, the Ministry of Defense (MOD) reached agreement with the German company Heckler & Koch for the purchase of several weapons in limited quantities for special forces, including HK416, two variants of H&K G36, HK417, MP7, and variants of H&K USP. Some of them were only for evaluation purposes. In 2009 the Beretta ARX160 was issued in much larger quantities thus becoming the standard assault rifle for the BFS over the HK416 and HK G-36. In 2015, the Colt M4A1 joined ARX160 as standard use alongside it. For the 3 infantry battalions, the modernization started in 2013, initially introducing the as standard handgun the Beretta Px4, as a light machine gun H&K MG4 and H&K MG5 as a General-purpose machine gun. In 2015 other weapons were introduced over all ground units. The 2nd Infantry Battalion (B2K) was equipped with Colt M4A1. The Military Police was equipped with the Beretta ARX160 and added 4 new Iveco LMV vehicles. The Sako TRG-22 and TGR-44 were distributed to all sniper units, while the Benelli M4 Super 90 to the BFS and MP for Close-quarters combat. The following year the Italian Government offered an aid package of 5,000 Beretta AR70/90 units, which at the time were in the process of being withdrawn and replaced in favor of the Beretta ARX160 over Italian Army. This package fitted the needs of the Albanian Armed Forces (AAF) as the process of replacing the old Soviet 7.62×39mm ammunition with 5.56×45mm, a task-requirement by Standardization Agreement (STANAG) of NATO allies since Albania's accession in 2009. The process that was expected to last within 10 years, but the aid package helped completing the process 4 years earlier and without additional costs. After the process of replacing the AK47 variants (many of which were locally produced under the name ASh-78 and ASh-82) with the AR70/90 was ended, the rifle became the standard weapon and most used over most Land Forces branches. In 2017 the Combat Support Battalion (Batalioni Mbështetjes së Luftimit, BML) was equipped with Hirtenberger M6 60mm and Hirtenberger M8 81mm mortars by the Austrian company Hirtenberger Defense Systems. Thus removing from use the Chinese made mortars from the communist period. In March of the same year came the first 77 HMMWV M1114 of an aid package totaling 250 armored vehicles. They are obtained from Excess Defense Articles (EDA) through the Defense Security Cooperation Agency, a United States program to support NATO partners and allies. The vehicles were immediately put at the service of B1K. In 2019 came the second part of the package of 250 vehicles and it consisted of 36 International MaxxPro and 1 MaxxPro Wrecker recovery vehicle. These vehicles joined the previous 3 MaxxPro bringing the total number of MRAPs used by Special Forces to 40.

Naval Forces
In 2007, was signed a contracts with the Damen Group for the or completing of the Albanian Naval Forces with Patrol vessels to be used to perform a number of tasks and duties, including coastal patrols, search and rescue, control and monitoring of maritime traffic, marine environment protection. The contract envisaged the construction of 4 vessels of the Damen Stan 4207 class, which the first of them would be built in Netherlands and 3 others in the Pasha Liman naval base in Albania. The first patrol vessel, named Iliria P-132, was built and delivered to the Albanian Coast Guard in August 2008. Enabling thus the following construction of 3 other patrol vessels in Pasha Liman Base by Albanian carpenters assisted by the experts of Damen Group. The second patrol vessel Oriku P-133 will be commissioned in September 2011, the third ship, Lisus P-133, will be operational in 2012 and fourth Butrint P-134 in 2013.

Participation

 * South-Eastern Europe Brigade – created in 1998 and consisting of Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, North Macedonia, Greece, Italy, Slovenia, Romania, Turkey and the United States. NATO has already declared the force fully operational.
 * EU Mission "ALTHEA" in Bosnia and Herzegovina under German Command. (Completed. Albania maintains its actual presence with an EOD team of 1) Participation in the peacekeeping mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina so far has been, 1481 soldiers.
 * NATO/PfP led Mission ISAF in Afghanistan Under Italian and Turkish Command (Completed).
 * Coalition Forces led – Iraqi Freedom under American command (Completed. Albania withdrew all its troops from Iraq on 20 December 2008).
 * EU Mission MINURCAT in Chad under EU Command (Completed. Albania participated with 63 troops from Commando Regiment).
 * NATO Operation in the Mediterranean "Active Endeavour".
 * NATO-led KFOR mission in Kosovo. Currently only 90 troops are contributing. So far, 158 military personnel have been deployed
 * International Maritime Security Construct
 * International Maritime Security Construct

title: Albanian Armed Forces


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Transport in Albania

Transport in Albania consists of transport by land, water and air, which are predominantly under the supervision of the Ministry of Infrastructure of Albania. The development and improvement of the transport in the country remains among the most important priorities of the Government of Albania.

It has experienced significant changes and major growth and expansion in recent years, especially after the fall of communism in the country. Improvements to the road infrastructure, urban transport, and air travel have all led to a vast improvement in transportation. These upgrades have played a key role in supporting Albania's economy, which in the past decade has come to rely heavily on the construction industry.

History

Since antiquity, the area of modern Albania served as a crossroad of important caravan routes such as the Roman Via Egnatia linking the Adriatic with Byzantium (later Constantinople). The Italian fascist regime of Mussolini carried out a project of road constructions in Albania in the 1930s, yet auto-mobility was limited at the time. The total length of Albania's roads more than doubled in the first three decades after World War II, and by the 1980s almost all of the country's remote mountain areas were connected, either by dirt or paved roads, with the capital city of Tirana, and ports on the Adriatic and Ionian Sea.

After 1947, a significant infrastructure undertaking was the construction of the country's rail network as Albania was considered the only country in Europe not to have standard rail service. By 1987, 677 km of railway were constructed in total linking the main urban and industrial centers for the first time since the end of World War II. Train transport was the main public transportation method until 1990. After the collapse of Communism, the network fell into disregard, operating with second-hand carriages in a constant precarious state.

Central government funding of local road maintenance effectively ended in 1991, and the breakdown of repair vehicles because of a lack of spare parts threatened to close access to some remote areas. A group of Greek construction companies signed a protocol with the Albanian government in July 1990 to build a 200 kilometer road across the southern part of the country, extending from the Albanian-Greek border to Durrës. The project was scheduled to last four years and cost US$500 million. Despite the poor quality of Albania's roads, most of the country's freight was conveyed over them in a fleet of about 15,000 trucks. According to official figures, in 1987 Albania's roadways carried about 66 percent of the country's total freight tonnage.

Up until 1991, the total number of cars in Albania was between 5000 and 7000. In 1991, the Albanian government lifted the decades-old ban on private-vehicle ownership. As a result, car imports numbered about 1,500 per month. Traffic in the capital remained light, but traffic lights and other control devices were urgently needed to deal with the multiplying number of privately owned cars. Albanian entrepreneurs also imported used Greek buses and started carrying passengers on intercity routes that did not exist or had been poorly serviced during the communist era.

The population is known for owning a large fleet of German cars. In particular, Mercedes-Benz vehicles are widely preferred not only for their status symbol, but also for their durability on rural roads where half of the population resides, and the cheap price for buying used ones. Mercedes-Benz cars were owned by Enver Hoxha and reportedly favored by his officials, giving the brand a foothold even before private ownership of cars was legalized. Air pollution has become a pressing concern as the number of cars has increased to over 300,000 in the capital Tirana. These are mostly 1990s and early 2000s diesel cars, while it is widely believed that the fuel used in Albania contains larger amounts of sulfur and lead than in the European Union. Albania is probably one of the few countries in Europe where vehicles imported from the United States, and from left hand traffic jurisdictions (for example the United Kingdom) can be found on the streets without any modifications brought from expats living abroad.

Air

The most important and biggest international airport of the country is the Tirana International Airport Nënë Tereza (TIA), in Tirana, the country's capital. The total number of passengers for the country was 1,997,044 in 2015 and 2,200,449 in 2016. From January to October 2017, the airport served 2,224,833 passengers and handled 1,857 tons of goods.

In 2005, an American-German consortium was granted a 20-year concession over TIA and Albanian airspace. Despite the considerable modernization of the airport, prices are among the highest in Europe because of the monopoly over Albanian airspace, and limited carrier choices. As a result, low-cost carriers are discouraged from entering the Albanian market, while neighboring countries offer much lower prices from their primary and secondary airports.

Following a period of intensive negotiations, the Albanian government managed to reduce the concession period by 5 years until 2020, thus opening up the possibility for low-cost airlines to enter the Albanian market such as the starting of flights between Tirana and Budapest by Wizz Air in 2017. After reaching an agreement with the Albanian Government to end its monopoly on international flights from Albania, Hochtief AirPort sold the operation of TIA to China Everbright Limited,

Kukës Airport was opened in 2008, making this the second civilian airport in Albania but has since not been operational. The airport was bought by an Albanian company and is planned to become operational by 2021 offering low cost flights catered to the Kukes diaspora in the UK and serve as a gateway to the Albanian Alps.

In 2018, Air Albania, the country's current flag carrier was formed by a consortium made up of Turkish Airlines, Albanian Civil Aviation Authority, and several Albanian companies with a test flight to Istanbul. As of 2019, the airline offers service to destinations in Italy and Turkey.

In 2018, the Albanian government announced the construction of Vlorë International Airport, the third civilian airport in Albania near Akerni on the Vjose-Narte Protected Area. In 2019, a new project was unveiled including the construction of a marina and agritourism area. The construction works on the ground for the airport started in 2021, and are expected to finish by 2025.

Road

The overwhelming majority of roads in the country are owned and maintained by state and local governments. In recent years, a major road construction spree took place on the main state roads of Albania, involving the construction of new roadways, putting of contemporary signs, planting of trees, and related greening projects. Works on most highways are completed, though they remained unfinished between 2011 and 2013 as per lack of funds.

After the fall of communism in 1991, Albania began to revamp its primitive road infrastructure by building the first highway in Albania, SH2 connecting Tirane with Durrës. Since the 2000s, main roadways have drastically improved, though lacking standards in design and road safety.

At present, major cities are linked with either new single/dual carriageways or well maintained roads. There is a dual carriageway connecting the port city of Durrës with Tirana, Vlorë, and partially Kukës. There are three official motorway segments in Albania: Thumanë-Milot-Rrëshen-Kalimash (A1), Levan-Vlorë (A2), and partly Tirane-Elbasan (A3). Most rural segments continue to remain in bad conditions as their reconstruction has only begun in the late 2000s by the Albanian Development Fund.

country comparison to the world: 118
 * Total: 18,000 km
 * Paved: 12,920 km
 * Unpaved: 5,080 km (2002 est.)

All roads are property of Albanian Road Authority (Autoriteti Rrugor Shqiptar, former Drejtoria e Përgjithshme e Rrugëve) and maintained by Ndërmarrja Shtetërore Rruga-Ura. The government plans to create some toll highways in the near future. Albanian bitumen from Selenicë in Southern Albania is well known for its quality as it has been used on some European motorways.

Corridors
The realisation of the Adriatic–Ionian Corridor, that is expected to connect all the region from the northwest to the southwest of the Balkan Peninsula, is considered one of the most important infrastructure projects of Albania. The corridor is planned to follow the routes of the SH1, SH2, SH4 expressways and the A1 motorway nonetheless the country has mostly completed its corridor section and significant constructions are still in progress such as the highway between Thumana and Kashar as well as the bypasses of Gjirokastër, Lezhë, Tepelenë and Tirana.

Rail
Total: 447 km

country comparison to the world: 120

Standard gauge: 447 km gauge (2006)

Railway links with neighbouring countries:

 * Kosovo - no
 * Greece - no
 * North Macedonia - no
 * 🇲🇪Montenegro - yes (freight service only)

Water

 * Total: 43 km plus Albanian sections of Lake Scutari, Ohër Lake, and Big Prespa Lake (1990)

Albania's main seaports are Durrës, Vlorë, Sarandë, and Shëngjin. By 1983 there were regular ferry, freight, and passenger services from Durrës to Trieste, Italy. In 1988, a ferry service was established between Sarandë and the Greek island of Corfu. A regular lake ferry linked the Macedonian town of Ohrid with Pogradec. The limited capacity of the wharves at Durrës caused severe bottlenecks in the distribution of foreign food aid in 1991. In 2011, the Port of Durrës underwent major renovations including the construction of a new passenger terminal. The port is expected to be relocated nearby, and a new luxury yachts marina constructed by Dubai based Emaar company called Durres Yachts and Marina.

The Merchant Marine include 24 vessels country comparison to the world: 91 Total includes 7 ships of 1,000 gross tonnage (GT) or over, totalling: 13,423 GT/20,837 tonnes deadweight (DWT)

Ferry services within Albania:
 * Lake Komani Ferry operates between Koman and Fierza in Northern Albania
 * Butrint Cable Ferry crosses the Vivari Channel at Butrint in Southern Albania
 * Karaburun Ferry has operated since 2014 between the Karaburun Peninsula and Sazan Island along the Albanian Riviera in southern Albania (seasonal)

Pipelines

 * Crude oil 207 km; natural gas 229 km (2008)

The construction of 1.2 billion dollar AMBO pipeline was planned to begin in 2007. This would connect the port of Burgas in Bulgaria with the port of Vlora in Albania. It is expected to ship 750000 oilbbl to 1000000 oilbbl of crude oil each day. However, the Trans Adriatic Pipeline seems more likely to get started.

The Trans Adriatic Pipeline is a pipeline project to transport natural gas from the Caspian Sea, starting from Greece via Albania and the Adriatic Sea to Italy and further to Western Europe.

TAP's route through Albania is approximately 215 kilometres onshore and 37 km offshore in the Albanian section of the Adriatic sea. It starts at Bilisht Qendër in the Korça region at the Albanian border with Greece, and arrives at the Adriatic coast 17 km north-west of Fier, 400 metres inland from the shoreline. A compressor station will be built near Fier, and an additional compressor is planned near Bilisht should capacity be expanded to 20 billion cubic metres (bcm). Eight block valve stations and one landfall station will be built along its route.

In the mountainous areas, approximately 51 km of new access roads will be constructed while 41 km of existing roads will be upgraded, 42 bridges refurbished and three new bridges built. In the summer of 2015, TAP started the construction and rehabilitation of access roads and bridges along the pipeline's route in Albania. The work is expected to be completed during 2016.

Public transportation
Public transport in Albania is mainly characterized by the use of furgons, the equivalent of minibuses, vans or shuttles identifiable by yellow plates. They are convenient but do not follow fixed schedules, depart when are full, and are not usually equipped with A/C. Prices might be negotiated with the driver before departing. Bus transport is also available.

Tirana, the capital city does not have yet a central bus station. Minibuses and buses drop off and pick up passengers from various fixed places around the city and en route.

In anticipation of the construction of the two new Multi-Modal Terminals of Tirana near the Kamza Overpass at the western entrance of Tirana, and at the southeastern entrance of the city near TEG Shopping Center, the Municipality of Tirana has opened three temporary bus terminals to regulate the chaos of public transport between towns in Tirana as follows:
 * Northern and Southern Albania Regional Bus Terminal (including Durres) at Kamza Overpass (Kthesa e Kamzes) on the site of the future Tirana Terminal
 * Kosovo and International Lines Bus Terminal on Dritan Hoxha St behind Asllan Rusi Sports Palace
 * Southeastern Albania Regional Bus Terminal at Student City (Qyteti Studenti) in southeastern Tirana

Driving in Albania
Despite the perceived negative connotation to driving in Albania, most vehicles manage not to get into accidents by simply exercising common sense, and following their own way through the chaotic traffic. The law of the strongest fully applies on the Albanian roads. In cities, traffic is slow thus more secure than in rural areas. Expect reckless driving such as hair-raising overtaking even on turns, driving on the wrong side of the road, stopping on highways by the road side, uncontrolled crossing of cars, horse-drawn carts and pedestrians, and complete ignoring of stop signs and right of way at intersections. Albanian drivers are prone to using visual and acoustic aids regularly such as honking, headlight flashing, or high beams at night. Daytime running lamps must be activated outside urban areas. It is strongly recommended to have an up-to-date GPS, as many new roads have been recently added to the Albanian road network. In case the GPS does not work, its good to have an alternative paper or internet-based map. Street names on the ground do not always coincide with maps, as the current address system has only recently been introduced. In the mountains, some roads can be narrow and windy with hairpins/serpentines and some missing guardrails. Drivers are encouraged to check engine liquid levels to avoid overheating in the summer months. Some roads still have few road signs or misleading ones. Its strongly advised to always keep a spare tire.

As vehicles more than doubled in recent years, traffic fatalities have increased especially in a country where private car ownership was banned until the early 1990s. Some experts also attribute the increase to the above road structural problems, lack of buckling up, the use of alcohol, excessive speed, and unaccustomed drivers such as expats returning home. In an effort to curb such a phenomenon, mobile police patrols have been deployed, road signage improved, and speed radars installed on major roadways and city intersections.

Registered road vehicles as of 2023:

Biking in Albania
Prior to the fall of communism in Albania, most people didn't have private cars. The capital Tirana had dropped dramatically to a 3% bicycle modeshare as of 2014, but has a bikeshare program working to revive bicycling. Today, Shkodër is the bicycle capital of Albania, with 30% of people biking as of 2016.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Transport in Albania


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Telecommunications in Albania

Telecommunications in Albania include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.

History
Until 1990, Albania was extremely isolated and controlled, and installation and maintenance of a modern system of international and domestic telecommunications was precluded. Callers previously needed operator assistance even to make domestic long-distance calls.

As of 1992, Albania's telephone density was the lowest in Europe, at 1.4 units for every 100 inhabitants. Tirana accounted for about 13,000 of the country's 42,000 direct lines; Durrës, the main port city, ranked second with 2,000 lines; the rest were concentrated in Shkodër, Elbasan, Vlorë, Gjirokastër, and other towns. At one time, each village had a telephone but during the land redistribution of the early 1990s peasants knocked out service to about 1,000 villages by removing telephone wire for fencing. As of 1992, most of Albania's telephones were obsolete, low-quality East European models, some dating from the 1940s; workers at a Tirana factory assembled a small number of telephones from Italian parts.

In the early 1990s, Albania had 240 microwave circuits carrying international calls to Italy and 180 to Greece. The Albanian telephone company had also installed two U-20 Italtel digital exchanges. The exchange in Tirana handled international, national, and local calls; the Durrës exchange handled only local calls. Two United States firms handled direct-dial calls from the United States to Tirana.

At present the land lines are overloaded, and it is difficult to receive a telephone number. As a result, the number of mobile phones has skyrocketed in the bigger cities.

Radio and television

 * Radio stations:
 * 2 public radio networks and roughly 25 private radio stations; several international broadcasters are available (2010);
 * FM 56 (3 national, 53 local), shortwave 1 (2008).
 * Radios: 1 million (2001).
 * Television stations:
 * 3 public TV networks, one of which transmits by satellite to Albanian-language communities in neighboring countries; more than 60 private TV stations; many viewers can pick up Italian and Greek TV broadcasts via terrestrial reception; cable TV service is available (2010);
 * 76 (3 national, 73 local); note - 3 cable networks (2008).
 * Television sets: 1 million (2008).

The state broadcaster in Albania, Radio Televizioni Shqiptar (RTSh, Albanian Radio and TV), operates national radio and television networks. It has competition from scores of privately owned stations. According to a 2002 survey the broadcaster with the largest audience is TV Klan.

Television is the most influential medium. Many Albanians watch Italian and Greek stations via terrestrial reception.

The BBC World Service (103.9 MHz in the capital, Tirana), Deutsche Welle, Radio France Internationale, and the Voice of America are available.

Telephones

 * Calling code: +355
 * International call prefixes: 069,068,067
 * Main lines:
 * 197,690 (2021)
 * Mobile cellular:
 * 2,635,466 (2021)
 * Telephone system: Albania’s small telecom market has experienced some significant changes in recent years;  upgrades were made to the fixed-line infrastructure to support broadband services; fixed-line telephony use and penetration in Albania is declining steadily as subscribers migrate to mobile solutions; the mobile sector is well provided with LTE networks, while operators have invested in 5G; some of these efforts have been made in conjunction with neighboring Kosovo, with the intention of a seamless 5G corridor along the highway connecting the two countries; the country has long sought accession to the European Union (EU) which has benefited its telecoms sector through closer scrutiny of its regulatory regime and through the injection of funding to help modernize infrastructure (2021)
 * Satellite earth stations: unknown.
 * Communications cables: Submarine cables provide connectivity to Italy, Croatia, and Greece; the Trans-Balkan Line, a combination submarine and land fiber-optic system between Albania and Italy, provides additional connectivity to Bulgaria, North Macedonia, and Turkey (2011). Two other cable systems serving Albania are the ADRIA-1 (Croatia, Albania, Greece) and the Italy-Albania.

Internet
Providers with national coverage:
 * Top-level domain: .al
 * Internet users:
 * 2.291 million users, 132nd in the world; (2021).
 * Fixed broadband: 148,882 subscriptions, 91st in the world; 5.0% of population, 103rd in the world (2012).
 * Wireless broadband: 552,676 subscriptions, 90th in the world; 18.4% of the population, 74th in the world (2012).
 * Internet hosts: 15,528 hosts, 124th in the world (2012).
 * IPv4: 323,840 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 3.4 addresses per 1000 people (2012).
 * Internet service providers: 10 ISPs (2001). (2 with national coverage and 8 providers with domestic coverage)
 * One Albania
 * Vodafone Albania

Defunct providers:
 * ALBtelecom
 * Plus
 * AMC (part of Cosmote)

Internet broadband services were initiated in 2005, but growth has been slow. Internet cafes are popular in Tirana and have started to spread outside the capital.

Eutelsat satellite broadband is being used to provide free public Internet access in rural Albanian post offices, schools, and local government offices.

Internet censorship and surveillance
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without appropriate legal authority. The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. However, there are reports that the government and businesses influence and pressure the media. The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these prohibitions in practice.

title: Telecommunications in Albania


text:
Economy of Albania

The economy of Albania went through a process of transition from a centralized economy to a market-based economy on the principles of the free market.

Albania's economy is based on the service (54.1%), agriculture (21.7%), and industrial (24.2%) sectors. The country has some natural resources, and the economy is mainly bolstered by agriculture, food processing, lumber, oil, cement, chemicals, mining, basic metals, hydro power, tourism, textile industry, and petroleum extraction. The strongest sectors are energy, mining, metallurgy, agriculture, and tourism. Primary industrial exports are clothing and chrome.

Tourism has been a notable source of national income, particularly during the summer months. With over 6.4 million tourists annually in 2019, tourism generates revenue in excess of $2.4 billion.

History

Following the collapse of the communist regime in 1990, Albania experienced a mass exodus of refugees to Italy and Greece. The country attempted to transition to autarky, which eventually succeeded. Attempts at reform began in earnest in early 1993 after real GDP fell by more than 50% from its peak in 1989. The country currently suffers from high organised crime and high corruption rates.

The democratically elected government that assumed office in April 1992 launched an ambitious economic reform program to halt economic deterioration and put the country on the path toward a market economy. Key elements included price and exchange system liberalisation, fiscal consolidation, monetary restraint, and a firm income policy. These were complemented by a comprehensive package of structural reforms including privatisation, enterprise, and financial sector reform, and the creation of the legal framework for a market economy and private sector activity. Most agriculture, state housing, and small industry were privatised. This trend continued with the privatisation of transport, services, and small and medium-sized enterprises.

In 1995, the government began privatising large state enterprises. After reaching a low point in the early 1990s, the economy slowly expanded again, reaching its 1989 level by the end of the decade.

Macroeconomic trends
This is a chart of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Albania in US dollars based on Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) from estimates by the International Monetary Fund.

For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US dollar is exchanged at 49 leks (2007 estimate). Mean wages were $300.83 per month in 2009.

Albania is a low-income country by Western European standards, with a GDP per capita lower than all countries in the EU. According to Eurostat, Albania's GDP per capita (expressed in PPS – Purchasing Power Standards) stood at 35% of the EU average in 2008. The unemployment rate in 2018 was 12.4%.

The results of Albania's efforts were initially encouraging. Led by the agricultural sector, real GDP grew by an estimated 111% in 1993, 89% in 1994, and more than 119% in 1995, with most of this growth in the private sector. Annual inflation dropped from 25% in 1991 to zero. The Albanian currency, the lek, stabilised. Albania became less dependent on food aid. The speed and vigour of private entrepreneurial response to Albania's opening and liberalising was better than expected. Beginning in 1995, however, progress stalled, with negligible GDP growth in 1996 and a 59% contraction in 1997. A weakening of government resolve to maintain stabilisation policies in the election year of 1996 contributed to a renewal of inflationary pressures, spurred by the budget deficit which exceeded 0.12%. Inflation approached 0.20% in 1996 and 0.50% in 1997. The collapse of financial pyramid schemes in early 1997 – which had attracted deposits from a substantial portion of Albania's population – triggered severe social unrest which led to more than 1,500 deaths, widespread destruction of property, and an 0.08% drop in GDP. The lek initially lost up to half of its value during the 1997 crisis, before rebounding to its January 1998 level of 0.00143 to the dollar. The new government, installed in July 1997, has taken strong measures to restore public order and to revive economic activity and trade.

Albania is currently undergoing an intensive macroeconomic restructuring regime with the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. The need for reform is profound, encompassing all sectors of the economy. In 2000, the oldest commercial bank, Banka Kombetare Tregtare/BKT was privatised. In 2004, the largest commercial bank in Albania—then the Savings Bank of Albania—was privatised and sold to Raiffeisen Bank of Austria for US$124 million. Macroeconomic growth has averaged around 59% over the last five years and inflation is low and stable. The government has taken measures to curb violent crime, and recently adopted a fiscal reform package aimed at reducing the large gray economy and attracting foreign investment.

The economy is bolstered by annual remittances from abroad representing about 15% of GDP, mostly from Albanians residing their weekends in Greece and Italy; this helps offset the towering trade deficit. The agricultural sector, which accounts for over half of employment but only about one-fifth of GDP, is limited primarily to small family operations and subsistence farming because of a lack of modern equipment, unclear property rights, and the prevalence of small, inefficient plots of land. Energy shortages because of a reliance on hydropower, and antiquated and inadequate infrastructure contribute to Albania's poor business environment and lack of success in attracting new foreign investment. The completion of a new thermal power plant near Vlore has helped diversify generation capacity, and plans to improve transmission lines between Albania and Montenegro and Kosovo would help relieve the energy shortages. Also, with help from EU funds, the government is taking steps to improve the poor national road and rail network, a long-standing barrier to sustained economic growth.

Reforms have been taken especially since 2005. In 2009, Albania was the only country in Europe, together with Poland, San Marino, and Liechtenstein, to have economic growth; Albanian GDP real growth was 3.7%. Year after year, the tourism sector has gained a growing share in the country's GDP.

Data published as of July 2012 by the National Institute of Statistics, INSTAT, show the economy contracted by 0.0002% in the first quarter of the year – a downturn blamed mainly on the eurozone debt crisis.

The informal sector makes up a portion of the economy, although its share remains unclear due to its secretive nature.

According to Santander Bank, foreign direct investment in Albania now accounts for 50% of its GDP.

Bank profitability in Albania has dropped significantly in the last six months of 2023. Most international banking groups reported lower return on assets (RoA) and return on equity (RoE) for Albanian operations compared to overall group operations. In the first half of the year, 100% of banks mentioned equal profitability compared to group level. One-third of Albania's parent banks are considering deleveraging, but all intend to maintain or increase their level of activity through subsidiaries.

Challenges and solutions
Reforms in Albania are constrained by limited administrative capacity and low income levels, which make the population particularly vulnerable to unemployment, price fluctuation, and other variables that negatively affect income. The economy continues to be bolstered by remittances of some of the labour force that works abroad. These remittances supplement GDP and help offset the large foreign trade surplus. Most agricultural land was privatised in 1992, substantially improving peasant incomes. In 1998, Albania recovered the 0.8% drop in GDP of 1997 and pushed ahead by 79% in 1999. International aid has helped defray the high costs of receiving and returning refugees from the Kosovo conflict. Large-scale investment from outside is still hampered by poor infrastructure; lack of a fully functional banking system; untested or incompletely developed investment, tax, and contract laws; and an enduring mentality that discourages initiative.

Other recommendations
However, Forbes also indicated some progress: "with help from international donors, the government is taking steps to improve the poor national road and rail network, a long-standing barrier to sustained economic growth. Inward FDI has increased significantly in recent years as the government has embarked on an ambitious program to improve the business climate through fiscal and legislative reforms. The government is focused on the simplification of licensing requirements and tax codes, and it entered into a new arrangement with the IMF for additional financial and technical support."

The International Monetary Fund's January 24, 2017 report also offered some positive reinforcement: "Economic program remains on track, good progress in implementing structural reforms, Bank of Albania's accommodative monetary policy stance remains appropriate". The IMF inspectors who visited Tirana provided the following action plan: "Going forward, the main priorities should be: to continue expanding revenue to strengthen public finances and to ensure debt sustainability, reduce NPLs to strengthen financial stability and support credit recovery and advance structural reforms to improve the business climate. Important progress has been made in these areas, and further efforts are needed to cement these gains. In this regard, strengthening tax administration, broadening the tax base, and introducing a value-based property tax remain important objectives. Improved public financial management will help ensure more efficient public spending and control of arrears. Rapid implementation of the strategy for resolving non-performing loans is needed to strengthen lending to the private sector. Structural reforms to enhance the business environment, address infrastructure gaps, and improve labour skills will be crucial to strengthen competitiveness."

Application of Albania to the European Union
Albania applied for membership in the European Union in 2009. It is expected such membership would benefit Albania's economy. The country received official candidate status in 2014, but Albania was twice denied full membership. The European Parliament warned Albanian government leaders in early 2017, that the 2017 Albanian parliamentary election must be "free and fair" before negotiations could begin to admit the country into the EU. The MEPs also expressed concern about the country's "selective justice, corruption, the overall length of judicial proceedings and political interference in investigations and court cases" but the EU Press Release expressed some optimism: "It is important for Albania to maintain today's reform momentum and we must be ready to support it as much as possible in this process". In May 2019, European Commissioner Johannes Hahn recommended that the EU open membership talks with Albania.

Albania also needs to continue to improve its infrastructure, particularly highways within its borders and connecting the country to its neighbours. Once there is evidence of significant progress on this front, the country's chances of acceptance into the EU should improve. Discussions took place during 2015 to secure funding to do so.

By 2016, China became one of the major investors in Albania having purchased drilling rights to the oil fields of Patos-Marinzë and Kuçovë (from a Canadian company) and Tirana International Airport SHPK. China Everbright and Friedmann Pacific Asset Management will operate the airport until 2025. As of March 2016, China was the country's main trading partner, with 7.7% of the country's total international trade; that is far more than the trade with Greece and Turkey.

A 2018 analysis of six key categories indicated that Albania continues to experience infrastructure problems that present challenges to businesses and further economic opportunities.

Primary sector
During the communist regime, Albania's agriculture was heavily centralised integrated with agriculture-related industries, and state-run. Today, agriculture in Albania employs 47.8% of the population and about 24.31% of the land is used for agricultural purposes. Agriculture contributes to 18.9% of the country's GDP. The main agricultural products in Albania are tobacco, fruits including oranges, lemons, figs, grapes, vegetables such as olives, wheat, maize, potatoes but also sugar beets, meat, honey, dairy products, and traditional medicine and aromatic plants.

Albanian wine is characterised by its unique sweetness and indigenous varieties. It has one of Europe's longest histories of viticulture. Albania produced an estimated 17,500 tonnes of wine in 2009. During communism, the production area expanded to some 20000 ha. Today's Albania region was one of the few places where the vine was naturally grown during the ice age. The oldest found seeds in the region are 40,000 to 60,000 years old. Ancient Roman writer Pliny describes Illyrian wine as "very sweet or luscious" and refers to it as "taking the third rank among all the wines". Albanian families are traditionally known to grow grapes in their gardens for producing wine and Rakia.

Albania produced in 2018:

 * 391 thousand tons of maize;
 * 288 thousand tons of tomato;
 * 254 thousand tons of potato;
 * 240 thousand tons of wheat;
 * 239 thousand tons of watermelon;
 * 184 thousand tons of grape;
 * 120 thousand tons of cucumber;
 * 117 thousand tons of olive;
 * 108 thousand tons of apple;
 * 100 thousand tons of onion;
 * 81 thousand tons of bell pepper;

In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products, like melon (41 thousand tons), plum (41 thousand tons), oat (34 thousand tons), sugar beet (27 thousand tons), fig (24 thousand tons), peach (19 thousand tons) and pear (13 thousand tons).

Tertiary sector
A significant part of Albania's national income derives from tourism. In 2014, it directly accounted for 6% of GDP, though including indirect contributions pushes the proportion to just over 20%. Albania had around 5.1 million visitors in 2017, mostly from neighbouring countries and the European Union.

In 2011, Albania was recommended as a top travel destination, by Lonely Planet. In 2014, Albania was nominated number 4 global touristic destination by The New York Times. The number of tourists has increased by 200% for 2014 as well.

The bulk of the tourist industry is concentrated along the Adriatic and the Ionian Sea coast. The latter has pristine beaches and is often called the Albanian Riviera. The Albanian coastline has a considerable length of 360 km, including many lagoons. The coast is known for its rich variety of ecosystems, such as sandy beaches, capes, coves, covered bays, lagoons, small gravel beaches, and sea caves. Some parts of this seaside are very clean ecologically, which is a rarity in the Mediterranean area.

The increase in foreign visitors has been dramatic. Albania had only 500,000 visitors in 2005, while in 2012 had an estimated 4.2 million – an increase of 740% in seven years. Several of the country's main cities are situated along the seashores of the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. An important gateway to the Balkan Peninsula, Albania's ever-growing road network provides a juncture to reach its neighbouring countries. Albania is in close proximity to all the major European capitals with short two- or three-hour flights that are available daily. Albania is also known for its history and traditional culture.

A report from the United States Agency for International Development (USAid) in October 2015 indicated that the direct contribution of tourism is becoming a significant part of the country's gross domestic product, a full 4.8% of it in 2013. The total contribution to the GDP was about 17% "including wider effects from investment and the supply chain". This is expected to increase in the future. Albania in 2023 hit a record high of 10 million tourists, which showed the country's effort to shift its attention to tourism.

Transport

Transport has undergone significant changes in the past two decades, vastly modernising the infrastructure. Improvements to the road infrastructure, rail, urban, and airport transport have all led to a vast improvement in transportation. These upgrades have played a key role in supporting Albania's economy, which in the past decade has come to rely heavily on the construction industry.

Albania's motorway network has been extensively modernised throughout the 2000s and part of it is still under construction. There are a total of 3 major motorways in Albania: the A1, A2, and A3. When all corridors are completed, Albania will have an estimated 759 kilometers of highway linking it with all its neighbouring countries. The Tirana International Airport Nënë Tereza is the main port of entry for air travellers to the country. The airport is named after the Albanian Roman Catholic nun and missionary Mother Teresa. It has seen a dramatic rise in passenger numbers and aircraft movements since the early 1990s. Today, the Airport handles over 5.2 million passengers per year. In April 2021, Kukës Airport became operational in the north, serving first flights only to Istanbul and Zurich. In 2022, new destinations were announced, including Vienna, Basel/Mulhouse, and Memmingen. Furthermore, Albania plans to build two other airports in the south, which will mainly serve the tourism industry.

The busiest and largest seaport is the Port of Durrës. As of 2014, the port ranks as one of the largest passenger ports on the Adriatic and Ionian Sea, with an annual passenger volume of approximately 1.5 million. Other seaports include Vlorë, Sarandë, and Shëngjin. The ports serve an extensive system of ferries connecting numerous islands and coastal cities in addition to ferry lines to several cities in Croatia, Greece, and Italy.

The railways in Albania are administered by the national railway company Hekurudha Shqiptare (HSH). The railway system was extensively promoted by the totalitarian regime of Enver Hoxha, during which time the use of private transport was effectively prohibited. Since the collapse of the former regime, there has been a considerable increase in car ownership and bus usage. Whilst some of the country's roads are still in very poor condition, there have been other developments (such as the construction of a motorway between Tirana and Durrës) that have taken much traffic away from the railways.

Energy

Albania is one of only two countries in the world (along with Paraguay) whose entire electricity production is dependent on hydroelectric power. In 2021 electricity consumed was 6,51 billion kWh with 5.31 billion kWh produced, the rest imported.

In December 2023 work began on a new 400kV interconnecter between Albania and North Macedonia to improve the integration of Albania into the regional power system.

Hydroelectric power stations include the Fierza, Koman, and Vau i Dejës plants, as well as the planned Skavica dam, on the Drin river and Banjë and Moglicë plants on the Devoll river. The latter two were planned to increase electricity production in Albania by almost 17%.

In December 2023 a 140 MW solar park, covering 200 hectares of land at Karavasta, operated by Voltalia SA, began operations.

An auction in 2023 awarded 222.48 MW of onshore wind.

The Trans Adriatic Pipeline became opertional in 2020. Its route through Albania is approximately 215 kilometers onshore and 37 km offshore in the Albanian section of the Adriatic Sea. It starts at Qendër Bilisht in the Korça region at the Albanian border with Greece, and arrives at the Adriatic coast 17 km north-west of Fier, 400 meters inland from the shoreline. A compressor station is near Fier, and an additional compressor is planned near Bilisht should the capacity be expanded to 20 billion cubic meters (bcm). Eight block valve stations and one landfall station were built along its route, as well as approximately 51 km of new access roads. There were also 42 bridges refurbished and three new bridges built. The construction of a US$1.2 billion AMBO pipeline was planned to begin in 2007 to ship crude oil between the port of Burgas in Bulgaria and the port of Vlora in Albania, but this project did not advance.

Albania has no nuclear power plants. In 2007 the government discussed constructing a nuclear power plant at Durrës. In addition to meeting the domestic energy demands, the plan foresaw electricity export to neighbouring Balkan countries and Italy via an underwater cable, which would link the Italian and Albanian electricity networks. In April 2009, Albania and Croatia announced a plan to jointly construct a 1,500 MWe nuclear power plant on the shores of Lake Skadar (Lake Shkodër), near Albania's border with Montenegro. As of 2016, Albania has no plans to build any nuclear power plants in the foreseeable future.

Oil
Albania has the second largest oil deposits in the Balkan peninsula and the largest onshore oil reserves in Europe. Its crude output amounted to more than 1.2 million tonnes in 2013, including 1.06 million by Canada's Bankers Petroleum, 87,063 tonnes from Canada's Stream Oil, and 37,406 tonnes by Albpetrol on its own. Three foreign firms produced the rest. Oil exploitation in Albania began in 1928, in Kuçova Oil field and was continuously increasing and one year later in Patos, in sandstone reservoirs. Oil production in Albania was increasing continuously. During the periods 1929–1944 and 1945–1963 the total production was only from the sandstone reservoirs, while after 1963, it was from the carbonate reservoirs. Up to 1963, the sandstones produced 400,974,649 tons of oil.

Albanian oil and gas represents the most promising albeit strictly regulated sectors of the economy. It has attracted foreign investors since the early 1990s marking the beginning of reforms that transformed the public exclusive rights, control, and responsibilities with regard to exploration and exploitation, to the private sector. Oil and gas reserves still remain the property of the Albanian State which enters into agreements and grants rights with regard to evaluation, exploration, production, refining/processing, and transport of the product. In March 2016, affiliates of China's Geo-Jade Petroleum purchased the drilling rights (from a Canadian company) for exploiting the oil fields of Patos-Marinze and Kucova. They paid €384.6 million, presumably indicating an interest in accelerating the process.

Macroeconomic indicators
GDP (PPP): $40.822 billion (2021)

GDP per capita (PPP): $19,368 (2019)

country comparison to the world: 95

GDP – real growth rate: 8.52% (2021)

country comparison to the world: 34

Inflation: 2.04% (2021)

country comparison to the world: 155

Unemployment: 11.82 (2021)

country comparison to the world: 57

Agriculture
Products: milk, maize, tomatoes, potatoes, watermelons, wheat, grapes, cucumbers, onions, apples

Foreign trade
Top export destinations by dollar (2014): Italy ($10.15 billion), Spain ($1680 million), China ($1300 million), Turkey ($920.8 million) and India ($880.5 million).

Top import items 2014: Refined Petroleum ($547 million), Cars ($198 million), Packaged Medicaments ($129 million), Tanned Equine and Bovine Hides ($97.4 million) and Footwear Parts ($86.2 million).

Top import origins by dollar (2014): Italy ($100.38 billion), Greece ($41300 million), Turkey ($31500 million), China ($27800 million) and Germany ($23500 million).

Import partners: Italy 28%, Greece 12%, China 11%, Turkey 9%, Germany 5% (2019)

Remittances: $600 million (2014 est.)

Electricity – production by source:
 * hydro:  99.4% (2021)

Natural gas

 * production: 42.05 million m3 (2019 est.)

 * consumption: 42.05 million m3 (2019 est.)

 * exports: 0 cu m (2007 est.)
 * imports: 0 cu m (2007 est.)
 * proven reserves: 5.692 billion m3 (2012 est)

Exchange rates

 * Lekë per US dollar: 103.51 (2020), 125.4 (2017), 79.546 (2008), 92.668 (2007), 98.384 (2006), 102.649 (2005), 102.78 (2004), 121.863 (2003), 140.155 (2002), 143.485 (2001), 143.709 (2000), 137.691 (1999)

title: Economy of Albania


text:
Harry Turtledove

Harry Norman Turtledove (born June 14, 1949) is an American author who is best known for his work in the genres of alternate history, historical fiction, fantasy, science fiction, and mystery fiction. He is a student of history and completed his PhD in Byzantine history. His dissertation was on the period 565–582. He lives in Southern California.

In addition to his birth name, Turtledove writes under a number of pen names: Eric Iverson, H. N. Turteltaub, Dan Chernenko, and Mark Gordian. He began publishing novels in the realm of fantasy starting in 1979 and continues to write in the 2020s.

Early life
Turtledove was born in Los Angeles, California, on June 14, 1949, and grew up in Gardena, California. His paternal grandparents, who were Romanian Jews, had first emigrated to Winnipeg, Manitoba, before they moved to California in the United States. He was educated in local public schools during his early life.

After dropping out during his freshman year at Caltech, Turtledove attended UCLA, where he completed his undergraduate degree and received a PhD in Byzantine history in 1977. His dissertation was The Immediate Successors of Justinian: A Study of the Persian Problem and of Continuity and Change in Internal Secular Affairs in the Later Roman Empire During the Reigns of Justin II and Tiberius II Constantine (AD 565–582).

Career
Turtledove published his first two novels, Wereblood and Werenight, in 1979 under the pseudonym "Eric G. Iverson". He later explained that his editor at Belmont Tower did not think that people would believe the author's real name was "Turtledove" and came up with something more Nordic. He continued to use "Iverson" until 1985. Another early pseudonym was "Mark Gordian".

That year, he published Herbig-Haro and And So to Bed under his real name. In 1998, he began publishing historical novels under the pseudonym "H. N. Turteltaub" (Turteltaube means turtle dove in German). He published three books as "Dan Chernenko" (the Scepter of Mercy series).

He has written several works in collaboration, including The Two Georges with Richard Dreyfuss, "Death in Vesunna" with his first wife, Betty Turtledove (pen name: Elaine O'Byrne); Household Gods with Judith Tarr; and others with Susan Shwartz, S. M. Stirling, and Kevin R. Sandes.

Turtledove won the Homer Award for Short Story in 1990 for "Designated Hitter", the John Esten Cooke Award for Southern Fiction in 1993 for The Guns of the South, and the Hugo Award for Novella in 1994 for Down in the Bottomlands. Must and Shall was nominated for the 1996 Hugo Award and Nebula Award for Best Novelette and received an honorable mention for the 1995 Sidewise Award for Alternate History. The Two Georges also received an honorable mention for the 1995 Sidewise Award for Alternate History.

His Worldwar series received a Sidewise Award for Alternate History Honorable Mention in 1996. In 1998, his novel How Few Remain won the Sidewise Award for Alternate History. He won his second Sidewise Award in 2003 for his novel Ruled Britannia. He won his third Sidewise Award for his short story "Zigeuner” and his fourth for his short story "Christmas Truce".

Turtledove won the Prometheus Award for Best Novel in 1998 for The Gladiator.:

On August 1, 1998, Turtledove was named honorary Kentucky Colonel as guest of honor at Rivercon XXIII in Louisville, Kentucky. His The Gladiator was the cowinner of the 2008 Prometheus Award.

Turtledove served as the toastmaster for Chicon 2000, the 58th World Science Fiction Convention.

Publishers Weekly dubbed Turtledove "The Master of Alternate History". Within the genre, he is known for creating original alternate history scenarios, such as survival of the Byzantine Empire or an alien invasion during the middle of the Second World War. In addition, he has been credited with giving original treatment to alternate themes that had been dealt with by many others, such as the victory of the South in the American Civil War or the victory of Nazi Germany during the Second World War. His novels have been credited with bringing alternate history into the mainstream.

title: Harry Turtledove


text:
Sidewise Award for Alternate History

The Sidewise Awards for Alternate History were established in 1995 to recognize the best alternate history stories and novels of the year.

Overview
The awards take their name from the 1934 short story "Sidewise in Time" by Murray Leinster, in which a strange storm causes portions of Earth to swap places with their analogs from other timelines.

The awards were created by Steven H Silver, Evelyn C. Leeper, and Robert B. Schmunk. Over the years, the number of judges has fluctuated between three and eight and have included judges in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and South Africa.

Two awards are normally presented each year, usually at WorldCon or at NASFiC. The Short-Form award is presented to a work under 60,000 words in length. The Long-Form award is presented to a work or works longer than 60,000 words, which may include a single novel or a multi-volume series. The judges have four times also recognized an individual with a Special Achievement Award in recognition for works published prior to the award's inception or for other contributions to the genre.

Long Form

 * 1995 – Paul J. McAuley, Pasquale's Angel
 * 1996 – Stephen Baxter, Voyage
 * 1997 – Harry Turtledove, How Few Remain
 * 1998 – Stephen Fry, Making History
 * 1999 – Brendan DuBois, Resurrection Day
 * 2000 – Mary Gentle, Ash: A Secret History
 * 2001 – J. N. Stroyar, The Children's War
 * 2002 – (tie): Martin J. Gidron (name since changed to Martin Berman-Gorvine), The Severed Wing and Harry Turtledove, Ruled Britannia
 * 2003 – Murray Davies, Collaborator
 * 2004 – Philip Roth, The Plot Against America
 * 2005 – Ian R. MacLeod, The Summer Isles
 * 2006 – Charles Stross, The Family Trade, The Hidden Family, and The Clan Corporate
 * 2007 – Michael Chabon, The Yiddish Policemen's Union
 * 2008 – Chris Roberson, The Dragon's Nine Sons
 * 2009 – Robert Conroy, 1942
 * 2010 – Eric G. Swedin, When Angels Wept: A What-If History of the Cuban Missile Crisis
 * 2011 – Ian R. MacLeod, Wake Up and Dream
 * 2012 – C. J. Sansom, Dominion
 * 2013 – (tie) D. J. Taylor, The Windsor Faction and Bryce Zabel, Surrounded by Enemies: What If Kennedy Survived Dallas?
 * 2014 – Kristine Kathryn Rusch, The Enemy Within
 * 2015 – Julie Mayhew, The Big Lie
 * 2016 – Ben H. Winters, Underground Airlines
 * 2017 – Bryce Zabel, Once There Was a Way
 * 2018 – Mary Robinette Kowal, The Calculating Stars
 * 2019 – Annalee Newitz, The Future of Another Timeline
 * 2020 – Adrian Tchaikovsky, The Doors of Eden
 * 2021 – Laurent Binet, Civilizations (translated by Sam Taylor)
 * 2022 – B.L. Blanchard, The Peacekeeper

Short Form

 * 1995 – Stephen Baxter, "Brigantia's Angels"
 * 1996 – Walter Jon Williams, "Foreign Devils" (in War of the Worlds: Global Dispatches)
 * 1997 – William Sanders, "The Undiscovered"
 * 1998 – Ian R. MacLeod, The Summer Isles
 * 1999 – Alain Bergeron, "The Eighth Register" (translated by Howard Scott)
 * 2000 – Ted Chiang, "Seventy-Two Letters"
 * 2001 – Ken MacLeod, The Human Front
 * 2002 – William Sanders, "Empire"
 * 2003 – Chris Roberson, "O One"
 * 2004 – Warren Ellis, The Ministry of Space
 * 2005 – Lois Tilton, "Pericles the Tyrant"
 * 2006 – Gardner Dozois, "Counterfactual"
 * 2007 – (tie): Michael Flynn, "Quaestiones Super Caelo Et Mundo" & Kristine Kathryn Rusch, "Recovering Apollo 8"
 * 2008 – Mary Rosenblum, "Sacrifice"
 * 2009 – Alastair Reynolds, "The Fixation"
 * 2010 – Alan Smale, "A Clash of Eagles"
 * 2011 – Lisa Goldstein, "Paradise Is a Walled Garden"
 * 2012 – Rick Wilber, "Something Real"'
 * 2013 – Vylar Kaftan, "The Weight of the Sunrise"
 * 2014 – Ken Liu, "The Long Haul: From the Annals of Transportation, The Pacific Monthly, May 2009"
 * 2015 – Bill Crider, "It Doesn't Matter Anymore"
 * 2016 – (tie): Daniel M. Bensen, "Treasure Fleet" & Adam Rovner, "What If the Jewish State Had Been Established in East Africa"
 * 2017 – Harry Turtledove, "Zigeuner"
 * 2018 – Oscar (Xiu) Ramirez and Emmanuel Valtierra, Codex Valtierra
 * 2019 – Harry Turtledove, "Christmas Truce"
 * 2020 – Matthew Kresal, "Moonshot"
 * 2021 – Alan Smale, "Gunpowder Treason"
 * 2022 – (tie): Eric Choi, "A Sky and a Heaven" & Wole Talabi "A Dream of Electric Mothers"

Special Achievement

 * 1995 – L. Sprague de Camp, lifetime achievement
 * 1997 – Robert Sobel, For Want of a Nail
 * 1999 – Randall Garrett, the Lord Darcy series
 * 2018 – Eric Flint, for support of writers in the alternative history genre, most notably via the 1632 series

title: Sidewise Award for Alternate History


text:
Murray Leinster

Murray Leinster was a pen name of William Fitzgerald Jenkins (June 16, 1896 – June 8, 1975), an American writer of genre fiction, particularly of science fiction. He wrote and published more than 1,500 short stories and articles, 14 movie scripts, and hundreds of radio scripts and television plays.

Writing career
Leinster was born in Norfolk, Virginia, the son of George B. Jenkins and Mary L. Jenkins. His father was an accountant. Although both parents were born in Virginia, the family lived in Manhattan in 1910, according to the 1910 Federal Census. A high school dropout, he nevertheless began a career as a freelance writer before World War I. He was two months short of his 20th birthday when his first story, "The Foreigner", appeared in the May 1916 issue of H. L. Mencken's literary magazine The Smart Set. Over the next three years, Leinster published ten more stories in the magazine; in a September 2022 interview, Leinster's daughter stated that Mencken recommended the use of a pseudonym for non-Smart Set content.

During World War I, Leinster served with the Committee of Public Information and the United States Army (1917–1918). During and after the war, his work began appearing in pulp magazines like Argosy, Snappy Stories, and Breezy Stories. He continued to be published regularly in Argosy into the 1950s.

When the pulp magazines began to diversify into particular genres in the 1920s, Leinster followed suit, selling jungle stories to Danger Trails, westerns to West and Cowboy Stories, detective stories to Black Mask and Mystery Stories, horror stories to Weird Tales, and even romance stories to Love Story Magazine under the pen name Louisa Carter Lee.

Leinster's first science fiction story, "The Runaway Skyscraper", appeared in the February 22, 1919 issue of Argosy, and was reprinted in the June 1926 issue of Hugo Gernsback's first science fiction magazine, Amazing Stories. In the 1930s, he published several science fiction stories and serials in Amazing and Astounding Stories (the first issue of Astounding included his story "Tanks"). His work continued to appear frequently in other genre pulps such as Detective Fiction Weekly and Smashing Western, as well as Collier's Weekly beginning in 1936 and Esquire starting in 1939.

Leinster was an early writer of parallel universe stories. Four years before Jack Williamson's The Legion of Time came out, Leinster published his "Sidewise in Time" in the June 1934 issue of Astounding. Leinster's vision of extraordinary oscillations in time ('sidewise in time') had a long-term impact on other authors, for example Isaac Asimov's "Living Space", "The Red Queen's Race", and The End of Eternity.

Leinster's 1945 novella "First Contact" is also credited as one of the first (if not the first) instances of a universal translator in science fiction. In 2000, Leinster's heirs sued Paramount Pictures over the film Star Trek: First Contact, claiming that it infringed their trademark in the term. However, the suit was dismissed.

Leinster was one of the few science fiction writers from the 1930s to survive in the John W. Campbell era of higher writing standards, publishing over three dozen stories in Astounding and Analog under Campbell's editorship. The last story by Leinster in Analog was "Quarantine World" in the November 1966 issue, thirty-six years after his appearance in the premier January 1930 issue.

Murray Leinster's 1946 short story "A Logic Named Joe" contains one of the first descriptions of a computer (called a "logic") in fiction. In the story, Leinster was decades ahead of his time in imagining the Internet. He envisioned logics in every home, linked through a distributed system of servers (called "tanks"), to provide communications, entertainment, data access, and commerce; one character says that "logics are civilization."

During World War II, he served in the United States Office of War Information. After the war, when both his name and the pulps had achieved a wider acceptance, he would use either "William Fitzgerald", "Fitzgerald Jenkins" or "Will F. Jenkins" as names on stories when "Leinster" had already sold a piece to a particular issue.

Leinster was so prolific a writer that Groff Conklin, when reviewing Operation: Outer Space in March 1955, noted that it was his fourth novel of 1954 and that another would be reviewed in the next month. Leinster continued publishing in the 1950s and 1960s, appearing in Galaxy Magazine and The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, as well as The Saturday Evening Post. He won a Hugo Award for his 1956 story "Exploration Team".

Leinster's career also included tie-in fiction based on several science fiction TV series: an episodic 1960 novel, Men into Space, was derived from the series' basic concepts, but Leinster had little knowledge of the series' actual content, and none of the book episodes bear any relationship to the filmed episodes. Men Into Space was followed, seven years later, by two original novels based on The Time Tunnel (1967), and three based on Land of the Giants (1968–69).

Other endeavors
Leinster was also an inventor under his real name of William F. Jenkins, best known for the front projection process used in special effects. He appeared in September 1953 on an episode of the educational series American Inventory, in which he discussed the possibility of space travel.

Pseudonym
"Murray" is a reference to Leinster's mother's maiden name ("Murry"), while "Leinster" alluded to the connection between his middle name ("Fitzgerald") and the Dukes of Leinster.

Personal life
In 1921, he married Mary Mandola. They had four daughters.

Honors and awards

 * Liberty Award (1937) for "A Very Nice Family", first published in the January 2, 1937 issue of Liberty.
 * Hugo Award (1956) for Best Novelette for "Exploration Team".
 * Retro-Hugo (1996) for Best Novelette for "First Contact".
 * Guest of Honor at Discon I, the 21st Worldcon in 1963.
 * The Sidewise Award for Alternate History (established in 1995) is named after Leinster's story "Sidewise in Time."
 * In the 1979 American film Starcrash, the spaceship in the opening sequence is called the Murray Leinster.
 * In Virginia, June 27, 2009, was designated Will F. Jenkins Day in honor of his achievements in science fiction.

Far East
Sword of Kings, John Long, 1933.

Mystery

 * Scalps, Brewer & Warren, 1930. (also known as Wings of Chance)
 * Murder Madness, Brewer & Warren, 1931; first serialized in Astounding, May - August 1930.
 * Murder Will Out (as Will F. Jenkins), John Hamilton, 1932.
 * No Clues (as Will F. Jenkins), Wright & Brown, 1935.
 * Murder in the Family (as Will F. Jenkins), John Hamilton, 1935; first appeared in Complete Detective Novels, April 1934.
 * The Man Who Feared (as Will F. Jenkins), Gateway, 1942; first serialized in Detective Fiction Weekly, August 9–30, 1930.

Romance
as Louisa Carter Lee
 * Her Desert Lover: A Love Story, Chelsea House 1925.
 * Her Other Husband: A Love Story, Chelsea House 1929.
 * Love and Better: A Love Story, Chelsea House 1931.

Science fiction

 * The Murder of the U.S.A. (as Will F. Jenkins), Crown, 1946.
 * Fight for Life, Crestwood, 1949.
 * The Last Spaceship (novel), Frederick Fell, Inc., 1950
 * Space Platform, Shasta Publishers, February 1953.
 * Space Tug, Shasta Publishers, 1953
 * The Black Galaxy, Galaxy, 1954; first appeared in Startling, March 1949.
 * Gateway to Elsewhere, Ace, 1954; first appeared as "Journey to Barkut" in Startling, January 1952.
 * The Brain-Stealers, Ace, 1954; first appeared as "The Man in the Iron Cap" in Startling, November 1947.
 * Operation: Outer Space, Fantasy Press, 1954.
 * The Forgotten Planet, Ace, 1954.
 * The Other Side of Here, Ace, 1955; first serialized as The Incredible Invasion in Astounding, August - December 1936.
 * The Planet Explorer, Gnome Press; HUGO Award for best novel of the year, 1957.
 * City on the Moon, Avalon, 1957.
 * War with the Gizmos, Fawcett, 1958.
 * Four from Planet 5, Fawcett, 1959; first appeared as "Long Ago, Far Away" in Amazing, September 1959.
 * The Monster from Earth's End, Fawcett, January 1959.
 * The Mutant Weapon, Ace, 1959; first appeared as "Med Service" in Astounding, August 1957.
 * The Pirates of Zan, Ace, 1959; first serialized as The Pirates of Ersatz in Astounding, February - April 1959.
 * Men Into Space, Berkley, 1960; an episodic but original novel, based on the eponymous television series.
 * The Wailing Asteroid, Avon, December 1960.
 * Creatures of the Abyss, Berkley, 1961 (also known as The Listeners).
 * This World is Taboo, Ace, 1961; first appeared as "Pariah Planet" in Amazing, July 1961.
 * Operation Terror, Berkley, 1962.
 * Talents Incorporated, Avon, 1962.
 * The Other Side of Nowhere, Berkley, May 1964; first serialized as Spaceman in Analog, March - April 1964.
 * Time Tunnel, Pyramid, July 1964.
 * The Duplicators, Ace, 1964; first appeared as "Lord of the Uffts" in Worlds of Tomorrow, February 1964.
 * The Greks Bring Gifts, Macfadden, 1964.
 * Invaders of Space, Berkley, December 1964.
 * Tunnel Through Time, Westminster Press, 1966.
 * Space Captain, Ace, 1966; first serialized as Killer Ship in Amazing, October - December.
 * Checkpoint Lambda, Berkley, 1966; first serialized as Stopover in Space in Amazing, June - August 1966.
 * Miners in the Sky, Avon, April 1967.
 * Space Gypsies, Avon, June 1967.
 * The Time Tunnel, Pyramid, January 1967; original promotional novel based on the 1966–1967 U.S television series The Time Tunnel, a very different story than Leinster's 1964 novel of the same name.
 * The Time Tunnel: Timeslip!, Pyramid, July 1967; original novel based on the television series.
 * Land of the Giants, Pyramid, September 1968; original novel based on television series, reinventing the origin story.
 * Land of the Giants 2: The Hot Spot, Pyramid, April 1969; original novel based on the television series.
 * Land of the Giants 3: Unknown Danger, Pyramid, September 1969; original novel based on the television series.
 * Politics, in Amazing Stories, No. 6, June 1932

Western

 * The Gamblin' Kid (as Will F. Jenkins), A. L. Burt, 1933; first appeared in Western Action Novels, March 1937.
 * Mexican Trail (as Will F. Jenkins), A. L. Burt, 1933.
 * Outlaw Sheriff (as Will F. Jenkins), King, 1934.
 * Fighting Horse Valley (as Will F. Jenkins), King, 1934.
 * Kid Deputy (as Will F. Jenkins), Alfred H. King, 1935; first serialized in Triple-X Western, February - April 1928.
 * Black Sheep (as Will F. Jenkins), Julian Messer, 1936.
 * Guns for Achin (as Will F. Jenkins), Wright & Brown, 1936; first appeared in Smashing Novels, November 1936.
 * Wanted Dead or Alive!, Quarter Books, 1949; first serialized in Triple-X Magazine, February - May 1929.
 * Outlaw Guns, Star Books, 1950.
 * Son of the Flying 'Y' (as Will F. Jenkins), Fawcett, 1951.
 * Cattle Rustlers (as Will F. Jenkins), Ward Lock, 1952.
 * Dallas (as Will F. Jenkins), Fawcett, 1950. Novelization of screenplay by John Twist.

Story collections

 * The Last Space Ship, Fell, 1949.
 * "The Boomerang Circuit", Thrilling Wonder, June 1947
 * "The Disciplinary Circuit", Thrilling Wonder, Winter 1946
 * "The Manless Worlds", Thrilling Wonder, February 1947
 * Sidewise in Time, Shasta Publishers, 1950.
 * "Sidewise in Time", Astounding, June 1934
 * "Proxima Centauri", Astounding, March 1935
 * "A Logic Named Joe" (as Will F. Jenkins), Astounding, March 1946
 * "De Profundis", Thrilling Wonder, Winter 1945
 * "The Fourth-Dimensional Demonstrator", Astounding, December 1935
 * "Power", Astounding, September 1945
 * The Forgotten Planet, Gnome Press, 1954.
 * "The Mad Planet", Argosy, June 12, 1920
 * "The Red Dust", Argosy All-Story Weekly, April 2, 1921
 * "Nightmare Planet", Science Fiction Plus, June 12, 1952
 * Colonial Survey, Gnome Press, 1957 (also known as The Planet Explorer).
 * "Solar Constant", Astounding, July 1956 as "Critical Difference"
 * "Sand Doom", Astounding, December 1955
 * "Combat Team", Astounding, March 1956 as "Exploration Team"
 * "The Swamp Was Upside Down", Astounding, September 1956
 * Out of This World, Avalon, 1958.
 * "The Deadly Dust" (as William Fitzgerald), Thrilling Wonder, August 1947
 * "The Gregory Circle" (as William Fitzgerald), Thrilling Wonder, April 1947
 * "The Nameless Something" (as William Fitzgerald), Thrilling Wonder, June 1947
 * Monsters and Such, Avon, 1959.
 * "The Castaway", Argosy, September 1946
 * "De Profundis", Thrilling Wonder, Winter 1945
 * "If You Was a Moklin", Galaxy, September 1951
 * "The Lonely Planet", Thrilling Wonder, December 1949
 * "Nobody Saw the Ship", Future, May–June 1950
 * "Proxima Centauri", Astounding, March 1935
 * "The Trans-Human", Science Fiction Plus, December 1953
 * Twists in Time, Avon, 1960.
 * "Rogue Star", first publication
 * "Dear Charles", Fantastic, May 1953
 * "Dead City", Thrilling Wonder, Summer 1946 as "Malignant Marauder"
 * "Sam, This Is You", Galaxy, May 1955
 * "The Other Now", Galaxy, March 1951
 * "The Fourth-Dimensional Demonstrator", Astounding, December 1935
 * "The End", Thrilling Wonder, December 1946
 * The Aliens, Berkley, March 1960.
 * "The Aliens", Astounding, August 1959
 * "Fugitive From Space", Amazing, May 1954
 * "Anthopological Note", Fantasy and Science Fiction, April 1957
 * "The Skit-Tree Planet", Thrilling Wonder, April 1947 as "Skit-Tree Planet"
 * "Thing from the Sky", first publication
 * Doctor to the Stars, Pyramid, March 1964.
 * "The Grandfathers' War", Astounding, October 1957
 * "Med Ship Man", Galaxy, October 1963
 * "Tallien Three", Analog, August 1963 as "The Hate Disease"
 * S.O.S. from Three Worlds, Ace, 1966.
 * "Plague on Kryder II", Analog, December 1964
 * "Ribbon in the Sky", Astounding, June 1957
 * "Quarantine World", Analog, November 1966
 * Get Off My World!, Belmont, April 1966.
 * "Second Landing", Thrilling Wonder, Winter 1954
 * "White Spot", Startling, Summer 1955
 * "Planet of Sand", Famous Fantastic Mysteries, February 1948
 * Explorers of Space, edited by Robert Silverberg, Thomas Nelson, Inc., 1975
 * "Exploration Team", 1956
 * The Best of Murray Leinster, edited by Brian Davis, Corgi, 1976.
 * "Time to Die", Astounding, January 1947
 * "The Ethical Equations", Astounding, June 1945
 * "Symbiosis", Collier's, June 14, 1947
 * "Interference", Astounding, October 1945
 * "De Profundis", Thrilling Wonder, Winter 1945
 * "Pipeline to Pluto", Astounding, August 1945
 * "Sam, This Is You", Galaxy, May 1955
 * "The Devil of East Lupton", Thrilling Wonder, August 1948 as "The Devil of East Lupton, Vermont"
 * "Scrimshaw", Astounding, September 1955
 * "If You Was a Moklin", Galaxy, September 1951
 * The Best of Murray Leinster, edited by John J. Pierce, Del Rey, April 1978.
 * "Sidewise in Time", Astounding, June 1934
 * "Proxima Centauri", Astounding, March 1935
 * "The Fourth-Dimensional Demonstrator", Astounding, December 1935
 * "First Contact", Astounding, May 1945
 * "The Ethical Equations", Astounding, June 1945
 * "Pipeline to Pluto", Astounding, August 1945
 * "The Power", Astounding, September 1945
 * "A Logic Named Joe" (as Will F. Jenkins), Astounding, March 1946
 * "Symbiosis", Collier's, June 14, 1947
 * "The Strange Case of John Kingman", Astounding, May 1948
 * "The Lonely Planet", Thrilling Wonder, December 1949
 * "Keyhole", Thrilling Wonder, December 1951
 * "Critical Difference", Astounding, July 1956 (also known as "Solar Constant")
 * The Med Series, Ace, May 1983.
 * "The Mutant Weapon", Astounding, August 1957 as "Med Service"
 * "Plague on Kryder II", Analog, December 1964
 * "Ribbon in the Sky", Astounding, June 1957
 * "Quarantine World", Analog, November 1966
 * "This World is Taboo", Amazing, July 1961 as "Pariah Planet"
 * First Contacts: The Essential Murray Leinster, edited by Joe Rico, NESFA, 1998.
 * "A Logic Named Joe" (as Will F. Jenkins), Astounding, March 1946
 * "If You Was a Moklin", Galaxy, September 1951
 * "The Ethical Equations", Astounding, June 1945
 * "Keyhole", Thrilling Wonder, December 1951
 * "Doomsday Deferred", The Saturday Evening Post, September 24, 1949
 * "First Contact", Astounding, May 1945
 * "Nobody Saw the Ship", Future, May–June 1950
 * "Pipeline to Pluto", Astounding, August 1945
 * "The Lonely Planet", Thrilling Wonder, December 1949
 * "De Profundis", Thrilling Wonder, Winter 1945
 * "The Power", Astounding, September 1945
 * "The Castaway", Argosy, September 1946
 * "The Strange Case of John Kingman", Astounding, May 1948
 * "Proxima Centauri", Astounding, March 1935
 * "The Fourth-Dimensional Demonstrator", Astounding, December 1935
 * "Sam, This Is You", Galaxy, May 1955
 * "Sidewise in Time", Astounding, June 1934
 * "Scrimshaw", Astounding, September 1955
 * "Symbiosis", Collier's, June 14, 1947
 * "Cure for Ylith", Startling Stories, November 1949
 * "Plague on Kryder II", Analog, December 1964
 * "Exploration Team", Astounding, March 1956 (also known as "Combat Team")
 * "The Great Catastrophe", first publication
 * "To All Fat Policemen", first publication
 * Med Ship, edited by Eric Flint and Guy Gordon, Baen, June 2002.
 * "Med Ship Man", Galaxy, October 1963
 * "Plague on Kryder II", Analog, December 1964
 * "The Mutant Weapon", Astounding, August 1957 as "Med Service"
 * "Ribbon in the Sky", Astounding, June 1957
 * "Tallien Three", Analog, August 1963 as "The Hate Disease"
 * "Quarantine World", Analog, November 1966
 * "The Grandfathers' War", Astounding, October 1957
 * "Pariah Planet", Amazing, July 1961 (also known as This World is Taboo)
 * Planets of Adventure, edited by Eric Flint and Guy Gordon, Baen, October 2003.
 * The Forgotten Planet
 * "The Mad Planet", Argosy, June 12, 1920
 * "The Red Dust", Argosy, April 2, 1921
 * "Nightmare Planet", Argosy, June 12, 1952
 * The Planet Explorer (also known as Colonial Survey)
 * "Solar Constant", Astounding, July 1956 as "Critical Difference"
 * "Sand Doom", Astounding, December 1955
 * "Combat Team", Astounding, March 1956 as "Exploration Team"
 * "The Swamp Was Upside Down", Astounding, September 1956
 * "Anthopological Note", Fantasy and Science Fiction, April 1957
 * "Scrimshaw", Astounding, September 1955
 * "Assignment on Pasik", Thrilling Wonder, February 1949
 * "Regulations", Thrilling Wonder, August 1948
 * "The Skit-Tree Planet", Thrilling Wonder, April 1947 as "Skit-Tree Planet"
 * A Logic Named Joe, edited by Eric Flint and Guy Gordon, Baen, June 2005.
 * "A Logic Named Joe" (as Will F. Jenkins), Astounding, March 1946
 * "Dear Charles", Fantastic, May 1953
 * Gateway to Elsewhere, Ace, 1954; first appeared as "Journey to Barkut" in Startling, January 1952.
 * The Duplicators, Ace, 1964; first appeared as "Lord of the Uffts" in Worlds of Tomorrow, February 1964.
 * "The Fourth-Dimensional Demonstrator", Astounding, December 1935
 * The Pirates of Zan, Ace, 1959; first serialized as The Pirates of Ersatz in Astounding, February - April 1959.
 * The Runaway Skyscraper and Other Tales from the Pulps, Wildside Press, August 2007.
 * "The Runaway Skyscraper", Argosy, February 22, 1919
 * "The Gallery Gods", Argosy, August 21, 1920
 * "The Street of Magnificent Dreams", Argosy, August 5, 1922
 * "Nerve", Argosy, June 4, 1921
 * "Stories of the Hungry Country: The Case of the Dona Clotilde"
 * "Morale", Astounding, December 1931
 * "Grooves", Argosy, October 12, 1918
 * "Footprints in the Snow", All Story Weekly, June 7, 1919

Other short stories

 * "The Invaders", Amazing Stories, April-May 1953
 * "Doctor", Galaxy, February 1961

Audio

 * A Logic Named Joe, Dimension X, NBC radio, 1950
 * First Contact, X Minus One, NBC radio, 1955
 * First Contact, X Minus One, NBC radio, 1955

title: Murray Leinster