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World

The world is the totality of entities, the whole of reality, or everything that exists. The nature of the world has been conceptualized differently in different fields. Some conceptions see the world as unique while others talk of a "plurality of worlds". Some treat the world as one simple object while others analyze the world as a complex made up of parts.

In scientific cosmology, the world or universe is commonly defined as "[t]he totality of all space and time; all that is, has been, and will be". Theories of modality talk of possible worlds as complete and consistent ways how things could have been. Phenomenology, starting from the horizon of co-given objects present in the periphery of every experience, defines the world as the biggest horizon or the "horizon of all horizons". In philosophy of mind, the world is contrasted with the mind as that which is represented by the mind.

Theology conceptualizes the world in relation to God, for example, as God's creation, as identical to God or as the two being interdependent. In religions, there is a tendency to downgrade the material or sensory world in favor of a spiritual world to be sought through religious practice. A comprehensive representation of the world and our place in it, as is found in religions, is known as a worldview. Cosmogony is the field that studies the origin or creation of the world while eschatology refers to the science or doctrine of the last things or of the end of the world.

In various contexts, the term "world" takes a more restricted meaning associated, for example, with the Earth and all life on it, with humanity as a whole or with an international or intercontinental scope. In this sense, world history refers to the history of humanity as a whole and world politics is the discipline of political science studying issues that transcend nations and continents. Other examples include terms such as "world religion", "world language", "world government", "world war", "world population", "world economy", or "world championship".

Etymology
The English word world comes from the Old English weorold. The Old English is a reflex of the Common Germanic *weraldiz, a compound of weraz 'man' and aldiz 'age', thus literally meaning roughly 'age of man'; this word led to Old Frisian warld, Old Saxon werold, Old Dutch werolt, Old High German weralt, and Old Norse verǫld.

The corresponding word in Latin is mundus, literally 'clean, elegant', itself a loan translation of Greek cosmos 'orderly arrangement'. While the Germanic word thus reflects a mythological notion of a "domain of Man" (compare Midgard), presumably as opposed to the divine sphere on the one hand and the chthonic sphere of the underworld on the other, the Greco-Latin term expresses a notion of creation as an act of establishing order out of chaos.

Conceptions
Different fields often work with quite different conceptions of the essential features associated with the term "world". Some conceptions see the world as unique: there can be no more than one world. Others talk of a "plurality of worlds". Some see worlds as complex things composed of many substances as their parts while others hold that worlds are simple in the sense that there is only one substance: the world as a whole. Some characterize worlds in terms of objective spacetime while others define them relative to the horizon present in each experience. These different characterizations are not always exclusive: it may be possible to combine some without leading to a contradiction. Most of them agree that worlds are unified totalities.

Monism and pluralism
Monism is a thesis about oneness: that only one thing exists in a certain sense. The denial of monism is pluralism, the thesis that, in a certain sense, more than one thing exists. There are many forms of monism and pluralism, but in relation to the world as a whole, two are of special interest: existence monism/pluralism and priority monism/pluralism. Existence monism states that the world is the only concrete object there is. This means that all the concrete "objects" we encounter in our daily lives, including apples, cars and ourselves, are not truly objects in a strict sense. Instead, they are just dependent aspects of the world-object. Such a world-object is simple in the sense that it does not have any genuine parts. For this reason, it has also been referred to as "blobject" since it lacks an internal structure like a blob. Priority monism allows that there are other concrete objects besides the world. But it holds that these objects do not have the most fundamental form of existence, that they somehow depend on the existence of the world. The corresponding forms of pluralism state that the world is complex in the sense that it is made up of concrete, independent objects.

Scientific cosmology
Scientific cosmology can be defined as the science of the universe as a whole. In it, the terms "universe" and "cosmos" are usually used as synonyms for the term "world". One common definition of the world/universe found in this field is as "[t]he totality of all space and time; all that is, has been, and will be". Some definitions emphasize that there are two other aspects to the universe besides spacetime: forms of energy or matter, like stars and particles, and laws of nature. World-conceptions in this field differ both concerning their notion of spacetime and of the contents of spacetime. The theory of relativity plays a central role in modern cosmology and its conception of space and time. A difference from its predecessors is that it conceives space and time not as distinct dimensions but as a single four-dimensional manifold called spacetime. This can be seen in special relativity in relation to the Minkowski metric, which includes both spatial and temporal components in its definition of distance. General relativity goes one step further by integrating the concept of mass into the concept of spacetime as its curvature. Quantum cosmology uses a classical notion of spacetime and conceives the whole world as one big wave function expressing the probability of finding particles in a given location.

Theories of modality
The world-concept plays a role in many modern theories of modality, sometimes in the form of possible worlds. A possible world is a complete and consistent way how things could have been. The actual world is a possible world since the way things are is a way things could have been. There are many other ways things could have been besides how they actually are. For example, Hillary Clinton did not win the 2016 US election, but she could have won them. So there is a possible world in which she did. There is a vast number of possible worlds, one corresponding to each such difference, no matter how small or big, as long as no outright contradictions are introduced this way.

Possible worlds are often conceived as abstract objects, for example, in terms of non-obtaining states of affairs or as maximally consistent sets of propositions. On such a view, they can even be seen as belonging to the actual world. Another way to conceive possible worlds, made famous by David Lewis, is as concrete entities. On this conception, there is no important difference between the actual world and possible worlds: both are conceived as concrete, inclusive and spatiotemporally connected. The only difference is that the actual world is the world we live in, while other possible worlds are not inhabited by us but by our counterparts. Everything within a world is spatiotemporally connected to everything else but the different worlds do not share a common spacetime: They are spatiotemporally isolated from each other. This is what makes them separate worlds.

It has been suggested that, besides possible worlds, there are also impossible worlds. Possible worlds are ways things could have been, so impossible worlds are ways things could not have been. Such worlds involve a contradiction, like a world in which Hillary Clinton both won and lost the 2016 US election. Both possible and impossible worlds have in common the idea that they are totalities of their constituents.

Phenomenology
Within phenomenology, worlds are defined in terms of horizons of experiences. When we perceive an object, like a house, we do not just experience this object at the center of our attention but also various other objects surrounding it, given in the periphery. The term "horizon" refers to these co-given objects, which are usually experienced only in a vague, indeterminate manner. The perception of a house involves various horizons, corresponding to the neighborhood, the city, the country, the Earth, etc. In this context, the world is the biggest horizon or the "horizon of all horizons". It is common among phenomenologists to understand the world not just as a spatiotemporal collection of objects but as additionally incorporating various other relations between these objects. These relations include, for example, indication-relations that help us anticipate one object given the appearances of another object and means-end-relations or functional involvements relevant for practical concerns.

Philosophy of mind
In philosophy of mind, the term "world" is commonly used in contrast to the term "mind" as that which is represented by the mind. This is sometimes expressed by stating that there is a gap between mind and world and that this gap needs to be overcome for representation to be successful. One problem in philosophy of mind is to explain how the mind is able to bridge this gap and to enter into genuine mind-world-relations, for example, in the form of perception, knowledge or action. This is necessary for the world to be able to rationally constrain the activity of the mind. According to a realist position, the world is something distinct and independent from the mind. Idealists conceive of the world as partially or fully determined by the mind. Immanuel Kant's transcendental idealism, for example, posits that the spatiotemporal structure of the world is imposed by the mind on reality but lacks independent existence otherwise. A more radical idealist conception of the world can be found in Berkeley's subjective idealism, which holds that the world as a whole, including all everyday objects like tables, cats, trees and ourselves, "consists of nothing but minds and ideas".

Theology
Different theological positions hold different conceptions of the world based on its relation to God. Classical theism states that God is wholly distinct from the world. But the world depends for its existence on God, both because God created the world and because He maintains or conserves it. This is sometimes understood in analogy to how humans create and conserve ideas in their imagination, with the difference being that the divine mind is vastly more powerful. On such a view, God has absolute, ultimate reality in contrast to the lower ontological status ascribed to the world. God's involvement in the world is often understood along the lines of a personal, benevolent God who looks after and guides His creation. Deists agree with theists that God created the world but deny any subsequent, personal involvement in it. Pantheists reject the separation between God and world. Instead, they claim that the two are identical. This means that there is nothing to the world that does not belong to God and that there is nothing to God beyond what is found in the world. Panentheism constitutes a middle ground between theism and pantheism. Against theism, it holds that God and the world are interrelated and depend on each other. Against pantheism, it holds that there is no outright identity between the two.

History of philosophy
In philosophy, the term world has several possible meanings. In some contexts, it refers to everything that makes up reality or the physical universe. In others, it can mean have a specific ontological sense (see world disclosure). While clarifying the concept of world has arguably always been among the basic tasks of Western philosophy, this theme appears to have been raised explicitly only at the start of the twentieth century,

Plato
Plato is well known for his theory of forms, which posits the existence of two different worlds: the sensible world and the intelligible world. The sensible world is the world we live in, filled with changing physical things we can see, touch and interact with. The intelligible world is the world of invisible, eternal, changeless forms like goodness, beauty, unity and sameness. Plato ascribes a lower ontological status to the sensible world, which only imitates the world of forms. This is due to the fact that physical things exist only to the extent that they participate in the forms that characterize them, while the forms themselves have an independent manner of existence. In this sense, the sensible world is a mere replication of the perfect exemplars found in the world of forms: it never lives up to the original. In the allegory of the cave, Plato compares the physical things we are familiar with to mere shadows of the real things. But not knowing the difference, the prisoners in the cave mistake the shadows for the real things.

Wittgenstein
Two definitions that were both put forward in the 1920s, however, suggest the range of available opinion. "The world is everything that is the case", wrote Ludwig Wittgenstein in his influential Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, first published in 1921.

Heidegger
Martin Heidegger, meanwhile, argued that "the surrounding world is different for each of us, and notwithstanding that we move about in a common world".

Eugen Fink
"World" is one of the key terms in Eugen Fink's philosophy. He thinks that there is a misguided tendency in western philosophy to understand the world as one enormously big thing containing all the small everyday things we are familiar with. He sees this view as a form of forgetfulness of the world and tries to oppose it by what he calls the "cosmological difference": the difference between the world and the inner-worldly things it contains. On his view, the world is the totality of the inner-worldly things that transcends them. It is itself groundless but it provides a ground for things. It therefore cannot be identified with a mere container. Instead, the world gives appearance to inner-worldly things, it provides them with a place, a beginning and an end. One difficulty in investigating the world is that we never encounter it since it is not just one more thing that appears to us. This is why Fink uses the notion of play or playing to elucidate the nature of the world. He sees play as a symbol of the world that is both part of it and that represents it. Play usually comes with a form of imaginary play-world involving various things relevant to the play. But just like the play is more than the imaginary realities appearing in it so the world is more than the actual things appearing in it.

Goodman
The concept of worlds plays a central role in Nelson Goodman's late philosophy. He argues that we need to posit different worlds in order to account for the fact that there are different incompatible truths found in reality. Two truths are incompatible if they ascribe incompatible properties to the same thing. This happens, for example, when we assert both that the earth moves and that the earth is at rest. These incompatible truths correspond to two different ways of describing the world: heliocentrism and geocentrism. Goodman terms such descriptions "world versions". He holds a correspondence theory of truth: a world version is true if it corresponds to a world. Incompatible true world versions correspond to different worlds. It is common for theories of modality to posit the existence of a plurality of possible worlds. But Goodman's theory is different since it posits a plurality not of possible but of actual worlds. Such a position is in danger of involving a contradiction: there cannot be a plurality of actual worlds if worlds are defined as maximally inclusive wholes. This danger may be avoided by interpreting Goodman's world-concept not as maximally inclusive wholes in the absolute sense but in relation to its corresponding world-version: a world contains all and only the entities that its world-version describes.

Religion

Mythological cosmologies depict the world as centered on an axis mundi and delimited by a boundary such as a world ocean, a world serpent or similar.

Hinduism
Hinduism constitutes a family of religious-philosophical views. These views present perspectives on the nature and role of the world. Samkhya philosophy, for example, is a metaphysical dualism that understands reality as comprising 2 parts: purusha and prakriti. The term "purusha" stands for the individual conscious self that each of "us" possesses. Prakriti, on the other hand, is the 1 world inhabited by all these selves. Samkhya understands this world as a world of matter governed by the law of cause and effect. The term "matter" is understood in a sense in this tradition including physical and mental aspects. This is reflected in the doctrine of tattvas, according to which prakriti is made up of 23 principles or elements of reality. These principles include physical elements, like water or earth, and mental aspects, like intelligence or sense-impressions. The relation between purusha and prakriti is conceived as 1 of observation: purusha is the conscious self aware of the world of prakriti and does not causally interact with it.

A conception of the world is present in Advaita Vedanta, the monist school among the Vedanta schools. Unlike the realist position defended in Samkhya philosophy, Advaita Vedanta sees the world of multiplicity as an illusion, referred to as Maya. This illusion includes impression of existing as separate experiencing selfs called Jivas. Instead, Advaita Vedanta teaches that on the most fundamental level of reality, referred to as Brahman, there exists no plurality or difference. All there is is 1 all-encompassing self: Atman. Ignorance is seen as the source of this illusion, which results in bondage to the world of mere appearances. Liberation is possible in the course of overcoming this illusion by acquiring the knowledge of Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta.

Christianity
Contemptus mundi is the name given to the belief that the world, in all its vanity, is nothing more than a futile attempt to hide from God by stifling our desire for the good and the holy. This view has been criticised as a "pastoral of fear" by historian Jean Delumeau. Orbis Catholicus is a Latin phrase meaning 'Catholic world', per the expression Urbi et Orbi, and refers to that area of Christendom under papal supremacy.

Islam
In Islam, the term "dunya" is used for the world. Its meaning is derived from the root word "dana", a term for "near". It is associated with the temporal, sensory world and earthly concerns, i.e. with this world in contrast to the spiritual world. Religious teachings warn of a tendency to seek happiness in this world and advise a more ascetic lifestyle concerned with the afterlife. Other strands in Islam recommend a balanced approach.

Mandaeism
In Mandaean cosmology, the world or earthly realm is known as Tibil. It is separated from the World of Light above and the World of Darkness  below by aether.

Worldviews
A worldview is a comprehensive representation of the world and our place in it. As a representation, it is a subjective perspective of the world and thereby different from the world it represents. All higher animals need to represent their environment in some way in order to navigate it. But it has been argued that only humans possess a representation encompassing enough to merit the term "worldview". Philosophers of worldviews commonly hold that the understanding of any object depends on a worldview constituting the background on which this understanding can take place. This may affect not just our intellectual understanding of the object in question but the experience of it in general. It is therefore impossible to assess one's worldview from a neutral perspective since this assessment already presupposes the worldview as its background. Some hold that each worldview is based on a single hypothesis that promises to solve all the problems of our existence we may encounter. On this interpretation, the term is closely associated to the worldviews given by different religions. Worldviews offer orientation not just in theoretical matters but also in practical matters. For this reason, they usually include answers to the question of the meaning of life and other evaluative components about what matters and how we should act. A worldview can be unique to one individual but worldviews are usually shared by many people within a certain culture or religion.

Paradox of many worlds
The idea that there exist many different worlds is found in various fields. For example, theories of modality talk about a plurality of possible worlds and the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics carries this reference even in its name. Talk of different worlds is also common in everyday language, for example, with reference to the world of music, the world of business, the world of football, the world of experience or the Asian world. But at the same time, worlds are usually defined as all-inclusive totalities. This seems to contradict the very idea of a plurality of worlds since if a world is total and all-inclusive then it cannot have anything outside itself. Understood this way, a world can neither have other worlds besides itself or be part of something bigger. One way to resolve this paradox while holding onto the notion of a plurality of worlds is to restrict the sense in which worlds are totalities. On this view, worlds are not totalities in an absolute sense. This might be even understood in the sense that, strictly speaking, there are no worlds at all. Another approach understands worlds in a schematic sense: as context-dependent expressions that stand for the current domain of discourse. So in the expression "Around the World in Eighty Days", the term "world" refers to the earth while in the colonial expression "the New World" it refers to the landmass of North and South America.

Cosmogony
Cosmogony is the field that studies the origin or creation of the world. This includes both scientific cosmogony and creation myths found in various religions. The dominant theory in scientific cosmogony is the Big Bang theory, according to which both space, time and matter have their origin in one initial singularity occurring about 13.8 billion years ago. This singularity was followed by an expansion that allowed the universe to sufficiently cool down for the formation of subatomic particles and later atoms. These initial elements formed giant clouds, which would then coalesce into stars and galaxies. Non-scientific creation myths are found in many cultures and are often enacted in rituals expressing their symbolic meaning. They can be categorized concerning their contents. Types often found include creation from nothing, from chaos or from a cosmic egg.

Eschatology
Eschatology refers to the science or doctrine of the last things or of the end of the world. It is traditionally associated with religion, specifically with the Abrahamic religions. In this form, it may include teachings both of the end of each individual human life and of the end of the world as a whole. But it has been applied to other fields as well, for example, in the form of physical eschatology, which includes scientifically based speculations about the far future of the universe. According to some models, there will be a Big Crunch in which the whole universe collapses back into a singularity, possibly resulting in a second Big Bang afterward. But current astronomical evidence seems to suggest that our universe will continue to expand indefinitely.

World history
World history studies the world from a historical perspective. Unlike other approaches to history, it employs a global viewpoint. It deals less with individual nations and civilizations, which it usually approaches at a high level of abstraction. Instead, it concentrates on wider regions and zones of interaction, often interested in how people, goods and ideas move from one region to another. It includes comparisons of different societies and civilizations as well as considering wide-ranging developments with a long-term global impact like the process of industrialization. Contemporary world history is dominated by three main research paradigms determining the periodization into different epochs. One is based on productive relations between humans and nature. The two most important changes in history in this respect were the introduction of agriculture and husbandry concerning the production of food, which started around 10,000 to 8,000 BCE and is sometimes termed the Neolithic Revolution, and the Industrial Revolution, which started around 1760 CE and involved the transition from manual to industrial manufacturing. Another paradigm, focusing on culture and religion instead, is based on Karl Jaspers' theories about the Axial Age, a time in which various new forms of religious and philosophical thoughts appeared in several separate parts of the world around the time between 800 and 200 BCE. A third periodization is based on the relations between civilizations and societies. According to this paradigm, history can be divided into three periods in relation to the dominant region in the world: Middle Eastern dominance before 500 BCE, Eurasian cultural balance until 1500 CE and Western dominance since 1500 CE. Big history employs an even wider framework than world history by putting human history into the context of the history of the universe as a whole. It starts with the Big Bang and traces the formation of galaxies, the Solar System, the Earth, its geological eras, the evolution of life and humans until the present day.

World politics
World politics, also referred to as global politics or international relations, is the discipline of political science studying issues of interest to the world that transcend nations and continents. It aims to explain complex patterns found in the social world that are often related to the pursuit of power, order and justice, usually in the context of globalization. It focuses not just on the relations between nation-states but also considers other transnational actors, like multinational corporations, terrorist groups, or non-governmental organizations. For example, it tries to explain events like 9/11, the 2003 war in Iraq or the financial crisis of 2007–2008.

Various theories have been proposed in order to deal with the complexity involved in formulating such explanations. These theories are sometimes divided into realism, liberalism and constructivism. Realists see nation-states as the main actors in world politics. They constitute an anarchical international system without any overarching power to control their behavior. They are seen as sovereign agents that, determined by human nature, act according to their national self-interest. Military force may play an important role in the ensuing struggle for power between states, but diplomacy and cooperation are also key mechanisms for nations to achieve their goals. Liberalists acknowledge the importance of states but they also emphasize the role of transnational actors, like the United Nations or the World Trade Organization. They see humans as perfectible and stress the role of democracy in this process. The emergent order in world politics, on this perspective, is more complex than a mere balance of power since more different agents and interests are involved in its production. Constructivism ascribes more importance to the agency of individual humans than realism and liberalism. It understands the social world as a construction of the people living in it. This leads to an emphasis on the possibility of change. If the international system is an anarchy of nation-states, as the realists hold, then this is only so because we made it this way and may change since this is not prefigured by human nature, according to the constructivists.

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Sigismund, Archduke of Austria

Sigismund (26 October 1427 – 4 March 1496), a member of the House of Habsburg, was Duke of Austria from 1439 (elevated to Archduke in 1477) until his death. As a scion of the Habsburg Leopoldian line, he ruled over Further Austria and the County of Tyrol from 1446 until his resignation in 1490.

Biography
Sigismund (or Siegmund, sometimes also spelled Sigmund) was born at the Tyrolean court in Innsbruck; his parents were the Further Austrian duke Frederick IV of Austria and his second wife, a daughter of the Welf duke Frederick I of Brunswick-Lüneburg. A minor upon his father's death in 1439, the Inner Austrian duke Frederick V, Sigismund's first cousin, acted as regent until 1446. Frederick, elected King of the Romans (as Frederick IV) in February 1440, exploited all opportunities to extend his influence over the Further Austrian lands. He also interfered in the Old Zürich War in order to regain the former Habsburg territories lost to the Swiss Confederacy, while the Tyrolean nobles urged him to cede the rule to Sigismund.

The mines of Tyrol remained an important source of revenue for Frederick and not until 1446, upon the end of his regency, Sigismund could accede to rulership over the Further Austrian (Vorderösterreich) possessions, which also included the Swabian territories of the Sundgau in southern Alsace, the Breisgau, and numerous smaller estates. His cousin had planned to marry him off to the French princess Radegonde, a daughter of King Charles VII the Victorious, however, she died in 1445. Sigismund, represented by Ludwig von Landsee, married Princess Eleanor of Scotland, the daughter of the Stuart king James I, on 8 September 1449, in an Augustinian church near Chinon.

Sigismund was able to acquire large parts of the former County of Bregenz (in present-day Vorarlberg) in 1451 and further estates in the Großwalsertal and Kleinwalsertal. Nevertheless, he had to cope with claims raised by Frederick's brother, Archduke Albert VI of Austria, and temporarily had to cede the rule over several Further Austrian territories to him. For much of his reign, he was engaged in disputes with Nicholas of Cusa, then Prince-bishop of Brixen and raised to Cardinal in 1449, for the control of the Tyrolean Eisack, Puster and Inn valleys. Sigismund sided with Nicholas' opponent Gregory of Heimburg and in 1460, when he marched against the bishop's residence at Bruneck Castle, he was excommunicated by Pope Pius II. Nicholas fled to Todi in the Papal States, but fell ill and died in 1464, before the archduke surrendered in order to receive the papal pardon.

In 1469, Sigismund sold several of his Swabian lands on the Rhine river, including the Alsace landgraviate, the County of Pfirt (Ferrette), the Breisgau and further cities, to the Burgundian Duke Charles the Bold. Sources are unclear, whether he sold them due to his debts he had accumulated owing to his luxurious lifestyle, or just "rented" them because he wanted to have them protected better against the expansion of the Swiss Confederacy. In turn, he extended his Vorarlberg possessions, purchasing the County of Sonnenberg in 1474 and, together with the Swiss (with whom he had concluded a peace treaty in Konstanz) and the Alsatian cities, he sided against Duke Charles of Burgundy in the Battle of Héricourt.

In 1477, his cousin Frederick, crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1452, elevated him to Archduke. Three years later, Princess Eleanor died, and in 1484, Sigismund married the 16-year-old Catherine of Saxony, daughter of the Wettin duke Albert III of Saxony. He had no offspring from either marriage. In the later years of the 1470s and early 1480s Sigismund issued a decree that instituted a radical coinage reformation that eventually led up to the creation of the world's first really large and heavy silver coin in nearly a millennium, the guldengroschen, which the Habsburgs in Bohemia developed later into the thaler. This coin was the ancestor of many of the major European coin denominations to come later and also of the US dollar. Using new mining methods and technology, the largely quiescent silver mines in Tirol were brought back into production and soon numerous surrounding states were re-opening old mines and minting similar coins. This production of large coinage exploded as silver from Spain's colonies in the Americas flooded the European economy. It is from these reforms in part that Sigismund acquired the nickname of der Münzreiche, or "rich in coin".

Sigismund was easily swayed by the bad advice of his council and in March 1487 entered into a pointless war with the Republic of Venice, sometimes called the War of Rovereto. Tyrolean forces quickly seized silver mines in the Valsugana valley owned by Venice, and in April 1487 Sigismund outraged Venice further when he imprisoned 130 Venetian merchants traveling to the fair at Bozen (modern Bolzano) and confiscated their goods. Tyrol stormed the Pass of Calliano and later besieged the castle at Rovereto using a massive bombard, one of the earliest times such a large piece had been used in warfare. The war continued through summer but ended with no decisive victory for either side. One notable casualty of the conflict was the condottiero Roberto Sanseverino d'Aragona.

By 1490 the opposition of Tyrolean nobles compelled Sigismund to hand over the rulership to Frederick's son Archduke Maximilian, who later succeeded his father as Holy Roman Emperor. Whether Sigismund voluntarily handed over power to Maximilian or was strongly coerced by the latter is not clear. With Sigismund's death in 1496, the Tyrolean branch of the Habsburg Leopoldian line became extinct, leaving Archduke Maximilian as sole heir to all the dynasty's possessions.

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Sigismund, Duke of Bavaria

Sigismund of Bavaria (26 July 1439 – 1 February 1501) was a member of the Wittelsbach dynasty. He ruled as Duke of Bavaria-Munich from 1460 to 1467, and then as Duke of Bavaria-Dachau until his death.

Biography
Sigismund was the third son of Albert III of Bavaria with Princess Anna of Brunswick-Grubenhagen-Einbeck, his second wife.

Sigismund was Duke of Bavaria-Munich from 1460 to 1467, until 1463 together with his brother John IV. In 1467, he resigned in favor of his younger brother Albert IV and then kept only the new duchy of Bavaria-Dachau as his domain until his death.

In 1468, the foundation stone of the Frauenkirche in Munich was laid by Sigismund. He also ordered to enlarge Blutenburg Castle, to construct its chapel, and to build the church St. Wolfgang in Pipping nearby in 1488. The redesign of the ducal court Alter Hof was initiated by Sigismund as well who lived there for a time towards the end of the 15th Century and was generally a patron of the revival of Gothic arts in Bavaria.

Sigismund died on February 1, 1501, at Blutenburg Castle and was buried at the Frauenkirche in Munich.

title: Sigismund, Duke of Bavaria


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Talk:The Graduate

Attribute POV views
From the main article

 * [redacted non-NPOV comments from main article].

Whilst I like the film, I find the editing tedious and the imagery occasionally OTT. To my recollection, the film also struggles to explain why Elaine has any interest in Benjamin. It might be best if these views can be attributed somewhere. For instance, it might well be appropriate to distill commentary from imdb.com user reviews, quote Leonard Maltin, or some such. --Robert Merkel

 * POV views should be omitted from the article completely unless they can be attributed.  — Frecklefoot | Talk 15:53, 20 September 2005 (UTC)

 * I think what the person is referring to above is the symmetry of the scenes, and various other edits e.g. where Benjamin getting out of pool turns into Benjamin on top of Mrs. Robinson. I'd have to second your statement, though: those bits above are purely opinion and do not belong in an encyclopedia.  Oh and IMHO Roger Ebert has a point when he says the film is best the first time around, and loses a lot the second time through.  Koyaanis Qatsi

Novel was first
The novel came first. For what it is worth, I love the film, but I do not think wikipedia is a place for movie reviews (although it can and should give accounts of critical and popular reception). In any event, without taking anything away from Mike Nichols, we should not praise him at the expense of the author of the novel that inspired him, Slrubenstein

 * That's all well and good, but it's both established & accepted to write articles about movies worth writing about--and this one certainly is worth writing about, at least in the eyes of the U.S. National Film Registry.

 * Why not just add some bits about the novel? No one else seems to have known about it, and I certainly don't.

 * So far as your summary comment about disambiguation goes, I'd argue for not disambiguating this article until there's an article's worth of material on the novel and/or musical. No sense in creating more two-line stubs, IMO.  Cheers, --KQ 14:36 Aug 2, 2002 (PDT)

 * I hope you are not being defensive -- I certainly didn't mean to criticize the article -- just the fact that it did not mention the novel (which surprised me as I just read some of your other articles on film -- which I appreciate, byt the way -- and saw that you were careful to mention the novels upon which they were based. In any event, beyond having read and liked the novel (it does tell rather more about Benjamin's trying to "find himself" between graduating college and the affair with Mrs. Robinson), I do not remember much and know nothing more about it or the author.  As for disambiguation -- I do not really care one way or the other, if anything I agree with you -- but I have noticed that some entries specify "movie" or "book."  But like I said, I do not really care.  Slrubenstein

No, I didn't mean to be defensive, though maybe I was anyway. I simply think that disambiguation has gotten a bit out of hand, to the point where we disambiguate for topics that have less than a decent paragraph on them. And I honestly did not know about the book, though I should have. :-) I would love to see an article on it.  I'd say I'd love to read it, except I have a stack of books here already waiting for me.  --KQ

Second film?
"the second film?" What does that mean? -- Zoe

 * I think it means that Who's Afraid of Virginia Wolf came first. Slrubenstein

 * Oh, thanks, I thought it meant that there were two film versions of the book. -- Zoe

 * Oops, I've removed that part, as it's not particularly relevant to a discussion of the film, though it may be to one of Mike Nichols. Feel free to add it back and/or clarify (I did that after reading your first comment, but before I could post--various edit conflicts, etc.).  --KQ

Tufts?
An anon user added that he received his Bachelor's degree from Tufts. I'm not sure the movie mentions which university he graduated from. If not, it should be removed. If so, it needs to wikified (with a wikilink). — Frecklefoot | Talk 15:53, 20 September 2005 (UTC)

Actually, according to Lee Hill, Nichols got his BA from U. Chicago. "Born in Berlin on November 6, 1931 as Michael Igor Peschkowsky, Nichols came with his German-Jewish family to the USA when he was seven. The death of his father when he was twelve dealt a financial blow to his family. Although he was raised with aspirational middle class values, he worked hard to win scholarships that got him a place at the University of Chicago." -- http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/03/nichols.html funkendub

Why?
Will someone please explain why this is such a revered film? All I see is a stupid kid getting together will a silly lady and then stalking her daughter. If this "defines a generation" then it is one sick, screwed up generation. I like Gavin De Becker's take on it.

 * I think there is a whole "angst" thing that goes along with it. I guess it also is supposed to faithfully represent the age for when it was made.  But I'm not a film critic and this isn't really a discussion board.  We're really only supposed to discuss issues relating to the article here. — Frecklefoot | Talk 14:43, 27 April 2006 (UTC)
 * Maybe "angst" films should be considered a genre.  Fast forward to 2013:  We have a new Angst film, "Blue Jasmine" by the director Woody Allen.  Allen is the king of Angst films.   I much prefer some sort of adventure movie, or action movie.   Life is too short to be paying $10 to sit for two hours and dwell in someone's angst.  Perhaps the best reason to watch "The Graduate" is that it is early work by William Daniels.   He was at his dramatic peak in the TV show "St. Elsewhere," where he portrayed Angst with actual entertainment value.    Marc S. Dania Fl 206.192.35.125 (talk) 13:08, 17 September 2013 (UTC)

 * This might help. — Frecklefoot | Talk 15:28, 5 May 2006 (UTC)

 * I concur -- this movie is considered to be iconic, but on face value, there's nothing I can admire about the main character. I guess it's a bit like The Catcher In The Rye in that way. Afalbrig 08:44, 11 September 2007 (UTC)

Just a suggestion. But Ben is, essentially a victim of sexual abuse. Granted he is 21 and so on, but he is very immature and essentially blackmailed into sex by a adult woman. It may be we like to imagine the contrast with an immature yet legally grown up girl, in a similar situation having her life ruined through sexual blackmail by some predatory older man? Or perhaps imagine how a young female, in a similar situation, might react to the sort of shallow world that Ben lives in? surfingus (talk) 11:36, 20 July 2012 (UTC)

References in popular culture
In American Pie there are two reference to the graduate, one in the scene where nadia strips for jim and the second when finch is seduced by stifflers mum(a cover version of mrs robinson is played), this are mentioned in the audio comentary. In America Pie two, when finch and stifflers mum are on the car, mrs robison is also played. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 131.111.8.104 (talk)

The church
Where is the church in which the wedding takes place? If still standing, I suppose it's a place of pilgrimage for film aficionados. If so, how does the congregation react to them? Dynzmoar 14:44, 21 November 2006 (UTC)

Blooper
There is another minor blooper in the film. There is a scene where he is driving through a tunnel either going to or from Santa Barbara (can't remember which). That tunnel is about 30 minutes drive north of SB, near the Gaviota Coast. Anyway, whatever direction he is driving is the wrong direction based on his supposed destination at that point in the film.71.229.208.71 (talk) 03:58, 19 April 2009 (UTC)

The tunnel is north of Santa Barbara on 101. But since Benjamin is coming from Berkeley to Santa Barbara, he would pass thru that tunnel on his way.71.229.208.71 (talk) 03:58, 19 April 2009 (UTC)GCF

Actually, only the northbound lane of route 101 passes through the Gaviota Gorge Tunnel.71.117.101.124 (talk) 17:55, 26 October 2010 (UTC)

Plastics
Wasn't the plastics line taken from "The Glass Menagerie"? --Gbleem 08:41, 30 July 2007 (UTC)

Pop culture references - Trivia section
I agree that this movie has had a great influence on pop culture, and this should be explained properly. A long list of random references to the film is no good, though. I would remove it, but I know that people would just put it right back, because everyone is in love with their own little reference they saw on TV last week. --345Kai 07:10, 22 September 2007 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:The Graduate poster.jpg
Image:The Graduate poster.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

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BetacommandBot (talk) 07:06, 21 January 2008 (UTC)

Pop cultural references restored
I've restored the section on pop cultural references after weeding out quite a few of them and formatting it. This is no longer the list that ate the article, it's a representative sampling of the impact of the film on our culture. Nor is it "original research", since media objects are their own source and do not need secondary sources to be verified. (They exist in and of themselves, and are widely available, so the verification of these incidents is available as well to anyone who cares to look them up -- just the same as if a secondary source said these things and you had to go find the book to verify it.) In any case, this is a good faith effort to keep the section under control and not overwhelm the article, but still provide the insight into how this film has gotten under our skins. I ask, please, that it not be reverted wholesale. If there are some entries which seem less important or less representative than others, then by all means they should be removed or edited down, but in the spirit of compromise, it would be nice not to have an edit war start over something like this. Many thanks. Ed Fitzgerald (unfutz)  (talk / cont)  13:24, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

 * I rewrote this section to be not ugly. In particular I did the following:

If you restore any of the deleted material, please be sure to use the citation templates and put them in as references. I left the templates mostly intact even when empty to make cut-and-paste insertion of this type easier. Nandesuka (talk) 15:36, 17 February 2008 (UTC)
 * I removed one or two of the most obscure examples completely.
 * I moved the entire section out of list form, and into paragraph form, as our style guide indicates.
 * I reduced the level of detail of description of the pop culture references.
 * I moved the specific references into references/cited templates in footnotes, so they don't disrupt the flow of the article. this is an article about The Graduate, not about The Simpsons.  If the reader wants a soul-crushing level of detail, they can read the footnotes.

 * Thanks -- I think you've come up with a workable compromise that serves the article and covers the material. I've used footnotes for this purpose elsewhere, and it seems to be a good methodology. Ed Fitzgerald (unfutz)  (talk / cont)  16:04, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

Another influence
Is it worth mentioning the Family Guy episode Wish Upon A Weinstein? The end of the episode is a complete parody of the end of this movie. Not to mention that FOX banned the episode from airing (initially). --Son (talk) 14:51, 23 April 2008 (UTC)

 * You're right about the influence thing, the ending was a complete parody of the movie's ending, but that wasn't the reason why it was banned, it was banned for the "antisemitic" jokes, but later aired on Adult Swim with no problem. --Matt723star (talk) 17:11, 13 April 2013 (UTC)

College Name?
I noticed in the first paragraph it states that Benjamin had just graduated from Williams College but in another part of the article it states he had graduated from an "unknown College". I haven't corrected it because I don't know which editor is correct. I love the film but I doubt I would win any "The Graduate" trivia contests. --Kjrjr (talk) 15:08, 3 June 2008 (UTC)

Bay Bridge
Please stop changing the "Bay Bridge" error to refer to driving on "101" or to driving away from Berkeley. The SF Bay Bridge is Interstate 80, and he is driving EASTBOUND to Berkeley, not away from it. The error is that he is driving on the top level, which goes WESTBOUND to San Francsico. The road is Interstate 80, not 101, and it runs East-West, not North-South. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.28.250.194 (talk) 17:28, 16 September 2008 (UTC)

I seem to remember Hoffman giving somekind of speech at the 1967 or 68 academay awards where he said "Thank you to the clappers" as if snubbing the folks who didn't think he should be up there. Why was he up there? Or did I just dream all this? shpax@verizon.net —Preceding unsigned comment added by 96.240.212.240 (talk) 17:23, 26 February 2009 (UTC)

Academy awards acceptance speech
I seem to remember Hoffman giving somekind of speech at the 1967 or 68 academay awards where he said "Thank you to the clappers" as if snubbing the folks who didn't think he should be up there. Why was he up there? Or did I just dream all this? shpax@verizon.net —Preceding unsigned comment added by 96.240.212.240 (talk) 17:23, 26 February 2009 (UTC)

Plastics (again)
In what context does the word "plastics" appear? In what context is it usually quoted? --Austrian (talk) 22:27, 1 April 2009 (UTC)
 * A businessman tells Benjamin that he has one word for him, and that word is "Plastics". The context being that it is a good market to get in and he will make money, so it is quoted as an insider giving you a tip about what will be big. Although in the film it is also seen as Benjamin committing to a life of corporate servitude. Darrenhusted (talk) 20:42, 8 April 2009 (UTC)

Is this necessary to the plot somehow?
I fail to see the point of including the following into the plot description: "...his car, an Alfa Romeo Spider, runs out of gas..." Is the car's model somehow important to the plot, or is it useless information? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 97.73.64.169 (talk) 20:46, 11 November 2009 (UTC)

Wayne's World 2
How about a mention of the wedding spoof in Wayne's World 2 who was also filmed at the same place? And Wayne used the same car (Alfa-Romeo Spyder) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FZbW3GgZvf0 --Sd-100 (talk) 20:19, 4 January 2010 (UTC)
 * I mean wedding scene, sorry for the confusion --Sd-100 (talk) 20:23, 4 January 2010 (UTC)

Allmovie
Reference available for citing in the article body. Erik (talk) 20:19, 10 January 2010 (UTC)
 * ... plot synopsis, review, cast, production credits, awards

Can anybody explain…
…why there is no pop cultural reference section and why there is no mentioning of "Rumor has it…" ??? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.180.53.40 (talk) 10:09, 25 October 2010 (UTC)

False Precision
The article has: "Budget	$3 million Gross revenue	$104,397,103"

IMO it is silly to pretend that the gross revenue is known to the nearest dollar. How about "Gross revenue  $104 million"

Thanks, Wanderer57 (talk) 21:49, 19 February 2011 (UTC)

Message to editor Magnificator
Hello Magnificator:

In what I guess is your great enthusiasm for the film THE GRADUATE, you, over less than 48 hours, lengthened our article from 19,927 bytes to 35,537 bytes. You provided no edit notes and said nothing in the talk page. Can you justify this what seems to me to be huge bloating of the article?

Also in the PLOT section, you again changed "find" to "stalk". Can you justify your use of the word stalk?

Thank you, Wanderer57 (talk) 17:13, 17 March 2011 (UTC)

Re: Message to editor Magnificator
Ok this is one of the first time's i'm using this talk page so i'm going to answer this. The reason I bloated the article with large amounts of relevant information is the same reason i've done so to a lot of the Star Trek and Batman related pages.....I got bored.

And in the PLOT section, the reason I decided to put "stalk" instead of "find" is because to me it makes more sense, especially to someone reading that article today. I mean think about it, those actions that Benjamin did (following Elaine to her town of residence, following her on the bus, to the zoo, and even to her classes) is considered a law offense today, and would certainly bring about a restraining order.

Now that you pointed it out to me, I will be sure to provide more edit notes and/or make some comments on the talk page.....sound good?

Thanks, -Magnificator (talk) 05:02, 18 March 2011 (UTC)

 * Thank you. I appreciate the feedback.

 * Unfortunately after you posted this message you made about 25 more edits to the article, none with an edit note. In a note below, I explain why I changed the article to an earlier version.

 * As you point out, social awareness of stalking has changed since the movie was made. I think a modern reader of the article, reading the word "stalk", will receive a very different impression of what Ben was doing than is conveyed by watching the movie.  I would appreciate the opinion of other editors - am I offbase on this issue?

 * Wanderer57 (talk) 17:05, 18 March 2011 (UTC)

 * Yes, Magnif, it does sound good. Unfortunately, when I've dealt with you before, you said the same things and didn't change your behavior a bit. I really hope this time is different but I'm not holding my breath. Go on--prove me wrong. — UncleBubba ( T @ C ) 04:51, 19 March 2011 (UTC)

Re: Production and Pre-Production merger
I am merging the contents of "Pre-Production" into the contents of Production section under the subtitle "Casting."

-Magnificator (talk) 06:59, 18 March 2011 (UTC)

Reason for undoing series of edits
I just undid a series of edits to this article, most of them by editor Magnificator. My reasons:

- the article was increased in length from 21,000 to 34,000 bytes over three or so days, a 60% increase to an already long article.

- no edit notes or explanations on talk page were provided by Magnificator to explain the need for all this extra length or for any of the individual edits. Request to this editor for edit notes was ignored.

- some of the material added is directly copied from IMDB and appears to be copy violation.

- the large number of edits, one made right on top of another, do not allow opportunity for reasonable review by other editors of the quality of the edits, so I have returned the article to an earlier version.

- at least some of the additions are of poor quality IMO.

- the plot section of the article was being enlarged with a ridiculous amount of detail, again IMO.

Wanderer57 (talk) 16:52, 18 March 2011 (UTC)

 * BRAVO! Good work! Cleaning up that mess must've been difficult; Thanks for doing it!

 * I've dealt with Magnif. before, in other places. He/she always promises he/she will edit reasonably but I've yet to see him/her follow through by keeping his/her word. Too bad. He/she might have something good to contribute if he/she would stop acting like a spoiled brat. — UncleBubba ( T @ C ) 04:49, 19 March 2011 (UTC)

Edit of Plot Section
I edited the Plot section substantially to (I hope) improve readability. It is also slightly shorter.

Other editors please review it. Thanks.

Wanderer57 (talk) 16:14, 20 March 2011 (UTC)

why did Mrs Robinson seduce Benjamin?
The explanations of the plot are a bit light on explaining why Mrs Robinson chose to seduce Bejamin. So here are my feeling on this aspect. Well she was a self admitted alocoholic and married to a successful and wealthy man and had time on her hands. Her husband and Ben's parents all wanted Ben to marry her daughter Elaine. Ben appears to be socially inadequate and inexperienced with girls, so perhaps initially Mrs R thinks she wil educate him in these two areas where she has expetise, before he marries Elaine. It all progresses well until she starts to get bored with him and he starts to want conversation with her as well as sex. He wants to know about her life and pushes her with questions and she tells him that her career was finished when she became pregnant with Elaine and had to marry a man she didn't like, and this happened in his Ford car. Ben is highly amused and she is very angry with him for laughing, and herself for letting slip this information. She makes him promise never to take her daughter out, presumably because she is ashamed of these facts and does not want her daughter to find out. Ben is happy to do as she asks but then he is pressurised by his own parents and Mr Robinson to meet up Elaine and date her. And now everything goes out of control and so the film progresses, with Mrs Robinson shown merely as jeolous of her daughter. I would like to see others views this aspect of Mrs Robinson. ññññ — Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.44.64.113 (talk) 22:59, 2 June 2011 (UTC)

Unsourced info added to article
Over the last couple of days, someone has added a boatload of unsourced assertions to the Casting and Production sections of the article. Someone else has--helpfully--added UNSOURCED tags to the affected parts. If the contributor (is that you, Magnificator?) wants the new info to remain in the article, s/he must add some citations; otherwise, I'm fairly certain the revisions will be removed soon. — UncleBubba ( T @ C ) 18:08, 16 May 2012 (UTC)
 * Don't wait, just remove it, sections of this article were tagged for years. The rule at this point should be add with a cite or leave it off. Darrenhusted (talk) 19:17, 16 May 2012 (UTC)

The Ending / Final Scene
There is an iteresting hint about the confusing end of the film here: http://thewholegardenwillbow.wordpress.com/2011/07/25/the-graduate-the-final-scene/#comment-2305 But it is a blogg site and he does not say, where he knows that from. If it should turn out to be notable in the literature, it would be good to have it in the article. --Bufi (talk) 14:03, 29 October 2012 (UTC)

OK, now I have the answer for the source: "Mike himself said it on the DVD commentary with Steven Soderbergh." tells me the author of the blogg. --Bufi (talk) 06:07, 31 October 2012 (UTC)

US History and THE GRADUATE
Why is there no mention of the Vietnam War - and the draft - in this movie? It puzzled me when I first saw it at age 20 in 1967, and it puzzles me now. Was Ben Braddock just going to be able to buy his way out of the draft? He could not do that personally. His parents would have had to do that for him. So far, so good. But wouldn't they have talked about it?Nichols made a truly mysogynistic film - CARNAL KNOWLEDGE - in 1971. Again - male college students - again, from affluent circumstances- again, no Vietnam. That war hung over peoples' heads like a nuclear cloud. Was Nichols out of the country? Carmellasoprano (talk) 08:03, 1 March 2013 (UTC)
 * The college scenes in Carnal Knowledge were set in the late 1940s. All Hallow's Wraith (talk) 10:17, 22 November 2014 (UTC)

Anne and the Accolades
I don't think in the accolades section that the quote from the lead actress that she was people's "sexual fantasies" is placed right. An accolade is more for the awards and honors the movie has received. It's well written, but I think her quote should maybe be moved to either the critical reception section, or perhaps maybe make a legacy section. --Matt723star (talk) 17:09, 13 April 2013 (UTC)

Zoo scene
In what zoo was the scene where Elaine meets up with Carl Smith filmed? 108.225.17.141 (talk) 18:26, 6 March 2014 (UTC)

Further reading:
I added a further reading link to a Vanity Fair article about the making of the film on its 40th anniversary, but my edit was deleted. So I'll post it here: http://www.vanityfair.com/news/2008/03/graduate200803

''Already linked in a footnote on the main page. It's an excellent piece though, and does deserve a further reading by anyone who is interested in how this terrific film came to be. ''

List of Actors Considered
Hi all. I was re-reading this article and I have to ask about the long list of actors considered for the film. Are there any articles that can substantiate these claims? Claims about Ava Gardner, Charles Grodin, Robert Redford, and Candice Bergin (among others) have long been discussed. But what about some of these others? Like Judy Garland, Lauren Bacall, Joan Crawford for Mrs. Robinson, etc.? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Dahlrich98 (talk • contribs) 01:57, 13 May 2017 (UTC)

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The List of Actors Considered
Was just looking through the list of actors considered. I think the Casting section needs to be re-done. The Vanity Fair article cited on the making of the film contains a very thorough account of the casting and includes many of the names (like Gardner, Page, Neal, Bergen, Redford, etc.), but does not mention many of the others (like Joan Crawford, Judy Garland, Audrey Hepburn, Sally Field, Faye Dunaway, etc.). Can this be looked at? Think the article needs cleaning. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Dahlrich99 (talk • contribs) 02:50, 12 January 2019 (UTC)

Linda Gray
Don't know if it's worth mentioning anywhere, but the legs in the poster belonged to actress Linda Gray, who was a model at the time. She later went on to play Mrs Robinson on stage in the early 2000s.RefTuzapicabit (talk) 22:46, 12 September 2019 (UTC)
 * Here's a source from Playbill: "Linda Gray's Leg Has Long History in The Graduate" GoingBatty (talk) 20:49, 12 September 2021 (UTC)

Delete "In popular culture" section?
I propose deleting this trivia section to conform to WP guidelines. Thoughts, anyone? Word to the wise: when contributors add content like this, but cannot follow basic WP Manual of Style guidelines (for the umpteenth time, titles of TV shows like Roseanne should be italicized), picky editors like me are even more likely to chafe at these random trivia lists disguised as information relevant to an encyclopedia. Just sayin'. Kinkyturnip (talk) 16:22, 4 June 2020 (UTC)
 * , I support removing it as indiscriminate. No objection to restoring the section heading if reliably sourced content reflecting noteworthiness can be included. Though "Cultural impact" is a better heading name, in my opinion. Erik (talk | contrib) (ping me) 16:49, 4 June 2020 (UTC)

Cast list order
I'm slightly bemused by the fact that in the infobox we list the three main cast members as Anne Bancroft, Dustin Hoffman and Katharine Ross (in that order); but in the "Cast" section we list them as Hoffman, Bancroft and Ross. The first version conforms with the film's end credits and poster: I guess the production company decided to give them equal billing, and put them in alphabetical order. (Also, Bancroft was a slightly better-known name at the time of release.) But, on the other hand, Hoffman plays the title character and is undoubtedly the main protagonist of the story, and on those grounds could legitimately be put first. So I think there are valid arguments on both sides; but I also think we should aim for consistency. MOS:FILMCAST and Template:Infobox film give guidance around cast lists, but neither of them say anything about order. Thoughts? GrindtXX (talk) 19:26, 15 June 2024 (UTC)

 * No comments in almost 4 weeks. I'm going to standardize (per the official credits) as Bancroft, Hoffman, Ross. GrindtXX (talk) 11:45, 12 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Graduate


text:
Karlskoga Municipality

Karlskoga Municipality (Karlskoga kommun) is a municipality in Örebro County in central Sweden. Its seat is located in the city of Karlskoga. Other localities include Valåsen och Labbsand, Kortfors, Linnebäck and Villingsberg.

Karlskoga was formed as rural municipality when the first Swedish local government acts came into force in 1863. In 1925 the southern part was detached, forming Degerfors Municipality. In 1940 the whole municipality, including its non-urban areas, got the title of a city. These titles were abolished in 1971.

Demographics
This is a demographic table based on Karlskoga Municipality's electoral districts in the 2022 Swedish general election sourced from SVT's election platform, in turn taken from SCB official statistics.

In total there were 30,389 residents, including 23,534 Swedish citizens of voting age. 49.1% voted for the left coalition and 49.6% for the right coalition. Indicators are in percentage points except population totals and income.

Twin towns – sister cities
Karlskoga is twinned with:

 * Aalborg, Denmark
 * 🇳🇴 Fredrikstad, Norway
 * 🇮🇸 Húsavík, Iceland
 * 🇷🇺 Ivangorod, Russia (until 2022)
 * 🇪🇪 Narva, Estonia
 * 🇱🇻 Olaine, Latvia
 * 🇫🇮 Riihimäki, Finland
 * 🇮🇹 Sanremo, Italy
 * 🇺🇸 Wheaton, United States

title: Karlskoga Municipality


text:
Bofors

AB Bofors is a former Swedish arms manufacturer which today is part of the British arms manufacturer BAE Systems. The name has been associated with the iron industry and artillery manufacturing for more than 350 years.

History
Located in Karlskoga neighborhood of Bofors, Sweden, the company originates from the hammer mill "Boofors", which was founded as a royal state-owned company in 1646 when P. L. Hosman was permitted to erect a forge at the site. Sigrid Ekehielm, also known as Boås-Beata, who lived from the 1640s to 1700, at one point owned it.

The Bofors Works was acquired by Johan Eberhard Geijer (1733–1796) in 1762. It was then acquired by the latter's brother, Emanuel af Geijerstam. The modern corporate structure was created in 1873 with the foundation of Aktiebolaget (AB) Bofors-Gullspång. A leading Swedish steel producer by the early 1870s, when steel began to be used for gun manufacture in Sweden, Bofors initially sold cast and forged steel produced by the Siemens-Martin process to Finspång gun works, but soon started to expand into weapons manufacture. The company's first cannon workshop was opened in 1884. Bofors' most famous owner was Alfred Nobel, who owned the company from 1894 until his death in December 1896.  Nobel played a key role in reshaping the former iron and steel producer to a modern cannon manufacturer and chemical industry participant. The powder manufacturer AB Bofors Nobelkrut, later an explosives and general organic-chemical producer, was created in 1898 as a wholly owned subsidiary.By 1911, AB Bofors-Gullspång had outcompeted, bought and closed down its Finspång Swedish competitor in cannon manufacture. The company's name was shortened to AB Bofors in 1919.

When the Treaty of Versailles severely limited Germany from developing new artillery and banned its exports, German military companies started to offshore their R&D abroad, and Krupp, prohibited to develop guns under 17 cm in caliber, started to co-operate with Bofors already in 1919 in order to secretly engage in arms design and manufacture: "When, after the end of the war, it became a certainty that, for Krupp, gun production would come to a complete standstill, Krupp concluded an agreement with Aktiebolaget Bofors, a Swedish firm, which made available to Bofors information on Krupp's experiences relative to the production of steel in certain fields, and especially of steel for the manufacture of guns, also a license agreement on the basis of which Bofors was authorized to duplicate some types of Krupp's artillery designs, insofar as they were not classed as secret by the Reich. Krupp combined with this the intention of benefiting by the experience gathered at that end. Bofors pledged itself at Krupp's request to permit Krupp employees admission to its works at all times and to supply them with all desired information." Bofors was also able to take over pre-war Dutch and Danish contracts of Krupp in September 1919. Under an 1921 agreement the company agreed not to export any Krupp-derived materiel to the victors of WWI: the UK, US, France, Italy and Japan. The Swedish government fully endorsed all that activity. Also, since 1920 Krupp held 31.8% of Bofors stock through its Swedish subsidiary AB Boforsintressenter despite a 1916 law prohibiting foreigners from having over 20% stock of a Swedish business. As a result of such a collaboration, Bofors prospered, and by the early 1930s it employed ~2800 people (not counting the supply subsidiaries).

After Adolf Hitler's rise to power, the German rearmament became public and increased in scale so there was no more need in using front companies abroad, hence German armaments firm returned their R&D to the home turf. The Swedish parliament also banned foreign ownership of military industries in 1935, so Krupp had to liquidate Boforsintressenter and sell off its Bofors shares to Swedish entrepreneur Axel Wenner-Gren, who long had good connections with Krupp.

Karlskoga grew around the Bofors Works, which employed almost 10,000 people by 1970. The arms industry created numerous job opportunities in the 1900s, contributing to the population boom of the city.

Throughout its history, the works has been linked to several influential Swedish families such as Robsahm, Liljeström, Flygge, and Ekehjelm.

Present ownership
In 1999, Saab AB purchased the Celsius Group, the then parent company of Bofors. In September 2000, United Defense Industries (UDI) of the United States acquired Bofors Weapons Systems (the heavy weapons division), while Saab retained the missile interests.

The British company BAE Systems acquired UDI and its Bofors subsidiary in 2005, and BAE Systems Bofors is now a business unit of the Swedish subdivision BAE Systems AB, while the Swedish unit Saab Bofors Dynamics is part of Saab AB.

Products
The name Bofors is strongly associated with the Bofors 40 mm L/60 gun used by both sides during World War II. This automatic cannon is often simply called the Bofors gun and saw service on both land and sea. It became so widely known that anti-aircraft guns in general were often referred to as Bofors guns. Another well-known gun made by the company was the Bofors 37 mm Anti-Tank Gun L/45, a standard anti-tank weapon used by a variety of armies from the mid 1930s throughout World War II. It was built under licence in a variety of nations such as Finland, The Netherlands and Poland and used in a variety of tanks and armored vehicles, such as the Vickers 6-ton, M39 Pantserwagen and 7TP, among others.

Guns
(incomplete list)
 * Bofors 20 mm Automatic Anti-Aircraft Gun L/70
 * Bofors 25 mm Automatic Gun L/64
 * Bofors 37 mm Anti-Tank Gun L/45
 * Bofors 40 mm Automatic Gun L/43
 * Bofors 40 mm Automatic Gun L/60
 * Bofors 40 mm Automatic Gun L/70
 * Bofors 57 mm Automatic Aircraft Gun L/50
 * Bofors 57 mm Naval Automatic Gun L/60
 * Bofors 57 mm Naval Automatic Gun L/70
 * Bofors 75 mm Model 1929
 * Bofors 75 mm Model 1934
 * Bofors 105 mm Coastal Automatic Gun L/54
 * Bofors 120 mm Automatic Anti-Aircraft Gun L/46
 * Bofors 120 mm Naval Automatic Gun L/50
 * Bofors 152 mm Naval Automatic Gun L/53
 * Bofors Tracked Automotive Gun 155 mm L/50
 * Bofors 155 mm Field Howitzer 77 A L/38
 * Bofors 155 mm Field Howitzer 77 B L/39
 * Bofors 155 mm Field Howitzer 77 BW L/39 L/52 (Archer)
 * Bofors 283 mm Naval Gun L/45

Missiles
(incomplete list)
 * BANTAM (Bofors Anti Tank Missile)
 * BILL (Bofors Infantry Light and Lethal anti-tank missile)
 * RBS 23
 * RBS 70

Other weapons
(incomplete list)
 * Bofors 375 mm multi-barrel ASW rocket launcher
 * Bofors HPM Blackout high-powered microwave weapon system

Scandal in India

In 1986, the Government of India and Bofors signed a US$285 million contract for the supply of 410 155 mm field howitzers. In 1987, Swedish Radio alleged that Bofors paid illegal commissions of inr 600000000 to top Indian politicians, members of senior Congress party and key defence officials to seal the deal. The scandal contributed to the defeat of Rajiv Gandhi's government in the elections three years later.

title: Bofors


text:
Psychiatric hospital

Psychiatric hospitals, also known as mental health hospitals, or behavioral health hospitals are hospitals or wards specializing in the treatment of severe mental disorders, including schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, eating disorders, major depressive disorder, and others.

Psychiatric hospitals vary widely in their size and grading. Some psychiatric hospitals may specialize only in short-term or outpatient therapy for low-risk patients. Others specialize in the temporary or permanent confinement of patients who need routine assistance, treatment, or a specialized and controlled environment due to a patient's psychiatric disorder. Patients often choose voluntary commitment, but those who psychiatrists believe pose significant danger to themselves or others may be subject to involuntary commitment and involuntary treatment. Psychiatric hospitals are sometimes referred to as psychiatric wards/units, psych, wards, or units when they are located in a hospital.

Modern psychiatric hospitals evolved from and eventually replaced the older lunatic asylum. The treatment of inmates in early lunatic asylums was sometimes brutal and focused on containment and restraint.

With successive waves of reform, and the introduction of effective evidence-based treatments, most modern psychiatric hospitals emphasize treatment, usually including a combination of psychiatric medications and psychotherapy, that assist patients in functioning in the outside world. Many countries have prohibited the use of physical restraints on patients, which includes tying psychiatric patients to their beds for days or even months at a time, though this practice still is periodically employed in India, Japan, and other countries.

History
Modern psychiatric hospitals evolved from, and eventually replaced, the older lunatic asylum. Their development also entails the rise of organized institutional psychiatry. Hospitals known as bimaristans were built in the Middle East in the early ninth century; the first was built in Baghdad under the leadership of Harun al-Rashid. While not devoted solely to patients with psychiatric disorders, early psychiatric hospitals often contained wards for patients exhibiting mania or other psychological distress.

Because of cultural taboos against refusing to care for one's family members, mentally ill patients would be surrendered to a bimaristan only if the patient demonstrated violence, incurable chronic illness, or some other extremely debilitating ailment. Psychological wards were typically enclosed by iron bars owing to the aggression of some of the patients.

In Western Europe, the first idea and set up for a proper mental hospital entered through Spain. A member of the Mercedarian Order named Juan Gilaberto Jofré traveled frequently to Islamic countries and observed several institutions that confined the insane. He proposed the founding of an institution exclusive for "sick people who had to be treated by doctors", something very modern for the time. The foundation was carried out in 1409 thanks to several wealthy men from Valencia who contributed funds for its completion. It was considered the first institution in the world at that time specialized in the treatment of mental illnesses.

Later on, physicians, including Philippe Pinel at Bicêtre Hospital in France and William Tuke at York Retreat in England, began to advocate for the viewing of mental illness as a disorder that required compassionate treatment that would aid in the rehabilitation of the victim. In the Western world, the arrival of institutionalisation as a solution to the problem of madness was very much an advent of the nineteenth century. The first public mental asylums were established in Britain; the passing of the County Asylums Act 1808 empowered magistrates to build rate-supported asylums in every county to house the many 'pauper lunatics'. Nine counties first applied, the first public asylum opening in 1812 in Nottinghamshire. In 1828, the newly appointed Commissioners in Lunacy were empowered to license and supervise private asylums. The Lunacy Act 1845 made the construction of asylums in every county compulsory with regular inspections on behalf of the Home Secretary, and required asylums to have written regulations and a resident physician.

At the beginning of the 19th century there were a few thousand people housed in a variety of disparate institutions throughout England, but by 1900 that figure had grown to about 100,000. This growth coincided with the growth of alienism, later known as psychiatry, as a medical specialism. The treatment of inmates in early lunatic asylums was sometimes very brutal and focused on containment and restraint.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, psychiatric institutions ceased using terms such as "madness", "lunacy" or "insanity", which assumed a unitary psychosis, and began instead splitting into numerous mental diseases, including catatonia, melancholia, and dementia praecox, which is now known as schizophrenia.

In 1961, sociologist Erving Goffman described a theory of the "total institution" and the process by which it takes efforts to maintain predictable and regular behavior on the part of both "guard" and "captor", suggesting that many of the features of such institutions serve the ritual function of ensuring that both classes of people know their function and social role, in other words of "institutionalizing" them. Asylums as a key text in the development of deinstitutionalization.

With successive waves of reform and the introduction of effective evidence-based treatments, modern psychiatric hospitals provide a primary emphasis on treatment; and further, they attempt—where possible—to help patients control their own lives in the outside world with the use of a combination of psychiatric drugs and psychotherapy. These treatments can be involuntary. Involuntary treatments are among the many psychiatric practices which are questioned by the mental patient liberation movement.

Types
There are several different types of modern psychiatric hospitals, but all of them house people with mental illnesses of varying severity. In the United Kingdom, both crisis admissions and medium-term care are usually provided on acute admissions wards. Juvenile or youth wards in psychiatric hospitals or psychiatric wards are set aside for children or youth with mental illness. Long-term care facilities have the goal of treatment and rehabilitation within a short time-frame (two or three years). Another institution for the mentally ill is a community-based halfway house.

Crisis stabilization
Crisis Stabilization Units (CSU) are small facilities with minimal beds used for people in crisis whose needs cannot be met safely in residential service settings.

Open units
Open psychiatric units are not as secure as crisis stabilization units. They are not used for acutely suicidal people; instead, the focus in these units is to make life as normal as possible for patients while continuing treatment to the point where they can be discharged. However, patients are usually still not allowed to hold their own medications in their rooms because of the risk of an impulsive overdose. While some open units are physically unlocked, other open units still use locked entrances and exits, depending on the type of patients admitted.

Medium term
Another type of psychiatric hospital is medium term, which provides care lasting several weeks. Most drugs used for psychiatric purposes take several weeks to take effect, and the main purpose of these hospitals is to monitor the patient for the first few weeks of therapy to ensure the treatment is effective.

Juvenile wards
Juvenile wards are sections of psychiatric hospitals or psychiatric wards set aside for children with mental illness. However, there are a number of institutions specializing only in the treatment of juveniles, particularly when dealing with drug abuse, self-harm, eating disorders, anxiety, depression or other mental illnesses.

Long-term care facilities
In the United Kingdom, long-term care facilities are now being replaced with smaller secure units, some within hospitals. Modern buildings, modern security, and being locally situated to help with reintegration into society once medication has stabilized the condition are often features of such units. Examples of this include the Three Bridges Unit at St Bernard's Hospital in West London and the John Munroe Hospital in Staffordshire. These units have the goal of treatment and rehabilitation to allow for transition back into society within a short time-frame, usually lasting two or three years. Not all patients' treatment meets this criterion, however, leading larger hospitals to retain this role.

These hospitals provide stabilization and rehabilitation for those who are actively experiencing uncontrolled symptoms of mental disorders such as depression, bipolar disorders, eating disorders, and so on.

Halfway houses
One type of institution for the mentally ill is a community-based halfway house. These facilities provide assisted living for an extended period of time for patients with mental illnesses, and they often aid in the transition to self-sufficiency. These institutions are considered to be one of the most important parts of a mental health system by many psychiatrists, although some localities lack sufficient funding.

Political imprisonment
In some countries, the mental institution may be used for the incarceration of political prisoners as a form of punishment. One notable historical example was the use of punitive psychiatry in the Soviet Union and China. Like the former Soviet Union and China, Belarus also has used punitive psychiatry toward political opponents and critics of current government in modern times.

Secure units
In the United Kingdom, criminal courts or the Home Secretary can, under various sections of the Mental Health Act, order the detention of offenders in a psychiatric hospital, but the term "criminally insane" is no longer legally or medically recognized. Secure psychiatric units exist in all regions of the UK for this purpose; in addition, there are a few specialist hospitals which offer treatment with high levels of security. These facilities are divided into three main categories: High, Medium and Low Secure. Although the phrase "Maximum Secure" is often used in the media, there is no such classification. "Local Secure" is a common misnomer for Low Secure units, as patients are often detained there by local criminal courts for psychiatric assessment before sentencing.

Run by the National Health Service, these facilities which provide psychiatric assessments can also provide treatment and accommodation in a safe hospital environment which prevents absconding. Thus there is far less risk of patients harming themselves or others. In Dublin, the Central Mental Hospital performs a similar function.

Community hospital utilization
Community hospitals across the United States regularly discharge mental health patients, who are then typically referred to out-patient treatment and therapy. A study of community hospital discharge data from 2003 to 2011, however, found that mental health hospitalizations had increased for both children and adults. Compared to other hospital utilization, mental health discharges for children were the lowest while the most rapidly increasing hospitalizations were for adults under 64. Some units have been opened to provide therapeutically enhanced Treatment, a subcategory to the three main hospital unit types.

In the UK, high secure hospitals exist, including Ashworth Hospital in Merseyside, Broadmoor Hospital in Crowthorne, Rampton Secure Hospital in Retford, and the State Hospital in Carstairs, Scotland. In Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man, and the Channel Islands, medium and low secure units exist but high secure units on the UK mainland are used for patients who qualify for the treatment under the Out of Area (Off-Island Placements) Referrals provision of the Mental Health Act 1983. Among the three unit types, medium secure facilities are the most prevalent in the UK. As of 2009, there were 27 women-only units in England. Irish units include those at prisons in Portlaise, Castelrea, and Cork.

Criticism
Psychiatrist Thomas Szasz in Hungary has argued that psychiatric hospitals are like prisons unlike other kinds of hospitals, and that psychiatrists who coerce people (into treatment or involuntary commitment) function as judges and jailers, not physicians. Historian Michel Foucault is widely known for his comprehensive critique of the use and abuse of the mental hospital system in Madness and Civilization. He argued that Tuke and Pinel's asylum was a symbolic recreation of the condition of a child under a bourgeois family. It was a microcosm symbolizing the massive structures of bourgeois society and its values: relations of Family–Children (paternal authority), Fault–Punishment (immediate justice), Madness–Disorder (social and moral order).

Erving Goffman coined the term "total institution" for mental hospitals and similar places which took over and confined a person's whole life. Goffman placed psychiatric hospitals in the same category as concentration camps, prisons, military organizations, orphanages, and monasteries. In his book Asylums Goffman describes how the institutionalisation process socialises people into the role of a good patient, someone "dull, harmless and inconspicuous"; in turn, it reinforces notions of chronicity in severe mental illness. The Rosenhan experiment of 1973 demonstrated the difficulty of distinguishing sane patients from insane patients.

Franco Basaglia, a leading psychiatrist who inspired and planned the psychiatric reform in Italy, also defined the mental hospital as an oppressive, locked, and total institution in which prison-like, punitive rules are applied, in order to gradually eliminate its own contents. Patients, doctors and nurses are all subjected (at different levels) to the same process of institutionalism. American psychiatrist Loren Mosher noticed that the psychiatric institution itself gave him master classes in the art of the "total institution": labeling, unnecessary dependency, the induction and perpetuation of powerlessness, the degradation ceremony, authoritarianism, and the primacy of institutional needs over the patients, whom it was ostensibly there to serve.

The anti-psychiatry movement coming to the fore in the 1960s has opposed many of the practices, conditions, or existence of mental hospitals; due to the extreme conditions in them. The psychiatric consumer/survivor movement has often objected to or campaigned against conditions in mental hospitals or their use, voluntarily or involuntarily. The mental patient liberation movement emphatically opposes involuntary treatment but it generally does not object to any psychiatric treatments that are consensual, provided that both parties can withdraw consent at any time.

Undercover journalism
Alongside the 1973 academic investigation by Rosenhan and other similar experiments, several journalists have been willingly admitted to hospitals in order to conduct undercover journalism. These include:
 * Julius Chambers, who visited Bloomingdale Insane Asylum in 1872, leading to the 1876 book A Mad World and Its People.
 * Nellie Bly, who admitted herself to a mental institution in 1887, leading to the work Ten Days in a Mad-House.
 * Frank Smith in 1935 admitted himself into a Kankakee hospital, leading to the articles "Seven days in the Madhouse" in the Chicago Daily Times.
 * Michael Mok, who investigated similarly in New York 1961, winning the Lasker prize.
 * Frank Sutherland, who received coaching from a psychiatrist in order to accurately feign symptoms, and spent 31 days in late 1973 to early 1974, leading to a series of articles in the Nashville Tennessean.
 * Betty Wells, who investigated in 1974, with the articles titled "A Trip into Darkness" for the Wichita Eagle.

title: Psychiatric hospital