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Saturday Night Fever

Saturday Night Fever is a 1977 American dance drama film directed by John Badham and produced by Robert Stigwood. It stars John Travolta as Tony Manero, a young Italian-American man who spends his weekends dancing and drinking at a local discothèque while dealing with social tensions and disillusionment in his working class ethnic neighborhood in Brooklyn. The story is based on "Tribal Rites of the New Saturday Night", a mostly fictional 1976 article by music writer Nik Cohn.

A major critical and commercial success, Saturday Night Fever had a tremendous impact on the popular culture of the late 1970s. It helped popularize disco around the world and initiated a series of collaborations between film studios and record labels. It made Travolta, already well known from his role in the popular TV sitcom Welcome Back, Kotter, a household name. He was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance, at the time becoming the fourth-youngest nominee in the category. The film showcases aspects of the music, dancing, and subculture surrounding the disco era, including symphony-orchestrated melodies, haute couture styles of clothing, pre-AIDS sexual promiscuity, and graceful choreography. The Saturday Night Fever soundtrack, featuring songs by the Bee Gees, is one of the best-selling soundtrack albums worldwide. Travolta reprised his role of Tony Manero in Staying Alive in 1983, which was panned by critics despite being successful at the box office.

In 2010, Saturday Night Fever was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.

Adjusted for inflation, it is one of the highest-grossing R-rated films released in the U.S. in the 1970s, with a total box office gross of $673,899,098 in 2024.

Plot
Tony Manero is a 19-year-old Italian-American from the Bay Ridge neighborhood of Brooklyn, living in his family's house and working in a paint store. He escapes his day-to-day life by dancing at 2001 Odyssey, a local discotheque, where he receives the admiration he craves as king of the dance floor.

Tony and his friends Joey, Double J, Gus, and Bobby C spend their nights at the disco, trying to have sex with women in Bobby's car, and climbing on the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge. Neighborhood girl Annette is infatuated with Tony, much to his annoyance, and he agrees to be her partner in an upcoming dance contest. Annette's happiness is short-lived when Tony is mesmerized by a better dancer, Stephanie Mangano, who rejects Tony's advances but eventually agrees to be his new partner in the competition.

Tony is pleased to no longer be the black sheep of the family when his older brother Frank Jr, the pride of their parents and grandmother, quits the Catholic priesthood. Frank Jr admits that he only became a priest to make their parents happy, and later advises Bobby, who is under pressure to marry his pregnant girlfriend, that the Pope is unlikely to grant him dispensation for an abortion. Leaving to start a new life, Frank encourages Tony to do what makes him happy.

Gus is beaten up and hospitalized, telling his friends that his attackers were the Barracudas, a Puerto Rican gang. Annette grows more and more desperate for Tony's attention, as does Bobby, who tries to ask him for guidance. Tony helps Stephanie move to Manhattan, and comforts her after discovering her past relationship with an older married colleague. Tony and his friends take revenge on the Barracudas, crashing Bobby's car into their hangout and starting a brawl, but are angry to learn that Gus may have identified the wrong gang.

After much practice, Tony and Stephanie dance at the competition, sharing a kiss at the end of their performance. They win first prize, but Tony believes that a Puerto Rican couple performed better and the judges' decision was racially biased, and he gives the couple his trophy and award money. Outside in Bobby's car, Tony tries to force himself on Stephanie, who declares that she was only using him to win, before fighting him off and running away.

Tony's friends arrive with an intoxicated Annette, who has agreed to have sex with everyone. Tony tries to lead her away but is subdued by Double J and Joey, and they all drive to the bridge as Joey has sex with Annette in the back seat. She changes her mind and resists, but Double J takes Joey's place and rapes Annette, while an uncomfortable Tony and Bobby fail to intervene. As the others begin their usual cable-climbing antics on the bridge, Tony insults a distraught Annette and blames her for own assault.

An erratic Bobby behaves even more recklessly than his friends, and Tony tries to talk him down, but Bobby's strong sense of despair and Tony's broken promise to call him earlier all lead to a suicidal tirade, before Bobby falls to his death. After the police arrive, a disgusted and disillusioned Tony leaves Double J, Joey, and Annette behind, riding the graffiti-riddled subway into Manhattan. By morning, he appears at Stephanie's apartment and apologizes for his behavior, planning to relocate to Manhattan to start a new life. Stephanie forgives Tony, admitting that she danced with him because he gave her respect and moral support, and they salvage their relationship, agreeing to be friends.

Cast

 * John Travolta as Anthony "Tony" Manero
 * Karen Lynn Gorney as Stephanie Mangano
 * Barry Miller as Bobby C.
 * Joseph Cali as Joey
 * Paul Pape as Double J.
 * Donna Pescow as Annette
 * Bruce Ornstein as Gus
 * Val Bisoglio as Frank Manero Sr.
 * Julie Bovasso as Flo Manero
 * Martin Shakar as Frank Manero Jr.
 * Lisa Peluso as Linda Manero
 * Nina Hansen as Grandmother
 * Sam Coppola as Dan Fusco
 * Denny Dillon as Doreen
 * Bert Michaels as Pete
 * Fran Drescher as Connie
 * Monti Rock III as the DJ
 * Robert Weil as Becker
 * Shelly Batt as Girl in Disco
 * Donald Gantry as Jay Langhart
 * Ellen March as Bartender
 * William Andrews as Detective
 * Robert Costanzo as paint store customer
 * Helen Travolta (John's mother) as paint store customer
 * Ann Travolta (John's sister) as pizza girl

Soundtrack
The soundtrack was released on November 15, 1977. Prior to the release of Thriller by Michael Jackson, Saturday Night Fever was the best-selling album in music history, and still ranks among the best-selling soundtrack albums worldwide, with sales figures of over 40 million copies.

In the United States, the album was certified 16× Platinum for shipments of at least 16 million units. The album stayed atop the charts for 24 straight weeks from January to July 1978 and stayed on Billboard's album charts for 120 weeks until March 1980. Three singles from the album contributed by the Bee Gees—"How Deep Is Your Love", "Stayin' Alive" and "Night Fever"—along with Yvonne Elliman's "If I Can't Have You", all reached No. 1 in the US. In the UK, the album spent 18 consecutive weeks at No. 1. The album epitomized the disco phenomenon on both sides of the Atlantic and was an international sensation. The album has been added to the National Recording Registry in the Library of Congress in 2014 for being culturally significant.

 * 1) "Stayin' Alive" performed by the Bee Gees – 4:45
 * 2) "How Deep Is Your Love" performed by Bee Gees – 4:05
 * 3) "Night Fever" performed by Bee Gees – 3:33
 * 4) "More Than a Woman" performed by Bee Gees – 3:17
 * 5) "If I Can't Have You" performed by Yvonne Elliman – 3:00
 * 6) "A Fifth of Beethoven" performed by Walter Murphy – 3:03
 * 7) "More Than a Woman" performed by Tavares – 3:17
 * 8) "Manhattan Skyline" performed by David Shire – 4:44
 * 9) "Calypso Breakdown" performed by Ralph MacDonald – 7:50
 * 10) "Night on Disco Mountain" performed by David Shire – 5:12
 * 11) "Open Sesame" performed by Kool & the Gang – 4:01
 * 12) "Jive Talkin'" performed by Bee Gees – 3:43 (*)
 * 13) "You Should Be Dancing" performed by Bee Gees – 4:14
 * 14) "Boogie Shoes" performed by KC and the Sunshine Band – 2:17
 * 15) "Salsation" performed by David Shire – 3:50
 * 16) "K-Jee" performed by MFSB – 4:13
 * 17) "Disco Inferno" performed by The Trammps – 10:51
 * With the exception of (*) track 12 "Jive Talkin", all of the songs are played in the film.
 * The novelty songs "Dr. Disco" and "Disco Duck", both performed by Rick Dees, are played in the film but not included on the album.

According to the DVD commentary for Saturday Night Fever, the producers intended to use the song "Lowdown" by Boz Scaggs in the rehearsal scene between Tony and Annette in the dance studio, and choreographed their dance moves to the song. However, representatives for Scaggs' label Columbia Records refused to grant legal clearance for it, as they wanted to pursue another disco movie project, which never materialized. Composer David Shire, who scored the film, had to in turn write a song to match the dance steps demonstrated in the scene and eliminate the need for future legal hassles. However, this track does not appear on the movie's soundtrack.

The song "K-Jee" was used during the dance contest with the Puerto Rican couple that competed against Tony and Stephanie. Some VHS cassettes used a more traditional Latin-style song instead. The DVD restores the original recording.

The album, like its parent film, has been added to the Library of Congress via the National Recording Registry.

Source material
Norman Wexler's screenplay was adapted from a 1976 New York magazine article by British writer Nik Cohn, "Tribal Rites of the New Saturday Night". The article centers on working class Italian-Americans in Bay Ridge, Brooklyn, and on the lives of young men who work dead-end jobs but live for their nights dancing at the local discotheque, in particular. Cohn later wrote that "the [disco] craze had started in black gay clubs, then progressed to straight blacks and gay whites and from there to mass consumption—Latinos in the Bronx, West Indians on Staten Island, and, yes, Italians in Brooklyn."

Although presented as an account of factual reporting, Cohn acknowledged in the mid-1990s that he fabricated most of the article. A newcomer to the United States and a stranger to the disco lifestyle, Cohn was unable to make any sense of the subculture he had been assigned to write about; instead, the character who became Tony Manero was based on an English mod acquaintance of Cohn.

Development
Shortly after Cohn's article was published, British music impresario Robert Stigwood purchased the film rights and hired Cohn to adapt his own article to screen. After finishing a single screenplay draft, Cohn was replaced by Norman Wexler, who'd previously picked up Oscar nominations for Joe (1970) and Serpico (1973). Among the elements Wexler added to the story was Tony's younger sister, as well as older brother Frank who disappoints his parents by leaving the priesthood. "I think what Norman did so well was to create a family situation that had real truth, an accurate look at how men related to women in that moment, in ways that you would never get away with now," said producer Kevin McCormick.

John G. Avildsen was originally hired as the film's director, but was replaced one month before principal photography by John Badham over "conceptual disagreements." Badham was a lesser-known director who, like his star, had mostly worked in television. His sole prior film credit, The Bingo Long Traveling All-Stars & Motor Kings, was released while Saturday Night Fever was already well into production.

The film went through several different titles, including Tribal Rites of the New Saturday Night and Saturday Night. After the Bee Gees wrote "Night Fever" and submitted it for the soundtrack, they told Stigwood they disliked Saturday Night for the film's title, and the film's final title of Saturday Night Fever was decided upon.

Casting
The film's relatively low budget ($3.5 million) meant that most of the actors were relative unknowns, many of whom were recruited from New York's theatre scene. For more than 40% of the actors it was their film debut. The only actor in the cast who was already an established name was John Travolta, thanks to his role on the sitcom Welcome Back, Kotter. Travolta, who had previously auditioned for Stigwood's film version of Jesus Christ Superstar, was remembered by the producer and signed to a three-movie contract with his company in 1976. Stigwood wanted Travolta to first star in a movie version of Grease, but because a film adaptation of Grease was not permitted to begin filming until 1978 when its stage run had completed, they made this film first. Travolta's performance as Tony Manero brought him critical acclaim and helped launch him into international stardom.

Travolta researched the part by visiting the real 2001 Odyssey discotheque, and claimed he adopted many of the character's swaggering mannerisms from the male patrons. Travolta said when he would get recognized, "[Guys'] girlfriends would come up, and they'd say, 'Hey, stay away from him, don't bug Travolta,' and they’d actually push the girls away. Tony Manero's whole male-chauvinist thing I got from watching those guys in the discos." He insisted on performing his character's own dance sequences after producers suggested he be substituted by a body double, rehearsing his choreography with Lester Wilson and Deney Terrio for three hours every day, losing 20 pounds in the process. Wilson is credited for providing the look of the dance scenes and "breathing life" into the film. Said Travolta, "He taught me what he called his 'hang time.' He would smoke a cigarette to greet the day, and he infused my dancing with African-American rhythm. I'm the kind of dancer who needs thought and construction—an idea—before I dance. I need an internal story. Lester would put on some music and he would say, 'Move with me, motherfucker—move with me!'"

Karen Lynn Gorney was nine years older than Travolta when she was cast as his love interest Stephanie. Although Gorney had dance experience before she was cast, she found it difficult to keep up with her co-star due to injuries sustained in a motorcycle accident some years before. After the success of Saturday Night Fever, Gorney took a break from film acting to work as a dance instructor at a performing arts academy in Brooklyn. Jessica Lange, Kathleen Quinlan, Carrie Fisher, and Amy Irving were all considered for the part before Gorney was cast.

Donna Pescow was considered almost "too pretty" by Paramount heads Michael Eisner and Jeffrey Katzenberg for the role of Annette. She corrected this matter by putting on weight. She also had to relearn her native Brooklyn accent, which she had overcome while studying drama at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts.

Filming
The film was shot entirely on-location in Brooklyn, New York. The 2001 Odyssey Disco was a real club located at 802 64th Street, which has since been demolished. The interior was modified for the film, including the addition of a $15,000 lighted floor, which was inspired by a Birmingham, Alabama establishment Badham had visited. A similar effect was achieved on the club's walls using tinfoil and Christmas lights. Since the Bee Gees were not involved in the production until after principal photography wrapped, the "Night Fever", "You Should Be Dancin'", and "More Than a Woman" sequences were shot with Stevie Wonder tracks that were later overdubbed in the sound mix. During filming, the production was harassed by local gangs over use of the location, and was even firebombed.

The dance studio was Phillips Dance Studio in Bensonhurst, the Manero home was a house in Bay Ridge, the paint store was Pearson Paint & Hardware, also in Bay Ridge. Other locations included the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge, John J. Carty Park, and the Bay Ridge Promenade.

To try to throw off Travolta's fans who might disrupt filming, Badham and his team took to shooting exterior scenes as early in the morning as possible before people caught on – often at the crack of dawn. They would also generate fake call sheets. The tactics worked well enough that Badham was usually able to get the scenes done before significant crowds had time to gather.

Theatrical
Two theatrical versions of the film were released: the original R-rated version and an edited PG-rated version in 1979.

The R-rated version released in 1977 represented the movie's first run, and totaled 119 minutes. After the success of the first run, the film's content was re-edited into a 112-minute, toned down, PG-rated version, not only to attract a wider audience, but also to capitalize on attracting the target audience of the teenagers who were not old enough to see the film by themselves, but who made the film's soundtrack album a monster hit. The R-rated version's profanity, nudity, fight sequence, and a gang rape scene in a car, were all de-emphasized or removed from the PG version. Numerous profanity-filled scenes were replaced with alternate takes of the same scenes, substituting milder language initially intended for the network television cut.

Paramount initially intended to release the PG-rated version of the film in 1978, as it was already being screened on airlines. However, due to the regulations set by the MPAA at the time, it was not permissible to have two versions of a film with different ratings shown concurrently in American theaters. Consequently, Paramount had to remove the film from exhibition for a period of 90 days before they could showcase the alternate rated version, thereby causing a delay in their release plans. Eventually, in 1979, the PG-rated version was made available to the public. Paramount later decided to present it as a double feature along with their other successful John Travolta film, Grease. In the Biography documentary Inside Story: Saturday Night Fever, producer Robert Stigwood criticized the PG-rated version, stating that it undermined the film's impact and lacked the power of the original R-rated edition.

In 2017, the director's cut (running 122 minutes) premiered at the TCM Classic Film Festival at TCL Chinese Theatre in Hollywood. Fathom Events hosted special screenings of this version in 2017.

Home media
Both theatrical versions were released on VHS. The PG-rated version never had a home video release on Laserdisc. It was first released to DVD by Paramount on October 8, 2002, as an R-rated special-edition, which included most of the deleted scenes present on the PG version, as well as a director's commentary and "Behind the Music" featurettes.

On May 5, 2009, Paramount released Saturday Night Fever on Blu-ray Disc in 1.78:1 aspect ratio. This release retains the R-rated version of the film, and included bonus features from the 2002 release as well as new extras.

The 4K director's cut (122 minutes) was released on Blu-ray on May 2, 2017. This disc includes both the director's cut and the original theatrical version, as well as the bulk of the bonus features from the prior release.

On November 8, 2022, Paramount released the film as a special edition 4K HD Blu-ray.

Television broadcast
When HBO acquired the pay television rights to Saturday Night Fever in 1980, both versions of the film were aired by the network: the PG version during the day, and the R version during the evening (HBO, which had primarily operated on a late afternoon-to-early overnight schedule at the time, had maintained a programming policy restricting the showing of R-rated films to the nighttime hours, a rule that continued long after it switched to a 24-hour schedule full-time in December 1981). The R-rated theatrical version premiered on the network at midnight Eastern Time on January 1, 1980.

For the film's network television premiere, airing on ABC on November 16, 1980, a new milder version was created to conform with network broadcast standards. The network television version was a slightly shortened cut of the PG-rated version. In order to maintain runtime, a few additional scenes deleted from both theatrical releases were added to make up for the lost/cut material, making the ABC version among the longest cuts of the film. These added scenes included Tony dancing with Doreen to "Disco Duck", Tony running his finger along the cables of the Verrazzano–Narrows Bridge, and Tony's father getting his job back. The last two deleted scenes were included in the 2017 director's cut.

Starting in the late 1990s, VH1, TBS and TNT began showing the original R-rated version with a TV-14 rating, although with nudity removed/censored, and the stronger profanity either being edited or (on recent airings) silenced. However, this version of the TV cut included some innuendo included in the original theatrical release that was edited or removed from the PG version. Turner Classic Movies has aired the film in both versions: the original R-rated version (rated TV-MA on the network) is the cut commonly broadcast, although the PG cut has been presented as part of TCM's family-oriented "Funday Night at the Movies" and "Essentials Jr." film showcases.

Box office
The film grossed $25.9 million in its first 24 days of release and grossed an average of $600,000 a day throughout January to March going on to gross $94.2 million in the United States and Canada and $237.1 million worldwide. Adjusted for inflation, it is the highest-grossing R-rated film released in the U.S. in the 1970s, with a total box office gross of $673,899,098 in 2024.

Critical response
Saturday Night Fever received positive reviews and is regarded by many critics as one of the best films of 1977. It was added to The New York Times "Guide to the Best 1,000 Movies Ever Made", which was published in 2004. In 2010, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".

Film critic Gene Siskel, who would later list this as his favorite movie, praised the film: "One minute into Saturday Night Fever you know this picture is onto something, that it knows what it's talking about." He also praised John Travolta's energetic performance: "Travolta on the dance floor is like a peacock on amphetamines. He struts like crazy." Siskel even bought Travolta's famous white suit from the film at a charity auction.

Film critic Pauline Kael wrote a gushing review of the film in The New Yorker: "The way Saturday Night Fever has been directed and shot, we feel the languorous pull of the discotheque, and the gaudiness is transformed. These are among the most hypnotically beautiful pop dance scenes ever filmed ... Travolta gets so far inside the role he seems incapable of a false note; even the Brooklyn accent sounds unerring ... At its best, though, Saturday Night Fever gets at something deeply romantic: the need to move, to dance, and the need to be who you'd like to be. Nirvana is the dance; when the music stops, you return to being ordinary."

Historians of disco have criticized the film as a whitewashed representation of disco. Katherine Karlin wrote: "The film is wrongly credited with sparking the disco culture; it’s more accurate to say that it marks the moment when disco—up to that moment a megaphone for voices that were queer, black, or female—became accessible to straight white men, and thus the moment marking its decline." Music historians Bill Brewster and Frank Broughton wrote in their book Last Night a DJ Saved My Life: "The Bee Gees did for disco what Elvis Presley did for rhythm and blues, what Diana Ross did for soul, what Dave Brubeck did for jazz; they made it safe for white, straight, middle-class people, hauling it out of its subcultural ghetto and into the headlight glare of the mainstream. Here was something middle America could move its uptight ass to."

Accolades
American Film Institute Lists
 * AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Songs:
 * Stayin' Alive – #9

In popular culture
The 1980 comedy Airplane! by directors David & Jerry Zucker and Jim Abrahams, included a flashback scene that directly parodied the dance competition scene at the disco in Saturday Night Fever.

In 2008, director Pablo Larraín made a film, Tony Manero, about a Chilean dancer obsessed by the main character in Saturday Night Fever who tries to win a Tony Manero look-alike contest.

On April 17, 2012, Fox aired series Glee's episode 16, "Saturday Night Glee-ver", which pays tribute to the film and features various songs from its soundtrack (especially the songs performed by the Bee Gees), covered by the series' cast.

The Red Hot Chili Peppers 2016 music video for their song "Go Robot" is heavily inspired by the film and recreates the opening scene and classic characters from the film who are portrayed by each band member.

The 2018 film Ready Player One features a dance scene that references Saturday Night Fever, particularly the red, yellow, and blue dance floor from the 2001 Odyssey night club in the film.

In November, 2023, Capital One began airing a holiday-themed commercial titled "Holiday Night Fever" which recreated the opening scene of the movie. In the sixty second version, as the Bee Gees' "Stayin' Alive" plays over the scene, Santa Claus (a heavily made-up John Travolta) struts down a street that has been mostly cleared of snow after a winter storm. He carries a can of "magical glitter paint"; buys two cookies (instead of pizza slices) at a walk-up window and asks "what happened to three?" (he was offered three slices in the movie); eats them stacked; then pauses at a shoe store window and compares his shoes to a pair of elven boots with a jingle bell on them; he flirts with a store clerk (Donna Pescow); buys a disco ball Christmas ornament for his sleigh; throws some of the glitter paint onto a Christmas tree that is set up on the sidewalk; then goes to a disco where he asks how his hair looks and dances on the illuminated floor.

title: Saturday Night Fever


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Human body

The human body is the entire structure of a human being. It is composed of many different types of cells that together create tissues and subsequently organs and then organ systems.

The external human body consists of a head, hair, neck, torso (which includes the thorax and abdomen), genitals, arms, hands, legs, and feet. The internal human body includes organs, teeth, bones, muscle, tendons, ligaments, blood vessels and blood, lymphatic vessels and lymph.

The study of the human body includes anatomy, physiology, histology and embryology. The body varies anatomically in known ways. Physiology focuses on the systems and organs of the human body and their functions. Many systems and mechanisms interact in order to maintain homeostasis, with safe levels of substances such as sugar, iron, and oxygen in the blood.

The body is studied by health professionals, physiologists, anatomists, and artists to assist them in their work.

Composition
The human body is composed of elements including hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, calcium and phosphorus. These elements reside in trillions of cells and non-cellular components of the body.

The adult male body is about 60% total body water content of some 42 litre. This is made up of about 19 litres of extracellular fluid including about 3.2 litre of blood plasma and about 8.4 litre of interstitial fluid, and about 23 litre of fluid inside cells. The content, acidity and composition of the water inside and outside cells is carefully maintained. The main electrolytes in body water outside cells are sodium and chloride, whereas within cells it is potassium and other phosphates.

Cells
The body contains trillions of cells, the fundamental unit of life. At maturity, there are roughly 30 trillion cells, and 38 trillion bacteria in the body, an estimate arrived at by totaling the cell numbers of all the organs of the body and cell types. The skin of the body is also host to billions of commensal organisms as well as immune cells. Not all parts of the body are made from cells. Cells sit in an extracellular matrix that consists of proteins such as collagen, surrounded by extracellular fluids.

Genome
Cells in the body function because of DNA. DNA sits within the nucleus of a cell. Here, parts of DNA are copied and sent to the body of the cell via RNA. The RNA is then used to create proteins, which form the basis for cells, their activity, and their products. Proteins dictate cell function and gene expression, a cell is able to self-regulate by the amount of proteins produced. However, not all cells have DNA; some cells such as mature red blood cells lose their nucleus as they mature.

Tissues
The body consists of many different types of tissue, defined as cells that act with a specialised function. The study of tissues is called histology and is often done with a microscope. The body consists of four main types of tissues. These are lining cells (epithelia), connective tissue, nerve tissue and muscle tissue.

Cells
Cells that line surfaces exposed to the outside world or gastrointestinal tract (epithelia) or internal cavities (endothelium) come in numerous shapes and forms – from single layers of flat cells, to cells with small beating hair-like cilia in the lungs, to column-like cells that line the stomach. Endothelial cells are cells that line internal cavities including blood vessels and glands. Lining cells regulate what can and cannot pass through them, protect internal structures, and function as sensory surfaces.

Organs

Organs, structured collections of cells with a specific function, mostly sit within the body, with the exception of skin. Examples include the heart, lungs and liver. Many organs reside within cavities within the body. These cavities include the abdomen (which contains the stomach, for example) and pleura, which contains the lungs.

Heart
The heart is an organ located in the thoracic cavity between the lungs and slightly to the left. It is surrounded by the pericardium, which holds it in place in the mediastinum and serves to protect it from blunt trauma, infection and help lubricate the movement of the heart via pericardial fluid. The heart works by pumping blood around the body allowing oxygen, nutrients, waste, hormones and white blood cells to be transported. The heart is composed of two atria and two ventricles. The primary purpose of the atria is to allow uninterrupted venous blood flow to the heart during ventricular systole. This allows enough blood to get into the ventricles during atrial systole. Consequently, the atria allows a cardiac output roughly 75% greater than would be possible without them. The purpose of the ventricles is to pump blood to the lungs through the right ventricle and to the rest of the body through the left ventricle.

The heart has an electrical conduction system to control the contraction and relaxation of the muscles. It starts in the sinoatrial node traveling through the atria causing them to pump blood into the ventricles. It then travels to the atrioventricular node, which makes the signal slow down slightly allowing the ventricles to fill with blood before pumping it out and starting the cycle over again.

Coronary artery disease is the leading cause of death worldwide, making up 16% of all deaths. It is caused by the buildup of plaque in the coronary arteries supplying the heart, eventually the arteries may become so narrow that not enough blood is able to reach the myocardium, a condition known as myocardial infarction or heart attack, this can cause heart failure or cardiac arrest and eventually death. Risk factors for coronary artery disease include obesity, smoking, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, lack of exercise and diabetes. Cancer can affect the heart, though it is exceedingly rare and has usually metastasized from another part of the body such as the lungs or breasts. This is because the heart cells quickly stop dividing and all growth occurs through size increase rather than cell division.

Gallbladder
The gallbladder is a hollow pear-shaped organ located posterior to the inferior middle part of the right lobe of the liver. It is variable in shape and size. It stores bile before it is released into the small intestine via the common bile duct to help with digestion of fats. It receives bile from the liver via the cystic duct, which connects to the common hepatic duct to form the common bile duct.

The gallbladder gets its blood supply from the cystic artery, which in most people, emerges from the right hepatic artery.

Gallstones is a common disease in which one or more stones form in the gallbladder or biliary tract. Most people are asymptomatic but if a stone blocks the biliary tract, it causes a gallbladder attack, symptoms may include sudden pain in the upper right abdomen and or center of the abdomen. Nausea and vomiting may also occur. Typical treatment is removal of the gallbladder through a procedure called a cholecystectomy. Having gallstones is a risk factor for gallbladder cancer, which although quite uncommon, is rapidly fatal if not diagnosed early.

Systems

 * Circulatory system

The circulatory system consists of the heart and blood vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries). The heart propels the circulation of the blood, which serves as a "transportation system" to transfer oxygen, fuel, nutrients, waste products, immune cells and signaling molecules (i.e. hormones) from one part of the body to another. Paths of blood circulation within the human body can be divided into two circuits: the pulmonary circuit, which pumps blood to the lungs to receive oxygen and leave carbon dioxide, and the systemic circuit, which carries blood from the heart off to the rest of the body. The blood consists of fluid that carries cells in the circulation, including some that move from tissue to blood vessels and back, as well as the spleen and bone marrow.

 * Digestive system

The digestive system consists of the mouth including the tongue and teeth, esophagus, stomach, (gastrointestinal tract, small and large intestines, and rectum), as well as the liver, pancreas, gallbladder, and salivary glands. It converts food into small, nutritional, non-toxic molecules for distribution and absorption into the body. These molecules take the form of proteins (which are broken down into amino acids), fats, vitamins and minerals (the last of which are mainly ionic rather than molecular). After being swallowed, food moves through the gastrointestinal tract by means of peristalsis: the systematic expansion and contraction of muscles to push food from one area to the next.

Digestion begins in the mouth, which chews food into smaller pieces for easier digestion. Then it is swallowed, and moves through the esophagus to the stomach. In the stomach, food is mixed with gastric acids to allow the extraction of nutrients. What is left is called chyme; this then moves into the small intestine, which absorbs the nutrients and water from the chyme. What remains passes on to the large intestine, where it is dried to form feces; these are then stored in the rectum until they are expelled through the anus.

 * Endocrine system

The endocrine system consists of the principal endocrine glands: the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, parathyroids, and gonads, but nearly all organs and tissues produce specific endocrine hormones as well. The endocrine hormones serve as signals from one body system to another regarding an enormous array of conditions, resulting in variety of changes of function.

 * Immune system

The immune system consists of the white blood cells, the thymus, lymph nodes and lymph channels, which are also part of the lymphatic system. The immune system provides a mechanism for the body to distinguish its own cells and tissues from outside cells and substances and to neutralize or destroy the latter by using specialized proteins such as antibodies, cytokines, and toll-like receptors, among many others.

 * Integumentary system

The integumentary system consists of the covering of the body (the skin), including hair and nails as well as other functionally important structures such as the sweat glands and sebaceous glands. The skin provides containment, structure, and protection for other organs, and serves as a major sensory interface with the outside world.

 * Lymphatic system

The lymphatic system extracts, transports and metabolizes lymph, the fluid found in between cells. The lymphatic system is similar to the circulatory system in terms of both its structure and its most basic function, to carry a body fluid.

 * Musculoskeletal system

The musculoskeletal system consists of the human skeleton (which includes bones, ligaments, tendons, joints and cartilage) and attached muscles. It gives the body basic structure and the ability for movement. In addition to their structural role, the larger bones in the body contain bone marrow, the site of production of blood cells. Also, all bones are major storage sites for calcium and phosphate. This system can be split up into the muscular system and the skeletal system.

 * Nervous system

The nervous system consists of the body's neurons and glial cells, which together form the nerves, ganglia and gray matter, which in turn form the brain and related structures. The brain is the organ of thought, emotion, memory, and sensory processing; it serves many aspects of communication and controls various systems and functions. The special senses consist of vision, hearing, taste, and smell. The eyes, ears, tongue, and nose gather information about the body's environment.

From a structural perspective, the nervous system is typically subdivided into two component parts: the central nervous system (CNS), composed of the brain and the spinal cord; and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), composed of the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is mostly responsible for organizing motion, processing sensory information, thought, memory, cognition and other such functions. It remains a matter of some debate whether the CNS directly gives rise to consciousness. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is mostly responsible for gathering information with sensory neurons and directing body movements with motor neurons.

From a functional perspective, the nervous system is again typically divided into two component parts: the somatic nervous system (SNS) and the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The SNS is involved in voluntary functions like speaking and sensory processes. The ANS is involved in involuntary processes, such as digestion and regulating blood pressure.

The nervous system is subject to many different diseases. In epilepsy, abnormal electrical activity in the brain can cause seizures. In multiple sclerosis, the immune system attacks the nerve linings, damaging the nerves' ability to transmit signals. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig's disease, is a motor neuron disease which gradually reduces movement in patients. There are also many other diseases of the nervous system.

 * Reproductive system

The purpose of the reproductive system is to reproduce and nurture the growth of offspring. The functions include the production of germ cells and hormones. The sex organs of the male reproductive system and the female reproductive system develops and mature at puberty. These systems include the internal and external genitalia.

Female puberty generally occurs between the ages of 9 and 13 and is characterized by ovulation and menstruation; the growth of secondary sex characteristics, such as growth of pubic and underarm hair, breast, uterine and vaginal growth, widening hips and increased height and weight, also occur during puberty. Male puberty sees the further development of the penis and testicles.

The female inner sex organs are the two ovaries, their fallopian tubes, the uterus, and the cervix. At birth there are about 70,000 immature egg cells that degenerate until at puberty there are around 40,000. No more egg cells are produced. Hormones stimulate the beginning of menstruation, and the ongoing menstrual cycles. The female external sex organs are the vulva (labia, clitoris, and vaginal opening).

The male external genitalia include the penis and scrotum that contains the testicles. The testicle is the gonad, the sex gland that produces the sperm cells. Unlike the egg cells in the female, sperm cells are produced throughout life. Other internal sex organs are the epididymides, vasa deferentia, and some accessory glands.

Diseases that affect the reproductive system include polycystic ovary syndrome, a number of disorders of the testicles including testicular torsion, and a number of sexually transmitted infections including syphilis, HIV, chlamydia, HPV and genital warts. Cancer can affect most parts of the reproductive system including the penis, testicles, prostate, ovaries, cervix, vagina, fallopian, uterus and vulva.

 * Respiratory system

The respiratory system consists of the nose, nasopharynx, trachea, and lungs. It brings oxygen from the air and excretes carbon dioxide and water back into the air. First, air is pulled through the trachea into the lungs by the diaphragm pushing down, which creates a vacuum. Air is briefly stored inside small sacs known as alveoli (sing.: alveolus) before being expelled from the lungs when the diaphragm contracts again. Each alveolus is surrounded by capillaries carrying deoxygenated blood, which absorbs oxygen out of the air and into the bloodstream.

For the respiratory system to function properly, there need to be as few impediments as possible to the movement of air within the lungs. Inflammation of the lungs and excess mucus are common sources of breathing difficulties. In asthma, the respiratory system is persistently inflamed, causing wheezing and/or shortness of breath. Pneumonia occurs through infection of the alveoli, and may be caused by tuberculosis. Emphysema, commonly a result of smoking, is caused by damage to connections between the alveoli.

 * Urinary system

The urinary system consists of the two kidneys, two ureters, bladder, and urethra. It removes waste materials from the blood through urine, which carries a variety of waste molecules and excess ions and water out of the body.

First, the kidneys filter the blood through their respective nephrons, removing waste products like urea, creatinine and maintaining the proper balance of electrolytes and turning the waste products into urine by combining them with water from the blood. The kidneys filter about 150 quarts (170 liters) of blood daily, but most of it is returned to the blood stream with only 1-2 quarts (1-2 liters) ending up as urine. The urine is brought by the ureters from the kidneys down to the bladder.

The smooth muscle lining the ureter walls continuously tighten and relax through a process called peristalsis to force urine away from the kidneys and down into the bladder. Small amounts of urine are released into the bladder every 10–15 seconds.

The bladder is a hollow balloon shaped organ located in the pelvis. It stores urine until the brain signals it to relax the urinary sphincter and release the urine into the urethra starting urination. A normal bladder can hold up to 16 ounces (half a liter) for 3–5 hours comfortably.

Numerous diseases affect the urinary system including kidney stones, which are formed when materials in the urine concentrate enough to form a solid mass, urinary tract infections, which are infections of the urinary tract and can cause pain when urinating, frequent urination and even death if left untreated. Renal failure occurs when the kidneys fail to adequately filter waste from the blood and can lead to death if not treated with dialysis or kidney transplantation. Cancer can affect the bladder, kidneys, urethra and ureters, with the latter two being far more rare.

Anatomy
Human anatomy is the study of the shape and form of the human body. The human body has four limbs (two arms and two legs), a head and a neck, which connect to the torso. The body's shape is determined by a strong skeleton made of bone and cartilage, surrounded by fat (adipose tissue), muscle, connective tissue, organs, and other structures. The spine at the back of the skeleton contains the flexible vertebral column, which surrounds the spinal cord, which is a collection of nerve fibres connecting the brain to the rest of the body. Nerves connect the spinal cord and brain to the rest of the body. All major bones, muscles, and nerves in the body are named, with the exception of anatomical variations such as sesamoid bones and accessory muscles.

Blood vessels carry blood throughout the body, which moves because of the beating of the heart. Venules and veins collect blood low in oxygen from tissues throughout the body. These collect in progressively larger veins until they reach the body's two largest veins, the superior and inferior vena cava, which drain blood into the right side of the heart. From here, the blood is pumped into the lungs where it receives oxygen and drains back into the left side of the heart. From here, it is pumped into the body's largest artery, the aorta, and then progressively smaller arteries and arterioles until it reaches tissue. Here, blood passes from small arteries into capillaries, then small veins and the process begins again. Blood carries oxygen, waste products, and hormones from one place in the body to another. Blood is filtered at the kidneys and liver.

The body consists of a number of body cavities, separated areas which house different organ systems. The brain and central nervous system reside in an area protected from the rest of the body by the blood brain barrier. The lungs sit in the pleural cavity. The intestines, liver, and spleen sit in the abdominal cavity.

Height, weight, shape and other body proportions vary individually and with age and sex. Body shape is influenced by the distribution of bones, muscle and fat tissue.

Physiology
Human physiology is the study of how the human body functions. This includes the mechanical, physical, bioelectrical, and biochemical functions of humans in good health, from organs to the cells of which they are composed. The human body consists of many interacting systems of organs. These interact to maintain homeostasis, keeping the body in a stable state with safe levels of substances such as sugar and oxygen in the blood.

Each system contributes to homeostasis, of itself, other systems, and the entire body. Some combined systems are referred to by joint names. For example, the nervous system and the endocrine system operate together as the neuroendocrine system. The nervous system receives information from the body, and transmits this to the brain via nerve impulses and neurotransmitters. At the same time, the endocrine system releases hormones, such as to help regulate blood pressure and volume. Together, these systems regulate the internal environment of the body, maintaining blood flow, posture, energy supply, temperature, and acid balance (pH).

Development

Development of the human body is the process of growth to maturity. The process begins with fertilisation, where an egg released from the ovary of a female is penetrated by sperm. The egg then lodges in the uterus, where an embryo and later fetus develop until birth. Growth and development occur after birth, and include both physical and psychological development, influenced by genetic, hormonal, environmental and other factors. Development and growth continue throughout life, through childhood, adolescence, and through adulthood to old age, and are referred to as the process of aging.

Professional study

Health professionals learn about the human body from illustrations, models, and demonstrations. Medical and dental students in addition gain practical experience, for example by dissection of cadavers. Human anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry are basic medical sciences, generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school.

Depiction

In Western societies, the contexts for depictions of the human body include information, art and pornography. Information includes both science and education, such as anatomical drawings. Any ambiguous image not easily fitting into one of these categories may be misinterpreted, leading to disputes. The most contentious disputes are between fine art and erotic images, which define the legal distinction of which images are permitted or prohibited.

History of anatomy

In Ancient Greece, the Hippocratic Corpus described the anatomy of the skeleton and muscles. The 2nd century physician Galen of Pergamum compiled classical knowledge of anatomy into a text that was used throughout the Middle Ages. In the Renaissance, Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) pioneered the modern study of human anatomy by dissection, writing the influential book De humani corporis fabrica. Anatomy advanced further with the invention of the microscope and the study of the cellular structure of tissues and organs. Modern anatomy uses techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, fluoroscopy and ultrasound imaging to study the body in unprecedented detail.

History of physiology
The study of human physiology began with Hippocrates in Ancient Greece, around 420 BCE, and with Aristotle (384–322 BCE) who applied critical thinking and emphasis on the relationship between structure and function. Galen (c. 126) was the first to use experiments to probe the body's functions. The term physiology was introduced by the French physician Jean Fernel (1497–1558). In the 17th century, William Harvey (1578–1657) described the circulatory system, pioneering the combination of close observation with careful experiment. In the 19th century, physiological knowledge began to accumulate at a rapid rate with the cell theory of Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann in 1838, that organisms are made up of cells. Claude Bernard (1813–1878) created the concept of the milieu interieur (internal environment), which Walter Cannon (1871–1945) later said was regulated to a steady state in homeostasis. In the 20th century, the physiologists Knut Schmidt-Nielsen and George Bartholomew extended their studies to comparative physiology and ecophysiology. Most recently, evolutionary physiology has become a distinct subdiscipline.

Human body lists

 * List of skeletal muscles of the human body
 * List of organs of the human body
 * List of distinct cell types in the adult human body
 * List of human microbiota

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Human body


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Miller Brewing Company

The Miller Brewing Company is an American brewery and beer company in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. It was founded in 1855 by Frederick Miller. Molson Coors acquired the full global brand portfolio of Miller Brewing Company in 2016, and operates the Miller Brewery at the site of the original Miller Brewing Company complex.

History

Miller Brewing Company was founded in Milwaukee in 1855 by Frederick Miller after his emigration from Hohenzollern, Germany, in 1854 with a unique brewer's yeast. Initially, he purchased the small Plank Road Brewery for $2,300 ($66,736 in 2018). The brewery's location in what is now the Miller Valley provided easy access to raw materials produced on nearby farms. In 1855, Miller changed its name to Miller Brewing Company, Inc. The enterprise remained in the family until 1966.

The company was one of six breweries affected by the 1953 Milwaukee brewery strike. In 1961, Miller purchased the smallest of the “Big Five” Milwaukee brewers, A. Gettelman Brewing Company.

In 1966, the conglomerate W. R. Grace and Company bought Miller from Lorraine John Mulberger (Frederick Miller's granddaughter, who objected to alcohol) and her family. In 1969, Philip Morris (now Altria) bought Miller from W. R. Grace for $130 million, outbidding PepsiCo.

In 1999, Miller acquired the Hamm's brand from Pabst.

In 2002, South African Breweries bought Miller from Philip Morris for $3.6 billion worth of stock and $2 billion in debt to form SABMiller, with Philip Morris retaining a 36% ownership share and 24.99% voting rights.

In 2006, SABMiller purchased the Sparks and Steel Reserve brands from McKenzie River Corporation for $215 million. Miller had been producing both brands prior to the purchase.

On July 1, 2008, SABMiller formed MillerCoors, a joint venture with rival Molson Coors, to consolidate the production and distribution of its products in the United States, with each parent company's corporate operations and international operations to remain separate and independent of the joint venture. SABMiller owned 58% of the unit, which operated in the United States but not in Canada, where Molson Coors is strongest, but the companies had equal voting power.

Sole ownership by Molson Coors
In September 2015, Anheuser-Busch InBev announced it had reached a full agreement to acquire SABMiller for $107 billion. As part of the agreement with the U.S. Justice Department, SABMiller divested itself of the Miller brands in the U.S. by selling its stake in MillerCoors to Molson Coors. Consequently, on October 11, 2016, SABMiller in the U.S. sold its interests in MillerCoors to Molson Coors for around US $12 billion. Molson Coors gained full ownership of the Miller brand portfolio outside the US, and retained the rights within the U.S. (including Puerto Rico).

Brands

Brands with the Miller name, or historically sold by Miller Brewing company, include:

 * : An American-style lager introduced in 1903, High Life is Miller Brewing's oldest brand and is 4.6% abv. It is noted for its high level of carbonation, like champagne, leading to its longtime slogan "The Champagne of Beers". It was one of the premier high-end beers in the US for many years. High Life bottles feature a bright gold label and are made of a clear glass that has a tapered neck like a champagne bottle. The label includes the "Girl in the Moon" logo, which features a woman in a circus costume seated on a crescent moon. The brand helped popularize 7 U.S.floz pony bottles, introduced in 1972.
 * Miller Lite: An American-style light lager. Introduced in 1972, it was the first light beer to see wide popularity. It is 4.2% abv (4% in Canada).
 * Miller Genuine Draft: Nicknamed MGD, it was introduced in 1985 as "Miller High Life Genuine Draft". Developed to replicate the flavor of High Life from a non-pasteurized keg in a can or bottle, MGD is made from the same recipe as High Life but the beer is cold filtered instead of pasteurized. As of 2007 Genuine Draft had a 1.5% share of the United States market; by 2012 it had declined to 0.7% market share, representing a decline of 1.7 million barrels. It has 4.7% abv.
 * Miller 64: (Formerly Miller Genuine Draft 64) An "ultra light" beer with 2.8% abv, it contains 64 Cal/12USoz(mL)serve. Miller launched this beer in the summer of 2007 in Madison, Wisconsin. It was received favorably and testing expanded to Arizona, San Diego and Sacramento.
 * Frederick Miller Classic Chocolate Lager: A seasonal lager available from October to December in Wisconsin, Chicago, Minneapolis, Cleveland, Indianapolis and northwest Indiana. It is brewed with six different malts, including chocolate and dark chocolate malts.
 * Miller Sharp's: A non-alcoholic beer introduced in 1989.

Economy brands

 * Milwaukee's Best: Miller's economy label. It is 4.8% abv.
 * Milwaukee's Best Light: Light version of Milwaukee's Best. It is 4.1% abv.
 * Milwaukee's Best Ice: Miller's economy ice beer. It is 5.9% abv.

Malt liquor

 * Mickey's: Mickey's is a malt liquor that is 5.6% abv.
 * Olde English 800: Malt liquor also known as "OE". It is 5.9% abv in the eastern United States, 7.5% abv in most western U.S. states and 8.0% abv in Canada.

Discontinued

 * Miller High Life Light: Introduced in 1994, it had 4.1% abv. It was discontinued in 2021 to focus on Miller Lite.
 * Miller Chill: A chelada-style 4.2% abv pale lager brewed with lime and salt. Introduced successfully in 2007, sales dropped in 2008 after the launch of the rival Bud Light Lime. In response, MillerCoors revamped their recipe from a 'chelada' style brew to a light beer with lime, created new packaging which included switching from a green to a clear bottle, and launched a new advertising campaign centered around the slogan "How a Light Beer with a Taste of Lime Should Taste". It was discontinued in 2013.

Sponsorships
Miller has been a large motorsport sponsor since the 1980s. In the CART World Series, the company has sponsored drivers such as Al Unser (1984), Danny Sullivan (1985–1989, 1991), Roberto Guerrero (1990), Bobby Rahal (1992–1998) and Kenny Bräck (2003). It also sponsored the Miller 200 race at Mid-Ohio.

In 1997, Miller Brewing Company, under its Miller Lite brand, sponsored a car in the Indy Racing League, specifically for the Indianapolis 500. The car was driven by Arie Luyendyk. This sponsorship was significant as Luyendyk won the 1997 Indianapolis 500.

In the NASCAR Cup Series, Miller has sponsored Bobby Allison from 1983 to 1988, Dick Trickle in 1989, Rusty Wallace from 1990 to 2005, Kurt Busch from 2006 to 2010, and Brad Keselowski from 2011 to 2020. Allison won the 1983 NASCAR Winston Cup Series, and Keselowski won the 2012 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series. The company has sponsored the Miller High Life 500, Miller 500, Miller High Life 400, Miller 400, Miller 300, Miller 200, and Miller 150 races.

In the NHRA, Miller sponsored Larry Dixon for 11 years until 2007.

From its opening in 2001 until the end of 2020, Miller owned the naming rights to Miller Park, home of the Milwaukee Brewers when the naming rights were bought by American Family Insurance in 2019.

title: Miller Brewing Company


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LocalTalk

LocalTalk is a particular implementation of the physical layer of the AppleTalk networking system from Apple Computer.

LocalTalk specifies a system of shielded twisted pair cabling, plugged into self-terminating transceivers, running at a rate of 230.4 kbit/s. CSMA/CA was implemented as a random multiple access method.

Networking was envisioned in the Macintosh during planning, so the Mac was given expensive RS-422 capable serial ports, first on a nine-pin D-connector, then on a mini-DIN-8 connector. The ports were driven by the Zilog SCC, which could serve as either a standard UART or handle the much more complicated HDLC protocol, which was a packet oriented protocol that incorporated addressing, bit-stuffing, and packet checksumming in hardware. Coupled together with the RS422 electrical connections, this provided a reasonably-high-speed data connection.

The 230.4 kbit/s bit rate is the highest in the series of standard serial bit rates (110, 150, 300, 600, 1200, 2400, 4800, 9600, 14400, 19200, 28800, 38400, 57600, 115200, 230400) derived from the 3.6864 MHz clock after the customary divide-by-16. This clock frequency, 3.6864 MHz, was chosen (in part) to support the common asynchronous baud rates up to 38.4 kbit/s using the SCC's internal baud-rate generator. When the SCC's internal PLL was used to lock to the clock embedded in the LocalTalk serial data stream (using its FM0 encoding method) a divide-by-16 setting on the PLL yielded the fastest rate available, namely 230.4 kbit/s.

Originally released as "AppleTalk Personal Network", LocalTalk used shielded twisted-pair cable with three-pin mini-DIN connectors. Cables were daisy-chained from transceiver to transceiver. Each transceiver had two three-pin mini-DIN ports, and a "pigtail" cable to connect to the Mac's DE-9 serial connector. Later, when the Mac Plus introduced the eight-pin mini-DIN serial connector, transceivers were updated as well.

A variation of LocalTalk called PhoneNET was introduced by Farallon Computing. It used standard unshielded side-by-side telephone wire, with six-position modular connectors (same as the popular RJ11 telephone connectors) connected to a PhoneNET transceiver, instead of the expensive, shielded, twisted-pair cable. In addition to being lower cost, PhoneNET-wired networks were more reliable due to the connections being more difficult to accidentally disconnect. In addition, because it used the "outer" pair of the modular connector, it could travel on many pre-existing phone cables and jacks where just the inner pair was in use for RJ11 telephone service. PhoneNET was also able to use an office's existing phone wire, allowing for entire floors of computers to be easily networked. Farallon introduced a 12-port hub, which made constructing star topology networks of up to 48 devices as easy as adding jacks at the workstations and some jumpers in the phone closet. These factors led to PhoneNET largely supplanting LocalTalk wiring in low-cost networking.

The useful life of PhoneNET was extended with the introduction of LocalTalk switching technology by Tribe Computer Works. Introduced in 1990, the Tribe LocalSwitch was a 16-port packet switch designed to speed up overloaded PhoneNET networks.

The widespread availability of Ethernet-based networking in the early 1990s led to the swift disappearance of both LocalTalk and PhoneNET. They remained in use for some time in low-cost applications and applications where Ethernet was not used. Macintosh Quadra and early models of Power Macintosh supported both 10BASE2 and 10BASE-T via the Apple Attachment Unit Interface (AAUI), and all other Ethernet media via an AAUI–AUI adapter, while still supporting LocalTalk-based networking. For older Macintosh computers that did not have built-in Ethernet, a high-speed SCSI-to-Ethernet adapter was available, and was particularly popular on PowerBooks. This enabled all but the earliest Macintosh models to access a high-speed Ethernet network.

With the release of the iMac in 1998 the traditional Mac serial port—and thus, the ability to use both LocalTalk and PhoneNET—disappeared from new models of Macintosh. LocalTalk-to-Ethernet bridges were introduced to allow legacy devices (especially printers) to function on newer networks. For very old Macintosh computers, LocalTalk remains the only option.

Design legacy
The LocalTalk connector had the distinction of being the first to use Apple's unified AppleTalk Connector Family design, created by Brad Bissell of Frog Design using Rick Meadows' Apple Icon Family designs. LocalTalk connectors were first released in January 1985 to connect the LaserWriter printer initially with the Macintosh family of computers as an integral part of the newly announced Macintosh Office. However, well past the move to Ethernet, the connector's design continued to be used on all of Apple's peripherals and cable connectors as well as influencing the connectors used throughout the industry as a whole.

title: LocalTalk


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Passed ball

In baseball, a catcher is charged with a passed ball when he fails to hold or control a legally pitched ball that, with ordinary effort, should have been maintained under his control, and, as a result of this loss of control, the batter or a runner on base advances. A runner who advances due to a passed ball is not credited with a stolen base unless he breaks for the base before the pitcher begins his delivery.

History
A passed ball may be scored when a base runner reaches the next base on a bobble or missed catch by the catcher, or when the batter–runner reaches first base on an uncaught strike three (see also Strikeout).

A closely related statistic is the wild pitch. As with many baseball statistics, whether a pitch that gets away from a catcher is a passed ball or wild pitch is at the discretion of the official scorer. Typically, pitches that are deemed to be ordinarily catchable by the catcher, but are not, are ruled passed balls; pitches that get by the catcher that are thought to have required extraordinary effort by the catcher in order to stop them are wild pitches. If the pitch was so low as to touch the ground, or so high that the catcher has to rise out of his crouched position to get to it, or so wide that the catcher has to lunge for it, it is usually then considered a wild pitch and not a passed ball.

A run scored due to a passed ball is not recorded as an earned run. However, a run scored due to a wild pitch is recorded as an earned run.

Passed balls and wild pitches are considered to be part of the act of pitching rather than fielding. Thus they are kept as separate statistics and are not recorded as errors.

There tends to be a higher incidence of passed balls when a knuckleballer is pitching. The physics that make a knuckleball so difficult to hit make it similarly difficult to catch. While teams with a knuckleballer on their pitching staff often employ a special "knuckleball catcher" who is equipped with a knuckleball mitt, similar to a first baseman's glove, it is still extremely difficult to catch.

Records
The MLB career record for passed balls allowed is 763 by Pop Snyder, while Rudy Kemmler set the single season record of 114 in 1883. The single season record in the modern era is 35, set by Geno Petralli in 1987. The record for passed balls in a single game, six, was set by Rube Vickers in 1902 and later tied by Petralli in 1987 and Jerry Goff in 1996. The record for passed balls in a single inning is four, and is jointly held by Petralli, Ray Katt, and Ryan Lavarnway, all three of whom were catching knuckleball pitchers.

title: Passed ball


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Pudelpointer

The Pudelpointer is a versatile hunting dog breed from Germany. It is a pointing breed that came from a cross between the German hunting poodle (pudel) and the English Pointer.

Appearance
The breed weighs between 44 and 66 lb, stands 21 to 26 in at the shoulder, and comes in liver, chestnut, and occasionally black coats. The ideal coat is harsh, wiry, and dense. The dogs shed very little.

History
In 1881, a German breeder, Baron 'Hegewald' von Zedlitz, worked on producing his ideal tracking, pointing, and retrieving gun dog, suitable for work on both land and water. From seven water Poodles and 90 different pointers, he developed the Pudelpointer. The original sire was Tell, an English Pointer belonging to Kaiser Frederick III and the original dam was a German hunting pudel named Molly who was owned by Hegewald.

The goal was to produce a dog that was willing and easy to train, intelligent, and loved water and retrieving, like the poodle, and add to that a great desire to hunt, a strong pointing instinct, and an excellent nose, like in the English Pointer, as well as being an excellent companion in the home.

The Poodle breed had much stronger genes, and so many more Pointers were used to achieve the balanced hunting dog that was desired. A mix of 11 Pudels and 80 Pointers were used during the first 30 years to achieve the desired traits and results.

The breed was introduced to North America in 1956 by Bodo Winterhelt, who remained involved in maintaining the breed standard until his death in 2018. His Winterhelle Kennel was the foundation of the breed in North America. In 1977 Winterhelt founded the Pudelpointer Club of North America in Canada.

In Germany as well as North America, its performance standards are its most important trait. Before being approved for breeding, dogs and bitches must pass Hunt Test with minimum scores of their performance tests of its field, tracking, and water skills set by the various breed clubs. These clubs are the Verein Pudelpointer in Germany and the following clubs in North America: NAPPA, PCNA and VPP-GNA). The North American Versatile Hunting Dog Association (NAVHDA) also tests pudelpointers and other breeds of versatile hunting dogs.

The pudelpointer never became a popularized breed in the United States in part because breeders have actively avoided recognition by the American Kennel Club. Breeders believe that AKC recognition would place too much emphasis on form over function, possibly splitting the breed into a show breed and separate working class.

title: Pudelpointer


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Talk:Language game

Erm, why is there a "Part of a series on Philosophy of religion" sidebar here? -- Transitive Sam

I'm not convinced that fanqie, the language game listed for Mandarin, counts as a game. Looking at the Wikipedia entry for it, it's more of a method of spelling things out phonetically than obscuring speech. I don't know too much about Fanqie, so if someone qualified on it can take a look, it'd help.

What about theme based games? For example, discussing any single given topic (e.g., sunflowers) using automotive terminology in each sentence. How about the bad prose competition?

Is useless language the proper term? It seems that there is a use for such "languages": to conceal conversation. -- Stephen Gilbert

I agree, if pig latin was used by the African American slaves, then it should not be called useless!

swiped this from wikipedia "Useless language" which is now redirected to this plural-named (sorry) page(s)

I don't think "language game" is the right place for this article, either--it is a technical term in philosophy, due to Wittgenstein. --LMS

 * 1) I agree. When I came to this article I was seeking what communication theorists and philosopher's mean by it, not funny things one can do to speech. The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy has a nice little [definition]. Reagle 21:49, 5 May 2005 (UTC)

Again, I'm thinking that "language game" isn't the right name for this concept--can someone research this? The term is has a well-established meaning in philosophy, due to Wittgenstein, and I think in critical theory too. --LMS

Hi, I removed "as a weak form of cryptography" because a) it didn't make the text easier to read and b) I mostly think of cryptography as written (digital or analog, words, letters or bits), not spoken (that's just the connotation "-graphy" has in my brain). Please don't think of this as vandalism. I added some swedish language games as well. -- Anon. newbie (I'll get a real name someday...)

speech disguise?
My phonology textbook (Kenstowicz 1994) uses the term "speech disguise" for the second sense of "language game" on this page. I got a bunch of google results with similar uses. We could move the stuff on Pig Latin and such to Speech disguise and reserve this page for the Wittgensteinian concept (with a pointer to the other page, of course). --Chris 21:24, 13 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Er... I think we all agree, this article is way off.

Wittgenstein was saying that all languages were language games (1), and actually making a claim about truth, logic and language in general. It's a behaviorist's account of meaning that dodges some of the problems Frege and Russell ran into when they revised Aristotelian logic. These specialized accounts of games with language kinda miss all the relevance of his theory. I don't have time for an article tonight, nor am I really enough of an authority here, but I'll see if I can't get someone to write/help me write a wholesale replacement here.

(1) In the IEP's entry on Wittgenstein, language games are first introduced with a definition in a parenthetical, like so: "Wittgenstein wants his reader not to think (too much) but to look at the "language games" (any practices that involve language) that give rise to philosophical (personal, existential, spiritual) problems."

I moved the linguistics portion to language game (linguistics), changed language game to a disambiguation page, and redirected language game (philosophy) to language-game to make room for a longer article on Wittgenstein's concept of a language-game (the article is in progress). I'm not qualified to judge the linguistics portion of the article, so I've left that alone. The majority of the changes to the page appear to be to that section of it, so someone should probably revert language game to its pre-disambiguation changes, rename it to language game (linguistics) and add back the disambiguation text to language game. --Michael Esveldt

Surely "Anytwo up five elevenis?" (instead of "Anytwo up for elevenis?") I don't know this language game though, so I don't feel authorized to make the change.

Isn't language game a type of word game?
If so, this article and this category could be recategorized in accordance. Adam78 00:15, 8 November 2005 (UTC)

 * I don't think so, language games are really more like spoken ciphers than games. They aren't really played, they're spoken.  –Benjamin  ( talk )  17:00, 8 November 2005 (UTC)

Classification
IMO the Classification section is somewhat weak - surely more patterns are discernible among the vast list of examples than this discussion has brought to light? Also, I seem to recall (but cannot verify) that language games (aka secret speech) with more complex rules than any of those listed do exist. For example, a variant of Dong, which might be called Ding Dong Dang (but I haven't heard it named), goes like this:
 * English - Ding Dong Dang - Spelling out words, using plain vowel sounds and '-ing', '-ong', '-ang' alternating in strict rotation after each consonant. "Let's go" = "Ling ee tong sang, ging oh." yoyo 06:09, 23 May 2006 (UTC)

I wonder whether the term cant covers this sense of the phrase language game? It's used in the article to describe one form of secret speech as a butcher's cant. At any rate, I suggest cant as an alternative name for this page. yoyo 15:57, 17 December 2006 (UTC)

Remove Info
Yardle Bardle isn't followed up by anything, it may exsist but theres no point if it has no information to give. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Biggofwi (talk • contribs) 03:26, 14 December 2006 (UTC).

List of Common Language Games
I'm new at editing, and would like to add a language to the list of examples. First of all, is this allowed? If so, I can't figure out how to get my addition into the table format shown in the article. Anybody have any tips? Alphadalpha 05:43, 3 January 2007 (UTC)

 * This may come a bit late, but it depends if it's constructive or not. Copy the section beginning with "|-" to the next "|-", replace the names and descriptions with your own and insert it on the proper place in the edit mode being constructive :-). —Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.186.197.159 (talk) 14:43, 17 March 2009 (UTC)

Uvgum
Uvgum ..... I seem to know many speakers.

It involves splitting words into syllables and inserting "vg" before the vowel sound, so "I dislike your bicycle" becomes "IvgI dvgis lvgike yvgour bvgi cvgi cvgle" 163.1.42.6 12:47, 15 February 2007 (UTC)Tom 15/2/07

-izn
For consideration. Similar to (and predecessor of) the -izzle stylistic language game of AAVE. Examples: shit -> shiznit, fries -> friznies (this one from Dee Barnes). Probably most common nowadays as a way of forming minced oaths (as in first example) -- see also biznatch / biznitch, etc. Seemingly only used on one-syllable words. - 65.203.234.66 (talk) 16:36, 30 May 2008 (UTC)

This and other forms can all be traced to the same source-- Frankie Smith's Children of Tomorrow album-- specifically to two songs "Double Dutch Bus" and "Slang Thang." —Preceding unsigned comment added by Moocho (talk • contribs) 13:10, 10 April 2009 (UTC)
 * Sorry, but none of this can be included in the article unless you can provide a reliable source. r ʨ anaɢ talk/contribs 13:16, 10 April 2009 (UTC)

renaming proposal
I'd like to rename this page, 'language game' is well-sourced as a philosophical concept, and I don't see any sourcing for its use in this context - isn't there a better phrase for things like pig latin? maybe this should be lumped as a section in code? -- Ludwigs 2 19:14, 19 April 2011 (UTC)

 * "Language game" to describe this sort of phenomenon is really the only term used in linguistics to describe it, so it wouldn't make much sense to rename this article. One could add a section for the term's use in philosophy. Auvon (talk) 17:56, 18 November 2016 (UTC)

Philosophy of religion
As with a user above, I can't see why this article is 'part of a series on the philosophy of religion', especially as the article makes no reference to its religious relevance apart from the box in question. Can anyone enlighten us and perhaps add something about religion to the article? PamukSoundystem (talk) 16:32, 20 April 2012 (UTC)

Missing Language
There appears to be a "language" missing. My Mom was very facile with Alfalfa Language. I have found some references and rules on the Internet. I have run across a number of people who have heard of or were familiar with and used the "language". Shouldn't that be included here? Also shouldn't there be a listing on the Alfalfa disambiguation page? Also, since there are articles for other "languages" such as Pig Latin and Ubbi Dubbi shouldn't there be one on Alfalfa Language? Quisizyx (talk) 23:54, 11 March 2017 (UTC)

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Urdu
بولو 39.62.42.168 (talk) 06:56, 31 May 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Language game


text:
Libero Liberati

Libero Liberati (20 September 1926 – 5 March 1962) was an Italian motorcycle racer and the 1957 500cc Grand Prix World Champion.

Liberati was born in Terni. He became famous in his country, winning the Italian championship in 1948. Two years later Moto Guzzi called him to race in the 500cc World Championship, where he took part in a single race. The same happened the following year with Gilera. Liberati scored his first points in the World Championship in 1953, and his first race victory came in 1956 in the 350cc class. In 1957, Liberati won the 500cc World Championship, scoring a total of four victories. He also won a race in the 350cc class. However, at the end of the season, a dispute with the Gilera factory left him without a ride. Two years later Moto Morini gave him the opportunity to race again, this time in the 250cc class.

On 5 March 1962, Liberati died from an accident, after he slipped on the wet road, violently hitting his head, during a training session on the Strada statale 209 Valnerina.

Motorcycle Grand Prix results
(key) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

title: Libero Liberati


text:
Surrealist automatism

Surrealist automatism is a method of art-making in which the artist suppresses conscious control over the making process, allowing the unconscious mind to have great sway. This drawing technique was popularized in the early 1920s, by Andre Masson and Hans Arp.

Origins
Automatism has taken on many forms: the automatic writing and drawing initially (and still to this day) explored by the surrealists can be compared to similar or parallel phenomena, such as the non-idiomatic improvisation. "Psychic automatism in its pure state" was how André Breton defined Surrealism, and while the definition has proved capable of expansion, automatism remains of prime importance in the movement.

Early 20th-century Dadaists, such as Hans Arp, made some use of this method through chance operations. Surrealist artists, most notably André Masson, adapted to art the automatic writing method of André Breton and Philippe Soupault who composed with it Les Champs Magnétiques (The Magnetic Fields) in 1919. The Automatic Message (1933) was one of Breton's significant theoretical works about automatism.

Automatic drawing and painting
Automatic drawing (distinguished from drawn expression of mediums) is an artistic technique developed by surrealists in which the hand is allowed to move randomly across the paper. In applying chance and accident to mark-making, drawing is to a large extent freed of rational control. Hence the drawing produced may be attributed in part to the subconscious and may reveal something of the psyche, which would otherwise be repressed. Examples of automatic drawing were produced by mediums and practitioners of the psychic arts. It was thought by some Spiritualists to be a spirit control that was producing the drawing while physically taking control of the medium's body.

Automatic drawing was first written about by the English artist Austin Osman Spare who wrote a chapter, Automatic Drawing as a Means to Art, in his book, The Book of Pleasure (1913). Other artists who also practised automatic drawing were Hilma af Klint, André Masson, Joan Miró, Salvador Dalí, Jean Arp, André Breton and Freddy Flores Knistoff.

The technique of automatic drawing was transferred to painting (as seen in Miró's paintings which often started out as automatic drawings), and has been adapted to other media; there have even been automatic "drawings" in computer graphics. Pablo Picasso was also thought to have expressed a type of automatic drawing in his later work, and particularly in his etchings and lithographic suites of the 1960s.

Most of the surrealists' automatic drawings were illusionistic, or more precisely, they developed into such drawings when representational forms seemed to suggest themselves. In the 1940s and 1950s the French-Canadian group called Les Automatistes pursued creative work (chiefly painting) based on surrealist principles. They abandoned any trace of representation in their use of automatic drawing. This is perhaps a more pure form of automatic drawing since it can be almost entirely involuntary – to develop a representational form requires the conscious mind to take over the process of drawing, unless it is entirely accidental and thus incidental. These artists, led by Paul-Émile Borduas, sought to proclaim an entity of universal values and ethics proclaimed in their manifesto Refus Global.

As alluded to above, surrealist artists often found that their use of "automatic drawing" was not entirely automatic, rather it involved some form of conscious intervention to make the image or painting visually acceptable or comprehensible, "...Masson admitted that his 'automatic' imagery involved a two-fold process of unconscious and conscious activity...."

Surautomatism
Some Romanian surrealists invented a number of surrealist techniques (such as cubomania, entoptic graphomania, and the movement of liquid down a vertical surface) that purported to take automatism to an absurd point, and the name given, "surautomatism", implies that the methods "go beyond" automatism, but this position is controversial.

Paul-Emile Borduas
The notion of automatism is also rooted in the artistic movement of the same name founded by Montreal artist Paul-Emile Borduas in 1942; himself influenced by the Dadaist movement as well as André Breton. He, as well as a dozen other artists from Quebec's artistic scene, very much under restrictive and authoritarian rule in that period, signed the Global Refusal manifesto, in which the artists called upon North American society (specifically in the culturally unique environment of Quebec), to take notice and act upon the societal evolution projected by these new cultural paradigms opened by the Automatist movement as well as other influences in the 1940s.

Contemporary techniques
The computer, like the typewriter, can be used to produce automatic writing and automatic poetry. The practice of automatic drawing, originally performed with pencil or pen and paper, has also been adapted to mouse and monitor, and other automatic methods have also been either adapted from non-digital media, or invented specifically for the computer. For instance, filters have been automatically run in some bitmap editor programs such as Photoshop and GIMP, and computer-controlled brushes have been used by Roman Verostko to simulate automatism. Grandview — a software application created in 2011 for the Mac — displays one word at a time across the entire screen as a user types, facilitating automatic writing.

title: Surrealist automatism


text:
Talk:Pseudorandom number sequence

There is a problem here, old chap. Basically, unless you can prove that it is impossible to generate a pseudorandom sequence which does not repeat, you have to accept the possibility of it repeating. If the federal standard whatever says otherwise, it is incorrect. I think that one MUST accept the possibility of a non-repeating pseudorandom sequence. Consider counting with unbounded arbitrary size integers, and feeding them into a hash function. The sequence never repeats.

Cleanup
Merge with Pseudo-random number? --Alan Au 03:51, 5 May 2005 (UTC)

Cleanup? Yes. Merge? No.
1. Pseudo-random sequence is finite by definition, so, it "repeats". 2. Terms are mixed here. Pseudo-random sequences are not necessarily sequences of 0's and 1's. The latter ones are called pseudo-random binary sequences or PRBS's. 3. The number of 0's and 1's are not necessarily about the same. Those with about equal number of 0's and 1's have a duty cycle of 1/2 but duty cycle can be other than one-half, ranging between 0 and 1.

title: Talk:Pseudorandom number sequence


text:
Talk:Regex

I am not sure that the current text is correct. Spencer doesn't use the term "regex" for his library on his page, whereas a regex++ library by someone else exists. There's also GNU regex. I think Spencer's library was originally called regex and is now called rxspencer. AxelBoldt, Thursday, May 30, 2002

title: Talk:Regex


text:
Belgian euro coins

Belgian euro coins feature only a single design for all eight coins: the portrait or effigy of the King of the Belgians. Previously, all Belgian euros depicted King Albert II and his royal monogram. Current coins depict King Philippe. Also part of the design by Jan Alfons Keustermans are the 12 stars of the EU and the year of imprint.

Belgian euro design
For images of the common side and a detailed description of the coins, see euro coins.

In Belgium, the euro was introduced in 2002. However, the first sets of coins were minted, as preparation, in 1999. Hence the first euro coins of Belgium are marked 1999, not 2002.

First series (1999–2007)
Belgian euro coins dated 1999–2007 have the portrait of King Albert II.

Prior to 2007, the old common side showing national borders was used, but the 2007 coins used the new common side without borders.

There are no signature marks or mint marks on both these types of coins.

Second series (2008)
In order to conform to the common guidelines on the design of national faces of coins, Belgium updated the design of the Belgian national face of euro coins to be produced from 2008. Coins from previous years featuring the old Belgian national face remain valid.

The changes are:
 * The coin's inner section shows an effigy of King Albert II in profile facing to the left.
 * To the right of this, the royal monogram is displayed and, below it, the indication of the country ‘BE’.
 * Underneath the effigy, the signature mark of the Master of the Mint is displayed on the left and the mint mark on the right, either side of the year.
 * The outer ring of the coin depicts the twelve stars of the European flag only.

As from 2007, the Belgian euro coins also adopted the new common map like the rest of the eurozone countries. A proportion of the Belgian 2 euro coins -common part, the map looks smooth, whereas, the same map on the euros coming from other eurozone countries is dotted.

Belgium is the second state in the EMU, after Finland, to, from 2008 on, change the design of their standard circulation euro coins in accordance with recommendations defined by the Economic and Financial Affairs Council of the European Union.

Amendment (2009-2013)
The 2008 portrait did not comply with previous decisions by the ECOFIN in 2005 and 2008. Therefore, an amendment was made, which reverted to the portrait of Albert II found in the 2002 series. Mint marks, year and stars remain the same. Some collectors consider this as a third series but since unlike all series it was not published in the official journal of the European Union, it is actually an amendment and not a new series.

Third series (2014–present)
Following the accession of King Philippe after the abdication of Albert II, new distinctive sides were added depicting the new monarch.

Coins with the new obverse were struck from 4 February 2014. The obverses were designed by Luc Luycx.

Circulating mintage quantities
The following table shows the mintage quantity for all Belgian euro coins issued into circulation, per denomination, per year.

Belgian proof set
Each year the Royal Belgian Mint issues a limited edition of its euro coins in proof quality. Since January 2018, the Royal Belgian Mint has ceased to strike coins for Belgium, the Royal Dutch Mint has since struck all the euro coins for Belgium.

Other commemorative coins (collectors' coins)
Belgium has a good collection of euro commemorative coins, solely in silver and gold. Their face values range from 2.5 euros to 100 euros. This is mainly done as a legacy of old national practice of minting gold and silver coins. These coins are not really intended to be used as means of payment, so generally they do not circulate.

title: Belgian euro coins