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Lust

Lust is an intense desire for something. Lust can take any form such as the lust for sexuality (see libido), money, or power. It can take such mundane forms as the lust for food (see gluttony) as distinct from the need for food or lust for redolence, when one is lusting for a particular smell that brings back memories. It is similar to but distinguished from passion, in that passion propels individuals to achieve benevolent goals whilst lust does not.

In religion
Religions tend to draw a distinction between passion and lust by further categorizing lust as an immoral desire and passion as morally accepted.

Lust is defined as immoral because its object or action of affection is improperly ordered according to natural law and/or the appetite for the particular object (eg sexual desire) is governing the person's will and intellect rather than the will and intellect governing the appetite for that object.

Whereas passion, regardless of its strength, is maintained to be something God-given and moral, because the purpose, actions and intentions behind it are benevolent and ordered toward creation, while also being governed by the person's intellect and will. A primary school of thought on this is Thomism, which speaks on the intellect, will and appetite, and draws from principles defined by Aristotle. However, the exact definitions assigned to what is morally definite and ordered toward creation depend on the religion. For example, religions based in pantheism and theism will differ on what is moral according to the nature of the "God" acknowledged or worshipped.

Judaism
In Judaism, all evil inclinations and lusts of the flesh are characterized by Yetzer hara (Hebrew, יצר הרע, the evil inclination). Yetzer hara is not a demonic force; rather, it is man's misuse of the things which the physical body needs to survive, and is often contrasted with yetzer hatov (Hebrew, יצר הטוב, the positive desire).

Yetzer HaRa is often identified with Satan and the angel of death, and there is sometimes a tendency to give a personality and separate activity to the yetzer. For the yetzer, like Satan, misleads man in this world, and testifies against him in the world to come. The yetzer is, however, clearly distinguished from Satan, and on other occasions is made exactly parallel to sin. The Torah is considered the great antidote against this force. Though, like all things which God has made, the yetzer hara (evil inclination) can be manipulated into doing good: for without it, man would never marry, beget a child, build a house, or occupy himself in a trade.

New Testament
In many translations of the New Testament, the word "lust" translates the Koine Greek word ἐπιθυμέω (epithūméō), particularly in Matthew 5:27-28:

"Ye have heard that it was said by them of old time, Thou shalt not commit adultery: But I say unto you, That whosoever looketh on a woman to lust (ἐπιθυμέω) after her hath committed adultery with her already in his heart."

In English-speaking countries, the term "lust" is often associated with sexual desire, probably because of this verse. However, just as the English word was originally a general term for 'desire', the Greek word ἐπιθυμέω was also a general term for desire. The LSJ lexicon suggests "set one's heart upon a thing, long for, covet, desire" as glosses for ἐπιθυμέω, which is used in verses that clearly have nothing to do with sexual desire. In the Septuagint, ἐπιθυμέω is the word used in the commandment to not covet:

"You shall not covet your neighbour's wife; you shall not covet your neighbour's house or his field or his male slave or his female slave or his ox or his draft animal or any animal of his or whatever belongs to your neighbour."

While coveting your neighbour's wife may involve sexual desire, it's unlikely that coveting a neighbour's house or field is sexual in nature. And in most New Testament uses, the same Greek word, ἐπιθυμέω, does not have a clear sexual connotation. For example, from the American Standard Version the same word is used outside of any sexual connotation:

 * 1) Matthew 13:17: For verily I say unto you, that many prophets and righteous men desired to see the things which ye see, and saw them not; and to hear the things which ye hear, and heard them not.
 * 2) Luke 22:15-16: And he said unto them, With desire I have desired to eat this passover with you before I suffer: for I say unto you, I shall not eat it, until it be fulfilled in the kingdom of God.
 * 3) Acts 20:33: I coveted no man's silver, or gold, or apparel. Ye yourselves know that these hands ministered unto my necessities, and to them that were with me.
 * 4) Luke 15:14-16: And when he had spent all, there arose a mighty famine in that country; and he began to be in want. And he went and joined himself to one of the citizens of that country; and he sent him into his fields to feed swine. And he would fain have filled his belly with the husks that the swine did eat: and no man gave unto him.

Catholicism

According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, a Christian's heart is lustful when "venereal satisfaction is sought for either outside wedlock or, at any rate, in a manner which is contrary to the laws that govern marital intercourse". Pope John Paul II said that lust devalues the eternal attraction of male and female, reducing personal riches of the opposite sex to an object for gratification of sexuality.

Lust is considered by Catholicism to be a disordered desire for sexual pleasure, where sexual pleasure is "sought for itself, isolated from its procreative and unitive purposes". In Catholicism, sexual desire in itself is good, and is considered part of God's plan for humanity. However, when sexual desire is separated from God's love, it becomes disordered and self-seeking. This is seen as lust.

St. Thomas Aquinas differentiates between sexual intercourse within marriage, which is seen as meritorious through giving justice to one's spouse, and sins of lust which can themselves be differentiated in magnitude of immorality according to intention and action. For example, Aquinas says in the Summa Theologica II-II, q. 154, a. 12 "I answer that, In every genus, worst of all is the corruption of the principle on which the rest depend. Now the principles of reason are those things that are according to nature, because reason presupposes things as determined by nature, before disposing of other things according as it is fitting." He uses St. Augustine as his source writing "Augustine says that 'of all these,' namely the sins belonging to lust, 'that which is against nature is the worst.'" Which St. Thomas clarifies means that they are greater than sins against justice pertaining to the genus of lust, such as rape or incest, in his statement "Reply to Objection 3: The nature of the species is more intimately united to each individual, than any other individual is. Wherefore sins against the specific nature are more grievous." Thus St. Thomas gives the order of magnitude of lustful acts as: "The most grievous is the sin of bestiality, because use of the due species is not observed...(Then) the sin of sodomy, because use of the right sex is not observed...(Then) the sin of not observing the right manner of copulation (or the unatural act or masturbation)... (Then) incest... is contrary to the natural respect which we owe persons related to us... Then, it is a greater injustice to have intercourse with a woman who is subject to another's authority as regards the act of generation, than as regards merely her guardianship. Wherefore adultery is more grievous than seduction. And both of these are aggravated by the use of violence."

The Latin for extravagance (Latin: luxuria) was used by St. Jerome to translate a variety of biblical sins, including drunkenness and sexual excess. Gregory the Great placed luxuria as one of the seven capital sins (it is often considered the least serious of the seven deadly sins), narrowing its scope to disordered desire, and it was in this sense that the Middle Ages generally took luxuria, (although the Old French cognate was adopted into English as luxury without its sexual meaning by the 14th century).

In Romanesque art, the personified Luxuria is generally feminine, often represented by a siren or a naked woman with breasts being bitten by snakes. Prudentius in his Psychomachia or 'Battle of the Soul' had described

"Luxury, lavish of her ruined fame, Loose-haired, wild-eyed, her voice a dying fall, Lost in delight...."

For Dante, Luxuria was both the first of the circles of incontinence (or self-indulgence) on the descent into hell, and the last of the cornices of Mount Purgatory, representing the excessive (disordered) love of individuals; while for Edmund Spenser, luxuria was synonymous with the power of desire.

For Gregory and subsequent Thomists, the 'daughters' (by-products) of Luxuria included mental blindness, self-love, haste, and excessive attachment to the present. Marianne Dashwood has been seen as embodying such characteristics for a later age – as a daughter of Luxuria.

The Catholic Church defines lust as the idolatry of sexual pleasure, in all of its forms: contraception, masturbation, adultery, premarital relations, relations between persons of the same sex, etc, which destroys the human capacity of loving, that is, of the person to give themselves to God and to others.

Protestantism
The evangelical Melvin Tinker states that: "The principle is clear isn't it, 'You shall not commit adultery'? How does the Pharisee handle it according to the minimum requirement method? He says, 'Sex outside marriage is OK for us because neither of us are really married. I am not sleeping with another man's wife, so it isn't adultery, she's my girlfriend'. Or it is also not adultery because 'I have not had sex with that woman.' to quote President Clinton's plea in the Monica Lewinski [sic] saga. So he can abuse his position as President by messing around with a girl who is hardly younger than his daughter, he can engage in all kinds of sexual activities with her, but because he technically doesn't have intercourse he can hold up his hands and say, 'I have not had sex with that woman.' That is a Pharisee speaking.

"But the maximum application method says, adultery doesn't just happen when you have sexual intercourse, it happens in your heart. However, the mistranslation is unfortunate at this point. In the Greek it says, 'If anyone looks upon a woman in order to lust, has already committed adultery with her in his heart.' That is an important distinction. I need to point that out because sexual arousal, sexual interest, sexual attraction are essential for the continuation of the human species.

It is about looking in order to lust. The striptease show, the dirty movie or video, the internet pornography.

You see, it is the intending to look in order to have that arousal that Jesus has in his sights."

Islam
In Islam, lust is considered one of the primitive states of the self, called the nafs. In sufi psychology, according to Robert Frager, nafs is an aspect of psyche that begins as our worst adversary but can develop into an invaluable tool.

In the Quran there is a passage when Zuleikha admits that she sought to seduce prophet Joseph (Arabic: Yousuf), and then prophet Joseph said: "Yet I claim not that my soul was innocent -- surely the soul of man [nafs] incites to evil -- except inasmuch as my Lord had mercy; truly my Lord is All-forgiving, All-compassionate." (Qur'an 12:53). Al-Ghazali, in his major works Ihya' Ulum al-Din (The Revival of Religious Sciences), stated that nafs in this passage is the lowest state of the soul, called nafs al-ammara (evil soul); while the other states of the soul are nafs al-mulhama (questioning soul), nafs al-lawwama (self-accusing soul), and nafs al-mutmainna (contented soul).

Muslims are encouraged to overcome their baser instincts and intentional lascivious glances are forbidden. Lascivious thoughts are disliked, for they are the first step towards adultery, rape and other antisocial behaviors. The Islamic prophet Muhammad also stressed the magnitude of the "second glance", as while the first glance towards an attractive member of the opposite sex could be just accidental or observatory, the second glance could be that gate into lustful thinking.

Hinduism
In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna, an Avatar of Vishnu, declared in chapter 16, verse 21 that lust is one of the gates to Naraka or hell.

"Arjuna said: O descendant of Vrsni, by what is one impelled to sinful acts, even unwillingly, as if engaged by force? Then Krishna said: It is lust only, Arjuna, which is born of contact with the material mode of passion and later transformed into wrath, and which is the all-devouring sinful enemy of this world. As fire is covered by smoke, as a mirror is covered by dust, or as the embryo is covered by the womb, the living entity is similarly covered by different degrees of this lust. Thus the wise living entity's pure consciousness becomes covered by his eternal enemy in the form of lust, which is never satisfied and which burns like fire. The senses, the mind and the intelligence are the sitting places of this lust. Through them lust covers the real knowledge of the living entity and bewilders him. Therefore, O Arjuna, best of the Bharatas, in the very beginning curb this great symbol of sin—(lust) by regulating the senses, and slay this destroyer of knowledge and self-realization. The working senses are superior to dull matter; mind is higher than the senses; intelligence is still higher than the mind; and he [the soul] is even higher than the intelligence. Thus knowing oneself to be transcendental to the material senses, mind and intelligence, O mighty-armed Arjuna, one should steady the mind by deliberate spiritual intelligence and thus—by spiritual strength—conquer this insatiable enemy known as lust. (Bhagavad-Gita, 3.36–43)"

In this ancient manuscript the idea behind the word 'Lust' is best comprehended as the psychological force called 'Wanting'.

Buddhism
Lust holds a critical position in the philosophical underpinnings of Buddhist reality. It is named in the second of the Four Noble Truths, which are that

 * 1) Suffering (dukkha) is inherent in all life.
 * 2) Suffering is caused by desire.
 * 3) There is a natural way to eliminate all suffering from one's life.
 * 4) The ending of desire eliminates all suffering from someones life.

Lust is the attachment to, identification with, and passionate desire for certain things in existence, all of which relate to the form, sensation, perception, mentality, and consciousness that certain combinations of these things engender within us. Lust is thus the ultimate cause of general imperfection and the most immediate root cause of a certain suffering.

The passionate desire for either non-existence or for freedom from lust is a common misunderstanding. For example, the headlong pursuit of lust (or other "deadly sin") in order to fulfill a desire for death is followed by a reincarnation accompanied by a self-fulfilling karma, resulting in an endless wheel of life, until the right way to live, the right worldview, is somehow discovered and practiced. Beholding an endless knot puts one, symbolically, in the position of the one with the right worldview, representing that person who attains freedom from lust.

In existence there are four kinds of things that engender clinging (attachment): rituals, worldviews, pleasures, and the self. The way to eliminate lust is to learn of its unintended effects and to pursue righteousness as concerns a worldview, intention, speech, behavior, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration, in the place where lust formerly sat.

Sikhism
In Sikhism, lust is counted among the five cardinal sins or sinful propensities, the others being wrath, ego, greed and attachment. Uncontrollable expression of sexual lust, as in rape or sexual addiction, is an evil.

Brahma Kumaris
According to Brahma Kumaris, a spiritual organization which is based on Karmic philosophy, sexual lust is the greatest enemy to all mankind.

For this reason followers do not eat onions, garlic, eggs, or non-vegetarian food, as the "sulphur" in them can excite sexual lust in the body, otherwise bound to celibacy.

The physical act of sex is "impure", leading to body-consciousness and other crimes. This impurity "poisons" the body and leads to many kinds of "diseases".

The Brahma Kumaris teaches that sexuality is foraging about in a dark sewer. Students at Spiritual University must conquer lust, to prevent sin, and in order to be closer to god.

They describe the differences between lust and love thus:

"In lust there is reliance upon the object of sense and consequent spiritual subordination of the soul to it, but love puts the soul into direct and co-ordinate relation with the reality which is behind the form. Therefore, lust is experienced as being heavy and love is experienced as being light. In lust there is a narrowing down of life and in love there is an expansion in being...If you love the whole world you vicariously live in the whole world, but in lust there is an ebbing down of life and a general sense of hopeless dependence upon a form which is regarded as another. Thus, in lust there is the accentuation of separateness and suffering, but in love there is the feeling of unity and joy..."

Paganism
The most famous example of a widespread religious movement practicing lechery as a ritual is the Bacchanalia of the Ancient Roman Bacchantes. However, this activity was soon outlawed by the Roman Senate in 186 BC in the decree Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus. The practice of sacred prostitution, however, continued to be an activity practiced often by the Dionysians.

Medieval prostitutes
Medieval prostitutes lived in officially sanctioned "red light districts". In Ruth Mazo Karras' book Common Women, the author discusses the meaning of prostitution and how people thought the proper use of prostitutes by unmarried men helped contain male lust. Prostitution was thought to have a beneficial effect by reducing sexual frustration in the community. Inquisitors accused the Waldensians of believing that satisfying lust was better than being harassed by fleshly temptation.

Literature
From Ovid to the works of les poètes maudits, characters have always been faced with scenes of lechery, and for time out of mind lust has been a common motif in world literature. Many writers, such as Georges Bataille, Casanova and Prosper Mérimée, have written works wherein scenes take place at bordellos and other unseemly locales.

Baudelaire, author of Les fleurs du mal, had once remarked, in regard to the artist, that:

The more a man cultivates the arts, the less randy he becomes... Only the brute is good at coupling, and copulation is the lyricism of the masses. To copulate is to enter into another—and the artist never emerges from himself.

The most notable work to touch upon the sin of lust, (and also upon the other Seven Deadly Sins), is Dante's Divine Comedy. Dante's criterion for lust was an "excessive love of others", insofar as an excessive love for man would render one's love of God secondary. In the first canticle of the Divine Comedy—the Inferno—the lustful are punished by being continuously swept around in a whirlwind, symbolizing their ungovernable passions. The damned who are guilty of lust, like the two famous lovers, Paolo and Francesca, receive in Hell exactly what they desired most in their mortal lives, only to find that their passions will give them no rest for all eternity. In Purgatorio, of the selfsame work, the penitents choose to walk through flames in order to purge themselves of their lustful inclinations.

In philosophy
The link between love and lust has always been a problematic question in philosophy.

Schopenhauer
Schopenhauer notes the misery which results from sexual relationships. According to him, this directly explains the sentiments of shame and sadness which tend to follow the act of sexual intercourse; for, he states, the only power that reigns is the inextinguishable desire to face, at any price, the blind love present in human existence without any consideration of the outcome. He estimates that a genius of his species is an industrial being who wants only to produce, and wants only to think. The theme of lust for Schopenhauer is thus to consider the horrors which will almost certainly follow the culmination of lust.

St Thomas Aquinas
St Thomas Aquinas defines the sin of lust in questions 153 and 154 of his Summa Theologica. Aquinas says the sin of lust is of "voluptuous emotions", and makes the point that sexual pleasures, "unloosen the human spirit", and set aside right reason (p. 191). Aquinas restricts lust's subject matter to physical desires specifically arising from sexual acts, but he does not assume all sex-acts are sinful. Sex is not a sin in marriage, because sex is the only way for humans to reproduce. If sex is used naturally and the end purpose is reproduction there is no sin. Aquinas says, "if the end be good and if what is done is well-adapted to that, then no sin is present" (p. 193). However, sex simply for the sake of pleasure is lustful, and therefore a sin. A man who uses his body for lechery wrongs the Lord.

Sex may have the attributes of being sinless; however, when a person seeks sex for pleasure, he or she is sinning with lust. Lust is best defined by its specific attribute of rape, adultery, wet dreams, seduction, unnatural vice, and simple fornication.

Wet dreams: St Thomas Aquinas defined and discussed the topic of nocturnal emission, which occurs when one dreams of physical pleasure. Aquinas argues those who say that wet dreams are a sin and comparable to the actual experience of sex are wrong. Aquinas believes that such an action is sinless, for a dream is not under a person's control or free judgment. When one has a "nocturnal orgasm", it is not a sin, but it can lead to sins (p. 227). Aquinas says that wet dreams come from a physical cause of inappropriate pictures within your imagination, a psychological cause when thinking of sex while you fall asleep and a demonical cause whereby demons act upon the sleeper's body, "stirring the sleeper's imagination to bring about a orgasm" (p. 225). In the end, though, dreaming of lustful acts is not sinful. The "mind's awareness is less hindered", as the sleeper lacks right reason; therefore, a person cannot be accountable for what they dream while sleeping (p. 227).

Adultery: One of the main forms of lust seen frequently during the Middle Ages was the sin of adultery. The sin of adultery occurs when a person is unfaithful to his or her spouse, hence "invading of a bed not one's own" (p. 235). Adultery is a special kind of ugliness and many difficulties arise from it. When a man enters the bed of a married woman it not only is a sin, but it "wrongs the offspring", because the woman now calls into question the legitimacy of children (p. 235). If a wife has committed adultery before, then, her husband will question if all his wife's children are his offspring. Simple fornication: Simple fornication is having sex with one's spouse for enjoyment rather than for bearing children. Fornication is also sex between two unmarried people, which is also a mortal sin. Aquinas says that "fornication is a deadly crime" (p. 213). Fornication is a mortal sin, but as Aquinas notes, "Pope Gregory treated sins of the flesh as less grievous than those of the spirit" (p. 217). Fornication was a grave sin such as that against property. Fornication, however, is not as grave as a sin directly against God and human life; therefore, murder is much worse than fornication. Property in this case means that a daughter is the property of her father, and if one does wrong to her, one then does wrong to him; therefore seducing a virgin or seeking pleasure from an unmarried woman is an invasion of a father's property.

Seduction: Seduction is a type of lust, because seduction is a sex act, which ravishes a virgin. Lust is a sin of sexual activity, and "...a special quality of wrong that appears if a maid still under her father's care is debauched" (p. 229). Seduction involves a discussion of property, as an unmarried girl is property of her father. A virgin, even though free from the bond of marriage, is not free from the bond of her family. When a virgin is violated without a promise of engagement, she is prevented from having honorable marriage, which is shameful to herself and her family. A man who performs sexual acts with a virgin must "endow her and have her to wife", and if the father, who is responsible for her, says no, then a man must pay a dowry to compensate for her loss of virginity and future chance of marriage (p. 229).

Unnatural vice: Unnatural vice is the worst kind of lust because it is unnatural in act and purpose. Many varieties of unnatural vice exist; Aquinas provides several examples, including bestiality or intercourse with a "thing of another species" (for example, an animal), incest, sodomy and "not observing the right manner of copulation".

In psychoanalysis and psychology
Lust, in the domain of psychoanalysis and psychology, is often treated as a case of "heightened libido".

title: Lust


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Talk:Lancaster, Ohio

Untitled
I'll soon be rewriting this article, and adding a personally-taken photo to be released into the public domain, in an effort to restore this article to an encyclopedic tone. Ender78 00:56, 4 November 2005 (UTC)

Just wondering where the image came from. Looks like it is a scan from a road atlas -- which alomst certainly would not be in the public domain. It will have to be removed if the image is covered by copyright protection. --maveric149

Lancaster is being recognized for its arts and artists
See www.lanfest.org for information about Lancaster's summer music festival.

A committee has recently been formed to look into the possibility of opening a Performing Arts Center in downtown Lancaster. It's hoped that an Opera House will bring music, dance and new jobs into Lancaster. See www.operahouse.myfreeforum.org for more information. 172.190.174.134 21:21, 22 September 2007 (UTC)Tsu Do Nimh

Mudhouse Mansion
While I'm a fan of the various legends connected with the house, Ohio and the nation at large are heavily dotted with such houses of legend, and I hardly think that it's truly "notable". Rather the equivalent of making a special section for each town's "Lover's Lane". I'll pause here for comments on this matter, and as such, I deleted this segment. 70.62.164.12 (talk) 02:13, 2 January 2008 (UTC)

Hawk's Tavern gets a paragraph...
but William Tecumseh Sherman gets two sentences? I guess we know where the priorities are. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Csnoke (talk • contribs) 07:24, 27 October 2007 (UTC)

Concur. Removed. For non-local editors, while the Taverne does have some minor historic significance as a building, this paragraph was fairly blatantly added as a plug for the bar now operating there. 70.62.164.12 (talk) 02:08, 2 January 2008 (UTC)

I Live in Lancaster Ohio and ..
I live in Lancaster Ohio, and I have some beautiful pictures I have taken myself, of the view from Mt. Pleasant.. was just wondering how to submit them ?? — Preceding unsigned comment added by CarrieJane1978 (talk • contribs) 09:38, 7 February 2012 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 21:37, 29 April 2016 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Lancaster, Ohio


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578

Year 578 (DLXXVIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The denomination 578 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Byzantine Empire

 * Byzantine–Sassanid War: A Byzantine army under command of Maurice (magister militum per Orientem) invades Upper Mesopotamia, and raids on both sides of the Tigris. He deports 70,000 captives from Hyrcania to Cyprus, and installs military colonists to guard the strategic locations.
 * October 5 – Emperor Justin II dies after several periods of insanity. On the advice of his wife Sophia, he has raised his general Tiberius to the rank of co-emperor (Caesar). From December 574 he has ruled jointly with Sophia, and now succeeds them as emperor of the Byzantine Empire.

Asia

 * Summer – Emperor Wu Di engages in military campaigns on two fronts: against the invading Göktürks to the north and against the Chen dynasty in the south.
 * Wu Di, age 35, dies from an illness, and is succeeded by his eldest son Xuan Di as emperor of Northern Zhou.
 * Kongō Gumi, the world's oldest construction company (578–2006), is founded in Osaka (Japan).

Central America

 * October 22 – Tzi-B'alam, who had been the ruler of the Mayan city state of Copán in Honduras, dies after a 25-year reign that began in May 553.

 * November 15 – K'ak' Chan Yopaat, becomes the new ruler of the Mayan city state of Copán in Honduras, and rules until his death 49 years later in 628.

Deaths

 * July 30 – Jacob Baradaeus, bishop of Edessa
 * October 5 – Justin II, Byzantine emperor
 * Abdul Muttalib, grandfather of Islamic prophet Muhammad
 * Wu Di, emperor of Northern Zhou (b. 543)
 * Wu Mingche, general of the Chen dynasty (b. 512)
 * Wuffa, king of East Anglia (approximate date)
 * Yuwen Xian, prince of Northern Zhou (b. 544)
 * Approximate date -
 * Bhavyaviveka, Indian Madhyamaka scholar
 * Hatim al-Tai, Arabian poet
 * John Malalas, Byzantine chronicler (b. c.491)

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Bay of Pigs

The Bay of Pigs (Bahía de los Cochinos) is an inlet of the Gulf of Cazones located on the southern coast of Cuba. By 1910, it was included in Santa Clara Province, and then instead to Las Villas Province by 1961, but in 1976, it was reassigned to Matanzas Province, when the original six provinces of Cuba were re-organized into 14 new Provinces of Cuba.

The bay is historically important for the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961. The area is a site known for its diving, with an abundance of marine fauna, e.g. 30 species of sponges belonging to 19 families and 21 genera, to be found in the bay.

Etymology
In Cuban Spanish, cochinos may also mean the queen triggerfish (Balistes vetula), which inhabit coral reefs in Bahía de Cochinos, in addition to the literal meaning, pigs (Sus scrofa).

Geography
This bay is approximately 30 km south of Jagüey Grande, 70 km west of the city of Cienfuegos, and 150 km southeast from the capital city Havana. On the western side of the bay, coral reefs border the main Zapata Swamp, part of the Zapata Peninsula. On the eastern side, beaches border margins of firm ground with mangroves and extensive areas of swampland to the north and east. At the north end of the bay, the village of Buena Ventura is adjacent to Playa Larga (Long Beach). 35 km southeast of that, Playa Girón (Giron Beach) at the village of Girón, named after the notorious French pirate Gilberto Giron (c. 1604).

History
Playa Girón and Playa Larga were the landing sites for seaborne forces of armed Cuban exiles and the land strip for some American planes (but not many as America did not want Cuba to realize that it was American sponsored) in the Bay of Pigs Invasion, an American CIA-sponsored attempt to overthrow the new government of Cuban Prime Minister Fidel Castro in April 1961.

According to Fidel Castro's former bodyguard, the late Juan Reinaldo Sánchez, Castro lived in great luxury and had a private island called Cayo Piedra in the Bay of Pigs, replete with "mansions, guest houses, a heliport, dolphinarium, turtle lagoon, his luxury yacht Aquarama – a gift from Leonid Brezhnev – and deep-sea fishing speedboat".

Diving
The Bay of Pigs is a relatively quiet site for diving. Dive centers exist in Playa Larga, Playa Girón and Caleta Buena. Twelve dive sites in the bay display excellent visibility of 20 to 40 m, an average water temperature of 22 C in December and 29 C in July. Walls of coral, caverns and a variety of fish (including the barracuda, lionfish and groupers, among others), coral and sponges can be found in the Bay of Pigs.

The Caves of the Fishes (Cueva de los Peces), with 72 m depth the deepest cenote of Cuba, is located at 18 km south of Playa Larga.

Biodiversity
Surrounding the Bay of Pigs, the endemic wormlizards Amphisbaena barbouri and A. cubana have been noted. The following marine species have been registered along the eastern coast of the Bay of Pigs:

title: Bay of Pigs


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La Salle County

La Salle County refers to two counties and one parish in the United States, each named for French explorer René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle:

 * LaSalle County, Illinois
 * LaSalle Parish, Louisiana
 * La Salle County, Texas

title: La Salle County


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La Marseillaise

"La Marseillaise" is the national anthem of France. The song was written in 1792 by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle in Strasbourg after the declaration of war by France against Austria, and was originally titled "Chant de guerre pour l'Armée du Rhin" ("War Song for the Army of the Rhine").

The French National Convention adopted it as the First Republic's anthem in 1795. The song acquired its nickname after being sung in Paris by volunteers from Marseille marching to the capital. The song is the first example of the "European march" anthemic style. The anthem's evocative melody and lyrics have led to its widespread use as a song of revolution and its incorporation into many pieces of classical and popular music.

The italian violinist Guido Rimonda has pointed out in 2013 that the incipit of "Tema e variazioni in Do maggiore" of Giovanni Battista Viotti has a very strong resemblance to the hymn. This incipit was first thought to have been published before La Marseillaise, but it appeared to be a misconception as Viotti published several variations of La Marseillaise in 1795 and wrote as a note "I have never composed the quartets below" (Je n'ai jamais composé les quatuors ci dessous).

History

As the French Revolution continued, the monarchies of Europe became concerned that revolutionary fervor would spread to their countries. The War of the First Coalition was an effort to stop the revolution, or at least contain it to France. Initially, the French army did not distinguish itself, and Coalition armies invaded France. On 25 April 1792, Baron Philippe-Frédéric de Dietrich, the Mayor of Strasbourg and Worshipful Master of the local Masonic lodge, asked his Freemason guest Rouget de Lisle to compose a song "that will rally our soldiers from all over to defend their homeland that is under threat". That evening, Rouget de Lisle wrote "Chant de guerre pour l'Armée du Rhin" (English: "War Song for the Army of the Rhine"), and dedicated the song to Marshal Nicolas Luckner, a Bavarian freemason in French service from Cham. A plaque on the building on Place Broglie where De Dietrich's house once stood commemorates the event. De Dietrich was executed the next year during the Reign of Terror.

The melody soon became the rallying call to the French Revolution and was adopted as "La Marseillaise" after the melody was first sung on the streets by volunteers (fédérés in French) from Marseille by the end of May. These fédérés were making their entrance into the city of Paris on 30 July 1792 after a young volunteer from Montpellier called François Mireur had sung it at a patriotic gathering in Marseille, and the troops adopted it as the marching song of the National Guard of Marseille. A newly graduated medical doctor, Mireur later became a general under Napoléon Bonaparte and died in Egypt at age 28.

The song's lyrics reflect the invasion of France by foreign armies (from Prussia and Austria) that was under way when it was written. Strasbourg itself was attacked just a few days later. The invading forces were repulsed from France following their defeat in the Battle of Valmy. As the vast majority of Alsatians did not speak French, a German version ("Auf, Brüder, auf dem Tag entgegen") was published in October 1792 in Colmar.

The Convention accepted it as the French national anthem in a decree passed on 14 July 1795, making it France's first anthem. It later lost this status under Napoleon I, and the song was banned outright by Louis XVIII and Charles X, being re-instated only briefly after the July Revolution of 1830. During Napoleon I's reign, Veillons au salut de l'Empire was the unofficial anthem of the regime, and in Napoleon III's reign, it was Partant pour la Syrie, but the government brought back the iconic anthem in an attempt to motivate the French people during the Franco-Prussian War. During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, La Marseillaise was recognized as the anthem of the international revolutionary movement; as such, it was adopted by the Paris Commune in 1871, albeit with new lyrics under the title La Marseillaise de la Commune. Eight years later, in 1879, it was restored as France's national anthem, and has remained so ever since.

Music
Several musical antecedents have been cited for the melody:

 * Tema e variazioni in Do maggiore, a work by the Italian violinist Giovanni Battista Viotti; the 1781 dating of the manuscript has been questioned,  but it seems to have been published after La Marseillaise, in 1795.
 * Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Allegro maestoso from the Piano Concerto No. 25 (composed in 1786).
 * The oratorio Esther by Jean Baptiste Lucien Grison (composed in 1787).

Other attributions (the credo of the fourth Mass of Holtzmann of Mursberg) have been refuted.

Text
Generally only the first verse is sung.

Cultural impact and musical adaptations

"La Marseillaise" was arranged for soprano, chorus and orchestra by Hector Berlioz in about 1830.

Franz Liszt wrote a piano transcription of the anthem.

During World War I, bandleader James Reese Europe played a jazz version of "La Marseillaise".

The anthem was used as a protest song in the Korean March First Movement protests against Japanese rule in 1919.

Adaptations in other musical works

 * Robert Schumann uses a brief quote of "La Marseillaise" in his solo piano work's Faschingsschwank aus Wien (1839) first movement "Allegro". Singing "La Marseillaise" was forbidden in Austria at the time because "such a revolutionary piece might cause public disorder".
 * Schumann also quotes the melody in the last verse of his song "Die beiden grenadiere" Op. 49 no. 1 (1840)
 * Richard Wagner quotes the melody in last verse of his "Les deux grenadiers" (1840)
 * Thomas Wiggins quotes the melody in his "Battle of Manassas" (ca 1861)
 * Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky quotes "La Marseillaise" in his 1812 Overture (1880), representing the invading French Army under Napoleon (although it had not been the French national anthem at that time), and it is drowned out by cannon fire, symbolizing the Russian victory at the Battle of Borodino.
 * Pavlos Carrer quotes the tune in the overture to his opera Maria Antonietta (1884)
 * Julián Felipe incorporated elements of "La Marseillaise" in the fifth and last bar of his incidental piece Marcha Filipina-Magdalo (1898) which eventually became the Filipino national anthem Lupang Hinirang.
 * Dmitri Shostakovich quotes "La Marseillaise" at some length during the fifth reel of the film score he composed for the 1929 silent movie The New Babylon (set during the Paris Commune), where it is juxtaposed contrapuntally with the "Infernal Galop" from Offenbach's Orpheus in the Underworld.
 * The Brisbane Lions use the tune since 1952 as their club song in the Australian Football League.
 * The Beatles' 1967 single "All You Need Is Love" uses the opening bars of "La Marseillaise" as an introduction.
 * On Simchat Torah (18–19 October) 1973, the Lubavitcher Rebbe adapted the melody to the Jewish prayer "HaAderet v'HaEmunah". In Chabad, the melody is believed to convey the idea of a "spiritual French revolution" – in that Torah should be spread around the world as an advent to the Messianic Era.
 * Sarah Schachner used and reinterpreted the melody of "La Marseillaise" in the track "Rather Death Than Slavery" that is included in the official soundtrack to the video game Assassin's Creed Unity (2014), itself set during the French Revolution. This track was also used in 2015 in a trailer for season 5 of the TV drama Game of Thrones.

Historical Russian use
In Russia, "La Marseillaise" was used as a republican revolutionary anthem by those who knew French starting in the 18th century, almost simultaneously with its adoption in France. In 1875 Peter Lavrov, a narodnik revolutionary and theorist, wrote a Russian-language text (not a translation of the French one) to the same melody. This "Worker's Marseillaise" became one of the most popular revolutionary songs in Russia and was used in the Revolution of 1905. After the February Revolution of 1917, it was used as the semi-official national anthem of the new Russian republic. Even after the October Revolution, it remained in use for a while alongside "The Internationale".

Critique
The English philosopher and reformer Jeremy Bentham, who was declared an honorary citizen of France in 1791 in recognition of his sympathies for the ideals of the French Revolution, was not enamoured of "La Marseillaise". Contrasting its qualities with the "beauty" and "simplicity" of "God Save the King", he wrote in 1796:

"The War whoop of anarchy, the Marseillais Hymn, is to my ear, I must confess, independently of all moral association, a most dismal, flat, and unpleasing ditty: and to any ear it is at any rate a long winded and complicated one. In the instance of a melody so mischievous in its application, it is a fortunate incident, if, in itself, it should be doomed neither in point of universality, nor permanence, to gain equal hold on the affections of the people."

Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, President of France for most of the 1970s, said that it is ridiculous to sing about drenching French fields with impure Prussian blood as a Chancellor of the modern democratic Germany takes the salute in Paris. A 1992 campaign to change the words of the song involving more than 100 prominent French citizens, including Danielle Mitterrand, wife of then-President François Mitterrand, was unsuccessful.

The British historian Simon Schama discussed "La Marseillaise" on BBC Radio 4's Today programme on 17 November 2015 (in the immediate aftermath of the Paris attacks), saying it was "... the great example of courage and solidarity when facing danger; that's why it is so invigorating, that's why it really is the greatest national anthem in the world, ever. Most national anthems are pompous, brassy, ceremonious, but this is genuinely thrilling. Very important in the song ... is the line 'before us is tyranny, the bloody standard of tyranny has risen'. There is no more ferocious tyranny right now than ISIS, so it's extremely easy for the tragically and desperately grieving French to identify with that".

In 1979 a reggae version, "Aux armes et cætera" by Serge Gainsbourg, was received poorly by some in France, particularly in Le Figaro, where Michel Droit accused Gainsbourg of making money from the national anthem and suggesting that he was feeding antisemitism. Gainsbourg was also criticised for removing some of the military-focused aspects of the song.

title: La Marseillaise


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Squat

Squat, squatter or squatting may refer to:

Body position

 * Squatting position, a sitting position where one's knees are folded with heels touching one's buttocks or back of the thighs
 * Squat (exercise), a lower-body exercise in strength and conditioning

Computing and the Internet

 * Cybersquatting, refers to registering Internet domain names similar to popular trademarks with the intent to extort the trademark holder
 * Squatting attack, a kind of computer attack

Law and property

 * Squatting, the occupation of abandoned or unused building without the permission of the owner
 * Squatting (Australian history), historical Australian term referring to settlers occupying Crown land in order to graze livestock

Media and entertainment

 * Squat, a species of Flanimal from the More Flanimals and other books in the series
 * Squat, the alternate name of the title character of Scott Adams' comic Plop: The Hairless Elbonian
 * Squats (song), a 2015 song credited to Oh Snap! and Bombs Away
 * Squatter (game), an Australian board game
 * Squatters (film), a 2014 movie starring Richard Dreyfuss

Science

 * Squat effect, in hydrodynamics
 * Bob and squat, the pitching motion of bicycle suspensions when under acceleration

Other uses

 * Squatter pigeon (Geophaps scripta), a species of bird

title: Squat


text:
903

Year 903 (CMIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * King Berengar I of Italy proceeds to issue concessions and privileges to the Lombard nobility and monasteries. He grants concessions to Bobbio Abbey in Emilia-Romagna (Northeast Italy).
 * King Louis IV ("the Child") promulgates the Raffelstetten customs regulations, a legal document for a toll-bridge on the Danube River in Asten (modern Austria).

Britain

 * The Danish Vikings invade Anglesey after being driven out of Dublin (see 902). They fail to gain a foothold in Wales, and sail on to Chester.
 * A party of Danes under the Viking warlord Ingimundr attack the Welsh in a pitched battle at Maes Ros Meilon, perhaps near Llanfaes.

Arabian Empire

 * November 29 – Battle of Hama: Abbasid forces under Muhammad ibn Sulayman al-Katib defeat the Qarmatians near Hama, on the banks of the Orontes River (modern Syria). The Qarmatian army is scattered and pursued by Abbasid troops; Al-Husayn ibn Zikrawayh and other Qarmatian leaders are captured.

Religion

 * July – Pope Benedict IV dies after a 3-year reign. He is succeeded by Leo V as the 118th pope of the Catholic Church. Leo is imprisoned and tortured by Antipope Christopher after a reign of just 1 month. Christopher makes himself the new pope of Rome.

Births

 * December 7 – Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi, Persian astronomer (d. 986)
 * Feng Yanji, chancellor of Southern Tang (d. 960)
 * Kūya, Japanese priest of Pure Land Buddhism (d. 972)
 * Li Gu, chancellor of Later Zhou (d. 960)
 * Wang Jun, chancellor of Later Zhou (or 902)

Deaths

 * March 6
 * Lu Guangqi, Chinese official and chancellor
 * Su Jian, Chinese official and chancellor
 * March 26 – Sugawara no Michizane, Japanese politician and poet (b. 845)
 * June 10 – Cheng Rui, Chinese warlord
 * July 27– Abdallah II of Ifriqiya, Aghlabid emir
 * July – Benedict IV, pope of the Catholic Church
 * December 24 – Hedwiga, duchess of Saxony
 * December 30 – Tian Jun, Chinese warlord (b. 858)
 * Adalhard of Babenberg, Frankish nobleman
 * Moses Bar-Kepha, Syriac bishop and writer
 * Théodrate of Troyes, Frankish queen (b. 868)
 * Zhu Yanshou, Chinese governor (b. 870)

title: 903


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580

Year 580 (DLXXX) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The denomination 580 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Byzantine Empire

 * The Roman Senate sends an embassy to Constantinople, with a gift (3,000 pounds of gold) to Emperor Tiberius II Constantine, along with a plea for help against the Lombards.
 * The Slavs begin to migrate into the Balkan Peninsula. The Avars, under King (khagan) Bayan I, invade the Lower Danube (modern Bulgaria).
 * Siege of Sirmium: The Avars march to the right bank of the River Sava, and besiege the Byzantine stronghold of Sirmium (Pannonia).

Europe

 * The Lombards drive the last Ostrogoths across the Alps (Northern Italy). During the "Rule of the Dukes" the Lombards adopt Roman titles, names, and traditions.
 * King Liuvigild calls for an Arian synod in Toledo (central Spain), which modifies several doctrines; he tries to unify the Christians within the Visigothic Kingdom.

Britain

 * Æthelberht succeeds his father Eormenric as king (bretwalda) of Kent (approximate date).

Asia

 * The Northern Zhou dynasty, strategically based in the basin of the Wei River, is supreme in Northern China. In the south only the Chen dynasty remains a rival.
 * The Chinese city of Ye (Henan) is razed to the ground by Yang Jian, future founder of the Sui dynasty, who defeats a resistance force under Yuchi Jiong.

Religion

 * Gregory of Tours is brought before a council of bishops, on charges of slandering the Frankish queen Fredegund (approximate date).

Births

 * Abdel Rahman ibn Awf, companion of Muhammad
 * Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi, companion of Muhammad
 * Cadfan ap Iago, king of Gwynedd (approximate date)
 * Clemen ap Bledric, king of Dumnonia (approximate date)
 * Dayi Daoxin, Chán Buddhist patriarch (d. 651)
 * Didier of Cahors, Frankish bishop (approximate date)
 * Fabia Eudokia, Byzantine empress (approximate date)
 * Livinus, Irish apostle (approximate date)
 * Maximus the Confessor, monk and theologian (d. 662)
 * Pepin the Elder, Frankish Mayor of the Palace (d. 640)
 * Umm Salama, wife of Muhammad (approximate date)
 * Wei Zheng, chancellor of the Tang dynasty (d. 643)

Deaths

 * Audovera, wife of Chilperic I (approximate date)
 * Bacurius III, king of Iberia (Georgia)
 * Eormenric, king of Kent (approximate date)
 * Galam Cennalath, king of the Picts
 * Gao Anagong, high official of Northern Qi
 * Martin of Braga, missionary and archbishop
 * Wei Xiaokuan, general of Western Wei (b. 509)
 * Xuan Di, emperor of Northern Zhou (b. 559)
 * Yuchi Jiong, general of Northern Zhou

title: 580


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1 BC

Year 1 BC was a common year starting on Friday or Saturday in the Julian calendar (the sources differ; see leap year error for further information) and a leap year starting on Thursday in the proleptic Julian calendar. It was also a leap year starting on Saturday in the Proleptic Gregorian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Lentulus and Piso (or, less frequently, year 753 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 1 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. The following year is AD 1 in the widely used Julian calendar and the proleptic Gregorian calendar, which both do not have a "year zero".

Han dynasty

 * August 15 – Emperor Ai dies and is succeeded by his 8-year-old cousin Ping, who is enthroned on October 17. Wang Mang is appointed regent by Empress Dowager Wang Zhengjun, his aunt.
 * Former regent Dong Xian, who was previously Ai's lover, commits suicide with his wife.

Roman Empire

 * Gaius Caesar marries Livilla, daughter of Antonia Minor and Nero Claudius Drusus, in an effort to gain prestige.
 * The Roman theatre in Cartagena, built by Gaius and Lucius Caesar, finishes construction.
 * Aulus Caecina Severus was appointed consul by Emperor Augustus succeeding Cossus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus and Lucius Calpurnius Piso.

Kingdom of Kush

 * The approximate date of Natakamani succeeding Amanishakheto as the King of Kush.

Satavahana dynasty

 * Kunatala Satakarni is succeeded by Satakarni III.

Religion

 * Estimated birth of Jesus, in the Christian religion, as assigned by Dionysius Exiguus in his Anno Domini era; according to most scholars, Dionysius used the word "incarnation", but it is not known whether he meant conception or birth. However, at least one scholar thinks Dionysius placed the incarnation of Jesus in the next year, AD 1. Most modern scholars do not consider Dionysius' calculations authoritative, and place the event several years earlier.

Deaths

 * August 15 – Ai of Han, Chinese emperor of the Han dynasty (b. 27 BC)
 * Dong Xian, Chinese politician and commander-in-chief (b. 23 BC)
 * Xiaoai, Chinese empress and wife of Ai of Han
 * Zhao Feiyan, Chinese empress and wife of Cheng of Han (b. 45 BC)

title: 1 BC


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23rd century BC

The 23rd century BC was a century that lasted from the year 2300 BC to 2201 BC.

Events

 * 2334 BC – 2279 BC: (short chronology) Sargon of Akkad's conquest of Mesopotamia.
 * c. 2300 BC: Indus Valley civilisation (Harappan) flourishing in modern-day eastern Pakistan - western India.
 * c. 2300 BC: Metals start to be used in Northern Europe.
 * c. 2300 BC: Unetice culture emerges in the modern day Czech Republic.
 * c. 2300 BC: Canal Bahr Yusuf (current name) is created when the waterway from the Nile to the natural lake (now Lake Moeris) is widened and deepened to create a canal.
 * c. 2300 BC – 2200 BC: "Head of a man from Nineveh" (modern Kuyunjik, Iraq) is made. It is now in Iraq Museum, Baghdad.
 * c. 2300 BC – 2184 BC: Disk of Enheduanna, from Ur, (modern Muqaiyir, Iraq) is made. It is now in University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
 * c. 2300–2250 BC, reigns of Pepi I Meryre and Merenre Nemtyemsaf I, beginning of Pepi II Neferkares' rule, all of the Sixth Dynasty of Egypt.
 * c. 2288 BC: "Queen Merye-ankhnes and her son Pepy II" is sculpted, Sixth dynasty of Egypt.  The alabaster statuette is now at The Brooklyn Museum of Art, New York.
 * c. 2285 BC: Enheduanna, high priestess of the moon god Nanna in Ur, was born.
 * c. 2254 BC – 2218 BC: Stela of Naram-Sin, probably from Sippar, discovered in Susa (modern Shush, Iran), is made. It is now in Musée du Louvre, Paris.
 * c. 2250 BC: The beginning of the Meghalayan Stage, the last of the three stages of the Holocene.
 * c. 2250 BC: Earliest evidence of maize cultivation in Central America.
 * c. 2240 BC: Akkad, capital of the Akkadian Empire, becomes the largest city in the world, surpassing Memphis, capital of Egypt.
 * c. 2220 BC: Scord of Brouster farmstead established in Shetland, Scotland
 * c. 2220 BC: Mount Edgecumbe (Alaska) volcano erupts near present-day Sitka, Alaska.
 * c. 2215 BC: A Guti army swept down from the Zagros Mountains and defeated the demoralized Akkadian army. They took Agade, the capital of Akkad, and destroyed it thoroughly.
 * c. July 2215 BC: Comet Hale-Bopp visits the inner solar system and would not return until the year AD 1997.

title: 23rd century BC


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Back of Keppoch

Back of Keppoch (Gaelic: Cùl na Ceapaich) is a small coastal settlement in the northwest Scottish Highlands, 40 mi west of Fort William near to the A830 road to Mallaig.

The Back of Keppoch is north of Arisaig and south of Morar. Most of the houses on this road are crofts and their land is used as campsites in the summer months. A number of beaches line the road.

title: Back of Keppoch


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Lockheed Corporation

The Lockheed Corporation was an American aerospace manufacturer. Lockheed was founded in 1926 and merged in 1995 with Martin Marietta to form Lockheed Martin. Its founder, Allan Lockheed, had earlier founded the similarly named but otherwise-unrelated Loughead Aircraft Manufacturing Company, which was operational from 1912 to 1920.

Origins
Allan Loughead and his brother Malcolm Loughead had operated an earlier aircraft company, Loughead Aircraft Manufacturing Company, which was operational from 1912 to 1920. The company built and operated aircraft for paying passengers on sightseeing tours in California and had developed a prototype for the civil market, but folded in 1920 due to the flood of surplus aircraft deflating the market after World War I. Allan went into the real estate market while Malcolm had meanwhile formed a successful company marketing brake systems for automobiles.

On December 13, 1926, Allan Loughead, John Northrop, Kenneth Kay and Fred Keeler secured funding to form the Lockheed Aircraft Company in Hollywood (spelled phonetically to prevent mispronunciation). This new company used some of the same technology originally developed for the Model S-1 to design the Vega Model. In March 1928, the company relocated to Burbank, California, and by year's end reported sales exceeding one million dollars. From 1926 to 1928 the company produced over 80 aircraft and employed more than 300 workers who by April 1929 were building five aircraft per week. In July 1929, majority shareholder Fred Keeler sold 87% of the Lockheed Aircraft Company to Detroit Aircraft Corporation. In August 1929, Allan Loughead resigned.

The Great Depression ruined the aircraft market, and Detroit Aircraft went bankrupt. A group of investors headed by brothers Robert and Courtland Gross, and Walter Varney, bought the company out of receivership in 1932. The syndicate bought the company for a mere $40,000 ($0 in 2023). Ironically, Allan Loughead himself had planned to bid for his own company, but had raised only $50,000 ($0), which he felt was too small a sum for a serious bid.

In 1934, Robert E. Gross was named chairman of the new company, the Lockheed Aircraft Corporation, which was headquartered at what is now the airport in Burbank, California. His brother Courtlandt S. Gross was a co-founder and executive, succeeding Robert as chairman following his death in 1961. The company was named the Lockheed Corporation in 1977.

The first successful construction that was built in any number (141 aircraft) was the Vega first built in 1927, best known for its several first- and record-setting flights by, among others, Amelia Earhart, Wiley Post, and George Hubert Wilkins. In the 1930s, Lockheed spent $139,400 ($) to develop the Model 10 Electra, a small twin-engined transport. The company sold 40 in the first year of production. Amelia Earhart and her navigator, Fred Noonan, flew it in their failed attempt to circumnavigate the world in 1937. Subsequent designs, the Lockheed Model 12 Electra Junior and the Lockheed Model 14 Super Electra expanded their market.

Prewar production
The Lockheed Model 14 formed the basis for the Hudson bomber, which was supplied to both the British Royal Air Force and the United States military before and during World War II. Its primary role was submarine hunting. The Model 14 Super Electra were sold abroad, and more than 100 were license-built in Japan for use by the Imperial Japanese Army.

Production during World War II

At the beginning of World War II, Lockheed – under the guidance of Clarence (Kelly) Johnson, who is considered one of the best-known American aircraft designers – answered a specification for an interceptor by submitting the P-38 Lightning fighter aircraft, a twin-engined, twin-boom design. The P-38 was the only American fighter aircraft in production throughout American involvement in the war, from Pearl Harbor to Victory over Japan Day. It filled ground-attack, air-to-air, and even tactical bombing roles in all theaters of the war in which the United States operated. The P-38 was responsible for shooting down more Japanese aircraft than any other U.S. Army Air Forces type during the war; it is particularly famous for being the aircraft type that shot down Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto's airplane.

The Lockheed Vega factory was located next to Burbank's Union Airport which it had purchased in 1940. During the war, the entire area was camouflaged in case of enemy reconnaissance. The factory was hidden beneath a huge burlap tarpaulin painted to depict a peaceful semi-rural neighborhood, replete with rubber automobiles. Hundreds of fake trees, shrubs, buildings, and even fire hydrants were positioned to give a three-dimensional appearance. The trees and shrubs were created from chicken wire treated with an adhesive and covered with feathers to provide a leafy texture.

Lockheed ranked tenth among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. All told, Lockheed and its subsidiary Vega produced 19,278 aircraft during World War II, representing six percent of war production, including 2,600 Venturas, 2,750 Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers (built under license from Boeing), 2,900 Hudson bombers, and 9,000 Lightnings.

Postwar production
During World War II, Lockheed, in cooperation with Trans-World Airlines (TWA), had developed the L-049 Constellation, a radical new airliner capable of flying 43 passengers between New York and London at a speed of 300 mph in 13 hours.

Once the Constellation (nicknamed Connie) went into production, the military received the first production models; after the war, the airlines received their original orders, giving Lockheed more than a year's head-start over other aircraft manufacturers in what was easily foreseen as the post-war modernization of civilian air travel. The Constellation's performance set new standards which transformed the civilian transportation market. Its signature tri-tail was the result of many initial customers not having hangars tall enough for a conventional tail. Lockheed produced a larger transport, the double-decked R6V Constitution, which was intended to make the Constellation obsolete. However, the design proved underpowered.

The company sought to purchase Convair in 1946, but the sale was blocked by the SEC.

Skunk Works

In 1943, Lockheed began, in secrecy, development of a new jet fighter at its Burbank facility. This fighter, the Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star, became the first American jet fighter to score a kill. It also recorded the first jet-to-jet aerial kill, downing a Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 in Korea, although by this time the F-80 (as it was redesignated in June 1948) was already considered obsolete.

Starting with the P-80, Lockheed's secret development work was conducted by its Advanced Development Division, more commonly known as the Skunk works. The name was taken from Al Capp's comic strip Li'l Abner. This organization has become famous and spawned many successful Lockheed designs, including the U-2 (late 1950s), SR-71 Blackbird (1962) and F-117 Nighthawk stealth fighter (1978). The Skunk Works often created high-quality designs in a short time and sometimes with limited resources.

Projects during the Cold War
In 1954, the Lockheed C-130 Hercules, a durable four-engined transport, flew for the first time. This type remains in production today. In 1956, Lockheed received a contract for the development of the Polaris Submarine Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM); it would be followed by the Poseidon and Trident nuclear missiles. Lockheed developed the F-104 Starfighter in the late 1950s, the world's first Mach 2 fighter jet. In the early 1960s, the company introduced the C-141 Starlifter four-engine jet transport.

During the 1960s, Lockheed began development for two large aircraft: the C-5 Galaxy military transport and the L-1011 TriStar wide-body civil airliner. Both projects encountered delays and cost overruns. The C-5 was built to vague initial requirements and suffered from structural weaknesses, which Lockheed was forced to correct at its own expense. The TriStar competed for the same market as the McDonnell Douglas DC-10; delays in Rolls-Royce engine development caused the TriStar to fall behind the DC-10. The C-5 and L-1011 projects, the canceled U.S. Army AH-56 Cheyenne helicopter program, and embroiled shipbuilding contracts caused Lockheed to lose large sums of money during the 1970s.

Loan guarantee
Drowning in debt, in 1971 Lockheed (then the largest US defense contractor) asked the US government for a loan guarantee, to avoid insolvency. Lockheed argued that a government bailout was necessary due to the company's value for U.S. national security. On May 13, 1971, the Richard Nixon administration sent a bill titled "The Emergency Loan Guarantee Act" to Congress requesting a $250 million loan guarantee for Lockheed and its L-1011 Tristar airbus program. The measure was hotly debated in the US Senate. The chief antagonist was Senator William Proxmire (D-Wis), the nemesis of Lockheed and its chairman, Daniel J. Haughton. Some of the debate in Congress developed over what conditions should be attached to the bailout. Senator Alan Cranston demanded that the management be forced to step down, lest it set a precedent rewarding wasteful spending. Others argued that the company should be allowed to go into bankruptcy citing the recent decision to leave Penn Central railroad to that fate, and the fact that the airbus program at issue was commercial rather than military.

Naval scholar Thomas Paul Stanton notes that the opposition to the bill held it was "the beginning of the socialization of the American aircraft and aerospace industry." Proponents responded by claiming "this socializing process had taken place many years before", and some witnesses before Congress discounted "the very notion of 'free enterprise'." Treasury Secretary Connally pointed to the faltering economy and worries about unemployment while testifying "the time has come within the United States when we have to look at things differently. Free enterprise is just not all that free." Questions arose whether letting Lockheed fail would be bad for the market due to decreased competition or good by screening out inefficient competitors and mismanagement. Lockheed's competitors, McDonnell Douglas and General Electric (collaborators on the DC-10) strongly opposed the bill and they feared the government would steer contracts to Lockheed to insure loan payments. Admiral Hyman G. Rickover condemned the bill saying it represented "a new philosophy where we privatize profits and socialize losses." The New York Times editorial board held that the Nixon administration was violating its own free enterprise principles by advocating for the loan. (Later, historian Stephen J. Whitfield viewed the passage of the loan guarantee as a support for the argument that America was shifting away from Lockean liberalism. )

Following a fierce debate, Vice President Spiro T. Agnew cast a tie-breaking vote in favor of the measure on August 2, 1971. President Nixon signed the bill into law on August 9, 1971 - which became colloquially known as the "Lockheed Loan". Even after its adoption, a further controversy developed when the Emergency Loan Guarantee Board set up by the Executive branch to oversee the loan refused to allow Congress' General Accounting Office to examine its records. They argued that the office was attempting "interference in the decision-making process" amounting to an effort to "bully" and "harass" the board. This claim was denied by Comptroller General Elmer B. Staats, and efforts were made by Senator William Proxmire to get Treasury Secretary John Connally to testify due to the suspicion that the loan guarantee was in jeopardy. The editorial board of The New York Times blasted the situation, citing it as another argument against the propriety of the loan guarantee and the precedent it set for other failing companies. The debate around the ramifications of the Lockheed loan guarantee soon resurfaced in late 1975 with discussions on possible aid to New York City during its fiscal crisis.

Lockheed finished paying off the $1.4 billion loan in 1977, along with about $112.22 million in loan guarantee fees.

Bribery scandals
The Lockheed bribery scandals were a series of illegal bribes and contributions made by Lockheed officials from the late 1950s to the 1970s. In late 1975 and early 1976, a subcommittee of the U.S. Senate led by Senator Frank Church concluded that members of the Lockheed board had paid members of friendly governments to guarantee contracts for military aircraft. In 1976, it was publicly revealed that Lockheed had paid $22 million in bribes to foreign officials in the process of negotiating the sale of aircraft including the F-104 Starfighter, the so-called Deal of the Century.

The scandal caused considerable political controversy in West Germany, the Netherlands, Italy, and Japan. In the US, the scandal led to passage of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, and nearly led to the ailing corporation's downfall (it was already struggling due to the poor sales of the L-1011 airliner). Haughton resigned his post as chairman.

Attempted leveraged buyout
In the late 1980s, leveraged buyout specialist Harold Simmons conducted a widely publicized but unsuccessful takeover attempt on the Lockheed Corporation, having gradually acquired almost 20 percent of its stock. Lockheed was attractive to Simmons because one of its primary investors was the California Public Employees' Retirement System (CalPERS), the pension fund of the state of California. At the time, the New York Times said, "Much of Mr. Simmons's interest in Lockheed is believed to stem from its pension plan, which is over funded by more than $1.4 billion. Analysts said he might want to liquidate the plan and pay out the excess funds to shareholders, including himself." Citing the mismanagement by its chairman, Daniel M. Tellep, Simmons stated a wish to replace its board with a slate of his own choosing, since he was the largest investor. His board nominations included former Texas Senator John Tower, the onetime chairman of the Armed Services Committee, and Admiral Elmo Zumwalt Jr., a former Chief of Naval Operations. Simmons had first begun accumulating Lockheed stock in early 1989 when deep Pentagon cuts to the defense budget had driven down prices of military contractor stocks, and analysts had not believed he would attempt the takeover since he was also at the time pursuing control of Georgia Gulf.

Merger with Martin Marietta
Merger talks between Lockheed and Martin Marietta began in March 1994, with the companies announcing their $10 billion planned merger on August 30, 1994. The headquarters for the combined companies would be at Martin Marietta headquarters in North Bethesda, Maryland. The deal was finalized on March 15, 1995, when the two companies' shareholders approved the merger. The segments of the two companies not retained by the new company formed the basis for L-3 Communications, a mid-size defense contractor in its own right. Lockheed Martin also later spun off the materials company Martin Marietta Materials.

The company's executives received large bonuses directly from the government as a result of the merger. Norman R. Augustine who was at the time CEO of Martin Marietta received an $8.2 million bonus.

Both companies contributed important products to the new portfolio. Lockheed products included the Trident missile, P-3 Orion maritime patrol aircraft, U-2 and SR-71 reconnaissance airplanes, F-117 Nighthawk, F-16 Fighting Falcon, F-22 Raptor, C-130 Hercules, A-4AR Fightinghawk and the DSCS-3 satellite. Martin Marietta products included Titan rockets, Sandia National Laboratories (management contract acquired in 1993), Space Shuttle External Tank, Viking 1 and Viking 2 landers, the Transfer Orbit Stage (under subcontract to Orbital Sciences Corporation) and various satellite models.

Timeline

 * 1912: The Alco Hydro-Aeroplane Company established.
 * 1916: Company renamed Loughead Aircraft Manufacturing Company.
 * 1926: Lockheed Aircraft Company formed.
 * 1929: Lockheed becomes a division of Detroit Aircraft.
 * 1932: Robert and Courtland Gross take control of the company after the bankruptcy of Detroit Aircraft. The company is renamed Lockheed Aircraft Corporation, reflecting the company's reorganization under a board of directors.
 * 1941: Lockheed P-38 Lightning is introduced, one of the most successful fighters of World War II, and the namesake to the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II
 * 1943: Lockheed's Skunk Works founded in Burbank, California.
 * 1954: First flight of the Lockheed C-130 Hercules.
 * 1954: Maiden flight of the Lockheed U-2.
 * 1961: Grand Central Rocket Company acquired as Lockheed Propulsion Company.
 * 1962: First flight of the A-12 Blackbird.
 * 1964: First flight of the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird.
 * 1970 First flight of the L-1011 TriStar.
 * 1976: The Lockheed bribery scandals.
 * 1977: Company renamed Lockheed Corporation, to reflect non-aviation activities of the company.
 * 1978: The company's Hollywood-Burbank Airport is sold to its nearby cities and becomes Burbank-Glendale-Pasadena Airport (later renamed Bob Hope Airport in 2003).
 * 1981: First flight of the F-117 Nighthawk.
 * 1985: Acquires Metier Management Systems.
 * 1986: Acquires Sanders Associates electronics of Nashua, New Hampshire.
 * 1991: Lockheed, General Dynamics and Boeing begin development of the F-22 Raptor.
 * 1992: All aerospace-related activities end at the Burbank facility.
 * 1993: Acquires General Dynamics' Fort Worth aircraft division, builder of the F-16 Fighting Falcon.
 * 1995: Lockheed Corporation merges with Martin Marietta to form Lockheed Martin.

Divisions
Lockheed's operations were divided between several groups and divisions, many of which continue to operate within Lockheed

Aeronautical Systems group

 * Lockheed-California Company (CALAC), Burbank, California.
 * Lockheed-Georgia Company (GELAC), Marietta, Georgia.
 * Lockheed Advanced Aeronautics Company, Santa Clarita, California.
 * Lockheed Aircraft Service Company (LAS), Ontario, California.
 * Lockheed Air Terminal, Inc. (LAT), Burbank, California, now Bob Hope Airport and owned by the Burbank-Glendale-Pasadena Airport Authority.

Missiles, Space, and Electronics Systems Group

 * Lockheed Missiles & Space Company, Inc., Sunnyvale, California.
 * Lockheed Propulsion Company, Redlands, California.
 * Lockheed Space Operations Company, Titusville, Florida.
 * Lockheed Engineering and Management Services Company, Inc., Houston, Texas.
 * Lockheed Electronics Company, Inc., Plainfield, New Jersey.

Marine Systems group

 * Lockheed Shipbuilding Company, Seattle, Washington.
 * Lockport Marine Company, Portland, Oregon.
 * Advanced Marine Systems, Santa Clara, California.

Information Systems group

 * Datacom Systems Corporation, Teaneck, New Jersey.
 * CADAM Inc., Burbank, California.
 * Lockheed Data Plan, Inc., Los Gatos, California.
 * DIALOG Information Services, Inc, Palo Alto, California.
 * Metier Management Systems, London, England.
 * Integrated Systems and Solutions, Gaithersburg, Maryland.

Product list

A partial listing of aircraft and other vehicles produced by Lockheed.

Airliners and civil transports

 * Lockheed Vega
 * Lockheed Model 10 Electra
 * Lockheed Model 12 Electra Junior
 * Lockheed Model 14 Super Electra
 * Lockheed Model 18 Lodestar
 * Lockheed Constellation, airliner
 * Lockheed L-049 Constellation, first model of the Lockheed Constellation
 * Lockheed L-649 Constellation, improved Lockheed Constellation
 * Lockheed L-749 Constellation, further improved Lockheed Constellation
 * Lockheed L-1049 Super Constellation, largest produced model of the Lockheed Constellation
 * Lockheed L-1649 Starliner, last model of the Lockheed Constellation
 * Lockheed Saturn
 * Lockheed L-188 Electra
 * Lockheed JetStar, business jet
 * Lockheed L-1011 TriStar, wide-body airliner

Military transports

 * Lockheed C-69/Lockheed C-121 Constellation, military transport versions of the Constellation
 * YC-121F Constellation, experimental turboprop version
 * Lockheed R6V Constitution, large transport aircraft
 * Lockheed C-130 Hercules, medium combat transport (AC-130 gunship) (other variants)
 * Lockheed C-141 Starlifter, long-range jet transport
 * Lockheed C-5 Galaxy, heavy transport
 * Flatbed, military transport project, canceled

Fighters

 * Lockheed P-38 Lightning, twin-engine propeller fighter
 * Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star, the United States Air Force's first operational jet fighter
 * Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star, trainer jet
 * Lockheed F-94 Starfire, all-weather fighter'
 * Lockheed F-104 Starfighter, interceptor and later a multi-mission fighter, the 'missile with a man in it'
 * Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk, stealth fighter attack aircraft
 * General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon, multirole fighter (Originally General Dynamics)
 * Lockheed F-22, air superiority stealth fighter
 * Lockheed F-35, air superiority and strike missions

Patrol and reconnaissance

 * Lockheed Hudson, maritime patrol/bomber
 * PV-1 Ventura and PV-2 Harpoon, Maritime patrol/bomber
 * PO-1W/WV-1 Constellation, AWACS version of the Constellation
 * EC-121/WV-2 Warning Star, AWACS version of the Super Constellation
 * Lockheed P-2 Neptune, maritime patrol
 * Lockheed P-3 Orion, ASW patrol
 * Lockheed CP-140 Aurora, Maritime patrol aircraft
 * Lockheed U-2/TR-1, reconnaissance
 * Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird, reconnaissance (A-12) (M-21) (YF-12)
 * Lockheed S-3 Viking, patrol/attack
 * YO-3A Quiet Star

Helicopters

 * Lockheed CL-475, rigid-rotor helicopter
 * XH-51A/B (Lockheed CL-595/Model 286), compound helicopter testbed
 * Lockheed AH-56 Cheyenne, prototype attack compound helicopter

Missiles

 * UGM-27 Polaris
 * UGM-73 Poseidon
 * UGM-89 Perseus
 * Trident
 * UGM-96 Trident I
 * UGM-133 Trident II
 * High Virgo

Space technology

 * Lockheed X-7
 * Lockheed X-17
 * Lockheed L-301 (aka X-24C)
 * Lockheed Star Clipper
 * Corona
 * RM-81 Agena
 * Agena target vehicle
 * Apollo Launch Escape System
 * Hubble Space Telescope

Sea vessels

 * Sea Shadow

Rail vehicles

 * Odakyu Type 500 monorail for Mukōgaoka-Yūen Monorail (as Nihon-Lockheed Monorail, with Kawasaki Heavy Industries)
 * Himeji Monorail Type 100/200 (as Nihon-Lockheed Monorail, with Kawasaki Heavy Industries)

title: Lockheed Corporation


text:
Talk:American bison

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picture caption in second section of article
Although a minor issue, the picture on the left currently states "wild bison and calf" when it is plain to someone who can identify sex that the two bison in question are an adult male, and and adult female bison.

Bison population sizes
The main reference for the older census sizes of bison are from reference 95 (Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife (January 1965). "The American Buffalo". Conservation Note. 12.). I think it is slightly miscited since it is (from what I can tell) from 1977 and can be linked in full text here: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.31822016984015&view=1up&seq=1 Further is is not a good reference or source for this number - at least not stated as a fact in this wiki article. The text reads: "At their peak (probably before the discovery of America) it is though that they may have numbered 60 or 70 millions." Rasmus.87 (talk) 10:50, 9 December 2022 (UTC)

Can someone explain...
...the logic behind "400,000-500,000 [in 2010]" transitioning into "31,000 [9 years later in 2019]" yet that's not critically endangered or endangered in reference to the original "[double digit] millions"? 173.80.7.142 (talk) 01:37, 29 February 2024 (UTC)
 * The 400,000–500,000 was the total number of bison, both wild and commercial, in 2010. The 31,000 is referring to just wild bison in 2019. In the 2010 paragraph, a little further down, it reads that there are approximately 15,000 wild bison. I assume that that number refers to the 2010 population. That should probably be made clear. pillow crow 17:57, 29 February 2024 (UTC)
 * And the double digit millions being brought down to a 5 digit number doesn't make it endangered...? 173.80.7.142 (talk) 01:35, 11 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Okay, I understand now. I'm guessing you're talking about the "estimated population of 60 million in the late 18th century". While I don't know all the factors that play into the conservation status of a species, I would assume that it's not necessarily based on the number of individuals still extant as a percentage of a past number. I think it's more based on (or maybe entirely based on) the likelihood of the species becoming extinct. When the population went from 60 million to a few hundred individuals in the late 18th century, they were critically endangered (by modern standards), being just a few hundred reckless slaughters away from extinction. But then conservation efforts were introduced, and despite the still comparatively low numbers (500,000 vs 60 million) the American bison is nevertheless in no danger of becoming extinct. The wild bison are well protected (and so is their environment), and of course, the same would be said for the commercial herds. Therefore the bison is not endangered because it's not in danger of becoming extinct. In contrast, tigers are endangered because the likelihood of their extinction is high. There are fewer than 6,000 individuals in the wild (according to experts), their habitat is threatened, and there are only so many captive tigers in the world. And of course, we can't breed them like bison and make herds out of them. Hope that helps. pillow crow 19:37, 11 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:American bison