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977

Year 977 (CMLXXVII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * May – Boris II, dethroned emperor (tsar) of Bulgaria, and his brother Roman manage to escape from captivity in Constantinople. They reach the Bulgarian border, but Boris is killed by mistake by the border guards. Roman is crowned as new ruler, although leadership and the control of the army remain in the hands of General Samuel (a member of the Cometopuli Dynasty).
 * War of the Three Henries: Henry III (the Younger), duke of Carinthia, gets involved in a conflict over the Patriarchate of Aquileia (March of Verona) in northeastern Italy. Emperor Otto II (the Red) decides in Aquileia's favor, prompting Henry III to go into revolt. He joins forces with Henry II (the Wrangler), duke of Bavaria. They are both joined by Henry I, bishop of Augsburg.
 * August – Otto II appoints his cousin Charles, illegitimate son of the late King Louis IV (d'Outremer), as duke of Lorraine. King Lothair III – who claims the duchy as his own territory – declares war to the Holy Roman Empire. He leads an expedition into Lorraine accompanied by Hugh Capet. Lothair crosses the Meuse River and takes Aachen, sacking the imperial palace.
 * Fall – Otto II invades the West Frankish Kingdom accompanied by Charles and ravages the cities of Reims, Soissons (where he halts at the Abbey of Saint Médard for devotions) and Laon. Lothair III escapes and flees to Paris, where he is besieged by imperial forces. Charles is proclaimed 'King of the Franks' by Dietrich I, bishop of Metz, at Laon.
 * November 30 – Otto II is unable to take Paris, he lifts the siege of the capital and withdraws. A Frankish army under Lothair III pursues and defeats the imperial rearguard while crossing the Aisne River. Otto escapes and is forced to take refuge at Aachen with Charles, after his supplies are destroyed.

Scotland

 * King Kenneth II of Scotland kills his rival Amlaíb mac Illuilb (or Amlaíb), brother of the late King Cuilén, to establish himself as Cuilén's successor.

Arabian Empire

 * Spring – Sabuktigin, a Samanid general, succeeds his father-in-law Alp-Tegin as governor of Ghazna (modern Afghanistan). He enlarges his dominions and founds the Ghaznavid Dynasty.
 * Summer – 'Adud al-Dawla, ruler (shah) of the Buyid Dynasty, drives the Hamdanids out of Mosul and tries to unify the country. Abu Taghlib is forced to flee to the Byzantine city of Antzitene.
 * Emir Sa'd al-Dawla recovers his capital, Aleppo, from the ghulam Bakjur, who receives the governorship of Homs as compensation.

Religion

 * Æthelwold, bishop of Winchester, rebuilds the western end of the Old Minster, with twin towers and no apses (approximate date).
 * The Imam Ali Mosque, located in Najaf (modern Iraq), is completed by 'Adud al-Dawla.

Births

 * March 4 – Al-Musabbihi, Fatimid historian (d. 1030)
 * Fujiwara no Teishi, Japanese empress consort (d. 1001)
 * Kōkei, Japanese Buddhist monk (approximate date)
 * Poppo, abbot of Stavelot-Malmedy (d. 1048)

Deaths

 * March 1 – Rudesind, Galician bishop (b. 907)
 * November 8 – Ibn al-Qūṭiyya, Andalusian historian
 * December 20 – Fujiwara no Kanemichi, Japanese statesman (b. 925)
 * Amlaíb mac Illuilb, king of Alba (Scotland)
 * Ashot III (the Merciful), king of Armenia
 * Bisutun, ruler of the Ziyarid Dynasty
 * Boris II, emperor of the Bulgarian Empire
 * Dobrawa, duchess consort of the Polans
 * Gisulf I, prince of Salerno (approximate date)
 * Guo Zhongshu, Chinese painter and calligrapher
 * Ivar of Limerick, Norse Viking king
 * Kamo no Yasunori, Japanese spiritual advisor (b. 917)
 * Oleg, prince of the Drevlyans
 * Peter, Byzantine eunuch general
 * Sideman, bishop of Crediton

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 977


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973

Year 973 (CMLXXIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Byzantine Empire

 * Spring – The Byzantine army, led by General Melias (Domestic of the Schools in the East), continues the operations in Upper Mesopotamia.
 * July: Melias moves against Amida (modern Turkey). He defeats the Arabs outside the walls, and begins to lay siege to the city. After a few days, a violent wind and a thick dust spreads over the Byzantine camp. Covered by the dust, the Arabs attack and route the Byzantines. Many of them are slaughtered and some, including Melias, are taken prisoner. Previous Byzantine gains in the area are lost. The wounded Melias dies later in captivity.

Europe

 * May 7 – Emperor Otto I (the Great) dies at Memleben in Thuringia (modern Germany) after a 37-year reign. He is succeeded by his 18-year-old son Otto II (the Red), who becomes absolute ruler of the Holy Roman Empire. His mother Adelaide will exert great influence on Otto, although her lavish philanthropies will be a source of contention. Otto's succession leads to conflicts in the south German duchies and in Lotharingia.

Britain

 * Edgar I (the Peaceful) is crowned king during a royal ceremony at Bath by Archbishop Dunstan. In a council at Chester, Lothian (a region of the Lowlands) is ceded to Scotland, in return for fealty from King Kenneth II.
 * Edgar I marches with his army north to Chester. His navy meets him there via the Irish Sea. This show of strength persuades the 'Northern Kings' to submit to his overlordship (approximate date).

Africa

 * Caliph Al-Mu'izz transfers the royal residence of the Fatimid Caliphate from El-Mansuriya (modern Tunisia) to the newly founded city of Cairo in Egypt. He leaves general Buluggin ibn Ziri to govern the Western North African territories, which will become the province of Al-Maghreb (meaning the West).

Commerce

 * Cloves, ginger, black pepper, and other Eastern spices are available for purchase in the marketplace at Mainz. The spices are brought to the city by Jewish traveling merchants, known as the Radhanites, who have contacts in the international trade between the Christian and Islamic world (approximate date).

Religion

 * January 19 – Pope Benedict VI is consecrated as the 134th pope of the Catholic Church. He is installed at Rome with the approval of Otto I and becomes a puppet ruler of the Holy Roman Empire. The Roman aristocracy resents Otto's dominance in Roman civil and ecclesiastical affairs.
 * In the Council of Winchester, Edgar I accepts a 'Monastic Agreement' (called the Regularis Concordia). The document is compiled by Bishop Æthelwold and serves as a rule for how monastic life should be performed.

Births

 * May 6 – Henry II, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (d. 1024)
 * September 4 – Al-Biruni, Persian physician and polymath (d. 1048)
 * Adelaide I, German princess and abbess (approximate date)
 * Abul 'Ala Al-Ma'arri, Syrian philosopher and poet (d. 1057)
 * Hisham III, Umayyad caliph of Córdoba (d. 1036)
 * Murasaki Shikibu, Japanese poet and lady-in-waiting (or 978)
 * Qadi 'Abd al-Wahhab, Abbasid scholar and jurist (d. 1031)

Deaths

 * January 14 – Ekkehard I, Frankish monk and poet
 * March 26 – Guntram (the Rich), Frankish nobleman
 * March 27 – Hermann Billung, Frankish nobleman
 * May 7 – Otto I, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (b. 912)
 * May 15 – Byrhthelm, bishop of Wells (Somerset)
 * July 4 – Ulrich (or Oldarici), bishop of Augsburg (b. 893)
 * July 19 – Kyunyeo, Korean monk and poet (b. 917)
 * September 12 – Nefingus, bishop of Angers
 * November 12 – Burchard III, Frankish nobleman
 * December 18 (or 972) – Eberhard IV, Frankish nobleman (or 972)
 * Abu'l-Abbas Ismail, Abbasid official and statesman
 * Cathal mac Tadg, king of Connacht (Ireland)
 * Conchobar mac Tadg, king of Connacht
 * Geibennach mac Aedha, king of Uí Maine (Ireland)
 * Guo Zongxun, emperor of Later Zhou (d. 953)
 * Hrotsvitha, German canoness and poet (approximate date)
 * Jawdhar, Fatimid general and chief minister
 * Karka II, ruler of the Rashtrakuta Empire (India)
 * Melias, Byzantine general (approximate date)
 * Reginar III, Frankish nobleman (approximate date)
 * Richar (or Richer), Frankish nobleman
 * Werner (or Warin), Frankish nobleman

title: 973


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Colorado River (disambiguation)

The Colorado River is one of the principal rivers of the southwestern United States and northwest Mexico.

Colorado River may also refer to:
 * Colorado River (Argentina)
 * Río Colorado, Río Negro, a village in Argentina
 * Colorado River (Potosi), Bolivia
 * Colorado River (Rondônia), Brazil
 * Colorado River (Aconcagua), Chile
 * Colorado River (Costa Rica)
 * Colorado River (Tempisque River), Costa Rica
 * Colorado River (Texas), United States

title: Colorado River (disambiguation)


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Symmetric multiprocessing

Symmetric multiprocessing or shared-memory multiprocessing (SMP) involves a multiprocessor computer hardware and software architecture where two or more identical processors are connected to a single, shared main memory, have full access to all input and output devices, and are controlled by a single operating system instance that treats all processors equally, reserving none for special purposes. Most multiprocessor systems today use an SMP architecture. In the case of multi-core processors, the SMP architecture applies to the cores, treating them as separate processors.

Professor John D. Kubiatowicz considers traditionally SMP systems to contain processors without caches. Culler and Pal-Singh in their 1998 book "Parallel Computer Architecture: A Hardware/Software Approach" mention: "The term SMP is widely used but causes a bit of confusion. [...] The more precise description of what is intended by SMP is a shared memory multiprocessor where the cost of accessing a memory location is the same for all processors; that is, it has uniform access costs when the access actually is to memory. If the location is cached, the access will be faster, but cache access times and memory access times are the same on all processors."

SMP systems are tightly coupled multiprocessor systems with a pool of homogeneous processors running independently of each other. Each processor, executing different programs and working on different sets of data, has the capability of sharing common resources (memory, I/O device, interrupt system and so on) that are connected using a system bus or a crossbar.

Design
SMP systems have centralized shared memory called main memory (MM) operating under a single operating system with two or more homogeneous processors. Usually each processor has an associated private high-speed memory known as cache memory (or cache) to speed up the main memory data access and to reduce the system bus traffic.

Processors may be interconnected using buses, crossbar switches or on-chip mesh networks. The bottleneck in the scalability of SMP using buses or crossbar switches is the bandwidth and power consumption of the interconnect among the various processors, the memory, and the disk arrays. Mesh architectures avoid these bottlenecks, and provide nearly linear scalability to much higher processor counts at the sacrifice of programmability:

"Serious programming challenges remain with this kind of architecture because it requires two distinct modes of programming; one for the CPUs themselves and one for the interconnect between the CPUs. A single programming language would have to be able to not only partition the workload, but also comprehend the memory locality, which is severe in a mesh-based architecture."

SMP systems allow any processor to work on any task no matter where the data for that task is located in memory, provided that each task in the system is not in execution on two or more processors at the same time. With proper operating system support, SMP systems can easily move tasks between processors to balance the workload efficiently.

History
The earliest production system with multiple identical processors was the Burroughs B5000, which was functional around 1961. However at run-time this was asymmetric, with one processor restricted to application programs while the other processor mainly handled the operating system and hardware interrupts. The Burroughs D825 first implemented SMP in 1962.

IBM offered dual-processor computer systems based on its System/360 Model 65 and the closely related Model 67 and 67–2. The operating systems that ran on these machines were OS/360 M65MP and TSS/360. Other software developed at universities, notably the Michigan Terminal System (MTS), used both CPUs. Both processors could access data channels and initiate I/O. In OS/360 M65MP, peripherals could generally be attached to either processor since the operating system kernel ran on both processors (though with a "big lock" around the I/O handler). The MTS supervisor (UMMPS) has the ability to run on both CPUs of the IBM System/360 model 67–2. Supervisor locks were small and used to protect individual common data structures that might be accessed simultaneously from either CPU.

Other mainframes that supported SMP included the UNIVAC 1108 II, released in 1965, which supported up to three CPUs, and the GE-635 and GE-645, although GECOS on multiprocessor GE-635 systems ran in a master-slave asymmetric fashion, unlike Multics on multiprocessor GE-645 systems, which ran in a symmetric fashion.

Starting with its version 7.0 (1972), Digital Equipment Corporation's operating system TOPS-10 implemented the SMP feature, the earliest system running SMP was the DECSystem 1077 dual KI10 processor system. Later KL10 system could aggregate up to 8 CPUs in a SMP manner. In contrast, DECs first multi-processor VAX system, the VAX-11/782, was asymmetric, but later VAX multiprocessor systems were SMP.

Early commercial Unix SMP implementations included the Sequent Computer Systems Balance 8000 (released in 1984) and Balance 21000 (released in 1986). Both models were based on 10 MHz National Semiconductor NS32032 processors, each with a small write-through cache connected to a common memory to form a shared memory system. Another early commercial Unix SMP implementation was the NUMA based Honeywell Information Systems Italy XPS-100 designed by Dan Gielan of VAST Corporation in 1985. Its design supported up to 14 processors, but due to electrical limitations, the largest marketed version was a dual processor system. The operating system was derived and ported by VAST Corporation from AT&T 3B20 Unix SysVr3 code used internally within AT&T.

Earlier non-commercial multiprocessing UNIX ports existed, including a port named MUNIX created at the Naval Postgraduate School by 1975.

Uses
Time-sharing and server systems can often use SMP without changes to applications, as they may have multiple processes running in parallel, and a system with more than one process running can run different processes on different processors.

On personal computers, SMP is less useful for applications that have not been modified. If the system rarely runs more than one process at a time, SMP is useful only for applications that have been modified for multithreaded (multitasked) processing. Custom-programmed software can be written or modified to use multiple threads, so that it can make use of multiple processors.

Multithreaded programs can also be used in time-sharing and server systems that support multithreading, allowing them to make more use of multiple processors.

Advantages/disadvantages
In current SMP systems, all of the processors are tightly coupled inside the same box with a bus or switch; on earlier SMP systems, a single CPU took an entire cabinet. Some of the components that are shared are global memory, disks, and I/O devices. Only one copy of an OS runs on all the processors, and the OS must be designed to take advantage of this architecture. Some of the basic advantages involves cost-effective ways to increase throughput. To solve different problems and tasks, SMP applies multiple processors to that one problem, known as parallel programming.

However, there are a few limits on the scalability of SMP due to cache coherence and shared objects.

Programming
Uniprocessor and SMP systems require different programming methods to achieve maximum performance. Programs running on SMP systems may experience an increase in performance even when they have been written for uniprocessor systems. This is because hardware interrupts usually suspends program execution while the kernel that handles them can execute on an idle processor instead. The effect in most applications (e.g. games) is not so much a performance increase as the appearance that the program is running much more smoothly. Some applications, particularly building software and some distributed computing projects, run faster by a factor of (nearly) the number of additional processors. (Compilers by themselves are single threaded, but, when building a software project with multiple compilation units, if each compilation unit is handled independently, this creates an embarrassingly parallel situation across the entire multi-compilation-unit project, allowing near linear scaling of compilation time. Distributed computing projects are inherently parallel by design.)

Systems programmers must build support for SMP into the operating system, otherwise, the additional processors remain idle and the system functions as a uniprocessor system.

SMP systems can also lead to more complexity regarding instruction sets. A homogeneous processor system typically requires extra registers for "special instructions" such as SIMD (MMX, SSE, etc.), while a heterogeneous system can implement different types of hardware for different instructions/uses.

Performance
When more than one program executes at the same time, an SMP system has considerably better performance than a uniprocessor system, because different programs can run on different CPUs simultaneously. Conversely, asymmetric multiprocessing (AMP) usually allows only one processor to run a program or task at a time. For example, AMP can be used in assigning specific tasks to CPU based to priority and importance of task completion. AMP was created well before SMP in terms of handling multiple CPUs, which explains the lack of performance based on the example provided.

In cases where an SMP environment processes many jobs, administrators often experience a loss of hardware efficiency. Software programs have been developed to schedule jobs and other functions of the computer so that the processor utilization reaches its maximum potential. Good software packages can achieve this maximum potential by scheduling each CPU separately, as well as being able to integrate multiple SMP machines and clusters.

Access to RAM is serialized; this and cache coherency issues cause performance to lag slightly behind the number of additional processors in the system.

Alternatives

SMP uses a single shared system bus that represents one of the earliest styles of multiprocessor machine architectures, typically used for building smaller computers with up to 8 processors.

Larger computer systems might use newer architectures such as NUMA (Non-Uniform Memory Access), which dedicates different memory banks to different processors. In a NUMA architecture, processors may access local memory quickly and remote memory more slowly. This can dramatically improve memory throughput as long as the data are localized to specific processes (and thus processors). On the downside, NUMA makes the cost of moving data from one processor to another, as in workload balancing, more expensive. The benefits of NUMA are limited to particular workloads, notably on servers where the data are often associated strongly with certain tasks or users.

Finally, there is computer clustered multiprocessing (such as Beowulf), in which not all memory is available to all processors. Clustering techniques are used fairly extensively to build very large supercomputers.

Variable SMP
Variable Symmetric Multiprocessing (vSMP) is a specific mobile use case technology initiated by NVIDIA. This technology includes an extra fifth core in a quad-core device, called the Companion core, built specifically for executing tasks at a lower frequency during mobile active standby mode, video playback, and music playback.

Project Kal-El (Tegra 3), patented by NVIDIA, was the first SoC (System on Chip) to implement this new vSMP technology. This technology not only reduces mobile power consumption during active standby state, but also maximizes quad core performance during active usage for intensive mobile applications. Overall this technology addresses the need for increase in battery life performance during active and standby usage by reducing the power consumption in mobile processors.

Unlike current SMP architectures, the vSMP Companion core is OS transparent meaning that the operating system and the running applications are totally unaware of this extra core but are still able to take advantage of it. Some of the advantages of the vSMP architecture includes cache coherency, OS efficiency, and power optimization. The advantages for this architecture are explained below:

 * Cache coherency: There are no consequences for synchronizing caches between cores running at different frequencies since vSMP does not allow the companion core and the main cores to run simultaneously.
 * OS efficiency: It is inefficient when multiple CPU cores are run at different asynchronous frequencies because this could lead to possible scheduling issues. With vSMP, the active CPU cores will run at similar frequencies to optimize OS scheduling.
 * Power optimization: In asynchronous clocking based architecture, each core is on a different power plane to handle voltage adjustments for different operating frequencies. The result of this could impact performance. vSMP technology is able to dynamically enable and disable certain cores for active and standby usage, reducing overall power consumption.

These advantages lead the vSMP architecture to considerably benefit over other architectures using asynchronous clocking technologies.

title: Symmetric multiprocessing


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SMP

SMP may refer to:

Organisations

 * Scale Model Products, 1950s, acquired by Aluminum Model Toys
 * School Mathematics Project, UK developer of mathematics textbooks
 * Sekolah Menengah Pertama, "junior high school" in Indonesia
 * Shanghai Municipal Police, until 1943
 * Sipah-e-Muhammad Pakistan, Pakistani group banned as terrorist
 * Post-nominal letters of Roman Catholic order Sisters of Mary of the Presentation
 * Standard Motor Products (NYSE: SMP), US automotive product company
 * Suomen maaseudun puolue, the Finnish Rural Party, 1959-2003

Science and technology

 * Shape-memory polymer, smart materials
 * Signal Message Processor, for the Multifunctional Information Distribution System
 * Silyl modified polymers, used in adhesives and sealants
 * Simulation Model Portability, SMP2, European space mission simulator standard
 * Slow-moving proteinase, the enzyme Cathepsin E
 * Socialist millionaire problem in cryptography
 * Sorbitan monopalmitate, a food additive
 * SOTA Mapping Project, a website for radio amateurs
 * Stable marriage problem in mathematics
 * Stable massive particle in physics, e.g the MoEDAL experiment
 * Surface-mount package, for electronic components

Computing

 * Serial Management Protocol for Serial attached SCSI (SAS)
 * System Modification Program, IBM mainframe software
 * SMP/E (System Modification Program/Extended), IBM mainframe software
 * Supplementary Multilingual Plane, Unicode characters for historical scripts
 * SMP (computer algebra system)
 * Symmetric multiprocessing
 * Security Manager Protocol used in Bluetooth Low Energy
 * SimpleX Messaging Protocol, a privacy focused messaging protocol

Entertainment

 * SMP (band)
 * Survival Multiplayer, a common Minecraft server gamemode
 * Dream SMP, a Minecraft server colloquially referred to as "the SMP"

Other uses

 * Securities Markets Program of the European Central Bank
 * Statutory Maternity Pay in the UK
 * Sau Mau Ping station, Hong Kong
 * Scalp micropigmentation
 * SHOKUGAN MODELING PROJECT, a Japanese plastic model kit series released by Bandai
 * Single-member plurality voting
 * Sydney Motorsport Park, a motorsport facility located in Australia
 * SMP Racing, a Russian auto racing team

title: SMP


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Amy Tan

Amy Ruth Tan (born February 19, 1952) is an American author best known for her novel The Joy Luck Club (1989), which was adapted into a 1993 film. She is also known for other novels, short story collections, children's books, and a memoir.

Tan has earned a number of awards acknowledging her contributions to literary culture including the National Humanities Medal, the Carl Sandburg Literary Award, and the Common Wealth Award of Distinguished Service.

Tan has written several other novels, including The Kitchen God's Wife (1991), The Hundred Secret Senses (1995), The Bonesetter's Daughter (2001), Saving Fish from Drowning (2005), and The Valley of Amazement (2013). Tan has also written two children's books: The Moon Lady (1992) and The Chinese Siamese Cat (1994), which was turned into an animated series that aired on PBS. Tan's latest book is The Backyard Bird Chronicles (2024), an illustrated account of her experiences with birding and the 2016-era sociopolitical climate.

Early life and education
Amy was born in Oakland, California. She is the second of three children born to Chinese immigrants John and Daisy Tan. Her father was an electrical engineer and Baptist minister who traveled to the United States in order to escape the chaos of the Chinese Civil War. She recounts that her father and she would read the thesaurus together since “he was very interested in what a word contains.” This was the beginning of her path to become a writer as she wanted to use words to create stories to make herself feel understood. Amy attended Marian A. Peterson High School in Sunnyvale for a year. When she was fifteen, her father and older brother Peter both died of brain tumors within six months of each other.

Her mother Daisy subsequently moved Amy and her younger brother, John Jr., to Switzerland, where Amy finished high school at the Institut Monte Rosa, Montreux. During this period, Amy learned about her mother's previous marriage to another man in China, of their four children (a son who died as a toddler and three daughters). She also learned how her mother left those children in Shanghai. This incident was a key part of the basis for Amy's first novel, The Joy Luck Club. In 1987, Amy traveled with Daisy to China, where she met her three half-sisters.

Amy had a difficult relationship with her mother. At one point, Daisy held a knife to Amy's throat and threatened to kill her while the two were arguing over Amy's new boyfriend. Her mother wanted Amy to be independent, stressing that Amy needed to make sure she was self-sufficient. Amy later found out that her mother had three abortions while in China. Daisy often threatened to kill herself, saying that she wanted to join her mother (Amy's grandmother, who died by suicide). She attempted suicide but never succeeded. Daisy died in 1999 at the age of 83; she had Alzheimer's disease.

Amy and her mother did not speak for six months after Amy dropped out of the Baptist college her mother had selected for her, Linfield College in Oregon, to follow her boyfriend to San Jose City College in California. Amy had met him on a blind date and married him in 1974. Amy later received bachelor's and master's degrees in English and linguistics from San José State University. She took doctoral courses in linguistics at University of California, Santa Cruz and University of California, Berkeley.

Career
While in school, Tan worked several odd jobs—serving as a switchboard operator, carhop, bartender, and pizza maker—before starting a writing career. As a freelance business writer, she worked on projects for AT&T, IBM, Bank of America, and Pacific Bell, writing under non-Chinese-sounding pseudonyms. These projects had turned into a 90-hours-a-week workaholism.

The Joy Luck Club
Early in 1985, Tan began writing her first novel, The Joy Luck Club, while working as a business writer. She joined a writers' workshop, the Squaw Valley Program, to refine her draft. She submitted a part of the draft novel as a story titled 'Endgame' to the workshop. Before attending the program, Tan read Louise Erdrich's Love Medicine and was "amazed by her voice... [she] could identify with the powerful images, the beautiful language and such moving stories." Later, many critics compared Tan to Erdrich. Author Molly Giles, who was teaching at the workshop, encouraged Tan to send some of her writing to magazines. Tan credits Giles with guiding her to the end of writing the book. It began with Giles' seeing a dozen stories in the 13 page draft submitted to the program. Stories by Tan, drawn from the manuscript of The Joy Luck Club, were published by both FM Magazine and Seventeen, although a story was rejected by the New Yorker''. ''

After the acceptances and a rejection, Tan joined a new San Francisco writers' group led by Giles.  Giles recommended Tan to academic-turned agent Sandra Dijkstra in 1987. In May that year, an Italian magazine translated and published 'Endgame' without permission. Dijkstra advised Tan to send to her another story; "Waiting Between the Trees" arrived, written as an experiment to decide whether the stories collectively become a novel or a book of short stories. Dijkstra signed up Tan and asked Tan to write a synopsis for the book along with an outline for other stories.

Working with Dijkstra, Tan published several other parts of the novel as short stories, before it was sent as a draft novel manuscript. She received offers from several major publishing houses, including A.A. Knopf, Vintage, Harper & Row, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, Simon and Schuster, and Putnam Books, but declined them all as they offered compensation that she and agent considered to be insufficient. Tan eventually accepted a second offer from G. P. Putnam's Sons for $50,000 in December 1987. The Joy Luck Club, consists of eight related stories about the experiences of four Chinese–American mother–daughter pairs. Tan dedicated the book to her mother with the following words: "You asked me once what I would remember. This, and much more."

Being a realist, Tan had predicted to her husband that the novel would disappear from the bookstore shelves after six weeks. She thought that most first novels meet that fate within that time. Putnam Books auctioned the reprint rights in April 1989, which were bought by Vintage Books, the trade paperback division of Random House. Vintage's successful bid was at US$ 1.2 million. However, Random House decided to alter plans, and Ivy Books was assigned to print the paperback version first in the mass-market version followed by Vintage for a smaller audience as a more expensively produced version. When the paperback version came out, its hardcover had already undergone 27 printings with sales of over 200,000 copies. By 1991, the book had already been translated into 17 languages.

The Kitchen God's Wife
Tan's second novel, The Kitchen God's Wife, also focuses on the relationship between an immigrant Chinese mother and her American-born daughter. On its writing inspiration, Tan explained, "My mother said, when I started The Kitchen God 's Wife, that she liked The Joy Luck Club very much, it's very fictional, but next time tell my story." Tan added that there are many fictionalized parts in the story narration too. Tan later referred to this book as the "much more" that she remembered as mentioned in the dedication page of her first book. This novel is significant as it narrates a historical period of China between the 1930s and 1940s, including Nanjing Massacre.

G. P. Putnam's Sons released the book in June 1991 and priced the hardcover at US$ 21.95.

Other books
Tan's third novel, The Hundred Secret Senses, was a departure from the first two novels, in focusing on the relationships between sisters, inspired partly by one of the half-siblings Tan sponsored to the United States.

Tan's fourth novel, The Bonesetter's Daughter, returns to the theme of an immigrant Chinese woman and her American-born daughter.

In 2024, Tan published The Backyard Bird Chronicles, her illustrated account of birding as a coping mechanism during the divisive 2016 US Presidential election.

Where the Past Begins: A Writer's Memoir
4th Estate published Tan's memoir in October 2017. The book cover was released earlier in April. In the book, using family photographs and journal entries, she writes about the relationship with her mother, death of her father and brother, stories of her half-sisters and grandmother in China, her diagnosis of chronic Lyme disease, and life as a writer. In comparison to her fiction writing, Tan said, a memoir is "unvarnished". While writing a memoir, her recollection and sequence of events might not be orderly for reader. They emerge according to their importance and how they shaped her.

Other media
Tan was the "lead rhythm dominatrix", backup singer and second tambourine with the Rock Bottom Remainders literary garage band. Before the band retired from touring, it had raised more than a million dollars for literacy programs. Tan appeared as herself in the third episode of Season 12 of The Simpsons, "Insane Clown Poppy."

Tan's work has been adapted into several different forms of media. The Joy Luck Club was adapted into a play in 1993; that same year, director Wayne Wang adapted the book into a film. The Bonesetter's Daughter was adapted into an opera in 2008. Tan's children's book, Sagwa, the Chinese Siamese Cat was adapted into an PBS animated television show, also named Sagwa, the Chinese Siamese Cat.

In May 2021, the documentary Amy Tan: Unintended Memoir was released in the American Masters series on PBS. (It was later released on Netflix.)

Critical reception
Tan's writing has been praised for its bravery in exploring both the personal struggles and triumphs of immigrant families. Her first book The Joy Luck Club, was called "a jewel of a book" by the New York Times, noting Tan's "deep empathy for her subject matter" and the "rare fidelity and beauty" of her storytelling. The Joy Luck Club went on to be a bestseller, and was a finalist for both the National Book Award and the National Book Critics Circle Award. That book and her subsequent novels have spent forty weeks on the New York Times Bestsellers list.

In 2021, Tan was presented the National Humanities Medal for her contribution to expanding the American literary canon, and in the same year won the Carl Sandburg Literary Award. Tan also received the Common Wealth Award of Distinguished Service for her contribution to world community.

Tan has received criticism, notably from Sau-ling Cynthia Wong, a professor at the University of California, Berkeley, who wrote that Tan's novels "are often products of the American-born writer's own heavily mediated understanding of things Chinese", and author Frank Chin, who has said that her novels "demonstrate a vested interest in casting Chinese men in the worst possible light". Tan has dismissed these criticisms however, stating that her works arise from her personal family experiences as a Chinese-American, and are not intended as a representation of the general Chinese/Asian American experience.

Personal life
While Tan was studying at Berkeley, her roommate was murdered and Tan had to identify the body. The incident left her temporarily mute. She said that every year for ten years, on the anniversary of the day she identified the body, she lost her voice.

Tan believes she developed chronic Lyme disease, a condition unrecognized by medical science, in 1998. She attributes health complications like epileptic seizures to chronic Lyme disease. Tan co-founded LymeAid 4 Kids, which helps uninsured children pay for treatment.

Tan also developed depression, for which she was prescribed antidepressants. Part of the reason that Tan chose not to have children was a fear that she would pass on a genetic legacy of mental instability—her maternal grandmother died by suicide, her mother threatened suicide often, and she herself has struggled with suicidal ideation.

Tan resides near San Francisco in Sausalito, California, with her husband Lou DeMattei (whom she married in 1974), in a house they designed "to feel open and airy, like a tree house, but also to be a place where we could live comfortably into old age" with accessibility features. In recent years she has developed avid interests in birding and nature journaling.

Short stories

 * "Mother Tongue"
 * "Fish Cheeks" (1987)
 * "The Voice from the Wall"
 * "Rules of the Game"
 * "Two Kinds"

Novels

 * The Joy Luck Club (1989)
 * The Kitchen God's Wife (1991)
 * The Hundred Secret Senses (1995)
 * The Bonesetter's Daughter (2001)
 * Saving Fish from Drowning (2005)
 * The Valley of Amazement (2013)

Children's books

 * The Moon Lady, illustrated by Gretchen Schields (1992)
 * The Evil Maris Claussen Yapper of eternity, illustrated by Gretchen Schields (2020)
 * The Chinese Siamese Cat, illustrated by Gretchen Schields (1994)

Nonfiction

 * Mid-Life Confidential: The Rock Bottom Remainders Tour America With Three Chords and an Attitude (with Dave Barry, Stephen King, Tabitha King, Barbara Kingsolver) (1994)
 * Mother (with Maya Angelou, Mary Higgins Clark) (1996)
 * The Best American Short Stories 1999 (Editor, with Katrina Kenison) (1999)
 * The Opposite of Fate: A Book of Musings (G. P. Putnam's Sons, 2003, ISBN 9780399150746)
 * Hard Listening, co-authored in July 2013, an interactive ebook about her participation in a writer/musician band, the Rock Bottom Remainders. Published by Coliloquy, LLC.
 * Where the Past Begins: A Writer's Memoir, (HarperCollins Publishers, 2017, ISBN 9780062319296 )
 * The Backyard Bird Chronicles, written and illustrated by Tan (Knopf, 2024, ISBN 9780593536131)

Awards

 * 1989, Finalist National Book Award for The Joy Luck Club
 * 1989, Finalist National Book Critics Circle Award for The Joy Luck Club
 * Finalist Los Angeles Times Fiction Prize
 * Bay Area Book Reviewers Award
 * Commonwealth Gold Award
 * American Library Association's Notable Books
 * American Library Association's Best Book for Young Adults
 * 2005–2006, Asian/Pacific American Awards for Literature Honorable Mention for Saving Fish From Drowning
 * The Joy Luck Club selected for the National Endowment for the Arts' Big Read
 * The New York Times Notable Book
 * Booklist Editors Choice
 * Finalist for the Orange Prize
 * Nominated for the Orange Prize
 * Nominated for the International Dublin Literary Award
 * Audie Award: Best Non-fiction, Abridged
 * Parents' Choice Award, Best Television Program for Children
 * Shortlisted British Academy of Film and Television Arts award, best screenplay adaptation
 * Shortlisted WGA Award, best screenplay adaptation
 * 1996, Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement

title: Amy Tan


text:
Polari

Polari is a form of slang or cant historically used in Britain by some actors, circus and fairground showmen, professional wrestlers, merchant navy sailors, criminals and sex workers, and particularly among the gay subculture. There is some debate about its origins, but it can be traced to at least the 19th century and possibly as early as the 16th century. Polari has a long-standing connection with Punch and Judy street puppeteers, who traditionally used it to converse.

Terminology
Alternative spellings include Parlare, Parlary, Palare, Palarie and Palari.

Description
Polari is a mixture of Romance (Italian or Mediterranean Lingua Franca), Romani, rhyming slang, sailors' slang and thieves' cant, which later expanded to contain words from Yiddish and 1960s drug subculture slang. It was constantly evolving, with a small core lexicon of about 20 words, including: bona (good), ajax (nearby), eek (face), cod (bad, in the sense of tacky or vile), naff (bad, in the sense of drab or dull, though borrowed into mainstream British English with a meaning more like that of cod), lattie (room, house, flat), nanti (not, no), omi (man), palone (woman), riah (hair), zhoosh or tjuz (smarten up, stylise), TBH ('to be had', sexually accessible), trade (sex) and vada (see). There were once two distinct forms of Polari in London: an East End version which stressed Cockney rhyming slang and a West End version which stressed theatrical and classical influences. There was some interchange between the two.

Usage
From the 19th century on, Polari was used in London fish markets, theatres, fairgrounds, and circuses, hence the many borrowings from Romani. As many homosexual men worked in theatrical entertainment, it was also used among the gay subculture to disguise homosexuals from hostile outsiders and undercover policemen. It was also used extensively in the British Merchant Navy, where many gay men worked as waiters, stewards, and entertainers.

Although William Shakespeare used the term bona (good, attractive) in Henry IV, Part 2 as part of the expression bona roba (a woman wearing an attractive outfit), "little written evidence of Polari before the 1890s" exists according to Oxford English Dictionary associate editor Peter Gilliver. The dictionary's entry for rozzer (policeman) includes a quote from P. H. Emerson's 1893 book Signor Lippo – Burnt Cork Artiste: "If the rozzers was to see him in bona clobber they'd take him for a gun" ("If the police were to see him dressed in this fine manner, they would know that he is a thief").

The almost identical Parlyaree has been spoken in fairgrounds since at least the 17th century and is still used by show travellers in England and Scotland. As theatrical booths, circus acts, and menageries were once common parts of European fairs, it is likely that the roots of Polari/Parlyaree lie in the period before both theatre and circus became independent of fairgrounds. The Parlyaree spoken on fairgrounds tends to borrow much more from Romani, as well as other languages and cants spoken by travelling people, such as thieves' cant and back slang.

Henry Mayhew gave an account of Polari as part of an interview with a Punch and Judy showman in the 1850s. The discussion he recorded references Punch's arrival in England, crediting these early shows to an Italian performer called Porcini (John Payne Collier's account calls him Porchini, a literal rendering of the Italian pronunciation). Mayhew provides the following: "Punch Talk 'Bona Parle' means language; name of patter. 'Yeute munjare' – no food. 'Yeute lente' – no bed. 'Yeute bivare' – no drink. I've 'yeute munjare', and 'yeute bivare', and, what's worse, 'yeute lente'. This is better than the costers' talk, because that ain't no slang and all, and this is a broken Italian, and much higher than the costers' lingo. We know what o'clock it is, besides." There are additional accounts of particular words that relate to puppet performance: "'Slumarys' – figures, frame, scenes, properties. 'Slum' – call, or unknown tongue" ("unknown" is a reference to the "swazzle", a voice modifier used by Punch performers).

Decline
Polari had begun to fall into disuse among the gay subculture by the late 1960s. The popularity of the BBC radio comedy Round the Horne, with its camp gay characters Julian and Sandy, ensured that some of the Polari terms they used became public knowledge. The need for a secret means of communication in the subculture also declined with the partial decriminalisation of adult homosexual acts in England and Wales under the Sexual Offences Act 1967, and in the 1970s the gay liberation movement began to view Polari as old-fashioned and perpetuating harmful camp stereotypes.

Entry into mainstream slang
A number of words from Polari have entered mainstream slang. The list below includes words in general use with the meanings listed: acdc, barney, blag, butch, camp, khazi, cottaging, hoofer, mince, ogle, scarper, slap, strides, tod, [rough] trade.

The Polari word naff, meaning inferior or tacky, has an uncertain etymology. Michael Quinion says it is probably from the 16th-century Italian word gnaffa, meaning "a despicable person". There are a number of false etymologies, many based on backronyms—"Not Available For Fucking", "Normal As Fuck", etc. The phrase "naff off" was used euphemistically in place of "fuck off" along with the intensifier "naffing" in Keith Waterhouse's Billy Liar (1959). Usage of "naff" increased in the 1970s when the television sitcom Porridge employed it as an alternative to expletives which were not broadcastable at the time. Princess Anne allegedly told a reporter to "naff off" at the Badminton horse trials in April 1982, however, the photographers who were present have since stated that this was a censored version of what she actually said.

"Zhoosh" (alternatively spelled "zhuzh," "jeuje," and a number of other variety spellings ), meaning to smarten up, style or improve something, became commonplace in the mid-2000s, having been used in the 2003 United States TV series Queer Eye for the Straight Guy and What Not to Wear. "Jush", an alternative spelling of the word, was popularised by drag queen Jasmine Masters after her appearance on the seventh series of RuPaul's Drag Race in 2015.

In popular culture

 * James Thomson added a glossary of words he thought "obsolete" in his 1825 work The Seasons and Castle of Indolence. He chose to write "Castle of Indolence" "In the manner of Edmund Spenser". Two words he thought needed explaining were "eke", meaning "also", pronounced like Polari's "eek" (face); and "gear or geer", meaning "furniture, equipage, dress". The latter is still used in slang and has thus avoided obsolescence.
 * Polari (spelt "Polare") was popularised on the 1960s BBC radio show Round the Horne. The camp gay Polari-speaking characters Julian and Sandy were played by Hugh Paddick and Kenneth Williams.
 * In the Doctor Who serial Carnival of Monsters (1973), Vorg, a showman, attempts to converse with the Doctor in Polari.
 * Ralph Filthy, a theatrical agent played by Nigel Planer in the BBC TV series Filthy Rich & Catflap, regularly used Polari.
 * In 1990 Morrissey released the single "Piccadilly Palare" containing a number of lyrics in Polari and exploring a subculture in which Polari was used. "Piccadilly Palare" later appeared on his compilation album Bona Drag, whose title is also taken from Polari.
 * In 1990, in Issue #35 of Grant Morrison's run of Doom Patrol, the character Danny the Street is introduced; they speak English heavily flavoured with Polari, with "bona to vada" ("good to see [you]") being their favourite way to greet friends.
 * In his 1995 novel, Behind Closed Doors, Coronation Street creator Tony Warren depicts his characters using Polari on the gay scene of 1950s Manchester.
 * In the 1998 film Velvet Goldmine, two characters speak Polari in a London nightclub. The scene has English subtitles in the American release of the film.
 * In 2002, two books on Polari were published, Polari: The Lost Language of Gay Men and Fantabulosa: A Dictionary of Polari and Gay Slang, both by Paul Baker.
 * In 2007, writer and activist Paul Burston launched Polari Literary Salon in London to platform LGBTQ+ writers. He launched the Polari First Book Prize in 2011. This was followed by the Polari Prize for LGBTQ+ writers at all stages of their career in 2019 and the Polari Children's & YA Prize in 2022.
 * In 2012 and 2013, Manchester artists Jez Dolan and Joe Richardson presented a performance-based tour and exhibition titled Polari Mission, which explored LGBTQ+ history and language use in the UK. This was initially presented at The John Rylands Library for Manchester Pride and Contact Theatre for LGBT+ History Month, with an expanded exhibition from September 2013 at The John Rylands.
 * In 2015, the UK Parliament commissioned a new artwork by Jez Dolan called Wolfenden, which translated sections of the 1957 Wolfenden Report (which recommended decriminalising consensual sexual activity between men) into Polari. In 2022, the work was exhibited in Portcullis House for UK LGBT+ History Month.
 * In 2015, filmmakers Brian Fairbairn and Karl Eccleston made Putting on the Dish, a short film with dialogue entirely in Polari.
 * The 2016 David Bowie album Blackstar contains a song, "Girl Loves Me", that uses Polari and Nadsat in its lyrics.
 * In 2017, a service at Westcott House, Cambridge was conducted in Polari. Trainee priests held the service to commemorate LGBT History Month; following media attention, Chris Chivers, the principal, expressed his regret.
 * In December 2016, to launch LGBT+ History Month 2017 and celebrate the 50th anniversary of the 1967 Sexual Offences Act, poet Adam Lowe performed his Polari poem "Vada That" in Parliament's Speaker's House with accompaniment by musician Nikki Franklin.
 * In the 2017 EP Ricky, gay singer Sakima used Polari.
 * In 2019, the first opera in Polari, The Sins of the Cities of the Plain (based on the book of the same title), premiered at Espacio Turina in Seville, Spain. The libretto was written in Polari by librettist and playwright Fabrizio Funari and the music is by Germán Alonso. Niño de Elche played the main role. The opera was produced and performed by instrumental ensemble Proyecto OCNOS, formed by Pedro Rojas-Ogáyar and Gustavo A. Domínguez Ojalvo, with the support of ICAS Sevilla, Fundación BBVA and The Librettist.
 * The same year, the English-language localisation of the Japanese video game Dragon Quest Builders 2 included a character called Jules, who spoke in Polari with non-standard capitalisation.
 * In 2019, Reaktion Books published Fabulosa!: The Story of Polari, Britain's Secret Gay Language, by Paul Baker.
 * In the 2020 film Roald & Beatrix: The Tail of the Curious Mouse, a young Roald Dahl, running away from home, meets a man (played by Bill Bailey) who speaks in Polari.
 * In the 2022 film Elvis, Elvis' manager, Colonel Tom Parker, uses Polari (spelled "Palare") when speaking to carnival staff.
 * In his 2022 poetry film, The Tale of Benny Harris, Dr Lee Campbell of University of the Arts London explores ideas of masculinity and camp through Polari.
 * Richard Milward's 2023 novel Man-Eating Typewriter is written almost entirely in Polari, in the form of fictional memoirs by the character Raymond M. Novak.
 * In 2023, Peepal Tree Press published Adam Lowe's debut poetry collection Patterflash, which features a number of Polari poems. The title is translated in the book's glossary as "Gossip, chat, ostentatious or pretentious speech; the lyrics pouring out of my gob".
 * In the fourth episode of Funny Woman (2024), characters discuss BBC Radio using Polari in Round the Horne and visit a comedy club where gay and entertainment-industry characters converse in Polari.
 * In the fourth episode of Funny Woman (2024), characters discuss BBC Radio using Polari in Round the Horne and visit a comedy club where gay and entertainment-industry characters converse in Polari.

Glossary
Numbers: Some words or phrases that may derive from Polari (this is an incomplete list):

Usage examples
Omies and palones of the jury, vada well at the eek of the poor ome who stands before you, his lallies trembling. – taken from "Bona Law", one of the Julian and Sandy sketches from Round The Horne, written by Barry Took and Marty Feldman

 * Translation: "Men and women of the jury, look well at the face of the poor man who stands before you, his legs trembling."

''So bona to vada...oh you! Your lovely eek and your lovely riah.'' – taken from "Piccadilly Palare", a song by Morrissey

 * Translation: "So good to see...oh you! Your lovely face and your lovely hair."

''As feely ommes...we would zhoosh our riah, powder our eeks, climb into our bona new drag, don our batts and troll off to some bona bijou bar. In the bar we would stand around with our sisters, vada the bona cartes on the butch omme ajax who, if we fluttered our ogle riahs at him sweetly, might just troll over to offer a light for the unlit vogue clenched between our teeth. – taken from Parallel Lives'', the memoirs of renowned gay journalist Peter Burton

 * Translation: "As young men...we would style our hair, powder our faces, climb into our great new clothes, don our shoes and wander/walk off to some great little bar. In the bar we would stand around with our gay companions, look at the great genitals on the butch man nearby who, if we fluttered our eyelashes at him sweetly, might just wander/walk over to offer a light for the unlit cigarette clenched between our teeth."

In the Are You Being Served? episode "The Old Order Changes", Captain Peacock asks Mr Humphries to get "some strides for the omi with the naff riah" (i.e., trousers for the fellow with the unstylish hair).

title: Polari


text:
Julian and Sandy

Julian and Sandy were characters on the BBC radio comedy programme Round the Horne from 1965 to 1968 and were played by Hugh Paddick and Kenneth Williams respectively, with scripts written by Barry Took and Marty Feldman. According to a BBC Radio 4 programme on the characters, they were named after the writers Sandy Wilson and Julian Slade.

Although no longer referred to as such, the various characters played by Williams and Paddick in a section of Stop Messing About were in all but name Julian and Sandy.

Background
Barry Took describes the original conception of Julian and Sandy as two "old theatrical chaps" who were doing housework in the flat of Kenneth Horne (the "straight man" in the sketches), while waiting for their next acting job. However, the producer of Round the Horne, John Simmonds, did not like them and viewed the characters as "too sad" and suggested making them younger "chorus boy" types. Their first appearance was in episode four of the first series, and – although Marty Feldman apparently "got tired of them" – Julian and Sandy proved to be the most successful part of the show, and appeared in every episode thereafter.

As well as being a successful comedy act, Julian and Sandy were notable for being two stereotypical camp homosexual characters in mainstream entertainment at a time when homosexual acts between men were illegal in the United Kingdom. The writers and cast thought the characters worked very well as they were not simply there to be the target of a joke: in fact most of the sketches revolved around Kenneth Horne's presumed ignorance being the target of their jokes. Paul Baker writes that these sketches, while mocking an oppressed gay identity, present gay people as cheerful, rather than "indexing unhappy, ashamed identities like those in films such as Victim (1961), A Taste of Honey (1961) and The Boys in the Band (1970), or the openly politicised identity adopted by members of the Gay Liberation Front".

Their use of Polari in sketches introduced the gay cant to a mass audience, and identified them as gay to those in the know. Although this prompted a brief revival, Round the Horne ultimately led to Polari's near-demise as a means of communication between gay men.

Horne would start off usually by mentioning that he had found an advertisement in one of a selection of risqué magazines, which he would insist he bought for innocent reasons. This would lead him, more often than not, to a business in Chelsea starting with the word "Bona" (Polari for "good"). He would enter by saying, "Hello, anybody there?", and Julian (Hugh Paddick) would answer, to a round of applause from the studio audience, "Ooh hello! I'm Julian and this is my friend Sandy!" – only once, on their second appearance, does Sandy start by introducing his friend Julian.

This quote illustrating the use of double entendre is from the sketch "Bona Law" (itself a pun on the name of Bonar Law, a former prime minister of the United Kingdom), featuring Julian and Sandy as lawyers:

 * HORNE: Will you take my case?
 * JULIAN: Well, it depends on what it is. We've got a criminal practice that takes up most of our time.
 * HORNE: Yes, but apart from that, I need legal advice.
 * SANDY: Ooh, isn't he bold?

Here, the "criminal practice" refers to both the fact that Julian is a "practising homosexual" and also the law practice where he is currently employed. Such innuendo and double entendre was the predominant form of British humour at the time, with the Carry On Films – in which Kenneth Williams featured prominently – being an iconic example of such.

At other times, Horne's character would pretend not to understand the more risqué meanings in Julian and Sandy's dialogue, although it was always hinted that he was secretly in on the joke. A good example was Horne attempting to use Polari himself:

 * HORNE: Would I have vada'd any of them do you think?
 * SANDY: Oooh! He’s got all the Polari, ain't he?
 * JULIAN: Hmmmm, I wonder where he picks it up?

The sketches also often had Horne drawing out more about Julian and Sandy's personal lives than he intended, as the two would misunderstand his meaning. In one sketch, discussing Julian and Sandy's time out travelling the world aboard ship, Sandy reveals Julian was swept overboard in a storm:

 * HORNE: But did you manage to drag yourself up on deck?
 * JULIAN: Ooh, no, we dressed quite casual....

A recurring comedic theme of the series was Sandy (Williams) archly disclosing, or drawing out, a hinted-at salacious detail from Julian's (Paddick) past. Apparently Julian had had an "experience up the Acropolis" and a tale about "Bognor" had apparently been divulged by Julian after he had "been at the gin". There would then always be an anguished complaint from Julian of "You traitor - you swore you'd never tell!", before Sandy would prompt him to explain all by imploring him to "Go on - purge yourself!" On a rare occasion Julian turned the tables on Sandy, and after bellowing the "purge yourself!" line, he then ad-libbed "I've been dying to say that for years!"

Ad-libs were a prominent part of the sketch (although on 'That Reminds Me', Barry Took denied this, saying that most of what seemed to be ad lib was scripted), and were one of the reasons for how well the humour worked, as both Paddick and Williams were accomplished and very familiar with Polari in real life conversation. Williams, in particular, would add many lines of his own ("Lau your luppers on the strillers bona" (play the piano) being his most extreme use of obscure Polari).

Another catchphrase often used by both characters was "That's your actual French", although Barry Took acknowledged that Peter Cook had claimed to be the first to use "your actual ...." as a format phrase.

The humour acquired a real edge with jokes that were both risqué and controversial. Lines such as the following were very daring for their period:

 * SANDY: Don't mention Málaga to Julian, he got very badly stung.
 * HORNE: Portuguese man o' war?
 * JULIAN: Well I never saw him in uniform...

In the last episode of Series 4 in 1968 (which turned out to be the last ever episode of the show, due to Horne's sudden death) Julian and Sandy are revealed, very incongruously, to be "married" to a pair of "dolly palones" named Julie and Sandra. Also, Julian's full name is revealed to be Julian Mungo Lestrange.

Other appearances of the characters
On 30 December 1987, a special edition of Wogan called Radio Fun paid tribute to BBC radio comedy. Hugh Paddick and Kenneth Williams appeared as Julian and Sandy, with Terry Wogan doing Kenneth Horne's lines, as Horne had died in 1969.

In the stage show Round the Horne ... Revisited, which ran from 2003 to 2005 and was filmed for BBC Four, Paddick and Williams (and therefore Julian and Sandy) were played by Nigel Harrison and Robin Sebastian.

Recordings

 * The Bona World of Julian and Sandy (LP 1976; CD 2002)
 * Julian and Sandy (CD 2006)

title: Julian and Sandy


text:
Ahura Mazda

Ahura Mazda, also known as Horomazes, is the creator deity and god of the sky in the ancient Iranian religion Zoroastrianism. He is the first and most frequently invoked spirit in the Yasna. The literal meaning of the word Ahura is "lord", and that of Mazda is "wisdom".

The first notable invocation of Ahura Mazda occurred during the Achaemenid period (c. 550–330 BC) with the Behistun Inscription of Darius the Great. Until the reign of Artaxerxes II (c. 405/404–358 BC), Ahura Mazda was worshipped and invoked alone in all extant royal inscriptions. With Artaxerxes II, Ahura Mazda was gathered in a triad with Mithra and Anahita. In the Achaemenid period, there are no known representations of Ahura Mazda at the royal court other than the custom for every emperor to have an empty chariot drawn by white horses to invite Ahura Mazda to accompany the Persian army on battles. Images of Ahura Mazda, however, were present from the 5th century BC but were stopped and replaced with stone-carved figures in the Sassanid period and later removed altogether through an iconoclastic movement supported by the Sassanid dynasty.

Nomenclature
The most likely etymology is from Proto-Indo-European *h₂ḿ̥suros, from *h₂ems- ("to engender, beget"), and therefore it is cognate with Proto-Germanic *ansuz. Finnish Indologist Asko Parpola locates a borrowing from Proto-Indo-Aryan *asera- to the Uralic languages, with the meaning 'lord, prince'.

'Mazda', or rather the Avestan stem-form Mazdā-, nominative Mazdå, reflects Proto-Iranian *mazdáH (a feminine noun). It is generally taken to be the proper name of the spirit and, like its Vedic cognate medhā́, means "intelligence" or "wisdom". Both the Avestan and the Sanskrit words reflect Proto-Indo-Iranian *mazdʰáH, from Proto-Indo-European , literally meaning "placing one's mind ", hence "wise".

In Old Persian, during the Achaemenid era, the name was either depicted using the cuneiform logograms 𐏈 or 𐏉 (genitive 𐏊), or spelled out as 𐎠𐎢𐎼𐎶𐏀𐎭𐎠 (a-u-r-m-z-d-a, Auramazdā). In Parthian, the name was written as 𐭀𐭇𐭅𐭓𐭌𐭆𐭃 (ʾḥwrmzd, Ahurmazd), while 𐭠𐭥𐭧𐭥𐭬𐭦𐭣𐭩 (ʾwhrmzdy, Ōhramazdē) was the Middle Persian term used during the Sassanid era.

The name may be attested on cuneiform tablets of Assyrian Assurbanipal, in the form Assara Mazaš, but that interpretation is very controversial.

Characteristics
Even though it is speculated that Ahura Mazda was a spirit in the Indo-Iranian religion, he had not yet been given the title of "uncreated spirit". This title was given by Zoroaster, who proclaimed Ahura Mazda as the uncreated spirit, wholly wise, benevolent, and sound, as well as the creator and upholder of Asha.

Zoroaster's revelation
According to Zoroastrian tradition, at the age of 30, Zoroaster received a revelation: while fetching water at dawn for a sacred ritual, he saw the shining figure of the Amesha Spenta, Vohu Manah, who led Zoroaster to the presence of Ahura Mazda, where he was taught the cardinal principles of the "Good Religion" later known as Zoroastrianism. As a result of this vision, Zoroaster felt that he was chosen to spread and preach the religion. He stated that this source of all goodness was the Ahura, worthy of the highest worship. He further stated that Ahura Mazda created spirits known as yazatas to aid him. Zoroaster proclaimed that some Iranian gods were daevas who deserved no worship. These "bad" deities were created by Angra Mainyu, the destructive spirit. Angra Mainyu was the source of all sin and misery in the universe. Zoroaster claimed that Ahura Mazda used the aid of humans in the cosmic struggle against Angra Mainyu. Nonetheless, Ahura Mazda is Angra Mainyu's superior, not his equal. Angra Mainyu and his daevas, which attempt to attract humans away from the Path of Asha, would eventually be defeated.

Plutarch
According to Plutarch, Zoroaster named "Arimanius" as one of the two rivals who were the artificers of good and evil. In terms of sense perception, Oromazes was to be compared to light, and Arimanius to darkness and ignorance; between these was Mithras the Mediator. Arimanius received offerings that pertained to warding off evil and mourning.

In describing a ritual to Arimanius, Plutarch says the god was invoked as Hades gives the identification as Pluto, the name of the Greek ruler of the underworld used most commonly in texts and inscriptions pertaining to the mystery religions, and in Greek dramatists and philosophers of Athens in the Classical period. Turcan notes that Plutarch makes of Arimanius "a sort of tenebrous Pluto". Plutarch, however, names the Greek god as Hades, not the name Plouton used in the Eleusinian tradition ("The Hidden One") and darkness.

The Arimanius ritual required an otherwise-unknown plant that Plutarch calls "omomi" (Haoma or Soma), which was to be pounded in a mortar and mixed with the blood of a sacrificed wolf. The substance was then carried to a place "where the sun never shines" and cast therein. He adds that "water-rats" belong to this god, and therefore proficient rat-killers are fortunate men.

Plutarch then gives a cosmogonical myth: Oromazes, born from the purest light, and Areimanius, born from darkness, are constantly at war with each other; and Oromazes created six gods, the first of Good Thought, the second of Truth, the third of Order, and, of the rest, one of Wisdom, one of Wealth, and one the Artificer of Pleasure in what is Honourable. But Areimanius created rivals, as it were, equal to these in number. Then Oromazes enlarged himself to thrice his former size, and removed himself as far distant from the Sun as the Sun is distant from the Earth, and adorned the heavens with stars. One star he set there before all others as a guardian and watchman, the Dog-star. Twenty-four other gods he created and placed in an egg. But those created by Areimanius, who were equal in number to the others, pierced through the egg and made their way inside; hence evils are now combined with good. But a destined time shall come when it is decreed that Areimanius, engaged in bringing on pestilence and famine, shall by these be utterly annihilated and shall disappear; and then shall the earth become a level plain, and there shall be one manner of life and one form of government for a blessed people who shall all speak one tongue. — Plutarch

Scholar Mary Boyce asserted that the passage shows a "fairly accurate" knowledge of basic Zoroastrianism.

In his Life of Themistocles, Plutarch has the Persian king invoke Arimanius by name, asking the god to cause the king's enemies to behave in such a way as to drive away their own best men; de Jong (1997) doubted that a Persian king would pray to his own national religion's god of evil, particularly in public.

According to Plutarch, the king then made a sacrifice and got drunk – essentially a running gag on Persian kings in Plutarch's writing, and thus dubious evidence for actual behavior.

Achaemenid Empire

Whether the Achaemenids were Zoroastrians is a matter of much debate. However, it is known that the Achaemenids were worshipers of Ahura Mazda. The representation and invocation of Ahura Mazda can be seen on royal inscriptions written by Achaemenid kings. The most notable of all the inscriptions is the Behistun Inscription written by Darius the Great which contains many references to Ahura Mazda. An inscription written in Greek was found in a late Achaemenid temple at Persepolis, which invoked Ahura Mazda and two other deities, Mithra and Anahita. Artaxerxes III makes this invocation Ahuramazda again during his reign.

In the Elamite language Persepolis Fortification Tablets dated between 509–494 BC, offerings to Ahura Mazda are recorded in tablets #377, #338 (notably alongside Mitra), #339, and #771.

The early Achaemenid period contained no representation of Ahura Mazda. The winged symbol with a male figure formerly regarded by European scholars as Ahura Mazda has been now speculated to represent the royal khvarenah, the personification of divine power and regal glory. However, it was customary for every emperor from Cyrus until Darius III to have an empty chariot drawn by white horses as a place for Ahura Mazda to accompany the Persian army on battles. The use of images of Ahura Mazda began in the western satraps of the Achaemenid Empire in the late 5th century BC. Under Artaxerxes II, the first literary reference, as well as a statue of Ahura Mazda, was built by a Persian governor of Lydia in 365 BC.

Parthian Empire
It is known that the reverence for Ahura Mazda, as well as Anahita and Mithra, continued with the same traditions during this period. The worship of Ahura Mazda with symbolic images is noticed, but it stopped within the Sassanid period. Zoroastrian iconoclasm, which can be traced to the end of the Parthian period and the beginning of the Sassanid, eventually put an end to the use of all images of Ahura Mazda in worship. However, Ahura Mazda remained symbolized by a dignified male figure, standing or on horseback, which is found in Sassanian investiture.

Sasanian Empire

During the Sassanid Empire, a heretical and divergent form of Zoroastrianism, termed Zurvanism, emerged. It gained adherents throughout the Sasanian Empire, most notably the royal lineage of Sasanian emperors. Under the reign of Shapur I, Zurvanism spread and became a widespread cult.

Zurvanism revokes Zoroaster's original message of Ahura Mazda as the uncreated spirit and the "uncreated creator" of all and reduces him to a created spirit, one of two twin sons of Zurvan, their father and the primary spirit. Zurvanism also makes Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu of equal strength and only contrasting spirits.

Besides Zurvanism, the Sassanian kings demonstrated their devotion to Ahura Mazda in different fashions. Five kings took the name Hormizd and Bahram II created the title of "Ohrmazd-mowbad", which was continued after the Muslim conquest of Persia and through Islamic times.

All devotional acts in Zoroastrianism originating from the Sassanian period begin with homage to Ahura Mazda. The five Gāhs start with the declaration in Middle Persian that "Ohrmazd is Lord" and incorporate the Gathic verse "Whom, Mazda hast thou appointed my protector". Zoroastrian prayers are to be said in the presence of light, either in the form of fire or the sun. In the Iranian languages Yidgha and Munji, the sun is still called ormozd.

Present-day Zoroastrianism
In 1884, Martin Haug proposed a new interpretation of Yasna 30.3 that subsequently influenced Zoroastrian doctrine significantly. According to Haug's interpretation, the "twin spirits" of 30.3 were Angra Mainyu and Spenta Mainyu, the former being literally the "Destructive Spirit" and the latter being the "Bounteous Spirit" (of Ahura Mazda). Further, in Haug's scheme, Angra Mainyu was now not Ahura Mazda's binary opposite, but—like Spenta Mainyu—an emanation of Him. Haug also interpreted the concept of a free will of Yasna 45.9 as an accommodation to explain where Angra Mainyu came from since Ahura Mazda created only good. The free will made it possible for Angra Mainyu to choose to be evil. Although these latter conclusions were not substantiated by Zoroastrian tradition, at the time, Haug's interpretation was gratefully accepted by the Parsis of Bombay since it provided a defense against Christian missionary rhetoric, particularly the attacks on the Zoroastrian idea of an uncreated Evil that was as uncreated as God was. Following Haug, the Bombay Parsis began to defend themselves in the English-language press. The argument was that Angra Mainyu was not Mazda's binary opposite but his subordinate, who—as in Zurvanism also—chose to be evil. Consequently, Haug's theories were disseminated as a Parsi interpretation in the West, where they appeared to be corroborating Haug. Reinforcing themselves, Haug's ideas came to be iterated so often that they are today almost universally accepted as doctrine.

In other religions
Some scholars (Kuiper. IIJ I, 1957; Zimmer. Münchner Studien 1984:187–215) believe that Ahura Mazda originates from *vouruna-miθra, or Vedic Varuna (and Mitra). According to William W. Malandra both Varuna (in Vedic period) and Ahura Mazda (in old Iranian religion) represented same Indo-Iranian concept of a supreme "wise, all-knowing lord".

In Manichaeism, the name Ohrmazd Bay ("god Ahura Mazda") was used for the primal figure Nāšā Qaḏmāyā, the "original man" and emanation of the Father of Greatness (in Manicheism called Zurvan) through whom after he sacrificed himself to defend the world of light was consumed by the forces of darkness. Although Ormuzd is freed from the world of darkness his "sons", often called his garments or weapons, remain. After a series of events, his sons, later known as the World Soul, will, for the most part, escape from matter and return to the world of light where they came from. Manicheans often identified many of Mani's cosmological figures with Zoroastrian ones. This may partly be because Mani was born in the greatly Zoroastrian Parthian Empire.

In Sogdian Buddhism, Xwrmztʼ (Sogdian was written without a consistent representation of vowels) was the name used in place of Ahura Mazda. Via contacts with Turkic peoples like the Uyghurs, this Sogdian name came to the Mongols, who still name this deity Qormusta Tengri (also Qormusta or Qormusda) is now a popular enough deity to appear in many contexts that are not explicitly Buddhist.

The pre-Christian Armenians held Aramazd as an important deity in their pantheon of gods. He is thought to be a syncretic deity, a combination of the autochthonous Armenian figures Aram and his son Ara and the Iranian Ahura Mazda. In modern-day Armenia, Aramazd is a male first name.

101 Names

 * 1) yazat ("Worthy of worship.")
 * 2) harvasp-tavãn ("Omnipotent.")
 * 3) harvasp-âgâh ("Omniscient.")
 * 4) harvasp-h'udhâ ("The Lord of all.")
 * 5) abadah ("Without beginning.")
 * 6) awî-añjâm ("Without end.")
 * 7) bûnastah ("The origin of the formation of the world.")
 * 8) frâxtañtah ("Broad end of all.")
 * 9) jamakh ("Greatest cause.")
 * 10) parjahtarah ("More exalted.")
 * 11) tum-afayah ("Most innocent.")
 * 12) abravañt ("Apart from everyone.")
 * 13) parvañdah ("Relation with all.")
 * 14) an-ayâfah ("Incomprehensible by anyone.")
 * 15) ham-ayâfah ("Comprehensible of all.")
 * 16) âdharô ("Most straight, most just.")
 * 17) gîrâ ("Holding fast all.")
 * 18) acim ("Without reason.")
 * 19) cimnâ ("Reason of reasons.")
 * 20) safinâ ("Increaser.")
 * 21) âwzâ ("Causer of increase. The Lord of purity")
 * 22) nâshâ ("Reaching all equally.")
 * 23) parvarâ ("Nourisher.")
 * 24) âyânah ("Protector of the world.")
 * 25) âyaîn-âyânah ("Not of various kinds.")
 * 26) an-âyanah ("Without form.")
 * 27) xraoshît-tum ("Firmest.")
 * 28) mînôtum ("Most invisible.")
 * 29) vâsnâ ("Omnipresent.")
 * 30) harvastum ("All in all.")
 * 31) husipâs ("Worthy of thanks.")
 * 32) har-hemît ("All good-natured.")
 * 33) harnekfareh ("All good auspicious-glory.")
 * 34) beshtarnâ ("Remover of affliction.")
 * 35) tarônîs ("The triumphant.")
 * 36) anaoshak ("Immortal.")
 * 37) farashak ("Fulfiller of wishes.")
 * 38) pazohadhad ("Creator of good nature.")
 * 39) xavâpar ("Beneficient.")
 * 40) awaxshâyâ ("Bestower of Love.")
 * 41) awarzâ ("Excessive bringer.")
 * 42) â-sitôh ("Undefeated, undistressed.")
 * 43) raxôh ("Independent, carefree.")
 * 44) varûn ("Protector from evil.")
 * 45) a-frîpah ("Undeceivable.")
 * 46) awe-frîftah ("Undeceived.")
 * 47) adhvaî ("Unparalleled.")
 * 48) kãme-rat ("Lord of wishes.")
 * 49) framãn-kãm ("Only wish is His command.")
 * 50) âyextan ("Without body.")
 * 51) â-framôsh ("Unforgetful.")
 * 52) hamârnâ ("Taker of accounts.")
 * 53) snâyâ ("Recognizable, worth recognition.")
 * 54) a-tars ("Fearless.")
 * 55) a-bîsh ("Without affliction or torment.")
 * 56) a-frâzdum ("Most exalted.")
 * 57) hamcûn ("Always uniform.")
 * 58) mînô-stîgar ("Creator of the Universe spiritually.")
 * 59) a-mînôgar ("Creator of much spirituality.")
 * 60) mînô-nahab ("Hidden in Spirits.")
 * 61) âdhar-bâtgar ("Air of fire, i.e. transformer into air.")
 * 62) âdhar-namgar ("Water of fire, i.e. transformer into water.")
 * 63) bât-âdhargar ("Transformer of air into fire.")
 * 64) bât-namgar ("Transformer of air into water.")
 * 65) bât-gelgar ("Transformer of air into earth.")
 * 66) bât-girdtum ("Transformer of air into girad, i.e. gathered.")
 * 67) âdhar-kîbarît-tum ("Transformer of fire into jewels.")
 * 68) bâtgarjâi ("Who creates air in all places.")
 * 69) âwtum ("Creator of most excessive water.")
 * 70) gel-âdhargar ("Transformer of the earth into fire.")
 * 71) gel-vâdhgar ("Transformer of the earth into air.")
 * 72) gel-namgar ("Transformer of the earth into water.")
 * 73) gargar ("Artisan of artisans.")
 * 74) garôgar ("Bestower of wishes.")
 * 75) garâgar ("Creator of man")
 * 76) garâgargar ("Creator of the entire creation")
 * 77) a-garâgar ("Creator of four elements")
 * 78) a-garâgargar ("Creator of clusters of the stars")
 * 79) a-gûmãn ("Without doubt.")
 * 80) a-jamãn ("Without time.")
 * 81) a-h'uãn ("Without sleep.")
 * 82) âmushthushyâr ("Intelligent.")
 * 83) frashûtanâ ("Eternal protector-increaser.")
 * 84) padhamãnî ("Maintainer of padman, i.e. the golden mean.")
 * 85) pîrôzgar ("Victorious.")
 * 86) h'udhâvañd ("Lord-Master of the Universe.")
 * 87) ahuramazda ("Lord Omniscient.")
 * 88) abarînkuhantavãn ("Of the most exalted rank in the power of maintaining the origin of the creations.")
 * 89) abarîn-nô-tavã ("Of the most exalted rank in the power of rendering the creations anew.")
 * 90) vaspãn ("Attainer to all the creations.")
 * 91) vaspâr ("Bringer of and attainer to all.")
 * 92) h'âwar ("Merciful.")
 * 93) ahû ("Lord of the world.")
 * 94) âwaxsîdâr ("Forgiver.")
 * 95) dâdhâr ("The just creator.")
 * 96) rayomañd ("Full of rae-lustre-splendour.")
 * 97) h'arehmand ("Full of khoreh, i.e. glory.")
 * 98) dâwar ("The just judge.")
 * 99) kerfagar ("Lord of meritorious deeds.")
 * 100) buxtâr ("Redeemer, saviour.")
 * 101) frashôgar ("Restorer through increase of the soul.")

title: Ahura Mazda


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Cognitive neuroscience

Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific field that is concerned with the study of the biological processes and aspects that underlie cognition, with a specific focus on the neural connections in the brain which are involved in mental processes. It addresses the questions of how cognitive activities are affected or controlled by neural circuits in the brain. Cognitive neuroscience is a branch of both neuroscience and psychology, overlapping with disciplines such as behavioral neuroscience, cognitive psychology, physiological psychology and affective neuroscience. Cognitive neuroscience relies upon theories in cognitive science coupled with evidence from neurobiology, and computational modeling.

Parts of the brain play an important role in this field. Neurons play the most vital role, since the main point is to establish an understanding of cognition from a neural perspective, along with the different lobes of the cerebral cortex.

Methods employed in cognitive neuroscience include experimental procedures from psychophysics and cognitive psychology, functional neuroimaging, electrophysiology, cognitive genomics, and behavioral genetics.

Studies of patients with cognitive deficits due to brain lesions constitute an important aspect of cognitive neuroscience. The damages in lesioned brains provide a comparable starting point on regards to healthy and fully functioning brains. These damages change the neural circuits in the brain and cause it to malfunction during basic cognitive processes, such as memory or learning. People have learning disabilities and such damage, can be compared with how the healthy neural circuits are functioning, and possibly draw conclusions about the basis of the affected cognitive processes. Some examples of learning disabilities in the brain include places in Wernicke's area, the left side of the temporal lobe, and Broca's area close to the frontal lobe.

Also, cognitive abilities based on brain development are studied and examined under the subfield of developmental cognitive neuroscience. This shows brain development over time, analyzing differences and concocting possible reasons for those differences.

Theoretical approaches include computational neuroscience and cognitive psychology.

Historical origins

Cognitive neuroscience is an interdisciplinary area of study that has emerged from neuroscience and psychology. There are several stages in these disciplines that have changed the way researchers approached their investigations and that led to the field becoming fully established.

Although the task of cognitive neuroscience is to describe the neural mechanisms associated with the mind, historically it has progressed by investigating how a certain area of the brain supports a given mental faculty. However, early efforts to subdivide the brain proved to be problematic. The phrenologist movement failed to supply a scientific basis for its theories and has since been rejected. The aggregate field view, meaning that all areas of the brain participated in all behavior, was also rejected as a result of brain mapping, which began with Hitzig and Fritsch's experiments and eventually developed through methods such as positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Gestalt theory, neuropsychology, and the cognitive revolution were major turning points in the creation of cognitive neuroscience as a field, bringing together ideas and techniques that enabled researchers to make more links between behavior and its neural substrates.

Origins in philosophy
Philosophers have always been interested in the mind: "the idea that explaining a phenomenon involves understanding the mechanism responsible for it has deep roots in the History of Philosophy from atomic theories in 5th century B.C. to its rebirth in the 17th and 18th century in the works of Galileo, Descartes, and Boyle. Among others, it's Descartes' idea that machines humans build could work as models of scientific explanation." For example, Aristotle thought the brain was the body's cooling system and the capacity for intelligence was located in the heart. It has been suggested that the first person to believe otherwise was the Roman physician Galen in the second century AD, who declared that the brain was the source of mental activity, although this has also been accredited to Alcmaeon. However, Galen believed that personality and emotion were not generated by the brain, but rather by other organs. Andreas Vesalius, an anatomist and physician, was the first to believe that the brain and the nervous system are the center of the mind and emotion. Psychology, a major contributing field to cognitive neuroscience, emerged from philosophical reasoning about the mind.

Phrenology

One of the predecessors to cognitive neuroscience was phrenology, a pseudoscientific approach that claimed that behavior could be determined by the shape of the scalp. In the early 19th century, Franz Joseph Gall and J. G. Spurzheim believed that the human brain was localized into approximately 35 different sections. In his book, The Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System in General, and of the Brain in Particular, Gall claimed that a larger bump in one of these areas meant that that area of the brain was used more frequently by that person. This theory gained significant public attention, leading to the publication of phrenology journals and the creation of phrenometers, which measured the bumps on a human subject's head. While phrenology remained a fixture at fairs and carnivals, it did not enjoy wide acceptance within the scientific community. The major criticism of phrenology is that researchers were not able to test theories empirically.

Localizationist view
The localizationist view was concerned with mental abilities being localized to specific areas of the brain rather than on what the characteristics of the abilities were and how to measure them. Studies performed in Europe, such as those of John Hughlings Jackson, supported this view. Jackson studied patients with brain damage, particularly those with epilepsy. He discovered that the epileptic patients often made the same clonic and tonic movements of muscle during their seizures, leading Jackson to believe that they must be caused by activity in the same place in the brain every time. Jackson proposed that specific functions were localized to specific areas of the brain, which was critical to future understanding of the brain lobes.

Aggregate field view
According to the aggregate field view, all areas of the brain participate in every mental function.

Pierre Flourens, a French experimental psychologist, challenged the localizationist view by using animal experiments. He discovered that removing the cerebellum (brain) in rabbits and pigeons affected their sense of muscular coordination, and that all cognitive functions were disrupted in pigeons when the cerebral hemispheres were removed. From this he concluded that the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and brainstem functioned together as a whole. His approach has been criticised on the basis that the tests were not sensitive enough to notice selective deficits had they been present.

Emergence of neuropsychology
Perhaps the first serious attempts to localize mental functions to specific locations in the brain was by Broca and Wernicke. This was mostly achieved by studying the effects of injuries to different parts of the brain on psychological functions. In 1861, French neurologist Paul Broca came across a man with a disability who was able to understand the language but unable to speak. The man could only produce the sound "tan". It was later discovered that the man had damage to an area of his left frontal lobe now known as Broca's area. Carl Wernicke, a German neurologist, found a patient who could speak fluently but non-sensibly. The patient had been the victim of a stroke, and could not understand spoken or written language. This patient had a lesion in the area where the left parietal and temporal lobes meet, now known as Wernicke's area. These cases, which suggested that lesions caused specific behavioral changes, strongly supported the localizationist view. Additionally, Aphasia is a learning disorder which was also discovered by Paul Broca. According to, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Aphasia is a language disorder caused by damage in a specific area of the brain that controls language expression and comprehension. This can often lead to the person speaking words with no sense known as "word salad"

Mapping the brain
In 1870, German physicians Eduard Hitzig and Gustav Fritsch published their findings of the behavior of animals. Hitzig and Fritsch ran an electric current through the cerebral cortex of a dog, causing different muscles to contract depending on which areas of the brain were electrically stimulated. This led to the proposition that individual functions are localized to specific areas of the brain rather than the cerebrum as a whole, as the aggregate field view suggests. Brodmann was also an important figure in brain mapping; his experiments based on Franz Nissl's tissue staining techniques divided the brain into fifty-two areas.

Cognitive revolution
At the start of the 20th century, attitudes in America were characterized by pragmatism, which led to a preference for behaviorism as the primary approach in psychology. J.B. Watson was a key figure with his stimulus-response approach. By conducting experiments on animals he was aiming to be able to predict and control behavior. Behaviorism eventually failed because it could not provide realistic psychology of human action and thought – it focused primarily on stimulus-response associations at the expense of explaining phenomena like thought and imagination. This led to what is often termed as the "cognitive revolution".

Neuron doctrine
In the early 20th century, Santiago Ramón y Cajal and Camillo Golgi began working on the structure of the neuron. Golgi developed a silver staining method that could entirely stain several cells in a particular area, leading him to believe that neurons were directly connected with each other in one cytoplasm. Cajal challenged this view after staining areas of the brain that had less myelin and discovering that neurons were discrete cells. Cajal also discovered that cells transmit electrical signals down the neuron in one direction only. Both Golgi and Cajal were awarded a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906 for this work on the neuron doctrine.

Mid-late 20th century
Several findings in the 20th century continued to advance the field, such as the discovery of ocular dominance columns, recording of single nerve cells in animals, and coordination of eye and head movements. Experimental psychology was also significant in the foundation of cognitive neuroscience. Some particularly important results were the demonstration that some tasks are accomplished via discrete processing stages, the study of attention, and the notion that behavioural data do not provide enough information by themselves to explain mental processes. As a result, some experimental psychologists began to investigate neural bases of behaviour. Wilder Penfield created maps of primary sensory and motor areas of the brain by stimulating the cortices of patients during surgery. The work of Sperry and Gazzaniga on split brain patients in the 1950s was also instrumental in the progress of the field. The term cognitive neuroscience itself was coined by Gazzaniga and cognitive psychologist George Armitage Miller while sharing a taxi in 1976.

Brain mapping
New brain mapping technology, particularly fMRI and PET, allowed researchers to investigate experimental strategies of cognitive psychology by observing brain function. Although this is often thought of as a new method (most of the technology is relatively recent), the underlying principle goes back as far as 1878 when blood flow was first associated with brain function. Angelo Mosso, an Italian psychologist of the 19th century, had monitored the pulsations of the adult brain through neurosurgically created bony defects in the skulls of patients. He noted that when the subjects engaged in tasks such as mathematical calculations the pulsations of the brain increased locally. Such observations led Mosso to conclude that blood flow of the brain followed function.

Birth of cognitive science
On September 11, 1956, a large-scale meeting of cognitivists took place at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. George A. Miller presented his "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two" paper while Noam Chomsky and Newell & Simon presented their findings on computer science. Ulric Neisser commented on many of the findings at this meeting in his 1967 book Cognitive Psychology. The term "psychology" had been waning in the 1950s and 1960s, causing the field to be referred to as "cognitive science". Behaviorists such as Miller began to focus on the representation of language rather than general behavior. David Marr concluded that one should understand any cognitive process at three levels of analysis. These levels include computational, algorithmic/representational, and physical levels of analysis.

Combining neuroscience and cognitive science
Before the 1980s, interaction between neuroscience and cognitive science was scarce. Cognitive neuroscience began to integrate the newly laid theoretical ground in cognitive science, that emerged between the 1950s and 1960s, with approaches in experimental psychology, neuropsychology and neuroscience. (Neuroscience was not established as a unified discipline until 1971 ). In the late 1970s, neuroscientist Michael S. Gazzaniga and cognitive psychologist George A. Miller were said to have first coined the term "cognitive neuroscience." In the very late 20th century new technologies evolved that are now the mainstay of the methodology of cognitive neuroscience, including TMS (1985) and fMRI (1991). Earlier methods used in cognitive neuroscience include EEG (human EEG 1920) and MEG (1968). Occasionally cognitive neuroscientists utilize other brain imaging methods such as PET and SPECT. An upcoming technique in neuroscience is NIRS which uses light absorption to calculate changes in oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin in cortical areas. In some animals Single-unit recording can be used. Other methods include microneurography, facial EMG, and eye tracking. Integrative neuroscience attempts to consolidate data in databases, and form unified descriptive models from various fields and scales: biology, psychology, anatomy, and clinical practice.

Adaptive resonance theory (ART) is a cognitive neuroscience theory developed by Gail Carpenter and Stephen Grossberg in the late 1970s on aspects of how the brain processes information. It describes a number of artificial neural network models which use supervised and unsupervised learning methods, and address problems such as pattern recognition and prediction.

In 2014, Stanislas Dehaene, Giacomo Rizzolatti and Trevor Robbins, were awarded the Brain Prize "for their pioneering research on higher brain mechanisms underpinning such complex human functions as literacy, numeracy, motivated behaviour and social cognition, and for their efforts to understand cognitive and behavioural disorders". Brenda Milner, Marcus Raichle and John O'Keefe received the Kavli Prize in Neuroscience "for the discovery of specialized brain networks for memory and cognition" and O'Keefe shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in the same year with May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser "for their discoveries of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain".

In 2017, Wolfram Schultz, Peter Dayan and Ray Dolan were awarded the Brain Prize "for their multidisciplinary analysis of brain mechanisms that link learning to reward, which has far-reaching implications for the understanding of human behaviour, including disorders of decision-making in conditions such as gambling, drug addiction, compulsive behaviour and schizophrenia".,

Recent trends
Recently the focus of research had expanded from the localization of brain area(s) for specific functions in the adult brain using a single technology. Studies have been diverging in several different directions: exploring the interactions between different brain areas, using multiple technologies and approaches to understand brain functions, and using computational approaches. Advances in non-invasive functional neuroimaging and associated data analysis methods have also made it possible to use highly naturalistic stimuli and tasks such as feature films depicting social interactions in cognitive neuroscience studies.

Another very recent trend in cognitive neuroscience is the use of optogenetics to explore circuit function and its behavioral consequences.

Topics

 * Attention
 * Cognitive development
 * Consciousness
 * Creativity
 * Decision-making
 * Emotions
 * Intelligence
 * Language
 * Learning
 * Memory
 * Perception
 * Social cognition
 * Mind Wandering

Methods
Experimental methods include:
 * Psychophysics
 * Eye-tracking
 * Functional magnetic resonance imaging
 * Electroencephalography
 * Magnetoencephalography
 * Electrocorticography
 * Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
 * Computational Modeling

Notable people

 * Jesper Mogensen, Danish neuroscientist and former university professor

title: Cognitive neuroscience