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Trivial Pursuit

Trivial Pursuit is a board game in which winning is determined by a player's ability to answer trivia and popular culture questions. Players move their pieces around a board, the squares they land on determining the subject of a question they are asked from a card (from six categories including "history" and "science and nature"). Each correct answer allows the player's turn to continue; a correct answer on one of the six "category headquarters" spaces earns a plastic wedge which is slotted into the answerer's playing piece. The object of the game is to collect all six wedges from each "category headquarters" space, and then return to the center "hub" space to answer a question in a category selected by the other players.

Since the game's first release in 1981, numerous themed editions have been released. Some question sets have been designed for younger players, and others for a specific time period or as promotional tie-ins (such as Star Wars, Saturday Night Live, and The Lord of the Rings movies).

History
The game was created on December 15, 1979, in Niagara on the Lake, Ontario, by Chris Haney, a photo editor for Montreal's The Gazette, and Scott Abbott, a sports editor for The Canadian Press. After finding pieces of their Scrabble game missing, they decided to create their own game. With the help of John Haney and Ed Werner, they completed development of the game, which was released in 1981. During the development of the game, some of the early work and question writing was completed by Chris and John Haney in Weymouth Library, Dorset where they were staying with family.

The rights to the game were initially licensed to Selchow and Righter in 1982, then to Parker Brothers (later part of Hasbro) in 1988, after initially being turned down by the Virgin Group; in 2008, Hasbro bought the full rights, for US$80 million.

By 1986, the board game had sold 20 million units, grossing $600 million in sales. , more than 100 million games had been sold in 26 countries and 17 languages. Northern Plastics of Elroy, Wisconsin produced 30,000,000 games between 1983 and 1985. In December 1993, Trivial Pursuit was named to the "Games Hall of Fame" by Games magazine. An online version of Trivial Pursuit was launched in September 2003.

Gameplay
The object of the game is to move around the board by correctly answering trivia questions. Questions are split into six categories, with each one having its own color to readily identify itself; in the classic version of Trivial Pursuit, the Geography category is blue, Entertainment is pink, History is yellow, Arts & Literature is originally brown, later purple, Science & Nature is green, and Sports & Leisure is orange. The game includes a board, playing pieces, question cards, a box, small plastic wedges to fit into the playing pieces, and a die.

Playing pieces used in Trivial Pursuit are round and divided into six sections like wedges of pie. A small plastic wedge, sometimes called a cheese (like cheese triangles), can be placed into each of these sections to mark each player's progress.

During the game, players move their playing pieces around a board which is shaped like a wheel with six spokes, rolling a single die to determine how far to move. The board is divided into spaces of different colors, and the center space is a hexagonal "hub." At the end of each spoke is a "category headquarters" space. After landing on a space, the player is asked a question in the category corresponding to its color. A correct answer allows the player to continue their turn, while a miss passes control to the next player in sequence. Questions must be answered without any outside assistance. Landing on a category headquarters space and answering correctly awards a wedge in that color, if the player does not yet have one; wedges are fitted into the playing pieces as they are earned. The player may move in any available direction and change directions at any category headquarters space or the hub, but may not backtrack.

"Roll Again" spaces allow the player an extra die roll without having to answer a question, while landing on the hub allows a player to answer a question in the category of their choice as long as they do not yet have all six wedges. Any number of playing pieces may occupy a given space at the same time. A variant rule ends a player's turn on collecting a wedge, preventing a single knowledgeable player from running the board.

After collecting all six wedges and filling their playing piece, the player must land on the hub by exact count and correctly answer a question in a category chosen by the opponents in order to win the game. If the player misses the question, they must leave the hub on their next turn and return to it for another chance to win.

Editions
Over the years, numerous editions of Trivial Pursuit have been produced, usually specializing in various fields. The original version is known as the Genus edition (or Genus I). Several different general knowledge editions (such as Genus II) have followed. Other editions include Junior Edition (1985), All-Star Sports, Baby Boomers, 1980s, All About the 80s, 1990s, Harry Potter, and others. In total, over 100 different editions in different languages have been printed.

In the United Kingdom, Trivial Pursuit players complained that the 2006 version of the game was dumbed down in comparison to previous editions, with easier questions and more focus on celebrities and show business.

Reception
The Toy Insider mentioned that it can be "enjoyed by baby boomers, millennials, and everyone in between", while Board Games Land called it "The timeless classic and the godfather of trivia games".

In a review for Issue 31 of Games, Mike Shenk stated the game's questions were "excellent in quantity, scope, and level of difficulty" but warned that "the wait between turns can be uncomfortably long." Games also included Trivial Pursuit in its Games 100 in 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, and 1986, saying "The game’s winning formula is to offer well-written, entertaining questions in a continuing flow of new categories for players of all ages and interests."

Jeux & Stratégie reviewed Trivial Pursuit (as "Remue-méninges") in Issue 28, generally praising the quality and accessibility of the game's questions, but also expressing that they are sometimes subject to doubt.

Reviews

 * Family Games: The 100 Best

Worth lawsuit
In October 1984, Fred L. Worth, author of The Trivia Encyclopedia, Super Trivia, and Super Trivia II, filed a $300 million lawsuit against the distributors of Trivial Pursuit. He claimed that more than a quarter of the questions in the game's Genus Edition had been taken from his books, even to the point of reproducing typographical errors and deliberately placed misinformation. One of the questions in Trivial Pursuit was "What was Columbo's first name?" with the answer "Philip". That information had been fabricated to catch anyone who might try to violate his copyright.

The inventors of Trivial Pursuit acknowledged that Worth's books were among their sources, but argued that this was not improper and that facts are not protected by copyright. The district court judge agreed, ruling in favor of the Trivial Pursuit inventors. The decision was appealed, and in September 1987 the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit upheld the ruling. Worth asked the Supreme Court of the United States to review the case, but the Court declined, denying certiorari in March 1988.

Wall lawsuit
In 1994, David Wall of Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, launched a lawsuit against the game's creators. He claimed that in the fall of 1979, he and a friend were hitchhiking near Sydney, Nova Scotia, when they were picked up by Chris Haney. Wall claimed that he told Haney about his idea for the game in detail, including the shape of the markers.

Wall's mother testified she found drawings of his that looked like plans for a Trivial Pursuit-like game, but the drawings had since been destroyed. Wall's friend, who was allegedly hitchhiking with him that day, never testified. Haney said he never met Wall.

Over the years, there was much legal wrangling, notably around whether the suit should be decided by a judge or jury. On June 25, 2007, the Nova Scotia Supreme Court ruled against Wall.

Television
A version of Trivial Pursuit, hosted by Wink Martindale, aired on The Family Channel in the United States from 1993 to 1995 (Jay Wolpert had attempted a pilot in 1987, but it was not picked up). A syndicated version entitled Trivial Pursuit: America Plays aired from 2008 to 2009 and hosted by Christopher Knight. In September 2004, Roger Lodge hosted a sports trivia game show on ESPN entitled ESPN Trivial Pursuit, which aired five episodes. A new version of the game is set to premiere on October 7, 2024 on The CW hosted by LeVar Burton.

BBC Television produced a Trivial Pursuit game show based on the game in the UK hosted by Rory McGrath. Another British version (with rules/format similar to the Wink Martindale version, and also using the same theme tune as the Wink Martindale version) was hosted on The Family Channel (now Challenge) by Tony Slattery. Birgit Lechtermann hosted a version for VOX in Germany from 1993 to 1994.

In 1988, a made-for-television movie entitled Breaking all the Rules: The Creation of Trivial Pursuit aired. Treated largely as a comedy, the movie featured the music of Jimmy Buffett and portrayed the creators of the game as three beer-loving Canadians. The actors were Gordon Clapp as John Haney, Malcolm Stewart as Chris Haney and Bruce Pirrie as Scott Abbott.

In Spain, a version of the show called Trivial Pursuit: Spain Plays premiered in September 2008 on Antena 3.

The Soviet Union in 1989 bought the rights to produce its own version of the board game, and also started an official championship for family teams, finals of which were broadcast on Soviet Central Television as the game show Lucky Case (russian: Счастливый случай). After the agreement ended in 1991, the show changed their rules, dropping Trivial Pursuit elements, and continued broadcasting until 2000.

Arcade game
In 1984, Bally Sente released a Trivial Pursuit arcade game. Like the board game, several variants were also subsequently released.

Home computer games
British software company Domark released a home computer version (billed as Trivial Pursuit: The Computer Game) for multiple formats during the 1980s. This version included pictorial and musical questions but was otherwise mostly faithful to the mechanics of the original board game.

Later, Domark released another version called Trivial Pursuit: A New Beginning, also across multiple formats. This version featured a plot about the dying Earth and significantly altered gameplay mechanics.

Hasbro Interactive released a "Millennium Edition" in 1999 with three different modes, and different categories:
 * Classic Pursuit: Played just like the board game. A "QUICKPLAY" option was also available, where, to speed the game up, every question would be a wedge question.  Up to six can play.  The winner is the first one to earn all six wedges, land back in the center hub by exact count, and then give a correct answer.
 * Party Pursuit: Up to three can play. The computer randomly spins categories until there are three to choose from.  A correct answer by the first player to buzz in earns the wedge; a wrong answer gives the opposition a chance, as well as take away any wedges earned in a category.  The first player to earn all six wedges wins the game.  After 20 questions, the computer begins selecting categories for the players.
 * Point Pursuit: Same as Party Pursuit, except point scores are kept, and questions range from 250 to 1,000 points. Players can also wager any or all of their scores on one final question.  Bonus points are earned for a wedge and for how much or how little time it took to answer a question.

There are also three different ways to answer the questions:
 * Multiple choice, where players choose from numbers 1, 2, 3, or 4;
 * Spelling accuracy: loose, where imperfect spelling is accepted by the program;
 * Spelling accuracy: strict, where spelling must be precise.

This game featured a total of seven voice-overs, one host, and one for each of the six categories: People & Places (blue wedge), Arts & Entertainment (pink wedge), History (yellow wedge), Science & Nature (brown wedge), Sports & Leisure (green wedge), and Wild Card (orange wedge).

Online games
In 1999, Sony Online Entertainment licensed Trivial Pursuit from Hasbro Interactive to release a downloadable online game on The Station@Sony (home to Everquest at the time), where up to three auto-matched players could chat with each other live while they played. A correct answer on any space earned a wedge on the category answered, the wedge spaces gave the player their choice of category, and the first person to earn four wedges was the winner. It was hosted on The Station until 2001.

In 2003, Bolenka Games released an online game of Trivial Pursuit on the now-defunct website Uproar.com where it features five editions such as: Genius, Silver Screen, Music, 1980s and TV.

Video games
Trivial Pursuit was released for a number of home video systems, including Sega CD, Wii, Windows Phone, Xbox 360, Xbox One, PlayStation 2 and PlayStation 3. The board game was also adapted into a mobile game called Trivia Crack as well as Trivial Pursuit Genius Edition for the Nokia 3650, 6600, N-Gage, and Siemens SX1.

Ubisoft released Trivial Pursuit: Live!, on 17 December 2014 for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3, on 18 February 2015 for Xbox One and PlayStation 4. It is similar to the Buzz! series. On Xbox One and PS4, it is a part from the Hasbro Game Channel, and it was released in physical on the Hasbro Family Fun Pack compilation on 25 October 2016. It was ported on 30 October 2018 on Nintendo Switch, for the Hasbro Game Night compilation in physical or individually for download. A sequel called ''Trivial Pursuit Live! 2'', published by Ubisoft and developed by Snap Finger Click, was released in 2022 for PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Nintendo Switch, and Stadia.

Trivial Pursuit was also adapted into a featured game on the NTN system of video-bar-trivia games. The game ran during the early 2000s.

title: Trivial Pursuit


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Racing

In sports, racing is a competition of speed, in which competitors try to complete a given task in the shortest amount of time. Typically this involves traversing some distance, but it can be any other task involving speed to reach a specific goal.

A race may be run continuously to finish or may be made up of several segments called heats, stages or legs. A heat is usually run over the same course at different times. A stage is a shorter section of a much longer course or a time trial.

Early records of races are evident on pottery from ancient Greece, which depicted running men vying for first place. A chariot race is described in Homer's Iliad.

Etymology
The word race comes from a Norse word. This Norse word arrived in France during the invading of Normandy and gave the word raz which means "swift water" in Brittany, as in a mill race; it can be found in "Pointe du Raz" (the most western point of France, in Brittany), and "raz-de-marée" (tsunami). The word race to mean a "contest of speed" was first recorded in the 1510s.

A race and its name are often associated with the place of origin, the means of transport and the distance of the race. As a couple of examples, see the Dakar Rally or the Athens Marathon.

Forms
Running a distance is the most basic form of racing, but races may also be done by climbing, swimming, walking, or other types of human locomotion. Races may be conducted with animals such as camels, dogs, horses, pigeons, pigs, snails, or turtles. They also may be done in vehicles such as aircraft, bicycles, boats, cars, or motorcycles; or with another means of transport such as skates, skateboards, skis, sleds, snowboards, or wheelchair. In a relay race members of a team take turns in racing parts of a circuit or performing a certain racing form.

Orienteering races add an additional task of using a map and compass to navigate from point to point in diverse and usually unfamiliar terrain.

A race can also involve any other type of goal like eating. A common speed eating challenge is a hot dog eating race, where contestants try to eat more hot dogs than the other racers.

Racing board games and racing video games are also competitions of speed.

Racing can also be done in more humoristic and entertaining ways such as the Sausage Race, the Red Bull Trolley Grand Prix and wok racing. Racing can be entertained from around the world.

Sprint finishes
A sprint finish is a racing tactic used in many forms of racing where a competitor accelerates towards top speed in the final stages of a race. This tactic is mostly associated with long-distance forms of running and cycling, which often feature large groups of competitors racing at a slower pace for much of the race – this slower aerobic racing allows for the subsequent anaerobic activity required for sprinting. The tactic relies upon keeping greater energy reserves than your opponent until the last part of the race in order to be able to reach the finish point first. It is the opposing tactic to keeping a steady optimal pace throughout a race to maximise your energy efficiency (see running economy).

In track and field, distances from 1500 metres upwards often feature sprint finishes. They can also be found in cross country and road running events, even up to the marathon distance. A runner's ability to sprint at the end of a race is also known as their finishing kick. Multisport races, such as the triathlon, often have running as the final section and sprint finish tactics are applied as they are in running-only events.

In cycling, sprint finishes are an integral part of the sport and are used in both track cycling and road cycling. Cycling sprints are often highly tactical, particularly on the track, with cyclists occasionally coming to a near halt at points before reaching a high speed finish. The longer track races such as scratch races often feature sprint finishes, as maintaining a steady pace within the peloton allows opponents to conserve energy through drafting. Road races are similar in this respect, in both short criterium races and long-distance races. Sprint tactics also form a major part of points classifications in road events, where cycling sprinters specialise in reaching an intermediate point first, thus gaining extra points and resulting prizes.

Sprint finish tactics are also used in speedskating, cross-country skiing, long-distance swimming, horse racing and other animal racing sports. The finishes of races which are outright sprinting events in themselves, such as the 100 metres track race, are not normally referred to as sprint finishes, as all competitors are already sprinting by default (thus it is not a racing tactic).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Racing


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Tlingit

The Tlingit or Lingít are Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast of North America and constitute two of the two-hundred thirty-one (231, as of 2022) federally recognized Tribes of Alaska. Although the majority, about 14,000 people, are Alaska Natives, there is a small minority, 2,110, who are Canadian First Nations.

Their language is the Tlingit language (natively Lingít, pronounced ), in which the name means 'People of the Tides'. The Russian name Koloshi (Колоши, from a Sugpiaq-Alutiiq term kulut'ruaq for the labret worn by women) or the related German name Koulischen may be encountered referring to the people in older historical literature, such as Grigory Shelikhov's 1796 map of Russian America. Tlingit people today belong to several federally recognized Alaska Native tribes including the Angoon Community Association, the Central Council of the Tlingit & Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska, Chilkat Indian Village, Chilkoot Indian Association, Craig Tribal Association, Hoonah Indian Association, Ketchikan Indian Corporation, Klawock Cooperative Association, the Organized Village of Kasaan, the Organized Village of Kake, the Organized Village of Saxman, Petersburg Indian Association, Skagway Village, the Yakutat Tlingit Tribe, and the Wrangell Cooperative Association. Some citizens of the Carcross/Tagish First Nation in Yukon and the Sitka Tribe of Alaska are of Tlingit heritage. Taku Tlingit are enrolled in the Douglas Indian Association in Alaska and the Taku River Tlingit First Nation in Canada.

The Tlingit have a matrilineal kinship system, with children born into the mother's clan, and property and hereditary roles passing through the mother's line. Their culture and society developed in the temperate rainforest of the southeast Alaskan coast and the Alexander Archipelago. The Tlingit have maintained a complex hunter-gatherer culture based on semi-sedentary management of fisheries. Hereditary servitude was practiced extensively until it was outlawed by the United States Government. An inland group, known as the Inland Tlingit, inhabits the far northwestern part of the province of British Columbia and the southern Yukon in Canada.

Territory

The greatest territory historically occupied by the Tlingit extended from the Portland Canal along the present border between Alaska and British Columbia, north to the coast just southeast of the Copper River delta in Alaska. The Tlingit occupied almost all of the Alexander Archipelago, except the southernmost end of Prince of Wales Island and its surroundings, where the Kaigani Haida moved just before the first encounters with European explorers. The Coastal Tlingit tribes controlled one of the mountain passes into the Yukon interior; they were divided into three tribes: the Chilkat Tlingit (Jilḵáat Ḵwáan) along the Chilkat River and on Chilkat Peninsula, the Chilkoot Tlingit (Jilḵoot Ḵwáan) and the Taku Tlingit (Tʼaaḵu Ḵwáan:) along the Taku River.

Inland, the Tlingit occupied areas along the major rivers that pierce the Coast Mountains and Saint Elias Mountains and flow into the Pacific, including the Alsek, Tatshenshini, Chilkat, Taku, and Stikine rivers. With regular travel up these rivers, the Tlingit developed extensive trade networks with Athabascan tribes of the interior, and commonly intermarried with them. From this regular travel and trade, a few relatively large populations of Tlingit settled around Atlin, Teslin, and Tagish Lakes, whose headwaters flow from areas near the headwaters of the Taku River.

Delineating the modern territory of the Tlingit is complicated because they are spread across the border between the United States and Canada, they lack designated reservations, other complex legal and political concerns make the situation confusing, and there is a relatively high level of mobility among the population. They also overlap in territory with various Athabascan peoples, such as the Tahltan, Kaska and Tagish. In Canada, the modern communities of Atlin, British Columbia (Taku River Tlingit), Teslin, Yukon (Teslin Tlingit Council), and Carcross, Yukon (Carcross/Tagish First Nation) have reserves and are the representative Interior Tlingit populations.

The territory occupied by the modern Tlingit people in Alaska is not restricted to particular reservations, unlike most tribes in the lower contiguous 48 states. This is the result of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA), which established regional corporations throughout Alaska with complex portfolios of land ownership rather than bounded reservations administered by Tribal Governments. The corporation in the Tlingit region is Sealaska Corporation, which serves the Tlingit as well as the Haida and Tsimshian in Alaska.

Tlingit people as a whole participate in the commercial economy of Alaska. As a consequence, they live in typically American nuclear family households with private ownership of housing and land. Many also possess land allotments from Sealaska or from earlier distributions predating ANCSA. Despite the legal and political complexities, the territory historically occupied by the Tlingit can be reasonably designated as their modern homeland. Tlingit people today consider the land from around Yakutat south through the Alaskan Panhandle, and including the lakes in the Canadian interior, as being Lingít Aaní, the Land of the Tlingit.

The extant Tlingit territory can be roughly divided into four major sections, paralleling ecological, linguistic, and cultural divisions:

 * The Southern Tlingit occupy the region south of Frederick Sound, and live in the northernmost reaches of the Western Red cedar forest.
 * Northern Tlingit live north of Frederick Sound to Cape Spencer, and including Glacier Bay and the Lynn Canal; they occupy the warmest and richest of the Sitka Spruce and Western Hemlock forests.
 * The Inland Tlingit live along large interior lakes and the drainage of the Taku River as well as in the southern Yukon, and subsist in a manner similar to their Athabascan neighbors in the mixed spruce taiga.
 * The Gulf Coast Tlingit live along a narrow strip of coastline backed by steep mountains and extensive glaciers, north of Cape Spencer, and along the coast of the Gulf of Alaska to Controller Bay and Kayak Island. Their territory can be battered by Pacific storms.

The trade and cultural interactions between each of these Tlingit groups and their disparate neighbors, the differences in food harvest practices, and dialectal differences in language contribute to these identifications. These academic classifications are supported by similar self-identification among the Tlingit.

Culture

The Tlingit culture is multifaceted and complex, a characteristic of Northwest Pacific Coast people with access to easily exploited rich resources. In Tlingit culture a heavy emphasis is placed upon family and kinship, and on a rich oratory tradition. Wealth and economic power are important indicators of rank, but so is generosity and proper behavior, all signs of "good breeding" and ties to aristocracy. Art and spirituality are incorporated in nearly all areas of Tlingit culture, with even everyday objects such as spoons and storage boxes decorated and imbued with spiritual power and historical beliefs of the Tlingits.

Tlingit society is divided into two moieties, the Raven and the Eagle. These in turn are divided into numerous clans, which are subdivided into lineages or house groups. They have a matrilineal kinship system, with descent and inheritance passed through the mother's line. These groups have heraldic crests, which are displayed on totem poles, canoes, feast dishes, house posts, weavings, jewelry, and other art forms. The Tlingits pass down at.oow(s) or blankets that represented trust. Only a Tlingit can inherit one but they can also pass it down to someone they trust, who becomes responsible for caring for it but does not rightfully own it.

Like other Northwest Coast native peoples, the Tlingit did practice hereditary slavery.

Philosophy and religion

Tlingit thought and belief, although never formally codified, was historically a fairly well organized philosophical and religious system whose basic axioms shaped the way Tlingit people viewed and interacted with the world around them. Tlingits were traditionally animists, and hunters ritually purified themselves before hunting animals. Shamans, primarily men, cured diseases, influenced weather, aided in hunting, predicted the future, and protected people against witchcraft. A central part of the Tlingit belief system was the belief in reincarnation of both humans and animals.

Between 1886 and 1895, in the face of their shamans' inability to treat Old World diseases including smallpox, many Tlingit people converted to Orthodox Christianity. Russian Orthodox missionaries had translated their liturgy into the Tlingit language. It has been argued that they saw Eastern Orthodox Christianity as a way of resisting assimilation to the "American way of life", which was associated with Presbyterianism. After the introduction of Christianity, the Tlingit belief system began to erode.

Today, some young Tlingits look back towards their traditional tribal religions and worldview for inspiration, security, and a sense of identity. While many elders converted to Christianity, contemporary Tlingit "reconcile Christianity and the 'traditional culture.'"

Language

The Tlingit people of Southeast Alaska and Western Canada speak the Tlingit language (Lingít ), which is a branch of the Na-Dené language family. Lingít has a complex grammar and sound system and also uses certain phonemes unheard in almost any other language.

Tlingit has an estimated 200 to 400 native speakers in the United States and 100 speakers in Canada. The speakers are bilingual or near-bilingual in English. Tribes, institutions, and linguists are expending extensive effort into revitalization programs in Southeast Alaska to revive and preserve the Tlingit language and its culture. Sealaska Heritage Institute, Goldbelt Heritage Institute and the University of Alaska Southeast have Tlingit language programs, and community classes are held in Klukwan and Angoon.

Housing
Tlingit tribes historically built plank houses made from cedar and today call them clanhouses; these houses were built with a foundation such that they could store their belongings under the floors. It is said that these plank houses had no adhesive, nails, or any other sort of fastening devices. Clan houses were usually square or rectangular in shape and had front facing designs and totem poles to represent to which clan and moiety the makers belonged.

Economy
Many Tlingit men work in the fishing industry while women are employed at canneries or in the local handicraft industry. These handicrafts include items like wood carvings and woven baskets which are sold for practical or tourist consumption.

History
Various cultures of indigenous people have continuously occupied the Alaska territory for thousands of years, leading to the Tlingit. Human culture with elements related to the Tlingit originated around 10,000 years ago near the mouths of the Skeena and Nass Rivers. The historic Tlingit's first contact with Europeans came in 1741 with Russian explorers. Spanish explorers followed in 1775. Tlingits maintained their independence but suffered from epidemics of smallpox and other infectious diseases brought by the Europeans. The 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic killed about 60% of the Mainland Tlingit and 37% of the Island Tlingit.

Food

Food is a central part of Tlingit culture, and the land is an abundant provider. Most of the richness of intertidal life found on the beaches of Southeast Alaska can be harvested for food. Though eating off the beach could provide a fairly healthy and varied diet, eating nothing but "beach food" is considered contemptible among the Tlingit and a sign of poverty. Indeed, shamans and their families were required to abstain from all food gathered from the beach, and men might avoid eating beach food before battles or strenuous activities in the belief that it would weaken them spiritually and perhaps physically as well. Thus for both spiritual reasons as well as to add some variety to the diet, the Tlingit harvest many other resources for food besides those they easily find outside their front doors. No other food resource receives as much emphasis as salmon; however, seal and game are both close seconds.

Halibut, shellfish, and seaweed traditionally provided food in the spring, while late spring and summer bring seal and salmon. Summer is a time for gathering wild and tame berries, such as salmonberry, soap berry, and currants. In fall, sea otters are hunted. Herring and eulachon are also important staples, that can be eaten fresh or dried and stored for later use. Fish provide meat, oil, and eggs. Sea mammals, such as sea lions and sea otters, are used for food and clothing materials. In the forests near their homes, Tlingit hunted deer, bear, mountain goats and other small mammals.

Genetics
Genetic analyses of HLA I and HLA II genes as well as HLA-A, -B, and -DRB1 gene frequencies links the Ainu people of Japan to some Indigenous peoples of the Americas, especially to populations on the Pacific Northwest Coast such as Tlingit. The scientists suggest that the main ancestor of the Ainu and of the Tlingit can be traced back to Paleolithic groups in Southern Siberia.

Notable Tlingit people

 * Todd Gloria (b. 1978), politician
 * Nora Marks Dauenhauer (1927–2017), poet, author, and scholar
 * Ernestine Hayes (b. 1945), poet, memorist, and professor
 * Ursala Hudson, Chilkat and Ravenstail weaver
 * Nathan Jackson (artist) (born 1938), woodcarver
 * Esther Littlefield (1906–1997), artist, cultural interpreter
 * Byron Mallott (1943–2020), Lieutenant Governor of Alaska (2014–2018)
 * Da-ka-xeen Mehner, photographer and installation artist
 * Larry McNeil (b. 1955), photographer
 * Tillie Paul (1863–1952), civil rights advocate and educator
 * William Paul (1885–1977), attorney
 * Elizabeth Peratrovich (1911–1958), civil rights advocate
 * Clarissa Rizal (1956–2016), Chilkat and Ravenstail weaver
 * Dino Rossi (b. 1959), politician
 * Martin Sensmeier (b. 1985), actor
 * Louis Shotridge (1883–1937), a Tlingit anthropologist and curator
 * Preston Singletary (b. 1963), glass artist
 * Walter Soboleff (1908–2011), scholar, elder, and religious leader
 * Jennie Thlunaut (c. 1891–1986), Chilkat weaver
 * X'unéi (unknown), a powerful Yakutat chief that went to war against Yeilxaak
 * Yeilxaak (unknown–1791), the first chief of Klukwan to be encountered by Europeans
 * Vera Starbard, playwright and author
 * X̱ʼunei Lance Twitchell, scholar and author

title: Tlingit


text:
Talk:Reichstag

Comments
This article is a mess -- is it about the institution or the building? Also, all of the information about one scholarly group's work on collecting, collating, and editing the Reichsakten is interesting, but also demonstrates a basic misunderstanding of research methods and the types of sources available to historians. JHK

Some questions:
 * when was it built?
 * who was its architect?
 * what was its first purpose?
 * fire in 1933?
 * when was it rebuilt?
 * with whom as architect?
 * what was added?
 * wrapping by christo?

2002-04-27 I split the page up and added a lot about the history of the institution. Will work on the building next; I hope to be able add some pictures too. :-) djmutex

2021-04-24 The article says "Reichstagsgebäude" is a "god specific" word. What does "god specific" mean in this context? The word itself translates to "Reichstag building" in English.

xuinkrbin. (talk) 17:58, 24 April 2021 (UTC)

Seperation of Concepts
I propose a new article be created for the Reichstag during the Nazi Period. There are already separate articles for the Holy Roman Empire, German Empire, and Weimar government. The NS Reichstag is clearly a different body. In addition, it is currently officially listed in the German Empire article, but the photos and details are mainly in the Weimar article, which is not only confusing but out of historical sequence. The articles should flow in the following way, as they do in the German Wikipedia. The addition of the Austrian and Bund periods is a smaller but important distinction that can wait until the Weimer, Empire, and Nazi content is appropriately sorted out. When done, this page would then look something like this:

 * Reichstag (legislative body)
 * Reichstag (Holy Roman Empire) 754–1806
 * Reichstag (North German Confederation) 1867-1871
 * Reichstag (Austria) 1848-48
 * Reichstag (German Empire) 1871–1918
 * Reichstag (Weimar Republic) 1919–1933
 * Reichstag (Nazi Germany) 1933–1945
 * Reichstag (building)
 * etc....

--- Ultracobalt (talk) 23:15, 22 February 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Reichstag


text:
Oahu

Oahu (Hawaiian: Oʻahu ) is the most populated and third-largest of the Hawaiian Islands. The island of Oahu and the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands constitute the City and County of Honolulu. The state capital, Honolulu, is on Oahu's southeast coast. In 2021, Oahu had a population of 995,638, up from 953,207 in 2010 (approximately 70% of the total 1,455,271 population of the U.S. state of Hawaii, with approximately 81% of those living in or near the Honolulu urban area).

Name
The Island of Oahu in Hawaii is often nicknamed, (or translated as) "The Gathering Place". The translation of "gathering place" was suggested as recently as 1922 by Hawaiian Almanac author Thomas Thrum. Thrum possibly ignored or misplaced the ʻokina because the Hawaiian phrase "ʻo ahu" could be translated as "gathering of objects" (ʻo is a subject marker and ahu means "to gather"). The term Oʻahu has no other confirmed meaning in Hawaiian.

History

The island has been inhabited since at least the 3rd century A.D. The 304-year-old Kingdom of Oahu was once ruled by the most ancient aliʻi in the Islands. The first great king of Oahu was Maʻilikūkahi, the lawmaker, who was followed by generations of monarchs. Kualiʻi was the first of the warlike kings and was succeeded by his sons. In 1773, the throne fell upon Kahahana, the son of Elani of Ewa. In 1783, Kahekili II, King of Maui, conquered Oahu, deposed the reigning family, and made his son, Kalanikūpule, king of Oahu, turning Oahu into a puppet state. Kamehameha the Great conquered Kalanikūpule's forces in the Battle of Nuʻuanu. Kamehameha founded the Kingdom of Hawaii with the conquest of Oahu in 1795. Hawaii was not unified until King Kaumualiʻi surrendered the islands of Kauai and Niihau in 1810. Kamehameha III moved his capital from Lahaina, Maui to Honolulu, Oahu in 1845. ʻIolani Palace, built later by other members of the royal family, still stands, and is the only royal palace on American soil.

Oahu was apparently the first of the Hawaiian Islands sighted by the crew of HMS Resolution on January 19, 1778, during Captain James Cook's third Pacific expedition. Escorted by HMS Discovery, the expedition was surprised to find tall islands this far north in the central Pacific. Oahu was not actually visited by Europeans until February 28, 1779, when Captain Charles Clerke aboard HMS Resolution stepped ashore at Waimea Bay. Clerke took command of the ship after James Cook was killed at Kealakekua Bay (island of Hawaiʻi) on February 14, and was leaving the islands for the North Pacific. With the discovery of the Hawaiian Islands came the introduction of disease, mosquitoes, and aggressive animals. Although indirect, simple exposure to these foreign species caused permanent damage to the Native Hawaiian people and environment.

The Imperial Japanese Navy's attack on Pearl Harbor, Oahu on the morning of December 7, 1941, brought the United States into World War II. The surprise attack was aimed at destroying the American will to fight and forcing the US to sue for peace. They attacked the Pacific Fleet of the United States Navy and its defending Army Air Forces and Marine Air Forces. The attack damaged or destroyed 12 American warships, destroyed 188 aircraft, and killed 2,335 American servicemen and 68 civilians (of those, 1,177 were the result of the destruction of the USS Arizona alone).

Oahu then became a tourism and shopping haven. Over five million visitors (mainly from the contiguous United States and Japan) flock there every year.

Climate
Oahu is known for having the longest rain shower in recorded history. Kāneʻohe Ranch reported 247 straight days of rain from August 27, 1993, to April 30, 1994. The average temperature in Oahu is around 70-85 F. The island is the warmest from June through October. The winter is cooler, but still warm, with an average temperature of 68-78 F.

Geography
Oahu is 44 mi long and 30 mi across. Its shoreline is 227 mi long. Including small associated islands such as Ford Island plus those in Kāneʻohe Bay and off the eastern (windward) coast, its area is 596.7 sqmi, making it the 20th-largest island in the United States.

The city of Honolulu—the state's capital and largest city is located on the island. As a jurisdictional unit, all of Oahu is in Honolulu County, although Honolulu occupies only part of its southeastern end.

Well-known features of Oahu include Waikiki, Pearl Harbor, Diamond Head, Hanauma, Kāneʻohe Bay, Kailua Bay, North Shore, and the resort destination Ko Olina.

The island is composed of two separate shield volcanoes: the Waiʻanae and Koʻolau Ranges, with a broad valley or saddle (the central Oahu Plain) between them. The highest point is Kaʻala in the Waiʻanae Range, rising to 4003 ft above sea level.

Tourism
Oahu, along with the rest of the State of Hawaii, relies on tourism as a driving force of the local economy. Popular tourists attractions include beaches such as Ala Moana Beach, Hanauma Bay, Kāneʻohe Bay, Ko Olina Beach Park, Waikiki Beach, among others. Other tourist attractions include Ala Moana Center, Bishop Museum, the Honolulu Museum of Art, ʻIolani Palace, and Kualoa Ranch.

Notable people

 * Barack Obama, 44th President of the United States
 * Benny Agbayani, professional baseball player
 * Keiko Agena, actor
 * Gabe Baltazar, clarinet and saxophone player
 * Alexandria Boehm, scientist
 * Darin Brooks, actor, writer, producer
 * Max Holloway, MMA Fighter, Former UFC Featherweight Champion
 * Angelique Cabral, actor
 * Tia Carrere, actor
 * Brian Ching, Major League Soccer
 * Dennis Chun, actor (Hawaii Five-0), son of Kam Fong
 * Bryan Clay, Olympic decathlete 2008
 * Scott Crary, film director and producer
 * Auliʻi Cravalho, actor, singer
 * Mark Dacascos, actor
 * Caitlin Doughty, mortician, author and YouTube personality
 * Diana Ewing, actor
 * Sid Fernandez, baseball
 * Maile Flanagan, actor
 * Kam Fong, actor
 * Lauren Graham, actor
 * Erin Gray, actor
 * Brian Grazer, Oscar-winning film and television producer

 * Coco Ho, pro surfer
 * Don Ho, singer
 * Kelly Ann Hu, actor
 * Carrie Ann Inaba, dancer, actor, musician
 * Daniel Inouye, US Senator, Medal of Honor recipient
 * Jack Johnson, musician, folk-rock singer-songwriter
 * Duke Kahanamoku, pro swimmer, surfer, sheriff
 * Samuel Kamakau, historian
 * Israel Kamakawiwo'ole, musician

 * Maxim Knight, actor
 * Olin Kreutz, football player Chicago Bears
 * Clyde Kusatsu, actor
 * Brook Lee, model and co-host of television talk show "It's a Hawaii Thing" on OC 16
 * Teri Ann Linn, actor
 * Jack Lord, actor
 * Marcus Mariota, NFL football player, Philadelphia Eagles
 * Markiplier (Mark Edward Fischbach), Internet personality, video game commentator
 * Bruno Mars, singer-songwriter, record producer, musician
 * Julie McCullough, actor
 * Zack Merrick, drummer in American rock band All Time Low
 * Bette Midler, singer, actor, comedian
 * Jason Momoa, actor
 * Carissa Moore, pro surfer, olympian
 * Tahj Mowry, actor
 * Don Muraco, professional wrestler
 * Jamie O'Brien, surfer

 * Ellison Onizuka, NASA astronaut, STS-51-C, STS-51-L, Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
 * Noelani Pantastico, ballet dancer
 * Janel Parrish, actor, singer
 * Kelly Preston, actor
 * Maggie Q, actor
 * Jonah Ray, actor, comedian, writer
 * Makua Rothman (born 1984), world champion surfer
 * Anthony Ruivivar, actor
 * Jesse Sapolu, retired football player, San Francisco 49ers
 * Garret T. Sato, actor

 * Amanda Schull, actor
 * John John Florence, professional surfer
 * James Shigeta, actor
 * Jake Shimabukuro, ʻukulele player
 * Karen Steele, actor
 * Don Stroud, actor

 * Tua Tagovailoa, NFL football player, Miami Dolphins
 * Ronald Takaki, academic, historian, ethnographer, and author
 * Akebono Tarō, sumo wrestler
 * Kristi Tauti, professional figure competitor and fitness model
 * Manti Te'o, NFL football player, Los Angeles Chargers
 * Paul Theroux, author
 * Michelle Wie West, golf LPGA
 * Taylor Wily, actor
 * Kirby Wright, poet and writer

 * Keone Young, actor

title: Oahu


text:
Stored energy printer

A stored energy printer is a computer printer that uses the energy stored in a spring or magnetic field to push a hammer through a ribbon to print a dot. As compared to dot matrix printers that print a single column of dots at a time, this printer generally creates an entire line of dots at a time. Therefore, it is also known as a line matrix printer. This technology produces premium impact printers that print for millions to billions of dots per hammer. The advantage of this technology is that it has the lowest known cost of ownership: ink is transferred by conventional typewriter-style ribbons.

Technology and use
The most common printer to use this technology was the line-matrix printer made by Printronix and its licensees. In this type, the hammers are arranged as a "hammerbank"; a type of comb that oscillate horizontally to produce a line of dots.

A character matrix printer has also been produced. In this printer, the hammers are machined from an oval of magnetically permeable stainless steel, and the hammer-tips form vertical rows.

The original technology, patented by Printronix in 1974, has the top of a stiff leaf spring held back by a magnetic pole-piece. A tungsten carbide hammer is brazed to the center-top of the leaf spring. When it produces a dot, a coil (electromagnet) wrapped around the pole-piece neutralizes the magnetic field. The leaf spring snaps the hammer away from the pole-piece, pushing the hammer out against a ribbon and placing an image of a dot onto the paper.

Recent designs have performed complex optimizations in the magnetic circuit, and eliminated unwanted resonances in the spring. The result was a near-doubling of speed. Other improvements include the use of electrical discharge machining to produce complex, three-dimensional hammers that trade-off the magnetic circuit, mechanical resonances, and printing speed.

Normal wear usually occurs when the spring rubs against the pole-piece as it returns. This causes the pole-piece to wear, eventually requiring the pole pieces to be reground and recertified.

Hexavalent chrome plating on the pole-piece, combined with careful design, more than doubles speeds and improves life-span. It produces approximately a billion impressions per hammer.

title: Stored energy printer


text:
User:Kajtek

Polish hermit living in Sweden.

title: User:Kajtek


text:
Yapı Kredi Yayınları

Yapı Kredi Yayınları (Turkish: Yapi Kredi Publications in English) is one of the biggest publishing houses in Turkey. Based in Istanbul and active since 1992, as of end of 2013 it has published 4000 titles in philosophy, literature, the arts, and children's books. It has printed more than 2 million copies in 2013. In January 2018, the publishing house released its 5000th book, titled Nâzım’ın Cep Defterlerinde Kavga, Aşk ve Şiir Notları (1937–1942), showcasing notes on conflict, love, and poetry found in Nâzım's pocket notebooks from 1937 to 1942.

It is a member of the Turkish Publishers Association.

title: Yapı Kredi Yayınları


text:
Integument

In biology, an integument is the tissue surrounding an organism's body or an organ within, such as skin, a husk, shell, germ or rind.

Etymology
The term is derived from integumentum, which is Latin for "a covering". In a transferred, or figurative sense, it could mean a cloak or a disguise. In English, "integument" is a fairly modern word, its origin having been traced back to the early seventeenth century; and refers to a material or layer with which anything is enclosed, clothed, or covered in the sense of "clad" or "coated", as with a skin or husk.

Botanical usage
In botany, the term "integument" may be used as it is in zoology, referring to the covering of an organ. When the context indicates nothing to the contrary, the word commonly refers to an envelope covering the nucellus of the ovule. The integument may consist of one layer (unitegmic) or two layers (bitegmic), each of which consisting of two or more layers of cells. The integument is perforated by a pore, the micropyle, through which the pollen tube can enter. It may develop into the testa, or seed coat.

Zoological usage
The integument of an organ in zoology typically would comprise membranes of connective tissue such as those around a kidney or liver. In referring to the integument of an animal, the usual sense is its skin and its derivatives: the integumentary system, where "integumentary" is a synonym of "cutaneous".

In arthropods, the integument, or external "skin", consists of a single layer of epithelial ectoderm from which arises the cuticle, an outer covering of chitin, the rigidity of which varies as per its chemical composition.

Derivative terms and sundry usages
Derivative terms include various adjectival forms such as integumentary (e.g. system), integumental (e.g. integumental glands, "peltate glands, the integument being raised like a bladder due to abundant secretion" ) and integumented (as opposed to bare).

Other illustrative examples of usage occur in the following articles:
 * Connective tissue in skeletal muscle
 * Dorsal artery of the penis (example of integument enclosing an internal organ)
 * Flensing
 * Flesh (generic use of plural "integuments")
 * Herzog & de Meuron (figurative usage)
 * Integumentary system (senses related to vertebrate skin and medical aspects)
 * Integumental muscles
 * Mosasaur
 * Seed

title: Integument


text:
Router (woodworking)

The router is a power tool with a flat base and a rotating blade extending past the base. The spindle may be driven by an electric motor or by a pneumatic motor. It routs (hollows out) an area in hard material, such as wood or plastic. Routers are used most often in woodworking, especially cabinetry. They may be handheld or affixed to router tables. Some woodworkers consider the router one of the most versatile power tools.

There is also a traditional hand tool known as a router plane, a form of hand plane with a broad base and a narrow blade projecting well beyond the base plate.

CNC wood routers add the advantages of computer numerical control (CNC).

The laminate trimmer is a smaller, lighter version of the router. Although it is designed for trimming laminates, it can also be used for smaller general routing work.

Rotary tools can also be used similarly to routers with the right bits and accessories (such as plastic router bases).

History
Before power routers existed, the router plane was often used for the same purpose.

An incremental step toward modern power routers was the foot-pedal operated router, such as the Barnes Former/Shaper, available in 1877. Barnes patented a reversible rotary cutting head in 1889. The first portable power router was patented in 1906 by George Kelley and marketed by the Kelley Electric Machine Company. The early electric routers were quite heavy, and only nominally "portable".

In 1915 Oscar and Rudy Onsrud produced an air-powered router, which they referred to as a Jet Motor Hand Router.

In the 1930s, Stanley Works acquired a line of portable routers from Roy L. Carter, and marketed an 18000 RPM electric hand router similar to modern routers.

Further refinement produced the plunge router, invented by ELU (now part of DeWalt) in Germany around 1949.

Modern routers are often used in place of traditional moulding planes or spindle moulder machines for edge decoration (moulding) of timber.

Process
Routing is a high speed process of cutting, trimming, and shaping wood, metal, plastic, and a variety of other materials.

Chip formation
Routing and milling are conceptually similar, and end mills can be used in routers, but routing wood is different from milling metal in terms of the mechanics. Chip formation is different, so the optimal tool geometry is different. Routing is properly applied to relatively weak and brittle materials, typically wood. As these materials are weak in small sections, routers can run at extremely high speeds, so even a small router may cut rapidly. Owing to inertia at these high speeds, the normal wood cutting mechanism of Type I chips cannot take place. The cutter edge angle is blunt, approaching 90°, and so a Type III chip forms, with waste material produced as fine dust. This dust is a respiratory hazard, even in benign materials. The forces against the cutter are light, so routers may be hand-held.

When milling metals, the material is relatively ductile, although remaining strong even at a small scale. A Type II chip forms, and waste may be produced as continuous swarf. Cutter forces are high, so milling machines must be robust and rigid, usually substantial constructions of cast iron.

Intermediate materials, such as plastics and sometimes soft aluminium, may be cut by either method, though routing aluminium is usually more of an improvised expedient than a production process, and is noisy and hard on tools.

Process characteristics
Routing is usually limited to soft metals (aluminium etc.) and rigid non-metals. Specially designed cutters are used for a variety of patterns, cuts, and edging. Both hand controlled and machine controlled/aided routers are common today.

Workpiece geometry
Routing is a shaping process that produces finished edges and shapes. Some materials that are difficult to shape with other processes, such as fiber-glass, Kevlar, and graphite, can be shaped and finished neatly via various routing techniques. Apart from finished edges and shaping, cutaways, holes, and contours can also be shaped using routers.

Tools and equipment

 * The set up includes an air or electric driven router, a cutting tool often referred to as a router bit, and a guide template. Also the router can be fixed to a table or connected to radial arms which can be controlled more easily.
 * In general there are three types of cutting bits or tools.
 * Fluted cutters (used for edging and trimming)
 * Profile cutters (used for shaping and trimming)
 * Helical cutters (used on easily machined materials, for drilling, shaping, trimming)
 * Safety glasses and ear protection should be worn at all times when using a router.
 * Only trained adults, or trained adolescents with supervision, should use the router.

Moulding
The spindle router is positioned at the finer end of the scale of work done by a molding spindle. That is to say it is able to cut grooves, edge molding, and chamfer or radius the edge of a piece of wood. It is also possible to use it for cutting some joints. The shape of cut that is created is determined by the size and shape of the bit (cutter) held in the collet and the depth by the depth adjustment of the sole plate.

Variety of routers
There are a variety of router styles, some are plunge, some are D handled, some are double knob handled. Different manufacturers produce the routers for different wood works, as plunge routers, fixed-base wood routers, combo routers, variable-speed routers, laminate trimmers, CNC wood routers. Nowadays, most better quality routers have variable speed controls and will have plunge bases that can also be locked in place so the router can be used as a fixed-base router. Some have a soft-start feature, meaning they build up speed gradually. This feature is particularly desirable for routers with a large cutter. Holding a 3-horsepower router and turning it on without a soft-start is potentially dangerous, due to the torque of the motor. Holding it with two hands is a must. For routers with a toggle type on/off switch it is important to check to verify the switch is in the off position, prior to plugging it in. For safety, larger router cutters can usually only be used in a router that is mounted in a router table. This makes the tool even more versatile and stable.

The purpose of multiple handle arrangements depends on the bit. Control is easier with different configurations. For example, when shaping the edge of a fine table top, many users prefer a D handle, with variable speed, as it seems to permit better control and burning the wood can be minimized.

Routers have many uses. With the help of the multitude of jigs and various bits, they are capable of producing dovetails, mortises, and tenons, moldings of infinite varieties, dados, rabbets/rebates, raised-panel doors and frames, cutting circles, and so much more.

Features of the modern spindle router
The tool usually consists of a base housing a vertically mounted universal electric motor with a collet on the end of its shaft. The bit is height-adjustable to allow protrusion through an opening in a flat sole plate, usually via adjusting the motor-mounting height (the mechanism of adjustment is widely varied among manufacturers). Control of the router is derived from a handle or knob on each side of the device, or by the more recently developed "D-handle".

There are two standard types of router—plunge and fixed. When using a plunge-base router, the sole of the base is placed on the face of the work with the cutting bit raised above the work, then the motor is turned on and the cutter is lowered into the work. With a fixed-base router, the cut depth is set before the tool is turned on. The sole plate is then either rested flat on the workpiece overhanging the edge so that the cutting bit is not contacting the work (and then entering the work from the side once the motor is turned on), or the sole plate is placed at an angle with the bit above the work and the bit is "rocked" over into the work once the motor is turned on. In each case, the bit cuts its way in, but the plunge router does it in a more refined way, although the bit used must be shaped so it bores into the wood when lowered.

The baseplate (sole plate) is generally circular (though this, too, varies by individual models) and may be used in conjunction with a fence attached to the base, which then braces the router against the edge of the work, or via a straight-edge clamped across the work to obtain a straight cut. Other means of guiding the machine include the template guide bushing secured in the base around the router cutter, or router cutters with built-in guide bearings. Both of these run against a straight edge or shaped template. Without this, the varying reaction of the wood against the torque of the tool makes it impossible to control with the precision normally required.

Table mounted router
A router may be mounted upside down in a router table or bench. The router's base plate is mounted to the underside of the table, with a hole allowing the bit to protrude above the table top. This allows the work to be passed over the router, rather than passing the router over the work. This has benefits when working with smaller objects and makes some router operations safer to execute. A router table may be fitted with a fence, fingerboards and other work-guiding accessories to make the operation safer and more accurate.

A simple router table consists of a rigid top with the router bolted or screwed directly to the underside. More complex solutions can be developed to allow the router to be easily removed from the table as well as facilitate adjusting the router's bit height using a lift mechanism; there is a wide range of commercially available systems.

In this mode, the router can perform tasks similar to a spindle moulder. For smaller, lighter jobs, the router used in this way can be more convenient than the spindle moulder, with the task of set up being somewhat faster. There is also a much wider range of bit profiles available for the router, although the size is limited.

The router table is usually oriented so that the router bit is vertical and the table over which the work is passed is horizontal. Variations on this include the horizontal router table, in which the table remains horizontal but the router is mounted vertically above the table, so that the router bit cuts from the side. This alternative is for edge operations, such as panel raising and slot cutting.

Available cutters
Router bits come in a large variety of designs to create either decorative effects or joinery aids. Generally, they are classified as either high-speed steel (HSS) or carbide-tipped, however some recent innovations such as solid carbide bits provide even more variety for specialized tasks.

Aside from the materials they are made of, bits can be classified as edge bits or non-edge bits, and whether the bit is designed to be anti-kickback. Edge bits have a small wheel bearing to act as a fence against the work in making edge moldings. These bearings can be changed by using commercially available bearing kits. Changing the bearing, in effect, changes the diameter of the cutting edge. This is especially important with rabbeting/rebating bits. Non-edge bits require the use of a fence, either on a router table or attached to the work or router. Anti-kickback bits employ added non-cutting bit material around the circumference of the bit's shoulders which serves to limit feed-rate. This reduces the chance that the workpiece is pushed too deeply into the bit (which would result in significant kickback from the cutting edge being unable to compensate).

Bits also differ by the diameter of their shank, with $1/4$-inch, 12 mm, 10 mm, $1/4$-inch, 8 mm and $1/2$-inch and 6 mm shanks (ordered from thickest to thinnest) being the most common. Half-inch bits cost more but, being stiffer, are less prone to vibration (giving smoother cuts) and are less likely to break than the smaller sizes. Care must be taken to ensure the bit shank and router collet sizes match exactly. Failure to do so can cause permanent damage to either or both and can lead to the dangerous situation of the bit coming out of the collet during operation. Many routers come with removable collets for the popular shank sizes (in the US $3/8$ in and $1/4$ in, in Great Britain $1/2$ in, 8 mm and $1/4$ in, and metric sizes in Europe—although in the United States the $1/2$ in and 8 mm sizes are often only available for an extra cost).

Many modern routers allow the speed of the bit's rotation to be varied. A slower rotation allows bits of larger cutting diameter to be used safely. Typical speeds range from 8,000 to 30,000 rpm.

Router bits can be made to match almost any imaginable profile. Custom router bits can be ordered. They are especially beneficial for home restoration projects, where production of the original trim and molding has been discontinued.

Sometimes complementary bits come in sets designed to facilitate the joinery used in frame and panel construction. One bit is designed to cut the grove in the rail and stile pieces while the other shapes the edge of the panel to fit in the grove.

CNC router
A CNC wood router is a computer controlled machine to which the router or spindle mounts. The CNC Machine can be either a moving gantry style, where the table is fixed and the router spindle moves over it, or fixed bridge design, where the table moves underneath the router spindle, or hand-held style, where the operator moves the machine to the area to be cut and the machine controls the fine adjustments. CAD/CAM software programming is used to model the part that is to be created in the computer and then create a tool path for the machine to follow to cut out the part. The CNC moves along three axes (X-Y-Z). Most CNC routers have a three motor drive system utilizing either servo or stepper motors. More advanced routers use a four motor system for added speed and accuracy.

Similar tools
A tool similar to a router, but designed to hold smaller cutting bits—thereby making it easier to handle for small jobs—is a laminate trimmer.

A related tool, called a spindle moulder (UK) or shaper (North America), is used to hold larger cutter heads and can be used for deeper or larger-diameter cuts. Another related machine is the pin router, a larger static version of the hand electric router but normally with a much more powerful motor and other features such as automatic template copying.

Some profile cutters use a cutting head reminiscent of a spindle router. These should not be confused with profile cutters used for steel plate which use a flame as the cutting method.

title: Router (woodworking)


text:
Feather

Feathers are epidermal growths that form a distinctive outer covering, or plumage, on both avian (bird) and some non-avian dinosaurs and other archosaurs. They are the most complex integumentary structures found in vertebrates and an example of a complex evolutionary novelty. They are among the characteristics that distinguish the extant birds from other living groups.

Although feathers cover most of the bird's body, they arise only from certain well-defined tracts on the skin. They aid in flight, thermal insulation, and waterproofing. In addition, coloration helps in communication and protection. The study of feathers is called plumology (or plumage science).

People use feathers in many ways that are practical, cultural, and religious. Feathers are both soft and excellent at trapping heat; thus, they are sometimes used in high-class bedding, especially pillows, blankets, and mattresses. They are also used as filling for winter clothing and outdoor bedding, such as quilted coats and sleeping bags. Goose and eider down have great loft, the ability to expand from a compressed, stored state to trap large amounts of compartmentalized, insulating air. Feathers of large birds (most often geese) have been and are used to make quill pens. Historically, the hunting of birds for decorative and ornamental feathers has endangered some species and helped to contribute to the extinction of others. Today, feathers used in fashion and in military headdresses and clothes are obtained as a waste product of poultry farming, including chickens, geese, turkeys, pheasants, and ostriches. These feathers are dyed and manipulated to enhance their appearance, as poultry feathers are naturally often dull in appearance compared to the feathers of wild birds.

Etymology
Feather derives from the Old English "feþer", which is of Germanic origin; related to Dutch "veer" and German "Feder", from an Indo-European root shared by Sanskrit's "patra" meaning 'wing', Latin's "penna" meaning 'feather', and Greek's "pteron", "pterux" meaning 'wing'.

Because of feathers being an integral part of quills, which were early pens used for writing, the word pen itself is derived from the Latin penna, meaning feather. The French word plume can mean feather, quill, or pen.

Structures and characteristics
[[File:Parts of feather modified.jpg|thumb|Parts of a feather: 1. Vane

2. Shaft, rachis

3. Barb

4. Aftershaft, afterfeather

5. Quill, calamus]] Feathers are among the most complex integumentary appendages found in vertebrates and are formed in tiny follicles in the epidermis, or outer skin layer, that produce keratin proteins. The β-keratins in feathers, beaks and claws – and the claws, scales and shells of reptiles – are composed of protein strands hydrogen-bonded into β-pleated sheets, which are then further twisted and crosslinked by disulfide bridges into structures even tougher than the α-keratins of mammalian hair, horns and hooves. The exact signals that induce the growth of feathers on the skin are not known, but it has been found that the transcription factor cDermo-1 induces the growth of feathers on skin and scales on the leg.

Classification
There are two basic types of feather: vaned feathers which cover the exterior of the body, and down feathers which are underneath the vaned feathers. The pennaceous feathers are vaned feathers. Also called contour feathers, pennaceous feathers arise from tracts and cover the entire body. A third rarer type of feather, the filoplume, is hairlike and are closely associated with pennaceous feathers and are often entirely hidden by them, with one or two filoplumes attached and sprouting from near the same point of the skin as each pennaceous feather, at least on a bird's head, neck and trunk. Filoplumes are entirely absent in ratites. In some passerines, filoplumes arise exposed beyond the pennaceous feathers on the neck. The remiges, or flight feathers of the wing, and rectrices, or flight feathers of the tail, are the most important feathers for flight. A typical vaned feather features a main shaft, called the rachis. Fused to the rachis are a series of branches, or barbs; the barbs themselves are also branched and form the barbules. These barbules have minute hooks called barbicels for cross-attachment. Down feathers are fluffy because they lack barbicels, so the barbules float free of each other, allowing the down to trap air and provide excellent thermal insulation. At the base of the feather, the rachis expands to form the hollow tubular calamus (or quill) which inserts into a follicle in the skin. The basal part of the calamus is without vanes. This part is embedded within the skin follicle and has an opening at the base (proximal umbilicus) and a small opening on the side (distal umbilicus).

Hatchling birds of some species have a special kind of natal down feathers (neossoptiles) which are pushed out when the normal feathers (teleoptiles) emerge.

Flight feathers are stiffened so as to work against the air in the downstroke but yield in other directions. It has been observed that the orientation pattern of β-keratin fibers in the feathers of flying birds differs from that in flightless birds: the fibers are better aligned along the shaft axis direction towards the tip, and the lateral walls of rachis region show structure of crossed fibers.

Functions
Feathers insulate birds from water and cold temperatures. They may also be plucked to line the nest and provide insulation to the eggs and young. The individual feathers in the wings and tail play important roles in controlling flight. Some species have a crest of feathers on their heads. Although feathers are light, a bird's plumage weighs two or three times more than its skeleton, since many bones are hollow and contain air sacs. Color patterns serve as camouflage against predators for birds in their habitats, and serve as camouflage for predators looking for a meal. As with fish, the top and bottom colors may be different, in order to provide camouflage during flight. Striking differences in feather patterns and colors are part of the sexual dimorphism of many bird species and are particularly important in the selection of mating pairs. In some cases, there are differences in the UV reflectivity of feathers across sexes even though no differences in color are noted in the visible range. The wing feathers of male club-winged manakins Machaeropterus deliciosus have special structures that are used to produce sounds by stridulation. Some birds have a supply of powder down feathers that grow continuously, with small particles regularly breaking off from the ends of the barbules. These particles produce a powder that sifts through the feathers on the bird's body and acts as a waterproofing agent and a feather conditioner. Powder down has evolved independently in several taxa and can be found in down as well as in pennaceous feathers. They may be scattered in plumage as in the pigeons and parrots or in localized patches on the breast, belly, or flanks, as in herons and frogmouths. Herons use their bill to break the powder down feathers and to spread them, while cockatoos may use their head as a powder puff to apply the powder. Waterproofing can be lost by exposure to emulsifying agents due to human pollution. Feathers can then become waterlogged, causing the bird to sink. It is also very difficult to clean and rescue birds whose feathers have been fouled by oil spills. The feathers of cormorants soak up water and help to reduce buoyancy, thereby allowing the birds to swim submerged. Bristles are stiff, tapering feathers with a large rachis but few barbs. Rictal bristles are found around the eyes and bill. They may serve a similar purpose to eyelashes and vibrissae in mammals. Although there is as yet no clear evidence, it has been suggested that rictal bristles have sensory functions and may help insectivorous birds to capture prey. In one study, willow flycatchers (Empidonax traillii) were found to catch insects equally well before and after removal of the rictal bristles.

Grebes are peculiar in their habit of ingesting their own feathers and feeding them to their young. Observations on their diet of fish and the frequency of feather eating suggest that ingesting feathers, particularly down from their flanks, aids in forming easily ejectable pellets.

Distribution
Contour feathers are not uniformly distributed on the skin of the bird except in some groups such as the penguins, ratites and screamers. In most birds the feathers grow from specific tracts of skin called pterylae; between the pterylae there are regions which are free of feathers called apterylae (or apteria). Filoplumes and down may arise from the apterylae. The arrangement of these feather tracts, pterylosis or pterylography, varies across bird families and has been used in the past as a means for determining the evolutionary relationships of bird families. Species that incubate their own eggs often lose their feathers on a region of their belly, forming a brooding patch.

Coloration
The colors of feathers are produced by pigments, by microscopic structures that can refract, reflect, or scatter selected wavelengths of light, or by a combination of both.

Most feather pigments are melanins (brown and beige pheomelanins, black and grey eumelanins) and carotenoids (red, yellow, orange); other pigments occur only in certain taxa – the yellow to red psittacofulvins (found in some parrots) and the red turacin and green turacoverdin (porphyrin pigments found only in turacos).

Structural coloration is involved in the production of blue colors, iridescence, most ultraviolet reflectance and in the enhancement of pigmentary colors. Structural iridescence has been reported in fossil feathers dating back 40 million years. White feathers lack pigment and scatter light diffusely; albinism in birds is caused by defective pigment production, though structural coloration will not be affected (as can be seen, for example, in blue-and-white budgerigars).

The blues and bright greens of many parrots are produced by constructive interference of light reflecting from different layers of structures in feathers. In the case of green plumage, in addition to yellow, the specific feather structure involved is called by some the Dyck texture. Melanin is often involved in the absorption of light; in combination with a yellow pigment, it produces a dull olive-green.

In some birds, feather colors may be created, or altered, by secretions from the uropygial gland, also called the preen gland. The yellow bill colors of many hornbills are produced by such secretions. It has been suggested that there are other color differences that may be visible only in the ultraviolet region, but studies have failed to find evidence. The oil secretion from the uropygial gland may also have an inhibitory effect on feather bacteria.

The reds, orange and yellow colors of many feathers are caused by various carotenoids. Carotenoid-based pigments might be honest signals of fitness because they are derived from special diets and hence might be difficult to obtain, and/or because carotenoids are required for immune function and hence sexual displays come at the expense of health.

A bird's feathers undergo wear and tear and are replaced periodically during the bird's life through molting. New feathers, known when developing as blood, or pin feathers, depending on the stage of growth, are formed through the same follicles from which the old ones were fledged. The presence of melanin in feathers increases their resistance to abrasion. One study notes that melanin based feathers were observed to degrade more quickly under bacterial action, even compared to unpigmented feathers from the same species, than those unpigmented or with carotenoid pigments. However, another study the same year compared the action of bacteria on pigmentations of two song sparrow species and observed that the darker pigmented feathers were more resistant; the authors cited other research also published in 2004 that stated increased melanin provided greater resistance. They observed that the greater resistance of the darker birds confirmed Gloger's rule.

Although sexual selection plays a major role in the development of feathers, in particular, the color of the feathers it is not the only conclusion available. New studies are suggesting that the unique feathers of birds are also a large influence on many important aspects of avian behavior, such as the height at which different species build their nests. Since females are the prime caregivers, evolution has helped select females to display duller colors down so that they may blend into the nesting environment. The position of the nest and whether it has a greater chance of being under predation has exerted constraints on female birds' plumage. A species of bird that nests on the ground, rather than the canopy of the trees, will need to have much duller colors in order not to attract attention to the nest. The height study found that birds that nest in the canopies of trees often have many more predator attacks due to the brighter color of feathers that the female displays. Another influence of evolution that could play a part in why feathers of birds are so colorful and display so many patterns could be due to that birds developed their bright colors from the vegetation and flowers that thrive around them. Birds develop their bright colors from living around certain colors. Most bird species often blend into their environment, due to some degree of camouflage, so if the species habitat is full of colors and patterns, the species would eventually evolve to blend in to avoid being eaten. Birds' feathers show a large range of colors, even exceeding the variety of many plants, leaf, and flower colors.

Parasites
The feather surface is the home for some ectoparasites, notably feather lice (Phthiraptera) and feather mites. Feather lice typically live on a single host and can move only from parents to chicks, between mating birds, and, occasionally, by phoresy. This life history has resulted in most of the parasite species being specific to the host and coevolving with the host, making them of interest in phylogenetic studies.

Feather holes are chewing traces of lice (most probably Brueelia spp. lice) on the wing and tail feathers. They were described on barn swallows, and because of easy countability, many evolutionary, ecological, and behavioral publications use them to quantify the intensity of infestation.

Parasitic cuckoos which grow up in the nests of other species also have host-specific feather lice and these seem to be transmitted only after the young cuckoos leave the host nest.

Birds maintain their feather condition by preening and bathing in water or dust. It has been suggested that a peculiar behavior of birds, anting, in which ants are introduced into the plumage, helps to reduce parasites, but no supporting evidence has been found.

Utilitarian
Bird feathers have long been used for fletching arrows. Colorful feathers such as those belonging to pheasants have been used to decorate fishing lures.

Feathers are also valuable in aiding the identification of species in forensic studies, particularly in bird strikes to aircraft. The ratios of hydrogen isotopes in feathers help in determining the geographic origins of birds. Feathers may also be useful in the non-destructive sampling of pollutants.

The poultry industry produces a large amount of feathers as waste, which, like other forms of keratin, are slow to decompose. Feather waste has been used in a number of industrial applications as a medium for culturing microbes, biodegradable polymers, and production of enzymes. Feather proteins have been tried as an adhesive for wood board.

Some groups of Native people in Alaska have used ptarmigan feathers as temper (non-plastic additives) in pottery manufacture since the first millennium BC in order to promote thermal shock resistance and strength.

In religion and culture
Eagle feathers have great cultural and spiritual value to Native Americans in the United States and First Nations peoples in Canada as religious objects. In the United States, the religious use of eagle and hawk feathers is governed by the eagle feather law, a federal law limiting the possession of eagle feathers to certified and enrolled members of federally recognized Native American tribes.

In South America, brews made from the feathers of condors are used in traditional medications. In India, feathers of the Indian peacock have been used in traditional medicine for snakebite, infertility, and coughs.

Members of Scotland's Clan Campbell are known to wear feathers on their bonnets to signify authority within the clan. Clan chiefs wear three, chieftains wear two and an armiger wears one. Any member of the clan who does not meet the criteria is not authorized to wear feathers as part of traditional garb and doing so is considered presumptuous.

During the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries, there was a booming international trade in plumes for extravagant women's hats and other headgear (including in Victorian fashion). Frank Chapman noted in 1886 that feathers of as many as 40 species of birds were used in about three-fourths of the 700 ladies' hats that he observed in New York City. For instance, South American hummingbird feathers were used in the past to dress some of the miniature birds featured in singing bird boxes. This trade caused severe losses to bird populations (for example, egrets and whooping cranes). Conservationists led a major campaign against the use of feathers in hats. This contributed to passage of the Lacey Act in 1900, and to changes in fashion. The ornamental feather market then largely collapsed.

More recently, rooster plumage has become a popular trend as a hairstyle accessory, with feathers formerly used as fishing lures now being used to provide color and style to hair.

Feather products manufacturing in Europe has declined in the last 60 years, mainly due to competition from Asia. Feathers have adorned hats at many prestigious events such as weddings and Ladies Day at racecourses (Royal Ascot).

Functional considerations
The functional view on the evolution of feathers has traditionally focused on insulation, flight and display. Discoveries of non-flying Late Cretaceous feathered dinosaurs in China, however, suggest that flight could not have been the original primary function as the feathers simply would not have been capable of providing any form of lift. There have been suggestions that feathers may have had their original function in thermoregulation, waterproofing, or even as sinks for metabolic wastes such as sulphur. Recent discoveries are argued to support a thermoregulatory function, at least in smaller dinosaurs. Some researchers even argue that thermoregulation arose from bristles on the face that were used as tactile sensors. While feathers have been suggested as having evolved from reptilian scales, there are numerous objections to that idea, and more recent explanations have arisen from the paradigm of evolutionary developmental biology. Theories of the scale-based origins of feathers suggest that the planar scale structure was modified for development into feathers by splitting to form the webbing; however, that developmental process involves a tubular structure arising from a follicle and the tube splitting longitudinally to form the webbing. The number of feathers per unit area of skin is higher in smaller birds than in larger birds, and this trend points to their important role in thermal insulation, since smaller birds lose more heat due to the relatively larger surface area in proportion to their body weight. The miniaturization of birds also played a role in the evolution of powered flight. The coloration of feathers is believed to have evolved primarily in response to sexual selection. In fossil specimens of the paravian Anchiornis huxleyi and the pterosaur Tupandactylus imperator, the features are so well preserved that the melanosome (pigment cells) structure can be observed. By comparing the shape of the fossil melanosomes to melanosomes from extant birds, the color and pattern of the feathers on Anchiornis and Tupandactylus could be determined. Anchiornis was found to have black-and-white-patterned feathers on the forelimbs and hindlimbs, with a reddish-brown crest. This pattern is similar to the coloration of many extant bird species, which use plumage coloration for display and communication, including sexual selection and camouflage. It is likely that non-avian dinosaur species utilized plumage patterns for similar functions as modern birds before the origin of flight. In many cases, the physiological condition of the birds (especially males) is indicated by the quality of their feathers, and this is used (by the females) in mate choice. Additionally, when comparing different Ornithomimus edmontonicus specimens, older individuals were found to have a pennibrachium (a wing-like structure consisting of elongate feathers), while younger ones did not. This suggests that the pennibrachium was a secondary sex characteristic and likely had a sexual function.

Molecular evolution
Several genes have been found to determine feather development. They will be key to understand the evolution of feathers. For instance, some genes convert scales into feathers or feather-like structures when expressed or induced in bird feet, such as the scale-feather converters Sox2, Zic1, Grem1, Spry2, and Sox18.

Feathers and scales are made up of two distinct forms of keratin, and it was long thought that each type of keratin was exclusive to each skin structure (feathers and scales). However, feather keratin is also present in the early stages of development of American alligator scales. This type of keratin, previously thought to be specific to feathers, is suppressed during embryological development of the alligator and so is not present in the scales of mature alligators. The presence of this homologous keratin in both birds and crocodilians indicates that it was inherited from a common ancestor.

This may suggest that crocodilian scales, bird and dinosaur feathers, and pterosaur pycnofibres are all developmental expressions of the same primitive archosaur skin structures; suggesting that feathers and pycnofibers could be homologous. Molecular dating methods in 2011 show that the subfamily of feather β-keratins found in extant birds started to diverge 143 million years ago, suggesting the pennaceous feathers of Anchiornis were not made of the feather β-keratins present in extant birds. However, a study of fossil feathers from the dinosaur Sinosauropteryx and other fossils revealed traces of beta-sheet proteins, using infrared spectroscopy and sulfur-X-ray spectroscopy. The presence of abundant alpha-proteins in some fossil feathers was shown to be an artefact of the fossilization process, as beta-protein structures are readily altered to alpha-helices during thermal degradation. In 2019, scientists found that genes for the production of feathers evolved at the base of archosauria, supporting that feathers were present at early ornithodirans and is consistent with the fossil record.

Feathered dinosaurs
Several non-avian dinosaurs had feathers on their limbs that would not have functioned for flight. One theory suggests that feathers originally evolved on dinosaurs due to their insulation properties; then, small dinosaur species which grew longer feathers may have found them helpful in gliding, leading to the evolution of proto-birds like Archaeopteryx and Microraptor zhaoianus. Another theory posits that the original adaptive advantage of early feathers was their pigmentation or iridescence, contributing to sexual preference in mate selection. Dinosaurs that had feathers or protofeathers include Pedopenna daohugouensis and Dilong paradoxus, a tyrannosauroid which is 60 to 70 million years older than Tyrannosaurus rex.

The majority of dinosaurs known to have had feathers or protofeathers are theropods, however featherlike "filamentous integumentary structures" are also known from the ornithischian dinosaurs Tianyulong and Psittacosaurus. The exact nature of these structures is still under study. However, it is believed that the stage-1 feathers (see Evolutionary stages section below) such as those seen in these two ornithischians likely functioned in display. In 2014, the ornithischian Kulindadromeus was reported as having structures resembling stage-3 feathers. The likelihood of scales evolving on early dinosaur ancestors are high. However, this was by assuming that primitive pterosaurs were scaly. A 2016 study analyzes the pulp morphology of the tail bristles of Psittacosaurus and finds they are similar to feathers but notes that they are also similar to the bristles on the head of the Congo peafowl, the beard of the turkey, and the spine on the head of the horned screamer. A reestimation of maximum likelihoods by paleontologist Thomas Holtz finds that filaments were more likely to be the ancestral state of dinosaurs.

In 2010, a carcharodontosaurid named Concavenator corcovatus was found to have remiges on the ulna suggesting it might have had quill-like structures on the ams. However, Foth et al. 2014 disagress with the publication where they point out that the bumps on the ulna of Concavenator are on the anterolateral which is unlike remiges which are in a posterolateral on the ulna of some birds, they consider it more likely that these are attachments for interosseous ligaments. This was refuted by Cuesta Fidalgo and her colleagues, they pointed out that these bumps on the ulna are posterolateral which is unlike that of interosseous ligaments.

Since the 1990s, dozens of feathered dinosaurs have been discovered in the clade Maniraptora, which includes the clade Avialae and the recent common ancestors of birds, Oviraptorosauria and Deinonychosauria. In 1998, the discovery of a feathered oviraptorosaurian, Caudipteryx zoui, challenged the notion of feathers as a structure exclusive to Avialae. Buried in the Yixian Formation in Liaoning, China, C. zoui lived during the Early Cretaceous Period. Present on the forelimbs and tails, their integumentary structure has been accepted as pennaceous vaned feathers based on the rachis and herringbone pattern of the barbs. In the clade Deinonychosauria, the continued divergence of feathers is also apparent in the families Troodontidae and Dromaeosauridae. Branched feathers with rachis, barbs, and barbules were discovered in many members including Sinornithosaurus millenii, a dromaeosaurid found in the Yixian formation (124.6 MYA).

Previously, a temporal paradox existed in the evolution of feathers—theropods with highly derived bird-like characteristics occurred at a later time than Archaeopteryx—suggesting that the descendants of birds arose before the ancestor. However, the discovery of Anchiornis huxleyi in the Late Jurassic Tiaojishan Formation (160 MYA) in western Liaoning in 2009 resolved this paradox. By predating Archaeopteryx, Anchiornis proves the existence of a modernly feathered theropod ancestor, providing insight into the dinosaur-bird transition. The specimen shows distribution of large pennaceous feathers on the forelimbs and tail, implying that pennaceous feathers spread to the rest of the body at an earlier stage in theropod evolution. The development of pennaceous feathers did not replace earlier filamentous feathers. Filamentous feathers are preserved alongside modern-looking flight feathers – including some with modifications found in the feathers of extant diving birds – in 80 million year old amber from Alberta.

Two small wings trapped in amber dating to 100 mya show plumage existed in some bird predecessors. The wings most probably belonged to enantiornithes, a diverse group of avian dinosaurs.

A large phylogenetic analysis of early dinosaurs by Matthew Baron, David B. Norman and Paul Barrett (2017) found that Theropoda is actually more closely related to Ornithischia, to which it formed the sister group within the clade Ornithoscelida. The study also suggested that if the feather-like structures of theropods and ornithischians are of common evolutionary origin then it would be possible that feathers were restricted to Ornithoscelida. If so, then the origin of feathers would have likely occurred as early as the Middle Triassic, though this has been disagreed upon. The lack of feathers present in large sauropods and ankylosaurs could be that feathers were suppressed by genomic regulators.

Evolutionary stages
Several studies of feather development in the embryos of modern birds, coupled with the distribution of feather types among various prehistoric bird precursors, have allowed scientists to attempt a reconstruction of the sequence in which feathers first evolved and developed into the types found on modern birds.

Feather evolution was broken down into the following stages by Xu and Guo in 2009:
 * 1) Single filament
 * 2) Multiple filaments joined at their base
 * 3) Multiple filaments joined at their base to a central filament
 * 4) Multiple filaments along the length of a central filament
 * 5) Multiple filaments arising from the edge of a membranous structure
 * 6) Pennaceous feather with vane of barbs and barbules and central rachis
 * 7) Pennaceous feather with an asymmetrical rachis
 * 8) Undifferentiated vane with central rachis

However, Foth (2011) showed that some of these purported stages (stages 2 and 5 in particular) are likely simply artifacts of preservation caused by the way fossil feathers are crushed and the feather remains or imprints are preserved. Foth re-interpreted stage 2 feathers as crushed or misidentified feathers of at least stage 3, and stage 5 feathers as crushed stage 6 feathers.

The following simplified diagram of dinosaur relationships follows these results, and shows the likely distribution of plumaceous (downy) and pennaceous (vaned) feathers among dinosaurs and prehistoric birds. The diagram follows one presented by Xu and Guo (2009) modified with the findings of Foth (2011) The numbers accompanying each name refer to the presence of specific feather stages. Note that 's' indicates the known presence of scales on the body.

In pterosaurs
Pterosaurs were long known to have filamentous fur-like structures covering their body known as pycnofibres, which were generally considered distinct from the "true feathers" of birds and their dinosaur kin. However, a 2018 study of two small, well-preserved pterosaur fossils from the Jurassic of Inner Mongolia, China indicated that pterosaurs were covered in an array of differently-structured pycnofibres (rather than just filamentous ones), with several of these structures displaying diagnostic features of feathers, such as non-veined grouped filaments and bilaterally branched filaments, both of which were originally thought to be exclusive to birds and other maniraptoran dinosaurs. Given these findings, it is possible that feathers have deep evolutionary origins in ancestral archosaurs, though there is also a possibility that these structures independently evolved to resemble bird feathers via convergent evolution. Mike Benton, the study's senior author, lent credence to the former theory, stating "We couldn't find any anatomical evidence that the four pycnofiber types are in any way different from the feathers of birds and dinosaurs. Therefore, because they are the same, they must share an evolutionary origin, and that was about 250 million years ago, long before the origin of birds." But the integumentary structures of the anurognathid specimens is still based gross morphology as Liliana D'Alba pointed out. The pycnofibres of the two anurognathid specimens might not be homologous with the filamentous appendages on dinosaurs. Paul M. Barrett suspects that during the integumentary evolution of pterosaurs, pterosaurs primitively lost scales and pycnofibers started to appear.

Cascocauda was almost entirely covered in an extensive coat of pycnofibres, which appear to have come in two types. The first are simple, curved filaments that range in length from 3.5–12.8 mm long. These filaments cover most of the animal, including the head, neck, body, limbs and tail. The second type consists of tufts of filaments joined near the base, similar to the branching down feathers of birds and other coelurosaurian dinosaurs, around 2.5–8.0 mm long and only cover the wing membranes. Studies of sampled pycnofibres revealed the presence of microbodies within the filaments, resembling the melanosome pigments identified in other fossil integuments, specifically phaeomelanosomes. Furthermore, infrared spectral analysis of these pycnofibres show similar absorption spectra to red human hair. These pycnofibres likely provided both insulation and may have helped streamline the body and wings during flight. The identity of these branching structures as pycnofibres or feathers was challenged by Unwin & Martill (2020), who interpreted them as bunched-up and degraded aktinofibrils–stiffening fibres found in the wing membrane of pterosaurs–and attributed the melanosomes and keratin to skin rather than filaments. These claims were refuted by Yang and colleagues, who argue that Unwin and Martill's interpretations are inconsistent with the specimen's preservation. Namely, they argue that the consistent structure, regular spacing, and extension of the filaments beyond the wing membrane support their identification as pycnofibres. Further, they argue that the restriction of melanosomes and keratin to the fibres, as occurs in fossil dinosaur feathers, supports the case they are filaments and is not consistent with contamination from preserved skin. Protofeathers likely evolved in early archosaurs, not long after the P-T extinction event during the time metabolic rates of early archosaurs and synapsids were increasing, postures becoming erect, and sustained activity.

title: Feather