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Talk:The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind

Huh? Iliad/Odyssey
"Jaynes builds a case for this theory by citing evidence from many diverse sources including historical literature. For example, he asserts that, in The Iliad and sections of the Old Testament in The Bible that no mention is made of any kind of cognitive processes such as introspection and that there is no apparent indication that the writers were self-aware. He asserts that some later books of the Old Testament (such as Ecclesiastes) as well as later works such as The Odyssey show indications of a profoundly different kind of mentality which he believes is indicative of consciousness."

This is a bit confusing, since the Iliad and the Odyssey are both ascribed as written works to Homer, though they were epic poems before that... --Edward Wakelin 18:59, 27 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Jaynes says ancient tho written voices were hallucinated. Yet he expects us to take His written voice as gospel. Why can't he just accept they wrote what they saw, tho not as eloquently as the far seeing Jaynes? Maybe His voice is hallucinated. WTF 174.233.16.56 (talk) 09:26, 18 August 2023 (UTC)
 * This isn't a forum, "tho". 85.31.131.59 (talk) 18:17, 25 August 2023 (UTC)

What was his explanation for a priestly class?
It was universal in Indo-European societies, but why would it exist if everyone down to the swineherds heard gods speaking in their head every day of their lives? Why would anyone need an oracle or a shaman? It's pretty much a consensus opinion that the priestly class established their power because they claimed that they can talk to gods - how would that impress anyone if an average person had to have Apollo issue hallucinated commands to them just so they could go to the loo? 86.63.168.150 (talk) 23:07, 2 February 2024 (UTC)

 * This article used to emphasize 'Jaynes's book' (which in itself is not a complex topic) rather than trying to explain all of its important, separate controversial theories. Unfortunately, as of August 2023, one particular theory, bicameral mentality, has been planted here from its own separate article (with many flaws) as if it were the book's one and only topic, which is a distortion of the book. It was transferred here because the editor applied some kind of Wiki standard without knowing much about the actual book.
 * Anyways, your questions about bicamerality would be more fitting over there. However, a talk page "isn't a forum..." for discussing an author's theories, except to ensure that an article contains every major aspect of a topic. A good Wiki article should provide a reasonable, accurate summary that answers the 'big' questions about a clear topic, even if it can't answer every question. Your questions, of course, challenge an issue that makes no sense to you; perhaps a more appropriate 'talk page' question might be, 'If something makes no sense, is it a problem with the theory, or is the article just poorly written?' An innocent reader can't always know the difference. IMO, the poor article here is much to blame for confusion about Jaynes's theories.
 * As for the priests, the theory says they did not exist in early, small group bicamerality, but served an essential role in the "authoritarian hierarchy" of every advanced bicameral community. They managed the 'pantheon': every person following his/her voice or voices was potentially chaotic and only the social hierarchy could determine which voice was which god, and whose gods were higher or lower. (And they didn't 'hear' them "in their head", and probably not every day, and not to have a pee.) As for oracles, they came into existence with the gradual breakdown of the bicameral mind when 'voices' were still needed, and persisted for centuries alongside consciousness until almost no-one took them seriously. In trying to explain a few thousand years of ancient civilizations, the 'consensus opinion' (about power structures?) uses unstated default assumptions about so-called 'human nature', and it ignores the actual complexity and strangeness of historical facts. Jaynes's theory explicitly addresses all these and many other issues beyond the scope of an oversimplified Wiki article. B.Sirota (talk) 20:51, 4 February 2024 (UTC)

Consensus against original research
Both myself and have removed original research added by, with this edit. That means the consensus is against the addition of the material. Yet Snarcky continues to revert the removal without bothering to discuss on this talk page per WP:BRD. Skyerise (talk) 21:21, 4 February 2024 (UTC)

See ensuing conversation here :https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research/Noticeboard#Bicameral_mentality Snarcky1996 (talk) 23:00, 4 February 2024 (UTC)

 * made bold statements here. Do you really think that a two-to-one contest between competing reversions is indication of "consensus"? I don't see that you've made much effort to engage in discussion. It's possible that you and Snarcky1996 could work on rewriting the Gilgamesh additions to rephrase the OR commentary, that is, without asserting that other interpretations 'refute' or 'criticize' Jaynes's arguments.

 * Other major issues, however, seem to me more significant, e.g. the "Definition" section, without any citations, introduces a lot of terminology and concepts (metareflection; The bicameral mind thus lacks metaconsciousness, autobiographical memory, and the capacity for executive "ego functions" such as deliberate mind-wandering...) Did Jaynes actually use such terms? The text sounds as if they are his ideas. But I doubt it, I think they count as OR! And to top it off, you seem to be the originator of that material as of 25 Aug, 2023... And your parallel edits in the Bicameral mentality article where you describe it, again without citations, as "early human consciousness", a "form of consciousness", and schizophrenia as "a vestige of this earlier consciousness" are all ways to super-confuse innocent readers about Jaynes's book and ideas. B.Sirota (talk) 23:19, 4 February 2024 (UTC)

 * Have you read Jaynes? Yes, he really uses those terms. I didn't write either article; I did rewrite/summarize parts of it to reduce duplication. I also proposed for the two articles to be merged, but the merge tags were removed and I couldn't be bothered to argue about it at the time. I still think they should be merged because the "similar theories" section is also all OR. Some editor decided they were similar, not citable sources. Basically, there is a book proposing a theory, a few critics, and nobody really following in Jaynes' footsteps, so there is no reason for the "bicameral mentality" article, which isn't even the common-name term for the theory, which would be "bicameral mind".  Skyerise (talk) 23:26, 4 February 2024 (UTC)
 * P.S. that August 2023 edit has a clear edit summary noting that I moved the material here from Bicameral mentality, since it was specifically about the book's content and wasn't present here, in the article about the book. I didn't write it: I moved it here and then summarized it there. Skyerise (talk) 23:47, 4 February 2024 (UTC)

 * Who are those unspecified, unreferenced critics who refer to the Gilgamesh-epos? Joshua Jonathan  -  Let's talk!  04:40, 5 February 2024 (UTC)

 * I wish I knew. Then we could include it. Skyerise (talk) 04:42, 5 February 2024 (UTC)

So the article got protected, but OR is still here? Let's remove it until the source that mentiones Jaynes, Gilgamesh and the Bible is found. Artem.G (talk) 13:10, 6 February 2024 (UTC)

re Content migration 8/23 and OR

 * When you consolidated the ‘Bicameral mentality’ article into ‘the Book’ (18-25 Aug/ 23), what was gained? Neither content nor references were added or improved, and you left behind a “summary” of a summary which has always made "bicamerality" look like "The Origin of Consciousness"!!! That article has long needed to be replaced, not merged with 'the Book'. You also deleted from ‘the Book’ mention of Jaynes’s other hypotheses. Since then, ‘the Book’ seems to be about bicamerality and nothing else, a falsity you seem to agree with.  IMO, more content and accuracy, rather than summary, is needed in Wiki about Jaynes’s many ideas (especially metaphor and consciousness), and in the long run, one 'Book summary' article will not do. A major confusion already exists here between the totally positive ‘Reception and success of the Book’ versus ‘Discussion, criticism and controversy over his various theories’. As for ‘Bicamerality in popular culture’ and 'similar theory' claims, they certainly do not belong to ‘the Book’.

 * In place of the basics about Jaynes’s other ideas that you deleted from ‘the Book' article, you’ve added jargon and phrases, without references, as if to explain Jaynes. One example (18 Aug/ 23) is what you rewrote about consciousness having “its evolution in ancient history”. Your jargon makes me wonder if  read Jaynes, since evolution is a slow, biological process while Jaynesian consciousness is a product of language (it's 'nature'): yes, it first happened about 3000 years ago, but it's 'origin' was an "invention"(pg. 66) not an ‘evolutionary transformation’ from an “earlier form of consciousness”. On the other hand, bicamerality might have a genetic, hence evolutionary, basis.(pg. 311)

 * Both articles, ‘Bicameral mentality’ and ‘the Book’, are currently very sloppy about the difference between Jaynes’s and his . Ancient artifacts (e.g. Iliad and Gilgamesh texts) are, while different theories that imply different  can be compared. But comparison is not :  is not guilty of OR but of an : ‘conventionally interpreting’ Gilgamesh is not a criticism of bicamerality. The editorial challenge here, rather than deleting the material, is to contextualize it in comparison with Jaynes’s own commentary on Gilgamesh (pgs. 247-253). Of course, none of Jaynes's ideas can be fairly compared  criticised without being first stated – correctly! If Snarcky's sources do not explicitly mention Jaynes, it's his/her job to explicate the comparison fairly. However, such a specific comparison belongs only in an improved (or replaced) 'Bicameral mind' article structured to allow it!  B.Sirota (talk) 16:00, 7 February 2024 (UTC)
 * You appear to be a single purpose editor here to promote Jaynes, including using Jaynes in other articles. This is not good. We can't just cherry pick Jaynes, we need to use secondary independent sources. I wouldn't expect you to understand our policies and guidelines. Doug Weller  talk 16:18, 7 February 2024 (UTC)

 * I made my case above at length, critically but I hope not rudely. I’m not looking for a fight. Your concise response, without discussion about my topics of interest, jumped from my ‘comments’ to an unfounded conclusion that my ‘editing’ has an inappropriate purpose. And your final comment drips with condescension that doesn’t fit your helpful reputation.

 * What don’t I understand? In my comment, I did not “cherry-pick”, I loosely discussed only one example. My ‘purpose’ vis-à-vis Jaynes-related articles is that they fairly and correctly present what he actually wrote. His own publications (there is more than just his book) are Primary Sources for their explicit content, and should be directly referenced with relevant quotations. Secondary sources are necessary to establish notability and to avoid O.R. with regard to analysis, commentary, evaluation, context, interpretation, criticism, etc. However, secondary sources are NOT necessarily good sources to establish ‘what a primary source says’; in fact, when they describe or restate primary source contents they sometimes introduce error or bias.

 * I focus on Jaynes for various reasons. My criticism is extremely general, however: no topic should be a victim of ‘secondary source distortion’ or dubious paraphrases of primary content, and Wiki-editors who want to improve existing Wiki-articles should not just restructure, rephrase or re-summarize the primary content without actually referencing the primary source. B.Sirota (talk) 13:34, 11 February 2024 (UTC)

 * In the interest of more clarity I have proposed that Bicameral mentality be moved to Bicameralism (psychology), here. Skyerise (talk) 14:13, 11 February 2024 (UTC)

Protected edit request on 4 February 2024
Please include under “see also” a link to The Master and His Emissary (2009) by Iain Mcgilchrist (it has a page already) 84.68.100.253 (talk) 23:16, 4 February 2024 (UTC)
 * ✅ * Pppery * it has begun... 00:48, 5 February 2024 (UTC)

metaphor links to wrong article
In the section "Jaynes's theories", there is a passage in the article here "from language, and specifically from metaphor" [5].

The citation and meaning are correct, though the link behind the word "metaphor" hyperlinks to the Wikipedia article for "Metaphor" the Figure of Speech. I suggest that it should link instead of the Wikipedia article for "Conceptual Metaphor" as this is the mechanism of thought which Jaynes refers to.

I am, however, only a beginner in the art of Wikipedia, so I would like the more experienced folks to consider or undertake this, please. Ross Bennett (talk) 20:57, 28 February 2024 (UTC)

 * Yes, it seems you are right and I've made the requested edit. Skyerise (talk) 21:04, 28 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Thank you very kindly! Ross Bennett (talk) 21:08, 28 February 2024 (UTC)

FRINGE, MERGE
Please see: Talk:Julian Jaynes.

Please see also: Talk:Julian Jaynes

Summary: Aspects of his hypothesis having "inspired" some later research doesn't equate to his work being proven correct, and cognitive science and related displines descreasingly support it, most especially his central notion that consciousness only arose a few millennia ago. Furthermore, it was proposed at that article to move it and reshape it into an article on the book, since the person is not notable for anything other than one book. Instead, someone has WP:CFORKed it, and this is not good. The bio mostly just repeats claims from the book article, and both are faulty articles, so we have double the maintenance burden. — SMcCandlish ☏ ¢ 😼  13:31, 26 March 2024 (UTC)

PS: It's worse than I suspected, with a third fork at bicameral mentality, which has similar problems to some extent, but is more inclusive of the criticism and including enough of it (from a certain era) to lean already in the FRINGE direction. However, it is missing most of the more recent conclusions of cognitive science, evolutionary psychology, and related fields. — SMcCandlish ☏ ¢ 😼  13:54, 26 March 2024 (UTC)

 * Oppose merge. Jaynes is notable, the book is notable, and the article on the theory is almost entirely sourced to independent third-party sources. Skyerise (talk) 13:56, 26 March 2024 (UTC)
 * When someone posts as it means "Please go to the other thread, don't comment here." Cf. also WP:TALKFORK.  — SMcCandlish ☏ ¢ 😼  14:10, 26 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Well, it seems like the whole thing was a non-starter, so whatever... Skyerise (talk) 02:23, 14 April 2024 (UTC)

He claimed that English is descended from Sanskrit
Direct quote: "Even such an unmetaphorical-sounding word as the verb 'to be' was generated from a metaphor. It comes from the Sanskrit bhu, “to grow, or make grow,” while the English forms ‘am’ and ‘is’ have evolved from the same root as the Sanskrit asmiy “to breathe.”" ("Origin of consciousness", p. 51)

This man claims to be a researcher of ancient cultures and languages. I don't think there are many high-schoolers who think that English is descended from Sanskrit. P.S. Those Sanskrit words don't even mean what he says they mean, according to wiktionary they mean "to be" and "am". 212.3.196.172 (talk) 02:54, 21 May 2024 (UTC)

 * They are both descendants of Proto-Indo-European. And there are sometimes shared cognates. I don't think you know as much as you think you do. How should this information be used to improve the article? Do you have a third-party source that criticizes Jaynes for this? Otherwise it is simply your own personal observation which cannot be added to the article. See our policies on original research and synthesis. And basing observations on Wiktionary rather than a proper etymological dictionary is inadequate. Wiktionary, like all other user-contributed content including Wikipedia itself, is not considered to be a reliable source here. Skyerise (talk) 11:19, 21 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Obviously the English verb "to be" is a cognate of the Sanskrit word. But Jaynes says that it "comes" from the Sanskrit word. That is absolutely insane. English is descended from Proto-Germanic which is directly descended from Proto-Indo-European. Sanskrit was not involved in any way. Unless you believe that the English conquered India in the 18th century and then borrowed from them the English word "to be".
 * You could say, oh he misspoke, he meant "it's a cognate", not that "it comes from". But also on the same page he claims "The very concept of law in Greek derives from nomos, the word for the foundations of a building." The Greek word nomos (meaning "law") comes from "nemo" (verb "to distribute"). I happen to know Ancient Greek and have a bunch of dictionaries, even the classic 19th century Liddel-Scott dictionary notes that nomos is derived from nemo, while the actual etymological dictionaries (Frisk, Chantraine, Beekes) don't even list "nomos" separately and list it under "nemo", since to every student of Greek the relation is totally obvious. And none of these dictionaries mention any kind of meaning like "the foundations of a building". In fact "nemo" is mostly connected with lots of different words about pastures and grazing which is as far away from construction as possible.
 * And regarding the two Sanskrit words - I don't know Sanskrit at all (neither did Jaynes), but I don't see why wiktionary articles on these words aren't sufficient evidence. You can also simply type "bhu Sanskrit" in Google, and you can see that the word is apparently simply the Sanskrit word for "to be", not "grow" as Jaynes claims. 80.89.78.188 (talk) 14:12, 21 May 2024 (UTC)
 * And also the wiktionary articles on the Sanskrit words have references to dictionaries in the end. 80.89.78.188 (talk) 14:35, 21 May 2024 (UTC)
 * This web page isn't for discussing the book, but rather for discussing how to improve the article about the book. I see nothing in your post that is about improving the article based on sources. Please see WP:NOTFORUM. Do you have a proposed change to the article based on sources? Otherwise, please desist in using this talk page as if it were a forum for such discussions. As I pointed out above, all criticism of the book must be sourced to a writer who directly levies that criticism: the observations of random Internet IPs, however erudite they are or think they are, have no place in an encyclopedia article. Skyerise (talk) 23:07, 21 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Well if someone happens to look at this talk page they might get an idea of what a fraud this author is. This was literally the first page of the book where he went out of the area of his actual expertise and started talking about languages and history, and right away there's four ridiculous errors in that single page, including an extremely blatant one of claiming that English verbs have descended from Sanskrit. I can only imagine the amount of shoddy research that was put in for the rest of the book (which I personally have no ability to verify, since I don't know anything about Babylonian literature or Mycenean architecture or whatever - I do know something about Indo-European comparative linguistics so I can see this guy is full of s-t). 212.3.198.98 (talk) 13:25, 22 May 2024 (UTC)
 * But just out of interest - if I would submit correctly formatted quotations from Beekes' etymological dictionary of Greek (considered standard reference right now) showing that "nomos" has nothing to do with "foundations of a building", and a quotation from an English etymology dictionary showing that "to be" is not descended from Sanskrit and "is" is not related to any word meaning "to blow", could this be put in the article? Or would you just say, "oh that's just a single page of the book, it's not relevant"? 212.3.198.98 (talk) 13:33, 22 May 2024 (UTC)
 * I could put in a section called "Dubious claims" and phrase it without making categorical claims myself, for example: "Numerous claims in the book are contradicted by generally accepted reference works. In the section "Mind of man", the author claims that the English verb "to be" comes from the Sanskrit word "bhu" which according to Jaynes means "to grow, or make grow". The generally accepted view is that "to be" comes from the Proto-Germanic *biju- "I am, I will be" [quotation from etymonline.com], while the definition of the Sanskrit verb "bhu" (भू) is "to be" [quotation from a Sanskrit dictionary]." 212.3.198.98 (talk) 13:52, 22 May 2024 (UTC)
 * No you couldn't, unless you can provide a source that explicitly levies the criticism against Jaynes' book. See WP:SYNTH: "Do not combine material from multiple sources to reach or imply a conclusion not explicitly stated by any source." It's your own opinion, not a citable one, and doesn't belong in the article. I've provided that link once already, but clearly you didn't read it. Skyerise (talk) 19:07, 26 May 2024 (UTC)


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Falcon

Falcons are birds of prey in the genus Falco, which includes about 40 species. Some small species of falcons with long, narrow wings are called hobbies, and some that hover while hunting are called kestrels. Falcons are widely distributed on all continents of the world except Antarctica, though closely related raptors did occur there in the Eocene.

Adult falcons have thin, tapered wings, which enable them to fly at high speed and change direction rapidly. Fledgling falcons, in their first year of flying, have longer flight feathers, which make their configuration more like that of a general-purpose bird such as a broadwing. This makes flying easier while still learning the aerial skills required to be effective hunters like the adults.

The falcons are the largest genus in the Falconinae subfamily of Falconidae, which also includes two other subfamilies comprising caracaras and a few other species of "falcons". All these birds kill prey with their beaks, using a tomial "tooth" on the side of their beaks — unlike the hawks, eagles and other larger birds of prey from the unrelated family Accipitridae, who use talons on their feet.

The largest falcon is the gyrfalcon at up to 65 cm in length. The smallest falcon species is the pygmy falcon, which measures just 20 cm. As with hawks and owls, falcons exhibit sexual dimorphism, with the females typically larger than the males, thus allowing a wider range of prey species.

As is the case with many birds of prey, falcons have exceptional powers of vision; the visual acuity of one species has been measured at 2.6 times that of human eyes. They are incredibly fast fliers, with the Peregrine falcons having been recorded diving at speeds of 200 mph, making them the fastest-moving creatures on Earth; the fastest recorded dive attained a vertical speed of 390 km/h.

Taxonomy
The genus Falco was introduced in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae. The type species is the merlin (Falco columbarius). The genus name Falco is Late Latin meaning a "falcon" from falx, falcis, meaning "a sickle", referring to the claws of the bird. In Middle English and Old French, the title faucon refers generically to several captive raptor species.

The traditional term for a male falcon is tercel (British spelling) or tiercel (American spelling), from the Latin tertius (third) because of the belief that only one in three eggs hatched a male bird. Some sources give the etymology as deriving from the fact that a male falcon is about one-third smaller than a female  (tiercelet). A falcon chick, especially one reared for falconry, still in its downy stage, is known as an eyas (sometimes spelled eyass). The word arose by mistaken division of Old French un niais, from Latin presumed nidiscus (nestling) from nidus (nest). The technique of hunting with trained captive birds of prey is known as falconry.

Compared to other birds of prey, the fossil record of the falcons is not well distributed in time. For years, the oldest fossils tentatively assigned to this genus were from the Late Miocene, less than 10 million years ago. This coincides with a period in which many modern genera of birds became recognizable in the fossil record. As of 2021, the oldest falconid fossil is estimated to be 55 million years old. Given the distribution of fossil and living Falco taxa, falcons are probably of North American, African, or possibly Middle Eastern or European origin. Falcons are not closely related to other birds of prey, and their nearest relatives are parrots and songbirds.

Overview
Falcons are roughly divisible into three or four groups. The first contains the kestrels (probably excepting the American kestrel); usually small and stocky falcons of mainly brown upperside colour and sometimes sexually dimorphic; three African species that are generally gray in colour stand apart from the typical members of this group. The fox and greater kestrels can be told apart at first glance by their tail colours, but not by much else; they might be very close relatives and are probably much closer to each other than the lesser and common kestrels. Kestrels feed chiefly on terrestrial vertebrates and invertebrates of appropriate size, such as rodents, reptiles, or insects.

The second group contains slightly larger (on average) species, the hobbies and relatives. These birds are characterized by considerable amounts of dark slate-gray in their plumage; their malar areas are nearly always black. They feed mainly on smaller birds.

Third are the peregrine falcon and its relatives, variably sized powerful birds that also have a black malar area (except some very light color morphs), and often a black cap, as well. They are very fast birds with a maximum speed of 390 kilometres per hour. Otherwise, they are somewhat intermediate between the other groups, being chiefly medium grey with some lighter or brownish colours on their upper sides. They are, on average, more delicately patterned than the hobbies and, if the hierofalcons are excluded (see below), this group typically contains species with horizontal barring on their undersides. As opposed to the other groups, where tail colour varies much in general but little according to evolutionary relatedness, the tails of the large falcons are quite uniformly dark grey with inconspicuous black banding and small, white tips, though this is probably plesiomorphic. These large Falco species feed on mid-sized birds and terrestrial vertebrates.

Very similar to these, and sometimes included therein, are the four or so species of hierofalcon (literally, "hawk-falcons"). They represent taxa with, usually, more phaeomelanins, which impart reddish or brown colors, and generally more strongly patterned plumage reminiscent of hawks. Their undersides have a lengthwise pattern of blotches, lines, or arrowhead marks.

While these three or four groups, loosely circumscribed, are an informal arrangement, they probably contain several distinct clades in their entirety.

A study of mtDNA cytochrome b sequence data of some kestrels identified a clade containing the common kestrel and related "malar-striped" species, to the exclusion of such taxa as the greater kestrel (which lacks a malar stripe), the lesser kestrel (which is very similar to the common, but also has no malar stripe), and the American kestrel, which has a malar stripe, but its colour pattern – apart from the brownish back – and also the black feathers behind the ear, which never occur in the true kestrels, are more reminiscent of some hobbies. The malar-striped kestrels apparently split from their relatives in the Gelasian, roughly 2.0–2.5 million years ago (Mya), and are seemingly of tropical East African origin. The entire "true kestrel" group—excluding the American species—is probably a distinct and quite young clade, as also suggested by their numerous apomorphies. Other studies    have confirmed that the hierofalcon are a monophyletic group–and that hybridization is quite frequent at least in the larger falcon species. Initial studies of mtDNA cytochrome b sequence data suggested that the hierofalcon are basal among living falcons. The discovery of a NUMT proved this earlier theory erroneous. In reality, the hierofalcon are a rather young group, originating at the same time as the start of the main kestrel radiation, about 2 Mya. Very little fossil history exists for this lineage. However, the present diversity of very recent origin suggests that this lineage may have nearly gone extinct in the recent past.

The phylogeny and delimitations of the peregrine and hobby groups are more problematic. Molecular studies have only been conducted on a few species, and the morphologically ambiguous taxa have often been little researched. The morphology of the syrinx, which contributes well to resolving the overall phylogeny of the Falconidae, is not very informative in the present genus. Nonetheless, a core group containing the peregrine and Barbary falcons, which, in turn, group with the hierofalcon and the more distant prairie falcon (which was sometimes placed with the hierofalcon, though it is entirely distinct biogeographically), as well as at least most of the "typical" hobbies, are confirmed to be monophyletic as suspected.

Given that the American Falco species of today belong to the peregrine group, or are apparently more basal species, the initially most successful evolutionary radiation seemingly was a Holarctic one that originated possibly around central Eurasia or in (northern) Africa. One or several lineages were present in North America by the Early Pliocene at latest.

The origin of today's major Falco groups—the "typical" hobbies and kestrels, for example, or the peregrine-hierofalcon complex, or the aplomado falcon lineage—can be quite confidently placed from the Miocene-Pliocene boundary through the Zanclean and Piacenzian and just into the Gelasian, that is from 2.4 to 5.3 Mya, when the malar-striped kestrels diversified. Some groups of falcons, such as the hierofalcon complex and the peregrine-Barbary superspecies, have only evolved in more recent times; the species of the former seem to be 120,000 years old or so.

Species
The sequence follows the taxonomic order of White et al. (1996), except for adjustments in the kestrel sequence.

Extinct species

 * Réunion kestrel, Falco duboisi – extinct (about 1700)

Fossil record

 * Falco medius (Late Miocene of Cherevichnyi, Ukraine)
 * ?Falco sp. (Late Miocene of Idaho)
 * Falco sp. (Early Pliocene of Kansas)
 * Falco sp. (Early Pliocene of Bulgaria – Early Pleistocene of Spain and Czech Republic)
 * Falco oregonus (Early/Middle Pliocene of Fossil Lake, Oregon) – possibly not distinct from a living species
 * Falco umanskajae (Late Pliocene of Kryzhanovka, Ukraine) – includes "Falco odessanus", a nomen nudum
 * ?Falco bakalovi (Late Pliocene of Varshets, Bulgaria)
 * Falco antiquus (Middle Pleistocene of Noailles, France and possibly Horvőlgy, Hungary)
 * Cuban kestrel, Falco kurochkini (Late Pleistocene/Holocene of Cuba, West Indies)
 * Falco chowi (China)
 * Falco bulgaricus (Late Miocene of Hadzhidimovo, Bulgaria)

Several more paleosubspecies of extant species also been described; see species accounts for these.

"Sushkinia" pliocaena from the Early Pliocene of Pavlodar (Kazakhstan) appears to be a falcon of some sort. It might belong in this genus or a closely related one. In any case, the genus name Sushkinia is invalid for this animal because it had already been allocated to a prehistoric dragonfly relative. In 2015 the bird genus was renamed Psushkinia.

The supposed "Falco" pisanus was actually a pigeon of the genus Columba, possibly the same as Columba omnisanctorum, which, in that case, would adopt the older species name of the "falcon". The Eocene fossil "Falco" falconellus (or "F." falconella) from Wyoming is a bird of uncertain affiliations, maybe a falconid, maybe not; it certainly does not belong in this genus. "Falco" readei is now considered a paleosubspecies of the yellow-headed caracara (Milvago chimachima).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Falcon


text:
Bird of prey

Birds of prey or predatory birds, also known as raptors, are hypercarnivorous bird species that actively hunt and feed on other vertebrates (mainly mammals, reptiles and other smaller birds). In addition to speed and strength, these predators have keen eyesight for detecting prey from a distance or during flight, strong feet with sharp talons for grasping or killing prey, and powerful, curved beaks for tearing off flesh. Although predatory birds primarily hunt live prey, many species (such as fish eagles, vultures and condors) also scavenge and eat carrion.

Although the term "bird of prey" could theoretically be taken to include all birds that actively hunt and eat other animals, ornithologists typically use the narrower definition followed in this page, excluding many piscivorous predators such as storks, cranes, herons, gulls, skuas, penguins, and kingfishers, as well as many primarily insectivorous birds such as passerines (e.g. shrikes), nightjars, frogmouths, songbirds such as crows and ravens, alongside opportunistic predators from predominantly frugivorous or herbivorous ratites such as cassowaries and rheas. Some extinct predatory birds had talons similar to those of modern birds of prey, including mousebird relatives (Sandcoleidae), Messelasturidae and some Enantiornithes, indicating possible convergent evolution in some cases, and common descent in others.

Common names
The term raptor is derived from the Latin word rapio, meaning "to seize or take by force". The common names for various birds of prey are based on structure, but many of the traditional names do not reflect the evolutionary relationships between the groups.

 * Eagles tend to be large, powerful birds with long, broad wings and massive feet. Booted eagles have legs and feet feathered to the toes and build very large stick nests.
 * Falcons and kestrels are medium-size birds of prey with long pointed wings, and many are particularly swift flyers. They belong to the family Falconidae, only distantly related to the Accipitriformes above. Caracaras are a distinct subgroup of the Falconidae unique to the New World, and most common in the Neotropics – their broad wings, naked faces and appetites of a generalist suggest some level of convergence with either Buteo or the vulturine birds, or both.
 * True hawks are medium-sized birds of prey that usually belong to the genus Accipiter (see below). They are mainly woodland birds that hunt by sudden dashes from a concealed perch. They usually have long tails for tight steering.
 * Buzzards are medium-large raptors with robust bodies and broad wings, or, alternatively, any bird of the genus Buteo (also commonly known as "hawks" in North America, while "buzzard" is colloquially used for vultures).
 * Harriers are large, slender hawk-like birds with long tails and long thin legs. Most use a combination of keen eyesight and hearing to hunt small vertebrates, gliding on their long broad wings and circling low over grasslands and marshes.
 * Kites have long wings and relatively weak legs. They spend much of their time soaring. They will take live vertebrate prey, but mostly feed on insects or even carrion.
 * The osprey, a single species found worldwide that specializes in catching fish and builds large stick nests.
 * Owls are variable-sized, typically night-specialized hunting birds. They fly almost silently due to their special feather structure that reduces turbulence. They have particularly acute hearing and nocturnal eyesight.
 * The secretarybird is a single species with a large body and long, stilted legs endemic to the open grasslands of Sub-Saharan Africa.
 * Vultures are scavengers and carrion-eating raptors of two distinct biological families: the Old World vultures (Accipitridae), which occurs only in the Eastern Hemisphere; and the New World vultures (Cathartidae), which occurs only in the Western Hemisphere. Members of both groups have heads either partly or fully devoid of feathers.
 * Seriemas, large South American birds with long, stilted legs that occupy a similar ecological niche to secretarybirds. They are also the closest relatives to the extinct "terror birds".

Many of these English language group names originally referred to particular species encountered in Britain. As English-speaking people travelled further, the familiar names were applied to new birds with similar characteristics. Names that have generalised this way include: kite (Milvus milvus), sparrowhawk or sparhawk (Accipiter nisus), goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), kestrel (Falco tinninculus), hobby (Falco subbuteo), harrier (simplified from "hen-harrier", Circus cyaneus), buzzard (Buteo buteo).

Some names have not generalised, and refer to single species (or groups of closely related (sub)species), such as the merlin (Falco columbarius).

Historical classifications
The taxonomy of Carl Linnaeus grouped birds (class Aves) into orders, genera, and species, with no formal ranks between genus and order. He placed all birds of prey into a single order, Accipitres, subdividing this into four genera: Vultur (vultures), Falco (eagles, hawks, falcons, etc.), Strix (owls), and Lanius (shrikes). This approach was followed by subsequent authors such as Gmelin, Latham and Turton.

Louis Pierre Vieillot used additional ranks: order, tribe, family, genus, species. Birds of prey (order Accipitres) were divided into diurnal and nocturnal tribes; the owls remained monogeneric (family Ægolii, genus Strix), whilst the diurnal raptors were divided into three families: Vulturini, Gypaëti, and Accipitrini. Thus Vieillot's families were similar to the Linnaean genera, with the difference that shrikes were no longer included amongst the birds of prey. In addition to the original Vultur and Falco (now reduced in scope), Vieillot adopted four genera from Savigny: Phene, Haliæetus, Pandion, and Elanus. He also introduced five new genera of vultures (Gypagus, Catharista, Daptrius, Ibycter, Polyborus) and eleven new genera of accipitrines (Aquila, Circaëtus, Circus, Buteo, Milvus, Ictinia, Physeta, Harpia, Spizaëtus, Asturina, Sparvius).

Falconimorphae is a deprecated superorder within Raptores, formerly composed of the orders Falconiformes and Strigiformes. The clade was invalidated after 2012. Falconiformes is now placed in Eufalconimorphae, while Strigiformes is placed in Afroaves.

Modern systematics

The order Accipitriformes is believed to have originated 44 million years ago when it split from the common ancestor of the secretarybird (Sagittarius serpentarius) and the accipitrid species. The phylogeny of Accipitriformes is complex and difficult to unravel. Widespread paraphylies were observed in many phylogenetic studies. More recent and detailed studies show similar results. However, according to the findings of a 2014 study, the sister relationship between larger clades of Accipitriformes was well supported (e.g. relationship of Harpagus kites to buzzards and sea eagles and these latter two with Accipiter hawks are sister taxa of the clade containing Aquilinae and Harpiinae).

The diurnal birds of prey are formally classified into six families of three different orders (Accipitriformes, Falconiformes and Cariamiformes).

 * Accipitridae: hawks, eagles, buzzards, harriers, kites, and Old World vultures
 * Pandionidae: the osprey
 * Sagittariidae: the secretarybird
 * Falconidae: falcons, caracaras, and forest falcons
 * Cathartidae: New World vultures, including condors
 * Cariamidae: seriemas

These families (with the exception of Cariamidae) were traditionally grouped together in a single order Falconiformes but are now split into two orders, the Falconiformes and Accipitriformes. The Cathartidae are sometimes placed separately in an enlarged stork family, Ciconiiformes, and may be raised to an order of their own, Cathartiiformes.

The secretary bird and/or osprey are sometimes listed as subfamilies of Acciptridae: Sagittariinae and Pandioninae, respectively.

Australia's letter-winged kite is a member of the family Accipitridae, although it is a nocturnal bird.

The nocturnal birds of prey—the owls—are classified separately as members of two extant families of the order Strigiformes:
 * Strigidae: "typical owls"
 * Tytonidae: barn and bay owls

Phylogeny
Below is a simplified phylogeny of Telluraves which is the clade where the birds of prey belong to along with passerines and several near-passerine lineages.  The orders in bold text are birds of prey orders; this is to show the paraphyly of the group as well as their relationships to other birds.

A recent phylogenomic study from Wu et al. (2024) has found an alternative phylogeny for the placement of the birds of prey. Their analysis has found support in a clade consisting of the Strigiformes and Accipitrimorphae in new clade Hieraves. Hieraves was also recovered to be the sister clade to Australaves (which it includes the Cariamiformes and Falconiformes along with Psittacopasserae). Below is their phylogeny from the study.

Migration
Migratory behaviour evolved multiple times within accipitrid raptors. The earliest event occurred nearly 14 to 12 million years ago. This result seems to be one of the oldest dates published so far in the case of birds of prey. For example, a previous reconstruction of migratory behaviour in one Buteo clade with a result of the origin of migration around 5 million years ago was also supported by that study.

Migratory species of raptors may have had a southern origin because it seems that all of the major lineages within Accipitridae had an origin in one of the biogeographic realms of the Southern Hemisphere. The appearance of migratory behaviour occurred in the tropics parallel with the range expansion of migratory species to temperate habitats. Similar results of southern origin in other taxonomic groups can be found in the literature.

Distribution and biogeographic history highly determine the origin of migration in birds of prey. Based on some comparative analyses, diet breadth also has an effect on the evolution of migratory behaviour in this group, but its relevance needs further investigation. The evolution of migration in animals seems to be a complex and difficult topic with many unanswered questions.

A recent study discovered new connections between migration and the ecology, life history of raptors. A brief overview from abstract of the published paper shows that "clutch size and hunting strategies have been proved to be the most important variables in shaping distribution areas, and also the geographic dissimilarities may mask important relationships between life history traits and migratory behaviours. The West Palearctic-Afrotropical and the North-South American migratory systems are fundamentally different from the East Palearctic-Indomalayan system, owing to the presence versus absence of ecological barriers." Maximum entropy modelling can help in answering the question: why species winters at one location while the others are elsewhere. Temperature and precipitation related factors differ in the limitation of species distributions. "This suggests that the migratory behaviours differ among the three main migratory routes for these species" which may have important conservational consequences in the protection of migratory raptors.

Sexual dimorphism
Birds of prey (raptors) are known to display patterns of sexual dimorphism. It is commonly believed that the dimorphisms found in raptors occur due to sexual selection or environmental factors. In general, hypotheses in favor of ecological factors being the cause for sexual dimorphism in raptors are rejected. This is because the ecological model is less parsimonious, meaning that its explanation is more complex than that of the sexual selection model. Additionally, ecological models are much harder to test because a great deal of data is required.

Dimorphisms can also be the product of intrasexual selection between males and females. It appears that both sexes of the species play a role in the sexual dimorphism within raptors; females tend to compete with other females to find good places to nest and attract males, and males competing with other males for adequate hunting ground so they appear as the most healthy mate. It has also been proposed that sexual dimorphism is merely the product of disruptive selection, and is merely a stepping stone in the process of speciation, especially if the traits that define gender are independent across a species. Sexual dimorphism can be viewed as something that can accelerate the rate of speciation.

In non-predatory birds, males are typically larger than females. However, in birds of prey, the opposite is the case. For instance, the kestrel is a type of falcon in which males are the primary providers, and the females are responsible for nurturing the young. In this species, the smaller the kestrels are, the less food is needed and thus, they can survive in environments that are harsher. This is particularly true in the male kestrels. It has become more energetically favorable for male kestrels to remain smaller than their female counterparts because smaller males have an agility advantage when it comes to defending the nest and hunting. Larger females are favored because they can incubate larger numbers of offspring, while also being able to brood a larger clutch size.

Olfaction
It is a long-standing belief that birds lack any sense of smell, but it has become clear that many birds do have functional olfactory systems. Despite this, most raptors are still considered to primarily rely on vision, with raptor vision being extensively studied. A 2020 review of the existing literature combining anatomical, genetic, and behavioural studies showed that, in general, raptors have functional olfactory systems that they are likely to use in a range of different contexts.

Persecution
Birds of prey have been historically persecuted both directly and indirectly. In the Danish Faroe Islands, there were rewards Naebbetold (by royal decree from 1741) given in return for the bills of birds of prey shown by hunters. In Britain, kites and buzzards were seen as destroyers of game and killed, for instance in 1684-5 alone as many as 100 kites were killed. Rewards for their killing were also in force in the Netherlands from 1756. From 1705 to 1800, it has been estimated that 624087 birds of prey were killed in a part of Germany that included Hannover, Luneburg, Lauenburg and Bremen with 14125 claws deposited just in 1796–97. Many species also develop lead poisoning after accidental consumption of lead shot when feeding on animals that had been shot by hunters. Lead pellets from direct shooting that the birds have escaped from also cause reduced fitness and premature deaths.

Attacks on humans
Some evidence supports the contention that the African crowned eagle occasionally views human children as prey, with a witness account of one attack (in which the victim, a seven-year-old boy, survived and the eagle was killed), and the discovery of part of a human child skull in a nest. This would make it the only living bird known to prey on humans, although other birds such as ostriches and cassowaries have killed humans in self-defense and a lammergeier might have killed Aeschylus by accident. Many stories of Brazilian indigenous peoples speak about children mauled by Uiruuetê, the Harpy Eagle in Tupi language. Various large raptors like golden eagles are reported attacking human beings, but its unclear if they intend to eat them or if they have ever been successful in killing one.

Some fossil evidence indicates large birds of prey occasionally preyed on prehistoric hominids. The Taung Child, an early human found in Africa, is believed to have been killed by an eagle-like bird similar to the crowned eagle. The Haast's eagle may have preyed on early humans in New Zealand, and this conclusion would be consistent with Maori folklore. Leptoptilos robustus might have preyed on both Homo floresiensis and anatomically modern humans, and the Malagasy crowned eagle, teratorns, Woodward's eagle and Caracara major are similar in size to the Haast's eagle, implying that they similarly could pose a threat to a human being.

Vision
Birds of prey have incredible vision and rely heavily on it for a number of tasks. They utilize their high visual acuity to obtain food, navigate their surroundings, distinguish and flee from predators, mating, nest construction, and much more. They accomplish these tasks with a large eye in relation to their skull, which allows for a larger image to be projected onto the retina. The visual acuity of some large raptors such as eagles and Old World vultures are the highest known among vertebrates; the wedge-tailed eagle has twice the visual acuity of a typical human and six times that of the common ostrich, the vertebrate with the largest eyes.

There are two regions in the retina, called the deep and shallow fovea, that are specialized for acute vision. These regions contain the highest density of photoreceptors, and provide the highest points of visual acuity. The deep fovea points forward at an approximate 45° angle, while the shallow fovea points approximately 15° to the right or left of the head axis. Several raptor species repeatedly cock their heads into three distinct positions while observing an object. First, is straight ahead with their head pointed towards the object. Second and third are sideways to the right or left of the object, with their head axis positioned approximately 40° adjacent to the object. This movement is believed to be associated with lining up the incoming image to fall on the deep fovea. Raptors will choose which head position to use depending on the distance to the object. At distances as close as 8m, they used primarily binocular vision. At distances greater than 21m, they spent more time using monocular vision. At distances greater than 40m, they spent 80% or more time using their monocular vision. This suggests that raptors tilt their head to rely on the highly acute deep fovea.

Like all birds, raptors possess tetrachromacy, however, due to their emphasis on visual acuity, many diurnal birds of prey have little ability to see ultraviolet light as this produces chromatic aberration which decreases the clarity of vision.

title: Bird of prey


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Insulin resistance

Insulin resistance (IR) is a pathological condition in which cells either fail to respond normally to the hormone insulin or downregulate insulin receptors in response to hyperinsulinemia.

Insulin is a hormone that facilitates the transport of glucose from blood into cells, thereby reducing blood glucose (blood sugar). Insulin is released by the pancreas in response to carbohydrates consumed in the diet. In states of insulin resistance, the same amount of insulin does not have the same effect on glucose transport and blood sugar levels. There are many causes of insulin resistance and the underlying process is still not completely understood. Risk factors for insulin resistance include obesity, sedentary lifestyle, family history of diabetes, various health conditions, and certain medications. Insulin resistance is considered a component of the metabolic syndrome. There are multiple ways to measure insulin resistance such as fasting insulin levels or glucose tolerance tests, but these are not often used in clinical practice. Insulin resistance can be improved or reversed with lifestyle approaches, such as weight reduction, exercise, and dietary changes.

Risk factors
There are a number of risk factors for insulin resistance, including being overweight or obese or having a sedentary lifestyle. Various genetic factors can increase risk, such as a family history of diabetes, and there are some specific medical conditions associated with insulin resistance, such as polycystic ovary syndrome.

The U.S. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases states that specific risks that may predispose an individual to insulin resistance can include:
 * being aged 45 or older
 * having African American, Alaska Native, American Indian, Asian American, Hispanic/Latino, Native Hawaiian, or Pacific Islander American ethnicity
 * having health conditions such as high blood pressure and abnormal cholesterol levels
 * having a history of gestational diabetes
 * having a history of heart disease or stroke.

In addition some medications and other health conditions can raise the risk.

Lifestyle factors
Dietary factors are likely to contribute to insulin resistance. However, causative foods are difficult to determine given the limitations of nutrition research. Foods that have independently been linked to insulin resistance include those high in sugar with high glycemic indices, low in omega-3 and fiber, and which are hyperpalatable which increases risk of overeating. Overconsumption of fat- and sugar-rich meals and beverages have been proposed as a fundamental factor behind the metabolic syndrome epidemic.

Diet also has the potential to change the ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated phospholipids in cell membranes. The percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) is inversely correlated with insulin resistance. It is hypothesized that increasing cell membrane fluidity by increasing PUFA concentration might result in an enhanced number of insulin receptors, an increased affinity of insulin to its receptors, and reduced insulin resistance.

Vitamin D deficiency has also been associated with insulin resistance.

Sedentary lifestyle increases the likelihood of development of insulin resistance. In epidemiological studies, higher levels of physical activity (more than 90 minutes per day) reduce the risk of diabetes by 28%.

Studies have consistently shown that there is a link between insulin resistance and circadian rhythm, with insulin sensitivity being higher in the morning and lower in the evening. A mismatch between the circadian rhythm and the meals schedule, such as in circadian rhythm disorders, may increase insulin resistance.

Insufficient sleep has been shown to cause insulin resistance, and also increases the risk of developing metabolic diseases such as type 2 diabetes and obesity.

Medications
Some medications are associated with insulin resistance including corticosteroids, protease inhibitors (type of HIV medication), and atypical antipsychotics.

Exposure to light during sleep
Being exposed to light during sleep has been shown to cause insulin resistance and increase heart rate.

Hormones
Many hormones can induce insulin resistance including cortisol, growth hormone, and human placental lactogen.

Cortisol counteracts insulin and can lead to increased hepatic gluconeogenesis, reduced peripheral utilization of glucose, and increased insulin resistance. It does this by decreasing the translocation of glucose transporters (especially GLUT4) to the cell membrane.

Based on the significant improvement in insulin sensitivity in humans after bariatric surgery and rats with surgical removal of the duodenum, it has been proposed that some substance is produced in the mucosa of that initial portion of the small intestine that signals body cells to become insulin resistant. If the producing tissue is removed, the signal ceases and body cells revert to normal insulin sensitivity. No such substance has been found as yet, and the existence of such a substance remains speculative.

Leptin is a hormone produced from the ob gene and adipocytes. Its physiological role is to regulate hunger by alerting the body when it is full. Studies show that lack of leptin causes severe obesity and is strongly linked with insulin resistance.

Diseases
Polycystic ovary syndrome and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) are associated with insulin resistance. Hepatitis C also makes people three to four times more likely to develop type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance.

Mitochondrial dysfunction
Multiple studies involving different methodology suggest that impaired function of mitochondria might play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance. Mitochondrial dysfunction may result from the formation of reactive oxygen species, genetic factors, aging, and reduced mitochondrial biogenesis. Important questions remain unsolved to date, however. If confirmed by rigorous studies, a link between mitochondrial disorders and reduced insulin sensitivity might pave the way to new therapeutic approaches.

Inflammation
Acute or chronic inflammation, such as in infections, can cause insulin resistance. TNF-α is a cytokine that may promote insulin resistance by promoting lipolysis, disrupting insulin signaling, and reducing the expression of GLUT4.

Genetics
Several genetic loci have been identified as associated with insulin insensitivity. These include variations in loci near the NAT2, GCKR, and IGFI genes, which are linked to insulin resistance. Further research has indicated that loci near these genes are correlated with insulin resistance. However, it is estimated that these loci only account for 25–44% of the genetic component of insulin resistance.

Pathophysiology
In normal metabolism, the elevated blood glucose instructs beta (β) cells in the Islets of Langerhans, located in the pancreas, to release insulin into the blood. The insulin makes insulin-sensitive tissues in the body (primarily skeletal muscle cells, adipose tissue, and liver) absorb glucose which provides energy as well as lowers blood glucose. The beta cells reduce insulin output as the blood glucose level falls, allowing blood glucose to settle at a constant of approximately 5 mmol/L (90 mg/dL). In an insulin-resistant person, normal levels of insulin do not have the same effect in controlling blood glucose levels.

When the body produces insulin under conditions of insulin resistance, the cells are unable to absorb or use it as effectively and it stays in the bloodstream. Certain cell types such as fat and muscle cells require insulin to absorb glucose and when these cells fail to respond adequately to circulating insulin, blood glucose levels rise. The liver normally helps regulate glucose levels by reducing its secretion of glucose in the presence of insulin. However, in insulin resistance, this normal reduction in the liver's glucose production may not occur, further contributing to elevated blood glucose.

Insulin resistance in fat cells results in reduced uptake of circulating lipids and increased hydrolysis of stored triglycerides. This leads to elevated free fatty acids in the blood plasma and can further worsen insulin resistance. Since insulin is the primary hormonal signal for energy storage into fat cells, which tend to retain their sensitivity in the face of hepatic and skeletal muscle resistance, insulin resistance stimulates the formation of new fatty tissue and accelerates weight gain.

In states of insulin resistance, beta cells in the pancreas increase their production of insulin. This causes high blood insulin (hyperinsulinemia) to compensate for the high blood glucose. During this compensated phase of insulin resistance, beta cell function is upregulated, insulin levels are higher, and blood glucose levels are still maintained. If compensatory insulin secretion fails, then either fasting (impaired fasting glucose) or postprandial (impaired glucose tolerance) glucose concentrations increase. Eventually, type 2 diabetes occurs when glucose levels become higher as the resistance increases and compensatory insulin secretion fails. The inability of the β-cells to produce sufficient insulin in a condition of hyperglycemia is what characterizes the transition from insulin resistance to type 2 diabetes.

Insulin resistance is strongly associated with intestinal-derived apoB-48 production rate in insulin-resistant subjects and type 2 diabetics. Insulin resistance often is found in people with visceral adiposity, hypertension, hyperglycemia, and dyslipidemia involving elevated triglycerides, small dense low-density lipoprotein (sdLDL) particles, and decreased high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels. With respect to visceral adiposity, a great deal of evidence suggests two strong links with insulin resistance. First, unlike subcutaneous adipose tissue, visceral adipose cells produce significant amounts of proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-a), and Interleukins-1 and −6, etc. In numerous experimental models, these proinflammatory cytokines disrupt normal insulin action in fat and muscle cells and may be a major factor in causing the whole-body insulin resistance observed in patients with visceral adiposity. Much of the attention on production of proinflammatory cytokines has focused on the IKK-beta/NF-kappa-B pathway, a protein network that enhances transcription of inflammatory markers and mediators that may cause insulin resistance. Second, visceral adiposity is related to an accumulation of fat in the liver, a condition known as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). The result of NAFLD is an excessive release of free fatty acids into the bloodstream (due to increased lipolysis), and an increase in hepatic breakdown of glycogen stores into glucose (glycogenolysis), both of which have the effect of exacerbating peripheral insulin resistance and increasing the likelihood of Type 2 diabetes mellitus.

The excessive expansion of adipose tissue that tends to occur under sustainedly positive energy balance (as in overeating) has been postulated by Vidal-Puig to induce lipotoxic and inflammatory effects that may contribute to causing insulin resistance and its accompanying disease states.

Also, insulin resistance often is associated with a hypercoagulable state (impaired fibrinolysis) and increased inflammatory cytokine levels.

Molecular mechanism
At the molecular level, a cell senses insulin through insulin receptors, with the signal propagating through a signaling cascade collectively known as PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway. Recent studies suggested that the pathway may operate as a bistable switch under physiologic conditions for certain types of cells, and insulin response may well be a threshold phenomenon. The pathway's sensitivity to insulin may be blunted by many factors such as lipolysis of free fatty acids, causing insulin resistance. From a broader perspective, however, sensitivity tuning (including sensitivity reduction) is a common practice for an organism to adapt to the changing environment or metabolic conditions. Pregnancy, for example, entails significant metabolic changes, during which the mother must decrease the insulin sensitivity of her muscles to conserve more glucose for both the maternal and fetal brains. This adaptation can occur by elevating the response threshold, thereby delaying the onset of sensitivity. This is achieved through the secretion of placental growth factor, which interferes with the interaction between insulin receptor substrate (IRS) and PI3K. This concept forms the basis of the adjustable threshold hypothesis of insulin resistance.

Insulin resistance has been proposed to be a reaction to excess nutrition by superoxide dismutase in cell mitochondria that acts as an antioxidant defense mechanism. This link seems to exist under diverse causes of insulin resistance. It also is based on the finding that insulin resistance may be reversed rapidly by exposing cells to mitochondrial uncouplers, electron transport chain inhibitors, or mitochondrial superoxide dismutase mimetics.

Fasting insulin levels
A fasting serum insulin level greater than 29 microIU/mL or 174 pmol/L indicates insulin resistance. The same levels apply three hours after the last meal.

Glucose tolerance testing
During a glucose tolerance test (GTT), which may be used to diagnose diabetes mellitus, a fasting patient takes a 75 gram oral dose of glucose. Then blood glucose levels are measured over the following two hours.

Interpretation is based on WHO guidelines. After two hours a glycemia less than 7.8 mmol/L (140 mg/dL) is considered normal, a glycemia of between 7.8 and 11.0 mmol/L (140 to 197 mg/dL) is considered as impaired glucose tolerance (IGT), and a glycemia of greater than or equal to 11.1 mmol/L (200 mg/dL) is considered diabetes mellitus.

An oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) may be normal or mildly abnormal in simple insulin resistance. Often, there are raised glucose levels in the early measurements, reflecting the loss of a postprandial peak (after the meal) in insulin production. Extension of the testing (for several more hours) may reveal a hypoglycemic "dip," that is a result of an overshoot in insulin production after the failure of the physiologic postprandial insulin response.

Hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp
The gold standard for investigating and quantifying insulin resistance is the "hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp," so-called because it measures the amount of glucose necessary to compensate for an increased insulin level without causing hypoglycemia. It is a type of glucose clamp technique. The test is rarely performed in clinical care, but is used in medical research, for example, to assess the effects of different medications. The rate of glucose infusion commonly is referred to in diabetes literature as the GINF value.

The procedure takes about two hours. Through a peripheral vein, insulin is infused at 10–120 mU per m2 per minute. In order to compensate for the insulin infusion, glucose 20% is infused to maintain blood sugar levels between 5 and 5.5 mmol/L. The rate of glucose infusion is determined by checking the blood sugar levels every five to ten minutes.

The insulin sensitivity is determined by the rate of glucose infusion during the last thirty minutes of the test. If high levels (7.5 mg/min or higher) are needed, the patient is considered insulin-sensitive. Conversely, very low levels (4.0 mg/min or lower) indicate insulin resistance. Levels falling between 4.0 and 7.5 mg/min are not conclusive and suggest "impaired glucose tolerance," which is an early indication of insulin resistance.

This fundamental technique can be greatly enhanced through the utilization of glucose tracers. Glucose can be labeled with either stable or radioactive atoms. Commonly employed tracers include 3-3H glucose (radioactive), 6,6 2H-glucose (stable), and 1-13C glucose (stable). Prior to initiating the hyperinsulinemic phase, a 3-hour tracer infusion allows for the determination of the basal rate of glucose production. Throughout the clamp, the plasma tracer concentrations facilitate the computation of whole-body insulin-stimulated glucose metabolism, as well as the production of glucose by the body. (i.e., endogenous glucose production).

Modified insulin suppression test
Another measure of insulin resistance is the modified insulin suppression test developed by Gerald Reaven at Stanford University. The test correlates well with the euglycemic clamp, with less operator-dependent error. This test has been used to advance the large body of research relating to the metabolic syndrome.

Patients initially receive 25 μg of octreotide (Sandostatin) in 5 mL of normal saline over 3 to 5 minutes via intravenous infusion (IV) as an initial bolus, and then, are infused continuously with an intravenous infusion of somatostatin (0.27 μg/m2/min) to suppress endogenous insulin and glucose secretion. Next, insulin and 20% glucose are infused at rates of 32 and 267 mg/m2/min, respectively. Blood glucose is checked at zero, 30, 60, 90, and 120 minutes, and thereafter, every 10 minutes for the last half-hour of the test. These last four values are averaged to determine the steady-state plasma glucose level (SSPG). Subjects with an SSPG greater than 150 mg/dL are considered to be insulin-resistant.

Alternatives
Given the complicated nature of the "clamp" technique (and the potential dangers of hypoglycemia in some patients), alternatives have been sought to simplify the measurement of insulin resistance. The first was the Homeostatic Model Assessment (HOMA), and more recent methods include the Quantitative insulin sensitivity check index (QUICKI) and SPINA-GR, a measure for insulin sensitivity. All of these calculated markers employ fasting insulin and glucose levels to calculate insulin resistance, and all correlate reasonably with the results of clamping studies.

Prevention and management
Maintaining a healthy body weight and engaging in regular physical activity can help mitigate the risk of developing insulin resistance.

The primary treatment for insulin resistance is exercise and weight loss. Both metformin and thiazolidinediones improve insulin sensitivity. Metformin is approved for prediabetes and type 2 diabetes and has become one of the more commonly prescribed medications for insulin resistance.

The Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP) showed that exercise and diet were nearly twice as effective as metformin at reducing the risk of progressing to type 2 diabetes. However, the participants in the DPP trial regained about 40% of the weight that they had lost at the end of 2.8 years, resulting in a similar incidence of diabetes development in both the lifestyle intervention and the control arms of the trial. In epidemiological studies, higher levels of physical activity (more than 90 minutes per day) reduce the risk of diabetes by 28%.

Furthermore, physical training has also generally been seen to be an effective antagonist of insulin resistance in obese or overweight children and adolescents (under the age of 19). As per the 2016 systematic review and meta-analysis conducted by Marson et al., aerobic exercise is associated with fasting insulin reduction; however, resistance and combined exercise are not. The authors caution against demeaning the importance of resistance and combined exercise, as this type of training is generally less researched than aerobic training. Overall, physical training can be used in both adolescents and adults to prevent the progression of insulin resistance and future possible metabolic and cardiovascular disease.

Resistant starch from high-amylose corn, amylomaize, has been shown to reduce insulin resistance in healthy individuals, in individuals with insulin resistance, and in individuals with type 2 diabetes.

Some types of polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega-3) may moderate the progression of insulin resistance into type 2 diabetes,  however, omega-3 fatty acids appear to have limited ability to reverse insulin resistance, and they cease to be efficacious once type 2 diabetes is established.

History
The concept that insulin resistance may be the underlying cause of diabetes mellitus type 2 was first advanced by Professor Wilhelm Falta and published in Vienna in 1931, and confirmed as contributory by Sir Harold Percival Himsworth of the University College Hospital Medical Centre in London in 1936; however, type 2 diabetes does not occur unless there is concurrent failure of compensatory insulin secretion.

Adaptive explanations
Some scholars go as far as to claim that neither insulin resistance, nor obesity really are metabolic disorders per se, but simply adaptive responses to sustained caloric surplus, intended to protect bodily organs from lipotoxicity (unsafe levels of lipids in the bloodstream and tissues): "Obesity should therefore not be regarded as a pathology or disease, but rather as the normal, physiologic response to sustained caloric surplus... As a consequence of the high level of lipid accumulation in insulin target tissues including skeletal muscle and liver, it has been suggested that exclusion of glucose from lipid-laden cells is a compensatory defense against further accumulation of lipogenic substrate."

Other prevailing thoughts that insulin resistance can be an evolutionary adaptation include the thrifty gene hypothesis. This hypothesis raises the point that if there is a genetic component to insulin resistance and Type 2 diabetes, these phenotypes should be selected against. Yet, there has been an increase in mean insulin resistance in both the normoglycemic population as well as the diabetic population.

J.V. Neel posits that in ancient human ancestors, during periods of heightened famine, genes facilitating increased glucose storage would have conferred an advantage. However, in today's modern environment, this is no longer the case.

Evidence contradicts Neel's hypothesis in studies of the Pima Indians, which suggest that individuals with higher insulin sensitivity tended to have higher weights, whereas those with insulin resistance tended to weigh less on average within this demographic.

Modern hypotheses propose that insulin metabolism serves as a socio-ecological adaptation, with insulin serving as the mechanism for allocating energy to different body components and insulin sensitivity being an adaptation to regulate this energy allocation. The Behavioral Switch Hypothesis suggests that insulin resistance leads to two methods of altering reproductive and behavioral strategies. These strategies are termed "r to K" and "soldier to diplomat." The "r to K" strategy involves directing insulin through the placenta to the fetus, resulting in weight gain in the fetus but not the mother, indicating an increase in parental investment (K strategy). In the "soldier to diplomat" strategy, the insensitivity of skeletal muscle to insulin could redirect glucose to the brain, which does not require insulin receptors. This has been shown to enhance cognitive development across various studies.

title: Insulin resistance


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Muzio Clementi

Muzio Filippo Vincenzo Francesco Saverio Clementi (23 January 1752 – 10 March 1832) was an Italian-British composer, virtuoso pianist, pedagogue, conductor, music publisher, editor, and piano manufacturer, who was mostly active in England.

Encouraged to study music by his father, he was sponsored as a young composer by Sir Peter Beckford who took him to England to advance his studies. Later, he toured Europe numerous times from his long-standing base in London. It was on one of these occasions, in 1781, that he engaged in a piano competition with Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.

Influenced by Domenico Scarlatti's harpsichord school and Haydn's classical school and by the stile Galante of Johann Christian Bach and Ignazio Cirri, Clementi developed a fluent and technical legato style, which he passed on to a generation of pianists, including John Field, Johann Baptist Cramer, Ignaz Moscheles, Giacomo Meyerbeer, Friedrich Kalkbrenner, Johann Nepomuk Hummel, and Carl Czerny. He was a notable influence on Ludwig van Beethoven and Frédéric Chopin.

Clementi also produced and promoted his own brand of pianos and was a notable music publisher. Because of this activity, many compositions by Clementi's contemporaries and earlier artists have stayed in the repertoire. Though the reputation of Clementi was exceeded only by Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and Rossini in his day, his popularity languished for much of the 19th and 20th centuries.

Childhood
Muzio Filippo Vincenzo Francesco Saverio Clementi (baptized Mutius Philippus Vincentius Franciscus Xaverius) was born in Rome, Papal States, on 23 January 1752, and baptized the following day at San Lorenzo in Damaso. He was the eldest of the seven children of Nicolò Clementi, a silversmith, and Madalena, (Magdalena Kaiser). Nicolò soon recognised Muzio's musical talent and arranged for private musical instruction with a relative, Antonio Baroni, the maestro di cappella at St. Peter's Basilica.

Education
At the age of seven, Clementi began studies in figured bass with the organist S. Giovanni Cordicelli, followed by voice lessons from Giuseppe Santarelli. A few years later, probably when he was 11 or 12, he was given counterpoint lessons by Gaetano Carpani. By the age of 13 Clementi had already composed an oratorio, Martirio de' gloriosi Santi Giuliano e Celso, and a mass. When he was 14, in January 1766, he became organist of the parish church of San Lorenzo in Dámaso.

Move to England
In 1766 Sir Peter Beckford, a wealthy Englishman, nephew of William Beckford (twice Lord Mayor of London, and father of the novelist William Thomas Beckford), visited Rome. He was impressed by the young Clementi's musical talent and negotiated with his father to take him to his estate, Stepleton House, north of Blandford Forum in Dorset, England. Beckford agreed to provide quarterly payments to sponsor the boy's musical education until he reached the age of 21. In return, he was expected to provide musical entertainment. For the next seven years, Clementi lived, performed, and studied at the estate in Dorset. During this period, it appears, Clementi spent eight hours a day at the harpsichord, practicing and studying the works of Johann Sebastian Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, George Frideric Handel, Arcangelo Corelli, Domenico Scarlatti, Alessandro Scarlatti, and Bernardo Pasquini. His only compositions dated to this period are the Sonatas WoO 13 and 14 and the Sei Sonate per clavicembalo o pianoforte, Op. 1.

In 1770 Clementi made his first public performance as an organist. The audience was reported to be impressed with his playing, thus beginning one of the outstandingly successful concert pianist careers of the period.

In 1774 Clementi was freed from his obligations to Peter Beckford. During the winter of 1774–1775 he moved to London, making his first appearance as a harpsichordist in a benefit concert on 3 April 1775. He made several public appearances in London as a solo harpsichordist at benefit concerts for two local musicians, a singer and a harpist, and served as conductor (from the keyboard) at the King's Theatre (now His Majesty's Theatre), Haymarket, for at least part of this time.

Mozart
Clementi started a three-year European tour in 1780, traveling to Paris, France, where he performed for Queen Marie Antoinette; Munich, Germany; and Salzburg, Austria. In Vienna, he agreed to enter a musical contest with Mozart for the entertainment of Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II and his guests on 24 December 1781, at the Viennese court. The composers were called upon to improvise and to perform selections from their own compositions. The Emperor diplomatically declared a tie.

On 12 January 1782, Mozart reported to his father: "Clementi plays well, as far as execution with the right-hand goes. His greatest strength lies in his passages in 3rds. Apart from that, he has not a kreuzer's worth of taste or feeling – in short, he is a mere mechanic." In a subsequent letter, he wrote: "Clementi is a charlatan, like all Italians. He marks a piece presto but plays only allegro."

Clementi's impressions of Mozart, by contrast, were enthusiastic. Much later, the pianist Ludwig Berger recalled him saying of Mozart: "Until then I had never heard anyone play with such spirit and grace. I was particularly overwhelmed by an adagio and by several of his extempore variations for which the Emperor had chosen the theme, and which we were to devise alternately."

Despite later attempts to portray the two as rivals, there is no evidence that their meeting was not cordial. At the time, Clementi was exploring a more virtuosic and flamboyant style, and this might explain Mozart's disparaging attitude. One of the pieces he performed was his Op. 11 toccata, a display piece full of parallel thirds. It would appear that Mozart's opinion might later have changed somewhat. As noted by Hermann Abert in his 1920 biography W. A. Mozart, the set of variations K. 500 of 1786 "includes a handful of novel pianistic effects that are foreign to Mozart's earlier style and that clearly reflect the influence of Clementi".

Mozart used the opening motif of Clementi's B-flat major sonata (Op. 24, No. 2) in his overture for The Magic Flute. It was not unusual for composers to borrow from one another, and this might be considered a compliment. Though Clementi noted in subsequent publications of his sonata that it had been written ten years before Mozart's opera—presumably to make clear who was borrowing from whom—Clementi retained an admiration for Mozart, as reflected in the large number of transcriptions he made of Mozart's music, among which is a piano solo version of the Magic Flute overture.

Teaching
From 1783, and for the next twenty years, Clementi stayed in England, playing the piano, conducting, and teaching. Several of his students include Johann Baptist Cramer, Thomas Paul Chipp, Ignaz Moscheles, Therese Jansen Bartolozzi, Johann Nepomuk Hummel, Ludwig Berger (who went on to teach Felix Mendelssohn), and John Field (who, in his turn, would become a major influence on Frédéric Chopin).

Publishing and piano manufacturing
In 1798, Clementi took over the firm Longman and Broderip at 26 Cheapside (then the most prestigious shopping street in London), initially with James Longman, who left in 1801. Clementi also had offices at 195 Tottenham Court Road from 1806. The publication line, "Clementi & Co, & Clementi, Cheapside" appears on a lithograph, "Music" by William Sharp after John Wood (1801–1870), circa 1830s.

Clementi also began manufacturing pianos, but on 20 March 1807, a fire destroyed the firm's warehouses in Rotten Road, resulting in a loss of about £40,000. That same year, Clementi made an agreement with Ludwig van Beethoven (one of his greatest admirers), which gave him full publishing rights to all of Beethoven's music in England. He edited and interpreted Beethoven's music but has received criticism for editorial work such as making harmonic "corrections" to some of Beethoven's scores.

In 1810, Clementi stopped performing in order to devote his time to composition and to piano making. On 24 January 1813, together with a group of prominent professional musicians in England, he founded the "Philharmonic Society of London", which became the Royal Philharmonic Society in 1912. In 1813 Clementi was appointed a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music.

Meanwhile, his piano business had flourished, affording him an increasingly elegant lifestyle. As an inventor and skilled mechanic, he made important improvements in the construction of the piano, some of which have become standard.

Final years
At the end of 1816, Clementi made another trip to the continent to introduce his new works, particularly at the Concerts Spirituels in Paris. He returned to London in June 1818, after stopping off in Frankfurt. In 1821 he once again returned to Paris, conducting his symphonies in Munich and Leipzig. In London, in 1824 his symphonies were featured in five of the six programs at the 'Concerts of Ancient and Modern Music' at the King's Theatre.

In 1826 Clementi completed his collection of keyboard studies, Gradus ad Parnassum, and set off for Paris with the intention of publishing the third volume of the work simultaneously in Paris, London, and Leipzig. After staying in Baden and most likely making another visit to Italy, he returned to London in the autumn of 1827.

On 17 December 1827, a large banquet was organised by Johann Baptist Cramer and Ignaz Moscheles in his honour at the Hotel Albion. Moscheles, in his diary, says that on that occasion Clementi improvised at the piano on a theme by George Frideric Handel. In 1828 he made his last public appearance at the opening concert of the Philharmonic Society. In 1830 he retired from the Society.

Clementi moved with his wife Emma (née Gisborne) and his family to the outskirts of Lichfield, Staffordshire and rented 'Lincroft House' on the Earl of Lichfield's Estate from Lady Day 1828 until late 1831. He then moved to Evesham where he died on 10 March 1832, after a short illness, aged eighty. On 29 March 1832, he was buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey. Accompanying his body were three of his students: Johann Baptist Cramer, John Field and Ignaz Moscheles. He had five children; by his first wife, Caroline (née Lehmann), he had a son who died soon after his birth; by his wife Emma he had two sons and two daughters. Among his descendants are the British colonial administrators Sir Cecil Clementi Smith and Sir Cecil Clementi, Air Vice Marshal Cresswell Clementi of the RAF, Sir David Clementi who was a deputy-governor of the Bank of England, and Marjorie Clementi (1927–1997), a pianist and piano teacher who became Professor of the Piano at the Royal Northern College of Music. Amongst his descendants in Italy was Rodolfo Graziani, Marshal of Italy and Viceroy of Ethiopia during the Fascist period, who was related to the composer via his mother, Adelia Clementi.

Piano works
As a composer of classical piano sonatas, Clementi was among the first to create keyboard works expressly for the capabilities of the piano. He has been called "Father of the Piano".

Of Clementi's playing in his youth, Moscheles wrote that it was "marked by a most beautiful legato, a supple touch in lively passages, and a most unfailing technique." Mozart may be said to have closed the old—and Clementi to have founded the newer—school of technique on the piano.

Clementi composed almost 110 piano sonatas. Some of the earlier and easier ones were later classified as sonatinas after the success of his Sonatinas Op. 36. Erik Satie, a contemporary of Debussy, would later parody these sonatinas (specifically the Sonatina Op. 36, No. 1) in his Sonatine bureaucratique. However, most of Clementi's sonatas are more difficult to play than those of Mozart, who wrote in a letter to his sister Marianne that he would prefer her not to play Clementi's sonatas due to their jumped runs, and wide stretches and chords, which he thought might ruin the natural lightness of her hand.

Symphonic works
Clementi's symphonies are less well known. Though many of his manuscripts have been lost, autograph portions of his unpublished symphonies, which include everything from sketches to complete movements, are in the Library of Congress and the British Library. From these autographs, scholars have been able to reconstruct four symphonies. Clementi also published two symphonies as Op. 18 in 1787, the first in B-flat major and the second in D major. Clementi successfully performed his symphonies in London and other cities in Europe, predominantly from 1813 to 1828. Based on performance reports, scholars estimate that he composed approximately twenty symphonies in total during his life. Clementi used the theme to "God Save the King" in his Symphony No. 3 in G major often called the "Great National Symphony", cataloged as WoO 34.

In 2002, for the 250th anniversary of his birth, scholars published new research about Clementi's life and works. Ut Orpheus is publishing the 61-volume set of Clementi's complete works, which will include new editions of his symphonies.

Influence
Clementi's influence extended well into the 19th century, with composers using his sonatas as models for their keyboard compositions. Ludwig van Beethoven, in particular, had the highest regard for Clementi. Beethoven often played Clementi sonatas and often a volume of them was on his music stand. Beethoven recommended these works to many people including his nephew Karl. A description of Beethoven's regard for Clementi's music can be found in the testimony of his assistant, Anton Schindler, who wrote "He [Beethoven] had the greatest admiration for these sonatas, considering them the most beautiful, the most pianistic of works, both for their lovely, pleasing, original melodies and for the consistent, easily followed form of each movement. The musical education of his beloved nephew was confined for many years almost exclusively to the playing of Clementi sonatas". Schindler continues with reference to Beethoven's fondness for Clementi's piano sonatas: "For these, he had the greatest preference and placed them in the front rank of pieces appropriate to the development of fine piano playing, as much for their lovely, pleasing, fresh melodies as for the well-knit, fluent forms of all the movements." Moscheles' edition of Schindler's biography quotes the latter as follows: "Among all the masters who have written for piano, Beethoven assigned to Clementi the very foremost rank. He considered his works excellent as studies for practise, for the formation of a pure taste, and as truly beautiful subjects for performance. Beethoven used to say: 'They who thoroughly study Clementi, at the same time make themselves acquainted with Mozart and other composers; but the converse is not the fact.

Carl Czerny also had the highest regard for Clementi's piano sonatas and used them successfully in his teaching of Franz Liszt. Czerny referred to Clementi as "the foremost pianist of his time."

Frédéric Chopin would often require his pupils to practice Clementi's preludes and exercises because of the exceptional virtues he attributed to them.

Vladimir Horowitz developed a special fondness for Clementi's work after his wife, Wanda Toscanini, bought him Clementi's complete works. He recorded five of Clementi's Sonatas along with shorter pieces.

By a ministerial decree dated 20 March 2008, the Opera Omnia of Muzio Clementi was promoted to the status of Italian National Edition. The steering committee of the National Edition consisting of the scholars Andrea Coen (Rome), Roberto De Caro (Bologna), Roberto Illiano (Lucca — President), Leon Plantinga (New Haven, Connecticut), David Rowland (Milton Keynes, UK), Luca Lévi Sala (Paris/Poitiers, Secretary, and Treasurer), Massimiliano Sala (Pistoia, Vice-President), Rohan H. Stewart-MacDonald (Cambridge, UK) and Valeria Tarsetti (Bologna).

title: Muzio Clementi


text:
Adams County

Adams County is the name of twelve counties in the United States. Most are named for one of two presidents, John Adams or his son, John Quincy Adams:

 * Adams County, Colorado
 * Adams County, Idaho
 * Adams County, Illinois
 * Adams County, Indiana
 * Adams County, Iowa
 * Adams County, Mississippi
 * Adams County, Nebraska
 * Adams County, North Dakota
 * Adams County, Ohio
 * Adams County, Pennsylvania
 * Adams County, Washington
 * Adams County, Wisconsin

title: Adams County