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Rights

Rights are legal, social, or ethical principles of freedom or entitlement; that is, rights are the fundamental normative rules about what is allowed of people or owed to people according to some legal system, social convention, or ethical theory. Rights are of essential importance in such disciplines as law and ethics, especially theories of justice and deontology. The history of social conflicts has often involved attempts to define and redefine rights. According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "rights structure the form of governments, the content of laws, and the shape of morality as it is currently perceived".

Natural versus legal

 * Natural rights are rights which are "natural" in the sense of "not artificial, not man-made", as in rights deriving from human nature or from the edicts of a god. They are universal; that is, they apply to all people, and do not derive from the laws of any specific society. They exist necessarily, inhere in every individual, and cannot be taken away. For example, it has been argued that humans have a natural right to life. These are sometimes called moral rights or inalienable rights.
 * Legal rights, in contrast, are based on a society's customs, laws, statutes or actions by legislatures. An example of a legal right is the right to vote of citizens. Citizenship, itself, is often considered as the basis for having legal rights, and has been defined as the "right to have rights". Legal rights are sometimes called civil rights or statutory rights and are culturally and politically relative since they depend on a specific societal context to have meaning.

Some thinkers see rights in only one sense while others accept that both senses have a measure of validity. There has been considerable philosophical debate about these senses throughout history. For example, Jeremy Bentham believed that legal rights were the essence of rights, and he denied the existence of natural rights, whereas Thomas Aquinas held that rights purported by positive law but not grounded in natural law were not properly rights at all, but only a facade or pretense of rights.

Claim versus liberty

 * A claim right is a right which entails that another person has a duty to the right-holder. Somebody else must do or refrain from doing something to or for the claim holder, such as perform a service or supply a product for him or her; that is, he or she has a claim to that service or product (another term is thing in action). In logic, this idea can be expressed as: "Person A has a claim that person B do something if and only if B has a duty to A to do that something." Every claim-right entails that some other duty-bearer must do some duty for the claim to be satisfied. This duty can be to act or to refrain from acting. For example, many jurisdictions recognize broad claim rights to things like "life, liberty, and property"; these rights impose an obligation upon others not to assault or restrain a person, or use their property, without the claim-holder's permission. Likewise, in jurisdictions where social welfare services are guaranteed, citizens have legal claim rights to be provided with those services.
 * A liberty right or privilege, in contrast, is simply a freedom or permission for the right-holder to do something, and there are no obligations on other parties to do or not do anything. This can be expressed in logic as: "Person A has a privilege to do something if and only if A has no duty not to do that something." For example, if a person has a legal liberty right to free speech, that merely means that it is not legally forbidden for them to speak freely: it does not mean that anyone has to help enable their speech, or to listen to their speech; or even, per se, refrain from stopping them from speaking, though other rights, such as the claim right to be free from assault, may severely limit what others can do to stop them.

Liberty rights and claim rights are the inverse of one another: a person has a liberty right permitting him to do something only if there is no other person who has a claim right forbidding him from doing so. Likewise, if a person has a claim right against someone else, then that other person's liberty is limited. For example, a person has a liberty right to walk down a sidewalk and can decide freely whether or not to do so, since there is no obligation either to do so or to refrain from doing so. But pedestrians may have an obligation not to walk on certain lands, such as other people's private property, to which those other people have a claim right. So a person's liberty right of walking extends precisely to the point where another's claim right limits his or her freedom.

Positive versus negative
In one sense, a right is a permission to do something or an entitlement to a specific service or treatment from others, and these rights have been called positive rights. However, in another sense, rights may allow or require inaction, and these are called negative rights; they permit or require doing nothing. For example, in some countries, e.g. the United States, citizens have the positive right to vote and they have the negative right to not vote; people can choose not to vote in a given election without punishment. In other countries, e.g. Australia, however, citizens have a positive right to vote but they do not have a negative right to not vote, since voting is compulsory. Accordingly:
 * Positive rights are permissions to do things, or entitlements to be done unto. One example of a positive right is the purported "right to welfare".
 * Negative rights are permissions not to do things, or entitlements to be left alone. Often the distinction is invoked by libertarians who think of a negative right as an entitlement to non-interference such as a right against being assaulted.

Though similarly named, positive and negative rights should not be confused with active rights (which encompass "privileges" and "powers") and passive rights (which encompass "claims" and "immunities").

Individual versus group

 * Individual rights are rights held by individual people regardless of their group membership or lack thereof.
 * Group rights, including the rights of nations, have been argued to exist when a group is seen as more than a mere composite or assembly of separate individuals but an entity in its own right. In other words, it is possible to see a group as a distinct being in and of itself; it is akin to an enlarged individual, a corporate body, which has a distinct will and power of action and can be thought of as having rights. Rights of nations, including a national right to self-determination have been argued for, and a platoon of soldiers in combat can be thought of as a distinct group, since individual members are willing to risk their lives for the survival of the group, and therefore the group can be conceived as having a "right" which is superior to that of any individual member; for example, a soldier who disobeys an officer can be punished, perhaps even killed, for a breach of obedience. But there is another sense of group rights in which people who are members of a group can be thought of as having specific individual rights because of their membership in a group. In this sense, the set of rights which individuals-as-group-members have is expanded because of their membership in a group. For example, workers who are members of a group such as a labor union can be thought of as having expanded individual rights because of their membership in the labor union, such as the rights to specific working conditions or wages.

There can be tension between individual and group rights. A classic instance in which group and individual rights clash is conflicts between unions and their members. For example, individual members of a union may wish a wage higher than the union-negotiated wage, but are prevented from making further requests; in a so-called closed shop which has a union security agreement, only the union has a right to decide matters for the individual union members such as wage rates. So, do the supposed "individual rights" of the workers prevail about the proper wage? Or do the "group rights" of the union regarding the proper wage prevail?

The Austrian School of Economics holds that only individuals think, feel, and act whether or not members of any abstract group. The society should thus according to economists of the school be analyzed starting from the individual. This methodology is called methodological individualism and is used by the economists to justify individual rights. Similarly, the author Ayn Rand argued that only individuals have rights, according to her philosophy known as Objectivism. However, others have argued that there are situations in which a group of persons is thought to have rights, or group rights.

Other senses
Other distinctions between rights draw more on historical association or family resemblance than on precise philosophical distinctions. These include the distinction between civil and political rights and economic, social and cultural rights, between which the articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights are often divided. Another conception of rights groups them into three generations. These distinctions have much overlap with that between negative and positive rights, as well as between individual rights and group rights, but these groupings are not entirely coextensive.

Politics
Rights are often included in the foundational questions that governments and politics have been designed to deal with. Often the development of these socio-political institutions have formed a dialectical relationship with rights.

Rights about particular issues, or the rights of particular groups, are often areas of special concern. Often these concerns arise when rights come into conflict with other legal or moral issues, sometimes even other rights. Issues of concern have historically included Indigenous rights, labor rights, LGBT rights, reproductive rights, disability rights, patient rights and prisoners' rights. With increasing monitoring and the information society, information rights, such as the right to privacy are becoming more important.

Some examples of groups whose rights are of particular concern include animals, and amongst humans, groups such as children and youth, parents (both mothers and fathers), and men and women.

Accordingly, politics plays an important role in developing or recognizing the above rights, and the discussion about which behaviors are included as "rights" is an ongoing political topic of importance. The concept of rights varies with political orientation. Positive rights such as a "right to medical care" are emphasized more often by left-leaning thinkers, while right-leaning thinkers place more emphasis on negative rights such as the "right to a fair trial".

Further, the term equality which is often bound up with the meaning of "rights" often depends on one's political orientation. Conservatives and right-wing libertarians and advocates of free markets often identify equality with equality of opportunity, and want what they perceive as equal and fair rules in the process of making things, while agreeing that sometimes these fair rules lead to unequal outcomes. In contrast, socialists see the power imbalance of employer-employee relationships in capitalism as a cause of inequality and often see unequal outcomes as a hindrance to equality of opportunity. They tend to identify equality of outcome as a sign of equality and therefore think that people have a right to portions of necessities such as health care or economic assistance or housing that align with their needs.

Philosophy
In philosophy, meta-ethics is the branch of ethics that seeks to understand the nature of ethical properties, statements, attitudes, and judgments. Meta-ethics is one of the three branches of ethics generally recognized by philosophers, the others being normative ethics and applied ethics.

While normative ethics addresses such questions as "What should one do?", thus endorsing some ethical evaluations and rejecting others, meta-ethics addresses questions such as "What is goodness?" and "How can we tell what is good from what is bad?", seeking to understand the nature of ethical properties and evaluations.

Rights ethics is an answer to the meta-ethical question of what normative ethics is concerned with (meta-ethics also includes a group of questions about how ethics comes to be known, true, etc. which is not directly addressed by rights ethics). Rights ethics holds that normative ethics is concerned with rights. Alternative meta-ethical theories are that ethics is concerned with one of the following:
 * Duties (deontology)
 * Value (axiology)
 * Virtue (virtue ethics)
 * Consequences (consequentialism, e.g. utilitarianism)

Rights ethics has had considerable influence on political and social thinking. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights gives some concrete examples of widely accepted rights.

Criticism
Some philosophers have criticised some rights as ontologically dubious entities.

History

The specific enumeration of rights has differed greatly in different periods of history. In many cases, the system of rights promulgated by one group has come into sharp and bitter conflict with that of other groups. In the political sphere, a place in which rights have historically been an important issue, constitutional provisions of various states sometimes address the question of who has what legal rights.

Historically, many notions of rights were authoritarian and hierarchical, with different people granted different rights, and some having more rights than others. For instance, the right of a father to be respected by his son did not indicate a right of the son to receive something in return for that respect; and the divine right of kings, which permitted absolute power over subjects, did not leave much possibility for many rights for the subjects themselves.

In contrast, modern conceptions of rights have often emphasized liberty and equality as among the most important aspects of rights, as was evident in the American and French revolutions.

Important documents in the political history of rights include:

 * The Persian Empire of ancient Iran established unprecedented principles of human rights in the 6th century BC under Cyrus the Great. After his conquest of Babylon in 539 BC, the king issued the Cyrus cylinder, discovered in 1879 and seen by some today as the first human rights document.
 * The Constitution of Medina (622 AD; Arabia) instituted a number of rights for the Muslim, Jewish, camp followers and "believers" of Medina.
 * Magna Carta (1215; England) required the King of England to renounce certain rights and respect certain legal procedures, and to accept that the will of the king could be bound by law, after King John promised his barons he would follow the "law of the land". While Magna Carta was originally a set of rules that the king had to follow, and mainly protected the property of aristocratic landowners, today it is seen as the basis of certain rights for ordinary people, such as the right of due process.
 * The Declaration of Arbroath (1320; Scotland) established the right of the people to choose a head of state (see popular sovereignty).
 * The Henrician Articles (1573; Poland-Lithuania) or King Henry's Articles were a permanent contract that stated the fundamental principles of governance and constitutional law in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, including the rights of the nobility to elect the king, to meet in parliament whose approval was required to levy taxes and declare war or peace, to religious liberty and the right to rebel in case the king transgressed against the laws of the republic or the rights of the nobility.
 * The Bill of Rights (1689; England) declared that Englishmen, as embodied by Parliament, possess certain civil and political rights; the Claim of Right (1689; Scotland) was similar but distinct.
 * The Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776) by George Mason declared the inherent natural rights and separation of powers.
 * The United States Declaration of Independence (1776) succinctly defined the rights of man as including, but not limited to, "Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" which later influenced "liberté, égalité, fraternité" (liberty, equality, fraternity) in France. The phrase can also be found in Chapter III, Article 13 of the 1947 Constitution of Japan, and in President Ho Chi Minh's 1945 declaration of independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.  An alternative phrase "life, liberty and property", is found in the Declaration of Colonial Rights, a resolution of the First Continental Congress. Also, Article 3 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights reads, "Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person".
 * The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789; France), one of the fundamental documents of the French Revolution, defined a set of individual rights and collective rights of the people.
 * The Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (1785; United States), written by Thomas Jefferson in 1779, was a document that asserted the right of man to form a personal relationship with God free from interference by the state.
 * The United States Bill of Rights (1789–1791; United States), the first ten amendments of the United States Constitution specified rights of individuals in which government could not interfere, including the rights of free assembly, freedom of religion, trial by jury, and the right to keep and bear arms.
 * The Constitution of Poland-Lithuania (1791; Poland-Lithuania) was the first constitution in Europe, and second in the world. It built upon previous Polish law documents such as the Henrician Articles, as well as the US constitution, and it too, specified many rights.
 * The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) is an overarching set of standards by which governments, organisations and individuals would measure their behaviour towards each other. The preamble declares that the "...recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world..."
 * The European Convention on Human Rights (1950; Europe) was adopted under the auspices of the Council of Europe to protect human rights and fundamental freedoms.
 * The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), a follow-up to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, concerns civil and political rights.
 * The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966), another follow-up to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, concerns economic, social and cultural rights.
 * The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (1982; Canada) was created to protect the rights of Canadian citizens from actions and policies of all levels of government.
 * The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (2000) is one of the most recent proposed legal instruments concerning human rights.

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Samarkand

Samarkand or Samarqand (Uzbek: Samarqand, ; ) is a city in southeastern Uzbekistan and among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Central Asia. Samarqand is the capital of Samarqand Region and a district-level city, that includes the urban-type settlements Kimyogarlar, Farhod and Khishrav. With 551,700 inhabitants (2021), it is the third-largest city of Uzbekistan. 60% of the population of Samarkand speak Samarqandi as their first mother tongue. Samarqandi is a dialect of Persian.

There is evidence of human activity in the area of the city dating from the late Paleolithic Era. Though there is no direct evidence of when Samarqand was founded, several theories propose that it was founded between the 8th and 7th centuries BCE. Prospering from its location on the Silk Road between China, Persia and Europe, at times Samarqand was one of the largest cities in Central Asia, and was an important city of the empires of Greater Iran. By the time of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, it was the capital of the Sogdian satrapy. The city was conquered by Alexander the Great in 329 BCE, when it was known as Markanda, which was rendered in Greek as Μαράκανδα. The city was ruled by a succession of Iranian and Turkic rulers until it was conquered by the Mongols under Genghis Khan in 1220.

The city is noted as a centre of Islamic scholarly study and the birthplace of the Timurid Renaissance. In the 14th century, Timur made it the capital of his empire and the site of his mausoleum, the Gur-e Amir. The Bibi-Khanym Mosque, rebuilt during the Soviet era, remains one of the city's most notable landmarks. Samarqand's Registan square was the city's ancient centre and is bounded by three monumental religious buildings. The city has carefully preserved the traditions of ancient crafts: embroidery, goldwork, silk weaving, copper engraving, ceramics, wood carving, and wood painting. In 2001, UNESCO added the city to its World Heritage List as Samarqand – Crossroads of Cultures.

Modern Samarqand is divided into two parts: the old city, and the new city, which was developed during the days of the Russian Empire and Soviet Union. The old city includes historical monuments, shops, and old private houses; the new city includes administrative buildings along with cultural centres and educational institutions. On September 15–16, 2022, the city hosted the 2022 SCO summit.

Samarkand has a multicultural and plurilingual history that was significantly modified by the process of national delimitation in Central Asia. Many inhabitants of the city are native or bilingual speakers of the Tajik language, whereas Uzbek is the official language and Russian is also widely used in the public sphere, as per Uzbekistan's language policy.

Etymology
The name comes from Sogdian samar "stone, rock" and kand "fort, town." In this respect, Samarqand shares the same meaning as the name of the Uzbek capital Tashkent, with tash- being the Turkic term for "stone" and -kent the Turkic analogue of kand.

According to 11th-century scholar Mahmud al-Kashghari, the city was known in Karakhanid as , meaning "fat city." 16th-century Mughal emperor Babur also mentioned the city under this name, and 15th-century Castillian traveler Ruy González de Clavijo stated that Samarqand was simply a distorted form of it.

Early history
Along with Bukhara, Samarqand is one of the oldest inhabited cities in Central Asia, prospering from its location on the trade route between China and Europe. There is no direct evidence of when it was founded. Researchers at the Institute of Archaeology of Samarqand date the city's founding to the 8th–7th centuries BCE.

Archaeological excavations conducted within the city limits (Syob and midtown) as well as suburban areas (Hojamazgil, Sazag'on) unearthed 40,000-year-old evidence of human activity, dating back to the Upper Paleolithic. A group of Mesolithic (12th–7th millennia BCE) archaeological sites were discovered in the suburbs of Sazag'on-1, Zamichatosh, and Okhalik. The Syob and Darg'om canals, supplying the city and its suburbs with water, appeared around the 7th–5th centuries BCE (early Iron Age).

From its earliest days, Samarqand was one of the main centres of Sogdian civilization. By the time of the Achaemenid dynasty of Persia, the city had become the capital of the Sogdian satrapy.

Hellenistic period
Alexander the Great conquered Samarqand in 329 BCE. The city was known as Maracanda (Μαράκανδα) by the Greeks. Written sources offer small clues as to the subsequent system of government. They mention one Orepius who became ruler "not from ancestors, but as a gift of Alexander."

While Samarqand suffered significant damage during Alexander's initial conquest, the city recovered rapidly and flourished under the new Hellenic influence. There were also major new construction techniques. Oblong bricks were replaced with square ones and superior methods of masonry and plastering were introduced.

Alexander's conquests introduced classical Greek culture into Central Asia and for a time, Greek aesthetics heavily influenced local artisans. This Hellenistic legacy continued as the city became part of various successor states in the centuries following Alexander's death, the Seleucid Empire, Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and Kushan Empire (even though the Kushana themselves originated in Central Asia). After the Kushan state lost control of Sogdia during the 3rd century CE, Samarqand went into decline as a centre of economic, cultural, and political power. It did not significantly revive until the 5th century.

Sassanian era
Samarqand was conquered by the Persian Sassanians c. 260 CE. Under Sassanian rule, the region became an essential site for Manichaeism and facilitated the dissemination of the religion throughout Central Asia.

Hephtalites and Turkic Khaganate era
In AD 350–375 Samarqand was conquered by the nomadic tribes of Xionites, the origin of which remains controversial. The resettlement of nomadic groups to Samarqand confirms archaeological material from the 4th century. The culture of nomads from the Middle Syrdarya basin is spreading in the region. In 457–509 Samarqand was part of the Kidarite state.

After the Hephtalites ("White Huns") conquered Samarqand, they controlled it until the Göktürks, in an alliance with the Sassanid Persians, won it at the Battle of Bukhara, c. 560 CE.

In the middle of the 6th century, a Turkic state was formed in Altai, founded by the Ashina dynasty. The new state formation was named the Turkic Khaganate after the people of the Turks, which were headed by the ruler – the Khagan. In 557–561, the Hephthalites empire was defeated by the joint actions of the Turks and Sassanids, which led to the establishment of a common border between the two empires.

In the early Middle Ages, Samarqand was surrounded by four rows of defensive walls and had four gates.

An ancient Turkic burial with a horse was investigated on the territory of Samarqand. It dates back to the 6th century.

During the period of the ruler of the Western Turkic Kaganate, Tong Yabghu Qaghan (618–630), family relations were established with the ruler of Samarqand – Tong Yabghu Qaghan gave him his daughter.

Some parts of Samarqand have been Christian since the 4th century. In the 5th century, a Nestorian chair was established in Samarqand. At the beginning of the 8th century, it was transformed into a Nestorian metropolitanate. Discussions and polemics arose between the Sogdian followers of Christianity and Manichaeism, reflected in the documents.

Early Islamic era
The armies of the Umayyad Caliphate under Qutayba ibn Muslim captured the city from the Tang dynasty c. 710 CE.

During this period, Samarqand was a diverse religious community and was home to a number of religions, including Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Manichaeism, Judaism, and Nestorian Christianity, with most of the population following Zoroastrianism.

Qutayba generally did not settle Arabs in Central Asia; he forced the local rulers to pay him tribute but largely left them to their own devices. Samarqand was the major exception to this policy: Qutayba established an Arab garrison and Arab governmental administration in the city, its Zoroastrian fire temples were razed, and a mosque was built. Much of the city's population converted to Islam.

As a long-term result, Samarqand developed into a center of Islamic and Arabic learning. At the end of the 740s, a movement of those dissatisfied with the power of the Umayyads emerged in the Arab Caliphate, led by the Abbasid commander Abu Muslim, who, after the victory of the uprising, became the governor of Khorasan and Maverannahr (750–755). He chose Samarqand as his residence. His name is associated with the construction of a multi-kilometer defensive wall around the city and the palace.

Legend has it that during Abbasid rule, the secret of papermaking was obtained from two Chinese prisoners from the Battle of Talas in 751, which led to the foundation of the first paper mill in the Islamic world at Samarqand. The invention then spread to the rest of the Islamic world and thence to Europe.

Abbasid control of Samarqand soon dissipated and was replaced with that of the Samanids (875–999), though the Samanids were still nominal vassals of the Caliph during their control of Samarqand. Under Samanid rule the city became a capital of the Samanid dynasty and an even more important node of numerous trade routes. The Samanids were overthrown by the Karakhanids around 999. Over the next 200 years, Samarqand would be ruled by a succession of Turkic tribes, including the Seljuqs and the Khwarazmshahs.

The 10th-century Persian author Istakhri, who travelled in Transoxiana, provides a vivid description of the natural riches of the region he calls "Smarkandian Sogd": "I know no place in it or in Samarqand itself where if one ascends some elevated ground one does not see greenery and a pleasant place, and nowhere near it are mountains lacking in trees or a dusty steppe... Samakandian Sogd... [extends] eight days travel through unbroken greenery and gardens... . The greenery of the trees and sown land extends along both sides of the river [Sogd]... and beyond these fields is pasture for flocks. Every town and settlement has a fortress... It is the most fruitful of all the countries of Allah; in it are the best trees and fruits, in every home are gardens, cisterns and flowing water."

Karakhanid (Ilek-Khanid) period (11th–12th centuries)

After the fall of the Samanids state in the year 999, it was replaced by the Qarakhanid State, where the Turkic Qarakhanid dynasty ruled. After the state of the Qarakhanids split into two parts, Samarqand became a part of the West Karakhanid Kaganate and in 1040–1212 was its capital. The founder of the Western Qarakhanid Kaganate was Ibrahim Tamgach Khan (1040–1068). For the first time, he built a madrasah in Samarqand with state funds and supported the development of culture in the region. During his reign, a public hospital (bemoristan) and a madrasah were established in Samarqand, where medicine was also taught.

The memorial complex Shah-i-Zinda was founded by the rulers of the Karakhanid dynasty in the 11th century.

The most striking monument of the Qarakhanid era in Samarqand was the palace of Ibrahim ibn Hussein (1178–1202), which was built in the citadel in the 12th century. During the excavations, fragments of monumental painting were discovered. On the eastern wall, a Turkic warrior was depicted, dressed in a yellow caftan and holding a bow. Horses, hunting dogs, birds and periodlike women were also depicted here.

Mongol period

The Mongols conquered Samarqand in 1220. Juvayni writes that Genghis killed all who took refuge in the citadel and the mosque, pillaged the city completely, and conscripted 30,000 young men along with 30,000 craftsmen. Samarqand suffered at least one other Mongol sack by Khan Baraq to get treasure he needed to pay an army. It remained part of the Chagatai Khanate (one of four Mongol successor realms) until 1370.

The Travels of Marco Polo, where Polo records his journey along the Silk Road in the late 13th century, describes Samarqand as "a very large and splendid city..."

The Yenisei area had a community of weavers of Chinese origin, and Samarqand and Outer Mongolia both had artisans of Chinese origin, as reported by Changchun. After Genghis Khan conquered Central Asia, foreigners were chosen as governmental administrators; Chinese and Qara-Khitays (Khitans) were appointed as co-managers of gardens and fields in Samarqand, which Muslims were not permitted to manage on their own. The khanate allowed the establishment of Christian bishoprics (see below).

Timur's rule (1370–1405)
Ibn Battuta, who visited in 1333, called Samarqand "one of the greatest and finest of cities, and most perfect of them in beauty." He also noted that the orchards were supplied water via norias.

In 1365, a revolt against Chagatai Mongol control occurred in Samarqand. In 1370, the conqueror Timur (Tamerlane), the founder and ruler of the Timurid Empire, made Samarqand his capital. Timur used various tools for legitimisation, including urban planning in his capital, Samarkand. Over the next 35 years, he rebuilt most of the city and populated it with great artisans and craftsmen from across the empire. Timur gained a reputation as a patron of the arts, and Samarqand grew to become the centre of the region of Transoxiana. Timur's commitment to the arts is evident in how, in contrast with the ruthlessness he showed his enemies, he demonstrated mercy toward those with special artistic abilities. The lives of artists, craftsmen, and architects were spared so that they could improve and beautify Timur's capital.

Timur was also directly involved in construction projects, and his visions often exceeded the technical abilities of his workers. The city was in a state of constant construction, and Timur would often order buildings to be done and redone quickly if he was unsatisfied with the results. By his orders, Samarqand could be reached only by roads; deep ditches were dug, and walls 5 mi in circumference separated the city from its surrounding neighbors. At this time, the city had a population of about 150,000.

Henry III of Castile's ambassador Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo, who was stationed at Samarqand between 1403 and 1406, attested to the never-ending construction that went on in the city. "The Mosque which Timur had built seemed to us the noblest of all those we visited in the city of Samarqand. "

Ulugh Beg's period (1409–1449)
In 1417–1420, Timur's grandson Ulugh Beg built a madrasah in Samarqand, which became the first building in the architectural ensemble of Registan. Ulugh Beg invited a large number of astronomers and mathematicians of the Islamic world to this madrasah. Under Ulugh Beg, Samarqand became one of the world centers of medieval science. In the first half of the 15th century, a whole scientific school arose around Ulugh Beg, uniting prominent astronomers and mathematicians including Jamshid al-Kashi, Qāḍī Zāda al-Rūmī, and Ali Qushji. Ulugh Beg's main interest in science was astronomy, and he constructed an observatory in 1428. Its main instrument was the wall quadrant, which was unique in the world. It was known as the "Fakhri Sextant" and had a radius of 40 meters. Seen in the image on the left, the arc was finely constructed with a staircase on either side to provide access for the assistants who performed the measurements.

16th–18th centuries
In 1500, nomadic Uzbek warriors took control of Samarqand. The Shaybanids emerged as the city's leaders at or about this time. In 1501, Samarqand was finally taken by Muhammad Shaybani from the Uzbek dynasty of Shaybanids, and the city became part of the newly formed “Bukhara Khanate”. Samarqand was chosen as the capital of this state, in which Muhammad Shaybani Khan was crowned. In Samarqand, Muhammad Shaybani Khan ordered to build a large madrasah, where he later took part in scientific and religious disputes. The first dated news about the Shaybani Khan madrasah dates back to 1504 (it was completely destroyed during the years of Soviet power). Muhammad Salikh wrote that Sheibani Khan built a madrasah in Samarqand to perpetuate the memory of his brother Mahmud Sultan.

Fazlallah ibn Ruzbihan in "Mikhmon-namei Bukhara" expresses his admiration for the majestic building of the madrasah, its gilded roof, high hujras, spacious courtyard and quotes a verse praising the madrasah. Zayn ad-din Vasifi, who visited the Sheibani-khan madrasah several years later, wrote in his memoirs that the veranda, hall and courtyard of the madrassah are spacious and magnificent.

Abdulatif Khan, the son of Mirzo Ulugbek's grandson Kuchkunji Khan, who ruled in Samarqand in 1540–1551, was considered an expert in the history of Maverannahr and the Shibanid dynasty. He patronized poets and scientists. Abdulatif Khan himself wrote poetry under the literary pseudonym Khush.

During the reign of the Ashtarkhanid Imam Quli Khan (1611–1642) famous architectural masterpieces were built in Samarqand. In 1612–1656, the governor of Samarqand, Yalangtush Bahadur, built a cathedral mosque, Tillya-Kari madrasah and Sherdor madrasah.

Zarafshan Water Bridge is a brick bridge built on the left bank of the Zarafshan River, 7–8 km northeast of the center of Samarkand, built by Shaibani Khan at the beginning of the 16th century.

After an assault by the Afshar Shahanshah Nader Shah, the city was abandoned in the early 1720s. From 1599 to 1756, Samarqand was ruled by the Ashtrakhanid branch of the Khanate of Bukhara.

Second half of the 18th–19th centuries

From 1756 to 1868, it was ruled by the Manghud Emirs of Bukhara. The revival of the city began during the reign of the founder of the Uzbek dynasty, the Mangyts, Muhammad Rakhim (1756–1758), who became famous for his strong-willed qualities and military art. Muhammad Rakhimbiy made some attempts to revive Samarqand.

Russian Empire period
The city came under imperial Russian rule after the citadel had been taken by a force under Colonel Konstantin Petrovich von Kaufman in 1868. Shortly thereafter the small Russian garrison of 500 men were themselves besieged. The assault, which was led by Abdul Malik Tura, the rebellious elder son of the Bukharan Emir, as well as Baba Beg of Shahrisabz and Jura Beg of Kitab, was repelled with heavy losses. General Alexander Konstantinovich Abramov became the first Governor of the Military Okrug, which the Russians established along the course of the Zeravshan River with Samarqand as the administrative centre. The Russian section of the city was built after this point, largely west of the old city.

In 1886, the city became the capital of the newly formed Samarkand Oblast of Russian Turkestan and regained even more importance when the Trans-Caspian railway reached it in 1888.

Soviet period
Samarqand was the capital of the Uzbek SSR from 1925 to 1930, before being replaced by Tashkent. During World War II, after Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union, a number of Samarqand's citizens were sent to Smolensk to fight the enemy. Many were taken captive or killed by the Nazis. Additionally, thousands of refugees from the occupied western regions of the USSR fled to the city, and it served as one of the main hubs for the fleeing civilians in the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic and the Soviet Union as a whole. European study of the history of Samarqand began after the conquest of Samarqand by the Russian Empire in 1868. The first studies of the history of Samarqand belong to N. Veselovsky, V. Bartold and V. Vyatkin. In the Soviet period, the generalization of materials on the history of Samarqand was reflected in the two-volume History of Samarqand edited by the academician of Uzbekistan Ibrohim Moʻminov.

On the initiative of Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR I. Muminov and with the support of Sharaf Rashidov, the 2500th anniversary of Samarqand was widely celebrated in 1970. In this regard, a monument to Ulugh Beg was opened, the Museum of the History of Samarqand was founded, and a two-volume history of Samarqand was prepared and published.

After Uzbekistan gained independence, several monographs were published on the ancient and medieval history of Samarqand.

Geography
Samarqand is located in southeastern Uzbekistan, in the Zarefshan River valley, 135 km from Qarshi. Road M37 connects Samarqand to Bukhara, 240 km away. Road M39 connects it to Tashkent, 270 km away. The Tajikistan border is about 35 km from Samarqand; the Tajik capital Dushanbe is 210 km away from Samarqand. Road M39 connects Samarqand to Mazar-i-Sharif in Afghanistan, which is 340 km away.

Climate
Samarqand has a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BSk) with hot, dry summers and relatively wet, variable winters that alternate periods of warm weather with periods of cold weather. July and August are the hottest months of the year, with temperatures reaching and exceeding 40 C. Precipitation is sparse from June through October, but increases to a maximum from February to April. January 2008 was particularly cold; the temperature dropped to -22 °C.

People
According to official reports, a majority of Samarqand's inhabitants are Uzbeks, while many sources refer to the city as majority Tajik,  up to 70 percent of the city's population. Tajiks are especially concentrated in the eastern part of the city, where the main architectural landmarks are.

According to various independent sources, Tajiks are Samarqand's majority ethnic group. Ethnic Uzbeks are the second-largest group and are most concentrated in the west of Samarqand. Exact demographic figures are difficult to obtain since some people in Uzbekistan identify as "Uzbek" even though they speak Tajiki as their first language, often because they are registered as Uzbeks by the central government despite their Tajiki language and identity. As explained by Paul Bergne:

"During the census of 1926 a significant part of the Tajik population was registered as Uzbek. Thus, for example, in the 1920 census in Samarqand city the Tajiks were recorded as numbering 44,758 and the Uzbeks only 3301. According to the 1926 census, the number of Uzbeks was recorded as 43,364 and the Tajiks as only 10,716. In a series of kishlaks [villages] in the Khojand Okrug, whose population was registered as Tajik in 1920 e.g. in Asht, Kalacha, Akjar i Tajik and others, in the 1926 census they were registered as Uzbeks. Similar facts can be adduced also with regard to Ferghana, Samarqand, and especially the Bukhara oblasts."

Samarqand is also home to large ethnic communities of "Iranis" (the old, Persian-speaking, Shia population of Merv city and oasis, deported en masse to this area in the late 18th century), Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Armenians, Azeris, Tatars, Koreans, Poles, and Germans, all of whom live primarily in the centre and western neighborhoods of the city. These peoples have emigrated to Samarqand since the end of the 19th century, especially during the Soviet Era; by and large, they speak the Russian language.

In the extreme west and southwest of Samarqand is a population of Central Asian Arabs, who mostly speak Uzbek; only a small portion of the older generation speaks Central Asian Arabic. In eastern Samarqand there was once a large mahallah of Bukharian (Central Asian) Jews, but starting in the 1970s, hundreds of thousands of Jews left Uzbekistan for Israel, United States, Canada, Australia, and Europe. Only a few Jewish families are left in Samarqand today.

Also in the eastern part of Samarqand there are several quarters where Central Asian "Gypsies" (Lyuli, Djugi, Parya, and other groups) live. These peoples began to arrive in Samarqand several centuries ago from what are now India and Pakistan. They mainly speak a dialect of the Tajik language, as well as their own languages, most notably Parya.

Language
The state and official language in Samarqand, as in all Uzbekistan, is the Uzbek language. Uzbek is one of the Turkic languages and the mother tongue of Uzbeks, Turkmens, Samarkandian Iranians, and most Samarqandian Arabs living in Samarqand.

As in the rest of Uzbekistan, the Russian language is the de facto second official language in Samarqand, and about 5% of signs and inscriptions in Samarqand are in this language. Russians, Belarusians, Poles, Germans, Koreans, the majority of Ukrainians, the majority of Armenians, Greeks, some Tatars, and some Azerbaijanis in Samarqand speak Russian. Several Russian-language newspapers are published in Samarqand, the most popular of which is "Samarkandskiy vestnik" (Russian: Самаркандский вестник — Samarqand Herald). The Samarqandian TV channel STV conducts some broadcasts in Russian.

De facto, the most common native language in Samarqand is Tajik, which is a dialect or variant of the Persian language. Samarqand was one of the cities in which the Persian language developed. Many classical Persian poets and writers lived in or visited Samarqand over the millennia, the most famous being Abulqasem Ferdowsi, Omar Khayyam, Abdurahman Jami, Abu Abdullah Rudaki, Suzani Samarqandi, and Kamal Khujandi.

While the official stance is that Uzbek is the most common language in Samarqand, some data indicate that only about 30% of residents speak it as a native tongue. For the other 70%, Tajik is the native tongue, with Uzbek the second language and Russian the third. However, as no population census has been taken in Uzbekistan since 1989, there are no accurate data on this matter. Despite Tajik being the second most common language in Samarqand, it does not enjoy the status of an official or regional language. Nevertheless, at Samarqand State University ten faculties offer courses in Tajiki, and the Tajik Language and Literature Department has an enrolment of over 170 students. Only one newspaper in Samarqand is published in Tajiki, in the Cyrillic Tajik alphabet: Ovozi Samarqand (Tajik: Овози Самарқанд — Voice of Samarqand). Local Samarqandian STV and "Samarqand" TV channels offer some broadcasts in Tajik, as does one regional radio station. In 2022 a quarterly literary magazine in Tajiki, Durdonai Sharq, was launched in Samarqand.

In addition to Uzbek, Tajik, and Russian, native languages spoken in Samarqand include Ukrainian, Armenian, Azerbaijani, Tatar, Crimean Tatar, Arabic (for a very small percentage of Samarqandian Arabs), and others.

Modern Samarqand is a vibrant city, and in 2019 the city hosted the first Samarqand Half Marathon. In 2022 this also included a full marathon for the first time.

Islam
Islam entered Samarqand in the 8th century, during the invasion of the Arabs in Central Asia (Umayyad Caliphate). Before that, almost all inhabitants of Samarqand were Zoroastrians, and many Nestorians and Buddhists also lived in the city. From that point forward, throughout the reigns of many Muslim governing powers, numerous mosques, madrasahs, minarets, shrines, and mausoleums were built in the city. Many have been preserved. For example, there is the Shrine of Imam Bukhari, an Islamic scholar who authored the hadith collection known as Sahih al-Bukhari, which Sunni Muslims regard as one of the most authentic (sahih) hadith collections. His other books included Al-Adab al-Mufrad. Samarqand is also home to the Shrine of Imam Maturidi, the founder of Maturidism and the Mausoleum of the Prophet Daniel, who is revered in Islam, Judaism, and Christianity.

Most inhabitants of Samarqand are Muslim, primarily Sunni (mostly Hanafi) and Sufi. Approximately 80–85% of Muslims in the city are Sunni, comprising almost all Tajiks, Uzbeks, and Samarqandian Arabs living therein. Samarqand's best-known Islamic sacred lineages are the descendants of Sufi leaders such as Khodja Akhror Wali (1404–1490) and Makhdumi A’zam (1461–1542), the descendants of Sayyid Ata (first half of 14th c.) and Mirakoni Xojas (Sayyids from Mirakon, a village in Iran). The liberal policy of President Shavkat Mirziyoyev opened up new opportunities for the expression of the religious identity. In Samarqand, since 2018, there has been an increase in the number of women wearing the hijab.

Shia Muslims
The Samarqand Vilayat is one of the two regions of Uzbekistan (along with Bukhara Vilayat) that is home to a large number of Shiites. The total population of the Samarqand Vilayat is more than 3,720,000 people (2019).

There are no exact data on the number of Shiites in the city of Samarqand, but the city has several Shiite mosques and madrasas. The largest of these are the Punjabi Mosque, the Punjabi Madrassah, and the Mausoleum of Mourad Avliya. Every year, the Shiites of Samarqand celebrate Ashura, as well as other memorable Shiite dates and holidays.

Shiites in Samarqand are mostly Samarqandian Iranians, who call themselves Irani. Their ancestors began to arrive in Samarqand in the 18th century. Some migrated there in search of a better life, others were sold as slaves there by Turkmen captors, and others were soldiers who were posted to Samarqand. Mostly they came from Khorasan, Mashhad, Sabzevar, Nishapur, and Merv; and secondarily from Iranian Azerbaijan, Zanjan, Tabriz, and Ardabil. Samarqandian Shiites also include Azerbaijanis, as well as small numbers of Tajiks and Uzbeks.

While there are no official data on the total number of Shiites in Uzbekistan, they are estimated to be "several hundred thousand." According to leaked diplomatic cables, in 2007–2008, the US Ambassador for International Religious Freedom held a series of meetings with Sunni mullahs and Shiite imams in Uzbekistan. During one of the talks, the imam of the Shiite mosque in Bukhara said that about 300,000 Shiites live in the Bukhara Vliayat and 1 million in the Samarqand Vilayat. The Ambassador slightly doubted the authenticity of these figures, emphasizing in his report that data on the numbers of religious and ethnic minorities provided by the government of Uzbekistan were considered a very "delicate topic" due to their potential to provoke interethnic and interreligious conflicts. All the ambassadors of the ambassador tried to emphasize that traditional Islam, especially Sufism and Sunnism, in the regions of Bukhara and Samarqand is characterized by great religious tolerance toward other religions and sects, including Shiism.

Christianity
Christianity was introduced to Samarqand when it was part of Soghdiana, long before the penetration of Islam into Central Asia. The city then became one of the centers of Nestorianism in Central Asia. The majority of the population were then Zoroastrians, but since Samarqand was the crossroads of trade routes among China, Persia, and Europe, it was religiously tolerant. Under the Umayyad Caliphate, Zoroastrians and Nestorians were persecuted by the Arab conquerors; the survivors fled to other places or converted to Islam. Several Nestorian temples were built in Samarqand, but they have not survived. Their remains were found by archeologists at the ancient site of Afrasiyab and on the outskirts of Samarqand.

In the three decades of 1329–1359, the Samarqand eparchy of the Roman Catholic Church served several thousand Catholics who lived in the city. According to Marco Polo and Johann Elemosina, a descendant of Chaghatai Khan, the founder of the Chaghatai dynasty, Eljigidey, converted to Christianity and was baptized. With the assistance of Eljigidey, the Catholic Church of St. John the Baptist was built in Samarqand. After a while, however, Islam completely supplanted Catholicism.

Christianity reappeared in Samarqand several centuries later, from the mid-19th century onward, after the city was seized by the Russian Empire. Russian Orthodoxy was introduced to Samarqand in 1868, and several churches and temples were built. In the early 20th century several more Orthodox cathedrals, churches, and temples were built, most of which were demolished while Samarqand was part of the USSR.

In present time, Christianity is the second-largest religious group in Samarqand with the predominant form is the Russian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate). More than 5% of Samarqand residents are Orthodox, mostly Russians, Ukrainians, and Belarusians, and also some Koreans and Greeks. Samarqand is the center of the Samarqand branch (which includes the Samarqand, Qashqadarya, and Surkhandarya provinces of Uzbekistan) of the Uzbekistan and Tashkent eparchy of the Central Asian Metropolitan District of the Russian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate. The city has several active Orthodox churches: Cathedral of St. Alexiy Moscowskiy, Church of the Intercession of the Holy Virgin, and Church of St. George the Victorious. There are also a number of inactive Orthodox churches and temples, for example that of Church of St. George Pobedonosets.

There are also a few tens of thousands of Catholics in Samarqand, mostly Poles, Germans, and some Ukrainians. In the center of Samarqand is St. John the Baptist Catholic Church, which was built at the beginning of the 20th century. Samarqand is part of the Apostolic Administration of Uzbekistan.

The third largest Christian sect in Samarqand is the Armenian Apostolic Church, followed by a few tens of thousands of Armenian Samarqandians. Armenian Christians began emigrating to Samarqand at the end of the 19th century, this flow increasing especially in the Soviet era. In the west of Samarqand is the Armenian Church Surb Astvatsatsin.

Samarqand also has several thousand Protestants, including Lutherans, Baptists, Mormons, Jehovah's Witnesses, Adventists, and members of the Korean Presbyterian church. These Christian movements appeared in Samarqand mainly after the independence of Uzbekistan in 1991.

Silk Road Samarqand (Eternal city)
Silk Road Samarqand is a modern multiplex which is set to open in early 2022 in eastern Samarqand. The complex covers 260 hectares and includes world-class business and medical hotels, eateries, recreational facilities, park grounds, an ethnographic corner and a large congress hall for hosting international events.

Eternal city situated in Silk Road Samarqand complex. This site which occupies 17 hectares accurately recreates the spirit of the ancient city backed up by the history and traditions of Uzbek lands and Uzbek people for the guests of the Silk Road Samarqand. The narrow streets here house multiple shops of artists, artisans, and craftsmen. The pavilions of the Eternal City were inspired by real houses and picturesque squares described in ancient books. This is where you can plunge into a beautiful oriental fairy tale: with turquoise domes, mosaics on palaces, and high minarets that pierce the sky.

Visitors to the Eternal City can taste national dishes from different eras and regions of the country and also see authentic street performances. The Eternal City showcases a unique mix of Parthian, Hellenistic, and Islamic cultures so that the guests could imagine the versatile heritage of bygone centuries in full splendor. The project was inspired and designed by Bobur Ismoilov, a famous modern artist.

Architecture

Timur initiated the building of Bibi Khanum after his 1398–1399 campaign in India. Bibi Khanum originally had about 450 marble columns, which were hauled there and set up with the help of 95 elephants that Timur had brought back from Hindustan. Artisans and stonemasons from India designed the mosque's dome, giving it its distinctive appearance amongst the other buildings. An 1897 earthquake destroyed the columns, which were not entirely restored in the subsequent reconstruction.

The best-known landmark of Samarqand is the mausoleum known as Gur-i Amir. It exhibits the influences of many cultures, past civilizations, neighboring peoples, and religions, especially those of Islam. Despite the devastation wrought by Mongols to Samarqand's pre-Timurid Islamic architecture, under Timur these architectural styles were revived, recreated, and restored. The blueprint and layout of the mosque itself, with their precise measurements, demonstrate the Islamic passion for geometry. The entrance to the Gur-i Amir is decorated with Arabic calligraphy and inscriptions, the latter a common feature in Islamic architecture. Timur's meticulous attention to detail is especially obvious inside the mausoleum: the tiled walls are a marvelous example of mosaic faience, an Iranian technique in which each tile is cut, colored, and fit into place individually. The tiles of the Gur-i Amir were also arranged so that they spell out religious words such as "Muhammad" and "Allah."

The ornamentation of the Gur-i Amir's walls includes floral and vegetal motifs, which signify gardens; the floor tiles feature uninterrupted floral patterns. In Islam, gardens are symbols of paradise, and as such, they were depicted on the walls of tombs and grown in Samarqand itself. Samarqand boasted two major gardens, the New Garden and the Garden of Heart's Delight, which became the central areas of entertainment for ambassadors and important guests. In 1218, a friend of Genghis Khan named Yelü Chucai reported that Samarqand was the most beautiful city of all, as "it was surrounded by numerous gardens. Every household had a garden, and all the gardens were well designed, with canals and water fountains that supplied water to round or square-shaped ponds. The landscape included rows of willows and cypress trees, and peach and plum orchards were shoulder to shoulder." Persian carpets with floral patterns have also been found in some Timurid buildings.

The elements of traditional Islamic architecture can be seen in traditional mud-brick Uzbek houses that are built around central courtyards with gardens. Most of these houses have painted wooden ceilings and walls. By contrast, houses in the west of the city are chiefly European-style homes built in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Turko-Mongol influence is also apparent in Samarqand's architecture. It is believed that the melon-shaped domes of the mausoleums were designed to echo yurts or gers, traditional Mongol tents in which the bodies of the dead were displayed before burial or other disposition. Timur built his tents from more-durable materials, such as bricks and wood, but their purposes remained largely unchanged. The chamber in which Timur's own body was laid included "tugs", poles whose tops were hung with a circular arrangement of horse or yak tail hairs. These banners symbolized an ancient Turkic tradition of sacrificing horses, which were valuable commodities, to honor the dead. Tugs were also a type of cavalry standard used by many nomads, up to the time of the Ottoman Turks.

Colors of buildings in Samarqand also have significant meanings. The dominant architectural color is blue, which Timur used to convey a broad range of concepts. For example, the shades of blue in the Gur-i Amir are colors of mourning; in that era, blue was the color of mourning in Central Asia, as it still is in various cultures today. Blue was also considered the color that could ward off "the evil eye" in Central Asia; this notion is evidenced by in the number of blue-painted doors in and around the city. Furthermore, blue represented water, a particularly rare resource in the Middle East and Central Asia; walls painted blue symbolized the wealth of the city.

Gold also has a strong presence in the city. Timur's fascination with vaulting explains the excessive use of gold in the Gur-i Amir, as well as the use of embroidered gold fabric in both the city and his buildings. The Mongols had great interests in Chinese- and Persian-style golden silk textiles, as well as nasij woven in Iran and Transoxiana. Mongol leaders like Ögedei Khan built textile workshops in their cities to be able to produce gold fabrics themselves.

Suburbs
Suburbs of the city include: Gulyakandoz, Superfosfatnyy, Bukharishlak, Ulugbek, Ravanak, Kattakishlak, Registan, Zebiniso, Kaftarkhona, Uzbankinty.

Local
Samarqand has a strong public-transport system. From Soviet times up through today, municipal buses and taxis (GAZ-21, GAZ-24, GAZ-3102, VAZ-2101, VAZ-2106 and VAZ-2107) have operated in Samarqand. Buses, mostly SamAuto and Isuzu buses, are the most common and popular mode of transport in the city. Taxis, which are mostly Chevrolets and Daewoo sedans, are usually yellow in color. Since 2017, there have also been several Samarqandian tram lines, mostly Vario LF.S Czech trams. From the Soviet Era up until 2005, Samarqandians also got around via trolleybus. Finally, Samarqand has the so-called "Marshrutka," which are Daewoo Damas and GAZelle minibuses.

Until 1950, the main forms of transport in Samarqand were carriages and "arabas" with horses and donkeys. However, the city had a steam tram in 1924–1930, and there were more-modern trams in 1947–1973.

Air transport
In the north of the city is Samarqand International Airport, which was opened in the 1930s, under the Soviets. As of spring 2019, Samarqand International Airport has flights to Tashkent, Nukus, Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Yekaterinburg, Kazan, Istanbul, and Dushanbe; charter flights to other cities are also available.

Railway
Modern Samarqand is an important rail junction of Uzbekistan, and all national east–west railway routes pass through the city. The most important and longest of these is Tashkent–Kungrad. High-speed Tashkent–Samarkand high-speed rail line trains run between Tashkent, Samarqand, and Bukhara. Samarqand also has international railway connections: Saratov–Samarqand, Moscow–Samarqand, and Astana–Samarqand.

In 1879–1891, the Russian Empire built the Trans-Caspian Railway to facilitate its expansion into Central Asia. The railway originated in Krasnovodsk (now Turkmenbashi) on the Caspian Sea coast. Its terminus was originally Samarqand, whose station first opened in May 1888. However, a decade later, the railway was extended eastward to Tashkent and Andijan, and its name was changed to Central Asian Railways. Nonetheless, Samarqand remained one of the largest and most important stations of the Uzbek SSR and Soviet Central Asia.

International relations
Samarqand is twinned with:

 * 🇮🇳 Agra, India
 * 🇦🇫 Balkh, Afghanistan
 * 🇮🇩 Banda Aceh, Indonesia
 * 🇵🇪 Cusco, Peru
 * 🇱🇻 Jūrmala, Latvia
 * 🇹🇳 Kairouan, Tunisia
 * 🇹🇯 Khujand, Tajikistan
 * 🇷🇺 Krasnoyarsk, Russia
 * 🇵🇰 Lahore, Pakistan
 * 🇧🇪 Liège, Belgium
 * 🇹🇲 Mary, Turkmenistan
 * 🇹🇲 Merv, Turkmenistan
 * 🇲🇽 Mexico City, Mexico
 * 🇮🇳 New Delhi, India
 * 🇮🇷 Nishapur, Iran
 * 🇧🇬 Plovdiv, Bulgaria
 * 🇧🇷 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
 * 🇷🇺 Samara, Russia
 * 🇨🇳 Xi'an, China
 * 🇯🇵 Nara, Japan

Samarqand has friendly relations with:

 * 🇹🇷 Antalya, Turkey
 * 🇧🇾 Babruysk, Belarus
 * 🇩🇪 Bremen, Germany
 * 🇦🇺 Canberra, Australia
 * 🇹🇷 Eskişehir, Turkey
 * 🇮🇹 Florence, Italy
 * 🇰🇷 Gyeongju, South Korea
 * 🇹🇷 Istanbul, Turkey
 * 🇹🇷 İzmir, Turkey
 * 🇫🇷 Lyon, France
 * 🇺🇦 Lviv, Ukraine
 * 🇪🇸 Valencia, Spain

In Literature
In 2002, Nobel Laureate Wole Soyinka titled his collection of poetry Samarqand and Other Markets I've Known.

Notable people

 * Bakhtiyor Fazilov

General and cited references

 * Azim Malikov, "Cult of saints and shrines in the Samarqand province of Uzbekistan". International Journal of Modern Anthropology. No. 4. 2010, pp. 116–123.
 * Azim Malikov, "The politics of memory in Samarkand in post-Soviet period". International Journal of Modern Anthropology. (2018) Vol. 2. Issue No. 11. pp. 127–145.
 * Azim Malikov, "Sacred lineages of Samarqand: history and identity". Anthropology of the Middle East, Volume 15, Issue 1, Summer 2020, рp. 34–49.
 * Alexander Morrison, Russian Rule in Samarkand 1868–1910: A Comparison with British India (Oxford, OUP, 2008) (Oxford Historical Monographs).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Samarkand


text:
Santiago (disambiguation)

Santiago is the capital city of Chile.

Santiago may also refer to:

 * Four other notable cities often referred to as simply "Santiago":
 * Santiago de Compostela, Spain
 * Santiago de Cuba, Cuba
 * Santiago de los Caballeros, Dominican Republic
 * Santiago, Isabela, Philippines

Argentina

 * Santiago del Estero Province
 * Santiago del Estero, capital of the province

Brazil

 * Santiago, Rio Grande do Sul

Cape Verde

 * Santiago, Cape Verde

Chile

 * Santiago (commune)
 * Santiago Province, Chile
 * Santiago Metropolitan Region

Colombia

 * Santiago, Norte de Santander
 * Santiago, Putumayo
 * Santiago de Cali

Costa Rica

 * Santiago District, Palmares
 * Santiago District, Paraíso
 * Santiago District, Puriscal
 * Santiago District, San Rafael
 * Santiago District, San Ramón

Cuba

 * Santiago de Cuba Province
 * Santiago de Cuba, capital of the province
 * Battle of Santiago de Cuba
 * Santiago de las Vegas

Dominican Republic

 * Santiago Province (Dominican Republic)

Ecuador

 * Santiago de Guayaquil, coastal city
 * Santiago de Quito, 1534 Spanish settlement in Colta Canton, Chimborazo, moved north later that year and renamed San Francisco de Quito
 * Santiago Island (Galápagos)

Guatemala

 * Santiago Sacatepéquez, Guatemala
 * Santiago Atitlán, Guatemala, the capital of the Tz'utujil people in pre-Columbian times

Jamaica

 * Santiago, a Spanish possession that later became Jamaica
 * Spanish Town or Santiago de la Vega, Jamaica

Mexico

 * Querétaro City, Querétaro
 * Santiago el Pinar, Chiapas
 * Santiago, Nuevo León
 * Santiago, Baja California Sur
 * Santiago River (Eastern Mexico), a river of Veracruz
 * Santiago River (Mexico), the outlet of Lake Chapala and the longest river entirely in Mexico
 * Santiago Maravatío, Guanajuato
 * Santiago Tianguistenco, a city in the State of México
 * Santiago, Oaxaca (disambiguation), several places
 * Baluarte de Santiago, a fortification in Veracruz
 * Santiago Ixcuintla, a city in Nayarit

Nicaragua

 * León, Nicaragua or Santiago de los Caballeros de León

Panama

 * Santiago District, Veraguas, a district of Veraguas Province
 * Santiago (corregimiento), the seat of Santiago District
 * Santiago de Veraguas, the capital of Veraguas Province

Paraguay

 * Santiago, Paraguay, a town and district in Misiones Department

Peru

 * Santiago District, in Cusco Province of the Cusco Region
 * Santiago de Surco, a district of Lima
 * Santiago de Chuco, Santiago de Chuco District, a province of the La Libertad region
 * Santiago River (Peru), a tributary of the Marañón River

Philippines

 * Santiago, Agusan del Norte
 * Santiago, Ilocos Sur
 * Cape Santiago, a cape at the southwestern tip of Luzon
 * Santiago Island (Pangasinan), an island off of western Luzon

Portugal

 * Santiago (Lisbon), a parish in the municipality of Lisbon
 * Santiago (Tavira), a parish in the municipality of Tavira
 * Santiago do Cacém, a parish and a municipality in the Setúbal
 * Santiago de Piães, a parish in the municipality of Cinfães
 * Vale de Santiago, a parish in the municipality of Odemira
 * Santiago Maior (Beja), a parish in the municipality of Beja, Portugal

Puerto Rico

 * Santiago River (Puerto Rico), a short river in Naguabo
 * Caño de Santiago, a channel in Yabucoa, Puerto Rico

Spain

 * Santiago (Valdés), a parish in the municipality of Valdés, Asturias
 * Santiago (Sariego), a parish in the municipality of Sariego
 * Santiago (comarca), a comarca in the province of A Coruña
 * Santiago del Teide, Tenerife, Canary Islands
 * Playa Santiago, La Gomera, Canary Islands

Taiwan

 * Cape Santiago (Taiwan), a cape at the northeastern tip of Taiwan

United States

 * Santiago, West Virginia
 * Santiago Canyon, California
 * Santiago Peak, a mountain in Orange County, California
 * Santiago High School (Garden Grove, California), Garden Grove, California
 * Santiago High School (Corona, California), Corona, California
 * Santiago Township, Sherburne County, Minnesota
 * Santiago, Minnesota, an unincorporated community
 * Santiago, Pennsylvania, an unincorporated community

Uruguay

 * Montevideo or San Felipe y Santiago de Montevideo

Venezuela

 * Santiago de León de Caracas
 * Santiago de Los Caballeros de Mérida, Venezuela

People

 * Santiago (name), a Spanish given name
 * Santiago (surname)
 * James the Great (Santiago), one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus
 * Santiago (footballer, born 1976), full name Elisandro Naressi Roos, Brazilian footballer
 * Santiago (footballer, born 1980), full name Petrony Santiago de Barros, Brazilian footballer
 * Santiago (footballer, born 1984), full name Rafael Santiago Maria, Brazilian footballer

Ships

 * Santiago (caravel), one of the ships of the Magellan Expedition
 * Santiago (1551), a supply ship of the Spanish Armada that wrecked south of Bergen, Norway, in 1588
 * Santiago (1856), a British barque, now in the Garden Island Ships' Graveyard near Port Adelaide, Australia
 * Santiago, an American schooner barge that operated with the SS Appomattox until its wreck

Media and entertainment

 * Santiago (album), a 1996 album by The Chieftains
 * Santiago (band), an American indie/punk band
 * "Santiago", a song by Loreena McKennitt from The Mask and Mirror
 * Santiago (1956 film), an American film directed by Gordon Douglas
 * Santiago (2007 film), a Brazilian film directed by João Moreira Salles

Other uses

 * Santiago City FC, a Chilean association football club
 * Santiago (genus), a genus of Eucerine bees
 * Santiago (horse), racehorse, winner of the 2020 Irish Derby
 * Santiago (The Vampire Chronicles), in Anne Rice's novel Interview with the Vampire
 * Santiago (volleyball club), a women's team in Santiago, Dominican Republic
 * ¡Santiago!, a shortened form of the Reconquista battle cry "Santiago y cierra, España"
 * Order of Santiago, a Spanish knightly order
 * Tarta de Santiago, an almond cake or pie from Spain with origin in the Middle Ages
 * A nickname for the version 6 beta of the Red Hat Enterprise Linux operating system
 * Santiaogou Republic, an historical Chinese kongsi federation in Borneo, sometimes spelled "Santiago Republic"

title: Santiago (disambiguation)


text:
Talk:Colorado

Article issues
This article is assessed as B-class. Part of the criteria is: The article is suitably referenced, with inline citations. It has reliable sources, and any important or controversial material which is likely to be challenged is cited. There are several unsourced sub-sections that surely should be referenced since they go beyond "the sky is blue". Otr500 (talk) 23:32, 27 August 2022 (UTC)

 * Not anymore. Wow (talk) 01:23, 7 August 2023 (UTC)

Shouldn't abortion be mentioned?
Is any of this actually WP: Undue?

While abortion law may not merit mention pre-Dobbs, it seems obvious to me that abortion law now merits mention in state's articles. KlayCax (talk) 23:15, 6 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Colorado's abortion law history has already long been in the article. It is not a crucial aspect of the state. ~ Pbritti (talk) 23:20, 6 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Thanks for responding, . I'm aware that there was a general agreement to generally not include mention of abortion (particularly in leads) pre-Dobbs. However, that agreement was reached in circumstances far different than today. I want to note that I don't think abortion should be mentioned in every article. But Colorado legalizing abortion at every stage of pregnancy is notable (and not typical of the U.S.) — and has been been frequently mentioned in profiles of the state.
 * I would only mention abortion in around 10-15% of present state articles. (Those with near-total bans and legal at every stage of pregnancy) That doesn't seem undue to me. KlayCax (talk) 23:26, 6 April 2023 (UTC)
 * You're unilaterally changing consensus without consulting subject-matter experts on multiple state articles. Colorado is notable for a wide variety of reasons that don't bear mention in the lead. Many of these articles such as Colorado's, already mentioned their exceptional legal practices regarding abortion (going both ways) but you've added whole independent sections on the subject. You acted boldly, but these edits need to stop until you have a consensus to support this change in standard. ~ Pbritti (talk) 23:45, 6 April 2023 (UTC)
 * What do you think of this?
 * State's laws on abortion are mentioned in every article's body.
 * Abortion law is only mentioned in the lead of a state's article if:
 * 1.) It is legal at all stages of pregnancy (Colorado, Alaska, New Mexico, New Jeresy, Vermont)
 * 2.) There are near-total bans with no exceptions for rape, incest, et al. (Wisconsin, South Dakota, several other states in Deep South.)
 * 3.) Precendent setting (Idaho's "abortion trafficking" bill, Texas's Heartbeat Act, et al.)
 * I think guidelines similar to this would be an improvement on the status quo. Mentions of abortion would still be limited to a small minority of states; with Dobbs overturned, it seems to me WP: Due. KlayCax (talk) 00:07, 7 April 2023 (UTC)
 * You probably need to get consensus from each individual state's regular editors or from a community like WikiProject United States. Of these, perhaps only Texas bears mention in an encyclopedic lead. For what it's worth, these sorts of things are also covered far better and with the gravity they are due in other articles not exclusively on abortion (for example, List of Colorado ballot measures). These broad-stroke edits to relatively stable pages need far more nuance than has been exhibited. ~ Pbritti (talk) 00:12, 7 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Would you personally be okay with it being mentioned in Colorado's article's lead?
 * Would a RFC be appropriate here? If so, I'm not sure where to exactly have it. This article? I'm not typically involved with Wikiprojects. I'll definitely ask, though. Thanks. KlayCax (talk) 00:17, 7 April 2023 (UTC)

Yeah, an RFC is probably a good idea (on all of these). I highly doubt you're the only one who feels the way you do (I feel pretty strongly that, save for Texas, these mentions are undue). I think a single RFC at WikiProject US with notices on the relevant state articles and perhaps invitations to other WikiProjects is the way to go (I can help ensure cast a suitably wide and even net). ~ Pbritti (talk) 00:25, 7 April 2023 (UTC)

 * Creating one now, . KlayCax (talk) 00:52, 7 April 2023 (UTC)

Colorado River and the state's name
The state of Colorado is not named for the Colorado River. While this seems like a simple enough explanation of the state's name–similar region, same meaning, same people doing the naming, etc.–the origins of the state's name are not usually described in modern reliable sources beyond that it is the Spanish word for "red" and "ruddy" (see Britannica and Colorado Encyclopedia). Two years ago, I asked History Colorado this question in order to put the matter to bed. Most of the 26 August 2021 response from Sam Bock, then a public historian and exhibit developer at History Colorado, is provided below (I've removed the polite greeting and send off from the email):

From what I understand, you are correct that the state's name did not come from the river, which was known as the Grand River until after Colorado was named.

I'm not sure that History Colorado has any documentation for this account, but I've always understood that the founders of Colorado Springs (previously called Colorado City) sent two lobbyists to Washington DC in the years leading up to statehood to propose the name "Colorado" for the territory as they thought it would boost tourism and migration to their town. The Colorado in "Colorado City" appears to have come from the spanish for the red rocks around CO Springs.

Dorothy Aldridge has a book on Colorado City that may have more information.

I hope we can put this persistent (and oft-repeated) misconception to bed. ~ Pbritti (talk) 22:31, 1 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Thanks to IP who corrected the incorrect material added during these revisions. Please discuss on talk and provide sourcing that substantiates claims. ~ Pbritti (talk) 21:28, 6 June 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Colorado