text:
1325

Year 1325 (MCCCXXV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

January – March

 * January 7 – Afonso IV becomes the new King of Portugal upon the death of his father, King Denis I.
 * February 1 – Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq is murdered after a 5-year reign at Kara-Manikpur. He is succeeded by his son Muhammad bin Tughluq (Juna Khan) as ruler of the Delhi Sultanate.
 * March 9 – Queen Isabella of England, wife of King Edward II of England and sister of King Charles IV of France, departs from England on a mission to Paris to mediate an end to the war between the two kingdoms. She is directed to return to England by midsummer.
 * March 12 – At the age of 11, Valdemar III becomes the new ruler of the Duchy of Schleswig upon the death of his father, Eric II, Duke of Schleswig.
 * March 13
 * The Treaty of Trausnitz is signed between the Duchy of Austria and the Kingdom of Bavaria. Austria's ruler, Frederick the Fair, is released from Trausnitz Castle, where he has been imprisoned for two and a half years by Ludwig the Bavarian, King of Germany, since his defeat in the Battle of Mühldorf in 1322.
 * (approximate date) – Tenochtitlan, the predecessor of Mexico City, is founded by the Mexica, led by Tenoch, on an island in Lake Texcoco.
 * March 31 – A truce is signed between King Edward II of England (who is also Duke of Aquitaine within France) and King Charles IV of France to end the War of Saint-Sardos. Under terms negotiated by England's Queen Isabella (who is King Edward's wife and King Charles's sister), Edward cedes Agenais (part of modern-day France's Lot-et-Garonne département) and pledges to swear homage to King Charles from then on as a condition of keeping the rest of Aquitaine. England is allowed to reclaim Ponthieu and the Duchy of Gascony if Edward will come to Paris to pay him homage. Isabella, unhappy with her marriage to Edward, remains in France indefinitely.

April – June

 * April 20 – Elizabeth de Comyn, daughter of the late Guardian of Scotland, John Comyn III of Badenoch, is forced to sign away her title to her properties in England at Painswick and at Goodrich Castle to Hugh Despenser the Elder after being kidnapped in 1324 and imprisoned in England at Pirbright.
 * May 5 – The Istrian Demarcation, setting out the boundaries of disputed Italian territories in the Adriatic Sea peninsula of Istria (part of the modern-day Republic of Croatia), and confirms the agreement between the independent Italian states of Aquileia, Gorizia, and the Venetian Republic. The document is published in three languages (Latin, German and Croatian).
 * May 10 – Pope John XXII issues a papal bull to King Robert of Naples and to Charles, Duke of Calabria demanding the imprisonment of the Fraticelli in Naples and their leader, Fra Enrico da Ceva. The demand, and several subsequent admonitions, is ignored by Robert and Charles.
 * May 20 – Led by Michael of Cesena, the Michaelites, a French branch of the Spiritual Franciscans who have been accused of heresy within the Roman Catholic Church in a disagreement over the issue of a vow of poverty, assemble at Lyon in France and agree to make peace with the Church and to make no further disrespectful references to Pope John XXII.
 * May 24 – In Germany, Henry II, Lord of Mecklenburg cedes the territories of Prignitz and the Uckermark to the Margraviate of Brandenburg in an unfavorable peace treaty signed at Daber (modern-day Dobra Nowogardzka in Poland).
 * June 5 – At Stuttgart in Germany, Ulrich III becomes the new Count of Württemberg upon the death of his father, Eberhard I.
 * June 14 – (2 Rajab 725 AH) Ibn Battuta, Moroccan scholar and explorer, sets off from his hometown of Tangier on a hajj, or pilgrimage, to Mecca. En route, he travels to Tlemcen, Béjaïa and Tunis, where he stays for two months. For safety, Ibn Battuta joins a caravan to reduce the risk of being robbed. Underway, he takes a bride in Sfax, but soon leaves her due to a dispute with her father. Traveling more than any other explorer before the modern era, he will travel an estimated 73000 mi over the next 30 years, more than twice as much as Zheng He in the 15th century and three times as far as Marco Polo in the 14th century.
 * June 22 – Ismail, Sultan of Granada, begins the siege of Martos in the Spanish Kingdom of Castile, but loses control of his troops, who pillage the city after two weeks.

July – September

 * July 8 – (26 Rajab 725 AH) Sultan Ismail I is murdered in his palace, the Alhambra, after a 9-year reign. The attackers are captured and beheaded. Ismail is succeeded by his 10-year-old son Muhammad IV, who becomes the new ruler of the Emirate of Granada. Vizier Muhammad ibn al-Mahruq, serving as wakil (or regent), quarrels for control of the young sultan's government.
 * August 7 – Battle of Varey: The 16-year-old Guigues VIII, local ruler (dauphin) of Vienne, defeats the Savoyard forces at Saint-Jean-le-Vieux. During the battle, a Burgundian cavalry charge is repulsed and is forced back to the Savoyard camp. With the assistance of the Varey garrison, Guigues pillages the camp and takes John I, Count of Auxerre, prisoner.
 * August 11 – At Valladolid, Alfonso XI reaches the age of 14 and is proclaimed by the Cortes to have full power as the King of Castile.
 * September 12 – Edward II is persuaded not to go to France by Hugh Despenser the Elder, his chief adviser. He decides to send his 12-year-old son, Prince Edward of Windsor, to go to Paris and to pay homage instead. Before the young Edward departs, he is bestowed with the title of Count of Ponthieu. Charles IV gives his consent for him to receive the English Aquitaine.
 * September 21 – Isabella of France conspires with the exiled Roger Mortimer to have Edward II deposed. To build up diplomatic and military support, Isabella has Edward of Windsor engaged to the 12-year-old Philippa of Hainault. She is the daughter of Count William the Good of Hainaut, who is married to Joan of Valois, granddaughter of the late King Philip III of France.
 * September 24 – Edward, Prince of Wales pays homage to King Charles IV of France on behalf of his father, King Edward II of England.

October – December

 * October 10 – King Edward II calls for representatives of the three estates (including the knights representative) to meet at Westminster for a session of the English Parliament, beginning on November 18 to discuss the matter of the failure of his wife, Queen Isabella, to return from France.
 * October 18 – King Edward II sends a letter to Pope John XXII (who is in Avignon in France), expressing deep concern for Queen Isabella's failure to return home from Paris.
 * November 15 – War of the Bucket: At the Battle of Zappolino in northern Italy, the 7,000-man Ghibelline forces backed by the Holy Roman Empire defeat the much stronger (32,000-men) Guelph army under sent by Pope John XXII near Bologna. After the battle, Ghibelline influence in the region is consolidated.
 * November 21 – Yuri III Danilovich, Grand Duke of Moscow, is assassinated by Dmitry of Tver, Grand Duke of Vladimir, nicknamed "the Terrible Eyes". Yuri's younger brother, Iván I Danilovich Kalitá, the Grand Duke of Vladimir, inherits Yuri's throne and relocates the spiritual capital of the Russian people to Moscow by directing the Metropolitan Peter to move his episcopal see from Kiev. The decision of both Ivan and Peter to relocate gradually makes Moscow the political center of Russia.
 * December 1 – King Edward II of England makes one final attempt to save his marriage to Queen Isabella, and sends her a letter ordering her to return from France to England immediately, writing that "Oftentimes have we informed you, both before an after the homage, of our great desire to have you with us, and of our grief of heart at your long absence," and adds that he is aware of her affair with Roger Mortimer and that "ceasing from all pretenses, delays and excuses, you come to us with all the haste you can." She declines to come back.
 * December 16 – Charles, Count of Valois, uncle of King Charles IV of France and heir apparent to the throne, dies at the age of 55 at Nogent-le-Roi, leaving his son Philip as heir to the throne.

Births

 * May 12 – Rupert II, German nobleman and count palatine (d. 1398)
 * September 29 – Francesco I da Carrara, Italian nobleman (d. 1393)
 * date unknown
 * Abraham Cresques, Majorcan Jewish cartographer (d. 1387)
 * Antonio Pavoni, Italian priest and inquisitor-general (d. 1374)
 * Barnim IV of Pomerania, Polish nobleman and ruler (d. 1365)
 * Ch'oe Mu-sŏn, Korean scientist and military leader (d. 1395)
 * Egidiola Gonzaga, Italian noblewoman and heiress (d. 1377)
 * Eleanor of Sicily, Sicilian noblewoman and queen (d. 1375)
 * Gerhard VI, German nobleman (House of Jülich) (d. 1360)
 * Gidō Shūshin, Japanese monk and spiritual teacher (d. 1388)
 * Henry of Langenstein, German theologian and writer (d. 1397)
 * Inês de Castro, Galician noblewoman and mistress (d. 1355)
 * Johanna I, Italian queen-regnant (House of Anjou) (d. 1382)
 * Margaret the Barefooted, Italian woman and saint (d. 1395)
 * Pandolfo II Malatesta, Italian nobleman and knight (d. 1373)
 * Robert Hales, English Lord Treasurer and admiral (d. 1381)
 * Stephen of Montfaucon, French nobleman and knight (d. 1397)
 * Yongsan, Korean nobleman, prince and heir apparent (d. 1341)
 * Zain al-Din al-'Iraqi, Persian scholar, jurist and writer (d. 1403)

Deaths

 * January 7 – Denis I, King of Portugal (b. 1261)
 * January 20 – John Hastings, English nobleman and ruler (b. 1287)
 * March 12 – Eric II, German nobleman (House of Estridsen) (b. 1290)
 * March 17 – Gérard de Vuippens, Italian cleric, diplomat and bishop
 * March 20 – William Ferrers, English nobleman and knight (b. 1272)
 * April 3 – Nizamuddin Auliya, Indian scholar (b. 1238)
 * April 5 – Ralph de Monthermer, English nobleman and peerage
 * June 5 – Eberhard the Illustrious, Count of Württemberg, German nobleman (b. 1265)
 * June 23 – Chungseon of Goryeo (Wang Jang), Korean prince (b. 1275)
 * July 6 – John Salmon, English cleric, Lord Chancellor and bishop
 * July 8 – Ismail I, Nasrid ruler of the Emirate of Granada (b. 1279)
 * September 1 – John Segrave, English nobleman and seneschal
 * September 29 – Keizan Jōkin, Japanese Zen Master (b. 1268)
 * November 7 – Ichijō Uchitsune, Japanese court noble (b. 1291)
 * November 21 – Yuri III Danilovich, Russian Grand Prince (b. 1281)
 * December 16 – Charles of Valois, French nobleman (b. 1270)
 * December 28 – Al-Allama al-Hilli, Persian theologian (b. 1250)
 * date unknown
 * Alice de Toeni, English noblewoman and heiress (b. 1284)
 * Amir Khusrau, Indian musician, poet and scholar (b. 1253)
 * Baybars al-Mansuri, Mamluk historian and writer (b. 1245)
 * Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq, Indian ruler of the Delhi Sultanate
 * Hugh de Audley, English nobleman and knight (b. 1276)
 * Princess Joguk (Borjigin Jintong), Korean princess of Goryeo (b. 1308)
 * Nasir al-Din Shahriyar, Baduspanid nobleman and ruler
 * Nikodim I, Serbian monk-scribe, bishop and archbishop
 * Pierre Le Tessier, French monk, abbot and cardinal-priest
 * Regnaud de La Porte, French cardinal-priest and bishop
 * Richard Willoughby, English landowner, lawyer and judge
 * Robert de Umfavile, English nobleman and knight (b. 1277)
 * Stefan Vladislav II, Serbian nobleman and claimant (b. 1280)
 * Thomas de Dundee, Scottish chaplain, prelate and bishop
 * Vitslav III, Danish nobleman and prince (House of Wizlaw)
 * William de Meones, English cleric, judge and Chief Baron

title: 1325


text:
1327

Year 1327 (MCCCXXVII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

January – March

 * January 13 – In Spain, Marinid Prince Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula, who started an uprising the year before against the Emirate of Granada and its ruler Muhammad IV, arrives at Almería and proceeds to enlist Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Abi Sa'id, Muhammad IV's uncle, to be installed as the new Emir, with the name al-Qa'im bi-amr Allah.
 * January 20 – Imprisoned at Warwickshire, King Edward II of England is forced to abdicate by his estranged wife, Queen Isabella, and her lover, Roger Mortimer.
 * January 25 – The 14-year-old Crown Prince, Edward, is proclaimed King of England in London, with his mother Isabella serving as his regent.

 * February 1 – The coronation of King Edward III as ruler of England takes place at Westminster Abbey with the approval of the English Parliament. Walter Reynolds, Archbishop of Canterbury, places the crown upon the new King.
 * February 5 – (1st waning of Kason 684 ME, Burmese calendar) In Burma (now Myanmar), Tarabya I becomes the new King of Sagaing, located in northern Myanmar on the Irrawaddy River with a capital in the city of Sagaing. Tarabya succeeds his brother, upon the death of his brother, King Saw Yun, despite the fact that Saw Yun has an heir, Prince Kyaswa.
 * February 8 – At Opava (now in the Czech Republic), the Polish Silesian noble Casimir I, Duke of Cieszyn swears homage to the King of Bohemia, John the Blind. In return, Casimir is granted Auschwitz as a fiefdom on February 23.
 * February 13
 * King Charles I of Hungary and King John of Bohemia sign an alliance agreement at Nagyszombat in Bohemia (now Trnava in the Republic of Slovakia), to proceed against the Austrian Habsburgs who occupy Pressburg (now Bratislava, capital of Slovakia).
 * In Bavaria, a large fire breaks out in Munich and is not brought under control for two days. One-third of the buildings in the city are destroyed.
 * February 19 – Other Silesian nobles follow the example of Casimir of Cieszyn at Opava and swear homage to King John of Bohemia, including the Piast nobles Leszek of Racibórz, Siemowit of Bytom and George of Bytom.
 * March 31 – King Charles IV of France makes a peace treaty with England, he returns Aquitaine and Gascony to English rule. Charles receives 50,000 livres and has seized all the English possessions in France. The territories of Limousin, Quercy and Périgord county come under French control.

April – June

 * April 4 – In the civil war in Granada, Prince Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula captures the fortress of Laujar de Andarax (now in the Almeria province of Spain).
 * April 5 – Edward II is moved to Berkeley Castle in Gloucestershire. He is kept under the custody of Roger Mortimer's son-in-law, Thomas Berkeley and John Maltravers – who are given £5.00 a day to look after Edward and despite records showing luxury goods being bought for him. Edward is possibly mistreated by his captives.
 * April 6 (Good Friday) – Francesco Petrarca, Italian scholar and poet, sees a woman he names Laura (possibly Laura de Noves) in the church of Sainte-Claire d'Avignon, which awakes in him a lasting passion. He writes a series of sonnets and other poems in Italian dedicated to her, which are collected into Il Canzoniere, an influential model for Renaissance culture.
 * May 31 – In Milan, Ludwig the Bavarian, King of the Romans, becomes the first King of Italy since 1313, when Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor had died. Ludwig is enthroned as King Ludovico IV, the third king with that name (Louis the Blind had ruled as Ludovico III from 900 to 905).
 * June 21 – Queen Ingeborg of Norway marries the Danish nobleman Canute Porse the Elder, but is deposed from political power in Norway.

July – September

 * July 4 – During a banquet given by Galeazzo I Visconti in Milan, an attempt is apparently made to poison the guest of honor, Ludwig the Bavarian, newly crowned as King of Italy. Galeazzo's brother, Stefano Visconti, becomes ill after tasting food and drink intended for Ludwig and dies suddenly at home. Stefano's brothers Galeazzo, Giovanni, and Luchino, along with his nephew Azzone Visconti, are all imprisoned on orders of the Holy Roman Emperor based on accusations of a fourth brother, Marco Visconti.
 * August 25 – Demasq Kaja, Viceroy of Azerbaijan and of Iraq in the Ilkhanate, the Mongol Empire's area of control in the Middle East, is killed in Soltaniyeh after trying to escape arrest on orders of the Ilkhan, Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan. Abu Sa'id had concluded that Demasq's father, Amir Chūpān, was attempting to take over the Ilkhanate.
 * September 21 – Less than a year after his arrest, the former King of England, Edward II, is brutally murdered in Berkeley Castle in Gloucestershire.

October – December

 * October 23 – Pope John XXII condemns Marsilius of Padua's 1324 treatise Defensor pacis (The Defender of Peace). The excommunicated Marsilius flees to Germany and seeks protection at the court of King Louis the Bavarian. John also excommunicates Louis and demands that he relinquishes his claim to the imperial crown.
 * October 27 – Elizabeth de Burgh, Queen consort of Scotland as the wife of King Robert the Bruce, is fatally injured when she falls from her horse while traveling with her entourage to Cullen Castle in Banffshire.
 * November 5 – At Barcelona, Prince Alfonso the Kind becomes the new King of Aragon upon the death of his father, King Jaime II, and is enthroned as King Alfonso IV.
 * December 11 – Simon Mepeham is elected as England's new Archbishop of Canterbury as the candidate of the Earl of Lancaster leader of the regency council. Mepeham defeats the candidate supported by Queen Isabella and Roger Mortimer, and soon works with King Edward III to end Mortimer's power in England.
 * December 18 – Pope John XXII appoints 10 new Roman Catholic cardinals, the most during his papacy, including Jacques Fournier, who will succeed Pope John as Pope Benedict XII in 1334.
 * December 20 – The late King Edward II of England is buried in the Gloucester Cathedral in Gloucestershire, three months after his death.
 * December 22 – Ala ud-Din Timurtash, the Viceroy for Anatolia within the Ilkhanate of the Middle East, and the brother of Demasq Kaja, learns that the Ilkhan Abu Sa'id had arranged for the execution of Demasq. Fearing for his own safety, Timurtash decides to leave and eventually flees to Egypt, but will be executed there on August 12, 1328.

Literature

 * Richard of Wallingford, English cleric and abbot, describes the construction of an astronomical clock in his Tractatus Horologii Astronomici.

Trade and Transport

 * In China, the Grand Canal, which runs from Beijing to Hangzhou over a distance of 1,800 km, is completed.

Births

 * June – Malatesta Ungaro, Italian condottiero (d. 1372)
 * October 30 – Andrew, Duke of Calabria (d. 1345)
 * date unknown
 * Charles de La Cerda, Franco-Spanish soldier (d. 1354)
 * Elizabeth le Despenser, Baroness Berkeley, English noble (d. 1389)
 * Demetrius I Starshy, Prince of Trubczewsk (d. 1399)
 * Birger Gregersson, Archbishop of Uppsala (d. 1383)
 * Baldus de Ubaldis, Italian jurist (d. 1400)
 * probable – William Douglas, 1st Earl of Douglas, Scottish nobleman (d. 1384)

Deaths

 * January 16 – Nikephoros Choumnos, Byzantine scholar and statesman (b. 1250 or 1255)
 * January 29 – Adolf, Count Palatine of the Rhine (b. 1300)
 * March 15 – Albert of Schwarzburg, German grand preceptor of the Knights Hospitaller
 * April 9 – Walter Stewart, 6th High Steward of Scotland (b. 1293)
 * May 28 – Robert Baldock, Lord Privy Seal and Lord Chancellor of England
 * May 29 – Jens Grand, Danish archbishop (b. c. 1260)
 * July 4 – Stefano Visconti, Milanese nobleman
 * August 25 – Demasq Kaja, Ilkhanate member of the Chobanid Family
 * September 1 – Foulques de Villaret, French Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller
 * September 21 – Edward Caernarfon, former King of England (b. 1284)
 * September 26 – Cecco d'Ascoli, Italian encyclopaedist, physician and poet (b. 1257)
 * October 20 – Teresa d'Entença, Countess of Urgell (b. 1300)
 * October 27 – Elizabeth de Burgh, queen of Robert the Bruce
 * November – Chupan, Chobanid prince of the Ilkhanate
 * November 2 or November 5 – King James II of Aragon (b. 1267)
 * December 19 – Agnes of France, Duchess of Burgundy
 * date unknown
 * Thomas Cobham, Bishop of Worcester
 * Constantine I of Imereti
 * David of Hrodna, Lithuanian military leader
 * Vital du Four, French theologian (b. 1260)
 * Walter Reynolds, Archbishop of Canterbury
 * Sir Richard de Exeter, Anglo-Irish knight
 * probable – Bartholomew of Lucca, Italian historian

In fiction

 * The action of Umberto Eco's novel The Name of the Rose (Il Nome della Rosa, 1980) takes place during this year.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 1327


text:
1328

Year 1328 (MCCCXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Events

 * January 17 – Louis the Bavarian is crowned Emperor at Rome's St. Peter's Basilica. Being excommunicated by the Pope, the ceremony is carried out by three Italian bishops.
 * January 24 – Philippa of Hainault marries King Edward III of England a year after his coronation. The marriage produces ten children, the eldest of whom is Edward the Black Prince.
 * May 1 – Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton: England recognises Scotland as an independent nation, after the Wars of Scottish Independence.
 * May 12 – Antipope Nicholas V is consecrated at St. Peter's Basilica in Rome by the bishop of Venice.
 * May 26 – William of Ockham secretly leaves Avignon, under threat from Pope John XXII.
 * May 29 – King Philip VI of France is crowned, founding the House of Valois, after the death of King Charles IV of France, who has no sons to inherit.
 * August 23 – Battle of Cassel: French troops stop an uprising of Flemish farmers.
 * Undated – The Augustiner-Bräu is first recorded as the brewery of an Augustinian monastery at Munich.

Births

 * April 1 – Blanche of France, Duchess of Orléans (d. 1393)
 * May 7 – Louis VI the Roman, Duke of Bavaria and Elector of Brandenburg (d. 1365)
 * June 25 – William de Montagu, 2nd Earl of Salisbury, English military leader (d. 1397)
 * September 29 – Joan of Kent, princess of Wales, spouse of Edward the Black Prince (d. 1385)
 * October 9 – King Peter I of Cyprus (d. 1369)
 * October 21 – Hongwu Emperor of China (d. 1398)
 * November 11 – Roger Mortimer, 2nd Earl of March, English military leader (d. 1360)
 * November 25 – Antipope Benedict XIII, born Pedro Martínez de Luna (d. 1423)
 * date unknown
 * Archibald Douglas, 3rd Earl of Douglas ("Archibald the Grim", "Black Archibald"), Scottish magnate and warrior (d. 1400)
 * Emperor Go-Murakami of Japan (d. 1368)

Deaths

 * February 1 – King Charles IV of France (b. 1294)
 * August 15 – Yesün Temür, emperor of the Yuan dynasty (b. 1293)
 * August 23 – Nicolaas Zannekin, Flemish peasant leader (in the battle of Cassel)
 * September 26 – Ibn Taymiyyah, Islamic scholar and philosopher of Harran (b. 1263)
 * October 12 (or 13) – Clementia of Hungary, Queen consort of France and Navarre (b. 1293)
 * November 16 – Prince Hisaaki, Japanese shōgun (b. 1276)
 * date unknown
 * Meister Eckhart, German theologian (b. 1260)
 * Andronikos Angelos Palaiologos, Byzantine nobleman and governor (b. ca. 1282)

title: 1328


text:
Talk:Marcus Junius Brutus

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Proposed name of article
A discussion has been occurring at WikiProject Classical Greece and Rome over the best title for this article, which, if memory serves, used to be at "Marcus Junius Brutus the Younger" and is currently at "Brutus the Younger". After some debate, I think we're probably closing in on a consensus, but for the sake of completeness I think the matter should be decided here, so that people with this page on their watchlists will have the opportunity to weigh in, and so there's a record of the discussion on the article's talk page. Given the article's history and the options under discussion at CGR, the choices seem to be, in alphabetical order:

 * 1) Brutus, on the argument that he was the most famous/important person of the name;
 * 2) Brutus (Caesar's assassin), similar in disambiguation format to some other articles on Wikipedia;
 * 3) Brutus the Younger, the article's current title, on the theory that he needs a little more disambiguation to distinguish him from the other Junii Bruti, as well as pop culture references;
 * 4) Marcus Junius Brutus, the tria nomina, on the theory that he is at least the most famous/important Marcus Junius Brutus;
 * 5) Marcus Junius Brutus (Caesar's assassin), providing more disambiguation to distinguish him from all other persons with the same name; and
 * 6) Marcus Junius Brutus the Younger, the article's former title.

I suggest we indicate our preferences below this comment, keeping them as succinct as possible. P Aculeius (talk) 15:06, 7 November 2019 (UTC)
 * You could have also added Brutus (Caesar's assassin), like the number of other "Brutus (...)" articles on WP. T8612  (talk) 20:07, 7 November 2019 (UTC)
 * Apologies, will add that as an option. Renumbering the replies accordingly.  P Aculeius (talk) 20:50, 7 November 2019 (UTC)

 * I like option 4, Marcus Junius Brutus, since it's clear, concise, and consistent with our usual article title policy for Romans; I don't think that 1, 2, or 3 are adequate given the number of Junii Bruti who were equally or more historically significant, and because Decimus Brutus was one of the principals in the assassination; but as this is the most significant Marcus Brutus, I don't think the additional disambiguation in 5 or 6 is necessary. P Aculeius (talk) 15:06, 7 November 2019 (UTC)
 * "more historically significant" doesn't really matter when it comes to Wikipedia notability or what someones COMMONNAME in sources is. There's a reason there are hundreds of paintings, statues, plays and books about Marcus Brutus (often called just Brutus), and zero of Decimus.★Trekker (talk) 19:51, 8 November 2019 (UTC)

 * I like option 4, Marcus Junius Brutus, to give his full name. And I doubt that he is the most famous Brutus. Dimadick (talk) 19:52, 7 November 2019 (UTC)
 * Who would be then? I have a hard time thiking that if I talked to some random people outside of Wikipedia they'd even be able to name Decimus or Lucius Brutus.★Trekker (talk) 19:51, 8 November 2019 (UTC)

 * Brutus To me clearly the most famous person by the name and as far as I've been able to find it's increadibly common to refer to his as just "Brutus". I have already made my argument in detail on the Ancient Rome and Greece project page where I cited a mass of books.★Trekker (talk) 19:51, 8 November 2019 (UTC)
 * This is supposed to be a simple poll of the options, not a complete rehash of the topic from the other page by the same people. Can we please try to limit the arguments instead of replying separately to every comment that somebody else leaves?  P Aculeius (talk) 20:19, 8 November 2019 (UTC)
 * I don't really see the what help this is going to be of if it's only goint to be a poll, it's just attracting the same crowd that is at the WikiProject. The best thing to do would be to ask for input from more people, possibly admins or those in charge of naming conventions on Wikipedia. This discussion so far seems to be very split.★Trekker (talk) 15:00, 20 November 2019 (UTC)
 * For one thing, this is the best place for any discussion that might decide the matter; otherwise people seeking clarification about the reasons for the page move wouldn't find them on the talk page. Not everybody in CGR watches this page, and not everyone involved with this page checks CGR talk.  That's why I clearly linked the two at the beginning of this discussion and the ending of that one.  However, as the topic was raised nearly four weeks ago and was discussed vigorously there before being brought here almost two weeks ago, I think we've got as much participation as we're likely to see in the short term from people interested in the title of this page.  As for whether it's "very split", we only have two potential titles on the table: one is supported by two editors and opposed by twice that many; the other is supported by four editors and opposed by one.  So opinion is clearly leaning in one direction.  Just as importantly, a closely divided opinion would be more important if leaving the article at its present title were an option; but nobody has spoken in support of the present title, so the question isn't whether a majority of all editors who've weighed in favour a particular option (although it looks as though there may be a majority), but which option has the strongest support.  The topic is still open for a couple more days if other editors who haven't yet voiced an opinion want to.  P Aculeius (talk) 16:07, 20 November 2019 (UTC)

 * I mildly prefer 4, Marcus Junius Brutus. I gave some reasons at the project talk page. Andrew Dalby 09:43, 9 November 2019 (UTC)

It's been a week (and a day), with no new replies in nearly a week. Before closing this I'll summarize the current opinions from both here and the CGR talk page, and ask if anybody else wants to weigh in (updated 19 November).

 * 1) First, there seems to be a consensus that the present title, Brutus the Younger, is not ideal.  The most that could be said of it was when Septentrionalis asked if it wasn't the common name; nobody has spoken in favour of keeping it here.  Nobody has expressed any preference for the old title, Marcus Junius Brutus the Younger, either.
 * 2) In favour of Brutus as the title, we have ★Trekker and Furius as "yes" votes.  There are also three or four people who think that this is too vague: me, Andrew Dalby, T8612, and if I interpret his comment at CGR correctly, Llywrch.
 * 3) In favour of Marcus Junius Brutus, Dimadick, Andrew Dalby, T8612, and I have indicated that this is our preference, so four "yesses".  ★Trekker is opposed.
 * 4) Marcus Junius Brutus (Caesar's assassin) was proposed by T8612, who reminded me to include it as an option here.  So there's one definite "yes".  I would support this as an alternative to the present title or to Brutus, which makes two "yesses".  Nobody specifically opposed this, but I'm sure that ★Trekker would not agree with this option.

Septentrionalis did not express a clear preference; nor did Llywrch, except that he did not like Brutus. Based on these results, I would say we don't have a strong consensus for which title to move the article to, but a small majority prefers the tria nomina. So, why don't we leave this open for another week, in case somebody else wants to have a say, or someone has changed his or her mind, and if we still have the same basic outcome in a week's time, move the article to Marcus Junius Brutus. P Aculeius (talk) 13:35, 15 November 2019 (UTC)
 * I don't really like "Brutus" alone and have nothing against Marcus Junius Brutus; I therefore support the latter to build a consensus and change the current title. T8612  (talk) 15:12, 15 November 2019 (UTC)
 * Another argument in favour of Marcus Junius Brutus that hasn't already been made is that the vast majority of other language wikis use this form. T8612  (talk) 18:37, 15 November 2019 (UTC)
 * Updated the above tally accordingly. P Aculeius (talk) 13:23, 19 November 2019 (UTC)

Note Another thing which I think needs to be mentioned is that whatever way this goes Marcus Junius Brutus the Elder (main man's father) should be moved to Marcus Junius Brutus (father of Brutus) since that is the naming convention for notable relatives of far more famous ancient people (for example his mother is at Servilia (mother of Brutus) and his wife if at Porcia (wife of Brutus)). "Marcus Junius Brutus the Elder" is a name I have never once seen outside of Wikipedia (discouting places that clearly ripp from Wikipedia).★Trekker (talk) 15:00, 20 November 2019 (UTC)
 * Perhaps, but technically a separate issue, and one for which there may be a different argument (for instance, "Marcus Junius Brutus (father of Brutus)" is very near a tautology, since any son of his would naturally be Brutus) in favour of the current name. But let's try to keep that discussion separate from this one, and in a predictable location (such as that article's talk page).  P Aculeius (talk) 16:07, 20 November 2019 (UTC)

The discussion seems to have died down, with no new comments in three days, and most of the opinions having been given over a week ago. To summarize the results, nobody in the discussion here or at CGR likes the present title or the previous title. Although a couple of people didn't indicate what title they preferred, everyone else has indicated their support for one of two proposals, both of which are theoretically consistent with our naming policy on ancient Romans. The opinions differ largely according to which title editors think is sufficiently specific to avoid confusion with other figures from Roman history. I believe this is sufficient consensus to move the page to Marcus Junius Brutus. P Aculeius (talk) 20:19, 23 November 2019 (UTC)
 * Two editors support Brutus for the title, but four others think this is too vague.
 * Four editors like Marcus Junius Brutus, with only one opposed.

Crawford claim verification
Hello there! I don't have a copy of Crawford's book on coinage. I believe, however, you do? There's a claim in the article: M. Crawford (1971) Roman Republican Coinage 502.2 shows that Brutus issued coins bearing the inscription Q. CAEPIO BRVTVS PRO [COS] (Q. Caepio Brutus, proconsul) in 42 BC. Could you verify? Thanks. Ifly6 (talk) 20:42, 14 April 2022 (UTC)
 * , I couldn't find this statement so I removed it. Brutus revived his Caepio name on his later coins though, but Crawford doesn't say why. I made a subsection on his term as moneyer. As an aside I think he was appointed moneyer by the consul Appius Claudius Pulcher, also his father-in-law, but that's OR. T8612  (talk) 23:13, 14 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Thanks for your edits! I did some normalisation here and there, I hope nothing of yours was mangled. Re Ap Cla Pulcher, I was under the impression that the 26-viri (of which the IIIviri monetales would have been a part) were elected by the people. How could he have been appointed? Ifly6 (talk) 23:36, 14 April 2022 (UTC)
 * It's debated whether they were appointed or elected, but I think it was the former, because there is a strange number of moneyers with family links to consuls of the same year. See Burnett's article (to which I could add several other instances). T8612  (talk) 23:55, 14 April 2022 (UTC)
 * That makes sense. I don't know much about Roman coins. That said, I can see both sides: coining is a relatively minor post, I could imagine that a consul commending his nephew or something would be influential before the tribes when the field of people who wanted to be elected is large (I'm imagining something like a municipal election in which almost nobody knows or cares about who wins crossed with a messy primary where there are twenty or thirty, or even more, candidates all trying to stand out). Ifly6 (talk) 00:58, 15 April 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Marcus Junius Brutus


text:
1329

Year 1329 (MCCCXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

January–December

 * February 1 – King John of Bohemia (of the Teutonic Order) captures Medvėgalis, an important fortress of the pagan Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and baptizes 6,000 of its defenders.
 * February 18 – Amda Seyon I, Emperor of Ethiopia, begins his campaigns in the southern Muslim provinces (possibly in 1332).
 * March 27 – Pope John XXII condemns some teachings of Meister Eckhart as heretical.
 * April – Antipope Nicholas V is excommunicated by Pope John XXII.
 * June 6 – Edward III of England pays homage to Philip VI of France for Aquitaine.
 * June 7 – David II becomes King of Scots at age 5; he will rule Scotland for nearly 42 years.
 * June 10 – Braganstown massacre, County Louth, Ireland: Over 160 are killed.
 * June 11 – Battle of Maltepe (Pelekanon): Ottoman Turks defeat the Byzantine Empire.
 * August 4 – Wittelsbach possessions are divided by the Treaty of Pavia into those of the Bavarian line and those of Palatinate line. Both lines will be reunited in 1777.

Date unknown

 * Aimone of Savoy becomes Count of Savoy.
 * Construction begins on the Archcathedral Basilica of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary and Saint Andrew in Frombork, Poland.
 * Michael of Cesena is deposed as General of the Franciscans.
 * Stefan Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia defeats Stephen II, Ban of Bosnia.
 * Wiesbaden is granted the right of coinage by Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor.

Births

 * September 26 – Anne of Bavaria, queen consort of Bohemia (d. 1353)
 * November 22 – Elisabeth of Meissen, Burgravine consort of Nuremberg (d. 1375)
 * November 29 – John I, Duke of Bavaria (d. 1340)
 * date unknown
 * Fairuzabadi, Persian Arab lexicographer (d. 1414)
 * Prince Lazar of Serbia (d. 1389)
 * Philip II, Prince of Taranto (d. 1374)
 * Hosokawa Yoriyuki, Japanese samurai (d. 1392)

Deaths

 * January 17 – Saint Roseline, Carthusian nun (b. 1263)
 * April 21 – Frederick IV, Duke of Lorraine (b. 1282)
 * May 9 – John Drokensford, Bishop of Bath and Wells
 * May 31 – Albertino Mussato, Italian statesman and writer (b. 1261)
 * June 7 – Robert the Bruce, King of Scotland (b. 1274)
 * August 30 – Khutughtu Khan, Emperor Mingzong of Yuan, emperor of the Yuan dynasty and the Mongol Empire (b. 1300)
 * October 27 – Mahaut, Countess of Artois (b. 1268)
 * date unknown
 * Walter Herok, Bishop of Aberdeen
 * Michael of Imereti
 * Oshin of Korikos, regent of Armenia (assassinated)
 * Edward, Count of Savoy (b. 1284)
 * Maol Íosa IV, Earl of Strathearn

title: 1329


text:
1330

Year 1330 (MCCCXXX) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

January–December

 * July 28 – Battle of Velbazhd: The Bulgarians under Tsar Michael Shishman (who is mortally wounded) are beaten by the Serbs. Bulgaria does not lose any territory to Serbia, but is powerless to stop the Serbian advance towards the predominantly Bulgarian-populated Macedonia.
 * October 19 – King Edward III of England starts his personal reign, arresting his regent Roger Mortimer, and having him executed.
 * November 9–12 – Battle of Posada: The Wallachians, under Basarab I, defeat the Hungarians, though heavily outnumbered, thus making a firm statement towards the independence of Wallachia.
 * December 6 – The British Isles are hit by a great storm, creating large areas of sand dunes on Anglesey.
 * Undated – Vilnius, Lithuania receives its coat-of-arms, granted to the city in the seventh year of its existence.
 * Undated – Ivan Alexander becomes the despot of Lovech.

Births

 * June 15 – Edward, the Black Prince, son of Edward III of England (d. 1376)
 * July 4 – Ashikaga Yoshiakira, Japanese shōgun (d. 1367)
 * October 25 – Louis II of Flanders (d. 1384)
 * date unknown
 * Frans Ackerman, Flemish statesman (d. 1387)
 * Euphemia of Sicily, princess regent of Sicily (d. 1359)
 * Altichiero, Italian painter (d. 1390)
 * Nicolas Flamel, French scribe and manuscript-seller, reputed alchemist (d. 1417)
 * John Gower, English poet (d. 1410)

Deaths

 * January 13 – Duke Frederick I of Austria (b. 1286)
 * January 21 – Joan II, Countess of Burgundy, queen dowager of France (b. 1291)
 * March 19 – Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent, son of Edward I and brother of Edward II (executed by Roger Mortimer) (b. 1301)
 * May 3 – Alexios II Megas Komnenos, Emperor of Trebizond (b. 1282)
 * c. July 31 – Tsar Michael Shishman of Bulgaria (b. 1280s?)
 * August 25 – On or about this date, Sir James Douglas, Scottish guerilla leader during the Wars of Scottish Independence (b. circa 1286)
 * September 28 – Elizabeth of Bohemia, queen consort of Bohemia (b. 1292)
 * November 29 – Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March, de facto ruler of England (b. 1287)
 * date unknown
 * Pietro Cavallini, Italian artist (b. 1259)
 * Guillaume Durand, French clergyman
 * Immanuel the Roman, Italian scholar and poet (b. 1270)
 * Maximus Planudes, Byzantine grammarian and theologian
 * Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula, Marinid prince and shaykh al-ghuzat of the Emirate of Granada

title: 1330


text:
1332

Year 1332 (MCCCXXXII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Events

 * February 18 – Amda Seyon I, Emperor of Ethiopia, begins his campaigns in the southern Muslim provinces (possibly in 1329).
 * August 10–11 – Battle of Dupplin Moor: Edward Balliol rebels, and the English defeat the loyalists of David II in Scotland.
 * September – Edward Balliol crowns himself King of Scotland.
 * November 7 – Lucerne joins the Swiss Confederation with Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden.
 * December 16 – Battle of Annan: The loyalists of David II defeat Edward Balliol in Scotland.
 * The city of Marosvásárhely (in Transylvania, today Târgu Mureș in Romania) is first documented in the papal registry, under the name Novum Forum Siculorum.

Births

 * May 27 – Ibn Khaldun, North African Arab historian (d. 1406)
 * June 8 – Cangrande II della Scala, Lord of Verona (d. 1359)
 * June 16 – Isabella de Coucy, English princess, daughter of King Edward III of England (d. 1379 or 1382)
 * June 18 – John V Palaiologos, Byzantine Emperor (d. 1391)
 * October 10 – King Charles II of Navarre (d. 1387)
 * date unknown
 * Pero López de Ayala, Spanish soldier (d. 1407)
 * Elizabeth de Burgh, 4th Countess of Ulster (d. 1363)
 * Andrea Vanni, Italian painter (d. c. 1414)
 * Hanna van Recklinghausen, Dutch banker
 * Xu Da, Chinese military leader (d. 1385)
 * Approximate
 * William Langland, English poet (d. c.1400)
 * Catherine of Vadstena, Swedish saint (d. 1381)

Deaths

 * January 8 – Andronikos III Megas Komnenos, Emperor of Trebizond
 * February – Henry Hussey, 1st Baron Hussey (b. c. 1265)
 * February 13 – Andronikos II Palaiologos, Byzantine Emperor (b. 1259)
 * March 13 – Theodore Metochita, Byzantine Empire statesman, author, man of learning, and patron of the arts (b. 1270)
 * June 16 – Adam de Brome, founder of Oriel College, Oxford
 * July 20 – Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray, regent of Scotland
 * August 2 – King Christopher II of Denmark (b. 1276)
 * August 11 – at the Battle of Dupplin Moor
 * Domhnall II, Earl of Mar
 * Robert II Keith, Marischal of Scotland
 * Thomas Randolph, 2nd Earl of Moray
 * Murdoch III, Earl of Menteith
 * Robert Bruce, Lord of Liddesdale
 * September 4 – García de Ayerbe, Spanish bishop and crusade theorist
 * date unknown
 * Jayaatu Khan, Emperor Wenzong of Yuan, emperor of the Yuan Dynasty (b. 1304)
 * Rinchinbal Khan, Emperor Ningzong of Yuan, emperor of the Yuan Dynasty (b. 1326)
 * approximate date – Mary of Woodstock, English princess (b. 1279)

title: 1332


text:
1335

Year 1335 (MCCCXXXV) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

January–December

 * May 2 – Otto the Merry, Duke of Austria, becomes Duke of Carinthia.
 * July 30 – Battle of Boroughmuir: John Randolph, 3rd Earl of Moray defeats Guy, Count of Namur in Scotland.
 * November 30 – Battle of Culblean: David Bruce defeats Edward Balliol in Scotland.
 * December 1 – Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan dies, a victim of the plague that ravages the Ilkhanate. This is an early outbreak of the Black Death. His death without a clear heir causes the Ilkhanate to disintegrate.
 * October 22 – Ex-emperor Hanazono (95th emperor of japan) becomes a Zen priest.

Date unknown

 * Georgians under King George V (the Brilliant) finally defeat the Mongolians in a decisive battle. After that George V returns the Grave of Christ from the Muslims.
 * Slavery is abolished in Sweden.
 * Congress of Visegrád: The monarchs of Bohemia, Hungary, and Poland form an anti-Habsburg alliance.
 * Carinthia and Carniola come under Habsburg rule. After the death of Duke Henry, the duchies are bestowed by Louis the Bavarian on the Dukes of Austria. From that time onwards, what is today Slovenia is ruled jointly with Austria until 1918.
 * Pope Benedict XII begins to reform the Cistercians.
 * The excommunication of Frederick III of Sicily and the interdict placed on Sicily end.
 * Construction begins on the papal palace in Avignon.
 * Aabenraa is chartered as a city.
 * The School of Arts in Zaragoza, Spain is founded (later known as the University of Zaragoza in the 16th Century).

Births

 * May 24 – Margaret of Bohemia, Queen of Hungary (d. 1349)
 * October 27 – Yi Seong-gye, Korean founder of the Joseon Dynasty
 * Gülçiçek Hatun, first wife of Ottoman Sultan Murad I
 * Marko Mrnjavčević, de jure Serbian king
 * Milica, wife of Prince Lazar of Serbia (d. 1405)
 * Tiphaine Raguenel, Breton astrologer (d. 1373)

Deaths

 * April 2 – Duke Henry of Carinthia
 * August 12 – Prince Moriyoshi, Japanese shōgun (b. 1308)
 * August 23 – Heilwige Bloemardinne, Dutch Christian mystic (b. c. 1265)
 * October 31 – Marie of Évreux, French noblewoman (b. 1303)
 * December 1 – Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan, Mongol ruler of the Ilkhanate (b. 1305)

title: 1335


text:
1337

Year 1337 (MCCCXXXVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

January–December

 * March 16 – Edward, the Black Prince establishes the Duchy of Cornwall, becoming the first English Duke.
 * May 24 – Philip VI of France confiscates Gascony from English control.
 * August – Second War of Scottish Independence: English forces relieve Stirling Castle, ending Edward III of England's last campaign in Scotland.
 * October – Hundred Years' War: Edward III of England formally rejects Philip VI's claim to the French throne, initiating hostilities between France and England.
 * November – Battle of Cadzand: English troops raid the Flemish island of Cadzand.

Date unknown

 * Bisham Priory is founded in England.
 * The Scaligeri Family loses control of Padua; Alberto della Scala, patron of the music of the Trecento, moves to Verona.
 * Petrarch, "father" of Renaissance humanism, first visits Rome to wander its mysterious ruins, with an eye for aesthetics as well as for history, exciting a renewed interest in Classical civilisation.
 * The Sofia Psalter is produced in Bulgaria.
 * The famine in China, which had lasted since 1332 and killed 6,000,000, comes to an end.
 * Siege of Nicomedia After its foundation by Osman I in about 1299, the Ottoman Empire expanded across Bithynia in north-west Anatolia by capturing territory from the Byzantine Empire.

Births

 * February 25 – Wenceslaus I, Duke of Luxembourg, Czech Duke of Luxembourg (d. 1383)
 * date unknown
 * Louis II, Duke of Bourbon (d. 1410)
 * Jean Froissart, historian and courtier from Hainaut (d. 1405)
 * Bianca of Savoy, lady consort of Milan (d. 1387)
 * Chŏng Mong-ju, Goryeo diplomat and poet (d. 1392)
 * Robert III of Scotland, second monarch from the House of Stewart to rule Scotland (d. 1406)

Deaths

 * January 8 – Giotto di Bondone, Italian painter (b. 1267)
 * June 7 – William I, Count of Hainaut (b. 1286)
 * June 15 – Angelo da Clareno, Italian Franciscan and leader of a group of Fraticelli (b. 1247)
 * June 25 – Frederick III of Sicily (b. 1272)
 * June 30 – Eleanor de Clare, politically active English noble (b. 1290)
 * date unknown
 * Changshi, khan of the Chagatai Khanate
 * William Frangipani, Latin Archbishop of Patras
 * Musa I of Mali, ruler of the Malian Empire (b. c.1280)
 * Prince Narinaga, Japanese Shōgun (b. 1326, d. either 1337 or 1344, the sources are contradictory)

title: 1337


text:
1339

Year 1339 (MCCCXXXIX) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

January–December

 * June – Battle of Laupen: The Canton of Bern defeats the forces of Fribourg.
 * September 18 – Emperor Go-Murakami accedes to the throne of Japan.
 * September 24 (or 28) – Simone Boccanegra is elected, as the first Doge of Genoa.

Date unknown

 * Shams-ud-Din Shah Mir, having defeated Kota Rani, Hindu queen regnant of Kashmir, in battle at Jayapur (modern Sumbal), asks her to marry him, but she commits suicide rather than do so; thus he takes over sole rule of Kashmir, beginning the Muslim Shah Mir Dynasty.
 * All streets in the city of Florence are paved, the first European city in post-Roman times where this has happened.
 * The Moscow Kremlin is first referred to as a kremlin.

Births

 * July 23 – Louis I, Duke of Anjou (d. 1384)
 * November 1 – Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria (d. 1365)
 * date unknown:
 * Pope Alexander V, Antipope (d. 1410)
 * Erik Magnusson, king of parts of Sweden 1356–1359 (d. 1359)
 * Frederick, Duke of Bavaria-Landshut (d. 1393)
 * Pope Innocent VII (d. 1406)
 * John IV, Duke of Brittany (d. 1399)
 * Juana Manuel of Castile, queen consort of Castile (d. 1381)
 * Ali ibn Mohammed al-Jurjani, Persian Arab encyclopaedist (d. 1414)

Deaths

 * February 17 – Otto, Duke of Austria (b. 1301)
 * May 26 – Aldona Ona, Queen of Poland (b. c. 1309)
 * August 16 – Azzone Visconti, founder of the state of Milan (b. 1302)
 * August 25 – Henry de Cobham, 1st Baron Cobham (b. 1260)
 * September 1 – Henry XIV, Duke of Bavaria (b. 1305)
 * September 19 – Emperor Go-Daigo of Japan (b. 1288)
 * October 29 – Grand Prince Aleksandr Mikhailovich of Tver (b. 1301)

title: 1339


text:
1298

Year 1298 (MCCXCVIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * April 20 – Rindfleisch massacres: The Jews of Röttingen are burned en masse. The Colmar Dominican Rudolph (refers to him in Latin as a carnifex, i.e. butcher or executioner) goes from town to town and kills all the Jews that fall under his control. He destroys the Jewish communities at Rothenburg ob der Tauber, Würzburg, Bamberg, Dinkelsbühl, Nördlingen and Forchheim. In the Free Imperial City of Nuremberg, the Jews thought to seek refuge in the Nuremberg Castle, which are assisted by Christian citizens. But Rindfleisch overcomes the defenders and massacres the Jews, on August 1. Spreading from Franconia to Bavaria and Austria, Rindfleisch and his persecutors destroy 146 communities, and some 20,000 Jews are killed.
 * June 1 – Battle of Turaida: Forces of the Livonian Order are decisively defeated near Turaida Castle by the residents of Riga, allied with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under Vytenis. After their defeat, the Livonians receive reinforcements from the Teutonic Order and defeat the residents of Riga and Lithuanians near Neuermühlen, on June 28. The knights proceed with their campaign, and besiege and capture Riga. In response, King Eric VI (Menved) threatens to invade Livonia, but a truce is reached and the conflict is mediated by Pope Boniface VIII.
 * July 2 – Battle of Göllheim: German forces of Duke Albert I defeat King Adolf of Nassau at Göllheim over the prince electors' decision, without electoral act – to dethrone Adolf and proclaim Albert the new ruler of Germany at Frankfurt, on July 27. During the battle, Adolf is killed and his army is destroyed with the loss of 3,000 horses.
 * September 9 – Battle of Curzola: The Genoese fleet (some 80 galleys) led by Admiral Lamba Doria defeats the Venetian fleet at Curzola. The disaster is almost complete for Venice: 83 of the 95 galleys are destroyed and some 7,000 men are killed. During the battle, Marco Polo, commanding one of the Venetian ships, is captured.
 * After a year's siege, the revolting Italian commune of Palestrina near Rome surrenders to the Papal forces, razed to the ground and salted by order of Boniface VIII, in an act of debellatio.

Scotland

 * Summer – King Edward I (Longshanks) marches from Newcastle with his household to Alnwick and then by way of Chillingham to Roxburgh, where he joins the army in July. He proceeds to Lauderdale and encamps at Kirkliston, to the west of Edinburgh, where he remains from July 15 to July 20. The army is accompanied by a long train of supply wagons. Meanwhile, English supply ships, delayed by bad weather, bring food to Leith.
 * July 22 – Battle of Falkirk: English forces (some 15,000 men) led by Edward I (Longshanks) defeat a Scottish army led by William Wallace at Falkirk. During the battle, the English knights drive off the Scottish horse and archers, but cannot break the pikemen in the center. The Scottish pikemen are formed in four great "hedgehogs" (known as schiltron) but are destroyed by English longbow archers.

Asia

 * Mongol invasion of India: Mongol forces led by Qutlugh Khwaja invade the Sindh region of the Delhi Sultanate and occupy the castle of Sivistan (modern Pakistan). Sultan Alauddin Khalji sends an army under Zafar Khan, who defeats the Mongols, on February 6. Some 20,000 Mongols are killed in the ensuing battle. The survivors are put into chains and brought to Delhi, where they are trampled to death by elephants.
 * August 30 – Emperor Fushimi abdicates the throne after an 11-year reign. He is succeeded by his 10-year-old son Go-Fushimi as the 93rd emperor of Japan (until 1301).

Cities and towns

 * August 1 – The "ideal city" of Marciac in southern France is founded by King Philip IV (the Fair) and his Seneschal Guichard de Marzé (or Marciac).

Markets

 * The foreign creditors of the Sienese Gran Tavola Bank start demanding their deposits back, thus accelerating the liquidity crisis faced by the firm.

Religion

 * Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome and Pope Gregory I are named the first Doctors of the Church. They are known collectively as the Great Doctors of the Western Church.

Technology

 * Wang Zhen, Chinese inventor and politician, invents a wooden movable type printing (Bi Sheng invented ceramic movable type in the 11th century).

Births

 * August 9 – Robert Ufford, English nobleman and admiral (d. 1369)
 * August 25 – Gongwon, Korean queen consort of Goryeo (d. 1380)
 * December 12 – Albert II (the Lame), German nobleman (d. 1358)
 * Andrew Murray, Scottish nobleman, knight and politician (d. 1338)
 * Angelo Acciaioli, Italian nobleman, cleric, friar and bishop (d. 1357)
 * Bernat II de Cabrera, Aragonese nobleman and diplomat (d. 1364)
 * Charles of Calabria, Italian nobleman and Vicar-General (d. 1328)
 * Edmond de Burgh, Norman nobleman (House of Burgh) (d. 1338)
 * Elizabeth of Carinthia, Sicilian queen consort and regent (d. 1352)
 * Everhard II of Limburg, German nobleman and co-ruler (d. 1344)
 * Kunigunde of Poland, Polish princess (House of Piast) (d. 1331)
 * Peter I of Dreux, French nobleman (House of Dreux) (d. 1345)
 * Qvarqvare I, Georgian nobleman and prince (mtavari) (d. 1361)
 * Zhou Boqi, Chinese magistrate, calligrapher and poet (d. 1369)

Deaths

 * January 2 – Lodomer, Hungarian prelate and archbishop
 * March 14 – Peter John Olivi, French theologian (b. 1248)
 * March 25 – Siegfried I, German prince (House of Ascania)
 * March 27 – William of Louth (or de Luda), English bishop
 * April 8 – Andrew Moray, Scottish nobleman and justiciar
 * April 17
 * Albrecht II, German nobleman and governor (b. 1235)
 * Árni Þorláksson, Icelandic cleric and bishop (b. 1237)
 * May 4 – Frederick VI, German nobleman, knight and co-ruler
 * May 22 – Robert de Tiptoft, Norman landowner and governor
 * June 11 – Yolanda of Hungaria, Hungarian princess (b. 1235)
 * July 2 – Adolf of Nassau, king of Germany (House of Nassau)
 * July 13 or July 16 – Jacobus de Voragine, Italian archbishop
 * July 22
 * John de Graham, Scottish nobleman (Clan Graham)
 * John Stewart, Scottish nobleman (Clan Stewart)
 * MacDuff of Fife, Scottish nobleman (Clan MacDuff)
 * July 23 – Thoros III (or Toros), king of Cilician Armenia (b. 1271)
 * August 1 – Mordechai ben Hillel, German Jewish rabbi (b. 1250)
 * August 25 – Albert II of Saxony, German nobleman and co-ruler
 * August 28 – William Houghton, English diplomat and archbishop
 * August 29 – Eleanor of England, daughter of Edward I (b. 1269)
 * September 9 – Andrea Dandolo, Venetian nobleman and admiral
 * September 29 – Guido I da Montefeltro, Italian military strategist
 * December 31 – Humphrey de Bohun, English nobleman (b. 1249)
 * Aimery IV of Narbonne, Italian nobleman and knight (condottiero)
 * Elisabeth of Wetzikon, Swiss noblewoman and abbess (b. 1235)
 * Euphrosyne of Greater Poland, Polish princess (House of Piast)
 * Ibn Wasil, Ayyubid scholar, judge, diplomat and writer (b. 1208)
 * Jacopo del Cassero, Italian nobleman and magistrate (b. 1260)
 * John of Genoa (or Balbus), Italian priest, grammarian and writer
 * John of Procida, Italian scholar, physician and diplomat (b. 1210)
 * Lourenço Soares de Valadares, Portuguese nobleman (b. 1230)
 * Mugai Nyodai, Japanese nun, abbess and Zen Master (b. 1223)
 * Otto V (the Tall), German nobleman, knight and regent (b. 1246)
 * Smilets of Bulgaria, Bulgarian emperor (tsar) (House of Smilets)
 * Thomas the Rhymer, Scottish nobleman (laird), knight and poet
 * Thomas Weyland, English landowner, lawyer and administrator
 * William de Beauchamp, English nobleman and knight (b. 1238)
 * William the Hardy (the Bold), Scottish nobleman and warlord
 * Yang Hui (or Qianguang), Chinese mathematician and writer
 * Yaqut al-Musta'simi, Abbasid eunuch, calligrapher and writer

title: 1298


text:
1296

Year 1296 (MCCXCVI) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

January–December

 * March 30 – Capture of Berwick: King Edward I of England storms and captures Berwick-upon-Tweed, sacking what is at this time a Scottish border town, with much bloodshed. He slaughters most of the residents, including those who flee to the churches.
 * April 12 – King Mangrai the Great of Ngoenyang establishes a new capital by founding Chiangmai, and founds the Mangrai Dynasty, that will rule the Lanna Kingdom of Chiangmai from 1296 to 1578 (the 700th Anniversary Stadium will be built in remembrance of this foundation).
 * April 27 – Battle of Dunbar: John Balliol's Scottish army is defeated by an English army commanded by John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey.
 * July 20 – Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji dies, and his nephew and son-in-law Ala-Ud-Din-Khalji comes to the throne of the Delhi Sultanate in Hindustan, becoming the most powerful ruler of his dynasty.
 * October 21 – The formal coronation of Alauddin Khalji as Sultan of Delhi takes place, and he takes the regnal name Muhammad Shah I.

Date unknown

 * Boniface of Verona expels the Byzantines from their last remaining strongholds on Euboea.
 * Chinese diplomat Zhou Daguan spends a year at the court of Khmer King Indravarman III at Angkor, and pens a journal setting forth his observations.
 * approximate date – Tarabya, self-proclaimed king of Pegu, is defeated in single combat on war elephants by Wareru.

Births

 * August 10 – "Blind" King John I of Bohemia (d. 1346)
 * December – Marjorie Bruce, Scottish princess, only daughter of Robert I of Scotland (d. 1316)
 * date unknown
 * Charles of Taranto (d. 1315)
 * Gregory Palamas, Archbishop of Thessalonica (d. 1359)
 * Roland of Sicily, Italian nobleman (d. 1361)
 * probable
 * Algirdas, ruler of Lithuania (d. 1377)
 * Blanche of Burgundy, queen consort of France (d. 1326)
 * Shi Naian, Chinese author (d. 1370)
 * Tamagusuku, ruler of Chuzan

Deaths

 * February 8 – King Przemysł II of Poland (b. 1257)
 * March 11 – John le Romeyn, Archbishop of York
 * March 24 – Odon de Pins, French Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller
 * May – William de Valence, 1st Earl of Pembroke
 * May 19 – Pope Celestine V (b. 1215)
 * June 5 – Edmund Crouchback, 1st Earl of Lancaster, son of Henry III of England (b. 1245)
 * June 27 – Floris V, Count of Holland (b. 1254)
 * August 7 – Heinrich II von Rotteneck, prince-bishop of Regensburg
 * August 9 – Hugh, Count of Brienne, French crusader
 * October 9 – Louis III, Duke of Bavaria (b. 1269)
 * November 1 – Guillaume Durand, French canonist and writer
 * December
 * Isabella of Mar, Scottish countess, spouse of Robert I of Scotland
 * Adam de Darlington, Bishop of Caithness (approximate date)
 * date unknown
 * Philippe de Rémi, French lawyer and royal official (b. c. 1247)
 * Campanus of Novara, Italian astronomer and mathematician (b. c. 1220)
 * Dnyaneshwar, Hindu saint and poet (b. 1275)
 * Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji, founder of the Khalji dynasty in India
 * Tarabya of Pegu, self-proclaimed ruler
 * Robert de Vere, 5th Earl of Oxford (b. c.1240)

title: 1296


text:
1295

Year 1295 (MCCXCV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * April 25 – King Sancho IV (the Brave) dies of a fatal illness (possibly tuberculosis), after a 11-year reign at Toledo. He is succeeded by his 9-year-old son Ferdinand IV (the Summoned) as ruler of Castile and León. In the Cortes at Valladolid, Henry of Castile (the Senator) is appointed guardian of Ferdinand, while Queen María de Molina becomes his regent. During the summer, Ferdinand is betrothed to the 5-year-old Princess Constance of Portugal. Hostilities between Castile and King Denis I (the Poet King) are ended by a peace agreement.
 * June 20 – Treaty of Anagni: Pope Boniface VIII arranges a peace treaty between King Philip IV (the Fair), Charles II (the Lame), and James II. James returns Sicily to the Papal States, seeking to bring peace between the House of Anjou and the Kingdom of Sicily; the effort is in vain. Boniface is determined to put an end to the War of the Sicilian Vespers, because he wants to declare a new Crusade for the reconquest of the Holy Land.
 * June 26 – Przemysł II is crowned king of Poland at Gniezno, the first coronation of a Polish ruler in 219 years. Przemysł travels to Pomerelia where he confirms the privileges of the monasteries in Oliwa and Żarnowiec. He also visits other major cities: Gdańsk, Tczew and Świecie. In August, Przemysł returns to Greater Poland but in October he travels again to Gdańsk.
 * July 22 – War of Curzola: Genoese raids on the Venetian quarter in Constantinople leads to a formal declaration of war with the Republic of Venice. A Venetian fleet (some 40 war galleys) attacks Galata, the quarter of the Genoese merchants. Emperor Andronikos II (Palaiologos) arrests surviving Venetians in the capital and joins the war with the Republic of Genoa.
 * Marco Polo returns to Venice after 24 years of travel in China. When the Polo's arrive, Venice is engaged in a naval war with the rival city of Genoa. Marco joins the war and arms a galley equipped with a trebuchet.
 * October 23 – The first treaty forming the Auld Alliance ("Old Alliance"), between Scotland and France against England, is signed in Paris. The treaty is signed by King John Balliol and Philip IV (the Fair).

Britain

 * March 5 – Battle of Maes Moydog: English forces led by William de Beauchamp defeat the Welsh rebels (some 700 men), near the modern-day town of Llanfair Caereinion, in Wales. In a night attack on the Welsh infantry, William uses cavalry to drive them into compact formations, which are then shot up by his archers. Madog ap Llywelyn, proclaimed "Prince of Wales", and the remnants of his army are routed and retreat across the Banwy River, in which many drown.
 * November 13 – King Edward I (Longshanks) summons the Model Parliament to Westminster, the composition of which serves as a model for later parliaments. The parliament agrees that a tax can be raised to allow him to launch campaigns against France and the rebellious Scots for the forthcoming year.
 * Construction begins on Beaumaris Castle in Anglesey under the direction of James of St. George. It is built as part of the conquest of Wales by Edward I.

Asia

 * October 4 – Mongol leader Baydu Khan is executed after a 7-month reign at Tabriz. He is succeeded by Ghazan Khan, who becomes ruler of the Ilkhanate. He converts to Islam, ending a line of Tantric Buddhist leaders.
 * King Jayavarman VIII is overthrown after a 52-year reign. He is succeeded by his son-in-law Indravarman III as ruler of the Khmer Empire (modern Cambodia).

Births

 * March 21 – Henry Suso, German priest, mystic and writer (d. 1366)
 * September 16 – Elizabeth de Clare, English noblewoman (d. 1360)
 * Catherine of Austria, German noblewoman and princess (d. 1323)
 * Egill Eyjólfsson, Icelandic deacon, scholar and bishop (d. 1341)
 * Giovanni Colonna, Italian cardinal (House of Colonna) (d. 1348)
 * Hōjō Moritoki, Japanese nobleman and regent (shikken) (d. 1333)
 * Joanna of Flanders, Flemish noblewoman and regent (d. 1374)
 * John III, French nobleman and knight (House of Dreux) (d. 1331)
 * John of Montfort, French nobleman (House of Montfort) (d. 1345)
 * Juan Alfonso de la Cerda, French nobleman and knight (d. 1347)
 * Margaret of Valois, French noblewoman and princess (d. 1342)
 * Nicephorus Gregoras, Byzantine historian and writer (d. 1360)
 * Nijō Tameakira, Japanese nobleman and waka poet (d. 1364)
 * Odo IV (or Eudes IV), French nobleman and knight (d. 1349)
 * Reginald II (the Black), Dutch nobleman and regent (d. 1343)
 * Reynold Cobham, English nobleman and diplomat (d. 1361)
 * Robert de Eglesfield, English nobleman and chaplain (d. 1349)
 * Takatsukasa Fuyunori, Japanese nobleman and regent (d. 1337)
 * Vitalis of Assisi, Italian Benedictine monk and hermit (d. 1370)

Deaths

 * January 2 – Agnes of Baden, German noblewoman (b. 1250)
 * January 11 – Bayan of the Baarin, Mongol general (b. 1236)
 * March 21 – Gaykhatu, Mongol ruler of the Ilkhanate (b. 1259)
 * March 31 – Robert V de Brus, Scottish nobleman (b. 1215)
 * April 10 – Baldwin of Avesnes, French nobleman (b. 1219)
 * April 25 – Sancho IV (the Brave), king of Castile (b. 1258)
 * May 28 – Barnim II, Polish nobleman and co-ruler (b. 1277)
 * August 1 – Pietro Peregrosso, Italian scholar and cardinal
 * August 8 – Ottone Visconti, Italian canon and archbishop
 * August 12 – Charles Martel, titular king of Hungary (b. 1271)
 * September 15 – Ruggieri degli Ubaldini, Italian archbishop
 * October 4 – Baydu, Mongol ruler of the Ilkhanate (b. 1255)
 * November 10 – Nicholas Segrave, English nobleman (b. 1238)
 * December 7 – Gilbert de Clare, English nobleman (b. 1243)
 * December 16 – Roger de Meyland, English sheriff and bishop
 * December 20 – Margaret of Provence, queen of France (b. 1221)
 * Anna of Greater Poland, Polish princess and abbess (b. 1253)
 * Beatrice of Navarre, French noblewoman and regent (b. 1242)
 * Fenenna of Kuyavia (or Kujawska), queen of Hungary (b. 1276)
 * Nicholas of Gorran, French preacher and theologian (b. 1232)
 * Padishah Khatun, Mongol female ruler and writer (b. 1256)

title: 1295


text:
1294

Year 1294 (MCCXCIV) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Asia

 * February 18 – Kublai Khan dies; by this time the separation of the four khanates of the Mongol Empire (the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia, the Golden Horde in Russia, the Ilkhanate in Persia, and the Yuan Dynasty in China) has deepened.

Europe

 * March 30 – A Novgorodian army led by Prince Roman Glebovich attempts a storm of Vyborg, but the attack fails.
 * Spring – Following the arrival of a fleet from Sweden, an offensive takes place in which Sweden captures Kexholm after an assault.

 * July 5 – Following the Papal election, 1292–94, Pope Celestine V succeeds Nicholas IV, becoming the 192nd pope.
 * Autumn – In response to the actions of new royal administrators in north and west Wales, Madog ap Llywelyn leads a revolt against his English overlords.
 * December 24 – Pope Boniface VIII succeeds Pope Celestine V, becoming the 193rd pope, after Celestine V abdicates the papacy on December 13, only five months after reluctantly accepting his surprise election on July 5, wishing to return to his life as an ascetic hermit.
 * John Balliol, King of Scotland, decides to refuse King Edward I of England's demands for support in a planned invasion of France, the result being the negotiation of the Auld Alliance with France and Norway in the following year. These actions play a part in precipitating the Scottish Wars of Independence, which begin in 1296.
 * Strata Florida Abbey is rebuilt; it had been destroyed some years earlier, during King Edward I of England's conquest of Wales.
 * Architect Arnolfo di Cambio designs Florence Cathedral (Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore, better known simply as Il Duomo); he also begins work on the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence.
 * England and Portugal enter into the first iteration of the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance, the oldest alliance in the world still in force.
 * Edward I of England and Philip the Fair of France declare war on each other. To finance this war, both kings lay taxes on the clergy. Pope Boniface VIII insists that kings gain papal consent for taxation of the clergy, and forbids churchmen to pay taxes.

Births

 * June 18 or June 19 – Charles IV of France (d. 1328)
 * John, Duke of Durazzo (d. 1336)
 * date unknown – Kusunoki Masashige, Japanese samurai (d. 1336)
 * Joan of Valois, Countess of Hainaut (d. 1342)

Deaths

 * February 18 – Kublai Khan of the Mongol Empire (b. 1215)
 * May 3 – John I, Duke of Brabant
 * June 12 – John I of Brienne, Count of Eu
 * December 25 – Mestwin II, Duke of Pomerania
 * date unknown
 * Emperor Yagbe'u Seyon of Ethiopia
 * Brunetto Latini, Florentine philosopher (b. c. 1220)
 * Dmitri of Pereslavl, Grand Duke of Vladimir-Suzdal

title: 1294


text:
1293

Year 1293 (MCCXCIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Africa

 * December – Mamluk sultan of Egypt Khalil is assassinated by his regent Baydara, who briefly claims the sultanate, before being assassinated himself by a rival political faction.

Asia

 * May 26 – An earthquake in Kamakura, Japan kills an estimated 23,000.
 * May 31 – The forces of Raden Wijaya win a major victory in the Mongol invasion of Java, which is considered to be the founding date of the city of Surabaya.
 * The Japanese era Shōō ends, and the Einin era begins.
 * Kublai Khan sends a fleet to the islands of Southeast Asia, including Java.
 * The Hindu Majapahit Empire is founded by Kertarajasa in Java. It benefits from internal conflict and Mongol intervention, to defeat the Singhasari Kingdom and establish the empire.

Europe

 * Torkel Knutsson leads Sweden in beginning the Third Swedish Crusade, against unchristianized Finnish Karelia. In the same year, the construction of Vyborg Castle begins, by orders of Knutsson.
 * The Ordinances of Justice are enacted, in the Commune of Florence.
 * The Isle of Wight is sold to King Edward I of England by Isabella de Forz, Countess of Devon, for 6,000 marks.

Arts and culture

 * Dante Alighieri completes the book of verse La Vita Nuova.

Education

 * May 20 – King Sancho IV of Castile creates the Studium General, forerunner to the modern Complutense University of Madrid.

Religion

 * January – Ignatius bar Wahib becomes Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Mardin.

Births

 * John of Ruysbroeck, Brabantian mystic (approximate date; d. 1381)
 * Margaret de Clare, English noblewoman (d. 1342)
 * Fedlim Ó Conchobair, King of Connacht (d. 1316)
 * Philip V of France (d. 1322)
 * Philip VI of France (d. 1350)
 * Walter Stewart, 6th High Steward of Scotland (d. 1326)

Deaths

 * May 2 – Meir of Rothenburg, German rabbi (b. c.1215)
 * June 29 – Henry of Ghent, philosopher (b. c.1217)
 * November 10 – Isabella de Forz, Countess of Devon (b. 1237)
 * December 14 – Al-Ashraf Khalil, Mamluk sultan of Egypt (assassinated)
 * date unknown
 * David VI Narin, King of Georgia (b. 1225)
 * William of Rubruck, Flemish Franciscan missionary (approximate date; b. c.1220)

title: 1293


text:
1292

Year 1292 (MCCXCII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * May 5 – The College of Electors select Adolf, count of Nassau, as the new King of the Romans and successor of Habsburg Rudolf I who had died the previous year. Adolf is forced to make wide-ranging concessions to the Electors to get elected. He is crowned king on June 24 in Aachen by the Archbishop of Cologne.
 * June 24 – Castilian forces led by King Sancho IV (the Brave) begin the siege of Tarifa, eleven newly built engines bombard the city constantly by land and sea. Meanwhile, Muhammad II, Nasrid ruler of Granada, provides the army of Sancho with men, arms and also aid the blockade in the Strait of Gibraltar. Muhammad attacks Marinid outposts, and his forces seize Estepona on the coast to the west of Málaga. Sancho conquers Tarifa after a siege of four months, on October 13.
 * December – Muhammad II sends ambassadors to the Castilian court to ask Sancho IV (the Brave) to surrender Tarifa. Sancho refuses to yield the city to Granada and Muhammad, feeling betrayed, switches sides to form an alliance with the Marinids.

Britain

 * November 17 – John Balliol is selected by King Edward I (Longshanks) as ruler of Scotland at Berwick, from among 13 competitors for the Crown of Scotland. Edward then treats John as a puppet ruler and Scotland as a vassal state, provoking the Wars of Scottish Independence, commencing in 1296. John is crowned at Scone, on November 30, on St. Andrew's Day. Scotland's castles are returned to the powerful magnates.
 * December – John Balliol is summoned by Edward I (Longshanks) to Westminster to answer an appeal by Macduff of Fife against a judgment imposed on him by the Scottish Parliament. John refuses to answer MacDuff's appeal, 'without consulting the people of his realm'. Edward asks for compensation for the violation of English law and demands to hand him over three Scottish castles as repayment for the crime committed.

Levant

 * Mamluk forces under Sultan Al-Ashraf Khalil accompanied by his vizier Ibn al-Sal'us arrive in Damascus. Khalil travels via Aleppo to besiege the castle of Qal'at ar-Rum ("Castle of the Romans"), which is the official seat of Stephen IV, patriarch of Armenia. The Mamluks besiege the castle with more than 30 catapults and capture it after 30 days.
 * Al-Ashraf Khalil returns to Damascus and assembles an army to attack Sis, the capital of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. An Armenian embassy arrives in Damascus, and reaches a settlement with Khalil. The cities of Til Hemdun, Marash and Behesni are given to the Mamluks in order to maintain peace.
 * November – Michael II becomes Syriac Orthodox patriarch of Antioch (until 1312).

Asia

 * Kublai Khan sends a Mongol expeditionary force (some 20,000 men) to Java. He collects an invasion fleet with some 500–1,000 ships and enough provisions for a year from Fujian, Jiangxi and Huguang in southern China. The fleet travels past Champa (modern Vietnam) and the Karimata Islands. The Mongols land on Java, taking the capital of Kediri, but it proves impossible to hold.
 * King Mangrai (the Great) of Ngoenyang conquers and annexes the Mon kingdom of Hariphunchai, creating a political union in the form of the Lanna Kingdom.
 * The Vaghela Dynasty in Gujarat (located along the western coast of India) is subjugated by the Deccan Yadava Dynasty of Daulatabad.

Religion

 * Spring – The Taxatio Ecclesiastica, compiled in 1291–1292, is completed under the order of Pope Nicholas IV. The Taxatio is a detailed database valuation for ecclesiastical taxation of English, Welsh and Irish churches.
 * April 4 – Nicholas IV dies after a 4-year pontificate in Rome. The cardinals assemble at Perugia to elect a new pope (1292–1294 papal election).

Births

 * January 20 – Elizabeth of Bohemia, queen of Bohemia (d. 1330)
 * January 29 – Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, Syrian polymath (d. 1350)
 * May 28 – Philip of Castile, Spanish nobleman and prince (d. 1327)
 * June 24 – Otto the Mild, German nobleman and knight (d. 1344)
 * October 3 – Eleanor de Clare, English noblewoman (d. 1337)
 * Chu Văn An, Vietnamese physician and mandarin (d. 1370)
 * Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen, Tibetan religious leader (d. 1361)
 * Elisenda of Montcada, queen and regent of Aragon (d. 1364)
 * Evrard d'Orleans, French Gothic sculptor and painter (d. 1357)
 * Gerhard III (the Great), German nobleman and prince (d. 1340)
 * Henry IV (the Faithful), Polish nobleman and knight (d. 1342)
 * Henry Burghersh, English bishop and statesman (d. 1340)
 * John VI (Kantakouzenos), Byzantine emperor (d. 1383)
 * John Grandisson, English chaplain and bishop (d. 1369)
 * John Marmion, Norman nobleman and knight (d. 1335)
 * Richard of Wallingford, English mathematician (d. 1336)
 * Robert de Stratford, English bishop and chancellor (d. 1362)
 * Saionji Neishi (or Yasuko), Japanese court lady (d. 1337)
 * Siemowit of Bytom, Polish nobleman and knight (d. 1342)

Deaths

 * February 6 – William VII, Italian nobleman and knight (b. 1240)
 * February 10 – Maurice VI de Craon, French nobleman (b. 1255)
 * February 28 – Hugh de Courtenay, English nobleman (b. 1251)
 * April 4 – Nicholas IV, Italian pope of the Catholic Church (b. 1227)
 * April 16 – Thibaud Gaudin, French nobleman and Grand Master
 * May 2 – Conrad II, German nobleman (House of Teck) (b. 1235)
 * May 8 – Amato Ronconi, Italian monk, hermit and saint (b. 1226)
 * June 2 – Rhys ap Maredudd, Welsh nobleman and prince (b. 1250)
 * July 24 – Kinga of Poland, Hungarian princess and abbess (b. 1224)
 * September 25 – Alice of Saluzzo, Savoyan noblewoman and co-ruler
 * September 30 – William I, German nobleman and co-ruler (b. 1270)
 * October 3 – Benvenuta Bojani, Italian nun, mystic and saint (b. 1254)
 * October 14 – John of Flanders, Flemish nobleman and prince-bishop
 * October 20 – Saionji Kisshi (or Ōmiya-in), empress of Japan (b. 1225)
 * October 25 – Robert Burnell, English bishop and chancellor (b. 1239)
 * November 4 – Euphrosyne of Opole, Polish noblewoman and regent
 * December 8 – John Peckham, English archbishop and writer (b. 1230)
 * Abraham Abulafia, Spanish scholar, philosopher and writer (b. 1240)
 * As-Suwaydi, Syrian physician, pharmacologist and writer (b. 1204)
 * Beatrice of Savoy, Savoyan noblewoman (House of Savoy) (b. 1250)
 * Bernard of Trilia, French monk, theologian and philosopher (b. 1240)
 * Darmabala (Protector of the Law), Mongolian nobleman (b. 1264)
 * Gertrude of Hackeborn, German noblewoman and abbess (b. 1232)
 * Guiraut Riquier de Narbona, French troubadour and writer (b. 1230)
 * Ingeborg of Sweden, Swedish princess (House of Bjelbo) (b. 1263)
 * Marjorie (or Margaret), Scottish noblewoman (suo jure) (b. 1256)
 * Roger Bacon, English monk, philosopher and scientist (b. 1220)

title: 1292


text:
1291

Year 1291 (MCCXCI) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * August 1 – Federal Charter of 1291: The "three forest cantons" (Waldstätte) of Switzerland (Schwyz, Uri and Unterwalden) form a defensive alliance to protect themselves from the House of Habsburg, this is a starting point for growth of the Old Swiss Confederacy. This year is also the traditional date of the Rütlischwur, the swearing of an oath by the three cantonal representatives at Rütli meadow.
 * August 6 – A combined Genoese-Sevillian fleet led by Admiral Benedetto Zaccaria wins a victory over 27 Marinid galleys at Alcácer Seguir –12 galleys are taken and the rest put to flight. The following day, Benedetto drags the captured vessels along the coast in view of Abu Yaqub Yusuf an-Nasr, Marinid ruler of Morocco, who, "defeated and dishonored", withdraws his fleet to Fez.
 * Late September – Abu Yaqub Yusuf an-Nasr crosses the Strait of Gibraltar from Alcácer Seguir to Tarifa. During the next three months, Marinid forces besiege Vejer de la Frontera, and carry out daily raids around Ferez. In the meantime, other Marinid raiding parties devastate the countryside as far north as Alcalá del Río, near Seville.
 * November – December – The kings Sancho IV (the Brave) and James II (the Just) agree to join the war against the Marinids and conclude a treaty of friendship. Muhammad II, Nasrid ruler of Granada, gives his support to Sancho to take Tarifa from the Marinids. In the agreement, Castile and Aragon will respect their own boundaries.
 * Klenová Castle is constructed in southern Bohemia near the town of Klatovy (modern Czech Republic) as part of a frontier defense system.
 * Venetian glass manufacture is concentrated on the island of Murano (located in the Venetian Lagoon), to prevent fires in Venice itself.
 * King Andrew III (the Venetian) gives royal town privileges to Bratislava, modern-day capital of Slovakia.

Britain

 * Spring – Several nobles unsuccessfully claim the Scottish throne (a process known as the Great Cause), including John Balliol, Robert V (de Bruse), John Hastings, and William de Vesci. Fearing civil war, the Guardians of Scotland ask King Edward I (Longshanks) to arbitrate. Before agreeing, he obtains concessions to revive English overlordship over the Scots.
 * May 10 – Edward I (Longshanks) meets the claimants for the Scottish crown at Norham Castle and informs them that he will judge the various claims to the throne. But they must acknowledge him as overlord of Scotland and, to ensure peace, surrender the Royal Castles of the kingdom into his keeping.
 * June 13 – Guardians and the Scottish nobles recognize Edward I (Longshanks) as overlord of Scotland. They agree that the kingdom will be handed over to Edward until a rightful heir has been found.

Levant

 * May 18 – Siege of Acre: Mamluk forces under Sultan Al-Ashraf Khalil capture Acre after a six-week siege. The Mamluks take the outer wall of the city after fierce fighting. The Military Orders drive them back temporarily, but three days later the inner wall is breached. King Henry II escapes, but the bulk of the defenders and most of the citizens perish in the fighting or are sold into slavery. The surviving knights fall back to the fortified towers and resist for ten days until the Mamluks breakthrough on May 28. The fall of Acre signals the end of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. No effective Crusade is raised to recapture the Holy Land afterward.
 * June – Al-Ashraf Khalil enters Damascus in triumph with Crusaders chained at their feet and the captured Crusader standards – which are carried upside-down as a sign of their defeat. Following the capture of Acre, Khalil and his Mamluk generals proceed to wrest control of the remaining Crusader-held fortresses along the Syrian coast. Within weeks, the Mamluks conquer Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, Haifa and Tartus.
 * July – Thibaud Gaudin arrives with the surviving knights, with the treasure of the Order, in Sidon. There, he is elected as Grand Master of the Knights Templar, to succeed William of Beaujeu (who was mortally wounded during the siege of Acre). Shortly after, Mamluk forces attack Sidon and Gaudin (who has not had enough knights to defend) evacuates the city and moves to the Castle of the Sea on July 14.
 * August 14 – Mamluk forces conquer the last Crusader outpost in Syria, the Templar fortress of Atlit south of Acre.  All that now is left to the Knights Templar is the island fortress of Ruad. Al-Ashraf Khalil returns to Cairo in triumph as the "victor in the long struggle against the Crusader states".

Asia

 * In Japan the temple of Nanzen-ji at Kyoto is established by Emperor Kameyama. This temple becomes one of the most important religious schools within the Rinzai sect of Zen Buddhism and includes multiple sub-temples.
 * Guo Shoujing, Chinese engineer and astronomer, constructs the artificial Kunming Lake, which is developed into a reservoir with summer gardens for Khanbaliq (or Dadu of Yuan), Mongol capital of Emperor Kublai Khan.

Exploration

 * Spring – The brothers Vandino and Ugolino Vivaldi, Italian explorers and merchants from Genoa, embark with two galleys intending to reach India and establish a trade route to Italy. They sail along the coast of present-day Morocco after passing through the Strait of Gibraltar. They may have followed the African coast as far as Cape Non before being lost at sea.

Markets

 * Four towns of the County of Holland (Dordrecht, Haarlem, Leiden and Alkmaar) and two of the County of Zeeland (Middelburg and Zierikzee) agree collectively to secure a loan by their sovereign, Count Floris V. This gives important securities to the lenders, and allows Floris to access the same low interest rates as the cities’ governments.

Religion

 * Pope Nicholas IV confirms the independence of San Marino by papal bull.

Births

 * February 8 – Afonso IV (the Brave), king of Portugal (d. 1357)
 * March 9 – Cangrande I della Scala, Italian nobleman (d. 1329)
 * May 10 – Gilbert de Clare, English nobleman and knight (d. 1314)
 * August 12 – Ichijō Uchitsune, Japanese nobleman (kugyō) (d. 1325)
 * September 23 – Bolesław III, Polish nobleman and knight (d. 1352)
 * October 31 – Philippe de Vitry, French musician and poet (d. 1361)
 * December 15 – Aymon (the Peaceful), Savoyan nobleman (d. 1343)
 * December 20 – Margareta Ebner, German nun and mystic (d. 1351)
 * Hugh de Audley, English nobleman, knight and diplomat (d. 1347)
 * Luis de la Cerda, French nobleman, prince and admiral (d. 1348)
 * Luitgard of Wittichen, German nun, abbess and mystic (d. 1348)
 * Marie of Artois, French noblewoman (House of Artois) (d. 1365)
 * Shah Kamal Quhafah, Arab philanthropist and mystic (d. 1385)
 * Tōin Kinkata, Japanese official, historian and writer (d. 1360)

Deaths

 * March 5 – Sa'ad al-Dawla, Persian physician and vizier (b. 1240)
 * March 10 – Arghun Khan, Mongol ruler of the Ilkhanate (b. 1258)
 * March 16 – Alauddin Sabir Kaliyari, Indian Sufi preacher (b. 1196)
 * May 11 – Thomas Ingoldsthorpe, English archdeacon and bishop
 * May 18 – Matthew of Clermont, French nobleman and Marshal
 * May 25 – Benedict, Swedish nobleman, prince and knight (b. 1254)
 * June 5 – John I, German nobleman (House of Ascania) (b. 1260)
 * June 18 – Alfonso III (or II) (the Liberal), king of Aragon (b. 1265)
 * June 25 – Eleanor of Provence, queen consort of England (b. 1223)
 * June 27 – Tanhum of Jerusalem, Outremer lexicographer (b. 1220)
 * July 12 – Herman VII (the Rouser), German nobleman (b. 1266)
 * July 15 – Rudolf I, king of Germany (House of Habsburg) (b. 1218)
 * August 16 – Frederick Tuta, German nobleman and regent (b. 1269)
 * October 8 – Henry I, German nobleman, prince and knight (b. 1245)
 * December 11 – Francesco Lippi, Italian monk and hermit (b. 1211)
 * Alfonso of Castile, Spanish nobleman and prince (infante) (b. 1286)
 * Badr al-Din Solamish, Mamluk ruler of Egypt and Syria (b. 1272)
 * Guy de Montfort, English nobleman and Vicar-General (b. 1244)
 * Hong Dagu (or Jun-gi), Korean ruler and military leader (b. 1244)
 * Muzaffar al-Din Hajjaj, Qutlughkhanid prince and co-ruler (b. 1247)
 * Niall Culanach O'Neill (or Culanagh), king of Tír Eoghain (b. 1231)
 * Nuño González II, Spanish nobleman and knight (House of Lara)
 * Philip Marmion, Norman King's Champion, High Sheriff and knight
 * William de Braose, Norman nobleman (House of Braose) (b. 1224)
 * William of Beaujeu, French nobleman and Grand Master (b. 1230)

title: 1291


text:
1290

Year 1290 (MCCXC) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * July 10 – King Ladislaus IV (the Cuman) is assassinated at the castle of Körösszeg (modern Romania). He is succeeded by Andrew III (the Venetian), after an election by Hungarian nobles, who is crowned by Archbishop Lodomer as new ruler of Hungary and Croatia in Székesfehérvár on July 23.
 * December 18 – King Magnus III (Birgersson) dies after a 15-year reign. He is succeeded by his 10-year-old son Birger (Magnusson). Although, Sweden is an elective monarchy, Birger had already been appointed heir to the throne in 1284.

Britain

 * July 18 – Edict of Expulsion: King Edward I (Longshanks) orders all Jews (at this time probably numbering around 2,000) to leave the country by November 1 (All Saints' Day); on the Hebrew calendar this is Tisha B'Av, a day that commemorates many calamities. They are eventually allowed back in 1656.
 * Quia Emptores, a statute passed by Edward I (Longshanks), puts an end to the practice of subinfeudations. The statute allows land to be sold according to royal approval, as long as the new owner answers directly to his lord or the king.
 * September – The 7-year-old Margaret (Maid of Norway), queen-designate and heir to the crown of Scotland, dies en route to the British Isles in Orkney – leading to a succession crisis known as Competitors for the crown of Scotland.
 * November 28 – Eleanor of Castile, wife of Edward I (Longshanks), dies while traveling in the North. She has been suffering from illness for some time, and the cold and dampness of the winter months probably aggravate her condition.
 * December – Edward I (Longshanks) travels with the body of Eleanor of Castile from Lincoln to London. Remembering his wife, Edward erects a series of crosses at each location that the body rests over night. These are known as the twelve Eleanor crosses.
 * Winter – The second of the Statutes of Mortmain are passed during the reign of Edward I (Longshanks), which prevents land from passing into the possession of the Church.

Levant

 * June – Genoa concludes a new commercial treaty with the Mamluks; five galleys sent by King James II (the Just) join the Venetian Crusader fleet (some 20 ships) on its way to Acre. On board of the fleet are Italian urban militias and mercenary forces under Seneschal Jean I de Grailly, who have fought for the Papal States in the so-called Italian Crusades.
 * August – Italian Crusaders massacre Muslim merchants and peasants, and some local Christians in Acre. Some claim it began at a drunken party – others that a European husband found his wife making love to a Muslim. The barons and local knights try to rescue a few Muslims and take them to the safety of the castle, while some ringleaders are arrested.
 * August 30 – Survivors and relatives of the massacre at Acre take bloodstained clothing to Sultan Qalawun (the Victorious) in Cairo, who demands that the leaders of the riot be handed over for trial. But the nobles refuse to send the ringleaders, Qalawun now got legal clearance from the religious authorities in Cairo to break the truce with Crusader states.
 * October – Qalawun (the Victorious) orders a general mobilization of the Mamluk forces. In a council, is decided that a peace delegation is sent to Cairo under Guillaume de Beaujeu, Grand Master of the Knights Templar. But Qalawun demands huge compensation for those killed in Acre, and sends a Syrian army to the coast of Palestine, near Caesarea.
 * November 10 – Qalawun (the Victorious) dies as the Egyptian Mamluk army sets out for Acre. He is succeeded by his eldest son Al-Ashraf Khalil as ruler of the Mamluk Sultanate. Khalil orders his allies and tributaries in Syria to prepare for a campaign next spring. Governors and castle commanders are ordered to assemble siege equipment and armor.

Asia

 * June 13 – Shamsuddin II, Mamluk ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, is murdered and succeeded by Jalal ud-Din Khalji (or Firuz Shah I), founder of the Khalji Dynasty. Ending Mamluk rule and instigating the Khalji Revolution.
 * September 27 – The 6.8  Zhili earthquake affects the province of Zhili in China, with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), killing 7,270–100,000 people.

Art and Culture

 * June 8 – Beatrice Portinari, muse of the Italian poet Dante Alighieri, dies. In his Divine Comedy (La Divina Commedia), he transforms his memory of Beatrice into an allegory of divine love.

Climate and Weather

 * Year without winter – An exceptionally rare instance of uninterrupted transition, from autumn to the following spring, in England and the mainland of Western Europe.

Education

 * March 1 – The University of Coimbra is founded in Lisbon by Denis I (the Poet King). He decrees that Portuguese is the official language of Portugal, replacing classical Latin in that capacity.

Literature

 * Dnyaneshwari is written in India. This holy book is a commentary on Bhagvad Gita and is narrated by St. Dnyaneshwar.

Births

 * January 3 – Constance of Portugal, queen consort of Castile (d. 1313)
 * January 6 – Otto Bodrugan, English landowner and politician (d. 1331)
 * June 23 – Jakushitsu Genkō, Japanese Rinzai master and poet (d. 1367)
 * August 4 – Leopold I (the Glorious), German nobleman (d. 1326)
 * October 15 – Anne of Bohemia, queen consort of Bohemia (d. 1313)
 * December 24 – Khwaju Kermani, Persian poet and mystic (d. 1349)
 * Agnes Haakonsdatter, Norwegian noblewoman and princess (d. 1319)
 * Andrea Pisano (or Pontedera), Italian sculptor and architect (d. 1348)
 * Barlaam of Seminara, Italian cleric, scholar and theologian (d. 1348)
 * Beatrice of Silesia, queen of Germany (House of Piast) (d. 1322)
 * Buton Rinchen Drub, Tibetan Buddhist religious leader (d. 1364)
 * Daichi Sokei, Japanese Buddhist monk, disciple and poet (d. 1366)
 * Giovanni Visconti, Italian cardinal, archbishop and co-ruler (d. 1354)
 * Guido Gonzaga, Italian nobleman and knight (condottiero) (d. 1369)
 * Hugues Quiéret, French nobleman, admiral and advisor (d. 1340)
 * Jacob van Artevelde, Flemish merchant and statesman (d. 1345)
 * Jacopo Dondi dell'Orologio, Italian doctor and polymath (d. 1359)
 * Johannes de Muris, French mathematician and astronomer (d. 1344)
 * John Maltravers, English nobleman, knight and governor (d. 1364)
 * John Parricida, German nobleman (House of Habsburg) (d. 1312)
 * Jyotirishwar Thakur, Indian playwright, poet and writer (d. 1350)
 * Ke Jiusi, Chinese landscape painter and calligrapher (d. 1343)
 * Kitabatake Tomoyuki, Japanese nobleman and poet (d. 1332)
 * Kujō Fusazane, Japanese nobleman, official and regent (d. 1327)
 * Peter of Castile, Spanish nobleman and prince (infante) (d. 1319)
 * Pierre Bercheure, French translator and encyclopaedist (d. 1362)
 * Rabbenu Yerucham, French rabbi and scholar (posek) (d. 1350)
 * Richard de Willoughby, English landowner and politician (d. 1362)
 * Rudolf Hesso, German nobleman (House of Zähringen) (d. 1335)
 * Sesson Yūbai, Japanese Buddhist monk, priest and poet (d. 1347)
 * Theodore I (Palaiologos), Byzantine nobleman and writer (d. 1338)
 * Willem van Duvenvoorde, Dutch nobleman and knight (d. 1353)

Deaths

 * January 28 – Dervorguilla of Galloway, Scottish noblewoman (b. 1210)
 * February 3 – Henry XIII, German nobleman, co-ruler and knight (b. 1235)
 * March 24 – John dal Bastone, Italian monk, priest and preacher (b. 1200)
 * March 26 – John Kirkby, English bishop, vice-chancellor and statesman
 * April 26 – Gaston VII (Froissard), French nobleman and knight (b. 1225)
 * May 10 – Rudolf II, German nobleman (House of Habsburg) (b. 1270)
 * June 8 – Beatrice Portinari, Italian muse of Dante Alighieri (b. 1266)
 * June 13 – Shamsuddin II, Mamluk ruler of the Delhi Sultanate (b. 1285)
 * June 23 – Henryk IV (the Righteous), High Duke of Poland (b. 1258)
 * July 10 – Ladislaus IV (the Cuman), king of Hungary and Croatia (b. 1262)
 * September 26 – Margaret (Maid of Norway), queen of Scotland (b. 1283)
 * November 10 – Qalawun (the Victorious), Mamluk ruler of Egypt (b. 1222)
 * November 28 – Eleanor of Castile, queen consort of England (b. 1241)
 * December 18
 * Herman I, German nobleman (House of Henneberg) (b. 1224)
 * Magnus III (or I) (Birgersson), king of Sweden (b. 1240)
 * December 21 – Gerhard I, German nobleman, knight and regent (b. 1232)
 * Adelaide of Auxerre, French noblewoman and ruler (suo jure) (b. 1251)
 * Alice de Lusignan, French noblewoman (House of Lusignan) (b. 1236)
 * Cecilia Cesarini (or Caecilia), Italian noblewoman and nun (b. 1203)
 * Eison, Japanese Buddhist scholar-monk, disciple and priest (b. 1201)
 * Elizabeth the Cuman, queen of Hungary (House of Arpad) (b. 1244)
 * Fakhr al-Din Mustawfi, Persian finance minister, advisor and vizier

title: 1290