text:
Talk:Microprocessor

History of microprocessors
Two concerns: Firstly, only the history of 64-bit microprocessors for personal computers is covered. Secondly, coverage of multicore microprocessors is limited to "mass-market" designs. Is there any reason why the coverage should not be extended to all microprocessors? I am willing to make an effort. Rilak (talk) 04:23, 24 February 2009 (UTC)

 * It would appear to me that "64-bit designs for personal computers" is actually the shortest history section, although it is in some sense the culmination of some earlier threads. And then of course there is History of general purpose CPUs.  Certainly there are parts of the article that could use work, but I'm not sure that I understand your particular concern. —  Aluvus  t/c 05:26, 24 February 2009 (UTC)

 * But History of general purpose CPUs does not cover 64-bit microprocessors. It does not seem to present the history organized in n bits. It doesn't cover multicore microprocessors either, it makes a mention of them, but no dates or examples are given. This article could link to 64-bit and Multicore, respectively, where there are more complete histories, but then, what is the point of the selectively covering certain parts of history? Why have a section titled "64-bit designs in personal computers"? All other sections do not have this restriction and 64-bit microprocessors have been around in computers and consumer electronics such as game consoles for some time, for example. Perhaps brief summaries of the important events and a link to each of the subject's articles should replace the present sections? Rilak (talk) 06:07, 24 February 2009 (UTC)

In multicore processors, the First Dual Core x86-64 processor was the AMD Opteron Dual-Core in 2004 then followed, by April 2005, by the Athlon X2 for desktops. These were SCM designs with the Direct Connect architecture, and not MCM interconnected by FSB like the Pentium-D. I think it is needed to do an edit in that part. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Adgarza (talk • contribs) 12:57, 16 March 2018 (UTC)

8 bit vs 32 bit
There seems to be a bit of conflict between fans of 8-bit chips and fans of 32-bit chips. Honestly, both sides seem biased to me, but I think it makes an encyclopedia article better to describe all the major viewpoints, even when some of them are biased.

Two areas that I think deserve a few more words in this article: energy and noise.

I've been able to add both points of view on energy:

 * I added the Saether and Fredriksen reference. If I'm reading it correctly, it unambiguously says that 8-bit processors have several advantages over 32-bit processors, including less energy and lower noise.
 * I added other references that say that it is "not true" that 8-bit processors use less energy than 32-bit processors.

Alas, those other references don't seem to mention noise or the other issues brought up by Saether and Fredriksen. So does pretty much everyone agree that 8-bit processors (when fabbed at the same technology level) produce less noise than 32-bit processors? Or is there a reliable source we can reference that has some other point of view, that we should mention in this article? --DavidCary (talk) 18:00, 8 July 2014 (UTC)

 * Those references were deleted in a later edit. --DavidCary (talk) 04:10, 16 December 2019 (UTC)

A proposal
I am going to link this here. I made an proposal for a new Project based on microprocessors. https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WikiChips

 Bobherry  Talk   Edits  01:53, 17 April 2018 (UTC)

About this
I have additional matter about this Nadimpalli bhargav (talk) 08:51, 24 April 2018 (UTC)

Microprocessor vs CPU
The article does a poor job of explaining the relationship between the two terms. As I understand it, a CPU is a broader term includes central processing units that are not all on one chip whereas a microprocessor is a CPU all on one chip. So we need to clarify that a Microprocessor is a type of CPU but not all CPU's are microprocessors. As such, we need to make this article more clearly a sub-article of CPU's. In modern times, almost all CPUs are microprocessors so the terms are, with few exception, used interchangeably these days. --Notcharliechaplin (talk) 15:26, 21 October 2018 (UTC)

Intel, AMD, Motorola et all refer to their bit-slice product systems as microprocessors. Many early Microprocessors 1800/1801 = 1802, 6500/6501 = 6502, etc. are one chip integration of multi chip products. TaylorLeem (talk) 22:33, 23 October 2022 (UTC)
 * In the 1950's and into the 1960's, the CPU was a box connected to memory in a separate box, and I/O devices somewhere else. Maybe the CPU and memory together is the processor. It is, then, not at all obvious what should count as "processor on a chip" or "CPU on a chip". The early chips required a separate chip to generate the clock, especially when it needed a higher voltage than other inputs. Does that make them not single chip? It seems that there is a lot of wiggle room in the name, and that was used by the companies. It is especially complicated by the early chips meant for embedded systems. That was true at least through the 8080, and yet the 8080 turned out to make a good general purpose machine. Gah4 (talk) 02:28, 24 June 2023 (UTC)
 * In the 1950's and into the 1960's, the CPU was a box connected to memory in a separate box, and I/O devices somewhere else. Maybe the CPU and memory together is the processor. It is, then, not at all obvious what should count as "processor on a chip" or "CPU on a chip". The early chips required a separate chip to generate the clock, especially when it needed a higher voltage than other inputs. Does that make them not single chip? It seems that there is a lot of wiggle room in the name, and that was used by the companies. It is especially complicated by the early chips meant for embedded systems. That was true at least through the 8080, and yet the 8080 turned out to make a good general purpose machine. Gah4 (talk) 02:28, 24 June 2023 (UTC)

Gilbert Hyatt's Patent Battles on Microprocessors
Gilbert Hyatt actually had tons and tons of patent applications pertaining to the microprocessor, and his intellectual property strategy seems to have influenced processor engineering and law alike. According to several sources, a USPTO director wanted to have his blocked or deprioritized. CessnaMan1989 (talk) 16:39, 16 November 2021 (UTC)

Because his patent applications NEVER documented a working product which is theoretically a patent requirements. Mental masturbation should not be patentable. The result would be granting every perpetual motion machine a patent. TaylorLeem (talk) 22:36, 23 October 2022 (UTC)

RCA CDP1802
Integration of 4 CD4057 Accumulator/ALU and array of CD40108 triple port Ram and microsequencer. Orthogonal instruction set. TaylorLeem (talk) 22:25, 23 October 2022 (UTC)

India Education Program course assignment
This article was the subject of an educational assignment at Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, College of Engineering, Pune, India supported by Wikipedia Ambassadors through the India Education Program during the 2011 Q3 term. Further details are available on the course page.

The above message was substituted from by PrimeBOT (talk) on 19:54, 1 February 2023 (UTC)

Intel 4004/TMS1802NC Dispute
The beginning of the Intel 4004 (1971) section contains some strong statements such as it is "definitively false" that the Intel 4004 is the first microprocessor in favor of the TMS1802NC. This doesn't seem appropriate for this section and does not immediately cite evidence in favor of the falsity. I added a Disputed inline link here and a Citation Needed tag to these sentences. Aldaron lorem (talk) 16:38, 2 April 2023 (UTC)

 * All of the evidence is present in the TMS1802 and TMX 1795 sections.
 * intel only released the 4004 in '71 november. TI already filled the patent for the microprocessor in '71 august and released TMSC1802 a single chip microprocessor in '71 september. Also, the TMX 1795 has reached working prototype state at 1971 February 24. (https://www.righto.com/2015/05/the-texas-instruments-tmx-1795-first.html) 94.21.161.212 (talk) 00:57, 24 June 2023 (UTC)
 * This seems to have come up in the Intel 4004 article. Also, the 4004 is better known in a commercial context. Were the TI chips commercially available? Gah4 (talk) 02:32, 24 June 2023 (UTC)
 * No, they weren't, but nobody said, that the intel 4004 wasn't the first commercially available microprocessor. It was. Nobody denies it.
 * But it wasn't the first single chip microprocessor (that was the TMS1802 or the TMX 1795, if we accept working prototypes too and why we would not) and it was definetely not the first microprocessor overall (that was the CADC or the AL1). 178.164.222.20 (talk) 09:47, 24 June 2023 (UTC)
 * But it wasn't the first single chip microprocessor (that was the TMS1802 or the TMX 1795, if we accept working prototypes too and why we would not) and it was definetely not the first microprocessor overall (that was the CADC or the AL1). 178.164.222.20 (talk) 09:47, 24 June 2023 (UTC)

Naming
I think the article should also explicitly mention that microprocessors are also simply called processors, like saying in the lead: "A microprocessor (also called a processor) is a computer processor..." i think i added it to the article but for some reason it's not in the article. i have mostly seen the term microprocessor being used in the 1980s but not now Pancho507 (talk) 17:35, 13 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Well, it was needed in the 1970's when big processors were still popular. There are still big processors, though usually made from many microprocessors. Otherwise, it seems to me that processor is just short for microprocessor, in many cases. It can also be the generic word, when one doesn't really need to know or care about the size. It is now not so unusual to generate a processor inside an FPGA, in which case it is called a soft-processor. (And not micro.) Gah4 (talk) 19:13, 13 February 2024 (UTC)
 * We already have Processor (computing) which appears to consider itself a superset of Microprocessor, Central processing unit, Graphics processing unit among others. Do you think this organization should be improved somehow? ~Kvng (talk) 13:56, 16 February 2024 (UTC)
 * We already have Processor (computing) which appears to consider itself a superset of Microprocessor, Central processing unit, Graphics processing unit among others. Do you think this organization should be improved somehow? ~Kvng (talk) 13:56, 16 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Microprocessor


text:
String instrument

In musical instrument classification, string instruments or chordophones, are musical instruments that produce sound from vibrating strings when a performer plays or sounds the strings in some manner.

Musicians play some string instruments, like guitars, by plucking the strings with their fingers or a plectrum (pick), and others by hitting the strings with a light wooden hammer or by rubbing the strings with a bow, like violins. In some keyboard instruments, such as the harpsichord, the musician presses a key that plucks the string. Other musical instruments generate sound by striking the string.

With bowed instruments, the player pulls a rosined horsehair bow across the strings, causing them to vibrate. With a hurdy-gurdy, the musician cranks a wheel whose rosined edge touches the strings.

Bowed instruments include the string section instruments of the orchestra in Western classical music (violin, viola, cello and double bass) and a number of other instruments (e.g., viols and gambas used in early music from the Baroque music era and fiddles used in many types of folk music). All of the bowed string instruments can also be plucked with the fingers, a technique called "pizzicato". A wide variety of techniques are used to sound notes on the electric guitar, including plucking with the fingernails or a plectrum, strumming and even "tapping" on the fingerboard and using feedback from a loud, distorted guitar amplifier to produce a sustained sound.

Some string instruments are mainly plucked, such as the harp and the electric bass. Other examples include the sitar, rebab, banjo, mandolin, ukulele, and bouzouki.

In the Hornbostel–Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification, used in organology, string instruments are called chordophones. According to Sachs,

"Chordophones are instruments with strings. The strings may be struck with sticks, plucked with the bare fingers or a plectrum, bowed or (in the Aeolian harp, for instance) sounded by wind. The confusing plenitude of stringed instruments can be reduced to four fundamental type: zithers, lutes, lyres, and harps."

In most string instruments, the vibrations are transmitted to the body of the instrument, which often incorporates some sort of hollow or enclosed area. The body of the instrument also vibrates, along with the air inside it. The vibration of the body of the instrument and the enclosed hollow or chamber make the vibration of the string more audible to the performer and audience. The body of most string instruments is hollow, in order to have better sound projection. Some, however—such as electric guitar and other instruments that rely on electronic amplification—may have a solid wood body.

Classification
In musicology, string instruments are known as chordophones. It is one of the five main divisions of instruments in the Hornbostel–Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification.

Hornbostel–Sachs divides chordophones into two main groups: instruments without a resonator as an integral part of the instrument (which have the classification number 31, also known as 'simple'); and instruments with such a resonator (which have the classification number 32, also known as 'composite'). Most western instruments fall into the second group, but the piano and harpsichord fall into the first. Hornbostel and Sachs' criterion for determining which sub-group an instrument falls into is that if the resonator can be removed without destroying the instrument, then it is classified as 31. The idea that the piano's casing, which acts as a resonator, could be removed without destroying the instrument, may seem odd, but if the action and strings of the piano were taken out of its box, it could still be played. This is not true of the violin, because the string passes over a bridge located on the resonator box, so removing the resonator would mean the strings had no tension.

Curt Sachs also broke chordophones into four basic subcategories, "zithers, lutes, lyres and harps."

 * Zithers include stick zithers such as the musical bow, tube zithers with a tube as the resonator such as the valiha, raft zithers in which tube zithers are tied into a single "raft", board zithers including clavichord and piano and dulcimer, and long zithers (described as combination of half-tube and board zithers) including Se and Guzheng families.
 * Lutes are stringed musical instruments that include a body and "a neck which serves both as a handle and as a means of stretching the strings beyond the body." The lute family includes not only short-necked plucked lutes such as the lute, oud, pipa, guitar, citole, gittern, mandore, rubab, and gambus and long-necked plucked lutes such as the tanbura, swarabat, bağlama, bouzouki, veena, theorbo, archlute, pandura, sitar, setar, but also bowed instruments such as the Yaylı tambur, rebab, erhu, and entire family of viols and violins.
 * The lyre has two arms, which have a "yoke" or crossbar connecting them, and strings between the crossbar and the soundboard. Sachs divided this into the box lyre such as the Greek kithara and the bowl lyre which used a bowl on its side with skin soundboard.
 * The harp which has strings vertical to the soundboard.

Earliest string instruments
Dating to around c. 13,000 BC, a cave painting in the Trois Frères cave in France depicts what some believe is a musical bow, a hunting bow used as a single-stringed musical instrument. From the musical bow, families of stringed instruments developed; since each string played a single note, adding strings added new notes, creating bow harps, harps and lyres. In turn, this led to being able to play dyads and chords. Another innovation occurred when the bow harp was straightened out and a bridge used to lift the strings off the stick-neck, creating the lute.

This picture of musical bow to harp bow is theory and has been contested. In 1965 Franz Jahnel wrote his criticism stating that the early ancestors of plucked instruments are not currently known. He felt that the harp bow was a long cry from the sophistication of the civilizations of western Asia in 4000 BC that took the primitive technology and created "technically and artistically well-made harps, lyres, citharas, and lutes." Archaeological digs have identified some of the earliest stringed instruments in Ancient Mesopotamian sites, like the lyres of Ur, which include artifacts over three thousand years old. The development of lyre instruments required the technology to create a tuning mechanism to tighten and loosen the string tension. Lyres with wooden bodies and strings used for plucking or playing with a bow represent key instruments that point towards later harps and violin-type instruments; moreover, Indian instruments from 500 BC have been discovered with anything from 7 to 21 strings. In Vietnam, a 2,000 year old, singularly stringed instrument made of deer antler was also discovered.

Lutes

 * See: History of lute-family instruments

Musicologists have put forth examples of that 4th-century BC technology, looking at engraved images that have survived. The earliest image showing a lute-like instrument came from Mesopotamia prior to 3000 BC. A cylinder seal from c. 3100 BC or earlier (now in the possession of the British Museum) shows what is thought to be a woman playing a stick lute. From the surviving images, theorists have categorized the Mesopotamian lutes, showing that they developed into a long variety and a short. The line of long lutes may have developed into the tamburs and pandura. The line of short lutes was further developed to the east of Mesopotamia, in Bactria, Gandhara, and Northwest India, and shown in sculpture from the 2nd century BC through the 4th or 5th centuries AD.

During the medieval era, instrument development varied in different regions of the world. Middle Eastern rebecs represented breakthroughs in terms of shape and strings, with a half a pear shape using three strings. Early versions of the violin and fiddle, by comparison, emerged in Europe through instruments such as the gittern, a four-stringed precursor to the guitar, and basic lutes. These instruments typically used catgut (animal intestine) and other materials, including silk, for their strings.

Renaissance to modern
String instrument design was refined during the Renaissance and into the Baroque period (1600–1750) of musical history. Violins and guitars became more consistent in design and were roughly similar to acoustic guitars of the 2000s. The violins of the Renaissance featured intricate woodwork and stringing, while more elaborate bass instruments such as the bandora were produced alongside quill-plucked citterns, and Spanish body guitars.

In the 19th century, string instruments were made more widely available through mass production, with wood string instruments a key part of orchestras – cellos, violas, and upright basses, for example, were now standard instruments for chamber ensembles and smaller orchestras. At the same time, the 19th-century guitar became more typically associated with six-string models, rather than traditional five-string versions.

Major changes to string instruments in the 20th century primarily involved innovations in electronic instrument amplification and electronic music – electric violins were available by the 1920s and were an important part of emerging jazz music trends in the United States. The acoustic guitar was widely used in blues and jazz, but as an acoustic instrument, it was not loud enough to be a solo instrument, so these genres mostly used it as an accompaniment rhythm section instrument. In big bands of the 1920s, the acoustic guitar played backing chords, but it was not loud enough to play solos like the saxophone and trumpet. The development of guitar amplifiers, which contained a power amplifier and a loudspeaker in a wooden cabinet, let jazz guitarists play solos and be heard over a big band. The development of the electric guitar provided guitarists with an instrument that was built to connect to guitar amplifiers. Electric guitars have magnetic pickups, volume control knobs and an output jack.

In the 1960s, larger, more powerful guitar amplifiers were developed, called "stacks". These powerful amplifiers enabled guitarists to perform in rock bands that played in large venues such as stadiums and outdoor music festivals (e.g., Woodstock Music Festival). Along with the development of guitar amplifiers, a large range of electronic effects units, many in small stompbox pedals were introduced in the 1960s and 1970s, such as fuzz pedals, flangers, and phasers enabling performers to create unique new sounds during the psychedelic rock era. Breakthroughs in electric guitar and basses technologies and playing styles enabled major breakthroughs in pop and rock music in the 1960s and 1970s. The distinctive sound of the amplified electric guitar was the centerpiece of new genres of music such as blues rock and jazz-rock fusion. The sonic power of the loudly amplified, highly distorted electric guitar was the key element of the early heavy metal music, with the distorted guitar being used in lead guitar roles, and with power chords as a rhythm guitar.

The ongoing use of electronic amplification and effects units in string instruments, ranging from traditional instruments like the violin to the new electric guitar, added variety to contemporary classical music performances, and enabled experimentation in the dynamic and timbre (tone colour) range of orchestras, bands, and solo performances.

Construction
String instruments can be divided into three groups:
 * Lutes : Instruments that support the strings via a neck and a bout (gourd), for instance a guitar, violin, or saz
 * Harps : Instruments that contain the strings within a frame
 * Zithers : Instruments that have the strings mounted on a body, frame or tube, such as a guqin, cimbalom, autoharp, harpsichord, piano, or valiha

It is also possible to divide the instruments into categories focused on how the instrument is played.

Playing techniques
All string instruments produce sound from one or more vibrating strings, transferred to the air by the body of the instrument (or by a pickup in the case of electronically amplified instruments). They are usually categorised by the technique used to make the strings vibrate (or by the primary technique, in the case of instruments where more than one may apply.) The three most common techniques are plucking, bowing, and striking. An important difference between bowing and plucking is that in the former the phenomenon is periodic so that the overtones are kept in a strictly harmonic relationship to the fundamental.

Plucking
Plucking is a method of playing on instruments such as the veena, banjo, ukulele, guitar, harp, lute, mandolin, oud, and sitar, using either a finger, thumb, or quills (now plastic plectra) to pluck the strings.

Instruments normally played by bowing (see below) may also be plucked, a technique referred to by the Italian term pizzicato.

Bowing
Bowing (Italian: arco) is a method used in some string instruments, including the violin, viola, cello, and the double bass (of the violin family), and the old viol family. The bow consists of a stick with a "ribbon" of parallel horse tail hairs stretched between its ends. The hair is coated with rosin so it can grip the string; moving the hair across a string causes a stick-slip phenomenon, making the string vibrate, and prompting the instrument to emit sound. Darker grades of rosin grip well in cool, dry climates, but may be too sticky in warmer, more humid weather. Violin and viola players generally use harder, lighter-colored rosin than players of lower-pitched instruments, who tend to favor darker, softer rosin.

The ravanahatha is one of the oldest string instruments. Ancestors of the modern bowed string instruments are the rebab of the Islamic Empires, the Persian kamanche and the Byzantine lira. Other bowed instruments are the rebec, hardingfele, nyckelharpa, kokyū, erhu, igil, sarangi, morin khuur, and K'ni. The hurdy-gurdy is bowed by a wheel. Rarely, the guitar has been played with a bow (rather than plucked) for unique effects.

Striking
The third common method of sound production in stringed instruments is to strike the string. The piano and hammered dulcimer use this method of sound production. Even though the piano strikes the strings, the use of felt hammers means that the sound that is produced can nevertheless be mellow and rounded, in contrast to the sharp attack produced when a very hard hammer strikes the strings.

Violin family string instrument players are occasionally instructed to strike the string with the stick of the bow, a technique called col legno. This yields a percussive sound along with the pitch of the note. A well-known use of col legno for orchestral strings is Gustav Holst's "Mars" movement from The Planets suite.

Other methods
The aeolian harp employs a very unusual method of sound production: the strings are excited by the movement of the air.

Some instruments that have strings have an attached keyboard that the player presses keys on to trigger a mechanism that sounds the strings, instead of directly manipulating the strings. These include the piano, the clavichord, and the harpsichord. With these keyboard instruments, strings are occasionally plucked or bowed by hand. Modern composers such as Henry Cowell wrote music that requires that the player reach inside the piano and pluck the strings directly, "bow" them with bow hair wrapped around the strings, or play them by rolling the bell of a brass instrument such as a trombone on the array of strings. However, these are relatively rarely used special techniques.

Other keyed string instruments, small enough for a strolling musician to play, include the plucked autoharp, the bowed nyckelharpa, and the hurdy-gurdy, which is played by cranking a rosined wheel.

Steel-stringed instruments (such as the guitar, bass, violin, etc.) can be played using a magnetic field. An E-Bow is a small hand-held battery-powered device that magnetically excites the strings of an electric string instrument to provide a sustained, singing tone reminiscent of a held bowed violin note.

Third bridge is a plucking method where the player frets a string and strikes the side opposite the bridge. The technique is mainly used on electric instruments because these have a pickup that amplifies only the local string vibration. It is possible on acoustic instruments as well, but less effective. For instance, a player might press on the seventh fret on a guitar and pluck it at the head side to make a tone resonate at the opposing side. On electric instruments, this technique generates multitone sounds reminiscent of a clock or bell.

Electric string instruments, such as the electric guitar, can also be played without touching the strings by using audio feedback. When an electric guitar is plugged into a loud, powerful guitar amplifier with a loudspeaker and a high level of distortion is intentionally used, the guitar produces sustained high-pitched sounds. By changing the proximity of the guitar to the speaker, the guitarist can produce sounds that cannot be produced with standard plucking and picking techniques. This technique was popularized by Jimi Hendrix and others in the 1960s. It was widely used in psychedelic rock and heavy metal music.

Changing the pitch of a vibrating string
There are three ways to change the pitch of a vibrating string. String instruments are tuned by varying a string's tension because adjusting length or mass per unit length is impractical. Instruments with a fingerboard are then played by adjusting the length of the vibrating portion of the strings. The following observations all apply to a string that is infinitely flexible (a theoretical assumption, because in practical applications, strings are not infinitely flexible) strung between two fixed supports. Real strings have finite curvature at the bridge and nut, and the bridge, because of its motion, is not exactly nodes of vibration. Hence the following statements about proportionality are approximations.

Length

Pitch can be adjusted by varying the length of the string. A longer string results in a lower pitch, while a shorter string results in a higher pitch. A concert harp has pedals that cause a hard object to make contact with a string to shorten its vibrating length during a performance. The frequency is inversely proportional to the length:

f \propto \frac{1}{l} $$

A string twice as long produces a tone of half the frequency (one octave lower).

Tension
Pitch can be adjusted by varying the tension of the string. A string with less tension (looser) results in a lower pitch, while a string with greater tension (tighter) results in a higher pitch. Pushing a pedal on a pedal steel guitar raises the pitch of certain strings by increasing tension on them (stretching) through a mechanical linkage; release of the pedal returns the pitch to the original. Knee levers on the instrument can lower a pitch by releasing (and restoring) tension in the same way. A homemade washtub bass made out of a length of rope, a broomstick and a washtub can produce different pitches by increasing the tension on the rope (producing a higher pitch) or reducing the tension (producing a lower pitch). The frequency is proportional to the square root of the tension:

f \propto \sqrt{T} $$

Linear density
The pitch of a string can also be varied by changing the linear density (mass per unit length) of the string. In practical applications, such as with double bass strings or bass piano strings, extra weight is added to strings by winding them with metal. A string with a heavier metal winding produces a lower pitch than a string of equal length without a metal winding. This can be seen on a 2016-era set of gut strings for double bass. The higher-pitched G string is often made of synthetic material, or sometimes animal intestine, with no metal wrapping. To enable the low E string to produce a much lower pitch with a string of the same length, it is wrapped with many wrappings of thin metal wire. This adds to its mass without making it too stiff. The frequency is inversely proportional to the square root of the linear density:

f \propto {1 \over \sqrt{\mu}} $$

Given two strings of equal length and tension, the string with higher mass per unit length produces the lower pitch.

String length or scale length
The length of the string from nut to bridge on bowed or plucked instruments ultimately determines the distance between different notes on the instrument. For example, a double bass with its low range needs a scale length of around 42 in, whilst a violin scale is only about 13 in. On the shorter scale of the violin, the left hand may easily reach a range of slightly more than two octaves without shifting position, while on the bass' longer scale, a single octave or a ninth is reachable in lower positions.

Contact points along the string
In bowed instruments, the bow is normally placed perpendicularly to the string, at a point halfway between the end of the fingerboard and the bridge. However, different bow placements can be selected to change timbre. Application of the bow close to the bridge (known as sul ponticello) produces an intense, sometimes harsh sound, which acoustically emphasizes the upper harmonics. Bowing above the fingerboard (sul tasto) produces a purer tone with less overtone strength, emphasizing the fundamental, also known as flautando, since it sounds less reedy and more flute-like.

Bowed instruments pose a challenge to instrument builders, as compared with instruments that are only plucked (e.g., guitar), because on bowed instruments, the musician must be able to play one string at a time if they wish. As such, a bowed instrument must have a curved bridge that makes the "outer" strings lower in height than the "inner" strings. With such a curved bridge, the player can select one string at a time to play. On guitars and lutes, the bridge can be flat, because the strings are played by plucking them with the fingers, fingernails or a pick; by moving the fingers or pick to different positions, the player can play different strings. On bowed instruments, the need to play strings individually with the bow also limits the number of strings to about six or seven strings; with more strings, it would be impossible to select individual strings to bow. (Note: bowed strings can also play two bowed notes on two different strings at the same time, a technique called a double stop.) Indeed, on the orchestral string section instruments, four strings are the norm, with the exception of five strings used on some double basses. In contrast, with stringed keyboard instruments, 88 courses are used on a piano, and even though these strings are arranged on a flat bridge, the mechanism can play any of the notes individually.

Similar timbral distinctions are also possible with plucked string instruments by selecting an appropriate plucking point, although the difference is perhaps more subtle.

In keyboard instruments, the contact point along the string (whether this be hammer, tangent, or plectrum) is a choice made by the instrument designer. Builders use a combination of experience and acoustic theory to establish the right set of contact points.

In harpsichords, often there are two sets of strings of equal length. These "choirs" usually differ in their plucking points. One choir has a "normal" plucking point, producing a canonical harpsichord sound; the other has a plucking point close to the bridge, producing a reedier "nasal" sound rich in upper harmonics.

Production of multiple notes
A single string at a certain tension and length only produces one note. To produce multiple notes, string instruments use one of two methods. One is to add enough strings to cover the required range of different notes (e.g., as with the piano, which has sets of 88 strings to enable the performer to play 88 different notes). The other is to provide a way to stop the strings along their length to shorten the part that vibrates, which is the method used in guitar and violin family instruments to produce different notes from the same string. The piano and harp represent the first method, where each note on the instrument has its own string or course of multiple strings tuned to the same note. (Many notes on a piano are strung with a "choir" of three strings tuned alike, to increase the volume.) A guitar represents the second method—the player's fingers push the string against the fingerboard so that the string is pressed firmly against a metal fret. Pressing the string against a fret while plucking or strumming it shortens the vibrating part and thus produces a different note.

Some zithers combine stoppable (melody) strings with a greater number of "open" harmony or chord strings. On instruments with stoppable strings, such as the violin or guitar, the player can shorten the vibrating length of the string, using their fingers directly (or more rarely through some mechanical device, as in the nyckelharpa and the hurdy-gurdy). Such instruments usually have a fingerboard attached to the neck of the instrument, that provides a hard flat surface the player can stop the strings against. On some string instruments, the fingerboard has frets, raised ridges perpendicular to the strings, that stop the string at precise intervals, in which case the fingerboard is also called a fretboard.

Moving frets during performance is usually impractical. The bridges of a koto, on the other hand, may be moved by the player occasionally in the course of a single piece of music. Many modern Western harps include levers, either directly moved by fingers (on Celtic harps) or controlled by foot pedals (on orchestral harps), to raise the pitch of individual strings by a fixed amount. The Middle Eastern zither, the qanun, is equipped with small levers called mandal that let each course of multiple strings be incrementally retuned "on the fly" while the instrument is being played. These levers raise or lower the pitch of the string course by a microtone, less than a half step.

Sympathetic strings
Some instruments are employed with sympathetic strings—which are additional strings not meant to be plucked. These strings resonate with the played notes, creating additional tones. Sympathetic strings vibrate naturally when various intervals, such as the unisons or the octaves of the notes of the sympathetic strings are plucked, bowed or struck. This system is used on the sarangi, the grand piano, the hardanger fiddle and the rubab.

Acoustic instruments

A vibrating string strung on a very thick log, as a hypothetical example, would make only a very quiet sound, so string instruments are usually constructed in such a way that the vibrating string is coupled to a hollow resonating chamber, a soundboard, or both. On the violin, for example, the four strings pass over a thin wooden bridge resting on a hollow box (the body of the violin). The normal force applied to the body from the strings is supported in part by a small cylinder of wood called the soundpost. The violin body also has two "f-holes" carved on the top. The strings' vibrations are distributed via the bridge and soundpost to all surfaces of the instrument, and are thus made louder by matching of the acoustic impedance. The correct technical explanation is that they allow a better match to the acoustic impedance of the air.

It is sometimes said that the sounding board or soundbox "amplifies" the sound of the strings. In reality, no power amplification occurs, because all of the energy to produce sound comes from the vibrating string. The mechanism is that the sounding board of the instrument provides a larger surface area to create sound waves than that of the string and therefore acts as a matching element between the acoustic impedance of the string and that of the surrounding air. A larger vibrating surface can sometimes produce better matching; especially at lower frequencies.

All lute type instruments traditionally have a bridge, which holds the string at the proper action height from the fret/finger board at one end of the strings. On acoustic instruments, the bridge performs an equally important function of transmitting string energy into the "sound box" of the instrument, thereby increasing the sound volume. The specific design, and materials used in the construction of the bridge of an instrument, have a dramatic impact upon both the sound and responsiveness of the instrument.

Achieving a tonal characteristic that is effective and pleasing to the player's and listener's ear is something of an art and craft, as well as a science, and the makers of string instruments often seek very high quality woods to this end, particularly spruce (chosen for its lightness, strength and flexibility) and maple (a very hard wood). Spruce is used for the sounding boards of instruments from the violin to the piano. Instruments such as the banjo use a drum, covered in natural or synthetic skin as their soundboard.

Acoustic instruments can also be made out of artificial materials, such as carbon fiber and fiberglass (particularly the larger, lower-pitched instruments, such as cellos and basses).

In the early 20th century, the Stroh violin used a diaphragm-type resonator and a metal horn to project the string sound, much like early mechanical gramophones. Its use declined beginning about 1920, as electronic amplification through power amplifiers and loudspeakers was developed and came into use. String instrument players can electronically amplify their instruments by connecting them to a PA system or a guitar amplifier.

Electronic amplification
Most string instruments can be fitted with piezoelectric or magnetic pickups to convert the string's vibrations into an electrical signal that is amplified and then converted back into sound by loudspeakers. Some players attach a pickup to their traditional string instrument to "electrify" it. Another option is to use a solid-bodied instrument, which reduces unwanted feedback howls or squeals.

Amplified string instruments can be much louder than their acoustic counterparts, so musicians can play them in relatively loud rock, blues, and jazz ensembles. Amplified instruments can also have their amplified tone modified by using electronic effects such as distortion, reverb, or wah-wah.

Bass-register string instruments such as the double bass and the electric bass are amplified with bass instrument amplifiers that are designed to reproduce low-frequency sounds. To modify the tone of amplified bass instruments, a range of electronic bass effects are available, such as distortion and chorus.

Symphonic strings
The string instruments usually used in the orchestra, and often called the "symphonic strings" or string section are:

 * Violins (divided into two sections—first violins and second violins; these sections play exactly the same instruments; the difference is that the first violins play higher-register lines and the second violins play lower-register parts, accompaniment parts or counter-melodies)
 * Violas
 * Cellos
 * Double basses

When orchestral instrumentation specifies "strings", it often means this combination of string parts. Orchestral works rarely omit any of these string parts, but often include additional string instruments, especially the concert harp and piano. In the Baroque orchestra from the 1600s–1750 (or with modern groups playing early music) harpsichord is almost always used to play the basso continuo part (the written-out bass line and improvised chords), and often a theorbo or lute or a pipe organ. In some classical music, such as the string quartet, the double bass is not typically used; the cello plays the bass role in this literature.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: String instrument


text:
Pulitzer Prize for History

The Pulitzer Prize for History, administered by Columbia University, is one of the seven American Pulitzer Prizes that are annually awarded for Letters, Drama, and Music. It has been presented since 1917 for a distinguished book about the history of the United States. Thus it is one of the original Pulitzers, for the program was inaugurated in 1917 with seven prizes, four of which were awarded that year. The Pulitzer Prize program has also recognized some historical work with its Biography prize, from 1917, and its General Non-Fiction prize, from 1962.

Finalists have been announced since 1980, ordinarily two others beside the winner.

Winners
In its first 97 years to 2013, the History Pulitzer was awarded 95 times. Two prizes were given in 1989; none in 1919, 1984, and 1994.

1980s
Entries from this point on include the finalists listed after the winner for each year.

Repeat winners
Five people have won the Pulitzer Prize for History twice.
 * Margaret Leech, 1942 for Reveille in Washington, 1860–1865 and 1960 for In the Days of McKinley
 * Bernard Bailyn, 1968 for The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution and 1987 for Voyagers to the West: A Passage in the Peopling of America on the Eve of the Revolution
 * Paul Horgan, 1955 for Great River: The Rio Grande in North American History and 1976 for Lamy of Santa Fe
 * Alan Taylor, 1996 for William Cooper's Town: Power and Persuasion on the Frontier of the Early American Republic and 2014 for The Internal Enemy: Slavery and War in Virginia, 1772-1832
 * Don E. Fehrenbacher completed The Impending Crisis by David Potter, for which Potter posthumously won the 1977 prize, and won the 1979 prize himself for The Dred Scott Case: Its Significance in American Law and Politics.

title: Pulitzer Prize for History


text:
Pulitzer Prize for Criticism

The Pulitzer Prize for Criticism has been presented since 1970 to a newspaper writer in the United States who has demonstrated 'distinguished criticism'. Recipients of the award are chosen by an independent board and officially administered by Columbia University. The Pulitzer Committee issues an official citation explaining the reasons for the award.

Winners and citations
The Criticism Pulitzer has been awarded to one person annually except in 1992 when it was not awarded—43 prizes in 44 years 1970–2013. Wesley Morris is the only person to have won the prize more than once, winning in 2012 and 2021. In 2020, podcasts and audio reporting became eligible for the prize.

1970s

 * 1970: Ada Louise Huxtable, The New York Times, "for distinguished criticism during 1969"
 * 1971: Harold C. Schonberg, The New York Times, "for his music criticism during 1970"
 * 1972: Frank Peters Jr., St. Louis Post-Dispatch, "for his music criticism during 1971"
 * 1973: Ronald Powers, Chicago Sun-Times, "for his critical writing about television during 1972"
 * 1974: Emily Genauer, Newsday, "for her critical writing about art and artists"
 * 1975: Roger Ebert, Chicago Sun-Times, "for his film criticism during 1974"
 * 1976: Alan M. Kriegsman, The Washington Post, "for his critical writing about dance during 1975"
 * 1977: William McPherson, The Washington Post, "for his contribution to 'Book World'"
 * 1978: Walter Kerr, The New York Times, "for articles on the theater in 1977 and throughout his long career"
 * 1979: Paul Gapp, Chicago Tribune, architecture

1980s

 * 1980: William A. Henry III, The Boston Globe, "for critical writing about television"
 * 1981: Jonathan Yardley, Washington Star, "for his book reviews"
 * 1982: Martin Bernheimer, Los Angeles Times, "for classical music criticism"
 * 1983: Manuela Hoelterhoff, The Wall Street Journal, "for her wide-ranging criticism on the arts and other subjects."
 * 1984: Paul Goldberger, The New York Times, "for architectural criticism"
 * 1985: Howard Rosenberg, Los Angeles Times, "for his television criticism"
 * 1986: Donal Henahan, The New York Times, "for his music criticism"
 * 1987: Richard Eder, Los Angeles Times, "for his book reviews."
 * 1988: Tom Shales, The Washington Post, "for his television criticism"
 * 1989: Michael Skube, The News & Observer (Raleigh, North Carolina), "for his writing about books and other literary topics"

1990s

 * 1990: Allan Temko, San Francisco Chronicle, "for his architecture criticism"
 * 1991: David Shaw, Los Angeles Times, "for his critiques of the way in which the media, including his own paper, reported the McMartin preschool trial"
 * 1992: no award given
 * 1993: Michael Dirda, The Washington Post, "for his book reviews"
 * 1994: Lloyd Schwartz, Boston Phoenix, "for his skillful and resonant classical music criticism"
 * 1995: Margo Jefferson, The New York Times, "for her book reviews and other cultural criticism"
 * 1996: Robert Campbell, The Boston Globe, "for his knowledgeable writing on architecture"
 * 1997: Tim Page, The Washington Post, "for his lucid and illuminating music criticism"
 * 1998: Michiko Kakutani, The New York Times, "for her passionate, intelligent writing on books and contemporary literature"
 * 1999: Blair Kamin, Chicago Tribune, "for his lucid coverage of city architecture, including an influential series supporting the development of Chicago's lakefront area"

2000s

 * 2000: Henry Allen, The Washington Post, "for his fresh and authoritative writing on photography"
 * 2001: Gail Caldwell, The Boston Globe, "for her insightful observations on contemporary life and literature"
 * 2002: Justin Davidson, Newsday, "for his crisp coverage of classical music that captures its essence"
 * 2003: Stephen Hunter, The Washington Post, "for his authoritative film criticism that is both intellectually rewarding and a pleasure to read"
 * 2004: Dan Neil, Los Angeles Times, "for his one-of-a-kind reviews of automobiles, blending technical expertise with offbeat humor and astute cultural observations"
 * 2005: Joe Morgenstern, The Wall Street Journal, "for his reviews that elucidated the strengths and weaknesses of film with rare insight, authority and wit"
 * 2006: Robin Givhan, The Washington Post, "for her witty, closely observed essays that transform fashion criticism into cultural criticism"
 * 2007: Jonathan Gold, LA Weekly, "for his zestful, wide ranging restaurant reviews, expressing the delight of an erudite eater"
 * 2008: Mark Feeney, The Boston Globe, "for his penetrating and versatile command of the visual arts, from film and photography to painting"
 * 2009: Holland Cotter, The New York Times, "for his wide ranging reviews of art, from Manhattan to China, marked by acute observation, luminous writing and dramatic storytelling"

2010s

 * 2010: Sarah Kaufman, The Washington Post, "for her refreshingly imaginative approach to dance criticism, illuminating a range of issues and topics with provocative comments and original insights"
 * 2011: Sebastian Smee, The Boston Globe, "for his vivid and exuberant writing about art, often bringing great works to life with love and appreciation"
 * 2012: Wesley Morris, The Boston Globe, "for his smart, inventive film criticism, distinguished by pinpoint prose and an easy traverse between the art house and the big-screen box office"
 * Philip Kennicott of The Washington Post, "for his ambitious and insightful cultural criticism, taking on topical events from the uprisings in Egypt to the dedication of the Ground Zero memorial".
 * Tobi Tobias "for work appearing on ArtsJournal.com that reveals passion as well as deep historical knowledge of dance".
 * 2013: Philip Kennicott, The Washington Post, "for his eloquent and passionate essays on art and the social forces that underlie it, a critic who always strives to make his topics and targets relevant to readers"
 * Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times, "for her searching television criticism that often becomes a springboard for provocative comments on the culture at large."
 * Manohla Dargis of The New York Times, "for her enlightening movie criticism, vividly written and showing deep understanding of the business and art of filmmaking."
 * 2014: Inga Saffron, The Philadelphia Inquirer, "for her criticism of architecture that blends expertise, civic passion and sheer readability into arguments that consistently stimulate and surprise"
 * Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times, "for her trenchant and witty television criticism, engaging readers through essays and reviews that feature a conversational style and the force of fresh ideas."
 * Jen Graves of The Stranger, Seattle, "for her visual arts criticism that, with elegant and vivid description, informs readers about how to look at the complexities of contemporary art and the world in which it's made."
 * 2015: Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times, "for savvy criticism that uses shrewdness, humor and an insider’s view to show how both subtle and seismic shifts in the cultural landscape affect television."
 * Manohla Dargis of The New York Times, "for film criticism that rises from a sweeping breadth of knowledge – social, cultural, cinematic – while always keeping the viewer front and center."
 * Stephanie Zacharek of The Village Voice, "for film criticism that combines the pleasure of intellectual exuberance, the perspective of experience and the transporting power of good writing."
 * 2016: Emily Nussbaum of The New Yorker, "for television reviews written with an affection that never blunts the shrewdness of her analysis or the easy authority of her writing."
 * Hilton Als of The New Yorker, "for theater reviews written with such erudition and linguistic sensitivity that they often become larger than their subjects."
 * Manohla Dargis of The New York Times, "for reviews and essays that take on the sacred cows of film culture with considerable style and admirable literary and historical reach."
 * 2017: Hilton Als of The New Yorker, "for bold and original reviews that strove to put stage dramas within a real-world cultural context, particularly the shifting landscape of gender, sexuality and race."
 * Laura Reiley of Tampa Bay Times, "for lively restaurant reviews, including a series that took on the false claims of the farm-to-table movement and prompted statewide investigations."
 * Ty Burr of The Boston Globe, "for a wide range of finely cut reviews of films and other cultural topics written with wit, deep sensibility and a refreshing lack of pretension."
 * 2018: Jerry Saltz of New York, "for a robust body of work that conveyed a canny and often daring perspective on visual art in America, encompassing the personal, the political, the pure and the profane."
 * Carlos Lozada of The Washington Post, "for criticism that dug deep into the books that have shaped political discourse — engaging seriously with scholarly works, partisan screeds and popular works of history and biography to produce columns and essays that plumbed the cultural and political genealogy of our current national divide.”
 * Manohla Dargis of The New York Times, "for writing, both downbeat and uplifting, that demonstrated the critic’s sustained dedication to exposing male dominance in Hollywood and decrying the exploitation of women in the film business."
 * 2019: Carlos Lozada of The Washington Post, "for trenchant and searching reviews and essays that joined warm emotion and careful analysis in examining a broad range of books addressing government and the American experience."
 * Jill Lepore of The New Yorker, for "critical, yet restrained, explorations of incredibly varied subjects, from Frankenstein to Ruth Bader Ginsburg, that combined literary nuance with intellectual rigor."
 * Manohla Dargis of The New York Times, for "authoritative film criticism that considered the impact of movies both inside the theater and in the wider world with rare passion, craftsmanship and insight."

2020s

 * 2020: Christopher Knight of the Los Angeles Times, for "work demonstrating extraordinary community service by a critic, applying his expertise and enterprise to critique a proposed overhaul of the L.A. County Museum of Art and its effect on the institution's mission."
 * Justin Davidson of New York, for "architecture reviews marked by a keen eye, deep knowledge and exquisite writing, as exemplified by his essay on Manhattan’s Hudson Yards development."
 * Soraya Nadia McDonald of The Undefeated, for "essays on theater and film that bring a fresh, delightful intelligence to the intersections of race and art."
 * 2021: Wesley Morris of the New York Times, for "unrelentingly relevant and deeply engaged criticism on the intersection of race and culture in America, written in a singular style, alternately playful and profound." Morris also won the award in 2012 and is now the first person to win the Pulitzer Prize for Criticism more than once.
 * Craig Jenkins of New York, for "writing on a range of popular topics, including social media, music and comedy, contending with the year’s disarray and exploring how culture and conversation can both flourish and break down online."
 * Mark Swed of the Los Angeles Times, for "a series of critical essays that broke through the silence of the pandemic to recommend an eclectic array of recordings as entertainment and solace essential to the moment, drawing deep connections to seven centuries of classical music."
 * 2022: Salamishah Tillet of The New York Times, "For learned and stylish writing about Black stories in art and popular culture–work that successfully bridges academic and nonacademic critical discourse."
 * Peter Schjeldahl of The New Yorker, "For accessible and dedicated art criticism that introduces or revisits painters, institutions and movements, offering tender appreciations and unflinching dissents."
 * Sophie Gilbert of The Atlantic, "For articles that bring clarity and insight to questions concerning gender norms, feminism, and popular culture."
 * 2023: Andrea Long Chu of New York, "For book reviews that scrutinize authors as well as their works, using multiple cultural lenses to explore some of society’s most fraught topics."
 * Jason Farago of The New York Times, "For art criticism, especially for taking a critical eye to the frontlines of Ukraine to explore the cultural dimensions of the war, including verifying damages to architecture and other sites and explaining Russia’s efforts to erase the Ukrainian identity."
 * Lyndsay C. Green of the Detroit Free Press, "For rigorously reported coverage of restaurant openings and recommended dishes that also serve as an immersive cultural portrait of a vital American city."
 * 2024: Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times, "For richly evocative and genre-spanning film criticism that reflects on the contemporary moviegoing experience."
 * Vinson Cunningham of The New Yorker, "For theater reviews that reflect a formidable knowledge of the stage and the mechanics of performance along with canny observations on the human condition."
 * Zadie Smith of The New York Review of Books, "For a review of the film Tár that addressed with wit and ease such consequential themes as mortality and the clash of generations."

title: Pulitzer Prize for Criticism


text:
Bitstream

A bitstream (or bit stream), also known as binary sequence, is a sequence of bits. A bytestream is a sequence of bytes. Typically, each byte is an 8-bit quantity, and so the term octet stream is sometimes used interchangeably. An octet may be encoded as a sequence of 8 bits in multiple different ways (see bit numbering) so there is no unique and direct translation between bytestreams and bitstreams.

Bitstreams and bytestreams are used extensively in telecommunications and computing. For example, synchronous bitstreams are carried by SONET, and Transmission Control Protocol transports an asynchronous bytestream.

Relationship to bytestreams
In practice, bitstreams are not used directly to encode bytestreams; a communication channel may use a signalling method that does not directly translate to bits (for instance, by transmitting signals of multiple frequencies) and typically also encodes other information such as framing and error correction together with its data.

Examples
The term bitstream is frequently used to describe the configuration data to be loaded into a field-programmable gate array (FPGA). Although most FPGAs also support a byte-parallel loading method as well, this usage may have originated based on the common method of configuring the FPGA from a serial bit stream, typically from a serial PROM or flash memory chip. The detailed format of the bitstream for a particular FPGA is typically proprietary to the FPGA vendor.

In mathematics, several specific infinite sequences of bits have been studied for their mathematical properties; these include the Baum–Sweet sequence, Ehrenfeucht–Mycielski sequence, Fibonacci word, Kolakoski sequence, regular paperfolding sequence, Rudin–Shapiro sequence, and Thue–Morse sequence.

On most operating systems, including Unix-like and Windows, standard I/O libraries convert lower-level paged or buffered file access to a bytestream paradigm. In particular, in Unix-like operating systems, each process has three standard streams, which are examples of unidirectional bytestreams. The Unix pipe mechanism provides bytestream communications between different processes.

Compression algorithms often code in bitstreams, as the 8 bits offered by a byte (the smallest addressable unit of memory) may be wasteful. Although typically implemented in low-level languages, some high-level languages such as Python and Java offer native interfaces for bitstream I/O.

One well-known example of a communication protocol which provides a byte-stream service to its clients is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) of the Internet protocol suite, which provides a bidirectional bytestream.

The Internet media type for an arbitrary bytestream is application/octet-stream. Other media types are defined for bytestreams in well-known formats.

Flow control
Often the contents of a bytestream are dynamically created, such as the data from the keyboard and other peripherals (/dev/tty), data from the pseudorandom number generator (/dev/urandom), etc.

In those cases, when the destination of a bytestream (the consumer) uses bytes faster than they can be generated, the system uses process synchronization to make the destination wait until the next byte is available.

When bytes are generated faster than the destination can use them and the producer is a software algorithm, the system pauses it with the same process synchronization techniques. When the producer supports flow control, the system only sends the ready signal when the consumer is ready for the next byte. When the producer can not be paused—a keyboard or some hardware that does not support flow control—the system typically attempts to temporarily store the data until the consumer is ready for it, typically using a queue. Often the receiver can empty the buffer before it gets completely full. A producer that continues to produce data faster than it can be consumed, even after the buffer is full, leads to unwanted buffer overflow, packet loss, network congestion, and denial of service.

title: Bitstream


text:
User:Jackokring

Jacko from Jackson. Sometimes aliased to Jaxon of Jaxon Modulation infamy.

kring from k ring, something to do with k being used alot in number theory and a ring describing a mathematical group structure.

K Ring Technologies is me being forward with the data compression thing.

title: User:Jackokring


text:
Otto Neurath

Otto Karl Wilhelm Neurath (10 December 1882 – 22 December 1945) was an Austrian-born philosopher of science, sociologist, and political economist. He was also the inventor of the ISOTYPE method of pictorial statistics and an innovator in museum practice. Before he fled his native country in 1934, Neurath was one of the leading figures of the Vienna Circle.

Early life
Neurath was born in Vienna, the son of Wilhelm Neurath (1840–1901), a well-known political economist at the time. Otto's mother was a Protestant, and he would also become one. Helene Migerka was his cousin. He studied mathematics and physics at the University of Vienna (he formally enrolled for classes only for two semesters in 1902–3). In 1906, he gained his PhD in the department of Political Science and Statistics at the University of Berlin with a thesis entitled Zur Anschauung der Antike über Handel, Gewerbe und Landwirtschaft (On the Conceptions in Antiquity of Trade, Commerce and Agriculture).

He married Anna Schapire in 1907, who died in 1911 while bearing their son, Paul, and then married a close friend, the mathematician and philosopher Olga Hahn. Perhaps because of his second wife's blindness and then because of the outbreak of war, Paul was sent to a children's home outside Vienna, where Neurath's mother lived, and returned to live with both of his parents when he was nine years old.

Career in Vienna
Neurath taught political economy at the New Vienna Commercial Academy in Vienna until war broke out. Subsequently, he directed the Department of War Economy in the War Ministry. In 1917, he completed his habilitation thesis Die Kriegswirtschaftslehre und ihre Bedeutung für die Zukunft (War Economics and Their Importance for the Future) at Heidelberg University. In 1918, he became director of the Deutsches Kriegswirtschaftsmuseum (German Museum of War Economy, later the "Deutsches Wirtschaftsmuseum") at Leipzig. Here he worked with Wolfgang Schumann, known from the Dürerbund for which Neurath had written many articles. During the political crisis which led to the armistice, Schumann urged him to work out a plan for socialization in Saxony. Along with Schumann and Hermann Kranold developed the Programm Kranold-Neurath-Schumann. Neurath then joined the German Social Democratic Party in 1918–19 and ran an office for central economic planning in Munich. When the Bavarian Soviet Republic was defeated, Neurath was imprisoned but returned to Austria after intervention from the Austrian government. While in prison, he wrote Anti-Spengler, a critical attack on Oswald Spengler's Decline of the West.

In Red Vienna, he joined the Social Democrats and became secretary of the Austrian Association for Settlements and Small Gardens (Verband für Siedlungs-und Kleingartenwesen), a collection of self-help groups that set out to provide housing and garden plots to its members. In 1923, he founded a new museum for housing and city planning called Siedlungsmuseum. In 1925 he renamed it Gesellschafts- und Wirtschaftsmuseum in Wien (Museum of Society and Economy in Vienna) and founded an association for it, in which the Vienna city administration, the trade unions, the Chamber of Workers and the Bank of Workers became members. Then-mayor Karl Seitz acted as first proponent of the association. Julius Tandler, city councillor for welfare and health, served at the first board of the museum together with other prominent social democratic politicians. The museum was provided with exhibition rooms at buildings of the city administration, the most prominent being the People's Hall at the Vienna City Hall.

To make the museum understandable for visitors from all around the polyglot Austro-Hungarian Empire, Neurath worked on graphic design and visual education, believing that "Words divide, pictures unite," a coinage of his own that he displayed on the wall of his office there. In the late 1920s, graphic designer and communications theorist Rudolf Modley served as an assistant to Neurath, contributing to a new means of communication: a visual "language." With the illustrator Gerd Arntz and with Marie Reidemeister (who he would marry in 1941), Neurath developed novel ways of representing quantitative information via easily interpretable icons. The forerunner of contemporary Infographics, he initially called this the Vienna Method of Pictorial Statistics. As his ambitions for the project expanded beyond social and economic data related to Vienna, he renamed the project "Isotype", an acronymic nickname for the project's full title: International System of Typographic Picture Education. At international conventions of city planners, Neurath presented and promoted his communication tools. During the 1930s, he also began promoting Isotype as an International Picture Language, connecting it both with the adult education movement and with the Internationalist passion for new and artificial languages like Esperanto, although he stressed in talks and correspondence that Isotype was not intended to be a stand-alone language and was limited in what it could communicate.

In the 1920s, Neurath also became an ardent logical positivist, and was the main author of the Vienna Circle manifesto. He was the driving force behind the Unity of Science movement and the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science.

Netherlands
During the Austrian Civil War in 1934, Neurath had been working in Moscow. Anticipating problems, he had asked to get a coded message in case it would be dangerous for him to return to Austria. As Marie Reidemeister reported later, after receiving the telegram "Carnap is waiting for you," Neurath chose to travel to The Hague, the Netherlands, instead of Vienna, to be able to continue his international work. He was joined by Arntz after affairs in Vienna had been sorted out as best they could. His wife also fled to the Netherlands, where she died in 1937.

British Isles
After the Luftwaffe had bombed Rotterdam, he and Marie Reidemeister fled to Britain, crossing the Channel with other refugees in an open boat. He and Reidemeister married in 1941 after a period of being interned on the Isle of Man (Neurath was in Onchan Camp). In Britain, he and his wife set up the Isotype Institute in Oxford and he was asked to advise on, and design Isotype charts for, the intended redevelopment of the slums of Bilston, near Wolverhampton.

Neurath died of a stroke, suddenly and unexpectedly, in December 1945. After his death, Marie Neurath continued the work of the Isotype Institute, publishing Neurath's writings posthumously, completing projects he had started and writing many children's books using the Isotype system, until her death in the 1980s.

Philosophy of science and language
Neurath's work on protocol statements tried to reconcile an empiricist concern for the grounding of knowledge in experience with the essential publicity of science. Neurath suggested that reports of experience should be understood to have a third-person and hence public and impersonal character, rather than as being first person subjective pronouncements. Bertrand Russell took issue with Neurath's account of protocol statements in his book An Inquiry Into Meaning and Truth (p. 139ff), on the grounds that it severed the connection to experience that is essential to an empiricist account of truth, facts and knowledge.

One of Neurath's later and most important works, Physicalism, completely transformed the nature of the logical positivist discussion of the program of unifying the sciences. Neurath delineates and explains his points of agreement with the general principles of the positivist program and its conceptual bases: He then rejects the positivist treatment of language in general and, in particular, some of Wittgenstein's early fundamental ideas.
 * the construction of a universal system which would comprehend all of the knowledge furnished by the various sciences, and
 * the absolute rejection of metaphysics, in the sense of any propositions not translatable into verifiable scientific sentences.

First, Neurath rejects isomorphism between language and reality as useless metaphysical speculation, which would call for explaining how words and sentences could represent things in the external world. Instead, Neurath proposed that language and reality coincide—that reality consists in simply the totality of previously verified sentences in the language, and "truth" of a sentence is about its relationship to the totality of already verified sentences. If a sentence fails to "concord" (or cohere) with the totality of already verified sentences, then either it should be considered false, or some of that totality's propositions must be modified somehow. He thus views truth as internal coherence of linguistic assertions, rather than anything to do with facts or other entities in the world. Moreover, the criterion of verification is to be applied to the system as a whole (see semantic holism) and not to single sentences. Such ideas profoundly shaped the holistic verificationism of Willard Van Orman Quine. Quine's book Word and Object (p. 3f) made famous Neurath's analogy which compares the holistic nature of language and consequently scientific verification with the construction of a boat which is already at sea (cf. Ship of Theseus):

"We are like sailors who on the open sea must reconstruct their ship but are never able to start afresh from the bottom. Where a beam is taken away a new one must at once be put there, and for this the rest of the ship is used as support. In this way, by using the old beams and driftwood the ship can be shaped entirely anew, but only by gradual reconstruction."

Keith Stanovich discusses this metaphor in context of memes and memeplexes and refers to this metaphor as a "Neurathian bootstrap".

Neurath also rejected the notion that science should be reconstructed in terms of sense data, because perceptual experiences are too subjective to constitute a valid foundation for the formal reconstruction of science. Thus, the phenomenological language that most positivists were still emphasizing was to be replaced by the language of mathematical physics. This would allow for the required objective formulations because it is based on spatio-temporal coordinates. Such a physicalistic approach to the sciences would facilitate the elimination of every residual element of metaphysics because it would permit them to be reduced to a system of assertions relative to physical facts.

"Finally, Neurath suggested that since language itself is a physical system, because it is made up of an ordered succession of sounds or symbols, it is capable of describing its own structure without contradiction."

These ideas helped form the foundation of the sort of physicalism which remains the dominant position in metaphysics and especially the philosophy of mind.

Economics
In economics, Neurath was notable for his advocacy of ideas like "in-kind" economic accounting in place of monetary accounting. In the 1920s, he also advocated Vollsozialisierung, that is "complete" rather than merely partial "socialization". Thus, he advocated changes to the economic system that were more radical than those of the mainstream Social-Democratic parties of Germany and Austria. In the 1920s, Neurath debated these matters with leading Social Democratic theoreticians (such as Karl Kautsky, who insisted that money is necessary in a socialist economy). While serving as a government economist during the war, Neurath had observed that "As a result of the war, in-kind calculus was applied more often and more systematically than before ... war was fought with ammunition and with the supply of food, not with money" i.e. that goods were incommensurable. This convinced Neurath of the feasibility of economic planning in terms of amounts of goods and services, without use of money. In response to these ideas, Ludwig von Mises wrote his famous essay of 1920, "Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth".

Otto Neurath believed it was 'war socialism' that would come into effect after capitalism. For Neurath, war economies showed advantages in speed of decision and execution, optimal distribution of means relative to (military) goals, and no-nonsense evaluation and utilization of inventiveness. Two disadvantages which he perceived as resulting from centralized decision-making were a reduction in productivity and a loss of the benefits of simple economic exchanges; but he thought that the reduction in productivity could be mitigated by means of "scientific" techniques based on analysis of work-flows etc. as advocated by Frederick Winslow Taylor. Neurath believed that socio-economic theory and scientific methods could be applied together in contemporary practice.

Neurath's view on socioeconomic development was similar to the materialist conception of history first elaborated in classical Marxism, in which technology and the state of epistemology come into conflict with social organization. In particular, Neurath, influenced also by James George Frazer, associated the rise of scientific thinking and empiricism / positivism with the rise of socialism, both of which were coming into conflict with older modes of epistemology such as theology (which was allied with idealist philosophy), the latter of which served reactionary purposes. However, Neurath followed Frazer in claiming that primitive magic closely resembled modern technology, implying an instrumentalist interpretation of both. Neurath claimed that magic was unfalsifiable and therefore disenchantment could never be complete in a scientific age. Adherents of the scientific view of the world recognize no authority other than science and reject all forms of metaphysics. Under the socialist phase of history, Neurath predicted that the scientific worldview would become the dominant mode of thought.

Selected publications
Most publications by and about Neurath are still available only in German. However he also wrote in English, using Ogden's Basic English. His scientific papers are held at the Noord-Hollands Archief in Haarlem; the Otto and Marie Neurath Isotype Collection is held in the Department of Typography & Graphic Communication at the University of Reading in England.

Books

 * 1913. Serbiens Erfolge im Balkankriege: Eine wirtschaftliche und soziale Studie. Wien : Manz.
 * 1921. Anti-Spengler. München, Callwey Verlag.
 * 1926. Antike Wirtschaftsgeschichte. Leipzig, Berlin: B. G. Teubner.
 * 1928. Lebensgestaltung und Klassenkampf. Berlin: E. Laub.
 * 1933. Einheitswissenschaft und Psychologie. Wien.
 * 1936. International Picture Language; the First Rules of Isotype. London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & co., ltd., 1936
 * 1937. Basic by Isotype. London, K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & co., ltd.
 * 1939. Modern Man in the Making. Alfred A. Knopf
 * 1944. Foundations of the Social Sciences. University of Chicago Press
 * 1944. International Encyclopedia of Unified Science. With Rudolf Carnap, and Charles W. Morris (eds.). University of Chicago Press.
 * 1946. Philosophical Papers, 1913–1946: With a Bibliography of Neurath in English. Marie Neurath and Robert S. Cohen, with Carolyn R. Fawcett, eds. 1983
 * 1973. Empiricism and Sociology. Marie Neurath and Robert Cohen, eds. With a selection of biographical and autobiographical sketches by Popper and Carnap. Includes abridged translation of Anti-Spengler.

Articles

 * 1912. The problem of the pleasure maximum. In: Cohen and Neurath (eds.) 1983
 * 1913. The lost wanderers of Descartes and the auxiliary motive. In: Cohen and Neurath 1983
 * 1916. On the classification of systems of hypotheses. In: Cohen and Neurath 1983
 * 1919. Through war economy to economy in kind. In: Neurath 1973 (a short fragment only)
 * 1920a. Total socialisation. In: Cohen and Uebel 2004
 * 1920b. A system of socialisation. In: Cohen and Uebel 2004
 * 1928. Personal life and class struggle. In: Neurath 1973
 * 1930. Ways of the scientific world-conception. In: Cohen and Neurath 1983
 * 1931a. The current growth in global productive capacity. In: Cohen and Uebel 2004
 * 1931b. Empirical sociology. In: Neurath 1973
 * 1931c. Physikalismus. In: Scientia : rivista internazionale di sintesi scientifica, 50, 1931, pp. 297–303
 * 1932. Protokollsätze (Protocol statements).In: Erkenntnis, Vol. 3. Repr.: Cohen and Neurath 1983
 * 1935a. Pseudorationalism of falsification. In: Cohen and Neurath 1983
 * 1935b. The unity of science as a task. In: Cohen and Neurath 1983
 * 1937. Die neue enzyklopaedie des wissenschaftlichen empirismus. In: Scientia: rivista internazionale di sintesi scientifica, 62, 1937, pp. 309–320
 * 1938 'The Departmentalization of Unified Science', Erkenntnis VII, pp. 240–46
 * 1940. Argumentation and action. The Otto Neurath Nachlass in Haarlem 198 K.41
 * 1941. The danger of careless terminology. In: The New Era 22: 145–50
 * 1942. International planning for freedom. In: Neurath 1973
 * 1943. Planning or managerial revolution. (Review of J. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution). The New Commonwealth 148–54
 * 1943–5. Neurath–Carnap correspondence, 1943–1945. The Otto Neurath Nachlass in Haarlem, 223
 * 1944b. Ways of life in a world community. The London Quarterly of World Affairs, 29–32
 * 1945a. Physicalism, planning and the social sciences: bricks prepared for a discussion v. Hayek. 26 July 1945. The Otto Neurath Nachlass in Haarlem 202 K.56
 * 1945b. Neurath–Hayek correspondence, 1945. The Otto Neurath Nachlass in Haarlem 243
 * 1945c. Alternatives to market competition. (Review of F. Hayek, The Road to Serfdom). The London Quarterly of World Affairs 121–2
 * 1946a. The orchestration of the sciences by the encyclopedism of logical empiricism. In: Cohen and. Neurath 1983
 * 1946b. After six years. In: Synthese 5:77–82
 * 1946c. The orchestration of the sciences by the encyclopedism of logical empiricism. In: Cohen and. Neurath 1983
 * 1946. From Hieroglyphics to Isotypes. Nicholson and Watson. Excerpts. Rotha (1946) claims that this is in part Neurath's autobiography.

title: Otto Neurath


text:
User talk:Jsc1973

Hello there, welcome to the 'pedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you need any questions answered about the project then check out Help or drop me a line. Cheers! --maveric149

Article Licensing
Hi, I've started a drive to get users to multi-license all of their contributions that they've made to either (1) all U.S. state, county, and city articles or (2) all articles, using the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike (CC-by-sa) v1.0 and v2.0 Licenses or into the public domain if they prefer. The CC-by-sa license is a true free documentation license that is similar to Wikipedia's license, the GFDL, but it allows other projects, such as WikiTravel, to use our articles. Since you are among the top 2000 Wikipedians by edits, I was wondering if you would be willing to multi-license all of your contributions or at minimum those on the geographic articles. Over 90% of people asked have agreed. For More Information:
 * Multi-Licensing FAQ - Lots of questions answered
 * Multi-Licensing Guide
 * Free the Rambot Articles Project

To allow us to track those users who muli-license their contributions, many users copy and paste the " " template into their user page, but there are other options at Template messages/User namespace. The following examples could also copied and pasted into your user page:

 * Option 1
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions, with the exception of my user pages, as described below:

OR
 * Option 2
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions to any U.S. state, county, or city article as described below:

Or if you wanted to place your work into the public domain, you could replace " " with "  ". If you only prefer using the GFDL, I would like to know that too. Please let me know what you think at my talk page. It's important to know either way so no one keeps asking. -- Ram-Man (comment| talk)

Sounds OK by me. I added the text to my user page. user:Jsc1973

Narses
Hi there-

I notice you have a link to Narses on your main user page. That page was getting a bit cluttered with bios of multiple people, and not all links going to it were correct. I deleted all content on the page not related to the most famous Narses (the eunuch general who conquered Italy for Justinian) and moved links to the others to Narses (disambiguation). Just thought I'd let you know in case you need to change your link! --Jfruh 18:41, 22 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Thanks!!
Dear Jsc! Thanks for defending the Pryor and Arguello articles I originated. The Arguello article was my fifth article here, back then, I thought I could write like if it was Ring Magazine! lol...so I admit I had to do major there recently. The Pryor article's POV nomination was out of left field by the person who nominated it!!! By then I was a little more seasoned and knew the NPOV rules. Kinda fnny how mostly everyone saw Pryor as bad and Arguello as good then and things have kinda turned around in their lives...

Thanks also for helping with some articles I originated such as Lucia Rijker..what do you think about her upcoming bout with Martin/ I don't know personally, Martin was made look bad by Laila.

If you; like me, enjoy boxing since you were a kid you might want to check Boxing in the 1980s, which I also originated, as well as the article on the Pryor versus Arguello fights, another of my originals, hehe. Also, Wilfredo Gomez and Wilfred Benitez, among others.

TThanks so much and God bless you!

Sincerely yours, Antonio Wilfredo Gomez had the punch of gold Martin

I think the person who challenged the NPOV of the Pryor and Arguello articles didn't know all the facts about Panama Lewis and the black bottle incident. It's a major part of boxing history and absolutely has to be in the articles about the principals in that fight.

Looks like Rijker and Martin isn't going to come off, which doesn't surprise me. They should have fought seven years ago, today Sumya Anani would beat the tar out of either one of them, which is why neither of them will go near her. Christy tried that in her prime, we saw what happened.

Jfruh--No problem about the Narses article. user:Jsc1973

Precession and the "north star"
Hi there! I noticed you added some interesting information to Thuban about when it was closest to the celestial north pole. Would you consider using your software to create a list of north stars? I think it would be a valuable and interesting contribution. If you ignore the proper motion of the stars involved, then you should have a cyclic sequence of north stars with a period of 25800 years or so. --Doradus 13:10, 2 April 2006 (UTC)

When I have the time, I'll do that. The SkyChart III software I used does take proper motion into account, but for the most part, things are about as you'd expect them to be for the next 25,000 years or so. In the meantime, I ran more star charts on Thuban and found out when it would again be very near the pole. user:Jsc1973 02:13, 5 April 2006

Ivory Coast move
Since you participated in previous discussions on Ivory Coast, you might be interested in the requested move at Talk:C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire. —  AjaxSmack     05:54, 12 January 2007 (UTC)
 * I said what I had to say on that one. If we don't have to call Russia "Россия", and the Germans can call France "Frankreich", and the Mexicans can call us "Estados Unidos" and all of that is OK, then the English speakers of the world don't have to refer to Ivory Coast in pidgin French just because their government wants us to. Jsc1973 08:03, 11 February 2007 (UTC)

Rubin Carter
John, I'm circling back around on an issue that appears on the Rubin Carter Discussion page. An anonymous user identifies the pistol that Carter had n London as an Arminius .32 - which was the type used in the murders. I have not, however, been able to find any other source/authority for this fact. I believe you added the original "Duff" information to te article, and I suspect your source was the Duff autobiography. Do you have any other information on this incident? Thanks - Dra1948 (talk) 20:42, 16 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Sorry, to be honest I have no idea what is being referred to here. I think I was the original author of the Rubin Carter article, or at least the first one to make a significant contribution to it. But the information I put in the article made no reference to Carter purchasing a .32 in London and that fact that he may have done so is something I didn't know. Very little, if any, of what is in that article now is my work. It got hatcheted to death by people pushing their own agendas, and I washed my hands of the subject long ago. Jsc1973 (talk) 08:09, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

Hundred Years War
Hello there.I see you are interested in the Hundred Years War and that both you and I recognize Henry VI as King of France.Regarding the Treaty of Troyes.You have to understand that Charles VII usurped legal authority from Charles VI and refused a Courts Summon to Paris.This is constructed as Lese-Majesty(Injury to the Soveriegn) or Treason to Charles VI whom was the King of France and the person whom Charles VII refused.He was found guilty by a legal summons in Paris or a lit-de justice.This renderd him legaly incapable of Succestion So Charles VII disinheritence was legal through the lit-de justice not the Treaty of Troyes.Now we have just proven that Charles VII was legaly dissinherited and legaly incapable of succestion so thus he has to right to be removed from the entire Dynastic succestion.Problem no.1 Gone.Problem no.2 was the Salic Law OR Law Sallica.Salic Law states that no women can succeded or a claim through a Women.However Salic Law had no contrevention or any attack on the Treaty of Troyes.This is proven in one of the Clauses that says Henry(Henry V) shall take Isebaue(Queen of France) and Charles VI as Father and Mother and unto Henry his son.This meant that Henry was Adopted Son so there was no contrevention of Salic Law.As the Succestion of thrones clearly says the Sons of the French King can inherit in the succestion.Henry was a son of Charles VI.Now we just proved there s no contrevention of Salic Law.Problem No.3 The French Aruement of Alienating the Throne to Foriegners and the arguement that Charles VI was mad when the Treaty was concluded.Here is a predescent to refute this.In terms expressly provided the realms of England and France must ratify this.In current jurisict theroy this was the safest way in which the laws of a country could be changed and inncorperated was by the power of the whole people and there soveriegn(collective or personal) and this ratification was indeed done:was that not the manner in which the power and authority of the Roman Republic tranferd to the Emperors in Antique Days.Armed with this awsome predescent this was in a way altering the fundemental law of succestion that Civilians could understand and defend.To butress further the legal binding force of the Treaty oaths were sought independently by the lords.One obvious example was the Duke of Burgundy.Anyone whom was in breach of these oaths were consderd traitoirs.Philips point of view at the Congrass of Arass however was to have his oath to the Treaty declared invalid.The only way he could break his oath was through a papal legate which he later recieved to break his oath from the treaty.

http://books.google.com/books?id=Qv9PlGCLy4YC&pg=PA235&dq=the+legality+of+the+treaty+of+troyes

http://books.google.ie/books?id=qLKF0LCPlsIC&pg=PA63&lpg=PA63&dq=The+Treaty+of+Troyes+ended+Salic+Law&source=bl&ots=Gz0XCciaFN&sig=ue_TDF0fqeHvB5GQgg0Lc2dFKMk&hl=en&ei=EWFCSvDoMoWc_AbbiPjOCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1

P.S.Dont mind the de facto and de jure stuff.Both Henry VI and Charles VII Were de jure Kings of France snce they both claimed France not neccesairly meaning having a undispted claim.The main facts you should anknowledge is the actual de facto controll within France.De jure is nonscence in most casses and meanningless but de facto however is important.Henry VI was King of France from 1422-1453.Charles corination in 1429 only marked the beginning of the End and the English founded harder to link there kingship back to the treaty.

Here are the refs:

 * http://books.google.ie/books?id=keUoHXulnewC&pg=PA128&dq=Henry+VI+of+England+crowned+king+of+France#PPA128,M1

 * http://books.google.ie/books?id=G5yuNbIuPKwC&pg=PA95&dq=Henry+V+adopted+son+of+Charles+VI&as_brr=3

 * http://books.google.com/books?id=Qv9PlGCLy4YC&pg=PA235&dq=the+legality+of+the+treaty+of+troyes

 * Here is a book confirming Henry VI dual blood from valois and Lancaster:Read.:

http://books.google.com/books?id=gFfaD4JdZhwC&pg=PA45&dq=Henry+VI+dual-monarchy

http://books.google.com/books?id=7SL1bVtfP08C&pg=PA93&dq=Henry+VI+dual-monarchy

http://books.google.com/books?id=_JDOVMDi8d4C&pg=PA601&dq=Henry+VI+dual-monarchy&lr=

http://books.google.com/books?id=Qzc8OeuSXFMC&pg=PA464&dq=Henry+VI+dual-monarchy&lr=

main book:

http://books.google.com/books?id=kFSqKelemSMC&pg=PP1&dq=contending+kingdoms+of+England+and+France&lr=#PPA23,M1

 * http://books.google.ie/books?id=s8H9TEtITPcC&pg=PA147&dq=Henry+VI+became+king+of+France

 * http://books.google.ie/books?id=LY0OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA81&dq=Henry+VI+became+king+of+France

 * http://books.google.ie/books?id=Qzc8OeuSXFMC&pg=PA464&dq=Henry+VI+and+dual-monarchy+of+England+and+France&lr=

 * http://books.google.ie/books?id=7SL1bVtfP08C&pg=PA93&dq=Henry+VI+and+dual-monarchy+of+England+and+France&lr=&as_brr=3#PPA93,M1

 * http://books.google.ie/books?id=Sctuzn19w5EC&pg=PA85&dq=Henry+VI+and+dual-monarchy+of+England+and+France&lr=&as_brr=3

sandy koufax
Happy 7 year anniversary of starting the article on Sandy Koufax. I was watching a re-run of House on Hulu, House mentioned him, naturally I came here and discovered you started the article 7 years ago today. Thank you.--Esprit15d • talk • contribs 03:46, 12 September 2009 (UTC)
 * You're welcome. He was a little bit before my time, but he was a great pitcher. For about five years, he was probably as good as any pitcher that ever lived. Jsc1973 (talk) 18:30, 14 September 2009 (UTC)

Unreferenced BLPs
Hello Jsc1973! Thank you for your contributions. I am a bot alerting you that 3 of the articles that you created  are tagged as Unreferenced Biographies of Living Persons. Please note that all biographies of living persons must be sourced. If you were to add reliable, secondary sources to these articles, it would greatly help us with the current Category:All_unreferenced_BLPs article backlog. Once the articles are adequately referenced, please remove the unreferencedBLP tag. Here is the list:

Thanks!--DASHBot (talk) 20:45, 2 January 2010 (UTC)
 * 1) Sparky Anderson -
 * 2) Morrade Hakkar -
 * 3) Dwight Muhammad Qawi -

History of the Eastern Roman Empire
I'm sorry for bothering you, but since I noticed in the past that you might be interested about the history of the Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire, and I thought you might want to know that there is a request for renaming the article "History of the Eastern Roman Empire" to "History of the Byzantine Empire". However, there's no problem if you're not interested or if you're too busy to participate.

Republic of China article
Since you mentioned about the Republic of China in your user page, I guess you are interested to share your insights at Talk:Republic of China#Requested Move (February 2012). Thanks for your attention. 61.18.170.150 (talk) 12:09, 12 March 2012 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 08:51, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

What was your source for the claim that many Vandals converted to Catholicism under Hilderic?
I don't want to be left citing Wikipedia, and your revision predates all other sources. This is for my paper at UCSC, so can you please give a source? Thanks, T3h   1337   b0y  22:24, 30 January 2017 (UTC)
 * I wish I could remember. I wrote several articles on the early medieval Germanic rulers about 15 years ago and some of them were put here and some of them on my own website (www.athalawulf.com). I'm almost certain it was from a book that was written back in the 19th century, but I cannot for the life of me remember anything more than that. 2606:A000:89C6:9300:1D16:12FC:D97C:8EF3 (talk) 08:54, 25 February 2017 (UTC)
 * That was me posting above. I didn't realize I wasn't logged in when I wrote it. Jsc1973 (talk) 08:56, 25 February 2017 (UTC)

Source for Kappa Draconis "thought to be entering its red giant phase"?
Can you tell me please a source for Kappa Draconis "thought to be entering its red giant phase"? Thanks.
 * Hell if I remember where I got it from. I wrote that over a decade ago! Jsc1973 (talk) 07:01, 21 May 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jsc1973


text:
408 BC

Year 408 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Tribunate of Iullus, Ahala and Cossus (or, less frequently, year 346 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 408 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Persian Empire

 * King Darius II of Persia decides to continue the war against Athens and give support to the Spartans. His wife, Parysatis, persuades him to appoint his younger son, Cyrus, as satrap (governor) of Lydia, Phrygia, and Cappadocia and commander in chief of the Achaemenian forces in Asia Minor in place of Tissaphernes.
 * Tissaphernes' influence is limited to the satrapy of Caria. Darius II also gives Cyrus funds to re-create the Spartan fleet and sends him to Sardis with instructions to increase Persian support for Sparta. Cyrus begins to collect an army of mercenaries (including Greeks) for his own ends.

Greece

 * Alcibiades enters Athens in triumph after an absence of 7 years. He leads the religious procession from Athens to Eleusis, thus atoning for his alleged impiety in 415 BC when he was held to have joined in profaning the Sacred Mysteries. Alcibiades is appointed commander-in-chief with autocratic powers and leaves for Samos to rejoin his fleet.
 * The Spartan admiral Lysander arrives at Ephesus in autumn and builds up a great fleet with help from the new Persian satrap, Cyrus.
 * At the Panhellenic gathering at Olympia, the philosopher Gorgias speaks out against the Spartan alliance with Persia.
 * In 408 BC, the three city-states of the island of Rhodes (Ialysos, Kamiros, Lindos) unite and create the homonymous city on the northernmost part of the island.

Literature

 * Euripides' plays Orestes and The Phoenician Women are performed. Euripides then leaves Athens in dissatisfaction and travels to the court of Archelaus I of Macedon at the King's invitation.

Births

 * Eudoxus of Cnidus, Greek astronomer, mathematician, physician, scholar and adherent of Pythagoras (d. c. 355 BC)
 * Dion, tyrant of Syracuse (d. c. 354 BC)

Deaths

 * Hippodamus of Miletus, Greek urban planner and polymath (b. 498 BC)

title: 408 BC


text:
Talk:Supercomputer

League
Win the Scottish premier league 148.252.132.214 (talk) 09:42, 22 March 2022 (UTC)

Xh
Vcvnv 2409:4073:4E83:DAC8:0:0:8B4A:F203 (talk) 15:34, 23 June 2022 (UTC)

Computer science
Super computer name 111.119.178.183 (talk) 17:01, 14 September 2022 (UTC)

science
living things ae things that have life in them. 196.175.2.99 (talk) 17:51, 16 January 2023 (UTC)

Intel Advances Scientific Research and Performance for New Wave of Supercomputers
Using the combination of the most powerful CPU, GPU and AI Acceleration from Intel Advances Scientific Research and Performance for New Wave of Supercomputers. Rjluna2 (talk) 19:15, 15 November 2023 (UTC)

AI
Possibly include a section on the use of "supercomputers" for generating, training, and processing "AI" models. The applications section is currently tagged as a stub, so this could also go there. Silvanathecat (talk) 23:35, 5 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Supercomputer


text:
Talk:Kate OFlaherty Chopin

Is this an old wikipedian's page, or a page intended for the main encyclopedia?

Kate Chopin is an author, noted for early writing from a woman's point of view. Her full name was Kate O'Flaherty Chopin.

title: Talk:Kate OFlaherty Chopin