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Daniel Burnham

Daniel Hudson Burnham (September 4, 1846 – June 1, 1912) was an American architect and urban designer. A proponent of the Beaux-Arts movement, he may have been "the most successful power broker the American architectural profession has ever produced."

A successful Chicago architect, he was selected as Director of Works for the 1892–93 World's Columbian Exposition, colloquially referred to as "The White City". He had prominent roles in the creation of master plans for the development of a number of cities, including the Plan of Chicago, and plans for Manila, Baguio and downtown Washington, D.C. He also designed several famous buildings, including a number of notable skyscrapers in Chicago, the Flatiron Building of triangular shape in New York City, Washington Union Station in Washington D.C., London's Selfridges department store, and San Francisco's Merchants Exchange.

Although best known for his skyscrapers, city planning, and for the White City, almost one third of Burnham's total output – 14.7 e6ft2 – consisted of buildings for shopping.

Early life

Burnham was born in Henderson, New York, the son of Elizabeth Keith (Weeks) and Edwin Arnold Burnham. He was raised in the teachings of the Swedenborgian, also called The New Church which ingrained in him the strong belief that man should strive to be of service to others. At the age of eight, Burnham moved to Chicago and his father established there a wholesale drug business which became a success.

Burnham was not a good student, but he was good at drawing. He moved to the eastern part of the country at the age of 18 to be taught by private tutors in order to pass the admissions examinations for Harvard and Yale, failing both apparently because of a bad case of test anxiety. In 1867, when he was 21 he returned to Chicago and took an apprenticeship as a draftsman under William LeBaron Jenney of the architectural firm Loring & Jenney. Architecture seemed to be the calling he was looking for, and he told his parents that he wanted to become "the greatest architect in the city or country".

Nevertheless, the young Burnham still had a streak of wanderlust in him, and in 1869 he left his apprenticeship to go to Nevada with friends to try mining gold, at which he failed. He then ran for the Nevada state legislature and failed to be elected. Broke, he returned again to Chicago and took a position with the architect L. G. Laurean. When the Great Chicago Fire hit the city in October 1871, it seemed as if there would be endless work for architects, but Burnham chose to strike out again, becoming first a salesman of plate glass windows, then a druggist. He failed at the first and quit the second. He later remarked on "a family tendency to get tired of doing the same thing for very long".

Career

At age 26, Burnham moved on to the Chicago offices of Carter, Drake and Wight where he met future business partner John Wellborn Root, who was 21 and four years younger than Burnham. The two became friends and then opened an architectural office together in 1873. Unlike his previous ventures, Burnham stuck to this one. Burnham and Root went on to become a very successful firm. Their first major commission came from John B. Sherman, the superintendent of the massive Union Stock Yards in Chicago, which provided the livelihood – directly or indirectly – for one-fifth of the city's population. Sherman hired the firm to build for him a mansion on Prairie Avenue at Twenty-first Street among the mansions of Chicago's other merchant barons. Root made the initial design. Burnham refined it and supervised the construction. It was on the construction site that he met Sherman's daughter, Margaret, whom Burnham married in 1876 after a short courtship. Sherman commissioned other projects from Burnham and Root, including the Stone Gate, an entry portal to the stockyards which became a Chicago landmark.

In 1881, the firm was commissioned to build the Montauk Building, the tallest building in Chicago at the time. To solve the problem of the city's water-saturated sandy soil and bedrock 125 ft below the surface, Root came up with a plan to dig down to a "hardpan" layer of clay on which was laid a 2 ft thick pad of concrete overlaid with steel rails placed at right-angles to form a lattice "grill", which was then filled with Portland cement. This "floating foundation" was, in effect, artificially-created bedrock on which the building could be constructed. The completed building was so tall compared to existing buildings that it defied easy description, and the name "skyscraper" was coined to describe it. Thomas Talmadge, an architect and architectural critic said of the building, "What Chartres was to the Gothic cathedral, the Montauk Block was to the high commercial building."

Burnham and Root went on to build more of the first American skyscrapers, such as the Masonic Temple Building in Chicago. Measuring 21 stories and 302 feet, the temple held claims as the tallest building of its time, but was torn down in 1939.

The talents of the two partners were complementary. Both men were artists and gifted architects, but Root had a knack for conceiving elegant designs and was able to see almost at once the totality of the necessary structure. Burnham, on the other hand, excelled at bringing in clients and supervising the building of Root's designs. They each appreciated the value of the other to the firm. Burnham also took steps to ensure their employees were happy: he installed a gym in the office, gave fencing lessons and let employees play handball at lunch time. Root, a pianist and organist, gave piano recitals in the office on a rented piano. Paul Starrett, who joined the office in 1888 said "The office was full of a rush of work, but the spirit of the place was delightfully free and easy and human in comparison to other offices I had worked in."

Although the firm was extremely successful, there were several notable setbacks. One of their designs, the Grannis Block in which their office was located, burned down in 1885 necessitating a move to the top floor of The Rookery, another of their designs. Then, in 1888, a Kansas City, Missouri, hotel they had designed collapsed during construction, killing one man and injuring several others. At the coroner's inquest, the building's design came in for criticism. The negative publicity shook and depressed Burnham. Then in a further setback, Burnham and Root also failed to win the commission for design of the giant Auditorium Building, which went instead to their rivals, Adler & Sullivan.

On January 15, 1891, while the firm was deep in meetings for the design of the World's Columbian Exposition, Root died after a three-day course of pneumonia. As Root had been only 41 years old, his death stunned both Burnham and Chicago society. After Root's death, the firm of Burnham and Root, which had had tremendous success producing modern buildings as part of the Chicago School of architecture, was renamed D.H. Burnham & Company. After that the firm continued its successes and Burnham extended his reach into city design.

World's Columbian Exposition
Burnham and Root had accepted responsibility to oversee the design and construction of the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago's then-desolate Jackson Park on the south lakefront. The largest world's fair to that date (1893), it celebrated the 400-year anniversary of Christopher Columbus's famous voyage. After Root's sudden and unexpected death, a team of distinguished American architects and landscape architects, including Burnham, Frederick Law Olmsted, Charles McKim, Richard M. Hunt, George B. Post, and Henry Van Brunt radically changed Root's modern and colorful style to a Classical Revival style. Only the pavilion by Louis Sullivan was designed in a non-Classical style. To ensure the project's success, Burnham moved his personal residence into a wooden headquarters, called "the shanty" on the burgeoning fairgrounds to improve his ability to oversee construction. The construction of the fair faced huge financial and logistical hurdles, including a worldwide financial panic and an extremely tight timeframe, to open on time.

Considered the first example of a comprehensive planning document in the nation, the fairground featured grand boulevards, classical building facades, and lush gardens. Often called the "White City," it popularized neoclassical architecture in a monumental, yet rational Beaux-Arts style. As a result of the fair's popularity, architects across the U.S. were said to be inundated with requests by clients to incorporate similar elements into their designs.

The control of the fair's design and construction was a matter of dispute between various entities, particularly the National Commission which was headed by George R. Davis, who served as Director-General of the fair. It was also headed by the Exposition Company which consisted of the city's leading merchants, led by Lyman Gage which had raised the money needed to build the fair, and Burnham as Director of Works. In addition the large number of committees made it difficult for construction to move forward at the pace needed to meet the opening day deadline. After a major accident which destroyed one of the fair's premiere buildings, Burnham moved to take tighter control of construction, distributing a memo to all the fair's department heads which read "I have assumed personal control of the active work within the grounds of the World's Columbian Exposition... Henceforward, and until further notice, you will report to and receive orders from me exclusively."

After the fair opened, Olmsted, who designed the fairgrounds, said of Burnham that "too high an estimate cannot be placed on the industry, skill and tact with which this result was secured by the master of us all." Burnham himself rejected the suggestion that Root had been largely responsible for the fair's design, writing afterwards:

"What was done up to the time of his death was the faintest suggestion of a plan... The impression concerning his part has been gradually built up by a few people, close friends of his and mostly women, who naturally after the Fair proved beautiful desired to more broadly identify his memory with it."

Post-fair architecture
Nevertheless, Burnham's reputation was considerably enhanced by the success and beauty of the fair. Harvard and Yale both presented him honorary master's degrees ameliorating his having failed their entrance exams in his youth. The common perception while Root was alive was that he was the architectural artist and Burnham had run the business side of the firm; Root's death, while devastating to Burnham personally, allowed him to develop as an architect in a way he might not have, had Root lived on.

In 1901, Burnham designed the Flatiron Building in New York City, a trailblazing structure that utilized an internal steel skeleton to provide structural integrity; the exterior masonry walls were not load-bearing. This allowed the building to rise to 22 stories. The design was that of a vertical Renaissance palazzo with Beaux-Arts styling, divided like a classical column, into base, shaft and capital.

Other Burnham post-fair designs included the Land Title Building (1897) in Philadelphia, the first major building in that city not designed by local architects, and known as "the finest example of early skyscraper design" there, John Wanamaker's Department Store (1902–1911) in Philadelphia, now Macy's, which is built around a central court, Wanamaker's Annex (1904, addition: 1907–1910), in New York City, a 19-story full-block building which contains as much floorspace as the Empire State Building, the neo-classical Gimbels Department Store (1908–1912) also in New York, now the Manhattan Mall, with a completely new facade, the stunningly Art Deco Mount Wilson Observatory in the hills above Pasadena, California, and Filene's Department Store (1912) in Boston, the last major building designed by Burnham.

The Philippines
In 1904, Burnham accepted a commission from Philippines Governor-General William Howard Taft. He had the opportunity to redesign Manila and plan a summer capital to be constructed in Baguio. Due to the Philippines status as a territory, Burnham was able to pursue his vision without having to win local approval. Altogether the project took six months to design, with only six weeks spent in the Philippines. During his time there, Burnham did not interact with Filipino locals concerning the project. After his plans were approved by William Cameron Forbes, Commissioner of Commerce and Police in the Philippines, Burnham was allowed to choose the principal architect, William E. Parsons. Burnham then departed to keep tabs on the project from the mainland. Burnham's plans emphasized improved sanitation, a cohesive aesthetic (Mission Revival), and visual reminders of government authority. In Manila, wide boulevards radiated out from the capital building, while in Baguio government structures loomed from the cliffs above the town. The land for the Baguio project, 14,000 acres in total, was seized from local Igorots with approval of the Philippine Supreme Court. In Manila, neighborhoods ravaged by the war for independence were left untouched while a luxury hotel, casino, and boat clubs were designed for visiting mainland dignitaries.

City planning and the Plan of Chicago
Initiated in 1906 and published in 1909, Burnham and his co-author Edward H. Bennett prepared a Plan of Chicago which laid out plans for the future of the city. It was the first comprehensive plan for the controlled growth of an American city and an outgrowth of the City Beautiful movement. The plan included ambitious proposals for the lakefront and river. It also asserted that every citizen should be within walking distance of a park. Sponsored by the Commercial Club of Chicago, Burnham donated his services in hopes of furthering his own cause.

Building off plans and conceptual designs from the World's Fair for the south lakefront, Burnham envisioned Chicago as a "Paris on the Prairie". French-inspired public works constructions, fountains and boulevards radiating from a central, domed municipal palace became Chicago's new backdrop. Though only parts of the plan were actually implemented, it set the standard for urban design, anticipating the future need to control urban growth and continuing to influence the development of Chicago long after Burnham's death.

Plans in additional cities

Burnham's city planning projects did not stop at Chicago. Burnham had previously contributed to plans for cities such as Cleveland (the 1903 Group Plan), San Francisco (1905), Manila (1905), and Baguio in the Philippines, details of which appear in the 1909 Plan of Chicago publication. His plans for the redesign of San Francisco were delivered to the Board of Supervisors in September 1905, but in the haste to rebuild the city after the 1906 earthquake and fires Burnham's plans were ultimately ignored. In the Philippines, Burnham's plan for Manila never materialized due to the outbreak of World War II and the relocation of the capital to another city after the war. Some components of the plan, however, did come into fruition including the shore road which became Dewey Boulevard (now known as Roxas Boulevard) and the various neoclassical government buildings around Luneta Park, which very much resemble a miniature version of Washington, D.C., in their arrangement.

In Washington, D.C., Burnham did much to shape the 1901 McMillan Plan which led to the completion of the overall design of the National Mall. The Senate Park Commission, or McMillan Commission established by Michigan Senator James McMillan, brought together Burnham and three of his colleagues from the World's Columbian Exposition: architect Charles Follen McKim, landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted Jr., and sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens. Going well beyond Pierre L'Enfant's original vision for the city, the plan provided for the extension of the Mall beyond the Washington Monument to a new Lincoln Memorial and a "pantheon" that eventually materialized as the Jefferson Memorial. This plan involved significant reclamation of land from swamp and the Potomac River and the relocation of an existing railroad station, which was replaced by Burnham's design for Washington Union Station. As a result of his service on the McMillan Commission, in 1910 Burnham was appointed a member and first chairman of the United States Commission of Fine Arts helping to ensure implementation of the McMillan Plan's vision. Burnham served on the commission until his death in 1912.

Influence
In his career after the fair, Burnham became one of the country's most prominent advocates for the Beaux-Arts movement as well as the revival of Neo-classical architecture which began with the fair. Much of Burnham's work was based on the classical style of Greece and Rome. In his 1924 autobiography, Louis Sullivan, one of the leading architects of the Chicago School, but one who had a difficult relationship with Burnham over an extended period of time, criticized Burnham for what Sullivan viewed as his lack of original expression and dependence on classicism. Sullivan went on to claim that "the damage wrought by the World's Fair will last for half a century from its date, if not longer" – a sentiment edged with bitterness, as corporate America of the early 20th century had demonstrated a strong preference for Burnham's architectural style over Sullivan's.

Burnham is famously quoted as saying, "Make no little plans. They have no magic to stir men's blood and probably will not themselves be realized." This slogan has been taken to capture the essence of Burnham's spirit.

A man of influence, Burnham was considered the pre-eminent architect in America at the start of the 20th century. He held many positions during his lifetime, including the presidency of the American Institute of Architects. Other notable architects began their careers under his aegis, such as Joseph W. McCarthy. Several of his descendants have worked as influential architects and planners in the United States, including his son, Daniel Burnham Jr., and grandchildren Burnham Kelly and Margaret Burnham Geddes.

Personal life
Burnham married Margaret Sherman, the daughter of his first major client, John B. Sherman, on January 20, 1876. They first met on the construction site of her father's house. Her father had a house built for the couple to live in. During their courtship, there was a scandal in which Burnham's older brother was accused of having forged checks. Burnham immediately went to John Sherman and offered to break the engagement as a matter of honor but Sherman rejected the offer, saying "There is a black sheep in every family." However, Sherman remained wary of his son-in-law, who he thought drank too much.

Burnham and Margaret remained married for the rest of his life. They had five children—two daughters and three sons—including Daniel Burnham Jr., born in February 1886, who became an architect and urban planner like his father. He worked in his father's firm until 1917, and served as the Director of Public Works for the 1933-34 Chicago World's Fair, known as the "Century of Progress".

The Burnham family lived in Chicago until 1886, when he purchased a 16-room farmhouse and estate on Lake Michigan in the suburb of Evanston, Illinois. Burnham had become wary of Chicago which he felt was becoming dirtier and more dangerous as its population increased. Burnham explained to his mother, whom he did not tell of the move in advance, "I did it, because I can no longer bear to have my children on the streets of Chicago..." When Burnham moved into "the shanty" in Jackson Park to better supervise construction of the fair, his wife, Margaret and their children remained in Evanston.

Beliefs
Burnham was an early environmentalist, writing: "Up to our time, strict economy in the use of natural resources has not been practiced, but it must be henceforth unless we are immoral enough to impair conditions in which our children are to live," although he also believed the automobile would be a positive environmental factor, with the end of horse-based transportation bringing "a real step in civilization... With no smoke, no gases, no litter of horses, your air and streets will be clean and pure. This means, does it not, that the health and spirits of men will be better?" Like many men of his time, he also showed an interest in the supernatural, saying "If I were able to take the time, I believe that I could prove the continuation of life beyond the grave, reasoning from the necessity, philosophically speaking, of a belief in an absolute and universal power."

Death

When Burnham was in his fifties, his health began to decline. He developed colitis and in 1909 was diagnosed with diabetes, which affected his circulatory system and led to an infection in his foot which was to continue for the remainder of his life.

On April 14, 1912, Burnham and his wife were aboard the RMS Olympic of the White Star Line, traveling to Europe to tour Heidelberg, Germany. When he attempted to send a telegram to his friend Frank Millet who was traveling the opposite direction, from Europe to the United States, on the RMS Titanic, he learned that the ship had sunk in an accident and Millet did not survive. Burnham died only 47 days later from colitis complicated by his diabetes and food poisoning from a meal eaten in Heidelberg.

At the time of his death, D.H. Burnham and Co. was the world's largest architectural firm. Even legendary architect Frank Lloyd Wright, although strongly critical of Burnham's Beaux Arts European influences, still admired him as a man and eulogized him, saying: "[Burnham] made masterful use of the methods and men of his time...[As] an enthusiastic promoter of great construction enterprises...his powerful personality was supreme." The successor firm to Burnham's practice was Graham, Anderson, Probst & White, which continued in some form until 2006. Burnham was interred at Graceland Cemetery in Chicago.

Memorials
Tributes to Burnham include Burnham Park and Daniel Burnham Court in Chicago, Burnham Park in Baguio in the Philippines, Daniel Burnham Court in San Francisco (formerly Hemlock Street between Van Ness Avenue and Franklin Street), the annual Daniel Burnham Award for a Comprehensive Plan (run by the American Planning Association), and the Burnham Memorial Competition which was held in 2009 to create a memorial to Burnham and his Plan of Chicago. Collections of Burnham's personal and professional papers, photographs, and other archival materials are held by the Ryerson & Burnham Libraries at the Art Institute of Chicago.

In addition, the Reliance Building in Chicago which was designed by Burnham and Root, is now the Hotel Burnham, although Root was the primary architect before his death in 1891.

Chicago

 * Union Stock Yard Gate (1879)
 * Union Station (1881)
 * Montauk Building (1882–1883)
 * Kent House (1883)
 * Rookery Building (1886)
 * Reliance Building (1890–1895)
 * Monadnock Building (northern half, 1891)
 * Marshall Field and Company Building (now Macy's, 1891–1892)
 * Fisher Building (1896)
 * Orchestra Hall (1904)
 * Heyworth Building (1904)
 * Sullivan Center (Carson, Pirie, Scott & Co. addition, 1906)
 * Boyce Building, on the National Register of Historic Places (1915)
 * Butler Brothers Warehouse (now The Gogo Building) (1913)

Cincinnati

 * Union Savings Bank and Trust Building (later the Fifth Third Union Trust Building, the Bartlett Building and now the Renaissance Hotel, 1901)
 * Tri-State Building (1902)
 * First National Bank Building (later the Clopay Building and now the Fourth & Walnut Center, 1904)
 * Fourth National Bank Building (1904)

Detroit

 * Majestic Building (1896, demolished 1962)
 * Ford Building (1907–1908)
 * Dime Building (1912)

Indianapolis

 * Indianapolis Traction Terminal, (1903, demolished 1972)
 * Barnes and Thornburg Building, (formerly the Merchants National Bank Building), (1912)

New York

 * Flatiron Building (1901)
 * Wanamaker's Annex, full-city-block department store (1904, addition: 1907–1910)
 * Gimbels Department Store (1908–1912)

Philadelphia

 * Land Title Building (1897)
 * John Wanamaker's Department Store (now housing a Macy's and offices, 1902–1911)

Pittsburgh

 * Union Trust Building (1898, 337 Fourth Avenue – not the 1917 structure of the same name on Grant Street)
 * Pennsylvania Union Station (1900–1902)
 * Frick Building (1902)
 * McCreery Department Store (now offices – 300 Sixth Avenue Building, 1904)
 * Highland Building (1910, 121 South Highland Avenue)
 * Henry W. Oliver Building (1910)

San Francisco

 * Merchants Exchange Building (1904)
 * The Mills Building (1892, restoration and expansion: 1907–1909)

Washington, D.C.

 * Washington Union Station (1908)
 * Postal Square Building (1911–1914)
 * Columbus Fountain (1912)

Others

 * Keokuk Union Depot, Keokuk, Iowa (1891)
 * Pearsons Hall of Science, Beloit, Wisconsin (1892–1893)
 * Ellicott Square Building, Buffalo, New York (1896)
 * Columbus Union Station, Columbus, Ohio (1897)
 * Wyandotte Building, Columbus, Ohio (1897–1898)
 * Gilbert M. Simmons Memorial Library, Kenosha, Wisconsin (1900)
 * Continental Trust Company Building, Baltimore (1901, southeast corner South Calvert and East Baltimore Streets, damaged during Great Baltimore Fire of February 1904, but upon inspection the steel and masonry exterior was deemed sound; the damaged interior was later reconstructed)
 * First National Bank Building (now Fayette Building), Uniontown, Pennsylvania (1902)
 * Pennsylvania Railroad Station, Richmond, Indiana (1902)
 * Cleveland Mall with Arnold Brunner and John Carrère, Cleveland (1903)
 * Union Station, El Paso, Texas (1905–1906)
 * The Fleming Building, Des Moines, Iowa (1907)
 * Yazoo & Mississippi Valley Railroad station, Vicksburg, Mississippi (1907)
 * Duluth Civic Center Historic District, Duluth, Minnesota, (1908–1909, four buildings)
 * Selfridge & Co. Department Store, Oxford Street, London (1909)
 * Miners National Bank Building, Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania (1911, now Citizens Bank Financial Center)
 * Terminal Arcade, Terre Haute, Indiana (1911)
 * Filene's Department Store, Boston (1912)
 * Starks Building, Louisville, Kentucky (1912)
 * Second National Bank Building, Toledo, Ohio (1913, now Riverfront Apartments)
 * El Granada, California (city master plan)
 * First National Bank Building, Milwaukee
 * Joliet Public Library, Joliet, Illinois (1903)
 * Kenilworth Train Station, Kenilworth, Illinois
 * Mount Wilson Observatory, Pasadena, California
 * First Presbyterian Church, Evanston, Illinois (1895)

Philippines

 * City planning for Manila
 * City planning for Baguio
 * Provincial Capitol Building in Bacolod, Negros Occidental
 * Pangasinan Provincial Capitol
 * Burnham Park

In popular culture

 * Make No Little Plans - Daniel Burnham and the American City is the first feature-length documentary film about noted architect and urban planner Daniel Hudson Burnham, produced by the Archimedia Workshop. National distribution in 2009 coincided with the centennial celebration of Daniel Burnham and Edward Bennett's 1909 Plan of Chicago.
 * The Devil in the White City, a non-fiction book by Erik Larson, intertwines the true tales of two men: H.H. Holmes, a serial killer famed for his 'murderous hotel' in Chicago, and Daniel Burnham.
 * In the role-playing game Unknown Armies, James K. McGowan, the True King of Chicago, quotes Daniel Burnham and regards him as a paragon of the Windy City's mysterious and magical past.
 * In the episode "Legendaddy" of TV sitcom How I Met Your Mother, the character Ted, who is professor of architecture, describes Burnham as an "architectural chameleon".
 * In the episode "Household" of Hulu original The Handmaid's Tale, Daniel Burnham is indirectly mentioned and only named as a Heretic for the reason the Gilead government demolished and replaced Washington Union Station in Washington, D.C..
 * In Joffrey Ballet's version of The Nutcracker, choreographed by Christopher Wheeldon, Daniel Burnham, is the Drosselmeyer character of the ballet.

title: Daniel Burnham


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Halophyte

A halophyte is a salt-tolerant plant that grows in soil or waters of high salinity, coming into contact with saline water through its roots or by salt spray, such as in saline semi-deserts, mangrove swamps, marshes and sloughs, and seashores. The word derives from Ancient Greek ἅλας (halas) 'salt' and φυτόν (phyton) 'plant'. Halophytes have different anatomy, physiology and biochemistry than glycophytes. An example of a halophyte is the salt marsh grass Spartina alterniflora (smooth cordgrass). Relatively few plant species are halophytes—perhaps only 2% of all plant species. Information about many of the earth's halophytes can be found in the halophyte database.

The large majority of plant species are glycophytes, which are not salt-tolerant and are damaged fairly easily by high salinity.

Classification
Halophytes can be classified in many ways. According to Stocker (1933), it is mainly of 3 kinds by habitat, viz.

 * 1) Aqua-halines (aquatic plants)
 * 2) *Emerged Halophytes (most of the stem remains above the water level)
 * 3) *Hydro-halophytes (whole or almost whole plant remains under water)
 * 4) Terrestro-halines (terrestrial plants)
 * 5) *Hygro-halophytes (grow on swamp lands)
 * 6) *Mesohalophytes (grow on non-swamp, non-dry lands)
 * 7) *Xero-halophytes (grow on dry or mostly dry lands)
 * 8) Aero-halines (epiphytes and aerophytes)

Again, according to Iversen (1936), these plants are classified with respect to the salinity of the soil on which they grow.

 * 1) Oligo-halophytes (amount of NaCl in the soil is 0.01 to 0.1%)
 * 2) Meso-halophytes (amount of NaCl in the soil is 0.1 to 1%)
 * 3) Euhalophytes (amount of NaCl in the soil is >1%)

For comparison, seawater has a salinity of about 3.5%. See water salinity for other reference levels.

Habitats of halophytes
Major habitats where halophytes flourish include mangrove swamps, sand and cliff shorelines in the tropics, salt deserts and semi-deserts, the Sargasso Sea, mudflats and salt marshes, kelp forests and beds, salt lakes and salt steppes of the Pannonian region, wash fringes, isolated inland saline grasslands, and in places where people have brought about salination.

Salt tolerance
One quantitative measure of salt tolerance (halotolerance) is the total dissolved solids in irrigation water that a plant can tolerate. Seawater typically contains 40 grams per litre (g/L) of dissolved salts (mostly sodium chloride). Beans and rice can tolerate about 1–3 g/L, and are considered glycophytes (as are most crop plants). At the other extreme, Salicornia bigelovii (dwarf glasswort) grows well at 70 g/L of dissolved solids, and is a promising halophyte for use as a crop. Plants such as barley (Hordeum vulgare) and the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) can tolerate about 5 g/L, and can be considered as marginal halophytes.

Adaptation to saline environments by halophytes may take the form of salt tolerance or salt avoidance. Plants that avoid the effects of high salt even though they live in a saline environment may be referred to as facultative halophytes rather than 'true', or obligatory, halophytes.

For example, a short-lived plant species that completes its reproductive life cycle during periods (such as a rainy season) when the salt concentration is low would be avoiding salt rather than tolerating it. Or a plant species may maintain a 'normal' internal salt concentration by excreting excess salts through its leaves, by way of salt glands, or by concentrating salts in salt bladders in leaves that later die and drop off.

In an effort to improve agricultural production in regions where crops are exposed to salinity, research is focused on improving understanding of the various mechanisms whereby plants respond to salinity stress, so that more robust crop halophytes may be developed. Adaptive responses to salinity stress have been identified at molecular, cellular, metabolic, and physiological levels.

Examples
Some halophytes are:

Biofuel
Some halophytes are being studied for use as "3rd-generation" biofuel precursors. Halophytes such as Salicornia bigelovii can be grown in harsh environments and typically do not compete with food crops for resources, making them promising sources of biodiesel or bioalcohol.

Phytoremediation
Halophytes like Suaeda salsa can store salt ions and rare-earth elements absorbed from soils in their tissues. Halophytes can therefore be used in Phytoremediation measures to adjust salinity levels of surrounding soils. These measures aim to allow glycophytes to survive in previously uninhabitable areas through an environmentally safe, and cost effective process. A higher concentration of halophyte plants in one area leads to higher salt uptake and lower soil salinity levels.

Different species of halophytes have different absorption capabilities. Three different halophyte species (Atriplex patula, Atriplex hortensis, and Atriplex canescans) have been found to rehabilitate soils contaminated with road salt over varying lengths of time.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Halophyte


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Vsevolod I of Kiev

Vsevolod I Yaroslavich (Всеволодъ Ꙗрославичь; c. 1 February 1030 – 13 April 1093) was Grand Prince of Kiev from 1078 until his death in 1093.

Early life
He was the fifth and favourite son of Yaroslav I the Wise by Ingigerd Olafsdottir. He was born around 1030. On his seal from his last years, he was named "Andrei Vsevolodu" in Greek, implying that his baptismal name was Andrew.

To back up an armistice signed with the Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos in 1046, his father married Vsevolod to a Byzantine princess, who according to tradition was named Anastasia or Maria. That the couple's son Vladimir Monomakh bore the family name of the Byzantine emperor suggests she was a member of his close family, but no contemporary evidence attests to a specific relationship and accounts of the Emperor give him no such daughter.

Upon his father's death in 1054, he received in appanage the towns of Pereyaslav, Rostov, Suzdal, and the township of Beloozero which would remain in possession of his descendants until the end of Middle Ages. Together with his elder brothers Iziaslav and Sviatoslav he formed a sort of princely triumvirate which jointly waged war on the steppe nomads, Polovtsy, and compiled the Russkaya Pravda, the first law code of the state. In 1055, Vsevolod launched an expedition against the Turks who had in the previous years expelled the Pechenegs from the Pontic steppes. He also made peace with the Cumans who appeared for the first time in Europe in the same year. The Cumans invaded his principality in 1061 and routed Vsevolod in a battle. Vsevolod persuaded his brother, Iziaslav, and their distant cousin, Vseslav, to join him and they together attacked the Torks in 1060. In 1067, Vsevolod's Greek wife died and he soon married a Kypchak princess, Anna Polovetskaya. They had a son, who drowned after the Battle of the Stugna River, and daughters, one becoming a nun and another, Eupraxia of Kiev, marrying Emperor Henry IV.

The Cumans again invaded Kievan Rus' in 1068. The three brothers united their forces against them, but the Cumans routed them on the Alta River. After their defeat, Vsevolod withdrew to Pereyaslav. However, its citizens rose up in open rebellion, dethroned Iziaslav, and liberated and proclaimed Vseslav their grand prince. Vsevolod and Sviatoslav made no attempt to expel the usurper from Kiev.

Vsevolod supported Sviatoslav against Iziaslav. They forced their brother to flee from Kiev in 1073. Feodosy, the saintly hegumen or head of the Monastery of the Caves in Kiev remained loyal to Iziaslav, and refused lunch with Sviatoslav and Vsevolod.

After Sviatoslav's death in 1076, Vsevolod enthroned himself in Kiev for a few months before fleeing in early 1077. Once he was back in Kiev, Iziaslav granted Sviatoslav's former principality to Vsevolod, but Sviatoslav's sons considered the Principality of Chernigov as their own patrimony or otchina. Oleg Sviatoslavich made an alliance with the Cumans and invaded Chernigov. Iziaslav came to Vsevolod's rescue and they forced Oleg to retreat, but Iziaslav was murdered in the battle.

Reign
After Iziaslav's death, Vsevolod, as their father's only surviving son, took the Kievan throne, thus uniting the three core principalities—Kiev, Chernigov and Pereyaslavl—in Kievan Rus'. He appointed his eldest son, Vladimir Monomach, to administer Chernigov.

The Primary Chronicle writes that the "people no longer had access to the Prince's justice, judges became corrupt and venal". Vsevolod followed his young councilors' advice instead of that of his old retainers in his last years.

Vsevolod spoke five foreign languages, according to Vladimir Monomach's Autobiography. Historian George Vernadsky believes that these probably included Greek and Cuman, because of the nationality of his two wives, and that he likely spoke Latin, Norse, and Ossetian. He lost most of his battles; his eldest son, Vladimir Monomakh, a grand and famous warrior, did most of the fighting for his father. The last years of his reign were clouded by grave illness, and Vladimir Monomakh presided over the government.

Children
Vsevolod and his first wife Anastasia, a relative of Constantine IX Monomachos, had children:

Vsevolod and his second wife Anna Polovetskaya had children:
 * Vladimir II Monomakh (1053 – 19 May 1125).
 * Ianka or Anna Vsevolodovna (d. 3 November 1112) who was engaged to Constantine Dukas in 1074, but never married. She became a nun and started a school for girls.

 * Rostislav Vsevolodovich (1070 – 26 May 1093). Drowned while retreating from the Battle of the Stugna River.
 * Eupraxia of Kiev (1071 – 20 July 1109). Married first Henry the Long, Margrave of Nordarm, next Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor.
 * Catherine Vsevolovna (d. 11 August 1108). A nun. Her date of death is recorded in the Primary Chronicle.
 * Maria Vsevolodovna (d. 1089).

title: Vsevolod I of Kiev


text:
Saint Paul, Minnesota

Saint Paul (often abbreviated St. Paul) is the capital of the U.S. state of Minnesota and the county seat of Ramsey County. Situated on high bluffs overlooking a bend in the Mississippi River, Saint Paul is a regional business hub and the center of Minnesota's government. The Minnesota State Capitol and the state government offices all sit on a hill close to the city's downtown district. One of the oldest cities in Minnesota, Saint Paul has several historic neighborhoods and landmarks, such as the Summit Avenue Neighborhood, the James J. Hill House, and the Cathedral of Saint Paul. Like the adjacent city of Minneapolis, Saint Paul is known for its cold, snowy winters and humid summers.

According to census estimates, in 2022 the city's population was 303,176, making it the 67th-most populous city in the United States, the 12th-most populous in the Midwest, and the second-most populous in Minnesota. Most of the city lies east of the Mississippi River near its confluence with the Minnesota River. Minneapolis is mostly across the Mississippi River to the west. Together, they are known as the "Twin Cities" and make up the core of the Minneapolis–Saint Paul metropolitan area, the third most populous metropolitan area in the Midwest.

The Legislative Assembly of the Minnesota Territory established the Town of Saint Paul as its capital near existing Dakota Sioux settlements in November 1849. It remained a town until 1854. The Dakota name for where Saint Paul is situated is "Imnizaska" for the "white rock" bluffs along the river. The city has three sports venues: Xcel Energy Center, home to the Minnesota Wild, CHS Field, home to the St. Paul Saints, and Allianz Field, home to Minnesota United.

Saint Paul has a mayor–council government. The current mayor is Melvin Carter III, who was first elected in 2018.

History
Burial mounds in present-day Indian Mounds Park suggest the area was inhabited by the Hopewell Native Americans about 2,000 years ago. From the early 17th century to 1837, the Mdewakanton Dakota, a band of the Dakota people, lived near the mounds at the village of Kaposia and consider the area encompassing present-day Saint Paul Bdóte, the site of creation for their people. The Dakota called the area Imniza-Ska ("white cliffs") for its exposed white sandstone cliffs on the river's eastern side. The Imniza-Ska were full of caves that were useful to the Dakota. The explorer Jonathan Carver documented the historic Wakan Tipi in the bluff below the burial mounds in 1767. In the Menominee language Saint Paul was called Sāēnepān-Menīkān, which means "ribbon, silk or satin village", suggesting its role in trade throughout the region after the introduction of European goods.

After the 1803 Louisiana Purchase, U.S. Army Lieutenant Zebulon Pike negotiated approximately 100000 acre of land from the indigenous Dakota in 1805 to establish a fort. A military reservation was intended for the confluence of the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers on both sides of the Mississippi up to Saint Anthony Falls. All of what is now the Highland Park neighborhood was included in this. Pike planned a second military reservation at the confluence of the St. Croix and Mississippi rivers. In 1819, Fort Snelling was built at the Minnesota and Mississippi confluence. The 1837 Treaty with the Sioux ceded all tribal lands east of the Mississippi to the U.S. government. Chief Little Crow III moved his village, Kaposia, from south of Mounds Park across the river a few miles onto Dakota land. Fur traders, explorers, and settlers came to the area for the fort's security. Many were French-Canadians who predated American pioneers by some time. A whiskey trade flourished among the squatters and the fort's commander evicted them all from the fort's reservation. Fur trader turned bootlegger "Pig's Eye" Parrant, who set up business just outside the reservation, particularly irritated the commander. By the early 1840s, a community had developed nearby that locals called Pig's Eye (French: L'Œil du Cochon) or Pig's Eye Landing after Parrant's popular tavern. In 1842, a raiding party of Ojibwe attacked the Kaposia encampment south of Saint Paul. A battle ensued where a creek drained into wetlands two miles south of Wakan Tipi. The creek was thereafter called Battle Creek and is today parkland. In the 1840s-70s the Métis brought their oxen and Red River Carts down Kellogg Street to Lambert's landing to send buffalo hides to market from the Red River of the North. Saint Paul was the southern terminus of the Red River Trails. In 1840, Pierre Bottineau became a prominent resident with a claim near the settlement's center.

In 1841, Catholic missionary Lucien Galtier was sent to minister to the French Canadians at Mendota. He had a chapel he named for St. Paul built on the bluff above the riverboat landing downriver from Fort Snelling. Galtier informed the settlers that they were to adopt the chapel's name for the settlement and cease the use of "Pig's Eye". In 1847, New York educator Harriet Bishop moved to the settlement and opened the city's first school. The Minnesota Territory was created in 1849 with Saint Paul as the capital. The U.S. Army made the territory's first improved road, Point Douglas Fort Ripley Military Road, in 1850. It passed through what became Saint Paul neighborhoods. In 1857, the territorial legislature voted to move the capital to Saint Peter, but Joe Rolette, a territorial legislator, stole the text of the bill and went into hiding, preventing the move.

The year 1858 saw more than 1,000 steamboats service Saint Paul, making it a gateway for settlers to the Minnesota frontier or Dakota Territory. Geography was a primary reason the city became a transportation hub. The location was the last good point to land riverboats coming upriver due to the river valley's topography. For a time, Saint Paul was called "The Last City of the East." Fort Snelling was important to Saint Paul from the start. Direct access from Saint Paul did not happen until the 7th bridge was built in 1880. Before that, there was a cable ferry crossing dating to at latest the 1840s. Once streetcars appeared, a new bridge to Saint Paul was built in 1904. Until the town built its first jail the fort's brig served Saint Paul. Industrialist James J. Hill founded his railroad empire in Saint Paul. The Great Northern Railway and the Northern Pacific Railway were both headquartered in Saint Paul until they merged with the Burlington Northern. Today they are part of the BNSF Railway.

On August 20, 1904, severe thunderstorms and tornadoes damaged hundreds of downtown buildings, causing $1.78 million ($0 million today) in damages and ripping spans from the High Bridge. During the 1960s, in conjunction with urban renewal, Saint Paul razed neighborhoods west of downtown for the creation of the interstate freeway system. From 1959 to 1961, the Rondo neighborhood was demolished for the construction of Interstate 94. The loss of that African American enclave brought attention to racial segregation and unequal housing in northern cities. The annual Rondo Days celebration commemorates the African American community.

Downtown Saint Paul had skyscraper-building booms beginning in the 1970s. Because the city center is directly beneath the flight path into the airport across the river there is a height restriction for all construction. The tallest buildings, such as Galtier Plaza (Jackson and Sibley Towers), The Pointe of Saint Paul condominiums, and the city's tallest building, Wells Fargo Place (formerly Minnesota World Trade Center), were constructed in the late 1980s. In the 1990s and 2000s, the tradition of bringing new immigrant groups to the city continued. As of 2004, nearly 10% of the city's population were recent Hmong immigrants from Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, and Myanmar. Saint Paul is the location of the Hmong Archives.

Geography
Saint Paul's history and growth as a landing port are tied to water. The city's defining physical characteristic, the confluence of the Mississippi and Minnesota Rivers, was carved into the region during the last ice age, as were the steep river bluffs and dramatic palisades on which the city is built. Receding glaciers and Lake Agassiz forced torrents of water from a glacial river that served the river valleys. The city is situated in east-central Minnesota.

The Mississippi River forms a municipal boundary on part of the city's west, southwest, and southeast sides. Minneapolis, the state's largest city, lies to the west. Falcon Heights, Lauderdale, Roseville, and Maplewood are north, with Maplewood lying to the east. The cities of West Saint Paul and South Saint Paul are to the south, as are Lilydale, Mendota, and Mendota Heights, across the river from the city. The city's largest lakes are Pig's Eye Lake, which is part of the Mississippi, Lake Phalen, and Lake Como. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 56.18 sqmi, of which 51.98 sqmi is land and 4.20 sqmi is water.

The Parks and Recreation department is responsible for 160 parks and 41 recreation centers. The city ranked #2 in park access and quality, after only Minneapolis, in the 2018 ParkScore ranking of the top 100 park systems across the United States according to the nonprofit Trust for Public Land.

Neighborhoods
Saint Paul's Department of Planning and Economic Development divides Saint Paul into 17 Planning Districts, created in 1979 to allow neighborhoods to participate in governance and use Community Development Block Grants. With a funding agreement directly from the city, the councils share a pool of funds. The councils have significant land-use control, a voice in guiding development, and they organize residents. The planning districts mostly represent traditional neighborhoods and combinations of smaller neighborhoods within the city.

The city's 17 Planning Districts are:

 * 1) Southeast
 * 2) Greater East Side
 * 3) West Side
 * 4) Dayton's Bluff
 * 5) Payne-Phalen
 * 6) North End
 * 7) Thomas Dale (Frogtown)
 * 8) Summit-University
 * 9) West Seventh
 * 10) Como Park
 * 11) Hamline-Midway
 * 12) Saint Anthony Park
 * 13) Union Park
 * 14) Macalester-Groveland
 * 15) Highland Park
 * 16) Summit Hill
 * 17) Downtown

Climate
Saint Paul has a humid continental climate typical of the Upper Midwestern United States. Winters are frigid and snowy, while summers are warm to hot and humid. On the Köppen climate classification, Saint Paul falls in the hot summer humid continental climate zone (Dfa). The city experiences a full range of precipitation and related weather events, including snow, sleet, ice, rain, thunderstorms, tornadoes, and fog.

Due to its northerly location and lack of large bodies of water to moderate the air, Saint Paul is sometimes subjected to cold Arctic air masses, especially during late December, January, and February. The average annual temperature of 46.5 °F gives the Minneapolis−Saint Paul metropolitan area the coldest annual mean temperature of any major metropolitan area in the continental U.S.

Saint Paul is expected to be affected by climate change. More extreme heat waves are expected, as is increased precipitation in the spring and summer, which could cause river and flash flooding. Vector-borne transmission of such diseases as West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and human anaplasmosis may increase because of changes in temperature and precipitation patterns.

2020 census
As of the census of 2020, the population was 311,527. The population density was 5,994.0 PD/sqmi. There were 127,392 housing units at an average density of 2,451.1 /sqmi. In terms of race, the city's population was 50.5% White (21.1% German), 19.2% Asian (10.9% Hmong, 2.53% Burmese, 0.85% Vietnamese, 0.69% Chinese, 0.51% Indian), 16.8% Black or African American (1.7% Somali, 1.5% Ethiopian), 1.0% Native American, 4.8% from other races, and 7.6% from two or more races. Residents of Hispanic or Latino ancestry, of any race, made up 9.7% of the population (6.58% Mexican, 0.68% Salvadoran).

The 2020 census of the city included 291 people incarcerated in adult correctional facilities and 5,640 people in student housing.

According to the American Community Survey estimates for 2016–2020, the median income for a household in the city was $59,717, and the median income for a family was $74,852. Male full-time workers had a median income of $50,186 versus $45,541 for female workers. The per capita income was $32,779. About 13.2% of families and 17.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 27.0% of those under age 18 and 10.1% of those age 65 or over. Of the population age 25 and over, 87.6% were high school graduates or higher and 41.3% had a bachelor's degree or higher.

2010 census
As of the 2010 census, there were 285,068 people, 111,001 households, and 59,689 families residing in the city. The population density was 5484.2 PD/sqmi. There were 120,795 housing units at an average density of 2323.9 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 60.1% white, 15.7% African American, 1.1% Native American, 15.0% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 3.9% from other races, and 4.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 9.6% of the population.

There were 111,001 households, of which 30.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.1% were married couples living together, 14.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 46.2% were non-families. 35.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 3.33.

The median age in the city was 30.9 years. 25.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 13.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 29.6% were from 25 to 44; 22.6% were from 45 to 64; and 9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.9% male and 51.1% female.

Ethnic history
The earliest known inhabitants of the St. Paul area, from about 400 AD, were members of the Hopewell tradition, who buried their dead in mounds on the river bluffs (now Indian Mounds Park). The next known inhabitants were the Mdewakanton Dakota in the 17th century, who fled their ancestral home of Mille Lacs Lake in central Minnesota in response to westward expansion of the Ojibwe nation. The Ojibwe later occupied the north (east) bank of the Mississippi River.

By 1800, French-Canadian explorers came through the region and attracted fur traders. Fort Snelling and Pig's Eye Tavern also brought the first Yankees from New England and English, Irish, and Scottish immigrants, who had enlisted in the army and settled nearby after discharge. These early settlers and entrepreneurs built houses on the heights north of the river. The first wave of immigration came with the Irish, who settled at Connemara Patch along the Mississippi, named for their home, Connemara, Ireland. The Irish became prolific in politics, city governance, and public safety, much to the chagrin of the Germans and French, who had grown into the majority. In 1850, the first of many groups of Swedish immigrants passed through St. Paul on their way to farming communities in northern and western regions of the territory. A large group settled in Swede Hollow, which later became home to Poles, Italians, and Mexicans. The last Swedish presence moved up St. Paul's East Side along Payne Avenue in the 1950s.

Of people who specified European ancestry in the 2005–07 American Community Survey of St. Paul, 26.4% were German, 13.8% Irish, 8.4% Norwegian, 7.0% Swedish, and 6.2% English. There is also a visible community of people of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, representing 4.2% of the population.

By the 1980s, the Thomas-Dale area, once an Austro-Hungarian enclave known as Frogtown (German: Froschburg), became home to Vietnamese and other Southeast Asian people who had left their war-torn country. A settlement program for the Hmong diaspora came soon after, and by 2000, St. Paul had the largest urban Hmong contingent in the nation.

Hmong Americans make up 11% of St. Paul's population as of 2021, and Saint Paul, as well as the Twin Cities area in general, is considered the center of Hmong culture in America. Hmongs are most concentrated in the neighborhoods of Frogtown, Payne-Phalen, Dayton's Bluff, the North End, and the Greater East Side, which are considered ethnic enclaves for Hmong Minnesotans, with a large number of businesses, organizations, and events catering to the Hmong population, such as the Hmongtown Marketplace in Frogtown.

Other large Southeast Asian populations live in Saint Paul, particularly Burmese Americans of the Karen and Karenni ethnic group, who immigrated to the U.S. as refugees in the 2000s and 2010s due to internal conflict and discrimination in Myanmar. Minnesota is believed to have the largest population of Karen Americans, with a population of 12,000 in 2017, who are mostly concentrated in Saint Paul. Burmese and Karen residents of Saint Paul make up 5.2% of the population in 2021, and are most concentrated in the neighborhoods of the North End, Payne-Phalen, and Frogtown.

Mexican immigrants have settled in St. Paul since the 1930s; although Mexican populations exist throughout Saint Paul, by far the largest concentration of Mexican Americans is on St. Paul's West Side, where Mexicans form a plurality of the population; Mexico opened a foreign consulate there in 2005. Saint Paul also has a large population of Central Americans, particularly Salvadorans, throughout eastern St. Paul and the West Side.

St. Paul has become home to a large number of Somalis and Ethiopians since the 1990s, largely as refugees fleeing conflict in their home regions. Somali and Ethiopian populations are largest in the neighborhoods of Summit-University and Frogtown, where there are many businesses and organizations for Somali and Ethiopian populations.

African Americans in St. Paul initially entered through servitude to officers at Fort Snelling, marking a crucial point in their history. Despite the absence of legal slavery in Minnesota, Army officers were permitted to bring their enslaved individuals into the region. Today, African Americans are one of the largest groups among Saint Paul's population; African Americans make up approximately 14% of Saint Paul's population, the second-largest background group, before Hmongs and after German-Americans. The city's African American residents are concentrated in its central and eastern neighborhoods.

Most St. Paul residents claiming religious affiliation are Christian, split between the Roman Catholic Church and various Protestant denominations. The Roman Catholic presence comes from Irish, German, Scottish, and French Canadian settlers, later bolstered by Hispanic immigrants. There are Jewish synagogues such as Mount Zion Temple and significant populations of Hindus, Muslims, and Buddhists. The city has been dubbed "paganistan" due to its large Wiccan population.

Economy
The Minneapolis–Saint Paul–Bloomington area employs 1,570,700 people in the private sector as of July 2008, 82.43% of whom work in private service providing-related jobs.

Major corporations headquartered in Saint Paul include Ecolab, a chemical and cleaning product company that the ''Minneapolis/St. Paul Business Journal'' named in 2008 as the eighth-best place to work in the Twin Cites for companies with 1,000 full-time Minnesota employees, and Securian Financial Group Inc.

The 3M Company moved to St. Paul in 1910. It built an art deco headquarters at 900 Bush that still stands. Headquarters operations moved to the Maplewood campus in 1964. 3M manufacturing continued for a couple more decades until all St. Paul operations ceased.

The city was home to the Ford Motor Company's Twin Cities Assembly Plant, which opened in 1924 and closed at the end of 2011. The plant was in Highland Park on the Mississippi River, adjacent to Lock and Dam No. 1, Mississippi River, which generates hydroelectric power. The site is being redeveloped into a mixed-used area called Highland Bridge which, when complete, will include 3,800 housing units, most opening in 2023.

Saint Paul has financed city development with tax increment financing (TIF). In 2018, it had 55 TIF districts. Projects that have benefited from TIF funding include the St. Paul Saints stadium, and the affordable housing along the Twin Cities Metro Green Line.

Housing
In November 2021, Saint Paul became the only Midwestern city to regulate rent increases when voters passed a rent control ordinance as part of a larger effort to curb rising housing costs. The law limited annual rent increases to three percent and prohibited higher increases after a tenant vacated a unit. In September 2022, the Saint Paul City Council voted to amend the law, allowing higher vacancy increases and exempting units built in the preceding or following 20 years from the increase cap.

Culture
Every January, Saint Paul hosts the Saint Paul Winter Carnival, a tradition that began in 1886 when a New York reporter called Saint Paul "another Siberia". The organizers had a model in the Montreal Winter Carnival the year before. Architect A. C. Hutchinson designed the Montreal ice castle and was hired to design St. Paul's first. The event has now been held 135 times with an attendance of 350,000. It includes an ice sculpting competition, a snow sculpting competition, a medallion treasure hunt, food, activities, and an ice palace when it can be arranged. The Como Zoo and Conservatory and adjoining Japanese Garden are popular year-round. The historic Landmark Center in downtown Saint Paul hosts cultural and arts organizations. The city's recreation sites include Indian Mounds Park, Battle Creek Regional Park, Harriet Island Regional Park, Highland Park, the Wabasha Street Caves, Lake Como, Lake Phalen, and Rice Park, as well as several areas abutting the Mississippi River. The Irish Fair of Minnesota is held annually at the Harriet Island Pavilion area. The country's largest Hmong American sports festival, the Freedom Festival, is held the first weekend of July at McMurray Field near Como Park.

The city is associated with the Minnesota State Fair in neighboring Falcon Heights just west of Como Park. The fair dates to before statehood. With the competing interests of Minneapolis and St. Paul, it was held on "neutral ground" between both. That area refused to become part of St. Paul or Roseville and became Falcon Heights in the 1950s. The University of Minnesota Saint Paul Campus is actually in Falcon Heights.

Fort Snelling is often identified as being in St. Paul but is actually its own unorganized territory. The eastern part of Fort Snelling Unorganized Territory (MSP included) has a St. Paul mailing address. The western side has a Minneapolis ZIP code.

Saint Paul is the birthplace of cartoonist Charles M. Schulz, who lived in Merriam Park from infancy until 1960. Schulz's Peanuts inspired giant, decorated sculptures around the city, a Chamber of Commerce promotion in the late 1990s. Other notable residents include writer F. Scott Fitzgerald and playwright August Wilson, who premiered many of the ten plays in his Pittsburgh Cycle at the local Penumbra Theater.

The Ordway Center for the Performing Arts hosts theater productions and the Minnesota Opera is a founding tenant. RiverCentre, attached to Xcel Energy Center, serves as the city's convention center. The city has contributed to the music of Minnesota and the Twin Cities music scene through various venues. Great jazz musicians have passed through the influential Artists' Quarter, first established in the 1970s in Whittier, Minneapolis, and moved to downtown Saint Paul in 1994. Artists' Quarter also hosts the Soapboxing Poetry Slam, home of the 2009 National Poetry Slam Champions. At The Black Dog, in Lowertown, many French or European jazz musicians (Evan Parker, Tony Hymas, Benoît Delbecq, François Corneloup) have met Twin Cities musicians and started new groups touring in Europe. Groups and performers such as Fantastic Merlins, Dean Magraw/Davu Seru, Merciless Ghosts, and Willie Murphy are regulars. The Turf Club in Midway has been a music scene landmark since the 1940s. Saint Paul is also the home base of the internationally acclaimed Rose Ensemble. As an Irish stronghold, the city boasts popular Irish pubs with live music, such as Shamrocks, The Dubliner, and until its closure in 2019, O'Gara's. The internationally acclaimed Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra is the nation's only full-time professional chamber orchestra. The Minnesota Centennial Showboat on the Mississippi River began in 1958 with Minnesota's first centennial celebration.

Saint Paul has a number of museums, including the University of Minnesota's Goldstein Museum of Design, the Minnesota Children's Museum, the Schubert Club Museum of Musical Instruments, the Minnesota Museum of American Art,  the Traces Center for History and Culture, the Minnesota History Center, the Alexander Ramsey House, the James J. Hill House, the Minnesota Transportation Museum, the Science Museum of Minnesota, and the Twin City Model Railroad Museum.

Sports
The Saint Paul division of Parks and Recreation runs over 1,500 organized sports teams.

Saint Paul hosts a number of professional, semi-professional, and amateur sports teams. The Minnesota Wild play their home games at downtown Saint Paul's Xcel Energy Center, which opened in 2000. The Wild brought the NHL back to Minnesota for the first time since 1993, when the Minnesota North Stars left the state for Dallas, Texas. The World Hockey Association's Minnesota Fighting Saints played in Saint Paul from 1972 to 1977. Citing the history of hockey in the Twin Cities and teams at all levels, Sports Illustrated called Saint Paul the new Hockeytown U.S.A. in 2007.

The Xcel Energy Center, a multipurpose entertainment and sports venue, can host concerts and accommodate nearly all sporting events. It occupies the site of the demolished Saint Paul Civic Center. The Xcel Energy Center hosts the Minnesota high school boys hockey tournament, the Minnesota high school girls' volleyball tournament, and concerts throughout the year. In 2004, it was named the best overall sports venue in the US by ESPN.

The St. Paul Saints are the city's Minor League Baseball team, which plays in the International League as an affiliate of the Minnesota Twins. There have been several different teams called the Saints over the years. Founded in 1884, they were shut down in 1961 after the Minnesota Twins moved to Bloomington. The Saints were brought back in 1993 as an independent baseball team in the Northern League, moving to the American Association in 2006. They joined affiliated baseball in 2021. Their home games are played at the open-air CHS Field in downtown's Lowertown Historic District. Four noted Major League All-Star baseball players are natives of Saint Paul: Hall of Fame outfielder Dave Winfield, Hall of Fame infielder Paul Molitor, Hall of Fame pitcher Jack Morris, and Hall of Fame catcher and first baseman Joe Mauer, all of whom played for the Minnesota Twins during their careers. The all-black St. Paul Colored Gophers played four seasons in Saint Paul from 1907 to 1911.

The St. Paul Twin Stars of the National Premier Soccer League play their home games at Macalester Stadium. St. Paul's first curling club was founded in 1888. The current club, the St. Paul Curling Club, was founded in 1912 and is the largest curling club in the United States. Minnesota Roller Derby is a flat-track roller derby league based in the Roy Wilkins Auditorium, made up of women and gender expansive athletes. Minnesota's oldest athletic organization, the Minnesota Boat Club, resides in the Mississippi River on Raspberry Island. Saint Paul is also home to Circus Juventas, the largest circus arts school in North America.

On March 25, 2015, Major League Soccer announced that it had awarded its 23rd MLS franchise to Minnesota United FC, a team from the lower-level North American Soccer League. Bill McGuire and his ownership group, which includes Jim Pohlad of the Minnesota Twins, Glen Taylor of the Minnesota Timberwolves, former Minnesota Wild investor Glen Nelson, and his daughter Wendy Carlson Nelson of the Carlson hospitality company, had intended to build a privately financed soccer-specific stadium in Downtown Minneapolis near the Minneapolis Farmer's Market. But their plan was met with heavy opposition from former Minneapolis Mayor Betsy Hodges, who said her city was suffering from "stadium fatigue" after building three stadiums for the Minnesota Twins, Minnesota Vikings and the Minnesota Golden Gophers, within a six-year span. On July 1, 2015, after failing to reach an agreement with the city of Minneapolis, McGuire and his partners turned their focus to Saint Paul.

On October 23, 2015, Bill McGuire of Minnesota United FC and former Saint Paul Mayor Chris Coleman announced that a privately financed soccer-specific stadium would be built on the vacant Metro Transit bus barn site in Saint Paul's Midway neighborhood near the intersection of Snelling Avenue and University Avenue. It is midway between downtown Saint Paul and downtown Minneapolis. The stadium, Allianz Field, opened in April 2019 and seats 19,400. The team began playing in the MLS in 2017.

The Minnesota Whitecaps began play in the Western Women's Hockey League in 2004 before going independent in 2010 when that league folded. In 2018, the Whitecaps joined the Premier Hockey Federation (then the National Women's Hockey League) as its fifth franchise. The team won the Isobel Cup in its first season in the new league. In the summer of 2023, the PHF ceased operations as part of the launch of a new, unified professional women's league, the Professional Women's Hockey League (PWHL). Minnesota was awarded one of the six charter franchises in the new league, and it was announced that the new team would play its home games at the Xcel Energy Center.

The Timberwolves, Twins, Vikings, and Lynx all play in Minneapolis.

Government and politics
Saint Paul has a variant of the strong mayor–council form of government. The mayor is the chief executive and chief administrative officer of the city and the seven-member city council is its legislative body. The mayor is elected by the entire city, while members of the city council are elected from seven different geographic wards of approximately equal population. The first female councilor, Elizabeth DeCourcy, was elected in 1956. Municipal elections in Saint Paul use ranked choice voting. Both the mayor and council members serve four-year terms.

The current mayor is Melvin Carter (DFL), Saint Paul's first African-American mayor. Aside from Norm Coleman, who became a Republican during his second term, Saint Paul has not elected a Republican mayor since 1952. As of 2024, following the 2023 elections, all seven city councilors are women, making Saint Paul potentially the largest city in American history with an all-female legislative body.

The city is also the county seat of Ramsey County, named for Alexander Ramsey, the state's first governor. The county once spanned much of the present-day metropolitan area and was originally to be named Saint Paul County after the city. Today it is geographically the smallest county and the most densely populated. Ramsey is the only home rule county in Minnesota; the seven-member Board of Commissioners appoints a county manager whose office is in the combination city hall/county courthouse along with the Minnesota Second Judicial Courts. The nearby Law Enforcement Center houses the Ramsey County Sheriff's office.

State and federal
Saint Paul is the capital of Minnesota. The city hosts the capitol building, designed by Saint Paul resident Cass Gilbert, and the House and Senate office buildings. The Minnesota Governor's Residence, which is used for some state functions, is on Summit Avenue. The Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party (affiliated with the Democratic Party) is headquartered in Saint Paul. Numerous state departments and services are also headquartered in Saint Paul, such as the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources.

The city is split into four Minnesota Senate districts (64, 65, 66 and 67) and eight Minnesota House of Representatives districts (64A, 64B, 65A, 65B, 66A, 66B, 67A and 67B), all of which are held by Democrats.

Saint Paul is the heart of Minnesota's 4th congressional district, represented by Democrat Betty McCollum. The district has been in DFL hands without interruption since 1949. Minnesota is represented in the U.S. Senate by Democrat Amy Klobuchar, a former Hennepin County Attorney, and Democrat Tina Smith, a former lieutenant governor of Minnesota.

*District also includes Falcon Heights, Lauderdale and Roseville.

Education

Saint Paul is second in the United States in the number of higher education institutions per capita, behind Boston. Higher education institutions that call Saint Paul home include three public and eight private colleges and universities and five post-secondary institutions. Well-known colleges and universities include the Saint Catherine University, Concordia University, Hamline University, Macalester College, and the University of St. Thomas. Metropolitan State University and Saint Paul College, which focus on non-traditional students, are based in Saint Paul, as well as a law school, Mitchell Hamline School of Law.

The Saint Paul Public Schools district is the state's largest school district and serves approximately 39,000 students. The district is extremely diverse with students from families speaking 90 different languages, although only five languages are used for most school communication: English, Spanish, Hmong, Karen, and Somali. The district runs 82 different schools, including 52 elementary schools, 12 middle schools, seven high schools, ten alternative schools, and one special education school, employing over 6,500 teachers and staff. The school district also oversees community education programs for pre-K and adult learners, including Early Childhood Family Education, GED Diploma, language programs, and various learning opportunities for community members of all ages. In 2006, Saint Paul Public Schools celebrated its 150th anniversary. Some students attend public schools in other school districts chosen by their families under Minnesota's open enrollment statute.

A variety of K-12 private, parochial, and public charter schools are also represented in the city. In 1992, Saint Paul became the first city in the US to sponsor and open a charter school, now found in most states across the nation. Saint Paul is home to 21 charter schools and 38 private schools. The Saint Paul Public Library system includes a central library, twelve branch locations, and a bookmobile.

Media
Saint Paul residents can receive 10 broadcast television stations, five of which broadcast from Saint Paul. One newspaper, the St. Paul Pioneer Press, and several monthly or semimonthly neighborhood papers serve the city. Several media outlets based in Minneapolis also serve the Saint Paul community, including the Star Tribune.

Saint Paul is home to two national broadcast companies. Hubbard Broadcasting is headquartered on the line between Saint Paul and Minneapolis on University Avenue.

Minnesota Public Radio (MPR) is a three-format system that broadcasts on nearly 40 stations around the Midwest. It delivers local news and information, classical, and The Current (which plays a wide variety of music). The station has 110,000 regional members and more than 1 million listeners each week throughout the Upper Midwest, the largest audience of any regional public radio network. Its parent company, American Public Media Group, creates and distributes programming that reaches millions listeners, most notably Marketplace, hosted by Kai Ryssdal.

Interstate and roadways
Interstate Highways

Interstate 35E

Interstate 94

US Highways

US 10

US 52

US 61

Minnesota Highways

Highway 5

Highway 51

Highway 280

Residents use Interstate 35E running north–south and Interstate 94 running east–west. Trunk highways include U.S. Highway 52, Minnesota State Highway 280, and Minnesota State Highway 5. Saint Paul has several unique roads, such as Ayd Mill Road, Phalen Boulevard, and Shepard Road/Warner Road, that diagonally follow particular geographic features in the city. Biking is also gaining popularity, due to the creation of more paved bike lanes that connect to other bike routes throughout the metropolitan area and the creation of Nice Ride Minnesota, a seasonally operated nonprofit bicycle sharing and rental system that has over 1,550 bicycles and 170 stations in both Minneapolis and Saint Paul. Downtown Saint Paul has a five-mile (8 km) enclosed skyway system over 25 city blocks. The 563 mi Avenue of the Saints connects Saint Paul with St. Louis, Missouri.

The layout of city streets and roads has often drawn complaints. While he was Governor of Minnesota, Jesse Ventura appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman, and remarked that the streets were designed by "drunken Irishmen". He later apologized, though people had been complaining about the fractured grid system for more than a century by that point. Some of the city's road design is the result of the curve of the Mississippi River, hilly topography, conflicts between developers of different neighborhoods in the early city, and grand plans only half-realized. Outside of downtown, the roads are less confusing, but most roads are named, rather than numbered, increasing the difficulty for non-natives to navigate.

Mass transit
Metro Transit provides bus service and light rail in the Minneapolis–Saint Paul area. The METRO Green Line is an 11 mi light rail line that connects downtown Saint Paul to downtown Minneapolis with 14 stations in Saint Paul. The Green Line runs west along University Avenue, through the University of Minnesota campus, until it links up and then shares stations with the METRO Blue Line in downtown Minneapolis. Construction began in November 2010 and the line began service on June 14, 2014. The Green Line averaged 42,500 rides per weekday in 2018. Planning is underway for the Riverview Corridor, a rail line that will connect downtown Saint Paul to the airport and Mall of America.

The METRO A Line opened in 2016 as Minneapolis–Saint Paul's first arterial bus rapid transit line. The A Line connects the Blue Line at 46th Street station to Rosedale Center with a connection at the Green Line Snelling Avenue station. Future METRO lines are planned that will serve Saint Paul with the B Line and E Line Line running primarily on arterial streets, and the Gold Line and Purple Line running primarily in their own right of way.

Railroad
Amtrak's Empire Builder between Chicago and Seattle stops twice daily in each direction at the newly renovated Saint Paul Union Depot. Ridership on the train increased about 6% from 2005 to over 505,000 in fiscal year 2007. A Minnesota Department of Transportation study found that increased daily service to Chicago should be economically viable, especially if it originates in Saint Paul and does not experience delays from the rest of the western route of the Empire Builder. Saint Paul is the site of the Pig's Eye Yard, a major freight classification yard for Canadian Pacific Railway. As of 2003, the yard handled over 1,000 freight cars per day. Both Union Pacific and Burlington Northern Santa Fe run trains through the yard, though they are not classified at Pig's Eye. Burlington Northern Santa Fe operates the large Northtown Yard in Minneapolis, which handles about 600 cars per day. There are several other small yards around the city.

Airports
Holman Airfield is across the river from downtown Saint Paul. Lamprey Lake was there until the Army Corps of Engineers filled it with dredgings starting in the early 1920s. Northwest Airlines began initial operations from Holman in 1926. During WWII Northwest had a contract to install upgraded radar systems in B-24s, employing 5,000 at the airfield. After WWII, Holman Airfield competed with the Speedway Field for the Twin Cities' growing aviation industry and lost out in the end. Today Holman is a reliever airport run by the Metropolitan Airports Commission. It is home to Minnesota's Air National Guard and a flight training school and is tailored to local corporate aviation. There are three runways, with the Holman Field Administration Building and Riverside Hangar on the National Register of Historic Places. The original Northwest Airlines building's historical importance was realized only after demolition commenced.

For the most part Saint Paul's aviation needs are served by the Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport (MSP), which sits on 2,930 acre in the Fort Snelling Unorganized Territory bordering the city to the southwest. MSP serves 17 commercial passenger airlines and is the hub of Delta Air Lines and Sun Country Airlines.

Sister cities
Saint Paul's sister cities are:

 * 🇨🇳 Changsha, China
 * 🇸🇻 Ciudad Romero, El Salvador
 * 🇲🇽 Culiacán, Mexico
 * 🇩🇯 Djibouti City, Djibouti
 * George, South Africa
 * 🇲🇽 Manzanillo, Mexico
 * 🇮🇹 Modena, Italy
 * 🇸🇴 Mogadishu, Somalia
 * 🇯🇵 Nagasaki, Japan (from 1955 – the oldest sister city in Japan)
 * 🇩🇪 Neuss, Germany
 * 🇷🇺 Novosibirsk, Russia
 * 🇮🇱 Tiberias, Israel

Notable people

 * Walter Abel (1898–1987), actor
 * Loni Anderson (born 1946), actress
 * Louie Anderson (1953–2022), comedian
 * Wendell Anderson (1933–2016), U.S. senator
 * Richard Arlen (1899–1976), actor
 * Merrill Ashley (born 1950), ballet dancer and répétiteur
 * Roger Awsumb (1928–2002), TV show host "Casey Jones"
 * Azayamankawin (c. 1803–c. 1873), canoe ferry operator and entrepreneur known as "Old Bets"
 * Tony L. Bennett (1940–2022), Minnesota state legislator and police officer
 * Harry Blackmun (1908–1999), U.S. Supreme Court associate justice, grew up in St. Paul
 * Justin Braun (born 1987), hockey player
 * Herb Brooks (1937–2003), hockey coach
 * Warren E. Burger (1907–1995), U.S. Supreme Court chief justice
 * Charles Burlingame (1949–2001), pilot of American Airlines Flight 77
 * Margaret Mary Byrne (born 1949), Minnesota state legislator
 * John T. Clawson (1945–2011), Minnesota state legislator and Lutheran minister
 * Melva Clemaire (1874–1937), soprano
 * Laura Coates, attorney and media personality
 * Nia Coffey (born 1995), WNBA player
 * Francis Roach Delano (1823–1887), state legislator
 * Kevin Eakin (born 1981), NFL player
 * Sarah K. England, physiologist and biophysicist
 * Eyedea (1981–2010), rap artist
 * Robert J. Ferderer (1934–2009), politician and businessman
 * F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896–1940), author
 * David Graham (born 1953), American architect
 * Daniel W. Hand (1869–1945), U.S. Army brigadier general
 * Josh Hartnett (born 1978), actor
 * Andrew Osborne Hayfield (1905–1981), businessman and state legislator
 * Mitch Hedberg (1968–2005), comedian
 * James J. Hill (1838–1916), railroad tycoon
 * Paul Holmgren (born 1955), NHL player, general manager, president of Philadelphia Flyers
 * Nellie A. Hope (1864–1918), violinist, music teacher, orchestra conductor
 * JoAnna James (born 1980), singer/songwriter
 * Nick Jensen (born 1990), NHL player
 * Timothy M. Kaine (born 1958), U.S. senator, governor of Virginia
 * Rachel Keller (born 1992), actress
 * Allan Kingdom (born 1993), rap artist
 * Norman Kittson (1814–1888), fur trader integral to Saint Paul's foundation
 * Dick Kostohryz (1930–1994), Minnesota state legislator
 * Jim Lange (1932–2014), TV presenter, game show host, and disc jockey
 * Sunisa Lee (born 2003), Olympic gymnast and gold medalist
 * Tony Levine (born 1972), football coach
 * Joe Mauer (born 1983), MLB player
 * Ryan McDonagh (born 1989), NHL player
 * Robert O. McEachern (1927–2008), teacher and state legislator
 * Margaret Bischell McFadden, philanthropist and social worker
 * Edwin H. Meihofer (1907–2003), labor union activist and state representative
 * K'Andre Miller (born 2000), NHL player
 * Kate Millett (1934–2017), scholar, author
 * Paul Molitor (born 1956), MLB player
 * Jack Morris (born 1955), MLB player
 * LeRoy Neiman (1921–2012), artist
 * Kyle Okposo (born 1988), NHL player
 * Sally Olsen (1934–2022), state legislator
 * Bruce Olson (born 1941), missionary
 * Howard Orenstein (born 1955), state representative
 * Tim Pawlenty (born 1960), governor of Minnesota
 * Alfred E. Perlman (1902–1983), president of New York Central Railroad and its successor, Penn Central
 * Dave Peterson (1931–1997), teacher and coach of the United States men's national ice hockey team
 * Emily Rudd (born 1993), actress
 * Charles M. Schulz (1922–2000), cartoonist, born in Minneapolis, grew up in St. Paul
 * Ervin Harold Schulz (1911–1978), newspaper editor, state representative, grew up in Saint Paul
 * Meta Schumann (1887–1937), composer
 * Joe Shiely Sr (1885–1972), civic leader and industrialist
 * Chad Smith (born 1961), drummer of the Red Hot Chili Peppers since 1988, born in Saint Paul
 * William Smith (1831–1912), paymaster-general of the United States Army, worked in and retired to St. Paul
 * Terrell Suggs, NFL player
 * W.A. Swanberg (1907–1992), biographer
 * Frances Tarbox (1874–1959), composer
 * Fred Tschida (born 1949), artist, born in Saint Paul
 * Lindsey Vonn (born 1984), Olympic skier and gold medalist
 * DeWitt Wallace (1889–1981), magazine publisher and co-founder of Reader's Digest
 * Dave Winfield (born 1951), MLB player

Medal of Honor recipients:
 * Civil War: Private Marshall Sherman, Co C 1st Minnesota captured the flag of the 28th Virginia Infantry at Gettysburg
 * Indian Wars: Pvt. John Tracy G Co. 8th Cavalry Chiricahua Mountains, Arizona, Apache War
 * Indian Wars: Charles H. Welch, I Co. 9th Cavalry (Buffalo soldiers) Ghost Dance War
 * Spanish-American War: Captain Jesse Dyer USMC, Vera Cruz, Mexico
 * World War II: Captain Richard Fleming USMC VMA-241 Squadron, for whom Fleming Field is named
 * Korean War: Lt. Colonel John Page, U.S. Army, Battle of Chosin Reservoir

title: Saint Paul, Minnesota