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History of Liechtenstein

Political identity came to the territory now occupied by the Principality of Liechtenstein in 814, with the formation of the subcountry of Lower Rhætia. Liechtenstein's borders have remained unchanged since 1434, when the Rhine established the border between the Holy Roman Empire and the Swiss cantons.

Antiquity
The area that is now Liechtenstein was part of the Roman province of Rhaetia. A Roman road crossed the region from south to north, traversing the Alps by the Splügen Pass and, following the right bank of the Rhine at the edge of the floodplain, was uninhabited for long lengths of time because of periodic flooding. Roman villas have been excavated in Schaanwald and Nendeln. The late Roman influx of the Alemanni from the north is memorialized by the remains of a Roman fort at Schaan.

Middle Ages
The area, part of Raetia, was incorporated into the Carolingian empire, and divided into countships, which became subdivided over the generations. Because the Duchy of Swabia lost its duke in 1268 and was never restored, all vassals of the duchy became immediate vassals of the Imperial Throne (as has happened in much of Westphalia when the duchy of Saxons was divided and partially dissolved in aftermath of the defeat of Henry the Lion). Until about 1100, the predominant language of the area was Romansch, but thereafter German gained ground, and in 1300 an Alemannic population called the Walsers (originating in Valais) entered the region. In the 21st century, the mountain village of Triesenberg still preserves features of Walser dialect.

The medieval county of Vaduz was formed in 1342 as a small subdivision of the Werdenberg county of the dynasty of Montfort of Vorarlberg. The 15th century brought three wars and some devastation. Centuries later, Carl Alexander Heideloff was the one who built the Lichtenstein Castle (with the help of peasants). But the 17th century was a lowpoint, with some plague, some skirmishing from the struggles of the Thirty Years' War but most of all from a witch hunt, in which more than 100 persons were persecuted and executed.

The Principality takes its name from the Liechtenstein family, rather than vice versa, and the family in turn takes its name from Liechtenstein Castle in Lower Austria, which it owned from at least 1140 until the 13th century and from 1807 onwards. Over the centuries, the family acquired huge landed estates, mostly in Moravia, Lower Austria and Styria.

All of these rich territories were held in fief under other more senior feudal lords, particularly under various lines of the Habsburg family, to which many Liechtensteins were close advisors. Thus, without holding any land directly under the Holy Roman Emperors, the Liechtenstein dynasty was unable to meet the primary requirement to qualify for a seat in the Imperial Diet, (German Reichstag), although its head was elevated to princely rank in the late 17th century.

Early modern era
The area that was to become Liechtenstein was invaded by both Austrian and Swedish troops during the Thirty Years' War of 1618–1648. During the 17th century the country was afflicted by a plague and also by the Liechtenstein witch trials, in which more than 100 people were persecuted and executed.

Prince Johann Adam Andreas of Liechtenstein bought the domain of Schellenberg in 1699 and the county of Vaduz in 1712. This Prince of Liechtenstein had wide landholdings in Austria, Bohemia and Moravia, but none of his lands were held directly from the Emperor. Thus, the prince was barred from entry to the Council of Princes and the prestige and influence that would entail.

By acquiring the Lordships of Schellenberg and Vaduz, modest areas of mountain villages each of which was directly subordinate to the Emperor because there no longer being a Duke of Swabia, the Prince of Liechtenstein achieved his goal. The territory took the name of the family which now ruled it. On 23 January 1719, Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, decreed that the counties of Vaduz and Schellenberg be promoted to a principality with the name Liechtenstein for his servant Anton Florian of Liechtenstein whereby he and his successors became Princes of the Holy Roman Empire.

French revolutionary and Napoleonic wars
In the War of the First Coalition, Liechtenstein, as part of the Holy Roman Empire contributed approximately 20 troops to the coalition forces from 1793 to 1796. During the War of the Second Coalition, France invaded the country on 6 March 1799 and plundered several towns, including Nendeln that was burned by French troops, which resulted in the deaths of four people. The Austrian and Volgraberg state militias under command by Lieutenant field marshal Franjo Jelačić defeated 18,000 French troops stationed in Liechtenstein under command of General André Masséna and liberated the country by 14 May. In 1806, Liechtenstein was one of the principalities and counties Maximilian I of Bavaria wanted to annex as his price for joining the Confederation of the Rhine but Napoleon refused because he had appreciated the personal qualities of Johann I as a negotiator, Austria's envoy during the negotiations leading to the Treaty of Pressburg. Thus Liechtenstein became a sovereign state later that year when it joined Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine upon the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire.

The French under Napoleon occupied the country for a few years, but Liechtenstein retained its independence in 1815. Soon afterward, Liechtenstein joined the German Confederation (20 June 1815 – 24 August 1866, which was presided over by the Emperor of Austria). In 1818, Johann I granted a constitution, although it was limited in its nature. 1818 also saw the first visit of a member of the house of Liechtenstein, Prince Alois. However, the first visit by a sovereign prince did not occur until 1842.

Constitution and latter century
Like most of Europe at the time, Liechtenstein was subject to the German revolutions of 1848–1849 which caused increased opposition against the absolute monarchy of Aloys II. The aim of the revolution was to improve the economic and political situation of ordinary citizens in Liechtenstein, primarily fuelled by the worsening economy in the country in the years prior. On 22 March 1848, the people's committee appointed a three-person committee to lead the Liechtenstein revolutionary movement, which included Peter Kaiser, Karl Schädler and Ludwig Grass. Together, they managed to maintain order in Liechtenstein and formed a constitutional council. Liechtenstein was a member of the National Assembly in Frankfurt until April 1849.

Following the revolution, a constitutional council was elected on 27 July 1848 in response to popular demand from the revolutionaries, of which Schädler was elected as its president. The primary task of the council was the creation the draft for a new Liechtenstein constitution, of which the work was done primarily by him and Michael Menzinger. The District Council was formed on 7 March 1849 with 24 elected representatives and acted as the first democratic representation in Liechtenstein, with Schädler was elected as District Administrator.

After the failure of the German revolutions, Aloys II once again instated absolute power over Liechtenstein on 20 July 1852 and disbanded the district council. However, calls for a new constitution once again appeared early in the reign of Johann II and the constitutional council was reformed again led by Karl Schädler, once again tasked with drafting a new constitution, of which, similarly to 1848, he did most of the work. The draft was reviewed by an unknown German legal expert and formed the basis of the 1862 Constitution of Liechtenstein, which was ratified on 26 September. It was heavily inspired by the constitution of Vorarlberg and largely addressed the demands of the revolutionaries in Liechtenstein. This constitution established civil liberties in the country and formed the Landtag of Liechtenstein for the first time. In April 1861, Karl Freiherr Haus von Hausen became the first Governor of Liechtenstein. During the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Prince Johann II placed his soldiers at the disposal of the Confederation but only to “defend the German territory of Tyrol”. However, the Landtag had not been consulted regarding the deployment and the war was unpopular among the population, as such it faced resistance from the Landtag. As a result, Johann II promised a loan to the country and refused to have his men fight against other Germans. The Liechtenstein contingent took up position on the Stilfser Joch under the command of Peter Rheinberger in the south of Liechtenstein to defend the Liechtenstein/Austrian border against attacks by the Italians under Garibaldi. A reserve of 2 men remained in Liechtenstein at Vaduz Castle. When the war ended on 22 July, the army of Liechtenstein marched home to a ceremonial welcome in Vaduz. Popular legend claims that 80 men went to war but 81 came back. Though it is disputed who this person was, apparently an Austrian liaison officer joined up with the contingent on the way back, whereas it has also been claimed that it was an Italian farmer.

The German Confederation dissolved in 1866. In combination with its unpopularity among the population and the rising cost to maintain it, Liechtenstein disbanded its army of 80 men on 12 February 1868 and declared its permanent neutrality, neither joining the new German Empire in 1871, nor the Austrian Empire. In 1893, former soldiers of the Liechtenstein army founded a veterans association, which had 141 members in 1896. Its last surviving member, Andreas Kieber, died in 1939, aged 94 years old. This neutrality was respected during both World Wars, and ultimately would allow the country to avoid the fate of the other German monarchies.

World War I
Liechtenstein did not participate in World War I, claiming neutrality. However, until the end of the war, it was closely tied to Austria-Hungary due to the customs union between the two countries and was sympathetic to the Central Powers. The majority of the Liechtenstein government did not expect the war to last long, thus no food or economic preparations were made for it. At the outbreak of the war France, Russia and the United Kingdom interned Liechtensteiners and partially confiscated their assets. As a result, the Liechtenstein government made various declarations that the country was neutral and a separate entity from Austria-Hungary. Foreign citizens living in Liechtenstein were conscripted into the armies of their respective home countries, primarily Austria-Hungary and Germany, of which 27 did not return. In addition, many Liechtensteiners also voluntarily enlisted in both armies, including several members of the House of Liechtenstein. In total, 4 Liechtenstein citizens are known to have been killed in the war despite the country being neutral, including Prince Heinrich of Liechtenstein, who is the highest member of the house of Liechtenstein to have been killed in action. Three Liechtensteiners were imprisoned for espionage during the war. The Entente powers imposed an economic embargo on Liechtenstein in 1916. The country faced economic devastation and food shortages as a result due to the lack of natural resources, which increased smuggling within the country significantly and forced the country to reduce its reliance on Austria-Hungary and seek closer economic ties with Switzerland. By 1916 all food deliveries from Austria-Hungary had ceased, which forced Liechtenstein to seek closer ties with Switzerland in order to ensure food deliveries continued.

As the war dragged on, the country faced increasing civil unrest and dissatisfaction, particularly of that towards to the government of Leopold Freiherr von Imhof. Figures such as Wilhelm Beck formed an opposition group against him, and in November 1918 he was subject of a de facto coup d'état against him. The coup forced Imhof's government to resign and the establishment of a Provisional Executive Committee in his place until 7 December headed by Martin Ritter, who was the first Liechtensteiner head of government. Despite diplomatic efforts by Liechtenstein, they received no representation in the negotiations or signing of the Treaty of Versailles, though the country received indirect recognition of its sovereignty in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye.

Interwar period (1919–1939)
In 1919, following the dissolution of Austria-Hungary the Liechtenstein government could no longer rely on Austria to fulfil their monetary and diplomatic needs. Liechtenstein and Switzerland signed a treaty under which Switzerland assumes the representation of Liechtenstein's interests at the diplomatic and consular level in countries where it maintains a representation and Liechtenstein does not. Liechtenstein has used the Swiss franc since 1920 and the two countries entered a customs union in 1924. Liechtenstein applied to join the League of Nations in 1920, though unsuccessful. Switzerland was the only country to vote in favour of their ascension at the League of Nations Assembly on 17 December 1920, as opposed to 28 against. The November 1918 putsch would begin a period of the next three years where both the Progressive Citizens' Party and Christian-Social People's Party worked together in creating a new constitution based on a constitutional monarchy, much of which was loosely based on the Swiss Federal Constitution. The drafting process included prominent politicians such as Wilhelm Beck, Josef Ospelt and Josef Peer, of which Beck and Peer created the first draft for the constitution. It was signed into law by Prince Karl Aloys on behalf of Johann II and Josef Ospelt as a government representative on 5 October 1921. It established the rule of partial parliamentary democracy mixed with that of constitutional monarchy, as well as providing for referendums on decisions of the Landtag. It also abolished the three seats in the Landtag appointed by the Prince and lowered the voting age from 24 to 21 with universal male suffrage.

The country was subject to an embezzlement scandal in the 1928 Liechtenstein embezzlement scandal, where it was revealed that leading members of the Christian-Social People's Party had embezzled funds from the National Bank of Liechtenstein into various speculative transactions. The scandal forced the government of Gustav Schädler to resign and early elections to be called.

Since the rise of Nazi Germany in 1933 and the introduction of anti-Jewish laws in Germany, Liechtenstein experienced a large rise of Jewish emigrants to the country in which the government led by Josef Hoop had supported the naturalization of the refugees under a new citizenship law. In doing this, Liechtenstein faced attacks from German press and internal sources such as the Liechtenstein Homeland Service. Hoop personally attempted to temper relations with Germany through the use of private contacts and actively downplayed the threat of National-socialism within Liechtenstein. Most notably, German film directors and theatre managers Fritz and Alfred Rotter with a Jewish background were naturalized in Liechtenstein in 1931. Following German press and demands for their extradition local Liechtenstein Nazis used the event to kidnap the two men and forcefully return them to Nazi Germany in the Rotter kidnapping. However, this failed and as a result of a highly publicized trial it held back the formation of an organized Nazi party in Liechtenstein until 1938. In the spring of 1938, just after the annexation of Austria into Greater Germany, eighty-four-year-old Prince Franz I made his 31-year-old grandnephew, Prince Franz Joseph II regent. While Prince Franz I claimed that old age was his reason, it is believed that he had no desire to be on the throne if Germany were to invade and occupy its new neighbour, Liechtenstein. The Princess of Liechtenstein, Elisabeth von Gutmann, whom he married in 1929, was a wealthy Jewish woman from Vienna, and local Liechtenstein Nazis had already singled her out as their anti-Semitic "problem". A Nazi sympathy movement had been simmering for years within its National Union party and there was a national socialist political party - the German National Movement in Liechtenstein, formed shortly after the annexation of Austria. In 1938 Franz Josef II became the first prince of Liechtenstein to take up permanent residence in Liechtenstein. He ruled from Vaduz until his death in 1989. Under the initiative of Franz Joseph II, the Progressive Citizens' Party and Patriotic Union participated in a coalition government formed to prevent government deadlock and help retain Liechtenstein's neutrality overseen by him and led by Josef Hoop and Otto Schaedler respectively. Franz Josef, Hoop and Alois Vogt paid an official visit to Berlin in March 1939 where they met Adolf Hitler and Joachim von Ribbentrop in which they discussed safeguarding Liechtenstein's independence and neutrality while maintaining good relations. Franz Joseph later reminisced on the visit and stated that Hitler showed little interest in them and that it only took place in order to "flatter Hitler's ego".

In the same month, the German National Movement in Liechtenstein (VBDL) staged an amateurish coup attempt, first trying to provoke an intervention from Nazi Germany by burning swastikas, followed by declaring the annexation of Liechtenstein into Germany. The leaders were almost immediately arrested and the hoped-for German invasion failed to materialise.

World War II
During World War II, Liechtenstein remained neutral, while family treasures within the war zone were brought to Liechtenstein (and London) for safekeeping. At the same time, Liechtenstein tied itself as closely as possible to Switzerland during the war in hopes of retaining the country's neutrality. It achieved the de facto inclusion of Liechtenstein in the Swiss national supply. Notable figures in the Liechtenstein government, such as Alois Vogt, retained contacts with Nazi Germany, such as Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle, who regarded him as a trusted contact. Franz Joseph himself periodically sent congratulatory letters to Hitler, such as the thwarting of the 20 July plot, of which he briefly replied. Though Nazi Germany did have plans for the annexation of Liechtenstein, primarily Operation Tannenbaum, these were never implemented and Liechtenstein's neutrality was not violated during the war.

At the close of the conflict, Czechoslovakia and Poland, acting to seize what they considered to be German possessions, expropriated the entirety of the Liechtenstein dynasty's hereditary lands and possessions in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia — the princes of Liechtenstein lived in Vienna until the Anschluss of 1938. During the war, Liechtenstein's princely family owned land in Austria whose managers hired Nazi forced labor, but a much later inquiry found the family not to have known about this. The expropriations (subject to modern legal dispute at the International Court of Justice) included over 1600 sqkm of agricultural and forest land (most notably the UNESCO listed Lednice–Valtice Cultural Landscape), and several family castles and palaces. Citizens of Liechtenstein were also forbidden from entering Czechoslovakia during the Cold War.

Just before the end of the war, Franz Joseph granted political asylum to First Russian National Army pro-Axis pro-emperor Vladimir White emigres led by General Boris Smyslovsky, who were being cared for by the Liechtenstein Red Cross. On 16 August 1945, the Soviet Union sent a delegation to Liechtenstein in an attempt to repatriate the Russians, which was refused despite increasing Soviet pressure to participate in the repatriation program. Eventually the government of Argentina offered the Russians asylum, and about a hundred people left. This is commemorated by a monument at the border town of Hinterschellenberg which is marked on the country's tourist map. According to prime minister Alexander Frick, with the support of Franz Joseph II, the Russians were at no point in danger of being extradited and the general population of Liechtenstein supported the government in providing asylum to them.

In August 1945, Pierre Laval, the Prime Minister of Vichy France, had attempted to seek refuge in Liechtenstein after being flown to the American-occupied zone of Austria, but was turned away.

Cold war
After World War II, the country's low taxes have spurred strong economic growth. Liechtenstein became increasingly important as a financial center. In dire financial straits following the war, the Liechtenstein dynasty often resorted to selling family artistic treasures, including for instance the portrait "Ginevra de' Benci" by Leonardo da Vinci, which was purchased by the National Gallery of Art of the United States in 1967. Liechtenstein prospered, however, during the decades following, as its economy modernized with the advantage of low corporate tax rates which drew many companies to the country.

In 1949, Liechtenstein ceded the Ellhorn mountain to Switzerland as a result of Swiss demands and threats to, among other things, end the customs union between the two countries. Despite the local community in Balzers previously refusing to do so in November 1948, the transfer was approved by the Landtag of Liechtenstein the following month. In exchange to the transfer, Switzerland agreed to forgive much of Liechtenstein's debt that it had acquired to the country throughout World War II.

Liechtenstein was neutral during the Cold War, but sided with the West ideologically, politically and economically. The nuclear threat has led to the expansion of civil defence since the 1960s in Liechtenstein. In 1964–1965, the Liechtenstein government built a command bunker with protection against nuclear bombs in Vaduz. Liechtenstein condemned the suppression of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia. Liechtenstein boycotted the Olympic Games twice- in 1956 in Melbourne in protest against the suppression of the Hungarian uprising and in 1980 in Moscow due to the Soviet war in Afghanistan. Women in Liechtenstein received voting rights for the first time, following a referendum on the topic (among men only) in 1984. In 1989, Prince Hans-Adam II succeeded his father to the throne. In 1996, Russia returned the Liechtenstein family's archives, ending a long-running dispute between the two countries. In 1978, Liechtenstein became a member of the Council of Europe, and then joined the United Nations in 1990 and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) in 1991.

1992 crisis
On 6 December 1992 a referendum was to be held in Switzerland on a federal resolution on the accession to the European Economic Area (EEA). In correspondence with the customs union between the two countries, a similar referendum was to be held in Liechtenstein at a similar time.

Hans-Adam II called for the referendum to be held before the corresponding referendum in Switzerland, against the countries custom union and the wishes of the government with the Landtag of Liechtenstein. On 28 October 1992, he threatened to dismiss the Landtag and Prime Minister Hans Brunhart over the dispute and appoint an acting Prime Minister in his place. In response, approximately 2000 people demonstrated in front of the government house in Vaduz. In the same day, the government and Hans-Adam II negotiated and came to an agreement that scheduled the referendum after the corresponding one in Switzerland, though notably it affirmed that Liechtenstein would commit to agreements with the EEA despite the result in Switzerland.

As a result, the 1923 customs union treaty between Liechtenstein and Switzerland was now compromised, and was no longer viable due to conflicting interests regarding accession to the EEA. In 1994, the treaty was revised to allow for greater freedom for Liechtenstein in defining its foreign policy. A referendum on the topic took place on 9 April 1995, which was accepted by 55.9% of voters. Liechtenstein subsequently joined the EEA in May the same year.

Liechtenstein during the 21st century
In a referendum on 16 March 2003, Prince Hans-Adam, who had threatened to leave the country if he lost, won a large majority (64.3%) in favour of overhauling the constitution to effectively give him more powers than any other European monarch. The new constitution gave the prince the right to dismiss governments and approve judicial nominees and allowed him to veto laws simply by refusing to sign them within a six-month period.

On 15 August 2003, Hans-Adam announced he would step down in one year and hand over the reins to his son Alois. In August 2004, Prince Hans-Adam handed over the practical running of the principality to his son, Crown Prince Alois, although still remaining official head of state.

On 1 July 2007, the first two consuls in the history of the Principality were appointed to represent Liechtenstein in the United States of America. On 3 March 2007, the Swiss Armed Forces "invaded" Liechtenstein territory by mistake, with 170 Swiss Army troops crossing the border.

In June 2012 voters decided in a constitutional referendum that Crown Prince Alois should be allowed to retain his power of veto over decisions made in nationwide ballots.

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title: History of Liechtenstein


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Lillian Moller Gilbreth

Lillian Evelyn Gilbreth (Moller; May 24, 1878 – January 2, 1972) was an American psychologist, industrial engineer, consultant, and educator who was an early pioneer in applying psychology to time-and-motion studies. She was described in the 1940s as "a genius in the art of living."

Gilbreth, one of the first female engineers to earn a Ph.D., is considered to be the first industrial/organizational psychologist. She and her husband, Frank Bunker Gilbreth, were efficiency experts who contributed to the study of industrial engineering, especially in the areas of motion study and human factors.

Cheaper by the Dozen (1948) and Belles on Their Toes (1950), written by two of their children (Ernestine and Frank Jr.) tell the story of their family life and describe how time-and-motion studies were applied to the organization and daily activities of their large family. Both books were later made into feature films.

Early life and education
Lillie Evelyn Moller was born in Oakland, California, on May 24, 1878, to Annie (Delger) and William Moller, a builder's supply merchant. She was their second child and the eldest of the family's nine surviving children. Their first child, Anna Adelaide, had died at age four months. Her maternal grandfather Frederick Delger was a German immigrant who became the richest man in Oakland.

Educated at home until the age of nine, Moller began formal schooling in the first grade at a public elementary school and was rapidly promoted through the grade levels. She was elected vice president of her senior class at Oakland High School and graduated with exemplary grades in May 1896.

Although Moller wanted to go to college, her father was opposed to such education for his daughters. Because of this, she did not take all the required college preparatory courses in high school. She did persuade her father to let her try college for a year and was admitted to the University of California on the condition that she take the missing Latin course from high school in her first semester at university. In August 1896, Moller was one of 300 entering students. The University of California at that time was housed in four buildings in the hills above the little town of Berkeley. It charged no tuition for California residents and was underfunded. Classes were large and many were held in tents. There were no dormitories; men lived in nearby boarding houses and women commuted from home.

Moller did well enough during her first year, coming in near the top of her class, that her father agreed to allow her to continue her education. She commuted from home on the streetcar, and in the evenings helped her mother with the household and her siblings with their homework. She majored in English, also studying philosophy and psychology, and had enough education courses to earn a teaching certificate. She also won a prize for poetry and acted in student plays. In the spring of her senior year the new university president, Benjamin Ide Wheeler, asked her to be one of the student speakers at the commencement ceremonies. On May 16, 1900, she graduated from the university and became the first woman to speak at a University of California commencement. The title of her speech was "Life: A Means or an End".

Moller had begun to think of a professional career rather than staying at home after graduation. She now wished to be called Lillian because she felt it was a more dignified name for a university graduate, and she left home to enroll in graduate school at Columbia University in New York City. Her literature professor Charles Gayley had suggested she study there with Brander Matthews. Graduate enrollment at Columbia was almost half women at the time, but Matthews would not allow them in his classes. Instead, she studied literature with George Edward Woodberry. A lasting influence was her study with the psychologist Edward Thorndike, newly appointed at Columbia. Though she became ill with pleurisy and was brought home by her father, she continued to refer to him in her later work. Back in California, she returned to the University of California in August 1901 to work toward a master's degree in literature. Under the supervision of Gayley, she wrote a thesis on Ben Jonson's play Bartholomew Fair, and received her master's degree in the spring of 1902.

Moller began studies for a PhD at the University of California, but took time off to travel through Europe in the spring of 1903. Following her marriage to Frank Bunker Gilbreth in 1904 and relocation to New York, she completed a dissertation for a doctorate from the University of California, Berkeley, in 1911, but was not awarded the degree due to her noncompliance with residency requirements for doctoral candidates. The dissertation was published as The Psychology of Management: The Function of the Mind in Determining, Teaching and Installing Methods of Least Waste in 1914.

After the Gilbreths relocated their family to Providence, Rhode Island, Lillian enrolled at Brown University. She earned a Ph.D. in applied psychology in 1915, which made her the first of the pioneers of industrial management to have a doctorate. The topic of her dissertation was efficient teaching methods and titled Some Aspects of Eliminating Waste in Teaching.

Marriage and family
Lillian Moller met Frank Bunker Gilbreth in June 1903 in Boston, Massachusetts, en route to Europe with her chaperone, who was Frank's cousin. He had apprenticed in several building trades in the East and established a contracting business with offices in Boston, New York, and London.

The couple married on October 19, 1904, in Oakland, California, and settled in New York. They later moved to Providence, Rhode Island, and eventually relocated their family to Montclair, New Jersey.

As planned, the Gilbreths became the parents of a large family that included twelve children. One died young in 1912; one was still-born in 1915; and eleven of them lived to adulthood, including Ernestine Gilbreth, Frank Bunker Gilbreth Jr., and Robert Moller Gilbreth.

After Frank died of a heart attack on June 14, 1924, Lillian never remarried.

Career
For more than forty years, Gilbreth's career combined psychology with the study of scientific management and engineering. She also included her perspectives as a wife and mother in her research, writing, and consulting work. Gilbreth became a pioneer in what is now known as industrial and organizational psychology. She helped industrial engineers recognize the importance of the psychological dimensions of work. In addition, she became the first American engineer ever to create a synthesis of psychology and scientific management. (Gilbreth introduced the concept of using psychology to study management at the Dartmouth College Conference on Scientific Management in 1911).

In addition to jointly running Gilbreth, Incorporated, their business and engineering consulting firm, Lillian and Frank wrote numerous publications as sole authors, as well as co-authoring multiple books and more than fifty papers on a variety of scientific topics. However, in their joint publications, Lillian was not always named as a co-author, possibly due to publishers' concerns about naming a female writer. Although her credentials included a doctorate in psychology, she was less frequently credited in their joint publications than her husband, who did not attend college.

The Gilbreths were certain that the revolutionary ideas of Frederick Winslow Taylor would be neither easy to implement nor sufficient; their implementation would require hard work by engineers and psychologists to make them successful. The Gilbreths also believed that scientific management as formulated by Taylor fell short when it came to managing the human element on the shop floor. The Gilbreths helped formulate a constructive critique of Taylorism; this critique had the support of other successful managers.

After Frank's passing and the mourning period, Lillian found that the homages to her husband were not a sign of her own taking, when three of her biggest clients did not renew or cancelled contracts. Close associates offered her employment in their firms, but she wanted to keep Frank's business afloat.

Time, motion, and fatigue study
Gilbreth and her husband were equal partners in the engineering and management consulting firm of Gilbreth, Incorporated. She continued to lead the company for decades after his death in 1924. The Gilbreths, both pioneers in scientific management, were especially adept at performing time-and-motion studies. They named their methodology the Gilbreth System and used the slogan, "The One Best Way to Do Work," to promote it. The Gilbreths also developed a new technique for their studies that used a motion-picture camera to record work processes. These filmed observations enabled the Gilbreths to redesign machinery to better suit workers' movements to improve efficiency and reduce fatigue. Their research on fatigue study was a forerunner to ergonomics. In addition, the Gilbreths applied a human approach to scientific management to develop innovations in workplace efficiency, such as improved lighting and regular breaks, as well as ideas for workplace psychological well-being, such as suggestion boxes and free books.

Domestic management and home economics
Gilbreth collaborated with her husband until his death in 1924. Afterwards, she continued to research, write, and teach, in addition to consulting with businesses and manufacturers. She also participated in professional organizations such as the American Society of Mechanical Engineers until her own death nearly fifty years later in 1972. In addition, Gilbreth turned her attention to the home, despite her aversion to housework and the fact that she had long employed full-time household help. Her children once described her kitchen as a "model of inefficiency."

Due to discrimination within the engineering community, Gilbreth shifted her efforts toward research projects in the female-friendly arena of domestic management and home economics. She applied the principles of scientific management to household tasks and "sought to provide women with shorter, simpler, and easier ways of doing housework to enable them to seek paid employment outside the home." The Gilbreth children often took part in the experiments.

In addition, Gilbreth was instrumental in the development of the modern kitchen, creating the "work triangle" and linear-kitchen layouts that are often used today. In the late 1920s, she collaborated with Mary E. Dillon, president of Brooklyn Borough Gas Company on the creation of an efficient kitchen, equipped with gas-powered appliances and named the Kitchen Practical. Inspired by Dillon's criticisms of her own kitchen, it was designed on three principles: the correct and uniform height of working surfaces; a circular work place; and a general "circular routing of working", all carefully analyzed to reduce the time and effort required in the preparation of meals. It was unveiled in 1929 at a Women's Exposition.

She is also credited with the invention of the foot-pedal trash can, adding shelves to the inside of refrigerator doors (including the butter tray and egg keeper), and wall-light switches, all now standard. Gilbreth filed numerous patents for her designs, including one to improve the electric can opener and another for a wastewater hose for washing machines. When Gilbreth was an industrial engineer working at General Electric, she "interviewed over 4,000 women to design the proper height for stoves, sinks, and other kitchen fixtures as she worked on improving kitchen designs".

After World War I, the Gilbreths did pioneering work with the rehabilitation of war-veteran amputees. Lillian continued consulting with businesses and manufacturers after Frank's death. Her clients included Johnson & Johnson and Macy's, among others. Lillian spent three years at Macy's to find solutions to their sales and human resource issues. Solutions included changing light fixtures to reduce eye fatigue and eliminating duplicate recordings of sales checks.

In 1926, when Johnson & Johnson hired her as a consultant to do marketing research on sanitary napkins, Gilbreth and the firm benefited in three ways. First, Johnson & Johnson could use her training as a psychologist in the measurement and analysis of attitudes and opinions. Second, it could give her experience as an engineer specializing in the interaction between bodies and material objects. Third, her public image as a mother and a modern career woman could help the firm build consumer trust in its products. In addition to her work with Johnson & Johnson, Gilbreth was instrumental in the design of a desk in cooperation with IBM for display at the Chicago World's Fair in 1933

Volunteer work and government service

Gilbreth continued her private consulting practice while serving as a volunteer and an adviser to several government agencies and nonprofit groups. In 1927 she became a charter member of the Altrusa Club of New York City, an organization for Professional and Business Women started in 1917 for the purpose of providing community service. Gilbreth's government work began as a result of her longtime friendship with Herbert Hoover and his wife Lou Henry Hoover, both of whom she had known in California (Gilbreth had presided over the Women's Branch of the Engineers' Hoover for President campaign).

Lou Hoover urged Gilbreth to join the Girl Scouts as a consultant in 1929. She remained active in the organization for more than twenty years, becoming a member of its board of directors. During the Great Depression, President Hoover appointed Gilbreth to the Organization on Unemployment Relief as head of the "Share the Work" program. In 1930, under the Hoover administration, she headed the women's section of the President's Emergency Committee for Employment and helped to gain the cooperation of women's groups for reducing unemployment. During World War II Gilbreth continued advising governmental groups and also provided expertise on education and labor issues (especially women in the workforce) for organizations such as the War Manpower Commission, the Office of War Information, and the U.S. Navy. In her later years, Gilbreth served on the Chemical Warfare Board and on Harry Truman's Civil Defense Advisory Council. During the Korean War she served on the Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services.

Author and educator
Gilbreth had a lifelong interest in teaching and education. As an undergraduate at the University of California, Berkeley, she took enough education courses to earn a teacher's certificate, and her doctoral dissertation at Brown University was on applying the principles of scientific management to secondary school teaching.

While residing in Providence, Rhode Island, Gilbreth and her husband taught free, two-week-long summer schools in scientific management from 1913 to 1916. The Gilbreths also discussed teaching the Gilbreth System of time-and-motion study to members of industry, but it was not until after her husband's death in 1924 that she created a formal motion-study course. Gilbreth presented this idea at the First Prague International Management Congress in Prague in July 1924. Her first course began in January 1925. Gilbreth's classes offered to "prepare a member of an organization, who has adequate training both in scientific method and in plant problems, to take charge of Motion Study work in that organization." Coursework included laboratory projects and field trips to private firms to witness the application of scientific management. She ran a total of seven motion study courses out of her home in Montclair, New Jersey until 1930.

To earn additional income to support her large family, Gilbreth delivered numerous addresses to business and industry gatherings, as well as on college and university campuses such as Harvard, Yale, Colgate, the University of Michigan, MIT, Stanford, and Purdue University. In 1925 she succeeded her husband as a visiting lecturer at Purdue, where he had been delivering annual lectures. In 1935 she became a professor of management at Purdue's School of Mechanical Engineering, and the country's first female engineering professor. She was promoted to a full professor at Purdue in 1940. Gilbreth divided her time between Purdue's departments of industrial engineering, industrial psychology, home economics, and the dean's office, where she consulted on careers for women. In cooperation with Marvin Mundel, Gilbreth established and supervised a time-and-motion-study laboratory at Purdue's School of Industrial Engineering. She also demonstrated how time-and-motion studies could be used in agricultural studies and later transferred motion-study techniques to the home economics department under the banner of "work simplification". Gilbreth retired from Purdue's faculty in 1948.

After Gilbreth's retirement from Purdue, she continued to travel and deliver lectures. She also taught at several other colleges and universities, and became head of the Newark College of Engineering in 1941. Gilbreth was appointed the Knapp Visiting Professor at the University of Wisconsin's School of Engineering in 1955. She also taught at Bryn Mawr College and Rutgers University. Whilst teaching at Bryn Mawr, she met then student of social economy, Anne Gillespie Shaw, who later worked for Gilbreth Management Consultants, doing commercial research studies and became a lifelong friend and colleague. In 1964, at the age of eighty-six, Gilbreth became resident lecturer at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 1968, when her health finally began to fail, Gilbreth retired from her active public life and eventually entered a nursing home.

Death and legacy
Gilbreth died of a stroke on January 2, 1972, in Phoenix, Arizona at the age of ninety-three. Her ashes were scattered at sea.

Gilbreth was best known for her work as an industrial engineer and a pioneer in the field of management theory. Dubbed "America's first lady of engineering," she brought her training in psychology to time-and-motion studies and demonstrated how companies and industries could improve their management techniques, efficiency, and productivity. Gilbreth's extensive research and writings on her own and in collaboration with her husband emphasized "the human element in scientific management." Her expertise and major contribution to the field of scientific management was integrating the psychological and mental processes with the time-and-motion studies. She also helped make these types of studies widely accepted. In addition, Gilbreth was among the first to establish industrial engineering curricula in college and university engineering schools. Gilbreth's book, The Psychology of Management (1914), was an early major work in the history of engineering thought and the first to combine psychology with elements of management theory. Major repositories of Gilbreth materials are at the Archives Center of the Smithsonian National Museum of American History in Washington, D.C., and at Purdue University Library, Archives and Special Collections, at West Lafayette, Indiana.

Gilbreth also made contributions on behalf of women. Her pioneering work in industrial engineering influenced women in the field. In addition to her lectures on various engineering topics, she encouraged women to study industrial engineering and management. Purdue awarded its first PhD in engineering to a woman in 1950, two years after Gilbreth retired from the university.

Several engineering awards have been named in Gilbreth's honor. The National Academy of Engineering established the Lillian M. Gilbreth Lectureships in 2001 to recognize outstanding young American engineers. The highest honor bestowed by the Institute of Industrial Engineers is the Frank and Lillian Gilbreth Industrial Engineering Award for "those who have distinguished themselves through contributions to the welfare of mankind in the field of industrial engineering". The Lillian M. Gilbreth Distinguished Professor award at Purdue University is bestowed on a member of the industrial engineering department. The Society of Women Engineers awards the Lillian Moller Gilbreth Memorial Scholarship to female engineering undergraduates.

Two of the Gilbreth children also paid tribute to their mother in books about their family life. Cheaper by the Dozen (1948), a bestseller by Gilbreth's son, Frank Jr., and daughter, Ernestine, was made into a motion picture in 1950 starring Myrna Loy as Lillian and Clifton Webb as Frank. The book's sequel, Belles on Their Toes (1950), also written by Frank Jr. and Ernestine, was made into a motion picture sequel in 1952. Frank Jr. also paid tribute to his mother in Time Out for Happiness (1972).

In 2018, the College of Engineering at Purdue University established the prestigious Lillian Gilbreth Postdoctoral Fellowship Program to attract and prepare outstanding individuals with recently awarded Ph.D.'s for a career in engineering academia through interdisciplinary research, training, and professional development.

Awards and honors
Gilbreth received numerous awards and honors for her contributions.
 * Gilbreth is the recipient of twenty-three honorary degrees from schools such as Rutgers University, Princeton University, Brown University, Smith College, and the University of Michigan.
 * Her portrait hangs in the National Portrait Gallery.
 * The Gilbreth Engineering Library at Purdue University is named in honor of Lillian and Frank Gilbreth.
 * In 1921, Lillian Gilbreth was the second person to be named an honorary member of the American Society of Industrial Engineers.
 * She joined the British Women's Engineering Society in 1924.
 * Gilbreth was accepted to the membership of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1926, becoming its second female member.
 * In 1931 she received the first Gilbreth Medal, which was initiated in honor of her late husband.
 * In 1941 the Purdue University chapter of Mortar Board, a national honor society, named Gilbreth an honorary member.
 * In 1944 the American Society of Mechanical Engineers awarded Gilbreth and her husband (posthumously) the Henry Laurence Gantt Medal for their contributions to industrial engineering.
 * In 1950 Gilbreth became the first honorary member of the newly created Society of Women Engineers.
 * In 1951 she was awarded the Wallace Clark Award.
 * The University of California's alumni association named Gilbreth the 1954 Alumna of the Year.
 * In 1965 Gilbreth became the first woman elected to the National Academy of Engineering.
 * In 1966 Gilbreth became the first woman to receive the Hoover Medal.
 * She was made an honorary Member of the British Women's Engineering Society in 1967.
 * Gilbreth was a recipient of Gold Medal award from the US National Institute of Social Sciences.
 * In 1984 the U.S. Postal Service issued a 40-cent Great Americans series postage stamp in Gilbreth's honor,
 * In 1995, Gilbreth was inducted into the US National Women's Hall of Fame.

Selected published works

 * A Primer of Scientific Management (1912), co-authored with Frank B. Gilbreth
 * The Psychology of Management: the Function of the Mind in Determining, Teaching and Installing Methods of Least Waste (1914)
 * Motion Models (1915) with Frank B. Gilbreth
 * Fatigue Study: The Elimination of Humanity's Greatest Unnecessary Waste; a First Step in Motion Study] (1916) with Frank B. Gilbreth
 * Applied Motion Study; A collection of papers on the efficient method to industrial preparedness. (1917) with Frank B. Gilbreth
 * Motion Study for the Handicapped (1920) with Frank B. Gilbreth
 * The Quest of the One Best Way: A Sketch of the Life of Frank Bunker Gilbreth (1925)
 * The Home-maker and Her Job (1927)
 * Living With Our Children (1928)
 * The Foreman in Manpower Management (1947), with Alice Rice Cook
 * Normal Lives for the Disabled (1948), with Edna Yost
 * Management in the Home: Happier Living Through Saving Time and Energy (1954), with Orpha Mae Thomas and Eleanor Clymer
 * As I Remember: An Autobiography (1998), published posthumously

title: Lillian Moller Gilbreth


text:
Mai Zetterling

Mai Elisabeth Zetterling (24 May 1925 – 17 March 1994) was a Swedish film director, novelist and actress.

Early life
Zetterling was born in Västerås, Sweden to a working class family. She started her career as an actor at the age of 17 at the Royal Dramatic Theatre, the Swedish national theatre, appearing in war-era films.

Career
Zetterling appeared in film and television productions spanning six decades from the 1940s to the 1990s. Her breakthrough as an actress came in the 1944 film Torment written for her by Ingmar Bergman, in which she played a controversial role as a tormented shopgirl. Shortly afterwards she moved to England and gained instant success there with her title role in Basil Dearden's Frieda (1947) playing opposite David Farrar.

After a brief return to Sweden in which she worked with Bergman again in his film Music in Darkness (1948), she returned to Britain and starred in a number of UK films. Some of her notable films as an actress include Quartet (1948), a film based on some of W. Somerset Maugham's short stories, The Romantic Age (1949) directed by Edmond T. Gréville, Only Two Can Play (1962) co-starring Peter Sellers and directed by Sidney Gilliat, and The Witches (1990), an adaptation of Roald Dahl's book directed by Nicolas Roeg. Having gained a reputation as a sex symbol in dramas and thrillers, she was equally effective in comedies, and was active in British television in the 1950s and 1960s.

In 1960 she appeared in Danger Man as Nadia in the episode "The Sisters".

She began directing and publishing novels and non-fiction in the early 1960s, her films starting with political documentaries and a short film titled The War Game (1963), which was nominated for a BAFTA award, and won a Silver Lion at Venice, both for the Best Short Film. Her directorial feature film debut Älskande par (1964, "Loving Couples"), based on the novels of Agnes von Krusenstjerna, caused a scandal at the 1965 Cannes Film Festival for its sexual explicitness and nudity. Kenneth Tynan of The Observer later called it "one of the most ambitious debuts since Citizen Kane". It was not the only film she made that caused controversy for its frank sexuality.

When critics reviewing her debut feature stated that "Mai Zetterling directs like a man", she began to explore feminist themes more explicitly in her work. The Girls, which had an all-star Swedish cast that included Bibi Andersson and Harriet Andersson, discussed women's liberation (or lack thereof) in a society controlled by men, as the protagonists compare their lives to characters in the play Lysistrata, and find that things have not progressed very much for women since ancient times. In 1966, she appeared as a storyteller on the BBC children's programme Jackanory, and in five episodes narrated Tove Jansson's Finn Family Moomintroll.

Personal life
Zetterling was married to Norwegian actor Tutte Lemkow from 1944 to 1953. They had a daughter, Etienne and a son, Louis, who is professor of environmental sociology at the Autonomous University of Barcelona. She published an autobiography, All Those Tomorrows. From 1958 to 1979, she was married to British author David Hughes, who collaborated with her on her first films as director.

Documents at the National Archives in London show that, as a member of the Hollywood Left, she was watched by MI5 as a suspected Communist. It did not hamper her career, however.

Death
On 17 March 1994, a year after her final role on television, Zetterling died from cancer at her home in London. She was 68 years old.

Filmography
As Director

As Actor

title: Mai Zetterling


text:
1499

Year 1499 (MCDXCIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

January–December

 * January 8 – Louis XII of France marries Anne of Brittany, in accordance with a law set by his predecessor, Charles VIII.
 * May 19 – 18-year-old Catherine of Aragon, the future first wife of Henry VIII of England, is married by proxy to his brother, 12-year-old Arthur, Prince of Wales.
 * July 22 – Battle of Dornach: The Swiss decisively defeat the army of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor.
 * July 28 – First Battle of Lepanto: The Turkish navy wins a decisive victory over the Venetians.
 * August – Polydore Vergil completes De inventoribus rerum, the first modern history of inventions.
 * August 24 – Lake Maracaibo is discovered, by Alonso de Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci.
 * September 18 – Vasco da Gama arrives at Lisbon, returning from India, and is received by King Manuel of Portugal.
 * September 22 – Treaty of Basel: Maximilian is forced to grant the Swiss de facto independence.
 * October 25 – The Pont Notre-Dame in Paris, constructed under Charles VI of France, collapses into the Seine.
 * November 5 – The Catholicon is published in Tréguier (Brittany). This Breton–greek–Latin dictionary had been written in 1464 by Jehan Lagadeuc. It is the first dictionary of either French or Breton.
 * November 23 – Perkin Warbeck, pretender to the throne of England, is hanged for reportedly attempting to escape from the Tower of London.
 * November 28 – Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick, last male member of the House of York, is executed for reportedly attempting to escape from the Tower of London.
 * December 18 – The Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1499–1501) begins in the Kingdom of Granada (Crown of Castile) against the forced conversions of Muslims in Spain.

Date unknown

 * The French under Louis XII seize Milan, driving out Duke Ludovico Sforza; Leonardo da Vinci flees to Venice.
 * Montenegro, the last free monarchy in the Balkans, is annexed by the Ottoman Empire, as part of the sanjak of Shkodër, and Stefan II Crnojević is removed from office.
 * Johannes Trithemius inadvertently reveals interests in magic by writing a letter to a Carmelite friar about a treatise he is writing on steganography.
 * Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa matriculates at Cologne University.
 * Giggleswick School is founded by Reverend James Carr in England.

Births

 * January 15 – Samuel Maciejowski, Polish bishop (d. 1550)
 * January 20 – Sebastian Franck, German humanist (d. 1543)
 * January 29 – Katharina von Bora, German nun, wife of Martin Luther (d. 1552)
 * February 10 – Thomas Platter, Swiss humanist scholar and writer (d. 1582)
 * March 22 – Johann Carion, German astrologer and chronicler (d. 1537)
 * March 31 – Pope Pius IV (d. 1565)
 * May 14 – Agostino Gallo, Italian agronomist (d. 1570)
 * June 24 – Johannes Brenz, German theologian and Protestant Reformer of the Duchy of Württemberg (d. 1570)
 * July 17 – Maria Salviati, Italian noble and mother of Cosimo I de Medici (d. 1543)
 * August 14 – John de Vere, 14th Earl of Oxford, English noble (d. 1526)
 * September 3 – Diane de Poitiers, French duchess, mistress of Henry II of France (d. 1566)
 * October 13 – Claude of France, queen consort of France, daughter of Louis XII of France (d. 1524)
 * October 14 – Catherine of the Palatinate, Abbess of Neuburg am Neckar (d. 1526)
 * October 31 – Günther XL, Count of Schwarzburg (1526–1552) (d. 1552)
 * November 1 – Rodrigo of Aragon, Italian noble (d. 1512)
 * December 8 – Sebald Heyden, German musicologist and theologian (d. 1561)
 * December 13 – Justus Menius, German Lutheran pastor (d. 1558)
 * date unknown
 * Hans Asper, Swiss painter (d. 1571)
 * Michael Coxcie, Flemish painter (d. 1592)
 * Cesare Hercolani, Italian military leader (d. 1534)
 * Jan Łaski, Polish Protestant reformer (d. 1560)
 * Laurentius Petri, Archbishop of Uppsala (d. 1573)
 * Giulio Romano, Italian painter (d. 1546)
 * Bernardino de Sahagún, Franciscan missionary (d. 1590)
 * Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia, Italian mathematician (d. 1557)
 * Ming, Icelandic clam (d. 2006)
 * probable – Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, Portuguese explorer (d. 1543)

Deaths

 * January 9 – John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg (b. 1455)
 * March 24 – Edward Stafford, 2nd Earl of Wiltshire, English nobleman (b. 1470)
 * April 7 – Galeotto I Pico, Duke of Mirandola (b. 1442)
 * August 29 – Alesso Baldovinetti, Florentine painter (b. 1427)
 * October 1 – Marsilio Ficino, Italian philosopher (b. 1433)
 * November 23 – Perkin Warbeck, Flemish imposter (b. c. 1474) (executed)
 * November 28 – Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick, last male member of the English House of York (b. 1475)
 * date unknown
 * Rennyo, leader of the Ikko sect of Buddhism (b. 1415)
 * Muhammad Rumfa, ruler of Kano
 * Laura Cereta, Italian humanist and feminist (b. 1469)

title: 1499


text:
1497

Year 1497 (MCDXCVII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

January–December

 * February 7 (Shrove Tuesday) – Followers of Girolamo Savonarola burn thousands of "immoral" objects, at the Bonfire of the Vanities in Florence.
 * March – The Russo-Swedish War (1495–1497) ends with a six year truce. Due to gathering unrest at home, the Swedish leader Sten Sture the Elder was forced to offer a peace to Ivan III of Moscow.
 * May – The Cornish Rebellion breaks out in England, incited by war taxes.
 * May 10 – Amerigo Vespucci allegedly leaves Cádiz, for his first voyage to the New World.
 * May 12 – Pope Alexander VI excommunicates Girolamo Savonarola.
 * May 20 – John Cabot sets sail from Bristol, on the ship Matthew (principally owned by Richard Amerike), looking for new lands to the west (some sources give a May 2 date).
 * June 13 – The Catholic Monarchs issue the ordinance of Medina del Campo, creating a money system based on the copper maravedí, creating the peso of 34 maravedis. In the next three centuries, this system will dominate international payments. It will be used in almost all parts of the Americas and large parts of Asia. It is the basis for a number of modern currencies, including the U.S. dollar.
 * June 17 – Battle of Deptford Bridge near London: Cornish rebels under Michael An Gof are soundly defeated by Henry VII.
 * June 24 – John Cabot lands in North America (near present day Bonavista, Newfoundland).
 * July 8 – Vasco da Gama's fleet departs from Lisbon, beginning his expedition to India.
 * September 7 – Second Cornish Uprising in England: Perkin Warbeck lands near Land's End; on September 10 he is proclaimed as King in Bodmin.
 * September 28 – Battle of Rotebro: John, King of Denmark, defeats Sten Sture the Elder.
 * September 30 – The Treaty of Ayton establishes a seven-year peace between England and Scotland.
 * October 4 – Leaders of the Second Cornish Uprising surrender to the King at Taunton; the following day, Warbeck, having deserted his army, is captured at Beaulieu Abbey in Hampshire.
 * October 6 – Sten Sture the Elder is forced to resign and end his 27-year term as Regent of Sweden. King John of Denmark and Norway is acknowledged by the estates as King of Sweden and formally elected on October 18, restoring the power of the Kalmar Union.
 * December 5 – King Manuel I of Portugal proclaims an edict in which he demands that Jews convert to Christianity or leave the country.
 * December 23 – Sheen Palace is destroyed by fire. Henry VII of England rebuilds it as Richmond Palace.

Date unknown

 * Babur takes Samarkand at the age of fifteen after a seven-month siege. He will hold the city for 100 days.
 * Ivan the Great issues his law code, the Sudebnik.
 * The Ottomans give Russian merchants freedom of trade within the empire.
 * Iamblichus De mysteriis Aegyptorum edited by Marsilio Ficino is published.
 * The Annals of the Four Masters refer to a famine in Ireland which "prevailed through all Ireland".

Births

 * February 16 – Philip Melanchthon, German humanist and reformer (d. 1560)
 * February 19 – Matthäus Schwarz, German fashion writer (d. 1574)
 * March – Giovanni Paolo I Sforza, Italian condottiero (d. 1535)
 * April 2 – Georg Giese, German merchant (d. 1562)
 * April 16 – Mōri Motonari, Japanese daimyō (d. 1571)
 * April 17 – Pedro de Valdivia, Spanish conquistador (d. 1553)
 * May 3 – Wilhelm IV of Eberstein, President of the Reichskammergericht (d. 1562)
 * May 21 – Al-Hattab, Tripolitanian Muslim jurist (d. 1547)
 * June 27 – Ernest I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1546)
 * July 15 – Francis of Denmark, Danish prince (d. 1511)
 * August 18 – Francesco Canova da Milano, Italian composer (d. 1543)
 * September 10 – Wolfgang Musculus, German theologian (d. 1563)
 * October 29 – Benedetto Accolti the Younger, Italian cardinal (d. 1549)
 * date unknown
 * Jean Fernel, French physician (d. 1558)
 * Anne Seymour, Duchess of Somerset, English noblewoman (d. 1587)
 * Gonzalo de Sandoval, Spanish conquistador (d. 1528)
 * Margareta Eriksdotter Vasa, Swedish noblewoman (d. 1536)
 * Johann Wild, German preacher (d. 1554)
 * probable
 * Francesco Berni, Italian poet (d. 1536)
 * John Heywood, English playwright (d. 1580)

Deaths

 * January 3 – Beatrice d'Este, Duchess of Milan (b. 1475)
 * January 30 – Lê Thánh Tông, Emperor of Vietnam (b. 1442)
 * February 6 – Johannes Ockeghem, Flemish composer (b. c. 1410)
 * May 26 – Antonio Manetti, Italian mathematician and architect (b. 1423)
 * June 14 – Giovanni Borgia, 2nd Duke of Gandía (assassinated) (b.1474)
 * June 27
 * Michael An Gof, Cornish rebel leader (executed)
 * Thomas Flamank, Cornish rebel leader (executed)
 * June 28 – James Tuchet, 7th Baron Audley (b. c. 1463)
 * July – Estêvão da Gama, Portuguese explorer ( b. c. 1430)
 * July 23 – Barbara Fugger, German banker (b. 1419)
 * August 24 – Sophie of Pomerania, Duchess of Pomerania (b. 1435)
 * October 4 – John, Prince of Asturias, only son of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile (b. 1478)
 * November 7 – Philip II, Duke of Savoy (b. 1443)
 * November 30 – Anna Sforza, Italian noble (b. 1476)
 * date unknown
 * Al-Mutawakkil II, Caliph of Cairo
 * Al-Sakhawi, Egyptian scholar (b. 1428)
 * Albert Brudzewski, Polish astronomer (b. 1445)
 * Gentile de' Becchi, Bishop of Arezzo (b. 1420/1430)
 * probable – Elia del Medigo, Italian philosopher (b. 1460)

title: 1497


text:
1496

Year 1496 (MCDXCVI) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

January–December

 * February – Pietro Bembo's Petri Bembi de Aetna Angelum Chalabrilem liber, a description of a journey to Mount Etna, is published in Venice by Aldus Manutius, the first book printed in the old-style serif or humanist typeface cut by Francesco Griffo (known from the 20th century as Bembo) and with early adoption of the semicolon (dated 1495 according to the more veneto).
 * February 24 – King Henry VII of England signs the commercial treaty Intercursus Magnus with Venice, Florence, and the cities of the Hanseatic League and the Netherlands.
 * March 5 – Henry VII of England issues letters patent to Italian-born adventurer John Cabot and his sons, authorizing them to discover unknown lands.
 * March 10 – Christopher Columbus leaves Hispaniola for Spain, ending his second visit to the Western Hemisphere. During his time here he has forcibly subjugated the island, enslaved the Taíno, and laid the basis for a system of land grants tied to the Taíno's enslavement.
 * June 12 – Jesus College, Cambridge, is founded.
 * July – Spanish forces under Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba capture Atella after a siege. Among the prisoners is the French viceroy of Naples, the Comte de Montpensier. Ferdinand II of Naples is restored to his throne.
 * August 5 – Bartholomew Columbus, brother of Christopher Columbus, formally founds the city of Santo Domingo (first settled in March) on Hispaniola (in the modern-day Dominican Republic), making it the oldest permanent European settlement in the New World.
 * September 21–25 – James IV of Scotland invades Northumberland, in support of the pretender to the English throne, Perkin Warbeck.
 * October 20 – Joanna of Castile, second daughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, heiress to Castile, marries the archduke Philip, heir through his mother to the Burgundian Netherlands, and through his father to the Holy Roman Empire.
 * December 5 – King Manuel I of Portugal issues a decree ordering the expulsion of "heretics" from the country.
 * Date unknown – Jan de Groote, a Dutchman, obtains a grant for the north ferry from the mainland of Scotland to Orkney, from King James IV of Scotland.

Births

 * March 18 – Mary Tudor, Queen of Louis XII of France, daughter of Henry VII of England (d. 1533)
 * May 12 – King Gustav I of Sweden (d. 1560)
 * July 10 – Johann Forster, German theologian (d. 1558)
 * August 28 – Konrad Heresbach, German Calvinist (d. 1576)
 * September 27 – Hieronymus Łaski, Polish diplomat (d. 1542)
 * October 20 – Claude, Duke of Guise, French aristocrat and general (d. 1550)
 * November 23 – Clément Marot, French poet of the Renaissance period (d. 1544)
 * December 20 – Joseph ha-Kohen, Spanish-born French Jewish historian and physician (d. 1575)
 * December 21 – Elisabeth Corvinus, Hungarian princess (d. 1508)
 * date unknown
 * Lazare de Baïf, French diplomat and author (d. 1547)
 * João de Barros, Portuguese historian (d. 1570)
 * Cuauhtémoc, 11th Tlatoani (emperor) of Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City), 1520–1521, (d. 1521)
 * Dirck Jacobsz., Dutch painter (d. 1567)
 * Richard Maitland, Scottish poet (d. 1586)
 * Louise de Montmorency, French noblewoman (d. 1547)
 * Martín Ocelotl, Mexican priest (d. c. 1537)
 * William Roper, son-in-law and biographer of Thomas More (d. 1578)
 * Giovanni Battista da Sangallo, Italian architect (d. 1548)
 * Menno Simons, Dutch Anabaptist leader (d. 1561)
 * Agostino Steuco, Italian humanist scholar (d. 1548)
 * Johann Walter, Lutheran composer and poet (d. 1570)
 * probable – Henry Somerset, 2nd Earl of Worcester (d. 1549)
 * María Pacheco, Spanish heroine and defender of Toledo (d. 1531)

Deaths

 * January 1 – Charles, Count of Angoulême (b. 1459)
 * February 24 – Eberhard I, Duke of Württemberg (b. 1445)
 * March 4 – Sigismund, Archduke of Austria (b. 1427)
 * March 12 – Johann Heynlin, German humanist scholar (b. c. 1425)
 * April 16 – Charles II, Duke of Savoy (b. 1489)
 * April 29 – Fernando de Almada, 2nd Count of Avranches (b. c. 1430)
 * August 15 – Infanta Isabella of Portugal, Queen of Castile and León (b. 1428)
 * August 28 – Kanutus Johannis, Swedish Franciscan friar, writer and book collector
 * September 7 – King Ferdinand II of Naples (b. 1469)
 * September 15 – Hugh Clopton, Lord Mayor of London (b. c. 1440)
 * September 25 – Piero Capponi, Italian soldier and statesman (b. 1447)
 * September 28 – Boček IV of Poděbrady, Bohemian nobleman, eldest son of King George of Podebrady (b. 1442)
 * October 15 – Gilbert, Count of Montpensier (b. 1443)
 * November 1 – Filippo Buonaccorsi (Filip Callimachus), Italian humanist writer (b. 1437)
 * date unknown
 * Richard Bell, Bishop of Carlisle
 * Alexander Inglis, Scottish clergyman
 * Pietro di Francesco degli Orioli, Italian sculptor (b. c. 1458)
 * Piero del Pollaiuolo, Italian painter (b. 1443)
 * Qaitbay, sultan of Egypt
 * Ercole de' Roberti, Italian artist (b. c. 1451)
 * probable – Jan IV of Oświęcim, duke of Oświęcim

title: 1496


text:
1494

Year 1494 (MCDXCIV) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

January–December

 * January 4 – The Cetinje Octoechos (Цетињски октоих, an Eastern Orthodox octoechos (liturgy), first tone), the first incunabulum written in the Serbian recension of Church Slavonic, and the first book printed in Cyrillic in Southeast Europe, is completed in Cetinje.
 * January 25 – Alfonso II becomes King of Naples.
 * May – Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, recognises the pretender Perkin Warbeck as rightful King of England.
 * May 5 – Christopher Columbus first sights Jamaica.
 * May 7 – The infant Amda Seyon II succeeds his father Eskender as Emperor of Ethiopia.
 * May 31 – First Battle of Acentejo: Natives of the island of Tenerife, known as Guanches, defeat the invading Spanish forces.
 * June 7 – Treaty of Tordesillas: Spain and Portugal divide the New World between themselves.
 * June 25 – The first hurricane ever observed by Europeans strikes the Spanish settlement of La Isabela, on Hispaniola.
 * October 22 – Ludovico Sforza becomes Duke of Milan, and invites Charles VIII of France to invade Italy in support of his claim, beginning the Italian War of 1494–98.
 * October 26 – Amda Seyon II is deposed and killed, and his uncle Na'od succeeds him as Emperor of Ethiopia.
 * November 9 – The Medici Bank is insolvent and the House of Medici is expelled from Florence.
 * November 10 – Fra Luca Pacioli's Summa de arithmetica, geometria, proportioni et proportionalità is published in Venice, containing the first printed account of algebra in the vernacular, and the first published description of the double-entry accounting system.
 * November 17 – Italian War of 1494–98: The armies of Charles VIII of France enter Florence.
 * December 25 – Second Battle of Acentejo: The Spanish crush the native forces of the island of Tenerife, leading to the subjugation of this last bastion of resistance in the Canary Islands.

Date unknown

 * Aztec forces conquer and sack Mitla.
 * Johann Reuchlin publishes De verbo mirifico.
 * Charles VIII of France purchases the right to the Byzantine Empire from exiled pretender, Andreas Palaiologos.

Births

 * February 2 – Bona Sforza, queen of Sigismund I of Poland (d. 1557)
 * February 11 – Takeda Nobutora, Japanese warlord (d. 1574)
 * February 20 – Johan Friis, Danish statesman (d. 1570)
 * March 24 – Georgius Agricola, German mineralogist and scholar (d. 1555)
 * March 25 – Elisabeth of Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach, Margravine (d. 1518)
 * April 4 – Ambrosius Moibanus, German theologian (d. 1554)
 * April 20 – Johannes Agricola, German Protestant reformer (d. 1566)
 * April 25 – Juan Téllez-Girón, 4th Count of Ureña, Spanish count (d. 1558)
 * May 24 – Pontormo, Italian painter (d. 1557)
 * August 18 – Johannes Scheubel, German mathematician (d. 1570)
 * September 8 – Sri Chand, Indian founder of the ascetic sect of Udasi (d. 1629)
 * September 11 – Elisabeth of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Duchess of Guelders (1518–1538) (d. 1572)
 * September 12 – King Francis I of France (d. 1547)
 * October 31 – Wolfgang of the Palatinate, Count Palatine of Neumarkt (1524–1558), governor of the Upper Palatinate (d. 1558)
 * November 5 – Hans Sachs, German meistersinger ("mastersinger") (d. 1576)
 * November 6 – Suleiman the Magnificent, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1566)
 * November 12 – Margaret of Anhalt-Köthen, Princess of Anhalt by birth, Duchess consort of Saxony (d. 1521)
 * November (probable) – François Rabelais, French Renaissance writer (d. 1553)
 * date unknown
 * Alonso Álvarez de Pineda, Spanish explorer and cartographer (d. 1519)
 * Christina Gyllenstierna, Swedish national heroine (d. 1559)
 * Ambrosius Holbein, German painter (d. 1519)
 * Qiu Ying, Chinese painter (d. 1552)
 * Saitō Dōsan, Japanese warlord (d. 1556)
 * John Sutton, 3rd Baron Dudley (d. 1554)
 * Hans Tausen, Danish religious reformer (d. 1561)

Deaths

 * January 11 – Domenico Ghirlandaio, Italian artist (b. 1449)
 * January 20 – Seongjong of Joseon, King of Joseon (b. 1457)
 * January 25 – King Ferdinand I of Naples (b. 1423)
 * May 7 – Eskender, Emperor of Ethiopia (b. 1471)
 * August 1 – Giovanni Santi, Italian artist and father of Raphael (b. c. 1435)
 * August 11 – Hans Memling, Flemish painter (b. c. 1430)
 * September 24 – Poliziano, Italian humanist (b. 1454)
 * October 21 – Gian Galeazzo Sforza, Duke of Milan (b. 1469)
 * October 26 – Amda Seyon II, Emperor of Ethiopia (b. c. 1487)
 * November 8 – Melozzo da Forlì, Italian painter (b. c. 1438)
 * November 15 – William Calthorpe, English knight (b. 1410)
 * November 16 – Theda Ukena, countess regent of East Frisia (b. 1432)
 * November 17 – Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Italian humanist (b. 1463)
 * December 19 or December 20 – Matteo Maria Boiardo, Italian poet (b. c. 1434-1441)

title: 1494


text:
1491

Year 1491 (MCDXCI) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

January–December

 * January 2 – Alain I of Albret signs the Treaty of Moulins with Charles VIII of France.
 * March – The French–Breton War resumes.
 * March 19−20 – Alain I of Albret captures the Château des ducs de Bretagne for the French.
 * April 23
 * Granada is besieged by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain.
 * Santa Fe, Granada is founded.
 * May – The war between the Ottoman Empire and the Egyptian Mamluks ends.
 * May 3 – The ruler of the Kingdom of Kongo, Nkuwu Nzinga, is baptised by Portuguese missionaries, adopting the baptismal name of João I.
 * May 8 – A solar eclipse takes place over Metz.
 * June 27 – Louis of Orléans is released by Charles VIII of France after three years of imprisonment.
 * September – Battle of Vrpile Gulch in southern Croatia: Forces of the Ottoman Empire are defeated by those of the Kingdom of Croatia.
 * November – The pretender Perkin Warbeck begins a campaign to take the English throne, with a landing in Ireland.
 * November 7 – Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor and King Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary sign the Peace of Pressburg, formally ending the Austrian–Hungarian War.
 * November 16 – An auto-da-fé held in Brasero de la Dehesa (outside Ávila) concludes the case of the Holy Child of La Guardia, with the execution of several Jewish and converso suspects.
 * November 25 – Reconquista: The Granada War is effectively brought to an end (and the Siege of Granada extended for two months) with the signing of the Treaty of Granada between the Catholic Monarchs of Spain and the Moorish Emirate of Granada.
 * December 6 – King Charles VIII of France marries Anne of Brittany, forcing her to break her marriage with Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, thus incorporating Brittany into the kingdom of France.
 * December 21 – The Truce of Coldstream secures a five-year peace, between Scotland and England.

Date unknown

 * In the Ayutthaya Kingdom the reign of Ramathibodi II begins.
 * The population of China reaches 56.238 million.
 * The Bread and Cheese Revolt breaks out in West Frisia, North Holland, caused by a famine among the peasants due to bad weather conditions.
 * A major fire breaks out in Dresden.
 * In the Russian territory of Komi (now the Komi Republic), annexed by Russia in 1478, copper and silver ores are discovered, and the territory gains importance as a mining and metallurgical center.
 * Nicolaus Copernicus enters the University of Kraków.

Births

 * January 30 – Francesco Sforza, Italian noble (d. 1512)
 * March 25 – Marie d'Albret, Countess of Rethel, French nobility (d. 1549)
 * May 10 – Suzanne, Duchess of Bourbon (d. 1521)
 * June 28 – Henry VIII of England (d. 1547)
 * August 3 – Maria of Jülich-Berg, spouse of John III, Duke of Cleves (d. 1543)
 * August 10 – Queen Janggyeong, Korean royal consort (d. 1515)
 * August 25 – Innocenzo Cybo, Catholic cardinal (d. 1550)
 * October 6 – Francis de Bourbon, Count of St. Pol, French noble (d. 1545)
 * c. October 23 – Ignatius of Loyola, Spanish founder of the Society of Jesus, a Roman Catholic religious order (d. 1556)
 * October 26 – Zhengde Emperor of China (d. 1521)
 * November 8 – Teofilo Folengo, Italian poet (d. 1544)
 * November 11 – Martin Bucer, German Protestant reformer (d. 1551)
 * December 13 – Martín de Azpilcueta, Spanish theologian and economist (d. 1586)
 * December 31 – Jacques Cartier, French explorer (d. 1557)
 * date unknown
 * Lapulapu, Filipino king (d. 1542)
 * Azai Sukemasa, Japanese samurai and warlord (d. 1546)
 * Isabella Losa, Spanish scholar (d. 1564)
 * probable
 * George Blaurock, Swiss founder of Anabaptism (d. 1529)
 * Antonio Pigafetta, Italian explorer (d. 1534)

Deaths

 * January 19 – Dorothea of Brandenburg, Duchess of Mecklenburg (b. 1420)
 * February 15 – Ashikaga Yoshimi, brother of Shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimasa (b. 1439)
 * February 19 – Enno I, Count of East Frisia (1466–1491) (b. 1460)
 * March 6 – Richard Woodville, 3rd Earl Rivers
 * March 31 – Bonaventura Tornielli, Italian Roman Catholic priest (b. 1411)
 * May 14 – Filippo Strozzi the Elder, Italian banker (b. 1428)
 * July 13 – Afonso, Prince of Portugal (b. 1475)
 * July 16 – William Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, English earl (b. 1451)
 * October 5 – Jean Balue, French cardinal and statesman (b. c. 1421)
 * October 12 – Fritz Herlen, German artist (b. 1449)
 * November 16 – Holy Child of La Guardia, Spanish folk saint (b. n/a)
 * December 28 – Bertoldo di Giovanni, Italian sculptor (b. c. 1435)
 * date unknown – Anne of Orléans, Abbess of Fontevraud (b. 1464)
 * date unknown – Musa ibn Abi al-Ghassan, knight of Granada
 * probable
 * February 9 (according to the Libro dei Morti) – Antonia di Paolo di Dono, Italian artist and daughter of Paolo di Dono

title: 1491


text:
1490

Year 1490 (MCDXC) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

January–December

 * January 4 – Anne of Brittany announces that all those who ally themselves with the king of France will be considered guilty of the crime of Lèse-majesté.
 * March 13 – Charles II becomes Duke of Savoy at age 1; his mother Blanche of Montferrato is regent.
 * March or April – 1490 Qingyang event, a presumed meteor shower or air burst over Qingyang in Ming dynasty China, said to have caused casualties.
 * July 4 – Defeat of John Corvinus in the battle of Bonefield
 * July 13 – John of Kastav finishes a cycle of frescoes in the Holy Trinity Church, Hrastovlje (modern-day southwestern Slovenia).
 * July 22 – Ashikaga Yoshitane becomes 10th Muromachi shōgun of Japan.
 * November 20 – The first edition of the chivalric romance Tirant lo Blanch, by Joanot Martorell, is printed in Valencia.
 * December 19 – Anne of Brittany is married to Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor by proxy.

Date unknown

 * Perkin Warbeck claims to be the son of King Henry VII of England, at the court of Burgundy.
 * Traditional date of the Battle of Glendale (Skye) between the Scottish clans MacDonald and MacLeod.
 * Catholic missionaries arrive in the African Kingdom of Kongo.
 * Pêro da Covilhã arrives in Ethiopia.
 * Regular postal service connects the Habsburg residences of Mechelen and Innsbruck, the first in Germany.
 * Leonardo da Vinci observes capillary action, in small-bore tubes.
 * Leonardo da Vinci develops an oil lamp: the flame is enclosed in a glass tube, placed inside a water-filled glass globe.
 * All Saints' Church, the Schlosskirche in Wittenberg, is begun.
 * Tirant lo Blanch, by Joanot Martorell and Martí Joan de Galba, is published.
 * Aldus Manutius moves to Venice.
 * John Colet receives his M.A. from Magdalen College, Oxford.
 * Johann Reuchlin meets Giovanni Pico della Mirandola.
 * Merchants carry coffee from Yemen to Mecca (approximate date).
 * Battle of Chocontá: The northern (zaque) tribes of the pre-Columbian Muisca Confederation (central Colombia) are beaten by the southern (zipa) tribes.

Births

 * February 14 – Valentin Friedland, German scholar and educator of the Reformation (d. 1556)
 * February 17 – Charles III, Duke of Bourbon, French military leader (d. 1527)
 * March 6 – Fridolin Sicher, Swiss composer (d. 1546)
 * March 22 – Francesco Maria I della Rovere, Duke of Urbino, Italian noble (d. 1538)
 * March 24 – Giovanni Salviati, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1553)
 * April – Vittoria Colonna, Italian poet (d. 1547)
 * April 4 – Vojtěch I of Pernstein, Bohemian nobleman (d. 1534)
 * May 17 – Albert, Duke of Prussia, last Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights (d. 1568)
 * June 28 – Albert of Mainz, German elector and archbishop (d. 1545)
 * July 25 – Amalie of the Palatinate, Duchess consort of Pomerania (d. 1524)
 * August 5 – Andrey of Staritsa, son of Ivan III "the Great" of Russia (d. 1537)
 * September 23 – Johann Heß, German theologian (d. 1547)
 * October – Olaus Magnus, Swedish ecclesiastic and writer (d. 1557)
 * October 12 – Bernardo Pisano, Italian composer (d. 1548)
 * November 10 – John III, Duke of Cleves (d. 1539)
 * December 25 – Francesco Marinoni, Italian Roman Catholic priest (d. 1562)
 * December 26 – Friedrich Myconius, German Lutheran theologian (d. 1546)
 * December 30 – Ebussuud Efendi, Ottoman Grand Mufti (d. 1574)
 * approx. date – Properzia de' Rossi, Italian Renaissance sculptor (d. 1530)
 * date unknown
 * Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus, Scottish noble (d. 1556)
 * Luca Ghini, Italian physician and botanist (d. 1566)
 * Bars Bolud Jinong, Mongol Khagan (d. 1531)
 * Argula von Grumbach, German Protestant reformer (d. 1564)
 * Jean Salmon Macrin, French poet (d. 1557)
 * Caspar Schwenckfeld, German theologian (d. 1561)
 * Anna Bielke, Swedish noble and commander (d. 1525)
 * David Reubeni, Jewish political activist and mystic (d. 1541)
 * probable
 * Wijerd Jelckama, Frisian rebel and warlord (d. 1523)
 * Adriaen Isenbrandt, Flemish painter (d. 1551)
 * Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich, Lord Chancellor of England (d. 1567)
 * María de Toledo, Vicereine and regent of the Spanish Colony of Santo Domingo (d. 1549)
 * John Taverner, English composer and organist (d. 1545)
 * María de Salinas, Lady Willoughby, Spanish lady-in-waiting and friend to Catherine of Aragon
 * Quilago, queen regnant of the Cochasquí in Ecuador (d. 1515)

Deaths

 * January 27 – Ashikaga Yoshimasa, Japanese shōgun (b. 1435)
 * March 6 – Ivan the Young, Ruler of Tver (b. 1458)
 * April 6 – King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary (b. 1443)
 * May 12 – Joanna, Portuguese Roman Catholic blessed and regent (b. 1452)
 * May 22 – Edmund Grey, 1st Earl of Kent (b. 1416)
 * August 11 – Frans van Brederode, Dutch rebel leader (b. 1465)
 * date unknown
 * Martí Joan de Galba, Catalan novelist
 * Aonghas Óg, last independent Lord of the Isles

title: 1490


text:
1488

Year 1488 (MCDLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar.

January–December

 * January 8 – The Royal Netherlands Navy is formed, by the decree of Maximillian of Austria.
 * February 3 – Bartolomeu Dias of Portugal lands in Mossel Bay, after rounding the Cape of Good Hope at the tip of Africa, becoming the first known European to travel this far south, and entering the Indian Ocean.
 * February 28 – Choe Bu (1454–1504), the Korean Commissioner of Registers for the island of Cheju, shipwrecks on the south east coast of China in Taizhou, Zhejiang.
 * June 11 – Battle of Sauchieburn: James IV of Scotland becomes king after his father is killed in action.
 * July 12 – Joseon Dynasty official Choe Bu returns to Korea, after months of shipwrecked travel in China.
 * July 28 – Battle of Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier: Troops loyal to King Charles VIII of France defeat rebel forces, led by the Dukes of Orleans and Brittany, in the main engagement of the Mad War.
 * September 9 – Anne of Brittany becomes Duchess of Brittany at the age of 11. Her marriage to King Charles VIII in 1491 effectively ends Breton independence from France.

Date unknown

 * Jasper Tudor, 1st Duke of Bedford, takes possession of Cardiff Castle.
 * Michelangelo Buonarroti becomes apprentice to Domenico Ghirlandaio.
 * The city of Bikaner in western India is founded by Rao Bika.
 * Rathbornes Candles is established in Dublin; the company is still trading in the 21st century.

Births

 * January 6 – Helius Eobanus Hessus, German Latin poet (d. 1540)
 * January 20
 * John George, Marquis of Montferrat, Italian noble (d. 1533)
 * Sebastian Münster, German scholar, cartographer, and cosmographer (d. 1552)
 * March 19 – Johannes Magnus, last Catholic Archbishop of Sweden (d. 1544)
 * April 16 – Jungjong of Joseon (d. 1544)
 * April 21 – Ulrich von Hutten, German religious reformer (d. 1523)
 * May 1 – Sidonie of Bavaria, eldest daughter of Duke Albrecht IV of Bavaria-Munich (d. 1505)
 * May 5 – Lê Uy Mục, 8th king of the later Lê dynasty of Vietnam (d. 1509)
 * May 7 – John III of the Palatinate, Administrator of the Bishopric of Regensburg (d. 1538)
 * June – Heinrich Glarean, Swiss music theorist (d. 1563)
 * June 29 – Pedro Pacheco de Villena, Spanish Catholic cardinal (d. 1560)
 * July 15 – Juan Álvarez de Toledo, Spanish Catholic cardinal (d. 1557)
 * October 17 – Ursula of Brandenburg, Duchess consort of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (d. 1510)
 * December 15 – Ferdinand, Duke of Calabria (d. 1550)
 * date unknown
 * Rabbi Yosef Karo, Spanish Jewish scholar (d. 1575)
 * Oswald Myconius, Swiss religious reformer (d. 1552)
 * Jan Tarnowski, Polish nobleman (d. 1561)
 * Thomas of Villanova, Spanish bishop (d. 1555)
 * Gustav Trolle, Archbishop of Uppsala (d. 1533)
 * Elisabeth of Nassau-Siegen, German noblewoman (d. 1559)
 * probable
 * Thomas Audley, 1st Baron Audley of Walden, Lord Chancellor of England (d. 1544)
 * Guillaume Gouffier, seigneur de Bonnivet, French soldier (d. 1525)
 * Myles Coverdale, English Bible translator (d. 1568)
 * Lütfi Pasha, Ottoman statesman (d. 1564)

Deaths

 * April 1 – John II, Duke of Bourbon (b. 1426)
 * April 14 – Girolamo Riario, Lord of Imola and Forli (b. 1443)
 * May 9 – Frederick I of Liegnitz, Duke of Chojnów and Strzelin from 1453 (b. 1446)
 * May 26 – Iizasa Ienao, Japanese swordsman (b. c. 1387)
 * June 11 – King James III of Scotland (at the Battle of Sauchieburn; b. c. 1451)
 * July 18 – Alvise Cadamosto, Italian explorer (b. 1432)
 * July 28 – Edward Woodville, Lord Scales (at the Battle of St. Aubin-du-Cormier; b. c. 1456)
 * July 30 – Clarice Orsini, Florentine noblewoman and wife of Lorenzo de’ Medici (b. 1453)
 * September – Abu 'Amr 'Uthman, Hafsid caliph of Ifriqiya (b. 1419)
 * September – Lasse Huittinen, Finnish thief
 * September 9 – Francis II, Duke of Brittany (fell from a horse) (b. 1433)
 * September 13 – Charles II, Duke of Bourbon (b. 1434)
 * October 11 – Geoffroy Cœur, French nobleman, son of Jacques Cœur
 * date unknown
 * Mary Stewart, Countess of Arran (b. 1453)
 * Andrea del Verrocchio, Italian sculptor (b. c. 1435)
 * Borommatrailokkanat, Ayutthaya king (b. 1431)

title: 1488


text:
1489

Year 1489 (MCDLXXXIX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

January–December

 * March 14 – The Queen of Cyprus, Catherine Cornaro, sells her kingdom to the Republic of Venice.
 * March 26 – The Treaty of Medina del Campo between England and Spain includes provision for a marriage between Arthur, the son of King Henry VII of England, and Infanta Catherine of Aragon.
 * June 29 – King James IV grants Andrew, Lord Gray, the lands and Barony of Lundie in Scotland.
 * July 17 – Delhi Sultanate: Sikandar Lodi succeeds Bahlul Khan Lodi as sultan.
 * November 29 – Arthur Tudor is named Prince of Wales.
 * December 11 – Jeannetto de Tassis is appointed Chief Master of Postal Services in Innsbruck; his descendants, the Thurn und Taxis Family, later run much of the postal system of Europe.

Date unknown

 * Typhus first appears in Europe, during the Siege of Baza in the Granada War.
 * A gold coin equal to one pound sterling, called a sovereign, is issued for Henry VII of England.
 * King Henry VII of England gives a town charter to the port of Southwold.
 * Lucas Watzenrode becomes bishop of Warmia.
 * Johannes Widmann publishes his mercantile arithmetic Behende und hüpsche Rechenung auff allen Kauffmanschafft in Leipzig, containing the first printed use of plus and minus signs, to indicate trading surpluses or shortages.

Births

 * February 9 – Georg Hartmann, German instrument maker (d. 1564)
 * June 2 – Charles, Duke of Vendôme, French noble (d. 1537)
 * June 4 – Antoine, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1544)
 * June 16 – Sibylle of Bavaria, Electress Palatine consort (d. 1519)
 * June 23 – Charles II, Duke of Savoy, Italian sovereign (d. 1496)
 * July 2 – Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1556)
 * August – Antonio da Correggio, Italian painter (d. 1534)
 * August 10 – Jacob Sturm von Sturmeck, German statesman and reformer (d. 1553)
 * November 10 – Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and Prince of Wolfenbüttel 1514–1568 (d. 1568)
 * November 28 – Margaret Tudor, Scottish regent, Queen of James IV of Scotland, daughter of Henry VII of England (d. 1541)
 * December 10 – Gaston of Foix, Duke of Nemours (d. 1512)
 * date unknown
 * Gerónimo de Aguilar, Spanish Franciscan friar, participant in the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire (d. 1531)
 * William Farel, French evangelist (d. 1565)
 * Francesco Ferruccio, Florentine captain (k. 1530)
 * Hosokawa Sumimoto, Japanese warlord (d. 1520)
 * Margareta von Melen, Swedish noblewoman (d. 1541)
 * Tsukahara Bokuden, Japanese swordsman (d. 1571)
 * probable
 * Juan de Grijalva, Spanish conquistador (d. 1527)
 * Thomas Müntzer, German pastor and rebel leader (d. 1525)

Deaths

 * January 3 – Martin Truchseß von Wetzhausen, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights (b. 1435)
 * February 14 – Nicolaus von Tüngen, bishop of Warmia
 * March 27 – Gilbert Kennedy, 1st Lord Kennedy, Scottish noble (b. 1405)
 * April 6 – Jodha of Mandore, Ruler of Marwar (b. 1416)
 * April 26 – Ashikaga Yoshihisa, Japanese shōgun (b. 1465)
 * April 28 – Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland (b. c. 1449)
 * May 3 – Stanisław Kazimierczyk, Polish canon regular and saint (b. 1433)
 * May 21 – Henry V of Rosenberg, Bohemian nobleman (b. 1456)
 * July 12 – Bahlul Lodi, sultan of Delhi
 * July 19 – Louis I, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken (b. 1424)
 * date unknown
 * Gerontius, Metropolitan of Moscow, Russian bishop
 * María de Ajofrín, Spanish visionary (b. 1455)
 * Girindrawardhana, ruler of Majapahit

title: 1489


text:
1486

Year 1486 (MCDLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Sunday.

January–December

 * January 18 – King Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York are married, uniting the House of Lancaster and the House of York, after the Wars of the Roses.
 * February 16 – Archduke Maximilian I of Habsburg is elected King of the Romans at Frankfurt (crowned April 9 at Aachen).
 * February 18 – Lord Chaitanya Mahaprabhu is born in the town of Nadia, West Bengal, India, just after sunset. He is regarded as an incarnation, or avatar, of Lord Krsna, and later comes to inaugurate the sankirtana movement, or the chanting of the Holy Names of the Lord.  This chanting, or mantra meditation, is first brought to the United States in 1965, by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada.
 * April 21 – The adoption of the Sentència Arbitral de Guadalupe ends the War of the Remences, in the Principality of Catalonia.

Date unknown

 * Tízoc, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan, dies. Some sources suggest that he was poisoned, others that he was the victim of "sorcery" or illness. He is succeeded by his brother Āhuitzotl.
 * Sigismund, Archduke of Tyrol, issues Europe's first large silver coin, the guldengroschen, which will later become the thaler.
 * Giovanni Pico della Mirandola returns to Florence, and writes Oration on the Dignity of Man.
 * The Medici giraffe arrives in Florence.
 * Johann Reuchlin begins studying the Hebrew language.
 * The first written use of the word football to describe the ball.

Births

 * January 6 – Martin Agricola, German Renaissance composer and music theorist (d. 1556)
 * February 10 – George of the Palatinate, German nobleman; Bishop of Speyer (1513–1529) (d. 1529)
 * February 18 – Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Bengali ascetic and monk (d. 1534)
 * July 2 – Jacopo Sansovino, Italian sculptor and architect (d. 1570)
 * July 16 – Andrea del Sarto, Italian painter (d. 1530)
 * July 25 – Albrecht VII, Duke of Mecklenburg (1503–1520), then Duke of Mecklenburg-Güstrow (1520–1547) (d. 1547)
 * July 28 – Pieter Gillis, French philosopher (d. 1533)
 * August 3 – Imperia Cognati, Italian courtesan (d. 1512)
 * August 23 – Sigismund von Herberstein, Austrian diplomat and historian (d. 1566)
 * September 14 – Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, German astrologer and alchemist (d. 1535)
 * September 20 – Arthur, Prince of Wales, son of Henry VII of England (d. 1502)
 * October 10 – Charles III, Duke of Savoy (d. 1553)
 * November 13 – Johann Eck, German Scholastic theologian and defender of Catholicism during the Protestant Reformation (d. 1543)
 * December 9 – Philip III, Count of Waldeck-Eisenberg (1524–1539) (d. 1539)
 * date unknown – Shimon Lavi, Sephardi kabbalist (d. 1585)
 * probable
 * Colin Campbell, 3rd Earl of Argyll (d. 1535)
 * Gerolamo Emiliani, Venetian-born humanitarian, canonized (d. 1537)
 * Ludwig Senfl, Swiss composer (d. 1542 or 1543)

Deaths

 * January 30 – Jacques of Savoy, Count of Romont, Prince of Savoy (b. 1450)
 * March 11 – Albrecht III Achilles, Elector of Brandenburg (b. 1414)
 * March 30 – Thomas Bourchier, Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Chancellor of England (b. c. 1404)
 * May – Louis I, Count of Montpensier (b. 1405)
 * July 14 – Margaret of Denmark, Scottish queen consort, daughter of Christian I of Denmark (b. 1456)
 * August (day unknown) – Marco Barbarigo, the 73rd Doge of Venice, was said to have died in a dispute caused by his brother and successor, Agostino Barbarigo.
 * August 3 – Asakura Ujikage, 8th head of the Japanese Asakura clan (b. 1449)
 * August 11 – William Waynflete, English Lord Chancellor and bishop of Winchester (b. c. 1398)
 * August 26 – Ernest, Elector of Saxony, progenitor of the Ernestine Wettins (b. 1441)
 * September 2 – Guy XIV de Laval, French noble (b. 1406)
 * September 19 – Richard Oldham, English Catholic bishop
 * date unknown
 * Tízoc, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan (perhaps poisoned)
 * Souvanna Banlang, Lan Xang king (b. 1455)
 * probable – Aristotile Fioravanti, Italian architect and engineer (b. 1415)

title: 1486


text:
1485

Year 1485 (MCDLXXXV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

January–December

 * Spring – Multiple earthquakes occur near Taishan, China.
 * March 16 – A solar eclipse crosses northern South America and Central Europe.
 * June 1 – Matthias of Hungary takes Vienna, in his conquest of Austria (from Frederick III), and makes the city his capital.
 * August 5–7 – The first outbreak of sweating sickness in England begins.
 * August 22 – Battle of Bosworth: King Richard III of England is defeated by (rival claimant to the throne of England) Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond; Richard dies in battle, and Henry Tudor becomes King Henry VII of England (although Henry marks this battle as August 21, so that he can declare all his opponents traitors).
 * September 12 – Muscovian forces conquer Tver.
 * September 15 – Peter Arbues is assaulted while praying in the cathedral at Zaragoza, Spain; he dies on September 17. He had been appointed Inquisitor of Aragon by the Inquisitor General, Tomás de Torquemada, in the campaign against heresy and crypto-Judaism.
 * October 30 – King Henry VII of England is crowned.
 * November 2 – The Peace of Bourges stops the Mad War.

Date unknown

 * Leon Battista Alberti's De Re Aedificatoria (written 1443–1452 and published posthumously) becomes the first printed work on architecture.
 * From about this date, Leonardo da Vinci produces a number of designs for flying machines, including the aerial screw or helicopter (probably unworkable).

Births

 * March 10 – Sophie of Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach, German princess (d. 1537)
 * April 26 – Sibylle of Baden, Countess consort of Hanau-Lichtenberg (d. 1518)
 * June 20 – Astorre III Manfredi, Italian noble (d. 1502)
 * June 24
 * Johannes Bugenhagen, German religious reformer (d. 1558)
 * Elizabeth of Denmark, Electress of Brandenburg (1502–1535) (d. 1555)
 * July 20 – Giovanni Battista Ramusio, Italian geographer (d. 1557)
 * August 22 – Beatus Rhenanus, German humanist and religious reformer (d. 1547)
 * September 14 – Anna of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburgian royal (d. 1525)
 * October 1 – Johannes Dantiscus, Polish poet and bishop (d. 1548)
 * October 8 – Antonio Pucci, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1544)
 * November 30 – Veronica Gambara, Italian poet and stateswoman (d. 1550)
 * December 16 – Catherine of Aragon, first queen of Henry VIII of England, and daughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile (d. 1536)
 * date unknown
 * Hernán Cortés, Spanish conquistador (d. 1547)
 * Odet de Foix, Vicomte de Lautrec, French military leader (d. 1528)
 * Johanna of Hachberg-Sausenberg, ruler of Neuchatel (d. 1543)
 * Giovanni da Verrazzano, Italian explorer (approximate date; d. c. 1528)
 * probable
 * Hugh Aston, English composer (d. 1558)
 * Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex, English statesman (d. 1540)
 * Clément Janequin, French chanson composer
 * Sayyida al Hurra, Moroccan pirate queen
 * Sebastiano del Piombo, Italian painter (d. 1547)
 * John Russell, 1st Earl of Bedford, English royal minister (d. 1555)

Deaths

 * January 20 – Eustochia Smeralda Calafato, Italian saint (b. 1434)
 * February 28 – Niclas, Graf von Abensberg, German soldier (b. 1441)
 * March 16 – Anne Neville, queen of Richard III of England (b. 1456)
 * August 7 – Alexander Stewart, 1st Duke of Albany, Scottish prince (b. c. 1454)
 * August 15 – Albert II, Duke of Brunswick-Grubenhagen (b. 1419)
 * August 22 (killed in the Battle of Bosworth Field):
 * King Richard III of England (b. 1452)
 * John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk (b. 1430)
 * James Harrington, Yorkist knight
 * Richard Ratcliffe, supporter of Richard III
 * John Babington, High Sheriff of Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire and the Royal Forests
 * Robert Brackenbury, English nobleman, courtier and supporter of Richard III
 * Walter Devereux, 8th Baron Ferrers of Chartley, supporter of Richard III
 * William Brandon, supporter of Henry VII (b. 1456)
 * August 25 – William Catesby, supporter of Richard III (executed) (b. 1450)
 * October 17 – John Scott of Scott's Hall, Warden of the Cinque Ports
 * October 27 – Rodolphus Agricola, Dutch scholar (b. 1443)
 * November 4 – Françoise d'Amboise, Duchess of Brittany (b. 1427)
 * November 4 – Giovanni Mocenigo, Doge of Venice (b. 1408)
 * Date unknown – Kristina Königsmarck, Swedish noblewoman.

title: 1485