text:
Cyclopes

In Greek mythology and later Roman mythology, the Cyclopes (Κύκλωπες, Kýklōpes, "Circle-eyes" or "Round-eyes"; singular Cyclops ; Κύκλωψ, Kýklōps) are giant one-eyed creatures. Three groups of Cyclopes can be distinguished. In Hesiod's Theogony, the Cyclopes are the three brothers, Brontes, Steropes, and Arges, who made Zeus's weapon, the thunderbolt. In Homer's Odyssey, they are an uncivilized group of shepherds, the brethren of Polyphemus encountered by Odysseus. Cyclopes were also famous for being the builders of the Cyclopean walls of Mycenae and Tiryns.

In Cyclops, the fifth-century BC play by Euripides, a chorus of satyrs offers comic relief based on the encounter of Odysseus and Polyphemus. The third-century BC poet Callimachus makes the Hesiodic Cyclopes the assistants of smith-god Hephaestus, as does Virgil in the Latin epic Aeneid, where he seems to equate the Hesiodic and Homeric Cyclopes.

From at least the fifth century BC, Cyclopes have been associated with the island of Sicily and the volcanic Aeolian Islands.

Kinds
Three groups of Cyclopes can be distinguished: the Hesiodic, the Homeric and the wall-builders. In Hesiod's Theogony, the Cyclopes are the three brothers: Brontes, Steropes, and Arges, sons of Uranus and Gaia, who made for Zeus his characteristic weapon, the thunderbolt. In Homer's Odyssey, the Cyclopes are an uncivilized group of shepherds, one of whom, Polyphemus, the son of Poseidon, is encountered by Odysseus. Cyclopes were also said to have been the builders of the Cyclopean walls of Mycenae and Tiryns. A scholiast, quoting the fifth-century BC historian Hellanicus, tells us that, in addition to the Hesiodic Cyclopes (whom the scholiast describes as "the gods themselves"), and the Homeric Cyclopes, there was a third group of Cyclopes: the builders of the walls of Mycenae.

Hesiodic Cyclopes

Hesiod, in the Theogony (c. 700 BC), described three Cyclopes: Brontes, Steropes, and Arges, who were the sons of Uranus (Sky) and Gaia (Earth), and the brothers of the Titans and Hundred-Handers, and who had a single eye set in the middle of their foreheads. They made for Zeus his all-powerful thunderbolt, and in so doing, the Cyclopes played a key role in the Greek succession myth, which told how the Titan Cronus overthrew his father Uranus, and how in turn Zeus overthrew Cronus and his fellow Titans, and how Zeus was eventually established as the final and permanent ruler of the cosmos. The names that Hesiod gives them: Arges (Bright), Brontes (Thunder), and Steropes (Lightning), reflect their fundamental role as thunderbolt makers. As early as the late seventh-century BC, the Cyclopes could be used by the Spartan poet Tyrtaeus to epitomize extraordinary size and strength.

According to the accounts of Hesiod and the mythographer Apollodorus, the Cyclopes had been imprisoned by their father Uranus. Zeus later freed the Cyclopes, and they repaid him by giving him the thunderbolt. The Cyclopes provided for Hesiod, and other theogony-writers, a convenient source of heavenly weaponry, since the smith-god Hephaestus—who would eventually take over that role—had not yet been born. According to Apollodorus, the Cyclopes also provided Poseidon with his trident and Hades with his cap of invisibility, and the gods used these weapons to defeat the Titans.

Although the primordial Cyclopes of the Theogony were presumably immortal (as were their brothers the Titans), the sixth-century BC Hesiodic Catalogue of Women, has them being killed by Apollo. Later sources tell us why: Apollo's son Asclepius had been killed by Zeus' thunderbolt, and Apollo killed the Cyclopes, the makers of the thunderbolt, in revenge. According to a scholiast on Euripides' Alcestis, the fifth-century BC mythographer Pherecydes supplied the same motive, but said that Apollo, rather than killing the Cyclopes, killed their sons (one of whom he named Aortes) instead. No other source mentions any offspring of the Cyclopes. A Pindar fragment suggests that Zeus himself killed the Cyclopes to prevent them from making thunderbolts for anyone else.

The Cyclopes' prowess as craftsmen is stressed by Hesiod who says "strength and force and contrivances were in their works." Being such skilled craftsmen of great size and strength, later poets, beginning with the third-century BC poet Callimachus, imagine these Cyclopes, the primordial makers of Zeus' thunderbolt, becoming the assistants of the smith-god Hephaestus, at his forge in Sicily, underneath Mount Etna, or perhaps the nearby Aeolian Islands. In his Hymn to Artemis, Callimachus has the Cyclopes on the Aeolian island of Lipari, working "at the anvils of Hephaestus", make the bows and arrows used by Apollo and Artemis. The first-century BC Latin poet Virgil, in his epic Aeneid, has the Cyclopes: "Brontes and Steropes and bare-limbed Pyracmon" toil under the direction of Vulcan (Hephaestus), in caves underneath Mount Etna and the Aeolian islands. Virgil describes the Cyclopes, in Vulcan's smithy forging iron, making a thunderbolt, a chariot for Mars, and Pallas's Aegis, with Vulcan interrupting their work to command the Cyclopes to fashion arms for Aeneas. The later Latin poet Ovid also has the Hesiodic Cyclopes Brontes and Steropes (along with a third Cyclops named Acmonides), work at forges in Sicilian caves.

According to a Hellenistic astral myth, the Cyclopes were the builders of the first altar. The myth was a catasterism, which explained how the constellation the Altar (Ara) came to be in the heavens. According to the myth, the Cyclopes built an altar upon which Zeus and the other gods swore alliance before their war with the Titans. After their victory, "the gods placed the altar in the sky in commemoration", and thus began the practice, according to the myth, of men swearing oaths upon altars "as a guarantee of their good faith".

According to the second-century geographer Pausanias, there was a sanctuary called the "altar of the Cyclopes" on the Isthmus of Corinth at a place sacred to Poseidon, where sacrifices were offered to the Cyclopes. There is no evidence for any other cult associated with the Cyclopes. According to a version of the story in the Iliad scholia (found nowhere else), when Zeus swallowed Metis, she was pregnant with Athena by the Cyclops Brontes.

Although described by Hesiod as "having very violent hearts" (ὑπέρβιον ἦτορ ἔχοντας), and while their extraordinary size and strength would have made them capable of great violence, there is no indication of the Hesiodic Cyclopes having behaved in any other way than as dutiful servants of the gods.

Walter Burkert suggests that groups or societies of lesser gods, like the Hesiodic Cyclopes, "mirror real cult associations (thiasoi) ... It may be surmised that smith guilds lie behind Cabeiri, Idaian Dactyloi, Telchines, and Cyclopes."

Homeric Cyclopes
In an episode of Homer's Odyssey (c. 700 BC), the hero Odysseus encounters the Cyclops Polyphemus, the son of Poseidon, a one-eyed man-eating giant who lives with his fellow Cyclopes in a distant land. The relationship between these Cyclopes and Hesiod's Cyclopes is unclear. Homer described a very different group of Cyclopes, than the skilled and subservient craftsman of Hesiod. Homer's Cyclopes live in the "world of men" rather than among the gods, as they presumably do in the Theogony. The Homeric Cyclopes are presented as uncivilized shepherds, who live in caves, savages with no regard for Zeus. They have no knowledge of agriculture, ships or craft. They live apart and lack any laws.

The fifth-century BC playwright Euripides also told the story of Odysseus' encounter with Polyphemus in his satyr play Cyclops. Euripides' Cyclopes, like Homer's, are uncultured cave-dwelling shepherds. They have no agriculture, no wine, and live on milk, cheese and the meat of sheep. They live solitary lives, and have no government. They are inhospitable to strangers, slaughtering and eating all who come to their land. While Homer does not say if the other Cyclopes are like Polyphemus in their appearance and parentage, Euripides makes it explicit, calling the Cyclopes "Poseidon's one-eyed sons". And while Homer is vague as to their location, Euripides locates the land of the Cyclopes on the island of Sicily near Mount Etna.

Like Euripides, Virgil has the Cyclopes of Polyphemus live on Sicily near Etna. For Virgil apparently, these Homeric Cyclopes are members of the same race of Cyclopes as Hesiod's Brontes and Steropes, who live nearby.

Cyclopean wall-builders
Cyclopes were also said to have been the builders of the so-called 'Cyclopean' walls of Mycenae, Tiryns, and Argos. Fowler 2013, p. 53; p. 66; Caldwell, p. 36 on lines 139–146; Bremmer, p. 140; Mondi, p. 18; for Mycenae, see Pherecydes fr. 12 Fowler [= FGrHist 3 fr. 12]; Euripides, Electra 1159, Heracles 943–946, Iphigenia in Aulis, 152, 1500–1501, Iphigenia in Tauris 845–846; Pausanias, 2.16.5, 7.25.5–6; for Tiryns, see Bacchylides, 11.77; Strabo, 8.6.11; Apollodorus 2.2.1; Pausanias, 2.16.5, 2.25.8, 7.25.5–6; for Argos, see Euripides, Heracles, 15, Trojan Women 1087–1088; for other ancient sources see Fowler 2013, p. 53 n. 206. Although they can be seen as being distinct, the Cyclopean wall-builders share several features with the Hesiodic Cyclopes: both groups are craftsmen of supernatural skill, possessing enormous strength, who lived in primordial times. These builder Cyclopes were apparently used to explain the construction of the stupendous walls at Mycenae and Tiryns, composed of massive stones that seemed too large and heavy to have been moved by ordinary men.

These master builders were famous in antiquity from at least the fifth century BC onwards. The poet Pindar has Heracles driving the cattle of Geryon through the "Cyclopean portal" of the Tirynian king Eurystheus. The mythographer Pherecydes says that Perseus brought the Cyclopes with him from Seriphos to Argos, presumably to build the walls of Mycenae. Proetus, the mythical king of ancient Argos, was said to have brought a group of seven Cyclopes from Lycia to build the walls of Tiryns.

The late fifth and early fourth-century BC comic poet Nicophon wrote a play called either Cheirogastores or Encheirogastores (Hands-to-Mouth), which is thought to have been about these Cyclopean wall-builders. Ancient lexicographers explained the title as meaning "those who feed themselves by manual labour", and, according to Eustathius of Thessalonica, the word was used to describe the Cyclopean wall-builders, while "hands-to-mouth" was one of the three kinds of Cyclopes distinguished by scholia to Aelius Aristides. Similarly, possibly deriving from Nicophon's comedy, the first-century Greek geographer Strabo says these Cyclopes were called "Bellyhands" (gasterocheiras) because they earned their food by working with their hands.

The first-century natural philosopher Pliny the Elder, in his Natural History, reported a tradition, attributed to Aristotle, that the Cyclopes were the inventors of masonry towers. In the same work Pliny also mentions the Cyclopes, as being among those credited with being the first to work with iron, as well as bronze. In addition to walls, other monuments were attributed to the Cyclopes. For example, Pausanias says that at Argos there was "a head of Medusa made of stone, which is said to be another of the works of the Cyclopes".

Hesiod
According to the Theogony of Hesiod, Uranus (Sky) mated with Gaia (Earth) and produced eighteen children. First came the twelve Titans, next came the three one-eyed Cyclopes:

"Then [Gaia] bore the Cyclopes, who have very violent hearts, Brontes (Thunder) and Steropes (Lightning) and strong-spirited Arges (Bright), those who gave thunder to Zeus and fashioned the thunderbolt. These were like the gods in other regards, but only one eye was set in the middle of their foreheads; and they were called Cyclopes (Circle-eyed) by name, since a single circle-shaped eye was set in their foreheads. Strength and force and contrivances were in their works."

Following the Cyclopes, Gaia next gave birth to three more monstrous brothers, the Hecatoncheires, or Hundred-Handed Giants. Uranus hated his monstrous children, and as soon as each was born, he imprisoned them underground, somewhere deep inside Gaia. Eventually Uranus' son, the Titan Cronus, castrated Uranus, becoming the new ruler of the cosmos, but he did not release his brothers, the Cyclopes and the Hecatoncheires, from their imprisonment in Tartarus.

For this failing, Gaia foretold that Cronus would eventually be overthrown by one of his children, as he had overthrown his own father. To prevent this, as each of his children were born, Cronus swallowed them whole; as gods they were not killed, but imprisoned within his belly. His wife, Rhea, sought her mother's advice to avoid losing all of her children in this way, and Gaia advised her to give Cronus a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes. In this way, Zeus was spared the fate of his elder siblings, and was hidden away by his mother. When he was grown, Zeus forced his father to vomit up his siblings, who rebelled against the Titans. Zeus released the Cyclopes and Hecatoncheires, who became his allies. While the Hundred-Handed Giants fought alongside Zeus and his siblings, the Cyclopes gave Zeus his great weapon, the thunderbolt, with the aid of which he was eventually able to overthrow the Titans, establishing himself as the ruler of the cosmos.

Homer

In Book 9 of the Odyssey, Odysseus describes to his hosts the Phaeacians his encounter with the Cyclops Polyphemus. Having just left the land of the Lotus-eaters, Odysseus says "Thence we sailed on, grieved at heart, and we came to the land of the Cyclopes". Homer had already (Book 6) described the Cyclopes as "men overweening in pride who plundered [their neighbors the Phaeacians] continually", driving the Phaeacians from their home. In Book 9, Homer gives a more detailed description of the Cyclopes as: "an overweening and lawless folk, who, trusting in the immortal gods, plant nothing with their hands nor plough; but all these things spring up for them without sowing or ploughing, wheat, and barley, and vines, which bear the rich clusters of wine, and the rain of Zeus gives them increase. Neither assemblies for council have they, nor appointed laws, but they dwell on the peaks of lofty mountains in hollow caves, and each one is lawgiver to his children and his wives, and they reck nothing one of another."

According to Homer, the Cyclopes have no ships, nor ship-wrights, nor other craftsman, and know nothing of agriculture. They have no regard for Zeus or the other gods, for the Cyclopes hold themselves to be "better far than they".

Homer says that "godlike" Polyphemus, the son of Poseidon and the nymph Thoosa, the daughter of Phorcys, is the "greatest among all the Cyclopes". Homer describes Polyphemus as a shepherd who: "mingled not with others, but lived apart, with his heart set on lawlessness. For he was fashioned a wondrous monster, and was not like a man that lives by bread, but like a wooded peak of lofty mountains, which stands out to view alone, apart from the rest, ... [and as] a savage man that knew naught of justice or of law."

Although Homer does not say explicitly that Polyphemus is one-eyed, for the account of his blinding to make sense he must be. If Homer meant for the other Cyclopes to be assumed (as they usually are) to be like Polyphemus, then they too will be one-eyed sons of Poseidon; however Homer says nothing explicit about either the parentage or appearance of the other Cyclopes.

Euripides
The Hesiodic Cyclopes: makers of Zeus' thunderbolts, the Homeric Cyclopes: brothers of Polyphemus, and the Cyclopean wall-builders, all figure in the plays of the fifth-century BC playwright Euripides. In his play Alcestis, where we are told that the Cyclopes who forged Zeus' thunderbolts, were killed by Apollo. The prologue of that play has Apollo explain:

"House of Admetus! In you I brought myself to taste the bread of menial servitude, god though I am. Zeus was the cause: he killed my son Asclepius, striking him in the chest with the lightning bolt, and in anger at this I slew the Cyclopes who forged Zeus’s fire. As my punishment for this Zeus compelled me to be a serf in the house of a mortal."

Euripides' satyr play Cyclops tells the story of Odysseus' encounter with the Cyclops Polyphemus, famously told in Homer's Odyssey. It takes place on the island of Sicily near the volcano Mount Etna where, according to the play, "Poseidon’s one-eyed sons, the man-slaying Cyclopes, dwell in their remote caves." Euripides describes the land where Polyphemus' brothers live, as having no "walls and city battlements", and a place where "no men dwell". The Cyclopes have no rulers and no government, "they are solitaries: no one is anyone’s subject." They grow no crops, living only "on milk and cheese and the flesh of sheep." They have no wine, "hence the land they dwell in knows no dancing". They show no respect for the important Greek value of Xenia ("guest friendship). When Odysseus asks if they are pious and hospitable toward strangers (φιλόξενοι δὲ χὤσιοι περὶ ξένους), he is told: "most delicious, they maintain, is the flesh of strangers ... everyone who has come here has been slaughtered."

Several of Euripides' plays also make reference to the Cyclopean wall-builders. Euripides calls their walls "heaven-high" (οὐράνια), describes "the Cyclopean foundations" of Mycenae as "fitted snug with red plumbline and mason’s hammer", and calls Mycenae "O hearth built by the Cyclopes". He calls Argos "the city built by the Cyclopes", refers to "the temples the Cyclopes built" and describes the "fortress of Perseus" as "the work of Cyclopean hands".

Callimachus
For the third-century BC poet Callimachus, the Hesiodic Cyclopes Brontes, Steropes and Arges, become assistants at the forge of the smith-god Hephaestus. Callimachus has the Cyclopes make Artemis' bow, arrows and quiver, just as they had (apparently) made those of Apollo. Callimachus locates the Cyclopes on the island of Lipari, the largest of the Aeolian Islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea off the northern coast of Sicily, where Artemis finds them "at the anvils of Hephaestus" making a horse-trough for Poseidon:

"And the nymphs were affrighted when they saw the terrible monsters like unto the crags of Ossa: all had single eyes beneath their brows, like a shield of fourfold hide for size, glaring terribly from under; and when they heard the din of the anvil echoing loudly, and the great blast of the bellows and the heavy groaning of the Cyclopes themselves. For Aetna cried aloud, and Trinacia cried, the seat of the Sicanians, cried too their neighbour Italy, and Cyrnos therewithal uttered a mighty noise, when they lifted their hammers above their shoulders and smote with rhythmic swing the bronze glowing from the furnace or iron, labouring greatly. Wherefore the daughters of Oceanus could not untroubled look upon them face to face nor endure the din in their ears. No shame to them! on those not even the daughters of the Blessed look without shuddering, though long past childhood’s years. But when any of the maidens doth disobedience to her mother, the mother calls the Cyclopes to her child—Arges or Steropes; and from within the house comes Hermes, stained with burnt ashes. And straightway he plays bogey to the child and she runs into her mother’s lap, with her hands upon her eyes. But thou, Maiden, even earlier, while yet but three years old, when Leto came bearing thee in her arms at the bidding of Hephaestus that he might give thee handsel and Brontes set thee on his stout knees—thou didst pluck the shaggy hair of his great breast and tear it out by force. And even unto this day the mid part of his breast remains hairless, even as when mange settles on a man’s temples and eats away the hair."

And Artemis asks:

"Cyclopes, for me too fashion ye a Cydonian bow and arrows and a hollow casket for my shafts; for I also am a child of Leto, even as Apollo. And if I with my bow shall slay some wild creature or monstrous beast, that shall the Cyclopes eat."

Virgil
The first-century BC Roman poet Virgil seems to combine the Cyclopes of Hesiod with those of Homer, having them live alongside each other in the same part of Sicily. In his Latin epic Aeneid, Virgil has the hero Aeneas follow in the footsteps of Odysseus, the hero of Homer's Odyssey. Approaching Sicily and Mount Etna, in Book 3 of the Aeneid, Aeneas manages to survive the dangerous Charybdis, and at sundown comes to the land of the Cyclopes, while "near at hand Aetna thunders". The Cyclopes are described as being "in shape and size like Polyphemus ... a hundred other monstrous Cyclopes [who] dwell all along these curved shores and roam the high mountains." After narrowly escaping from Polyphemus, Aeneas tells how, responding to the Cyclops' "mighty roar": "the race of the Cyclopes, roused from the woods and high mountains, rush to the harbour and throng the shores. We see them, standing impotent with glaring eye, the Aetnean brotherhood, their heads towering to the sky, a grim conclave: even as when on a mountaintop lofty oaks or cone-clad cypresses stand in mass, a high forest of Jove or grove of Diana."

Later, in Book 8 of the same poem, Virgil has the Hesiodic Cyclopes Brontes and Steropes, along with a third Cyclopes which he names Pyracmon, work in an extensive network of caverns stretching from Mount Etna to the Aeolian Islands. As the assistants of the smith-god Vulcan, they forge various items for the gods: thunderbolts for Jupiter, a chariot for Mars, and armor for Minerva: "In the vast cave the Cyclopes were forging iron—Brontes and Steropes and bare-limbed Pyracmon. They had a thunderbolt, which their hands had shaped, like the many that the Father hurls down from all over heaven upon earth, in part already polished, while part remained unfinished. Three shafts of twisted hail they had added to it, three of watery cloud, three of ruddy flame and the winged South Wind; now they were blending into the work terrifying flashes, noise, and fear, and wrath with pursuing flames. Elsewhere they were hurrying on for Mars a chariot and flying wheels, with which he stirs upmen and cities; and eagerly with golden scales of serpents were burnishing the awful aegis, armour of wrathful Pallas, the interwoven snakes, and on the breast of the goddess the Gorgon herself, with neck severed and eyes revolving."

Apollodorus
The mythographer Apollodorus, gives an account of the Hesiodic Cyclopes similar to that of Hesiod's, but with some differences, and additional details. According to Apollodorus, the Cyclopes were born after the Hundred-Handers, but before the Titans (unlike Hesiod who makes the Titans the eldest and the Hundred-Handers the youngest).

Uranus bound the Hundred-Handers and the Cyclopes, and cast them all into Tartarus, "a gloomy place in Hades as far distant from earth as earth is distant from the sky." But the Titans are, apparently, allowed to remain free (unlike in Hesiod). When the Titans overthrew Uranus, they freed the Hundred-Handers and Cyclopes (unlike in Hesiod, where they apparently remained imprisoned), and made Cronus their sovereign. But Cronus once again bound the six brothers, and reimprisoned them in Tartarus.

As in Hesiod's account, Rhea saved Zeus from being swallowed by Cronus, and Zeus was eventually able to free his siblings, and together they waged war against the Titans. According to Apollodorus, in the tenth year of that war, Zeus learned from Gaia, that he would be victorious if he had the Hundred-Handers and the Cyclopes as allies. So Zeus slew their warder Campe (a detail not found in Hesiod) and released them, and in addition to giving Zeus his thunderbolt (as in Hesiod), the Cyclopes also gave Poseidon his trident, and Hades a helmet (presumably the same cap of invisibility which Athena borrowed in the Iliad), and "with these weapons the gods overcame the Titans".

Apollodorus also mentions a tomb of Geraestus, "the Cyclops" at Athens upon which, in the time of king Aegeus, the Athenians sacrificed the daughters of Hyacinth.

Nonnus
Dionysiaca, composed in the 4th or 5th century BC, is the longest surviving poem from antiquity – 20,426 lines. It is written by the poet Nonnus in the Homeric dialect, and its main subject is the life of Dionysus. It describes a war that occurred between Dionysus' troops and those of the Indian king Deriades. In book 28 of the Dionysiaca the Cyclopes join with Dionysian troops, and they prove to be great warriors and crush most of the Indian king's troops.

Transformations of Polyphemus
Depictions of the Cyclops Polyphemus have differed radically, depending on the literary genres in which he has appeared, and have given him an individual existence independent of the Homeric herdsman encountered by Odysseus. In the epic he was a man-eating monster dwelling in an unspecified land. Some centuries later, a dithyramb by Philoxenus of Cythera, followed by several episodes by the Greek pastoral poets, created of him a comedic and generally unsuccessful lover of the water nymph Galatea. In the course of these he woos his love to the accompaniment of either a cithara or the pan-pipes. Such episodes take place on the island of Sicily, and it was here that the Latin poet Ovid also set the tragic love story of Polyphemus and Galatea recounted in the Metamorphoses. Still later tradition made him the eventually successful husband of Galatea and the ancestor of the Celtic and Illyrian races.

Location
From at least the fifth-century BC onwards, Cyclopes have been associated with the island of Sicily, or the volcanic Aeolian islands just off Sicily's north coast. The fifth-century BC historian Thucydides says that the "earliest inhabitants" of Sicily were reputed to be the Cyclopes and Laestrygones (another group of man-eating giants encountered by Odysseus in Homer's Odyssey). Thucydides also reports the local belief that Hephaestus (along with his Cyclopean assistants?) had his forge on the Aeolian island of Vulcano.

Euripides locates Odysseus' Cyclopes on the island of Sicily, near the volcano Mount Etna, and in the same play addresses Hephaestus as "lord of Aetna". The poet Callimachus locates the Cyclopes' forge on the island of Lipari, the largest of the Aeolians. Virgil associates both the Hesiodic and the Homeric Cyclopes with Sicily. He has the thunderbolt makers: "Brontes and Steropes and bare-limbed Pyracmon", work in vast caverns extending underground from Mount Etna to the island of Vulcano, while the Cyclops brethren of Polyphemus live on Sicily where "near at hand Aetna thunders".

As Thucydides notes, in the case of Hephaestus' forge on Vulcano, locating the Cyclopes' forge underneath active volcanoes provided an explanation for the fire and smoke often seen rising from them.

In 1587, Italian cartographer Urbano Monti depicted a "ciclops" on a portion of his world map identified as New Guinea.

Etymology
For the ancient Greeks the name "Cyclopes" meant "Circle-eyes" or "Round-eyes", derived from the Greek kúklos ("circle") and ops ("eye"). This meaning can be seen as early as Hesiod's Theogony (8th–7th century BC), which explains that the Cyclopes were called that "since a single circle-shaped eye was set in their foreheads". Adalbert Kuhn, expanding on Hesiod's etymology, proposed a connection between the first element kúklos (which can also mean "wheel") and the "wheel of the sun", producing the meaning "wheel (of the sun)-eyes". Other etymologies have been proposed which derive the second element of the name from the Greek klops ("thief") producing the meanings "wheel-thief" or "cattle-thief". Although Walter Burkert has described Hesiod's etymology as "not too attractive", Hesiod's explanation still finds acceptance by modern scholars.

Possible origins

A possible origin for one-eyed Cyclopes was advanced by the palaeontologist Othenio Abel in 1914. Abel proposed that fossil skulls of Pleistocene dwarf elephants, commonly found in coastal caves of Italy and Greece, may have given rise to the Polyphemus story. Abel suggested that the large, central nasal cavity (for the trunk) in the skull might have been interpreted as a large single eye-socket.

Cyclopia, a rare birth defect, can result in foetuses which have a single eye. Although the possibility has been raised of a link between this deformity and the myth of the one-eyed Cyclopes, in such cases, the eye is below the nose —rather than above as in ancient Greek depictions.

As noted above, Walter Burkert sees the possibility of the Hesiodic Cyclopes having ancient smith guilds as their basis.

title: Cyclopes


text:
List of protected areas of Slovenia

Protected areas of Slovenia include one national park (narodni park), three regional parks (regijski park), several natural parks (krajinski park), and hundreds of natural monuments (naravni spomenik) and monuments of designed nature (spomenik oblikovane narave). They cover about 12.5% of the Slovenian territory. Under the Wild Birds Directive, 26 sites totalling roughly 25% of the nation's land are "Special Protected Areas"; the Natura 2000 proposal would increase the totals to 260 sites and 32% of national territory.

National parks

 * Triglav National Park

Regional parks

 * Inner Carniola Regional Park
 * Kozje Park
 * Škocjan Caves Regional Park
 * Pohorje Regional Park

Natural parks

 * Beka Natural Park
 * Boč Natural Park
 * Drava Natural Park
 * Golte Natural Park
 * Snežnik Castle Complex Natural Park
 * Jareninski Dol Natural Park
 * Jeruzalem–Ormož Hills Natural Park
 * Kamenščak–Hrastovec Natural Park
 * Kolpa Natural Park
 * Kum Natural Park
 * Lahinja Natural Park
 * Ljubljana Marsh Natural Park
 * Ljutomer Pond and Jeruzalem Hills Natural Park
 * Logar Valley Natural Park
 * Lake Maribor Natural Park
 * Mašun Natural Park
 * Mrzlica Natural Park
 * Nanos Natural Park
 * Negova and Lake Negova Natural Park
 * Planina Plain Natural Park
 * Polhov Gradec Hills Natural Park
 * Ponikve Karst Natural Park
 * Porezen–Davča Natural Park
 * Rače Ponds–Požeg Natural Park
 * Račna Karst Field Natural Park
 * Rak Škocjan Natural Park
 * Roban Cirque Natural Park
 * Sečovelje Salina Natural Park
 * Municipality of Domžale Revolutionary Traditions Memorial Park
 * Štanjel Natural Park
 * Štatenberg Natural Park
 * Strunjan Natural Park
 * Šturmovci Natural Park
 * Tivoli–Rožnik Hill–Šiška Hill Natural Park
 * Topla Natural Park
 * Trnovo Forest Natural Park
 * Udin Forest Natural Park (Udin boršt)
 * Moravci Drillholes and Baths Natural Park
 * Žabljek Natural Park
 * Zajčja Dobrava Natural Park
 * Zelenci Natural Park
 * Zgornja Idrijca Natural Park

Natural monuments
On 1 January 2012, there were 1276 natural monuments in Slovenia.

Natura 2000 areas

 * Banjšice
 * Breginj Stol–Planja
 * Lake Cerknica
 * Drava
 * Dravinja Valley
 * Goričko
 * Jelovica
 * Julian Alps
 * Kamnik–Savinja Alps and the Eastern Karawanks
 * Karawanks
 * Kočevje Region–Kolpa
 * Kozje Region–Dobrava–Jovsi
 * Krakovo Forest–Šentjernej Plain
 * Karst Plateau
 * Ljubljana Marsh
 * Mur River
 * Nanoščica–River Basin
 * Planina Karst Field
 * Pohorje
 * Sava Hills–Mountain Walls
 * Sečovlje Saltpans
 * Škocjan Inlet
 * Slovene Hills–Lowlands
 * Snežnik–Pivka
 * Trnovo Forest
 * Trnovo Forest–Southern Outhskirt and Nanos

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: List of protected areas of Slovenia


text:
Love (band)

Love is an American rock band formed in Los Angeles in 1965. Led by Arthur Lee, the band's primary songwriter, they were one of the first racially diverse American rock bands. Their sound incorporated an eclectic range of styles including garage, folk-rock, and psychedelia. While finding only modest success on the music charts, peaking in 1966 with their US Top 40 hit "7 and 7 Is", Love would come to be praised by critics as their third album, Forever Changes (1967), became generally regarded as one of the best albums of the 1960s.

The band's classic lineup is considered to consist of Lee, the guitarist and singer Bryan MacLean, the bassist Ken Forssi, the guitarist Johnny Echols and the drummer Donnie Conca, who was replaced by Alban "Snoopy" Pfisterer. By 1968, only Lee remained and he continued recording as Love with varied members through the 1970s. MacLean and Forssi died in 1998. Lee died in 2006. Forever Changes was added to the Library of Congress's National Recording Registry in 2011. In recent years, original member Johnny Echols has toured under the title of the Love Band or Love Revisited.

Formation and early years
Singer/multi-instrumentalist Arthur Lee, who was originally from Memphis, Tennessee but had lived in Los Angeles since the age of five, had been recording since 1963 with his bands the LAG's and Lee's American Four. He wrote and produced the single "My Diary" for Rosa Lee Brooks in 1964, which featured Jimi Hendrix on guitar. The Sons Of Adam, which included future Love drummer Michael Stuart, recorded the Lee composition "Feathered Fish". After attending a performance by the Byrds, Lee decided to form a band that joined the newly minted folk-rock sound of the Byrds to his primarily rhythm and blues style.

Singer/guitarist Bryan MacLean, who had met Lee when he was working as a roadie for The Byrds, joined Lee's new band, which was first called the Grass Roots. MacLean had also been playing in bands around Los Angeles since about 1963. Also joining the band was another Memphis native, lead guitarist Johnny Echols, and drummer Don Conka. A short time later, Conka was replaced by Alban "Snoopy" Pfisterer. Love's first bassist, Johnny Fleckenstein, went on to join the Standells in 1967. Fleckenstein was replaced by Ken Forssi (formerly of a post-"Wipe Out" lineup of The Surfaris). Upon the appearance of another group called The Grass Roots, Lee changed the name of the new band to Love.

Love started playing the Los Angeles clubs in April 1965 and became a popular local attraction, while gaining the attention of the Rolling Stones and the Yardbirds. The band lived communally in a house called "the Castle", a large but run-down residence sourced by Ronnie Haran. It was a dilapidated mansion that the band was allowed to live in if they did the maintenance and paid the taxes. According to John Einarson in the book "Forever Changes", the cover photo of their first two albums was of the band taken in Laurel Canyon at a burned down house that only had the remains of a fireplace left standing.

Signed to Elektra Records as the label's first rock act, the band scored a minor hit single in 1966 with their version of Burt Bacharach and Hal David's "My Little Red Book". Their first album, Love, was released in March 1966. The album sold moderately well and reached No. 57 on the Billboard 200 chart. The single "7 and 7 Is", released in July 1966, gained notice for the exceptional guitar work of Johnny Echols and proto-punk style drumming of Pfisterer. The single became Love's highest-charting single at No. 33 in the Billboard Hot 100. Two more members were added around this time, Tjay Cantrelli (real name John Barbieri) on woodwinds and Michael Stuart on drums. Pfisterer, never a confident drummer, switched to harpsichord. Elektra's art director, William S. Harvey, designed a distinctive logo for the band, "four cartoonish letters with exaggerated, curvaceous serifs", incorporating male and female symbols.

Arthur Lee had an exclusive contract with Herb Cohen for a short time after signing with Elektra Records. After Lee met Ronnie Haran, booking manager for the Whisky a Go Go, Cohen was fired by Arthur in favor of Haran. Haran continued to manage Love, despite not having an official contract, for a couple years. Mike Gruber took over after Haran departed as manager, though Haran remained somewhat involved with the group.

Forever Changes era
Love's second album, Da Capo, was released in November 1966 and included "7 and 7 Is" as well as the subsequent singles "She Comes in Colors" and "¡Que Vida!". It marked the experimental direction Arthur wanted to take. With the seven member lineup for DaCapo, shortly after this album, Cantrelli and Pfisterer left the band, leaving it as a five-piece once again. Their third album Forever Changes was released in November 1967 and was co-produced by Bruce Botnick. The album displayed a softer and more avant-garde approach for the band. By this time, tension arose between Arthur Lee and Bryan MacLean, who wanted more of his songs on the album. The band recorded the album in only 64 hours, though many professional session players were used, including some who replaced actual band members in one or two songs. Writer Richard Meltzer, in his book The Aesthetics of Rock, commented on Love's "orchestral moves", "post-doper word contraction cuteness", and Lee's vocal style that serves as a "reaffirmation of Johnny Mathis". Forever Changes had one single, MacLean's "Alone Again Or", which reached number 123 on the pop charts. By this stage, Love were far more popular in the UK, where the album reached No. 24, than in their home country, where it could only reach No. 154. Forever Changes has since received recognition as one of the greatest rock albums of all time, appearing on Rolling Stone magazine's list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, being inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, and added to the Library of Congress's National Recording Registry in 2011.

Later years
For unclear reasons, Bryan MacLean left the band after Forever Changes (though one possible issue was a solo deal that he had signed with Elektra ), while Lee dismissed all the other members. MacLean later reemerged as a Contemporary Christian artist. Johnny Echols and Ken Forssi succumbed to drug addiction and crime, and disappeared from the music scene; and drummer Michael Stuart also retired from music. Echols eventually moved to New York and became an in-demand studio musician.

Arthur Lee, as the only remaining member, convened a new lineup of Love with Jay Donnellan (soon replaced by Gary Rowles) on guitar, Frank Fayad on bass, and George Suranovich on drums. This lineup played in a blues rock style, as opposed to the folk-rock and psychedelic styles of the band's previous incarnation. The new lineup never garnered the widespread acceptance or acclaim of the original group. Three albums were released by various permutations of this lineup: Four Sail (1969), Out Here (1969), and False Start (1970). The last featured a guest appearance by Jimi Hendrix. Another album by this incarnation of the band was recorded in 1971, but the material was not released until 2009 on the compilation album Love Lost. Arthur Lee released the solo album Vindicator in 1972. Another lost Love album titled Black Beauty was recorded in 1973 by a new lineup featuring guitarist Melvan Whittington, bassist Robert Rozelle, and drummer Joe Blocker, but Arthur Lee's record label went out of business before it was released. The album was finally released by High Moon Records in 2012. The final official Love album, Reel to Real (1974), was recorded by Lee and session musicians. It features the track "Everybody's Gotta Live", which was previously recorded by Lee for Vindicator.

Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, there were various attempts to reunite the original Love lineup. At the suggestion of late-period guitarist John Sterling, Arthur Lee and Bryan MacLean reunited for one show in 1978, which was recorded and released as Love Live in 1980. Material from Out Here plus four previously unreleased live tracks was released as Studio/Live in 1982. Arthur Lee was largely inactive in the 1980s and only made sporadic onstage appearances with pickup bands.

Lee reemerged in 1992 with a new album titled Five String Serenade, released under the name Arthur Lee & Love. The album's title track was later covered by Mazzy Star. Lee then returned to semi-regular performing, often backed by the band Baby Lemonade. In 1995, Rhino Records released the compilation Love Story, a two-disc set with extensive liner notes which chronicled the band's 1966–1972 period.

Ken Forssi, bassist for the classic Love lineup, died of a suspected brain tumor at age 54 on January 5, 1998. Bryan MacLean died of a heart attack at age 52 on December 25, 1998, while having dinner with a young fan who was researching a book about Love. Arthur Lee was in prison when both of these former bandmates died.

Reformation and reunions
After spending six years in prison from 1995 to 2001 for firearms offenses, Lee began touring under the name Love with Arthur Lee, with the members of Baby Lemonade rounding out the lineup. In 2002 Michael Stuart (now known as Michael Stuart-Ware), the drummer on the Love albums Da Capo and Forever Changes, wrote the acclaimed book Behind the Scenes on the Pegasus Carousel with the Legendary Rock Group Love.

Johnny Echols joined Lee's latest group for a special Forever Changes 35th Anniversary performance in the spring of 2003 and again for tours in 2004 and 2005. Due to Arthur Lee's battle with acute myeloid leukemia, the details of which were not known by the band at the time, he could not participate in the final tour in 2005. Since no one knew of his illness, Lee's decision to forgo the final tour was met with confused reactions. The remaining members of the band, led by Echols, continued to perform without Lee, under the name The Love Band.

Michael Stuart-Ware and Johnny Echols performed with Baby Lemonade at Hollywood's Whisky A Go-Go on June 28, 2006, in a benefit concert for Arthur Lee. The show included guest appearances by Robert Plant and Nils Lofgren. Lee died of acute myeloid leukemia on August 3, 2006, at age 61.

In 2009, a reformed version of Love, featuring Johnny Echols, members of Baby Lemonade, and Probyn Gregory of the Wondermints, toured the United States and Canada. Michael Stuart-Ware was listed as a member of this act for a time in 2009. The group continued to tour sporadically in the following years under the name the Love Band featuring Johnny Echols. This group completed a 'farewell tour' of the UK in 2019, but continues to perform in the U.S. as LOVE-Revisited. In November 2021, they announced that they would again tour in the UK in 2022, and at some shows would play the whole of their first two albums, Love and Da Capo, in their entirety, as well as Forever Changes.

Influence
Today, Love's critical reputation exceeds the limited success they experienced during their time; their 1967 album Forever Changes is held in particularly high regard and often appears on lists of the best rock albums of all time. During their late-1960s heyday, the Rolling Stones and the Doors were known to be Love fans. Many bands of the 1990s that were influenced by psychedelic rock list Love as a major inspiration, such as Primal Scream, The Stone Roses, and The Jesus and Mary Chain. Robert Plant cites Forever Changes as one of his favorite albums.

Current members
classic lineup members are in bold

 * Johnny Echols – lead guitar, occasional vocals (1965–68, 2002–present)
 * Rusty Squeezebox (born David Ramsey )– guitar, vocals (1994–present)
 * Mike Randle – guitar (1994–present)
 * David "Daddy O" Green – drums (1994–present)
 * James Nolte – bass guitar (2021–present)

Former members
classic lineup members are in bold

 * Arthur Lee – songwriter, vocals, guitar, piano, percussion, harmonica (1965–75, 1978, 1982, 1992–2006; his death)
 * Bryan MacLean – songwriter, rhythm guitar, vocals (1965–68, 1978; died 1998)
 * Alban "Snoopy" Pfisterer – drums, organ, harpsichord (1965–67)
 * Larry Pincock – drums (1965–1966; died 2012)
 * Johnny "Fleck" Fleckenstein – bass guitar (1965–1966, died 2017 )
 * Don Conka – drums (1965, special guest from 2003; died 2004)
 * Ken Forssi – bass guitar (1966–68; died 1998)
 * Michael Stuart-Ware – drums (1966–68, special guest from 2006, 2009)
 * Tjay Cantrelli (born John Barberis) – woodwind (1966–67; died 1985)
 * Frank Fayad – bass guitar, backing vocal (1968–73, 1982; died 2014)
 * George Suranovich – drums, backing vocal (1968–70, 1978, 1982; died 1990)
 * Jay Donnellan – lead guitar (1968–69, 1982; died 2021)
 * Drachen Theaker – drums (1968–69; died 1992)
 * Gary Rowles – lead guitar (1969–71, 1982)
 * Nooney Rickett – guitars (1969–71)
 * Paul Martin – guitars (1969)
 * Don Poncher – drums (1971–1973)
 * Craig Tarwater – guitar (1971–1973)
 * Melvan Whittington – guitar (1973–1975; died 2015)
 * Robert Rozelle – bass (1973–1975; died 2011)
 * Joe Blocker – drums (1973–1975)
 * Eric Alan "Ricky" Rackin – bass (1976–1977; died 2007)
 * Probyn Gregory – multiple instruments (2009)
 * Justin Polimeni – drums (1992–1993)
 * Bobby Beausoleil – guitar (1965, as The Grass Roots)
 * David Chapple – bass guitar (1996–2021)

Discography

 * Love (1966)
 * Da Capo (1966)
 * Forever Changes (1967)
 * Four Sail (1969)
 * Out Here (1969)
 * False Start (1970)
 * Reel to Real (1974)
 * Arthur Lee & Love (1992)
 * Love Lost (2009, compilation of recordings for unreleased 1971 album)
 * Black Beauty (2012, compilation of recordings for unreleased 1973 album)

title: Love (band)


text:
Masonic lodge

A Masonic lodge, often termed a private lodge or constituent lodge, is the basic organisational unit of Freemasonry. It is also commonly used as a term for a building in which such a unit meets. Every new lodge must be warranted or chartered by a Grand Lodge, but is subject to its direction only in enforcing the published constitution of the jurisdiction. By exception the three surviving lodges that formed the world's first known grand lodge in London (now merged into the United Grand Lodge of England) have the unique privilege to operate as time immemorial, i.e., without such warrant; only one other lodge operates without a warrant – the Grand Stewards' Lodge in London, although it is not also entitled to the "time immemorial" title. A Freemason is generally entitled to visit any lodge in any jurisdiction (i.e., under any Grand Lodge) in amity with his own. In some jurisdictions this privilege is restricted to Master Masons (that is, Freemasons who have attained the Order's third degree). He is first usually required to check, and certify, the regularity of the relationship of the Lodge – and be able to satisfy that Lodge of his regularity of membership. Freemasons gather together as a Lodge to work the three basic Degrees of Entered Apprentice, Fellowcraft, and Master Mason.

Masonic premises
Technically, Freemasons meet as a lodge, not in a lodge. In this context, the word "lodge" refers to a local chapter of Freemasons, meeting as a body. However, the term is often misused to refer to the buildings or rooms that Masons meet in. Masonic premises are also sometimes referred to as temples ("of Philosophy and the Arts"). In many countries Masonic centre or Masonic hall has now replaced these terms to avoid arousing prejudice and suspicion, or confusion with a religious building. Several different lodges, or other Masonic organizations, often use the same premises at different times.

Blue lodge
Blue lodges, craft lodges or ancient craft lodges refer to the lodges that work the first three Masonic degrees, rather than the appendant Masonic orders such as York Rite and Scottish Rite. The term "craft lodge" is used in Great Britain. The blue lodge is said to refer to the traditional colour of regalia in lodges derived from English or Irish Freemasonry. Although the term was originally frowned upon, it has gained widespread and mainstream usage in America in recent times.

Research lodge
Research lodges have the purpose of furthering Masonic scholarship. Quatuor Coronati Lodge, in London, is an example of a research lodge; it has a strictly limited membership and receives visitors and papers from all over the world. Many jurisdictions have well-established research lodges, which usually meet less frequently than blue lodges and do not confer degrees.

Lodge of Instruction
In Great Britain, a lodge of instruction (LOI) may be associated with a Lodge, but is not constituted separately. The lodge of instruction provides the officers and those who wish to become officers an opportunity to rehearse ritual under the guidance of an experienced brother; there may also be lectures around the ritual and the symbolism in the lodge within a Lodge of Instruction, in order to develop the knowledge and understanding of the membership.

In some jurisdictions in the United States, the lodge of instruction serves as a warranted lodge for candidate instruction in other aspects of Freemasonry besides ritual rehearsal, as well as hosting a speaker on topics both Masonic and non-Masonic.

Mother lodge
In Great Britain, the term  mother lodge is used to identify the particular Lodge where the individual was first "made a Mason" (i.e. received his Entered Apprentice degree). 'Mother lodge' may also refer to a lodge that sponsors the creation of a new lodge, the  daughter lodge, to be warranted under the jurisdiction of the same grand lodge; specific procedures pertaining to this vary throughout history and in different jurisdictions. Lodge Mother Kilwinning No 0 in the Grand Lodge of Scotland is known as the Mother Lodge of Scotland, having been referred to in the Schaw Statutes of 1598 and 1599, and having itself warranted other lodges at a time when it did not subscribe to a grand lodge.

Virtual lodge
The 21st century has seen the rise of internet virtual lodges that meet online rather than in person. Examples are the Internet Lodge No. 9659, Lodge Ireland, and Castle Island Virtual Lodge No. 190. The ability to hold remote lodge meetings allows those who are distant to continue to attend, whether they are military servicemen serving overseas or they inhabit a sparsely populated region.

Organization
Lodges are governed by national, state or provincial authorities, usually called Grand Lodges or Grand Orients, whose published constitutions define the structure of freemasonry under their authority, and which appoint Grand Officers from their senior masons. Provincial Grand Lodges (which in England generally correspond to historic counties) exercise an intermediate authority, and also appoint Provincial Grand Officers.

Different grand lodges and their regions show subtleties of tradition and variation in the degrees and practice; for example under the Grand Lodge of Scotland, the Mark Degree (which is unrecognised by the United Grand Lodge of England, but has a separate Mark Grand Lodge) is integrated into "The Craft" as a completion of the second degree. In any case, Grand Lodges have limited jurisdiction over their member Lodges, and where there is no prescribed ritual Lodges may thus have considerable freedom of practice. Despite these minor differences, fraternal relations exist between Lodges of corresponding degrees under different Grand Lodges.

Membership
Membership requirements in Freemasonry have evolved over time and vary depending on the jurisdiction and the specific Masonic style or branch. However, there are certain common requirements that have remained relatively consistent throughout the history of the fraternity.

"Regular" Freemasonry
In "Regular" Freemasonry, which follows the Anglo-American style, a candidate for initiation must generally meet the following criteria:

 * Be a man
 * Come of his own free will, either by his own initiative or by invitation in some jurisdictions
 * Believe in a Supreme Being, although the specific religion is not specified
 * Be of good morals, reputation, and financially capable of supporting himself and his family
 * Be at least 21 years old (with some jurisdictions allowing candidates as young as 18 or as old as 25)
 * Live within the jurisdiction of the lodge (a requirement in some U.S. Grand Lodges)
 * Before petitioning, pass an initial qualification interview (Most of the time with the Master of the Lodge).
 * Meet the member of the Lodges, become known as a "knocker" and show motivation and dedication (can take up to two years).
 * After petitioning, pass three separate interviews and inquiries conducted by the lodge's Investigation Committee, which may take up to two years
 * Be of sound mind and body (not a universal requirement)
 * Be a "Free Man," meaning not bound by servitude or slavery
 * Receive a favorable vote from the lodge members

Continental Freemasonry
In Continental Freemasonry, which is prevalent in Europe and Latin America, the requirements may differ slightly and can take from one to three years:

 * Belief in a Supreme Being or a higher power, but not necessarily a specific religion
 * Minimum age of 18 in most cases
 * Good moral character
 * Free man, not bound by obligations that would conflict with Masonic duties
 * Recommendation or background check
 * Pass initial interview with the Master of the Lodge.
 * Being invited by a member (called a godfather). (In most cases).
 * Low-door ceremony or "under the blindfold", The candidate is brought to Lodge, blindfolded and asked questions by the assembly then voted on.

Prince Hall Freemasonry
Prince Hall Freemasonry, which predominantly serves African American communities, generally follows similar requirements to Regular Freemasonry, with a few additional criteria:

 * Be a man 18 years of age or older
 * Be a citizen of Illinois
 * Believe in a Supreme Being regardless of religion
 * Believe in the immortality of the soul
 * Possess a desire to help others through community service and universal benevolence
 * African descent (in somecases)
 * Recommended by existing members
 * Pass a background check

Co-Masonry and Women's Freemasonry
Co-Masonry and Women's Freemasonry admit both men and women, or women only, respectively. Their requirements are similar to Regular and Continental Freemasonry, with some variations:

 * Be at least 18 years old.
 * Be “Free” (free from dogmatic principles; open to growing and learning; have time to participate regularly; have the ability to pay annual dues).
 * Be “of Good Report” (law abiding; striving toward self-improvement and service to humanity; accepting and tolerant).
 * Belief in a Supreme Being or higher power (in some cases)
 * Recommendation from existing members may be required (Women's Freemasonry)

History and Evolution of Requirements
The membership requirements in Freemasonry have evolved over time, reflecting changes in societal norms and the fraternity's internal guidelines. Some notable developments include:

In the early days of speculative Freemasonry (18th century), the requirement of being a "Free Man" may have stemmed from the refusal of operative masons to share their secrets with slaves, who could be ordered to divulge them The "Free Man" requirement may have also been related to the necessity of having a license to trade and employ others, making the candidate a free man of the city or borough where the lodge was located The minimum age requirement has varied over time and across jurisdictions, with some allowing candidates as young as 18 and others setting the limit at 25 The belief in a Supreme Being has been a consistent requirement, although the specific religious affiliation has not been prescribed, reflecting Freemasonry's openness to men of various faiths

Landmarks and Reasons behind Requirements
The membership requirements in Freemasonry are guided by the fraternity's Landmarks, which are the fundamental principles that define the essence of the Craft. Some of the Landmarks related to membership include:

 * The belief in a Supreme Being
 * The necessity of being a free man and of mature age
 * The prohibition of women as members (in Regular Freemasonry)

These Landmarks and requirements serve several purposes:

Ensuring that candidates share common values and are committed to personal growth and moral character Maintaining the integrity and harmony of the lodge by admitting members who are compatible with Masonic principles Preserving the traditions and symbolic teachings of the fraternity Fostering a sense of brotherhood and trust among members

Progression through Degrees
Once a candidate is elected and initiated into a lodge, he progresses through the three degrees of Freemasonry: Entered Apprentice, Fellowcraft, and Master Mason. The Lodge decides whether to confer each degree based on the candidate's proficiency and readiness. In Regular Freemasonry under the United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE), a Master Mason receives a Grand Lodge certificate, which may be required for visiting other lodges. A Master Mason is considered a full, lifetime member of the lodge where he received his degrees, with the right to demit (resign) if he is in good standing and has paid his dues. After demitting, a Mason is still regarded as a member in absentia and may rejoin through a new application. However, he and his family have no rights, privileges, or claims on Freemasonry during his absence. Some Masonic scholars, such as Albert Mackey, argue that leaving the lodge does not exempt a Mason from his obligations or the moral conduct expected by the fraternity. A Master Mason may be expelled from his lodge and Freemasonry if convicted of serious violations of civil or Masonic law. Expulsion from all of Freemasonry can only be implemented by a Grand Lodge, while individual lodges may expel members from their specific lodges.

Affiliation and Plural Membership
A Master Mason in good standing may join another regular lodge without taking the degrees again, although he may be expected to serve in office. If a Master Mason is dropped from the rolls for non-payment of dues, he may be reinstated in good standing by paying his current and back dues, with some jurisdictions requiring a ballot for re-admission. Many Grand Lodges allow Master Masons to be "plural affiliates," or members of more than one lodge simultaneously. However, some jurisdictions prohibit plural affiliates from serving as elected officers in multiple lodges at the same time. The rules for affiliation and plural membership differ for Freemasons of the Entered Apprentice and Fellowcraft degrees. Some Grand Lodges do not allow Entered Apprentices or Fellowcrafts to demit but may permit them to join another lodge to earn the Master Mason degree with the consent of their original lodge. The membership requirements, progression through degrees, and affiliation rules in Freemasonry are designed to ensure the integrity, harmony, and continuity of the fraternity while allowing for personal growth and brotherhood among its members. These guidelines have evolved over time, reflecting the changing needs and values of the Craft and society at large.

Officers
The names, roles and numbers of Lodge officers vary widely from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. In most cases, there is an equivalent office in the Grand Lodge of the given jurisdiction, with the addition of the prefix 'Grand' to the title in question.

There are certain 'progressive' offices through which members move by a process of effective promotion, but also other more permanent offices, usually held by experienced members.

title: Masonic lodge


text:
Tabard

A tabard is a type of short coat that was commonly worn by men during the late Middle Ages and early modern period in Europe. Generally worn outdoors, the coat was either sleeveless or had short sleeves or shoulder pieces. In its more developed form it was open at the sides, and it could be worn with or without a belt. Though most were ordinary garments, often work clothes, tabards might be emblazoned on the front and back with a coat of arms (livery), and in this form they survive as the distinctive garment of officers of arms.

In modern British usage, the term has been revived for what is known in American English as a cobbler apron: a lightweight open-sided upper overgarment, of similar design to its medieval and heraldic counterpart, worn in particular by workers in the catering, cleaning and healthcare industries as protective clothing, or outdoors by those requiring high-visibility clothing. Tabards may also be worn by percussionists in marching bands in order to protect their uniforms from the straps and rigging used to support the instruments.

Middle Ages
A tabard (from the French tabarde) was originally a humble outer garment of tunic form, generally without sleeves, worn by peasants, monks and foot-soldiers. In this sense, the earliest citation recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary dates from c. 1300.

By the second half of the 15th century, tabards, now open at the sides and so usually belted, were also being worn by knights in military contexts over their armour, and were usually emblazoned with their arms (though sometimes worn plain). The Oxford English Dictionary first records this use of the word in English in 1450. Tabards were apparently distinguished from surcoats by being open-sided, and by being shorter. In its later form, a tabard normally comprised four textile panels – two large panels hanging down the wearer's front and back, and two smaller panels hanging over his arms as shoulder-pieces or open "sleeves" – each emblazoned with the same coat of arms. Tabards became an important means of battlefield identification with the development of plate armour as the use of shields declined. They are frequently represented on tomb effigies and monumental brasses of the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

A very expensive, but plain, garment described as a tabard is worn by Giovanni Arnolfini in the Arnolfini Portrait of 1434 (National Gallery, London). This may be made of silk and/or velvet, and is trimmed and fully lined with fur, possibly sable.

At The Queen's College, Oxford, the scholars on the foundation were called tabarders, from the tabard (not in this case an emblazoned garment) which they wore.

A surviving garment similar to the medieval tabard is the monastic scapular. This is a wide strip of fabric worn front back of the body, with an opening for the head and no sleeves. It may have a hood, and may be worn under or over a belt.

British heraldry
By the end of the 16th century, the tabard was particularly associated with officers of arms. The shift in emphasis was reported by John Stow in 1598, when he described a tabard as:

"a Jacquit, or sleevelesse coat, whole before, open on both sides, with a square collor, winged at the shoulders: a stately garment of olde time, commonly worne of Noble men and others, both at home and abroade in the Warres, but then (to witte in the warres) theyr Armes embrodered, or otherwise depicte uppon them, that every man by his Coate of Armes might bee knowne from others: but now these Tabardes are onely worne by the Heraults, and bee called their coates of Armes in service."

In the case of Royal officers of arms, the tabard is emblazoned with the coat of arms of the sovereign. Private officers of arms, such as still exist in Scotland, make use of tabards emblazoned with the coat of arms of the person who employs them. In the United Kingdom the different ranks of officers of arms can be distinguished by the fabric from which their tabards are made. The tabard of a king of arms is made of velvet, the tabard of a herald of arms of satin, and that of a pursuivant of arms of damask silk. The oldest surviving English herald's tabard is that of Sir William Dugdale as Garter King of Arms (1677–1686).

It was at one time the custom for English pursuivants to wear their tabards "athwart", that is to say with the smaller ("shoulder") panels at the front and back, and the larger panels over the arms; but this practice was ended during the reign of James II and VII.

The derisive Scots nickname of "Toom Tabard" for John Balliol (c. 1249 – 1314) may originate from either an alleged incident where his arms were stripped from his tabard in public, or a reference to the Balliol arms which are a plain shield with an orle, also known as an inescutcheon voided.

Canadian heraldry
A tabard for the Chief Herald of Canada to wear on special occasions was unveiled in May 2012 by David Johnston, the Governor General of Canada. The tabard weighs 2 kg and is coloured in royal blue, a colour emblematic of the governor general. The tabard is made up of four sections that include several symbols. Its body is embroidered with stripes of alternating maple leaves with raven-bears at the body's centre. The raven-bears are derived from the supporters of the arms of the CHA, and were designed in the emblematic tradition of Coast Salish and Kwakwakaʼwakw nation. Unlike traditional tabards, the coat of arms of Canada is embroidered on the tabard's sleeves.

Cultural allusions
A tabard was the inn sign of the Tabard Inn in Southwark, London, established in 1307 and remembered as the starting point for Geoffrey Chaucer's pilgrims on their journey to Canterbury in The Canterbury Tales, dating from about the 1380s.

In E. C. Bentley's short story "The Genuine Tabard", published in his collection Trent Intervenes in 1938, a wealthy American couple purchase an antique heraldic tabard, having been told that it was worn in 1783 by Sir Rowland Verey, Garter King of Arms, when proclaiming the Peace of Versailles from the steps of St James's Palace. The amateur detective Philip Trent is able to point out that it in fact bears the post-1837 royal arms.

title: Tabard


text:
Dinnerladies (TV series)

Dinnerladies (stylised as dinnerladies) is a British television sitcom created, written and co-produced by Victoria Wood. Two series were broadcast on BBC One from 1998 to 2000, with sixteen episodes in total. The programme is repeated on Gold, and Drama. The complete series was released on DVD in November 2004.

The series is set almost entirely in the canteen of HWD Components, a fictional factory in Manchester, featuring the caterers and regular customers as the main characters. It depicts the lives and social and romantic interactions of the staff, and is centred around the main character of Brenda Furlong, played by Wood.

Plot
The beginning of the first series introduces the characters, a group of mostly female and middle-aged canteen workers at a factory in Manchester. The main character is the kind and dependable Brenda "Bren" Furlong, whose relationship with sarcastic and exhausted canteen manager Tony Martin (Andrew Dunn) develops through the show.

The characters feature the prim and prudish Dolly Bellfield (Thelma Barlow) and her waspish friend Jean (Anne Reid), and the younger and snarky Twinkle (Maxine Peake), who is always late, and the scatter-brained but mild-mannered Anita (Shobna Gulati).

Stan Meadowcroft (Duncan Preston) is an opinionated and easily provoked, but well-meaning, maintenance man who is responsible for cleaning the factory and fixing equipment. The new cheery but disorganised human resources manager Philippa Moorcroft (Celia Imrie) is from the South and does not initially fit in well with the rest of the staff; she moved to Manchester because of her relationship with senior staff member Mr Michael (Christopher Greet).

Actress Julie Walters also appears in nine episodes as Bren's down-and-out, delusional and manipulative mother, who lives in a caravan behind a petrol station. She abandoned Bren at an orphanage, and often turns up to ask for favours.

In the first series, Bren and Tony's relationship begins to develop, and she supports him as he undergoes chemotherapy. Philippa tries to organise team-building activities, the factory receives a royal visit, Bren's mother causes a scandal in the factory, the team bring their mothers to work, HWD Components merges with a Japanese company and Tony is temporarily replaced by Nicola Bodeux due to his treatment. Bodeux resigns after causing the canteen staff to strike, leading Bren to take charge on an interim basis amidst a crisis for the company.

Throughout the second series, Bren and Tony's relationship develops further; the canteen takes on a work experience girl named Sigourney (Joanne Froggatt), Jean goes to stay with her sister after she is put in a foul mood by her unfaithful husband, a prisoner escapes from a local prison and Bren's fear of needles is mistaken for pregnancy. Jane (Sue Devaney) organises a holiday to Marbella, on which Bren and Tony want to go together. After a mix-up, Bren manages to get a place, but she ends up giving the money to her mother instead. Their colleagues bet on when Bren and Tony will "get it on", and they finally get together after Tony puts on a surprise birthday party for Bren, who was born on Christmas Eve.

Later in the series, Philippa cannot attend the Millennium meal she organises, and Anita has a baby; after leaving it anonymously for Bren to care for, she takes it back and goes on parental leave; she is replaced temporarily by Christine (Kay Adshead), who is disliked by the rest of the dinner ladies.

As the closure of the canteen looms, the staff plan to move on with their lives. Bren goes on a game show, but loses her chance to win after she cannot attend due to her mother's death. It is revealed that her mother left her a large amount of money, which Bren and Tony use to move to Scotland.

Main

 * Victoria Wood as Brenda "Bren" Furlong
 * Bren is the deputy manager of the canteen, and arguably the most reasonable of the characters. She had an unhappy childhood as her mother had her taken into foster care, and she later married an alcoholic named Martin of whom she was afraid. She is very good at solving her colleagues' problems but often doubts her ability to overcome her own hardships and has low self-esteem. She has a very quick mind, often scrambling for adjectives and making unintentional malapropisms. She has a near-encyclopaedic knowledge of film, which she makes many metaphorical references to, and gets as her subject on the quiz show Totally Trivial. Several times in the first series it is hinted that she has feelings for Tony, though nothing comes of this until halfway through the second series. At the end of the final episode, she and Tony make plans to move to Scotland.

 * Andrew Dunn as Tony Martin
 * The divorced canteen manager, whose battle against cancer is a running storyline in the first series, prompting him to want to do more with his life than running a canteen in the second. He is mildly frustrated when the staff are not working, and tends to come out with sarcastic remarks. Though he talks and thinks about women a lot, he has very little luck with them. He is attracted to Bren, but is too shy to reveal this to her for a long time. He is also a smoker and uses his need for a cigarette as an excuse to escape uncomfortable or surreal situations.

 * Thelma Barlow as Dolly Bellfield
 * Something of a social climber, Dolly is the cattiest of the dinner ladies, often making bitchy remarks about others. Prim and prudish, she previously worked at the upmarket Café Bonbon. She frequently snaps at people for using bad language and frowns on the sexual shenanigans of Twinkle, whom she is convinced did not have to work for her catering qualification. Overtly conservative, she believes everything she reads in the Daily Mail without question, often quoting the articles she has read, and is prone to making remarks of dubious political correctness. She is fixated on her weight and dieting, although she is tempted to snack on Mars bars in stressful situations and it is revealed in several episodes that she was formerly obese. She has been married for thirty years to her husband Bob (Jack Smethurst), with whom she has a son named Stephen; it is implied that Stephen is in a homosexual relationship with his university roommate, Marcus, although this is a topic of embarrassment to Dolly, who seems to have reluctantly acknowledged the situation without truly accepting it. She hopes to move to the nearby upmarket village of Mobberley after her retirement.

 * Anne Reid as Jean
 * Dolly's best friend, Jean is very often the stooge for her mordant remarks. She has a somewhat bawdy sense of humour and is long-sighted, but refuses to wear her glasses, so often misinterprets headlines when reading newspapers or magazines. She is unhappily married to her husband Keith (Peter Lorenzelli) at the start of the series, with grown-up daughter Lisa (Jane Hazlegrove), but in series two he leaves her for a Welsh dental hygienist named Bronwyn. After getting over the shock, which leaves her so depressed and irritable that her sister Peggy (Linda Bassett) is called in to take her to Tunstall to recuperate, Jean rediscovers her self-confidence and has a fling with security guard Barry (Howard Crossley), "the love muscle", before settling down in a more solid relationship with Stan. She accepts his proposal in the final episode, and reveals that she has been asked to stay on at HWD Components to run the snack bar replacing the canteen.

 * Maxine Peake as Twinkle
 * The youngest member of the team, she frequently turns up late for work and tries unsuccessfully to scrounge cigarettes from Tony. Despite her snarky attitude, she regards the other members of staff as friends, particularly Bren, to whom she turns for help on several occasions, such as when she thinks she is pregnant. She lives with her disabled mother Bev (Jackie Downey), for whom she acts as carer, and often spends her evenings getting drunk and falling into skips. Something of a recalcitrant delinquent who often skipped school, she speaks with a heavy Manc accent and is also a closeted football fan.

 * Shobna Gulati as Anita
 * Pleasant, but rather dim and forgetful, Anita is a kind and loyal friend to her colleagues, empathising with them and often helping them to solve their problems without even realising it. She is somewhat desperate to have a family and children, becoming pregnant in the second series after a one-night stand with a visiting decorator (Kevin Maxwell) and, terrified of the implications, leaves the baby on the fire escape on Millennium Eve, attaching a note asking Bren to look after him. However, she quickly returns to take the baby back. She is a big fan of Celine Dion and is of a South Asian background.

 * Duncan Preston as Stan Meadowcroft
 * One of the factory's maintenance men, Stan lives with his father Jim (Eric Sykes), a retired Desert Rat soldier of whom he often speaks. In the episode "moods", Stan reveals that his mother ran off with a piano tuner in 1954, which his father never recovered from. He is particularly close to Bren as she seems to be the only one who knows how to successfully handle his changeable moods. After his father's death he decides to get his life going again, embarking on a brief relationship with a nurse called Bobbi (Tina Malone) before dating, and ultimately proposing to, his colleague Jean, who accepts him in the final episode. Although he is well-meaning, Stan's behaviour can occasionally verge on being chauvinistic, believing that he should perform physical labour. This stems from his belief that such tasks (among others, such as seeing animal carcasses) are not suitable for, as he puts it, "female women".

 * Celia Imrie as Philippa Moorcroft
 * The scatty and disorganised manager of the Human Resources department, having apparently landed the job because she was in a relationship with the factory manager, Mr Michael, whom she refers to as Mikey. Her well-meaning attempts to relieve the dinner ladies' stress or help them in their personal lives generally have the opposite effect: in the first episode, she tries to organise Scottish country dancing sessions. In the second series she decides to break up with Mr Michael, and later begins a relationship with a colleague, Tom Murray (Mark Drewry). Philippa is the only character in the series who comes from the south of England.

 * Julie Walters as Petula Gordeno
 * Bren's selfish, manipulative, and delusional mother, who had Bren taken into foster care as a child because she was "cramping her style", and claims that she lost the address of the orphanage. She sometimes seems to forget that Bren is her daughter, and usually turns up looking for money or a favour. She often claims to be a close friend (and usually lover) of the rich and famous, but in reality is a down-and-out who lives in a caravan behind a petrol station. In the first series, she has an affair with 16-year-old Clint (Kenny Doughty). In the second series, she gets involved with Reg (Kaleem Janjua), an Asian petrol station attendant, and claims to be pregnant with his child. In the final episode, she dies off-screen on 29 February 2000, after having been admitted to hospital on 7 February with three weeks to live. It is revealed that her real name was the same as Bren's; Bren muses that she "can't have hated [her] that much" if she named her after herself.

Recurring

 * Sue Devaney as Jane
 * A member of the planning department, she had a small but significant role in the first series, usually ordering the toast round for meetings. In the second series, she played a larger role, having an ongoing wager with the canteen staff on whether Bren and Tony would "get it on" by Christmas Eve. She reportedly had a drunken snog herself with Tony whilst on holiday in Marbella, Spain.

 * Andrew Livingston (series 1) and Adrian Hood (series 2) as Norman

 * Delivers bread to the canteen. Norman is dour, work-shy, agoraphobic and "technically" a bigamist. He often attributes his agoraphobia to an incident when he "fell off a diving board in Guernsey". He also developed a fear of bread in the second series.

 * Sue Cleaver as Glenda
 * A bread supplier who often takes over Norman's duties when his agoraphobia is plaguing him. She underwent bladder surgery, the nature of which is never directly mentioned. Tony often jokes that she is his "fantasy woman" and once claimed she bore a resemblance to the UK comic character Desperate Dan.

 * Christopher Greet as Mr Michael
 * Senior staff member of HWD Components; it is hinted that he is a manager or even managing director. He was in a relationship with Philippa, which was the reason she moved to Manchester. He is a fan of trad jazz, jigsaws, custard and Garibaldi biscuits.

 * Bernard Wrigley as Bob
 * A factory worker who appears at the counter in a number of episodes, usually asking for bacon or liver. He takes a mild interest in canteen gossip.

 * Steve Huison as Steve Greengrass
 * A perennially unlucky individual considered a jinx by the rest of the factory. He was reluctantly invited on the Marbella trip by Jane, as his last three holidays were cancelled due to various unfortunate events, but he fell down a staircase after tripping on spilled orange juice Anita forgot to clean, resulting in a space being left open for Bren. Steve has to separate his food before eating it, an eccentricity that only adds to his alienation from his co-workers.

 * Kate Robbins as Babs
 * A friend of Petula's from Urmston, with a possible learning disability and a vast knowledge of catering appliances, which briefly attracts Stan towards her. After accompanying Petula to the factory's Christmas party uninvited (as was Petula), it is she who arrives to inform Bren that Petula's caravan has exploded and she needs money, which leads to Bren forfeiting her place in the group holiday to Marbella.

 * A blow up doll as Malcolm, a prop Anita would use "for safety" while driving so others would think there is a man with her. Malcolm is treated as a human by the other members of staff, even to the point of offering him cigarettes. On such occasions Anita would stand behind him, voicing and animating the doll's replies.

Guest stars
The ensemble cast occasionally featured notable guest actors, including Joanne Froggatt, Tina Malone, Dora Bryan, Lynda Baron, Elspet Gray, Janette Tough (of The Krankies fame), Henry Kelly, Simon Williams, Kenny Doughty, Lesley Nicol, Eric Sykes and Thora Hird.

Writing
The series was written entirely by Victoria Wood, with no additional contributors or script editor. Wood approached writing by allowing plots to develop from interactions between characters, rather than fitting characters into pre-determined storylines.

She wrote the whole six-episode first series in one month; however, she found the second series much harder to write, and even though it had only four more episodes, it took her six months. Wood has attributed this to pressure to do everything herself and loneliness, and has said that she even considered giving up because she thought her scripts were of low quality.

Wood deliberately ended the programme after two series, and the final episode of the second was designed to conclude it. She has said that she "[doesn't] normally do anything twice", but felt that a second series was necessary to do the show justice, and that she knew where to take the show after seeing it air and understanding "what people [have] taken from it". She mentioned the short run of Fawlty Towers when explaining why she planned not to continue the series further. However, in a televised BBC TV documentary about the history of situation comedy at the corporation, Wood complained that the series had been axed by the BBC, despite it being what she described as "a show they couldn't kill".

Filming
Involving only one set throughout its run (with the exception of quiz show and hospital sets which are both seen on a television screen in the last two episodes), dinnerladies was entirely filmed at the London BBC Television Centre in front of a live studio audience, employing a multiple-camera setup. Other locations such as characters' homes and other parts of the factory are only referred to in conversation.

The set was intended to be as realistic as possible, and even featured a functioning catering toaster from which the studio audience were served toast during filming.

Punchlines were generally delivered at a fast pace with dialogue usually only pausing to allow audience laughter to settle. Each episode was filmed twice in front of two separate audiences, once on a Friday and again on a Saturday. This gave cast members two attempts to perfect a scene and, if necessary, the opportunity to correct mistakes without having to repeat a joke to the same audience. This also gave Wood the opportunity to make script changes that she felt might improve each episode.

The series' director and producer was Geoff Posner, and the executive producers were Philip McIntyre and David Tyler; the programme was co-produced by Victoria Wood's production company Good Fun and Posner's Pozzitive Television.

Wood reprised her character Bren for the BBC's Shaggy Dog Story in 1999.

Music
The show's theme music was composed by Victoria Wood. It is usually played without lyrics, but at the end of the episodes "Minnellium" and "Toast", vocals which were also written and performed by Wood were included.

Themes
Humour is mostly derived from the conversation and banter between characters, regarding their lives and popular culture, most commonly film and television: dialogue often features humorous misunderstandings, malapropisms and sexual innuendos. The series also features various surreal situations, often involving Bren's mother.

There is also a counterpoint of sadder themes, including deaths in the families of two of the main characters, a painful divorce, one of the characters living with cancer, one character having an unplanned pregnancy, and the underlying heartache in Bren's childhood. Bren and Tony's relationship seems to be eternally thwarted either by themselves or random circumstance.

Critical response
dinnerladies was generally well-received, and was praised by critic Tom Paulin.

Ratings
The viewing figures for series 1 peaked with its premiere at 12.24 million viewers, and series 2 peaked with "Minnellium", which aired on 30 December 1999 and reached 15.33 million viewers.

Awards
The first series won the 1999 Rose d'Or Press Award and "Best New TV Comedy" at the 1999 British Comedy Awards, and the second won "Best TV Comedy" in 2000. The show has also been nominated for the British Academy Television Award for "Best Comedy (Programme or Series)" and the "Situation Comedy Award" in 1998 and 1999 respectively. It came 28th in the BBC's Britain's Best Sitcom poll in 2004.

Theatre
A play based on the series premiered in London in April 2009. The play was based on three episodes of the second series of the TV show, and concentrated on the romance between Bren and Tony. It was directed by David Graham, who also adapted Victoria Wood's original TV scripts for the stage. Gulati and Dunn reprised their original roles from the TV series. The show toured the UK during 2009.

A second show called Dinnerladies: Second Helpings toured in 2011 with a new script, once again featuring Dunn, joined by original series cast member Sue Devaney. Shobna Gulati left to return to the soap opera Coronation Street.

title: Dinnerladies (TV series)


text:
Triglav National Park

Triglav National Park (TNP; Triglavski narodni park, TNP) is the only national park in Slovenia. It was established in its modern form in 1981 and is located in the northwestern part of the country, respectively the southeastern part of the Alpine massif. Mount Triglav, the highest peak of the Julian Alps, stands almost in the middle of the national park. From there the valleys spread out radially, supplying water to two large river systems with their sources in the Julian Alps: the Soča and the Sava, flowing to the Adriatic and Black Sea, respectively.

History
The proposal for the protection of the Triglav Lakes Valley area was first put forward by the seismologist Albin Belar in 1906 or 1908. However, the proposal was not accepted, as there was no legal base for it and the laws of the time prohibited any restriction of pasture. The strategic basis for the protection of the area, titled The Memorandum (Spomenica), and which explicitly mentioned the proposal of Belar, was submitted to the Provincial Government for Slovenia in 1920. The idea was finally implemented in 1924. Then, at an initiative by the Nature Protection Section of the Slovene Museum Society together with the Slovene Mountaineering Society, a twenty-year lease was taken out on the Triglav Lakes Valley area, some 14 km². It was destined to become an Alpine Conservation Park; however, permanent conservation was not possible at that time. The name Triglavski narodni park was first used in 1926 by Fran Jesenko.

In 1961, after many years of effort, the protection was renewed (this time on a permanent basis) and somewhat enlarged, embracing around 20 km². The protected area was officially designated as Triglav National Park. It was named after Mount Triglav, a symbol of Slovenia and of Slovene character. However, all objectives of a true national park were not attained and for that reason over the next two decades new proposals for expanding and modifying this protection were put forward.

Finally, in 1981, Triglav National Park was officially established in the modern form. A rearrangement was achieved and the park was given a new concept and expanded to 838 km². In 2010, the park expanded to include the settlement Kneške Ravne (Tolmin), according to wishes of its inhabitants, thus the new park area amounts to 880 km², which is 4% of the area of Slovenia.

Flora
Systematic surveys of plants, especially of ethnobotanically useful species, in Triglav National Park have been carried out by Chandra Prakash Kala and Petra Ratajc covering various microhabitats, elevations, aspects, and terrain types. The park has over fifty-nine species of ethnobotanical values, of these 37 species (which contribute 62%) fall under four major categories of medicinal plants as per the Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia such as H, Z, ZR and ND. Some important species such as Aconitum napellus, Cannabis sativa, and Taxus baccata are not allowed to be collected and used as per the Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia.

Hydrology
Waters in Triglav National Park consist of two watersheds: the Sava River watershed and the Soča River watershed. Many waterfalls can be found in the park, and most of them are located in the valleys of Soča River and its tributaries. The highest waterfall is Boka Falls (106 m). The Tolmin Gorges on the Tolminka River are located in the national park.

The lakes in the park are all of glacial origin. The largest among them is Lake Bohinj. Others are the Triglav Lakes (located in the Triglav Lakes Valley), Lake Krn, and Lower and Upper Križ Lake.

title: Triglav National Park