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Salzburg

Salzburg is the fourth-largest city in Austria. In 2020, it had a population of 156,872.

The town is on the site of the Roman settlement of Iuvavum. Salzburg was founded as an episcopal see in 696 and became a seat of the archbishop in 798. Its main sources of income were salt extraction, trade, as well as gold mining. The fortress of Hohensalzburg, one of the largest medieval fortresses in Europe, dates from the 11th century. In the 17th century, Salzburg became a center of the Counter-Reformation, with monasteries and numerous Baroque churches built.

Salzburg's historic center (Altstadt) is renowned for its Baroque architecture and is one of the best-preserved city centers north of the Alps. The historic center was enlisted as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996. The city has three universities and a large population of students.

Etymology
The name "Salzburg" was first recorded in the late 8th century. It is composed of two parts; the first being "Salz-" German for "salt" and the second being "-burg" from Proto-West-Germanic: *burg conveying the same meaning as and not that of the New High German: Burg,  lit.  'fortress'.

Antiquity and Bavarian ownership until the High Middle Ages
The area of the city has been inhabited continuously since the Neolithic Age until the present. In the La Tène period it was an administrative centre of the Celtic Alums in the Kingdom of Noricum.

After the Roman invasion in 15 BC, the various settlements on the Salzburg hills were abandoned, following the construction of the Roman city in the area of the old town. The newly created Municipium Claudium Juvavum was awarded the status of a Roman municipium in and became one of the most important cities of the now Roman province of Noricum.

When the province of Noricum collapsed in 488 at the beginning of the migration period, part of the Romano-Celtic population remained in the country. In the 6th century they came under the rule of the Baiuvarii. The Life of Saint Rupert credits the 8th-century saint with the city's rebirth, when around, Bishop Rupert of Salzburg received the remains of the Roman town from Duke Theodo II of Bavaria as well as a castrum superius (upper castle) on the Nonnberg Terrace as a gift. In return he was to evangelize the east and south-east of the country of Bavaria.

Rupert reconnoitred the river for the site of his basilica and chose Juvavum. He ordained priests and annexed the manor of Piding. Rupert built a church at St. Peter on the site of today's cathedral and probably also founded the associated monastery and the Benedictine nunnery on Nonnberg for his relative Erentrude. Salzburg has been the seat of a diocesan bishop since and an archbishopric since. The first cathedral was built under Archbishop Virgil. The Franciscan Church existed since the beginning of the 9th century at the latest. The Marienkirche dates from 1139.

The first use of the German name Salzburg, meaning Salt-Castle, can be traced back to when the name was used in Willibald's report on the organization of the Bavarian dioceses by Saint Boniface. The name derives from the barges carrying salt on the River Salzach, which were subject to a toll in the 8th century as was customary for many communities and cities on European rivers. Hohensalzburg Fortress, the city's fortress was built on the site of a Roman fort in 1077 by Archbishop Gebhard, who made it his residence. It was greatly expanded during the following centuries. This site is not the site of the Roman castrum superius, which was located on the Nonnberg nearby.

The state of Salzburg and its counties soon gained more and more influence and power within Bavaria due to the flourishing salt mining and the wide-ranging missionary activities. In 996 Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor rented Archbishop Hartwig the market rights and minting rights (probably also the toll law). The first part of Hohensalzburg Fortress was built in 1077. A city judge was first mentioned in a document in 1120/30. On the left bank of the Salzach an extensive spiritual district was created with the cathedral, the bishop's residence north-west of the cathedral, the cathedral monastery on its south side, St Peter's monastery and the Frauengarten (probably after a former women's convent that was dissolved in 1583). Only during the 12th century did the civil settlement begin to spread into the Getreidegasse, the Abtsgasse (Sigmund Haffner-Gasse) and along the quay. Around 1280 the first city fortifications were created. The oldest known city law document dates from the year 1287.

Independence
Independence from Bavaria was secured in the late 14th century. Salzburg was the seat of the Archbishopric of Salzburg, a prince-bishopric of the Holy Roman Empire. As the Reformation movement gained steam, riots broke out among peasants in the areas in and around Salzburg. The city was occupied during the German Peasants' War, and the Archbishop had to flee to the safety of the fortress. It was besieged for three months in 1525.

Eventually, tensions were quelled, and the city's independence led to an increase in wealth and prosperity, culminating in the late 16th to 18th centuries under the Prince Archbishops Wolf Dietrich von Raitenau, Markus Sittikus, and Paris Lodron. It was in the 17th century that Italian architects (and Austrians who had studied the Baroque style) rebuilt the city center as it is today along with many palaces.

Religious conflict
On 31 October 1731, the 214th anniversary of the 95 Theses, Archbishop Count Leopold Anton von Firmian signed an Edict of Expulsion, the Emigrationspatent, directing all Protestant citizens to recant their non-Catholic beliefs. 21,475 citizens refused to recant their beliefs and were expelled from Salzburg. Most of them accepted an offer by King Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia, travelling the length and breadth of Germany to their new homes in East Prussia. The rest settled in other Protestant states in Europe and the British colonies in America.

Illuminism
In 1772–1803, under archbishop Hieronymus Graf von Colloredo, Salzburg was a center of late Illuminism. Colloredo is known for being one of the main employers of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Colloredo often had arguments with Mozart and he dismissed him by saying, Soll er doch gehen, ich brauche ihn nicht! (He should go; I don't need him!). Mozart left Salzburg for Vienna in 1781 with his family, although his father Leopold stayed back as he had a close relationship with Colloredo.

Electorate of Salzburg
In 1803, the archbishopric was secularised by Emperor Napoleon; he transferred the territory to Ferdinando III of Tuscany, former Grand Duke of Tuscany, as the Electorate of Salzburg.

Austrian and Bavarian rule
In 1805, Salzburg was annexed to the Austrian Empire, along with the Berchtesgaden Provostry. In 1809, the territory of Salzburg was transferred to the Kingdom of Bavaria after Austria's defeat at Wagram. After the Congress of Vienna with the Treaty of Munich (1816), Salzburg was definitively returned to Austria, but without Rupertigau and Berchtesgaden, which remained with Bavaria. Salzburg was integrated into the Province of Salzach and Salzburgerland was ruled from Linz.

In 1850, Salzburg's status was restored as the capital of the Duchy of Salzburg, a crownland of the Austrian Empire. The city became part of Austria-Hungary in 1866 as the capital of a crownland of the Austrian Empire. The nostalgia of the Romantic Era led to increased tourism. In 1892, a funicular was installed to facilitate tourism to Hohensalzburg Fortress.

First Republic
Following World War I and the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Salzburg, as the capital of one of the Austro-Hungarian territories, became part of the new German Austria. In 1918, it represented the residual German-speaking territories of the Austrian heartlands. This was replaced by the First Austrian Republic in 1919, after the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919).

Annexation by Nazi Germany
The Anschluss (the occupation and annexation of Austria, including Salzburg, into Nazi Germany) took place on 12 March 1938, one day before a scheduled referendum on Austria's independence. German troops moved into the city. Political opponents, Jewish citizens and other minorities were subsequently arrested and deported to concentration camps. The synagogue was destroyed.

World War II
After Germany invaded the Soviet Union, several POW camps for prisoners from the Soviet Union and other enemy nations were organized in the city.

During the Nazi occupation, a Romani camp was built in Salzburg-Maxglan. It was an Arbeitserziehungslager (work 'education' camp), which provided slave labor to local industry. It also operated as a Zwischenlager (transit camp), holding Roma before their deportation to German camps or ghettos in German-occupied territories in eastern Europe.

Salzburg was also the location of five subcamps of the Dachau concentration camp.

Allied bombing destroyed 7,600 houses and killed 550 inhabitants. Fifteen air strikes destroyed 46 percent of the city's buildings, especially those around Salzburg railway station. Although the town's bridges and the dome of the cathedral were destroyed, much of its Baroque architecture remained intact. As a result, Salzburg is one of the few remaining examples of a town of its style. American troops entered the city on 5 May 1945 and it became the centre of the American-occupied area in Austria. Several displaced persons camps were established in Salzburg—among them Riedenburg, Camp Herzl (Franz-Josefs-Kaserne), Camp Mülln, Bet Bialik, Bet Trumpeldor, and New Palestine.

Today
After World War II, Salzburg became the capital city of the Federal State of Salzburg (Land Salzburg) and saw the Americans leave the area once Austria had signed a 1955 treaty re-establishing the country as a democratic and independent nation and subsequently declared its perpetual neutrality. In the 1960s, the city became the shooting and setting of the family musical film The Sound of Music. On 27 January 2006, the 250th anniversary of the birth of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, all 35 churches of Salzburg rang their bells after 8:00 p.m. (local time) to celebrate the occasion. Major celebrations took place throughout the year.

As of 2017 Salzburg had a GDP per capita of €46,100, which was greater than the average for Austria and most European countries.

Geography
Salzburg is on the banks of the River Salzach, at the northern boundary of the Alps. The mountains to Salzburg's south contrast with the rolling plains to the north. The closest alpine peak, the 1,972‑metre-high Untersberg, is less than 16 km from the city center. The Altstadt, or "old town", is dominated by its baroque towers and churches and the massive Hohensalzburg Fortress. This area is flanked by two smaller hills, the Mönchsberg and Kapuzinerberg, which offer green relief within the city. Salzburg is approximately 150 km east of Munich, 281 km northwest of Ljubljana, Slovenia, and 300 km west of Vienna. Salzburg has about the same latitude as Seattle.

Due to its proximity to the Austrian-German border, the greater Salzburg urban area has sometimes been regarded as, unofficially, including contiguous parts of Germany, including Freilassing (until 1923 known as Salzburghofen), Ainring and Piding.

Climate
The Köppen climate classification specifies Salzburg's climate as a humid continental climate (Dfb). However, with the -3 C isotherm for the coldest month, Salzburg can be classified as having a four-season oceanic climate (Cfb) with significant temperature differences between seasons. Due to the location at the northern rim of the Alps, the amount of precipitation is comparatively high, mainly in the summer months. The specific drizzle is called Schnürlregen in the local dialect. In winter and spring, pronounced foehn winds regularly occur.

History
Salzburg's official population significantly increased in 1935 when the city absorbed adjacent municipalities. After World War II, numerous refugees found a new home in the city. New residential space was constructed for American soldiers of the postwar occupation and could be used for refugees when they left. Around 1950, Salzburg passed the mark of 100,000 citizens, and in 2016, it reached the mark of 150000 citizens.

Migrant communities
Salzburg is home to large German, Bosnian, Serbian, and Romanian communities.

Largest groups of immigrants by 1 January 2021 :

Romanesque and Gothic
The Romanesque and Gothic churches, the monasteries and the early carcass houses dominated the medieval city for a long time. The Cathedral of Archbishop Conrad of Wittelsbach was the largest basilica north of the Alps. The choir of the Franciscan Church, construction was begun by Hans von Burghausen and completed by Stephan Krumenauer, is one of the most prestigious religious gothic constructions of southern Germany. At the end of the Gothic era Nonnberg Abbey, the Margaret Chapel in St Peter's Abbey, St George's Chapel, and the stately halls of the "Hoher Stock" in Hohensalzburg Fortress were constructed.

Renaissance and baroque
Inspired by Vincenzo Scamozzi, Prince-Archbishop Wolf Dietrich von Raitenau began to transform the medieval town to the architectural ideals of the late Renaissance. Plans for a massive cathedral by Scamozzi failed to materialize upon the fall of the archbishop. A second cathedral planned by Santino Solari rose as the first early Baroque church in Salzburg. It served as an example for many other churches in Southern Germany and Austria. Markus Sittikus and Paris von Lodron continued to rebuild the city with major projects such as Hellbrunn Palace, the prince archbishop's residence, the university buildings, fortifications, and many other buildings. Giovanni Antonio Daria managed by order of Prince Archbishop Guido von Thun the construction of the residential well. Giovanni Gaspare Zuccalli, by order of the same archbishop, created the Erhard and the Kajetan church in the south of the town. The city's redesign was completed with buildings designed by Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, donated by Prince Archbishop Johann Ernst von Thun.

After the era of Ernst von Thun, the city's expansion came to a halt, which is the reason why there are no churches built in the Rococo style. Sigismund von Schrattenbach continued with the construction of "Sigmundstor" and the statue of holy Maria on the cathedral square. With the fall and division of the former "Fürsterzbistum Salzburg" (Archbishopric) to Upper Austria, Bavaria (Rupertigau) and Tyrol (Zillertal Matrei) began a long period of urban stagnancy. This era didn't end before the period of promoterism (Gründerzeit) brought new life into urban development. The builder dynasty Jakob Ceconi and Carl Freiherr von Schwarz filled major positions in shaping the city in this era.

Classical modernism and post-war modernism
Buildings of classical modernism and in particular, post-war modernism is frequently encountered in Salzburg. Examples are the Zahnwurzen house (a house in the Linzergasse 22 in the right center of the old town), the "Lepi" (public baths in Leopoldskron) (built 1964), and the original 1957 constructed congress-center of Salzburg, which was replaced by a new building in 2001. An important and famous example of the architecture of this era is the 1960 opening of the Großes Festspielhaus by Clemens Holzmeister.

Contemporary architecture
Adding contemporary architecture to Salzburg's old town without risking its UNESCO World Heritage status is problematic. Nevertheless, some new structures have been added: the Mozarteum at the Baroque Mirabell Garden (Architecture Robert Rechenauer), the 2001 Congress House (Architecture: Freemasons), the 2011 Unipark Nonntal (Architecture: Storch Ehlers Partners), the 2001 "Makartsteg" bridge (Architecture: HALLE1), and the "Residential and Studio House" of the architects Christine and Horst Lechner in the middle of Salzburg's old town (winner of the architecture award of Salzburg 2010). Other examples of contemporary architecture lie outside the old town: the Faculty of Science building (Universität Salzburg – Architecture Willhelm Holzbauer) built on the edge of free green space, the blob architecture of Red Bull Hangar-7 (Architecture: Volkmar Burgstaller ) at Salzburg Airport, home to Dietrich Mateschitz's Flying Bulls and the Europark Shopping Centre. (Architecture: Massimiliano Fuksas)

Districts
Salzburg has twenty-four urban districts and three extra-urban populations. Urban districts (Stadtteile):

 * Aigen
 * Altstadt
 * Elisabeth-Vorstadt
 * Gneis
 * Gneis-Süd
 * Gnigl
 * Itzling
 * Itzling-Nord
 * Kasern
 * Langwied
 * Lehen
 * Leopoldskron-Moos
 * Liefering
 * Maxglan
 * Maxglan-West
 * Morzg
 * Mülln
 * Neustadt
 * Nonntal
 * Parsch
 * Riedenburg
 * Salzburg-Süd
 * Taxham
 * Schallmoos

Extra-urban populations (Landschaftsräume):
 * Gaisberg
 * Hellbrunn
 * Heuberg

Main sights

Salzburg is a tourist favorite, with the number of visitors outnumbering locals by a large margin in peak times. In addition to Mozart's birthplace noted above, other notable places include:

Old Town
 * Historic center of the city of Salzburg, a World Heritage Site
 * Baroque architecture, including many churches
 * Felsenreitschule, an open-air theatre built in the quarry used for the construction of Salzburg Cathedral
 * Franziskanerkirche, one of Salzburg's oldest buildings, dating from 1208 and used by the Franciscans since 1642
 * Getreidegasse, a busy narrow shopping street characterized by numerous high townhouses
 * Großes Festspielhaus, an opera house and concert hall dating from 1960 and built for the annual Salzburg Festival
 * Haus für Mozart, formerly the Kleines Festspielhaus, an opera house and concert hall dating from 1925
 * Hohensalzburg Fortress (Festung Hohensalzburg), overlooking the Old Town, one of the largest castles in Europe
 * Holy Trinity Church (Dreifaltigkeitskirche), dating from 1694
 * Hotel Goldener Hirsch, a five-star hotel located in a building on Getreidegasse dating back to at least 1407
 * Kollegienkirche, the Baroque style church of the University of Salzburg
 * Mirabell Palace (Schloss Mirabell), a pleasure palace built in 1606 with wide gardens and a marble hall
 * Museum der Moderne Salzburg, a modern art museum with locations in the old city and on the Mönchsberg
 * Mozartplatz, a historic square with monument to Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
 * Mozart's birthplace (Mozarts Geburtshaus), a house in Getreidegasse that is now a museum dedicated to Mozart
 * Nonnberg Abbey (Stift Nonnberg), a Benedictine monastery founded c.712/715
 * Residenz, the former residence of the Prince-Archbishops
 * Residenzgalerie, an art museum in the Residenz
 * Residenzplatz, a large square outside the Residenz with a large and ornate fountain
 * Salzburg Cathedral (Salzburger Dom)
 * Salzburger Landestheater, a theatre and venue for opera, theatre, and dance, with resident companies of actors, singers, and dancers
 * Salzburger Marionettentheater, a marionette theatre established in 1912
 * Salzburg Museum, a museum of the artistic and cultural history of the city and region of Salzburg
 * Sigmundstor, an eighteenth-century tunnel connecting the Altstadt with the Riedenburg quarter through the Mönchsberg
 * , a sculpture of a man on a golden sphere (Stephan Balkenhol, 2007)
 * St Peter's Abbey (Stift Sankt Peter), a Benedictine monastery founded 696 with a well-known cemetery
 * St Sebastian's Church, Salzburg (Sebastianskirche), a church consecrated in 1511

Outside the Old Town
 * Schloss Leopoldskron, a rococo palace and national historic monument in Leopoldskron-Moos, a southern district of Salzburg
 * Hellbrunn with its parks and castles
 * The Sound of Music tour companies who operate tours of film locations
 * Hangar-7, a multifunctional building owned by Red Bull, with a collection of historical airplanes, helicopters, and Formula One racing cars
 * Haslachmühle, historic flour mill in Gnigl district

Greater Salzburg area
 * Anif Castle, located south of the city in Anif
 * Shrine of Our Lady of Maria Plain, a late Baroque church on the northern edge of Salzburg
 * Salzburger Freilichtmuseum Großgmain, an open-air museum containing old farmhouses from all over the state assembled in a historic setting
 * Schloss Klessheim, a palace and casino, formerly used by Adolf Hitler
 * Berghof, Hitler's mountain retreat near Berchtesgaden
 * Kehlsteinhaus, the only remnant of Hitler's Berghof
 * Salzkammergut, an area of lakes east of the city
 * Untersberg mountain, next to the city on the Austria–Germany border, with panoramic views of Salzburg and the surrounding Alps
 * Skiing is an attraction during winter. Salzburg has no skiing facilities, but it is a gateway to skiing areas to the south. During the winter, its airport receives charter flights from around Europe.
 * Salzburg Zoo, located south of the city in Anif

Education
Salzburg is a center of education and home to three universities, as well as several professional colleges and gymnasiums (high schools).

Universities and higher education institutions

 * University of Salzburg, a federal public university
 * Paracelsus Medical University
 * Mozarteum University Salzburg, a public music and dramatic arts university
 * Fachhochschule Salzburg
 * Alma Mater Europaea, a private university
 * SEAD Salzburg Experimental Academy of Dance

Notable citizens

 * Saint Liutberga (died c. 870), an influential nun in Saxony in the 9th century
 * Paracelsus (ca 1493 – 1541), Swiss physician, alchemist, and astrologer of the German Renaissance.
 * Barbara Thenn (1519–1579), merchant and Münzmeister
 * Heinrich Biber (ca 1644-1704), violinist and composer in Salzburg from the early 1670s.
 * Joseph Leutgeb (1732–1811), virtuoso horn player, was part of the archbishop's court.
 * Johann Michael Haydn (1737 – 1806), composer and younger brother of the composer Joseph Haydn. His works were admired by Mozart and Schubert. He was also the teacher of Carl Maria von Weber and Anton Diabelli. He is known for his sacred music.
 * Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791), the composer, was born and raised in Salzburg when it was part of the Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg within the Holy Roman Empire; he was employed as a musician at the archbishopal court from 1773 to 1781. His house of birth and residence are tourist attractions. His family is buried in a small church graveyard in the old town, and there are many monuments to "Wolferl" in the city.
 * Ignaz Assmayer (1790–1862), an Austrian composer of liturgical music.
 * Joseph Mohr (1792–1848), a Roman Catholic priest and writer, born in Salzburg. He wrote the text to "Silent Night", music by Franz Xaver Gruber, and they performed it for the first time on Christmas Eve 1818.
 * Christian Doppler (1803 – 1853), expert on acoustic theory, born in Salzburg; discovered the Doppler effect.
 * King Otto of Greece (1815–1867), was born Prince Otto Friedrich Ludwig of Bavaria at Mirabell Palace, a few days before the city reverted from Bavarian to Austrian rule.
 * Hans Makart (1840–1884), the influential Austrian painter-decorator was born locally. Makartplatz (Makart Square) is named in his honour.
 * Irma von Troll-Borostyani (1847–1912), an Austrian writer, journalist, and campaigner for women's rights
 * Ludwig Hans Fischer (1848-1915), a landscape painter, copper engraver, etcher and ethnologist.
 * Theodor Herzl (1860–1904), an Austro-Hungarian Jewish journalist and political activist who was the father of modern political Zionism. He worked in the courts in Salzburg after he earned his law degree in 1884.
 * Georg Trakl (1887–1914), an important voice in German Expressionism literature was born in Salzburg.
 * Georg von Trapp (1880–1947), Maria von Trapp (1905–1987), and their children made up the Trapp Family and lived in Salzburg until they fled to the United States following the Nazi takeover.
 * Stefan Zweig (1881–1942), writer, lived in Salzburg for about 15 years, until 1934.
 * Hilda Crozzoli (1900-1972), Austria's first female architect and civil engineer
 * Herbert von Karajan (1908–1989), notable orchestral conductor was born in Salzburg and died locally in Anif.
 * Franz Krieger (1914–1993), businessman and photographer, born in Salzburg
 * Thomas Bernhard (1931–1989), novelist, playwright and poet was raised in Salzburg, spent part of his life there.
 * Alex Jesaulenko (born 1945), famous former Australian rules football-player
 * Klaus Ager (born 1946), the distinguished contemporary composer and Mozarteum professor
 * Roland Ratzenberger (1960–1994), Formula One racing driver, was born in Salzburg. He died practicing for the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix.
 * Felix Baumgartner (born 1967), Skydiver and BASE Jumper, he set three world records
 * Ferdinand Habsburg (born 1997), racing driver, was born locally; he is heir apparent to the headship of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine

Events

 * The Salzburg Festival is a famous music and theatre festival that attracts visitors during July and August each year. A smaller Salzburg Easter Festival is held around Easter each year.
 * The Europrix multimedia award takes place in Salzburg.
 * Electric Love Festival takes place in Salzburg.

Transport

Salzburg Hauptbahnhof is served by comprehensive rail connections, with frequent east–west trains serving Vienna, Munich, Innsbruck, and Zürich, including daily high-speed ICE services. North–south rail connections also serve popular destinations such as Venice and Prague. The city acts as a hub for southbound trains through the Alps into Italy.

Salzburg Airport has scheduled flights to European cities such as Frankfurt, Vienna, London, Rotterdam, Amsterdam, Brussels, Düsseldorf, and Zürich, as well as Hamburg, Edinburgh and Dublin. In addition to these, there are numerous charter flights.

In the main city, there is the Salzburg trolleybus system and bus system with a total of more than 20 lines, and service every 10 minutes. Salzburg has an S-Bahn system with four Lines (S1, S2, S3, S11), trains depart from the main station every 30 minutes, and they are part of the ÖBB network. Suburb line number S1 reaches the world-famous Silent Night chapel in Oberndorf in about 25 minutes.

Popular culture
In the 1960s, The Sound of Music, based on the true story of Maria von Trapp, who took up with an aristocratic family and fled the German Anschluss, used locations in Salzburg and Salzburg State as filming location.

The city briefly appears on the map when Indiana Jones travels through the city in Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade.

Salzburg is the setting for the Austrian crime series Stockinger and an Austrian-German television crime drama series Der Pass.

In the 2010 film Knight & Day, Salzburg serves as the backdrop for a large portion of the film.

Language
Austrian German is widely written and differs from Germany's standard variation only in some vocabulary and a few grammar points. Salzburg belongs to the region of Austro-Bavarian dialects, in particular Central Bavarian. It is widely spoken by young and old alike although professors of linguistics from the Universität Salzburg, Irmgard Kaiser, and Hannes Scheutz, have seen over the past few years a reduction in the number of dialect speakers in the city. Although more and more school children are speaking standard German, Scheutz feels it has less to do with parental influence and more to do with media consumption.

Football
The former SV Austria Salzburg reached the UEFA Cup final in 1994. On 6 April 2005 Red Bull bought the club and changed its name to FC Red Bull Salzburg. The home stadium of Red Bull Salzburg is the Wals Siezenheim Stadium in a suburb in the agglomeration of Salzburg and was one of the venues for the 2008 European Football Championship. FC Red Bull Salzburg plays in the Austrian Bundesliga.

After Red Bull had bought the SV Austria Salzburg and changed its name and team colors, some supporters of the club decided to leave and form a new club with the old name and old colors, wanting to preserve the traditions of their club. The reformed SV Austria Salzburg was founded in 2005 and at one point played in the Erste Liga, only one tier below the Bundesliga. However, in recent years they have struggled to climb back up to the Austrian second tier and since 2019 they compete in the Regionalliga Salzburg in the Austrian Football third tier.

Ice-hockey
Red Bull also sponsors the local ice hockey team, the EC Salzburg Red Bulls. The team plays in the Erste Bank Eishockey Liga, an Austria-headquartered cross-border league featuring the best teams from Austria, Hungary, Slovenia, Croatia, and Italy, as well as one Czech team.

Other sports
Salzburg was a candidate city for the 2010 and 2014 Winter Olympics, but lost to Vancouver and Sochi respectively.

Twin towns—sister cities
Salzburg is twinned with:

 * Reims, Marne, Grand Est, France, since 1964
 * Verona, Verona, Veneto, Italy, since 1973
 * León, Nicaragua, since 1984
 * Singida, Tanzania, since 1984
 * Busseto, Parma, Emilia-Romagna, Italy, since 1988
 * Vilnius, Lithuania, since 1989
 * Dresden, Saxony, Germany, since 1991
 * Supovsky, Russia, since 2016
 * Kawasaki, Japan, since 1992
 * Meran, South Tyrol, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, Italy, since 2000
 * Shanghai, China, since 2004
 * Jahrom, Iran, since 2019
 * Leeds, England, since 2022

title: Salzburg


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Rhododendron

Rhododendron (: rhododendra) is a very large genus of about 1,024 species of woody plants in the heath family (Ericaceae). They can be either evergreen or deciduous. Most species are native to eastern Asia and the Himalayan region, but smaller numbers occur elsewhere in Asia, and in North America, Europe and Australia.

It is the national flower of Nepal, the state flower of Washington and West Virginia in the United States, the state flower of Nagaland and Himachal Pradesh in India, the provincial flower of Jiangxi in China and the state tree of Sikkim and Uttarakhand in India. Most species have brightly colored flowers which bloom from late winter through to early summer.

Azaleas make up two subgenera of Rhododendron. They are distinguished from "true" rhododendrons by having only five anthers per flower.

Etymology
The common and generic name comes.

Description
Rhododendron is a genus of shrubs and small to (rarely) large trees, the smallest species growing to 10 - 100 cm tall, and the largest, R. protistum var. giganteum, reported to 30 m tall. The leaves are spirally arranged; leaf size can range from 1 - 2 cm to over 50 cm, exceptionally 100 cm in R. sinogrande. They may be either evergreen or deciduous. In some species, the undersides of the leaves are covered with scales (lepidote) or hairs (indumentum). Some of the best known species are noted for their many clusters of large flowers. A recently discovered species in New Guinea has flowers up to six inches (fifteen centimeters) in width, the largest in the whole genus. The accompanying photograph shows it as having seven petals. There are alpine species with small flowers and small leaves, and tropical species such as section Vireya that often grow as epiphytes. Species in this genus may be part of the heath complex in oak-heath forests in eastern North America.

They have frequently been divided based on the presence or absence of scales on the abaxial (lower) leaf surface (lepidote or elepidote). These scales, unique to subgenus Rhododendron, are modified hairs consisting of a polygonal scale attached by a stalk.

Rhododendron are characterised by having inflorescences with scarious (dry) perulae, a chromosome number of x=13, fruit that has a septicidal capsule, an ovary that is superior (or nearly so), stamens that have no appendages, and agglutinate (clumped) pollen.

Taxonomy
Rhododendron is the largest genus in the family Ericaceae, with over 1000 species, (though estimates vary from 850 to 1200 ) and is morphologically diverse. Consequently, the taxonomy has been historically complex.

Early history
Although Rhododendrons had been known since the description of Rhododendron hirsutum by Charles de l'Écluse (Clusius) in the sixteenth century, and were known to classical writers (Magor 1990), and referred to as Chamaerhododendron (low-growing rose tree), the genus was first formally described by Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum in 1753. He listed five species under Rhododendron (Rhododendron ferrugineum (type species), R. dauricum, R. hirsutum, R. chamaecistus (now Rhodothamnus chamaecistus (L.) Rchb.) and R. maximum). At that time he considered the then known six species of Azalea that he had described earlier in 1735 in his Systema Naturae as a separate genus.

Linnaeus' six species of Azalea were Azalea indica, A. pontica, A. lutea, A. viscosa, A. lapponica and A. procumbens (now Kalmia procumbens), which he distinguished from Rhododendron by having five stamens, as opposed to ten. As new species of what are now considered Rhododendron were discovered, they were assigned to separate genera if they seemed to differ significantly from the type species. For instance Rhodora (Linnaeus 1763) for Rhododendron canadense, Vireya (Blume 1826) and Hymenanthes (Blume 1826) for Rhododendron metternichii, now R. degronianum. Meanwhile, other botanists such as Salisbury (1796) and Tate (1831) began to question the distinction between Azalea and Rhododendron, and finally in 1836, Azalea was incorporated into Rhododendron and the genus divided into eight sections. Of these Tsutsutsi (Tsutsusi), Pentanthera, Pogonanthum, Ponticum and Rhodora are still used, the other sections being Lepipherum, Booram, and Chamaecistus. This structure largely survived till recently (2004), following which the development of molecular phylogeny led to major re-examinations of traditional morphological classifications, although other authors such as Candolle, who described six sections, used slightly different numeration.

Soon, as more species became available in the nineteenth century so did a better understanding of the characteristics necessary for the major divisions. Chief amongst these were Maximovicz's Rhododendreae Asiae Orientali and Planchon. Maximovicz used flower bud position and its relationship with leaf buds to create eight "Sections". Bentham and Hooker used a similar scheme, but called the divisions "Series". It was not until 1893 that Koehne appreciated the significance of scaling and hence the separation of lepidote and elepidote species. The large number of species that were available by the early twentieth century prompted a new approach when Balfour introduced the concept of grouping species into series. The Species of Rhododendron referred to this series concept as the Balfourian system. That system continued up to modern times in Davidian's four volume The Rhododendron Species.

Modern era
The next major attempt at classification was by Sleumer who from 1934 began incorporating the Balfourian series into the older hierarchical structure of subgenera and sections, according to the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, culminating in 1949 with his "Ein System der Gattung Rhododendron L.", and subsequent refinements. Most of the Balfourian series are represented by Sleumer as subsections, though some appear as sections or even subgenera. Sleumer based his system on the relationship of the flower buds to the leaf buds, habitat, flower structure, and whether the leaves were lepidote or non-lepidote. While Sleumer's work was widely accepted, many in the United States and the United Kingdom continued to use the simpler Balfourian system of the Edinburgh group.

Sleumer's system underwent many revisions by others, predominantly the Edinburgh group in their continuing Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh notes. Cullen of the Edinburgh group, placing more emphasis on the lepidote characteristics of the leaves, united all of the lepidote species into subgenus Rhododendron, including four of Sleumer's subgenera (Rhododendron, Pseudoazalea, Pseudorhodorastrum, Rhodorastrum). In 1986 Philipson & Philipson raised two sections of subgenus Aleastrum (Mumeazalea, Candidastrum) to subgenera, while reducing genus Therorhodion to a subgenus of Rhododendron. In 1987 Spethmann, adding phytochemical features proposed a system with fifteen subgenera grouped into three 'chorus' subgenera.

A number of closely related genera had been included together with Rhododendron in a former tribe, Rhodoreae. These have been progressively incorporated into Rhododendron. Chamberlain and Rae moved the monotypic section Tsusiopsis together with the monotypic genus Tsusiophyllum into section Tsutsusi, while Kron & Judd reduced genus Ledum to a subsection of section Rhododendron. Then Judd & Kron moved two species (Rhododendron schlippenbachii, R. quinquefolium) from section Brachybachii, subgenus Tsutsusi and two from section Rhodora, subgenus Pentanthera (R. albrechtii, R. pentaphyllum) into section Sciadorhodion, subgenus Pentanthera. Finally Chamberlain brought the various systems together in 1996, with 1,025 species divided into eight subgenera. For a comparison of the Sleumer and Chamberlain schemata see Table 1 of Goetsch (2005).

Phylogenetic analyses
The era of molecular analysis rather than descriptive features can be dated to the work of Kurashige (1988) and Kron (1997) who used matK sequencing. Later Gao et al. (2002) used ITS sequences to determine a cladistic analysis. They confirmed that the genus Rhododendron was monophyletic, with subgenus Therorhodion in the basal position, consistent with the matK studies. Following publication of the studies of Goetsch et al. (2005) with RPB2, there began an ongoing realignment of species and groups within the genus, based on evolutionary relationships. Their work was more supportive of Sleumer's original system than the later modifications introduced by Chamberlain et al..

The major finding of Goetsch and colleagues was that all species examined (except R. camtschaticum, subgenus Therorhodion) formed three major clades which they labelled ', ', and ', with the subgenera Rhododendron and Hymenanthes as monophyletic groups nested within clades ' and , respectively. By contrast subgenera Azaleastrum and Pentanthera were polyphyletic, while R. camtschaticum appeared as a sister to all other rhododendrons. The small polyphyletic subgenera Pentanthera and Azaleastrum were divided between two clades. The four sections of Pentanthera between clades ' and ', with two each, while Azaleastrum had one section in each of ' and '.

Thus subgenera Azaleastrum and Pentanthera needed to be disassembled, and Rhododendron, Hymenanthes and Tsutsusi correspondingly expanded. In addition to the two separate genera included under Rhododendron by Chamberlain (Ledum, Tsusiophyllum), Goetsch et al.. added Menziesia (clade ). Despite a degree of paraphyly, the subgenus Rhododendron was otherwise untouched with regard to its three sections but four other subgenera were eliminated and one new subgenus created, leaving a total of five subgenera in all, from eight in Chamberlain's scheme. The discontinued subgenera are Pentanthera, Tsutsusi, Candidastrum and Mumeazalea, while a new subgenus was created by elevating subgenus Azaleastrum section Choniastrum to subgenus rank.

Subgenus Pentanthera (deciduous azaleas) with its four sections was dismembered by eliminating two sections and redistributing the other two between the existing subgenera in clades ' (Hymenanthes) and ' (Azaleastrum), although the name was retained in section Pentanthera (14 species) which was moved to subgenus Hymenanthes. Of the remaining three sections, monotypic Viscidula was discontinued by moving Rhododendron nipponicum to Tsutsusi ('), while Rhodora (2 species) was itself polyphyletic and was broken up by moving Rhododendron canadense to section Pentanthera (') and Rhododendron vaseyi to section Sciadorhodion, which then became a new section of subgenus Azaleastrum ().

Subgenus Tsutsusi () was reduced to section status retaining the name, and included in subgenus Azaleastrum. Of the three minor subgenera, all in , two were discontinued. The single species of monotypic subgenus Candidastrum (Rhododendron albiflorum) was moved to subgenus Azaleastrum, section Sciadorhodion. Similarly the single species in monotypic subgenus Mumeazalea (Rhododendron semibarbatum) was placed in the new section Tsutsusi, subgenus Azaleastrum. Genus Menziesa (9 species) was also added to section Sciadorhodion. The remaining small subgenus Therorhodion with its two species was left intact. Thus two subgenera, Hymenanthes and Azaleastrum were expanded at the expense of four subgenera that were eliminated, although Azaleastrum lost one section (Choniastrum) as a new subgenus, since it was a distinct subclade in . In all, Hymenanthes increased from one to two sections, while Azaleastrum, by losing one section and gaining two increased from two to three sections. (See schemata under Subgenera) (Table 1.)

Subsequent research has supported the revision by Goetsch, although has largely concentrated on further defining the phylogeny within the subdivisions. In 2011 the two species of Diplarche were also added to Rhododendron, incertae sedis.

Subdivision
This genus has been progressively subdivided into a hierarchy of subgenus, section, subsection, and species.

Subgenera
Terminology from the Sleumer (1949) system is frequently found in older literature, with five subgenera and is as follows;
 * Subgenus Lepidorrhodium Koehne: Lepidotes. 3 sections
 * Subgenus Eurhododendron Maxim.: Elipidotes.
 * Subgenus Pseudanthodendron Sleumer: Deciduous azaleas. 3 sections
 * Subgenus Anthodendron Rehder & Wilson: Evergreen azaleas. 3 sections
 * Subgenus Azaleastrum Planch.: 4 sections

In the later traditional classification, attributed to Chamberlain (1996), and as used by horticulturalists and the American Rhododendron Society, Rhododendron has eight subgenera based on morphology, namely the presence of scales (lepidote), deciduousness of leaves, and the floral and vegetative branching patterns, after Sleumer (1980). These consist of four large and four small subgenera. The first two subgenera (Rhododendron and Hymenanthes) represent the species commonly considered as 'Rhododendrons'. The next two smaller subgenera (Pentanthera and Tsutsusi) represent the 'Azaleas'. The remaining four subgenera contain very few species. The largest of these is subgenus Rhododendron, containing nearly half of all known species and all of the lepidote species.

 * Subgenus Rhododendron L.: Small leaf or lepidotes (scales on the underside of the leaves). 3 sections, 462 species, type species: Rhododendron ferrugineum.
 * Subgenus Hymenanthes (Blume) K.Koch: Large leaf or elepidotes (without scales). 1 section, 224 species, type Rhododendron degronianum.
 * Subgenus Pentanthera (G. Don) Pojarkova: Deciduous azaleas. 4 sections, 23 species, type Rhododendron luteum.
 * Subgenus Tsutsusi (Sweet) Pojarkova: Evergreen azaleas. 2 sections, 80 species, type Rhododendron indicum.
 * Subgenus Azaleastrum Planch.: 2 sections, 16 species, type Rhododendron ovatum.
 * Subgenus Candidastrum Franch.: 1 species, Rhododendron albiflorum.
 * Subgenus Mumeazalea (Sleumer) W.R. Philipson & M.N. Philipson: 1 species, Rhododendron semibarbatum.
 * Subgenus Therorhodion (Maxim.) A. Gray: 2 species (Rhododendron camtschaticum, Rhododendron redowskianun).

For a comparison of the Sleumer and Chamberlain systems, see Goetsch et al. (2005) Table 1.

This division was based on a number of what were thought to be key morphological characteristics. These included the position of the inflorescence buds (terminal or lateral), whether lepidote or elepidote, deciduousness of leaves, and whether new foliage was derived from axils from previous year's shoots or the lowest scaly leaves (Table 2.).

Following the cladistic analysis of Goetsch et al. (2005) this scheme was simplified, based on the discovery of three major clades (A, B, C) as follows.

Clade A Clade B Clade C Sister taxon
 * Subgenus Rhododendron L.: Small leaf or lepidotes (scales on the underside of the leaves). 3 sections, about 400 species, type species: Rhododendron ferrugineum.
 * Subgenus Choniastrum Franch.: 11 species
 * Subgenus Hymenanthes (Blume) K.Koch: Large leaf or elepidotes (without scales), including deciduous azaleas. 2 sections, about 140–225 species, type Rhododendron degronianum.
 * Subgenus Azaleastrum Planch.: Evergreen azaleas. 3 sections, about 120 species, type Rhododendron ovatum.
 * Subgenus Therorhodion (Maxim.) A. Gray: 2 species (Rhododendron camtschaticum, Rhododendron redowskianun).

Sections and subsections
The larger subgenera are further subdivided into sections and subsections Some subgenera contain only a single section, and some sections only a single subsection. Shown here is the traditional classification, with species number after Chamberlain (1996), but this scheme is undergoing constant revision. Revisions by Goetsch et al. (2005) and by Craven et al. (2008) shown in (parenthetical italics). Older ranks such as Series (groups of species) are no longer used but may be found in the literature, but the American Rhododendron Society still uses a similar device, called Alliances

 * Subgenus Rhododendron L. (3 sections, 462 species: increased to five sections in 2008)
 * (Discovereya (Sleumer) Argent, raised from Vireya)
 * Pogonathum Aitch. & Hemsl. (13 species; Himalaya and adjacent mountains)
 * (Pseudovireya (C.B.Clarke) Argent, raised from Vireya)
 * Rhododendron L. (149 species in 25 subsections; temperate to subarctic Northern Hemisphere)
 * Vireya (Blume) Copel.f. (300 species in 2 subsections; tropical southeast Asia, Australasia. At one time considered separate subgenus)
 * Subgenus Hymenanthes (Blume) K.Koch (1 section, 224 species) (Increased to two sections)
 * Ponticum G. Don (24 subsections)
 * (Pentanthera (G. Don) Pojarkova (2 subsections – new section, moved from subgenus Pentanthera)
 * Subgenus Pentanthera (G. Don) Pojarkova (4 sections, 23 species) (Discontinued)
 * Pentanthera (G. Don) Pojarkova (2 subsections – moved to subgenus Hymenanthes)
 * Rhodora (L.) G. Don (2 species; Rhododendron canadense, Rhododendron vaseyi) (Discontinued, redistributed)
 * Sciadorhodion Rehder & Wilson (4 species) (Moved to subgenus Azaleastrum)
 * Viscidula Matsum. & Nakai (1 species; Rhododendron nipponicum) (Discontinued, added to section Tsutsusi, subgenus Azaleastrum)
 * Subgenus Tsutsusi (Sweet) Pojarkova (2 sections, 80 species) (Discontinued, reduced to section and moved to subgenus Azaleastrum)
 * Brachycalyx Sweet (3 alliances, 15 species)
 * Tsutsusi (Sweet) Pojarkova (65 species)
 * Subgenus Azaleastrum Planch. (2 sections, 16 species) (Increased to three sections)
 * Azaleastrum Planch. (5 species)
 * (Choniastrum Franch. (11 species) (Raised to subgenus))
 * (Sciadorhodion Rehder & Wilson (4 species) (Moved from subgenus Pentanthera))
 * (Tsutsusi (Sweet) Pojarkova (reduced from subgenus))
 * Subgenus Candidastrum Franch. (1 species: Rhododendron albiflorum) (Discontinued, moved to section Sciadorhodion, subgenus Azaleastrum)
 * Subgenus Mumeazalea (Sleumer) W.R. Philipson & M.N. Philipson (1 species: Rhododendron semibarbatum) (Discontinued, moved to section Tsutsusi, subgenus Azaleastrum)
 * Subgenus Therorhodion A. Gray (2 species)
 * (Subgenus Choniastrum Franch. (11 species))

The system used by the World Flora Online uses six subgenera, four of which are divided further:
 * subgenus Azaleastrum Planch. ex K.Koch
 * section Azaleastrum Planch. ex Maxim.
 * section Sciadorhodion Rehder & E.H.Wilson
 * section Tsutsutsi (Sweet) Pojark.
 * subgenus Choniastrum Franch.
 * subgenus Hymenanthes (Blume) K.Koch
 * section Pentanthera G.Don
 * section Ponticum G.Don
 * section Rhodora (L.) G.Don
 * subgenus Rhododendron L.
 * section Pogonanthum G.Don
 * section Rhododendron
 * subgenus Therorhodion (Maxim) Rehder
 * subgenus Vireya Clarke
 * section Albovireya (Sleumer) Argent
 * section Discovireya (Sleumer) Argent
 * section Hadranthe Schltr.
 * section Malayovireya (Sleumer) Argent
 * section Pseudovireya (Clarke) Sleumer
 * section Schistanthe Schltr.
 * section Siphonovireya Argent

Distribution and habitat
Species of the genus Rhododendron are widely distributed between latitudes 80°N and 20°S and are native to areas from North America to Europe, Russia, and Asia, and from Greenland to Queensland, Australia and the Solomon Islands. The centres of diversity are in the Himalayas and Maritime Southeast Asia, with the greatest species diversity in the Sino-Himalayan region, Southwest China and northern Burma, from India – Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Nagaland to Nepal, northwestern Yunnan and western Sichuan and southeastern Tibet. Other significant areas of diversity are in the mountains of Korea, Japan and Taiwan. More than 90% of Rhododendron sensu Chamberlain belong to the Asian subgenera Rhododendron, Hymenanthes and section Tsutsusi. Of the first two of these, the species are predominantly found in the area of the Himalayas and Southwest China (Sino-Himalayan Region).

The 300 tropical species within the Vireya section of subgenus Rhododendron occupy the Maritime Southeast Asia from their presumed Southeast Asian origin to Northern Australia, with 55 known species in Borneo and 164 in New Guinea. The species in New Guinea are native to subalpine moist grasslands at around 3,000 metres above sea level in the Central Highlands. Subgenera Rhododendron and Hymenanthes, together with section Pentanthera of subgenus Pentanthera are also represented to a lesser degree in the Mountainous areas of North America and Western Eurasia. Subgenus Tsutsusi is found in the maritime regions of East Asia (Japan, Korea, Taiwan, East China), but not in North America or Eurasia.

In the United States, native Rhododendron mostly occur in lowland and montane forests in the Pacific Northwest, California, the Northeast, and the Appalachian Mountains.

Invasive species
Rhododendron ponticum has become invasive in Ireland and the United Kingdom. It is an introduced species, spreading in woodland areas and replacing the natural understory. R. ponticum is difficult to eradicate, as its roots can make new shoots.

Insects
A number of insects either target rhododendrons or will opportunistically attack them. Rhododendron borers and various weevils are major pests of rhododendrons, and many caterpillars will preferentially devour them.

Rhododendron species are used as food plants by the larvae (caterpillars) of some butterflies and moths; see List of Lepidoptera that feed on rhododendrons.

Diseases
Major diseases include Phytophthora root rot, stem and twig fungal dieback.

Rhododendron bud blast, a fungal condition that causes buds to turn brown and dry before they can open, is caused by the fungus Pycnostysanus azaleae, which may be brought to the plant by the rhododendron leafhopper, Graphocephala fennahi.

Cultivation
Both species and hybrid rhododendrons (including azaleas) are used extensively as ornamental plants in landscaping in many parts of the world, including both temperate and subtemperate regions. Many species and cultivars are grown commercially for the nursery trade.

Rhododendrons can be propagated by air layering or stem cuttings. They can self-propagate by sending up shoots from the roots. Sometimes an attached branch that has drooped to the ground will root in damp mulch, and the resulting rooted plant then can be cut off the parent rhododendron. They can also be reprodcued by seed dispersal - or by horticulturalists collecting the spent flower buds and saving ad drying the seed for later germination and planting.

Rhododendrons are often valued in landscaping for their structure, size, flowers, and the fact that many of them are evergreen. Azaleas are frequently used around foundations and occasionally as hedges, and many larger-leafed rhododendrons lend themselves well to more informal plantings and woodland gardens, or as specimen plants. In some areas, larger rhododendrons can be pruned to encourage more tree-like form, with some species such as Rhododendron arboreum and R. falconeri eventually growing to a height of 10 - 15 m or more.

Commercial growing
Rhododendrons are grown commercially in many areas for sale, and seeds were occasionally collected in the wild, a practice now rare in most areas due to the Nagoya Protocol. Larger commercial growers often ship long distances; in the United States, most of them are on the west coast (Oregon, Washington state and California). Large-scale commercial growing often selects for different characteristics than hobbyist growers might want, such as resistance to root rot when overwatered, ability to be forced into budding early, ease of rooting or other propagation, and saleability.

Horticultural divisions
Horticulturally, rhododendrons may be divided into the following groups:
 * Evergreen rhododendrons - large group of evergreen shrubs that vary greatly in size. Most rhododendron flowers are bell-shaped and have 10 stamens.
 * Vireya (Malesian) rhododendrons: epiphytic tender shrubs
 * Azaleas – group of shrubs which have smaller and thinner leaves than evergreen rhododendrons. They are generally medium-sized shrubs with smaller funnel-shaped flowers that usually have 5 stamens:
 * Deciduous hybrid azaleas:
 * Exbury hybrids – derived from the Knap Hill hybrids, developed by Lionel de Rothschild at the Exbury Estate in England.
 * Ghent (Gandavense) hybrids – Belgian raised
 * Knap Hill hybrids – developed by Anthony Waterer at the Knap Hill Nursery in England.
 * Mollis hybrids – Dutch and Belgian raised
 * New Zealand Ilam hybrids – derived from Knap Hill/Exbury hybrids
 * Occidentale hybrids – English raised
 * Rustica Flore Pleno hybrids – sweet-scented, double-flowered
 * Evergreen hybrid azaleas:
 * Gable hybrids – raised by Joseph B. Gable in Pennsylvania.
 * Glenn Dale hybrids – US raised complex hybrids
 * Indian (Indica) hybrids – mostly of Belgian origin
 * Kaempferi hybrids – Dutch raised
 * Kurume hybrids – Japanese raised
 * Kyushu hybrids – very hardy Japanese azaleas (to −30 °C)
 * Oldhamii hybrids – dwarf hybrids raised at Exbury, England
 * Satsuki hybrids – Japanese raised, originally for bonsai
 * Shammarello hybrids – raised in northern Ohio
 * Vuyk (Vuykiana) hybrids – raised in the Netherlands
 * Azaleodendrons – semi-evergreen hybrids between deciduous azaleas and rhododendrons

Planting and care
Like other ericaceous plants, most rhododendrons prefer acid soils with a pH of roughly 4.5–5.5; some tropical Vireyas and a few other rhododendron species grow as epiphytes and require a planting mix similar to orchids. Rhododendrons have fibrous roots and prefer well-drained soils high in organic material. In areas with poorly drained or alkaline soils, rhododendrons are often grown in raised beds using media such as composted pine bark. Mulching and careful watering are important, especially before the plant is established.

A new calcium-tolerant stock of rhododendrons (trademarked as 'Inkarho') has been exhibited at the RHS Chelsea Flower Show in London (2011). Individual hybrids of rhododendrons have been grafted on to a rootstock on a single rhododendron plant that was found growing in a chalk quarry. The rootstock is able to grow in calcium-rich soil up to a pH of 7.5.

Hybrids
Rhododendrons are extensively hybridized in cultivation, and natural hybrids often occur in areas where species ranges overlap. There are over 28,000 cultivars of Rhododendron in the International Rhododendron Registry held by the Royal Horticultural Society. Most have been bred for their flowers, but a few are of garden interest because of ornamental leaves and some for ornamental bark or stems. Some hybrids have fragrant flowers —such as the Loderi hybrids, created by crossing Rhododendron fortunei and R. griffithianum. Other examples include the PJM hybrids, formed from a cross between Rhododendron carolinianum and R. dauricum, and named after Peter J. Mezitt of Weston Nurseries, Massachusetts.

Pharmacology
Rhododendron species have long been used in traditional medicine. Animal studies and in vitro research have identified possible anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective activities which may be due to the antioxidant effects of flavonoids or other phenolic compounds and saponins the plant contains. Xiong et al. have found that the root of the plant is able to reduce the activity of NF-κB in rats.

Toxicology
Some species of rhododendron are poisonous to grazing animals because of a toxin called grayanotoxin in their pollen and nectar. People have been known to become ill from eating mad honey made by bees feeding on rhododendron and azalea flowers. Xenophon described the odd behaviour of Greek soldiers after having consumed honey in a village surrounded by Rhododendron ponticum during the march of the Ten Thousand in 401 BCE. Pompey's soldiers reportedly suffered lethal casualties following the consumption of honey made from Rhododendron deliberately left behind by Pontic forces in 67 BCE during the Third Mithridatic War. Later, it was recognized that honey resulting from these plants has a slightly hallucinogenic and laxative effect. The suspect rhododendrons are Rhododendron ponticum and Rhododendron luteum (formerly Azalea pontica), both found in northern Asia Minor. Eleven similar cases during the 1980s have been documented in Istanbul, Turkey. Rhododendron is extremely toxic to horses, with some animals dying within a few hours of ingesting the plant, although most horses tend to avoid it if they have access to good forage. Rhododendron, including its stems, leaves and flowers, contains toxins that, if ingested by a cat's stomach, can cause seizures and even coma and death. The effects of R. ponticum were mentioned in the 2009 film Sherlock Holmes as a proposed way to arrange a fake execution. It was also mentioned in the third episode of Season 2 of BBC's Sherlock, speculated to have been a part of Sherlock's fake death scheme.

Symbolism
In the language of flowers, the rhododendron symbolizes danger and to beware.

Rhododendron arboreum (lali guransh) is the national flower of Nepal. R. ponticum is the state flower of Indian-administered Kashmir and Pakistan-controlled Kashmir. Rhododendron niveum is the state tree of Sikkim in India. Rhododendron arboreum is also the state tree of the state of Uttarakhand, India. Pink Rhododendron (Rhododendron campanulatum) is the state flower of Himachal Pradesh, India. Rhododendron is also the provincial flower of Jiangxi, China and the state flower of Nagaland, the 16th state of the Indian Union.

Rhododendron maximum, the most widespread rhododendron of the Appalachian Mountains, is the state flower of the US state of West Virginia, and is in the Flag of West Virginia.

Rhododendron macrophyllum, a widespread rhododendron of the Pacific Northwest, is the state flower of the US state of Washington.

Literature
The nineteenth-century American poet and essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson in 1834 wrote a poem titled "The Rhodora, On Being Asked, Whence Is the Flower", In Joyce's Ulysses, rhododendrons play an important role in Leopold and Molly's early courtship: Molly remembers them in her soliloquy – "the sun shines for you he said the day we were lying among the rhododendrons on Howth head in the grey tweed suit and his straw hat the day I got him to propose to me". Jasper Fforde a British author, also uses rhododendron as a motif throughout many of his published books. See Thursday Next series, and Shades of Grey. Amongst the Zomi tribes in India and Myanmar, "Rhododendrons" called "Ngeisok" is used in a poetic manner to signify a lady.

In Daphne Du Maurier's novel Rebecca, the character of Rebecca is associated with "blood red" rhododendrons throughout the novel, perhaps due to the toxic roots of the plant mirroring the poisonous character of Rebecca. On the other hand, azaleas (a type of rhododendron) represent the second Mrs. De Winter.

In the young adult novel Walk Two Moons by Sharon Creech, the protagonist, Sal, and her friend, Phoebe, construct an elaborate story in which they suspect Phoebe's neighbor of murdering her husband and burying his body beneath a rhododendron in her yard. Chapter 14 of the book is entitled "The Rhododendron".

Culinary
The rhododendron is the national flower of Nepal, where the flower is considered edible and enjoyed for its sour taste. The pickled flower can last for months and the flower juice is also marketed. The flower, fresh or dried, is added to fish curry in the belief that it will soften the bones. The juice of rhododendron flower is used to make a squash called burans (named after the flower) in the hilly regions of Uttarakhand. It is admired for its distinctive flavor and color.

Labrador tea
The herbal tea called Labrador tea (not a true tea) is made from one of three closely related species:
 * Rhododendron tomentosum (Northern Labrador tea, previously Ledum palustre)
 * Rhododendron groenlandicum, (Bog Labrador tea, previously Ledum groenlandicum or Ledum latifolium)
 * Rhododendron neoglandulosum, (Western Labrador tea, or trapper's tea, previously Ledum glandulosum)

Conservation
In the UK the forerunner of the Rhododendron, Camellia and Magnolia Group (RCMG), The Rhododendron Society was founded in 1916. while in Scotland species are being conserved by the Rhododendron Species Conservation Group.

Cultural significance
In Uttarakhand, in north India, the Buransh flower is deeply embedded in local culture, playing a significant role in festivals like Holi and weddings, where it is used in garlands and decorations to bless attendees. The flower is also utilized in making a healthful, antioxidant-rich juice that is popular during local festivities and summer months. Additionally, Buransh flowers are incorporated into local arts and crafts, where they are used to make colorful necklaces and jewelry, symbolizing the spiritual and physical prosperity of the community.

Books and book chapters

 * (also available online at Gallica)
 * In four volumes: Vol. I. Lepidotes ISBN 0-917304-71-3, Vol. II. Elepidotes. Arboreum-Lacteum ISBN 0-88192-109-2, Vol. III. Elepidotes Continued, Neriiflorum-Thomsonii, Azaleastrum and Camtschaticum ISBN 0-88192-168-8, Vol. IV. Azaleas ISBN 0-88192-311-7.
 * In four volumes: Vol. I. Lepidotes ISBN 0-917304-71-3, Vol. II. Elepidotes. Arboreum-Lacteum ISBN 0-88192-109-2, Vol. III. Elepidotes Continued, Neriiflorum-Thomsonii, Azaleastrum and Camtschaticum ISBN 0-88192-168-8, Vol. IV. Azaleas ISBN 0-88192-311-7.
 * In four volumes: Vol. I. Lepidotes ISBN 0-917304-71-3, Vol. II. Elepidotes. Arboreum-Lacteum ISBN 0-88192-109-2, Vol. III. Elepidotes Continued, Neriiflorum-Thomsonii, Azaleastrum and Camtschaticum ISBN 0-88192-168-8, Vol. IV. Azaleas ISBN 0-88192-311-7.
 * In four volumes: Vol. I. Lepidotes ISBN 0-917304-71-3, Vol. II. Elepidotes. Arboreum-Lacteum ISBN 0-88192-109-2, Vol. III. Elepidotes Continued, Neriiflorum-Thomsonii, Azaleastrum and Camtschaticum ISBN 0-88192-168-8, Vol. IV. Azaleas ISBN 0-88192-311-7.

Vireya

 * . A reprint from Flora Malesiana ser. I, vol. 6, part 4. Pages 473 through 674.
 * Yearbook of the Rhododendron Species Foundation, Federal Way, WA.
 * Yearbook of the Rhododendron Species Foundation, Federal Way, WA.
 * Yearbook of the Rhododendron Species Foundation, Federal Way, WA.
 * Yearbook of the Rhododendron Species Foundation, Federal Way, WA.

Additional resources
Records of the Rhododendron Society of America reside at the Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library at the University of Virginia.

Databases

 * USDA Plants Database: Rhododendron
 * ITIS Report: Rhododendron
 * eFloras.org
 * Flora of North America: Rhododendron
 * Flora of China: Rhododendron
 * Annotated Checklist of the Flowering Plants of Nepal: Rhododendron

Societies

 * American Rhododendron Society
 * The Quarterly Bulletin of the American Rhododendron Society 1947–1981
 * Journal of the American Rhododendron Society (JARS) 1982–
 * Information Source:.
 * The Rhododendron, Camellia & Magnolia Group of the Royal Horticultural Society
 * Rhododendron Species Foundation and Botanical Garden
 * Société Finlandaise du Rhododendron
 * Australian Rhododendron Society
 * German Rhododendron Society
 * New Zealand Rhododendron Association
 * Danish Rhododendron Society
 * Fraser South Rhododendron Society

Botanical gardens

 * Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh: Rhododendrons at the four Gardens
 * National Rhododendron Gardens Melbourne Australia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Rhododendron


text:
Fetchmail

Fetchmail is an open-source software utility for POSIX-compliant operating systems which is used to retrieve e-mail from a remote POP3, IMAP, or ODMR mail server to the user's local system. It was developed from the popclient program, written by Carl Harris.

Its chief significance is perhaps that its author, Eric S. Raymond, used it as a model to discuss his theories of open-source software development in a widely read and influential essay on software development methodologies The Cathedral and the Bazaar.

Design
By design, Fetchmail's only means of delivering messages is by submitting them to the local MTA/Message transfer agent or invoking a mail delivery agent like procmail, maildrop, or sendmail; delivering directly to mail folders such as maildir is not supported.

It is a C program evolved by gradual mutation from an ancestor already written in C.

Dan Bernstein, getmail creator Charles Cazabon and FreeBSD developer Terry Lambert, have criticized Fetchmail's design, its number of security holes, and that it was prematurely put into "maintenance mode". In 2004, a new team of maintainers took over Fetchmail development, and laid out development plans that broke with design decisions that Eric Raymond had made in earlier versions.

title: Fetchmail


text:
Mayor of London

The mayor of London is the chief executive of the Greater London Authority. The role was created in 2000 after the Greater London devolution referendum in 1998, and was the first directly elected mayor in the United Kingdom.

The current mayor is Sadiq Khan, who took office on 9 May 2016. The position was held by Ken Livingstone from the creation of the role on 4 May 2000 until he was defeated in May 2008 by Boris Johnson, who then also served two terms before being succeeded by Khan.

The mayor is scrutinised by the London Assembly and, supported by their Mayoral Cabinet, directs the entirety of London, including the City of London (for which there is also the Lord Mayor of the City of London). Each London Borough also has a ceremonial mayor or, in Croydon, Hackney, Lewisham, Newham and Tower Hamlets, an elected mayor.

Background
The Greater London Council, the elected government for Greater London, was abolished in 1986 by the Local Government Act 1985. Strategic functions were split off to various joint arrangements. Londoners voted in a referendum in 1998 to create a new governance structure for Greater London. The directly elected mayor of London was created by the Greater London Authority Act 1999 in 2000 as part of the reforms.

Elections
The mayor is elected by the first-past-the-post system for a fixed term of four years, with elections taking place in May. Prior to the Elections Act 2022, the supplementary vote method was used. There are no limits on the number of terms a mayor may serve. The mayor is elected by the largest single-member electorate in the United Kingdom.

As with most elected posts in the United Kingdom, there is a deposit (in this case of £10,000), which is returnable on the candidate's winning of at least 5% of votes cast.

Most recent election
The most recent London mayoral election was held on 2 May 2024. The results of the election were announced on 4 May 2024. Sadiq Khan was re-elected as mayor and became the first to be elected for 3 terms, beating the Conservative Susan Hall.

Timeline

 * Timeline

Powers and functions
Most powers are derived from the Greater London Authority Act 1999, with additional functions coming from the Greater London Authority Act 2007, the Localism Act 2011 and Police Reform and Social Responsibility Act 2011.

The mayor's main functions are:
 * Strategic planning, including housing, waste management, the environment and production of the London Plan
 * Refuse or permit planning permission on strategic grounds
 * Transport policy, delivered by functional body Transport for London
 * Fire and emergency planning, delivered by functional body London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority
 * Policing and crime policy, delivered by functional body Mayor's Office for Policing and Crime (before 2012 by functional body Metropolitan Police Authority). The Metropolitan Police has a structure different to most others across the country, reporting to the Mayor of London instead of a police and crime commissioner.
 * Economic development, delivered directly by the Greater London Authority through subsidiary company GLA Land and Property (before 2012 by functional body London Development Agency)
 * Power to create development corporations, such as the London Legacy Development Corporation

The remaining local government functions are performed by the London borough councils. There is some overlap; for example, the borough councils are responsible for waste management, but the mayor is required to produce a waste management strategy. In 2010, Johnson launched an initiative in partnership with the Multi-academy Trust AET to transform schools across London. This led to the establishment of London Academies Enterprise Trust (LAET) which was intended to be a group of ten academies, but it only reached a group of four before the mayor withdrew it in 2013.

The following is a table comparing power over services of the boroughs to the GLA and mayor.

Ken Livingstone
Initiatives taken by Ken Livingstone as Mayor of London included the London congestion charge on private vehicles using city centre London on weekdays, the creation of the London Climate Change Agency, the London Energy Partnership and the founding of the international Large Cities Climate Leadership Group, now known as C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group. The congestion charge led to many new buses being introduced across London. In August 2003, Livingstone oversaw the introduction of the Oyster card electronic ticketing system for Transport for London services. Livingstone supported the withdrawal of the vintage AEC Routemaster buses from regular service in London.

Livingstone introduced the London Partnerships Register which was a voluntary scheme without legal force for same sex couples to register their partnership, and paved the way for the introduction by the United Kingdom Parliament of civil partnerships and later still, Same-sex marriage. Unlike civil partnerships, the London Partnerships Register was open to heterosexual couples who favour a public commitment other than marriage.

As Mayor of London, Livingstone was a supporter of the London Olympics in 2012, ultimately winning the bid to host the Games in 2005. Livingstone encouraged sport in London; especially when sport could be combined with helping charities like The London Marathon and 10K charity races. Livingstone, in a mayoral election debate on the BBC's Question Time in April 2008, stated that the primary reason he supported the Olympic bid was to secure funding for the redevelopment of the East End of London. In July 2007, he brought the Tour de France cycle race to London.

Boris Johnson
In May 2008, Boris Johnson introduced a new transport safety initiative to put 440 high visibility police officers in and around bus stations. A ban on alcohol on underground, and Docklands Light Railway, tram services and stations across the capital was introduced.

Also in May 2008, he announced the closure of The Londoner newspaper, saving approximately £2.9 million. A percentage of this saving was to be spent on planting 10,000 new street trees.

In 2010, he extended the coverage of Oyster card electronic ticketing to all National Rail overground train services. Also in 2010, he opened a cycle hire scheme (originally sponsored by Barclays, now Santander) with 5,000 bicycles available for hire across London. Although initiated by his predecessor, Ken Livingstone, the scheme rapidly acquired the nickname of "Boris Bikes". Johnson withdrew the recently introduced high-speed high-capacity "bendy buses" from service in 2011 which had been bought by Livingstone, and he instead supported the development of the New Routemaster which entered service the next year.

In 2011, Boris Johnson set up the Outer London Fund of £50 million designed to help facilitate improve local high streets. Areas in London were given the chance to submit proposals for two tranches of funding. Successful bids for Phase 1 included Enfield, Muswell Hill and Bexley town centre. The recipients of phase 2 funding were still to be announced.

In January 2013, he appointed journalist Andrew Gilligan as the first Cycling Commissioner for London. In March 2013, Johnson announced £1 billion of investment in infrastructure to make cycling safer in London, including a 15 mi East to West segregated 'Crossrail for bikes'.

At the General Election of 7 May 2015, Johnson was elected MP for Uxbridge and South Ruislip, He continued to serve as mayor until the mayoral election in May 2016, when Sadiq Khan was elected.

Sadiq Khan
Sadiq Khan introduced the 'bus hopper' fare on TfL buses, which allows passengers to board a second bus within one hour for the same fare. Under Khan, paper, coin and cash transactions became obsolete. The Oyster system was expanded to include debit and credit cards. This initiative was started under his predecessor, Johnson.

Upon election, Khan outlined a vision to make London the "greenest city" by investing in walking and cycling infrastructure while reducing polluting vehicles. In 2019, the "Ultra Low Emission Zone" scheme was launched which taxes highly polluting vehicles in its covered territory. London declared itself the world's first "National Park City" (effective from July 2019), reflecting its unusually high amount of green space for a city of its size.

Extended term
The Government postponed all elections due in May 2020, including for the mayor of London, for one year due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Khan had therefore served a term in office of five years rather than four, which ended in May 2021. He was re-elected in 2021 for a shortened three-year term, defeating the Conservative candidate Shaun Bailey.

title: Mayor of London


text:
Lord Mayor of London

The Lord Mayor of London is the mayor of the City of London, England, and the leader of the City of London Corporation. Within the City, the Lord Mayor is accorded precedence over all individuals except the sovereign and retains various traditional powers, rights, and privileges, including the title and style The Right Honourable Lord Mayor of London.

One of the world's oldest continuously elected civic offices, it is entirely separate from the directly elected Mayor of London, a political office controlling a budget which covers the much larger area of Greater London.

The Corporation of London changed its name to the City of London Corporation in 2006, and accordingly the title Lord Mayor of the City of London was introduced, so as to avoid confusion with that of Mayor of London. However, the legal and commonly used title remains Lord Mayor of London. The Lord Mayor is elected at Common Hall each year on Michaelmas, and takes office on the Friday before the second Saturday in November, at The Silent Ceremony. The Lord Mayor's Show is held on the day after taking office; the Lord Mayor, preceded by a procession, travels to the Royal Courts of Justice at the Strand to swear allegiance to the sovereign before the Justices of the High Court.

The Lord Mayor's main role nowadays is to represent, support and promote the businesses and residents in the City of London. Today these businesses are mostly in the financial sector, and the Lord Mayor is regarded as the champion of the entire UK-based financial sector regardless of ownership or location throughout the country. As leader of the Corporation of the City of London, the Lord Mayor serves as the key spokesman for the local authority and also has important ceremonial and social responsibilities. The Lord Mayor is non-affiliated politically, typically delivering many hundreds of speeches and addresses per year and attending many receptions and other events in London and beyond. Incumbents usually make overseas visits under the auspices of the FCDO. The Lord Mayor, ex officio Rector of City, University of London and also Admiral of the Port of London, is assisted in day-to-day administration by the Mansion House 'Esquires' whose titles include the City Marshal, Sword Bearer and Common Crier.

Michael Mainelli serves as the 695th Lord Mayor (for 2023–2024). The Lord Mayor is also assisted by the Revd Monsignor James Curry as Lord Mayor's Chaplain. The Lord Mayor’s office is also served by Aide de Camp representing the Uniformed Youth Organisations and they will be pleased to assist in the arranging of new affiliations. The Lord Mayor has six individual Cadet ADCs representing the various Uniformed Youth Organisation branches who provide him with a connection to the City Cadet Forces.

Titles and honours
Of the 69 cities in the United Kingdom, the City of London is among the 30 that have lord mayors (or, in Scotland, lords provost). The Lord Mayor is entitled to the prefix The Right Honourable; the same privilege extends only to the lord mayors of York, Cardiff, Bristol and Belfast, and to the lords provost of Edinburgh and Glasgow. The style, however, is used when referring to the office as opposed to the holder thereof; thus, "The Rt Hon Lord Mayor of London" would be correct, while "The Rt Hon William Russell" would be incorrect. The latter prefix applies only to privy counsellors and peers.

A woman who holds the office is also known as a Lord Mayor. The wife of a male Lord Mayor is styled as Lady Mayoress, but no equivalent title exists for the husband of a female Lord Mayor. A female lord mayor or an unmarried male lord mayor may appoint a female consort, usually a fellow member of the corporation, to the role of lady mayoress. In speech, a lord mayor is referred to as "My Lord Mayor", and a lady mayoress as "My Lady Mayoress".

It was once customary for lord mayors to be appointed knights upon taking office and baronets upon retirement, unless they already held such a title. This custom was followed with a few inconsistencies from the 16th until the 19th centuries; creations became more regular from 1889 onwards. However, from 1964 onwards, the regular creation of hereditary titles such as baronetcies was phased out, so subsequent lord mayors were offered knighthoods (and, until 1993, most often as Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire (GBE)). Since 1993, lord mayors have not automatically received any national honour upon appointment; instead, they have been made knights bachelor upon retirement, although Gordon Brown's Government broke with that tradition by making Ian Luder a CBE, after his term of office in 2009, and the following year Nick Anstee declined offers of an honour. Furthermore, foreign heads of state visiting the City of London on a UK state visit, diplomatically bestow upon the Lord Mayor one of their suitable national honours. For example, in 2001, Sir David Howard was created a grand cordon (first class) of the Order of Independence of Jordan by King Abdullah II. Recently lord mayors have been appointed at the beginning of their term of office knights or dames of St John, as a mark of respect, by the late Queen Elizabeth II, Sovereign Head of the Order of St John until her death in 2022.

History
The office of mayor was instituted in 1189, the first holder of the office being Henry Fitz-Ailwin de Londonestone. The mayor of the City of London has been elected by the City, rather than appointed by the sovereign, ever since a Royal Charter providing for a Mayor was issued by King John in 1215. The title "lord mayor" came to be used after 1354, when it was granted to Thomas Legge (then serving his second of two terms) by King Edward III.

Lord mayors are elected for one-year terms; by custom, they do not now serve more than one consecutive term. Numerous individuals have served multiple terms in office, including:

As Mayor As Lord Mayor
 * 24 terms: Sir Henry FitzAlan (1189–1212)
 * 9 terms: Ralph de Sandwich (1285–1289, 1289–1292)
 * 8 terms: Gregory de Rokesley (1274–1280, 1284)
 * 7 terms: Andrew Buckerel (1231–1237); John le Breton (1289, 1293–1298); John le Blund (1301–1307)
 * 6 terms: Richard le Ranger (1222–1226, 1238); Hamo de Chigwell (1319, 1321, 1322, 1324, 1325, 1327)
 * 5 terms: Serlo le Mercer (1214, 1218–1221)
 * Sir Nicholas Brembre (1377, 1383–1385; 4 terms)
 * Sir Richard ('Dick') Whittington (1397, 1398, 1406 and 1419; 4 terms)
 * William Sevenoke (1418)
 * Sir Robert Fowler (elected in 1883 and in 1885).
 * Sir William Russell (2019–2021, 2 terms)

Almost 700 people have served as lord mayor. Dame Mary Donaldson, elected in 1983, as well as Dame Fiona Woolf, elected in 2013, are the only women to have held the office.

Some lord mayors in the Middle Ages, such as Sir Edward Dalyngrigge (1392), did not reside in London. Since 1435, the lord mayor has been chosen from amongst the aldermen of the City of London.

Election
The lord mayor is elected at Common Hall, comprising liverymen belonging to all of the City's livery companies. Common Hall is summoned by the sitting lord mayor; it meets at Guildhall on Michaelmas Day (29 September) or on the closest weekday. Voting is by show of hands; if, however, any liveryman so demands, balloting is held a fortnight later.

The qualification to stand for election is that one must have served as a City sheriff and be a current alderman. Since 1385, prior service as sheriff has been mandatory for election to the lord mayoralty. Two sheriffs are selected annually by Common Hall, which meets on Midsummer's Day for this purpose. By an ordinance of 1435, the lord mayor must be chosen from amongst the aldermen of the City of London. Those on the electoral roll of each of the City's 25 wards select one alderman, who formerly held office for life or until resignation. Now each alderman must submit for re-election at least once in every six years.

The lord mayor is then sworn in November, on the day before the Lord Mayor's Show (see below). The ceremony is known as the "Silent Ceremony" because, aside from a short declaration by the incoming Lord Mayor, no speeches are made. At Guildhall, the outgoing lord mayor transfers the mayoral insignia – the seal, the purse, the sword and the mace — to the incoming lord mayor.

The lord mayor to be elected in November 2017 was known in April of that year.

Lord Mayor's Show

The day after being sworn into office, the lord mayor leads a procession from the City of London to the Royal Courts of Justice in the City of Westminster, where the lord mayor swears allegiance to the Crown. This pageantry has evolved into one of London's longest-running and most popular annual events, known as the "Lord Mayor's Show". The lord mayor travels in the City's state coach that was built in 1757 at a cost of £1,065.0s.3d. Nowadays, this festival combines traditional British pageantry with the element of carnival, and since 1959 it has been held on the second Saturday in November. Participants include the livery companies, bands and members of the military, charities and schools. In the evening, a fireworks display is held.

Role

The lord mayor is a member of the City of London's governing body, the City of London Corporation (incorporated as The Mayor and Commonalty and Citizens of the City of London). The Corporation comprises the Court of Aldermen and the Court of Common Council; the former includes only the aldermen, while the latter includes both aldermen and common councilmen. The Lord mayor belongs to and presides over both bodies.

As noted earlier, the main role of the lord mayor is to represent, support and promote all aspects of UK-financial service industries, including maritime. They undertake this as head of the City of London Corporation and, during the year, host visiting foreign government ministers, businessmen and dignitaries; furthermore, they conduct several foreign visits of their own so as to promote British financial sectors.

Banquets hosted by the Lord Mayor serve as opportunities for senior government figures to deliver major speeches. At the Lord Mayor's Banquet (held on the Monday after the Lord Mayor's Show), the Prime Minister delivers the keynote address. At the Banker's Dinner in June, the Chancellor of the Exchequer delivers a speech known as the "Mansion House Speech", which takes its name from the Lord Mayor's residence. At the Easter Banquet, also hosted each year at the Mansion House, the Foreign Secretary addresses an audience of international dignitaries.

The lord mayor sometimes takes part in major state occasions; for example, in 2013, the then-lord mayor, Sir Roger Gifford, carried the Mourning Sword at Margaret Thatcher's funeral, processing ahead of the Queen and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, into St Paul's Cathedral.

The lord mayor performs numerous other functions, including serving as the chief magistrate of the City of London, admiral of the Port of London, rector of City, University of London, president of Gresham College, president of City of London Reserve Forces and Cadets Association, and trustee of St Paul's Cathedral. The lord mayor also heads the City's Commission of Lieutenancy, which represents the sovereign in the City of London (other counties usually have lord lieutenants, as opposed to Commissions), and annually attends the Treloar Trust (named after Sir William Treloar, lord mayor in 1906), in Hampshire. The Treloar Trust runs two educational sites for disabled children, a school and college.

Rights and privileges

The residence of the lord mayor is known as Mansion House. The establishment of the residence was considered after the Great Fire of London (1666), but construction did not commence until 1739. It was first occupied by a lord mayor in 1752, when Sir Crispin Gascoigne took up residence. The official car of the lord mayor is a Rolls-Royce Phantom VI with registration number LM0.

In each of the eighteen courtrooms of the Old Bailey, the centre of the judges' bench is reserved for the lord mayor, in his capacity of chief justice of the City of London. The presiding judge therefore sits to one side.

It is sometimes asserted that the lord mayor may exclude the monarch from the City of London. The legend is based on the misinterpretation of the ceremony observed each time the sovereign enters the City: at Temple Bar the lord mayor presents the City's Pearl Sword to the sovereign as a symbol of the latter's overlordship. The monarch does not, as is often purported, wait for the lord mayor's permission to enter the City. When the sovereign enters the City, a short ceremony usually takes place where the lord mayor presents a sword to the monarch, symbolically surrendering their authority. If the sovereign is attending a service at St Paul's this ceremony would take place there rather than at the boundary of the City for matters of convenience.

The importance of the office is reflected by the composition of the Accession Council, a body which proclaims the accession of new sovereigns. The Council includes the lord mayor and aldermen of London, as well as members of the House of Lords and privy counsellors. At the coronation banquet which followed, the lord mayor of the City of London had the right to assist the royal butler. The same privilege is held by the lord mayor of Oxford; the mayor of Winchester may assist the royal cook. Such privileges have not been exercised since 1821, when the last coronation banquet (celebrating the coronation of George IV) was held.

Official dress
On formal occasions the lord mayor wears traditional black velvet court dress (old style) consisting of a coat, waistcoat and knee breeches with steel cut buttons. This is worn with black silk stockings, patent court shoes with steel buckles, white shirt with lace cuffs and a large jabot stock. This form of court dress is worn by all lord mayors regardless of gender.

When outdoors, they wear a black beaver plush tricorne hat trimmed with black ostrich feathers and a steel 'loop' for the cockade. This has been traditionally made by Patey's commissioned by the Worshipful Company of Feltmakers for each incumbent lord mayor. Since 1545 the lord mayor of London has worn a Royal Livery Collar of Esses. However, the collar's origins are not royal, Sir John Alleyn, twice lord mayor, having bequeathed it to the next lord mayor and his successors "to use and occupie yerely at and uppon principall and festivall dayes." It was enlarged in 1567, and in its present shape has 28 Esses (the Lancastrian ‘S’), Tudor roses and the tasselled knots of the Garter (alternating) and also the Portcullis, from which hangs the Mayoral Jewel. The collar is worn over whatever the lord mayor may be wearing, secured onto their underdress or State Robes by means of black or white silk satin ribbons on the shoulders.

Robes
As an alderman of the City of London the lord mayor has a scarlet gown and a violet gown, which are identical to those worn by their fellow aldermen except that they are trained. The violet robe is worn at most formal meetings of the Corporation with the scarlet robe substituted on certain days or occasions as directed by the City Ceremonial Book.

For State occasions when the monarch is present, the lord mayor wears a crimson velvet robe of state trimmed with an ermine cape and facings, very similar to a royal earl's coronation robe. It is tied with gold cordons, and dates from the reign of George IV.

On other ceremonial occasions is worn a black silk damask robe trimmed with gold lace of a design exactly the same as that of the Lord Chancellor, known as the Entertaining Gown.

At coronations, the lord mayor wears a special coronation robe: a mantle of scarlet superfine wool trimmed with bars of gold lace and ermine. It is lined with white silk satin; they also carry the Crystal Sceptre as a baton of office. After the coronation, the incumbent may personally keep their coronation robe as a token.

There is also a plain black gown, worn by the lord mayor in times of national mourning and/or grief.

title: Lord Mayor of London


text:
Talk:Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor/Archive 1

This is not history and does a great injustice to an interesting Emperor:

 * His father was emperor and his mother Gisela of Swabia. Conrad II had given Henry III's father in law Canute Schleswig as fief, when Henry married Canute's daughter named Gunhilda. Gunhilda died in 1038 and Henry III then married Agnes of Poitou in 1043. She was the daughter of William III/V of Aquitaine and Agnes of Burgundy.the son of Henry III and Agnes of Poitou, born at Goslar, became emperor Henry IV of the Holy Roman Empire.

Not sure about the Dynasty -- I was pretty sure that the Salians were Henry I and II, and Henry III was a Conradiner? Also, aren't they the Franconian dynasty? JHK


text:
Prehnite

Prehnite is an inosilicate of calcium and aluminium with the formula: Ca2Al(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 with limited Fe3+ substitutes for aluminium in the structure. Prehnite crystallizes in the orthorhombic crystal system, and most often forms as stalactitic, botryoidal, reniform or globular aggregates, with only just the crests of small crystals showing any faces, which are almost always curved or composite. Very rarely will it form distinct, well-individualized crystals showing a square-like cross-section, including those found at the Jeffrey Mine in Asbestos, Quebec, Canada. Prehnite is brittle with an uneven fracture and a vitreous to pearly luster. Its hardness is 6.5, its specific gravity is 2.80–2.95 and its color varies from light green to yellow, but also colorless, blue, pink or white. In April 2000, rare orange prehnite was discovered in the Kalahari Manganese Fields, South Africa. Prehnite is mostly translucent, and rarely transparent.

Though not a zeolite, prehnite is found associated with minerals such as datolite, calcite, apophyllite, epidote, stilbite, laumontite, and heulandite in veins and cavities of basaltic rocks, sometimes in granites, syenites, or gneisses. It is an indicator mineral of the prehnite-pumpellyite metamorphic facies.

It was first described in 1788 for an occurrence in the Karoo dolerites of Cradock, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. It was named for Colonel Hendrik Von Prehn (1733–1785), commander of the military forces of the Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope from 1768 to 1780.

It is used as a gemstone.

Extensive deposits of gem-quality prehnite occur in the basalt tableland surrounding Wave Hill Station in the central Northern Territory, of Australia.

title: Prehnite