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Talk:Geographic information system

Ijnitial text
Regarding the capitalization of this title: the first paragraph says a Geographic..., which would seem to imply that this is a generic term for a class of things called geographic information systems. I don't know--is that the case, or is there a specific thing called the Geographic Information System, which would merit the capitals but would require editing the text here? -- Lee Daniel Crocker

I'm taking some GIS courses right now, and the answer is yes it is a general term. maveric149

It is a general term, but since "GIS" is a very common abbreviation, I think it does merit the capitalisation. -- Sam

 * Huh? It is a completely fallacious assumption to think that since an acronym (NOT abbreviation!) is capitalized that the root term must also be capitalized. --mav

Article focus discussion
Till the second week of April 2013, there used to be a separate Wikipedia page for "Geographic Information Science (GIScience)". I had used the link for another Wikipedia entry. Somehow, any internal Wikipedia link to that entry now reverts to the page on Geographic Information System (GIS). I cannot find out who made that decision, but it is clearly uninformed and absolutely in error. GIScience and GIS are not the same thing. The page on GIScience needs to be reinstated. Lomdii (talk) 12:13, 28 April 2013 (UTC)lomdii,

This article appears to use quite a bit of text copied directly from a USGS page. It should be cleaned up with proper attribution.--Talkswithnumbers 22:40, 23 October 2006 (UTC)

There is an article called "Geostatistics", if any of you have the interest, please help to edit this page with the goal to inform and educate. Bohunk

 * I cleaned up the "Geostatistics section so it's not a list. If someone could review for accuracy, that would be great.  --RWilliamKing 15:46, 6 April 2007 (UTC)

I veiw GIS as a field that encompases many disciplines such as cartography, statistics, databases, math... As I work, I will try to make links to these other related fields. – Rschulz

I think this page is already too long and broad. For example spatial analysis should have its own page but may be under the title "geographic information science". We should also use the pages geoinformatics and geocomputation to introduce some order. --

GIS is a very broad field and therefore any discussion can only be superficial. I agree we should be linking more to other pages (ie a quick discussion of routing here should link to the related computer science and topology pages; spatial analysis can link to spatial statistics). I do not know if a separate GI Science page is needed, since it is hard to separate from GI System. I have the same issue with geoinformatics and geocomputaiton. Perhaps we can say GIS makes use of methods from geocomputaiton (providing geocomputation can be properly defined). – Rschulz

Right now I am leaning towards leaving the system definition and mentioning the science definition. I also want to include that most uses of GIS only use a subset of all the available methods (ie online mapping only use routing methods). – Rschulz

I think there should be a seperate link to interpolation; perhaps interpolation should be discussed under a math-related heading, somewhere so that this topic may be explored in detail. – Bohunk

I believe the introduction is too complex and uses too many words to describe geographical information systems. It may be simpler to say :-

Geographical Information Systems refer to Databases of information which are interacted with through geographically accurate models (or representations) of the real world information they represent.

Possibly an example of this should be included. i.e. A building in a GIS would be proportional to it's real world counterpart and the address of the building would be represented in the data included in the database entry for the building. A building represented adjacent to this building in the GIS would be physically adjacent in the physical world the GIS models (or represents) Please feel free to edit as appropriate, I'm seeking here for a more concise and understandable introduction. The detail in the current introduction should be kept, but moved further into the entry in my opinion Wallacebiy 23:30, 30 April 2007 (UTC)

I still think the opening description is too long and uses overly pedantic description of exact parts of Geographical Information Systems. Essentially the three words describe it and an elucidation of those three words should open the article not the current overbearing paragraph long sentence ( sorry ) Wallacebiy 16:32, 17 September 2007 (UTC)

My opinion?

Cohen's process definition is superior (and should be cited alongside the ubiquitous component definition, whose citation I stuck into the article): "GIS is best defined as a decision support system involving the integration of spatially referenced data in a problem solving environment." for reference tag: Cowen 1988 "GIS VERSUS CAD VERSUS DBMS: WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCES ?" PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING Vol. 54, No.11, November 1988, pp. 1551-1555. http://funk.on.br/esantos/doutorado/GEO/igce/DBMS.pdf last retrieved 9/17/2010. Hope I'm not stepping on toes here; your rebuttals/changes are welcome.Paulsuckow (talk) 16:12, 17 September 2010 (UTC)

This section: Relating information from different sources is a mess. A lot of the wording is awkward and makes no sense. The last sentence trails off. 76.247.12.93 (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 04:58, 15 September 2009 (UTC).

I agreed, and did something about it. See what you guys think; i believe it comes closer to helping grandma understand what GIS is all about. The intent of "Relating information from different sources" was originally data manipulation issues within GIS, but I think my more global treatment is an improvement. Whole books have been written (and taught from) about GIS data transformation and manipulation, and perhaps a separate article about this issue is warranted.Paulsuckow (talk) 16:24, 17 September 2010 (UTC)

I went through the first seven sections for read ease, and cleaned it up a bit. I added some sense links and descriptors left out of the thought development. I added applications which were obvious, yet missing. There is no way to remove thought development here from jargon and technology terms, so the flow of ideas and logic was addressed. July 2010 (J.H,)  --Mountainway, Boulder, Colorado

GIS software discussion
The article consistently confuses GIS software with the geographic information system, that is, the data model and the decision processes it supports. Software plays a role, but it should be de-emphasied in favor of process. I may not get a chance to fix this and it wouldn't hurt my feelings if someone else tried. – Casu Marzu
 * Software is integral to the GIS system though and is the main conduit through which data is organized and displayed. I don't think you can separate the two. --Omnicog 15:03, 30 August 2006 (UTC)

Software is an important part of the traditional system definition, but a complete overview of available GIS software will be too long for this entry. Perhaps we can move the software section to its own page as was done for the Raster graphics / Graphics Programs split. We could also create a separate page for GIS data file formats. – Rschulz

I am thinking about doing the split I proposed, but leaving a GIS software section in this entry, which discusses the different types of software at a high level. This would mention categories such as spatial databases, client desktop gis software and web-based systems: it would not specifically mention any vendors which can be done on the GIS software page. Any comments? – Rschulz

It would do well to fix this, as most scientists and academics using GIS often conflate the software and process themselves such that they don't even understand the difference between GIS and, say ArcGIS. Also, that opening sentence is awful: "A geographic information system or geographical information system (GIS) is a system for creating and managing spatial data and associated attributes." It's tautological and lacking in any real explanation of what GIS is. It should be a one-sentence summation of GIS that, to paraphrase Einstein, explains GIS to your grandmother. Elijahmeeks 20:38, 19 March 2006 (UTC)

Geographic Information Science
The current GIS article seems too long, and it has (as been noted above) conflates the model and software used to implement it. Why not follow the International Journal of Geographic Information Systems move to Geographic Information Science?

One article could then concentrate on the software side (systems) and the other on the data structures and overarching methodology (science).

What do people think? --stochata 10:14, 24 July 2005 (UTC)

 * A few months ago I would have said any split would be bad, since I have not found a clear break between system and science. However, a break would allow the System entry to be expanded to include many different types of systems (web based, spatial databases, CAD, desktop, etc) and can include a discussion of other fields that make use of GISystems for their research.

 * Some helpful papers I found (via a quick google scholar search) are:

 * * MF Goodchild, 1992, Geographical Information Science
 * * DM Mark, 2003, Geographic information science: Defining the field

 * Before starting a new GIScience entry I would suggest putting up an outline here that details which topics will be moved to the Science entry and which should stay in this System definition. The outline can then be left for a while to allow people to comment on it. – Rschulz 18:15, 6 August 2005 (UTC)

'Support breaking into Systems and Science pages. This article is too long and breaking it into Geographic Information Systems and Geographic Information Science would make two more valuable articles. How about we develop the outline for the Science page on the discussion section of the current Geographic Information Science page? http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Geographic_information_science --Ray 11:21, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

'Support breaking into Systems and Science pages. Also suggesting consideration as to further split those into separate History of... articles. Willing to contribute to "History of Geographic Information Systems" article and/or corresponding section in the main article. Juhoeemeli (talk) 19:58, 13 July 2010 (UTC)

 * To me, it's very wrong to confuse geographic infomation systems with geographic information science. The former is an information systems that handle geospatial data, the latter is a scientific domain underlying or based on geographical infomation, with or without GIS. In other words, it is possible for one to conduct GISci without GIS.

stub?
Why is this article marked as a stub? – Mikeblas 16:31, 22 January 2006 (UTC)

It is not as of March 22, 2006. I see a section is marked as a sectional stub but that's it. --Ray 11:18, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

From a total outsider (me) who is trying to do research into the computer software side of the field this article is confusing. Its unclear from the article whether there are accepted data standards or where you can go to get more information on those standards.Nickjost 16:18, 15 August 2006 (UTC)

I agree, however the GIS field is so broad that it is difficult to create a concise article regarding the topic. I would suggest you explore the Object-relational database, the ESRI website, the vector and raster data model, geostatistics or spatial statistics, topology or geospatial topology, and the open-geospatial consortium (OGC) website. If you need any direction, or are having trouble finding information feel free to ask, I know lots on this subject.SCmurky 16:33, 15 August 2006 (UTC)

Use of GIS in archaeology
Could someone look at article GIS in archaeology to see if material can be merged into this article. FloNight  talk   20:17, 15 February 2006 (UTC)

Oppose merge of GIS in Archaelogy into this article. The GIS article is alread far too long. I suggest Wikifing the Archaelogy article. I am about to pull section of the GIS article out into it's own article. --Ray 10:52, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

University Degree Programs
Would anyone oppose pulling out the University Degree Programs out into a new article? The Geographic information system article is already too long and the University Degree Programs is a really just a list that has the potential to grow immensely. --Ray 10:57, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

I pulled out the degree and certificate portion of this article and was working on it when a group of Wikipedia admins attacked. They were partially correct that such a long list of link does not belong on Wikipedia, however, they did not give me time to clean up the aritcle and just deleted all the info. It is no gone eveywhere except in the history of the GIS article. --Ray 00:33, 24 March 2006 (UTC)

Side note on why the list of links should have never been here

Coyprightability?
Can raw GIS data be copyrighted? If so, how about maps (including vector graphics) created from said data? (I'm talking here about copyright held by the sources, not by the mapmaker that uses the data to create a map.) --SPUI (T - C - RFC) 01:05, 7 April 2006 (UTC)
 * Raw? from what source? If the raw data is from the U.S. Federal Government (e.g. USGS, US Census Bureau,...), then it's in the public domain.  State and local governments, as well as foreign governments, for the most part hold copyright to their data, as do of course private companies such as ESRI, Tele Atlas, and NAVTEQ.  For maps created from copyrighted sources, if it's a derived work, combining sources in a new way, and other creative derivations, then I think it might be okay (but please cite the sources).  In such cases, I prefer to upload the map in raster format.  There was some debate about a map used on Jordanhill railway station, where it seemed to be "copied" or "traced" from Google Maps, but enough added creative input to it that think the map survived the debate. -Aude ( talk | contribs ) 01:34, 7 April 2006 (UTC)
 * Is such data creative though? Creativity is necessary for copyrightability - see Feist v. Rural. Have there been any cases related to GIS data? Any common views? --SPUI (T - C - RFC) 02:14, 7 April 2006 (UTC)
 * I think GIS data is copyrighted. Vector data is usually compiled from aerial photographs.  Many creative decisions are involved deciding what level of detail to include in the vector data, how to setup the associated data attributes, classify things, etc. And with maps, some companies have been known to include artificial road segments or other artifacts that serve as watermarks for the map/data.  But if you take the data, manipulate it, combine it with different sources, and express it in a new creative way, then I think it's okay (fitting with "If Feist were to take the directory and rearrange them it would destroy the copyright owned in the data.", from the case you cite). You just can't copy the particular creative expression, but simply the facts.  What are the specifics in your situation? While I don't provide any legal opinions, maybe I can advise better. -Aude ( talk | contribs ) 02:29, 7 April 2006 (UTC)
 * See COUNTY OF SUFFOLK vs. Experian, and list of other court cases. -Aude ( talk | contribs ) 02:45, 7 April 2006 (UTC)
 * I don't have a specific situation - I think something about this should be added to the article. --SPUI (T - C - RFC) 03:04, 7 April 2006 (UTC)
 * In general, the article needs an overall good copyedit, but this would be a good topic to cover. When it comes to maps for Wikipedia, I mainly stick to maps of the U.S. and federal government data, though the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency has some (not necessarily great detail) data for elsewhere.  Sometimes, I'm willing to incorporate some state/local government data (provided, sources are cited, I do enough added-value creative manipulation and combine it with other sources, and upload it here as raster - no SVG).   The arguments local governments use for copyrights are that they want to control redistribution of the data, to ensure it's accuracy, reliability, and integrity.  Some local governments charge fees (sometimes hefty fees) to get the data.  The arguments used by the Federal government (and others) for making GIS data public domain is that we already paid taxes for the creation of the data, and it's public information. In Britain, the EU, and other places, the laws are quite different, with those governments holding copyright. -Aude ( talk | contribs ) 03:15, 7 April 2006 (UTC)

 * It appears local government data is becomming more and more public domain, at least in California. San Diego and LA counties are now making their data freely available after the state attorny issued an opinion that such data should not be copyrighted.--Drewdowling 19:23, 19 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Shame on me, but I got most of the way through OMB_Circular_A-16 before I just got tired of reading the HTML version on the Whitehouse.gov site. I don't think anyone has created an article for National Spatial Data Infrastructure or Federal Geographic Data Committee yet which manage a lot of the interoperability of these spatial systems.  I think this is somewhat relevant! —The preceding unsigned comment was added by RWilliamKing (talk • contribs) 22:23, 23 February 2007 (UTC).

External Link cleanup
There are currently more than 50 links in the 'External Links' section. Most of these are no more useful than what a Google search might turn up. There appears to be a number of links to interactive map sites and GIS data sites. At least one link appears to be an aggregator site for news stories tagged "gis". Many of the links are poorly described (or not described at all) and several are out of alphabetical order. The section is entirely too cluttered to be of much use to anybody.

GIS is a broad topic, and it certainly could benefit from a number of links to outside references, but many, if not most, of the current links should either be deleted or spun off into a separate article, such as the Geographic data article.

Please look through the links and delete any that are not essential to the article. If there are any disputed deletions, discuss them here.

Justin 02:24, 5 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Update - I deleted approximately 30 external links. Most of these were to commercial sites with data or services for sale, sites of limited regional interest, news aggregator sites which were choked with ads, job posting sites, newsgroups and wikis with very little traffic, free geocoding sites, air photo sites, and online mapping sites.

 * If I deleted anything inappropriately, please discuss it here. I suspect I didn't take out enough, so review what's left and delete what shouldn't be there.  This should not become a directory of any and all sites related to maps and GIS everywhere around the world.

 * Justin 03:49, 5 September 2006 (UTC)

incorrect capitalisation
The article started out correctly with "A Geographic Information System" but went on to incorrectly capitalise it (and Geographic Information Science), although the indefinite article clearly shows that this should not be capitalised. This is not like Global Positioning System or the Internet, where i'm all in favor of capitalisation because they are proper nouns. --Espoo 12:49, 9 October 2006 (UTC)

There's a typo in "Data Creation

Modern GIS technologies rn digital information..."

Also, this sentence does not make much sense: "GIS can be used by a company to site a new business location to take advantage of GIS data identified trends to respond to a previously under-served market. Most city and transportation systems planning offices have GIS sections; and..." Perhaps we can clean this up. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 205.133.162.218 (talk) 13:33, 16 November 2011 (UTC)

Government Uses
I have a tip that Northrop Grumman, while not an agency, is using GIS for something. I just thought it would be useful for the citation needed in "Relating information from different sources" if someone wants to look into it and narrow it down to an actual webpage.

By the way that section seems kind of random for "Techniques used in GIS". To me "Relating information from different sources" equates to miscellaneous, and that’s what the content seems to be. The word Relating seems to be an operating word, but it hasn't been operated.

== POV in THE GEODATABASE I thought someone would have noticed this by now, so maybe I am incorrect. I hesitate to say anything at all because of my obvious connection to the subject. However, the addition made by Ryangis reads to me like marketing copy. Expressions such as "Now more than ever before" and "like never before" do not sound very encyclopedic. Also, other systems have had the functionality for years to "set the transparency in the [raster] file properties to a desired percentage." Anyone else notice this? -AndrewDressel 23:02, 8 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Much better now, thanks to Mjrmtg. -AndrewDressel 16:40, 9 January 2007 (UTC)
 * There is an existing geodatabase article that treats the subject in a more general manner. I replaced the existing content (which only dealt with ESRI's implementation) with a link to the main article. Rschulz 18:25, 18 February 2007 (UTC)

Raster Section
This section really needs some work. It's very messy, vague and incomplete. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.51.70.232 (talk) 14:26, 19 September 2007 (UTC)

Intro section - confusing use of term "geomatics"
I have an issue with this statement:

 * A geographic information system (GIS) (also known as geographical information system, particularly in the UK, and geomatics in Canada) is a system for...

I understand how "geographical information system" and "geographic information system" or "geographic information systems" can be interchangeably applied, however "geomatics" is not similar to an "information system" - it is a term that encompasses a far broader study relating to geographically-referenced information.... it is more comparable with the term "Geographic Information Science". See a definition for geomatics here:

But what about "geomatics"?

This is a term that has been adopted by governments and private industry across Canada and which is becoming accepted worldwide. It encompasses the art, science, and technology involved in collecting and managing geographically-referenced information. This information can come from a variety of sources: earth orbiting satellites (e.g., the Global Positioning System; RadarSat), air and sea-borne sensors, and ground based instrumentation. Geographical information, manipulated with high tech computer hardware and software, plays an important role in activities such as environmental studies; management of land and marine resources; monitoring of dams, oil fields, and mines for subsidence or movement; navigation of ships and aircraft; oceanography; real estate transactions; and tourism. UNB - Dept. of Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering

I propose removing the geomatics reference from the introduction section of this article, or rewording it somehow, since I believe it is misleading for the reasons stated above.Plasma east 14:30, 22 October 2007 (UTC)

Requested Multi-Page Move to Single New Article
It is noted that there are at least four articles linked into this GIS 'See also' section:

 * Public Participation GIS
 * Traditional knowledge gis
 * GIS in archaeology
 * Historical GIS

which each deal with different, specific 'kinds of' applications to which GIS software can and has been put in the world .. and each are in need of some care and attention to be upgraded into Wikipedia standards..

Under the circumstances and given the nature of the articles in question .. it would seem appropriate to move them all and pull them all together into a single, new article entitled GIS applications —Preceding unsigned comment added by Bruceanthro (talk • contribs)
 * Combining all four of these into a single article would be quite long. What you want could be done much more simply by writing a summary of all four under GIS applications (which does not now exist), with links using the template See also or main. This will not lose information, and does not require admin intervention. Septentrionalis PMAnderson 16:17, 12 March 2008 (UTC)
 * Thanks for your otherwise sensible suggestion - I note that I started by trying to bring the four articles up closer to Wiki standard .. but found a lot of work was still required for them to be transformed into good, comprehensive Wikipedia quality, stand-alone articles. At present, combined, they will make a single, good sized, more wholistic and informative, start class, stand-alonne article - unless or until the originals are able to be more fully upgraded and expanded?!! Bruceanthro (talk) 16:33, 12 March 2008 (UTC)
 * Do write the combination. At that point, suggestions to merge the four articles into the new one will be dealing with a visible proposal, not something in your mind's eye, and will receive more intelligent consideration. Septentrionalis PMAnderson 18:17, 12 March 2008 (UTC)
 * OK .. while I am neither a specialist in this feild nor very knowledgable about the subject .. I have initiated GIS applications article .. as suggested. You'll note it is no longer red-linked! Will this do for starters? Bruceanthro (talk) 01:26, 13 March 2008 (UTC)

Uncertainty in GIS
One of the most important issues in contemporary GIS is uncertainty, both in data acquisition and analysis. Uncertainty is little understood by the novice, and even experts have a difficult time when confronted with multiple datasets of disparate sources and types that are used as the basis for analysis. Without a proper grasp of uncertainty, it is very probable--even certain--that GIS users and developers will unwittingly make egregiously unscientific claims. Basic problems like the ecological fallacy and the Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP) need to be mentioned. Ambiguity, vagueness, spatial error, classification error, boundary errors, etc. should be concisely described. A link should be provided to http://www.spatial-accuracy.org/ and other websites raising awareness for uncerainty. Without a discussion of uncertainty, many core issues faced by the GIS community are invisible to readers of this article. (Reference book Geographic Information Systems and Science chapter 6.)Lulolean (talk) 19:57, 14 May 2008 (UTC) The GIS accuracy depends upon source data. Land Surveyors have been able to provide high level of positional accuracy utilizing the GPS derived positions, www.fgdc.fgdc.gov/standards/documents/standards/accuracy/chapter3.pdf.) the high-resolution digital terrain and aerial imagery, https://njgin.state.nj.us/NJ_NJGINExplorer/IW.jsp) the powerful computers, Web technology, are changing the quality, utility, and expectations of GIS to serve society on a grand scale, but nevertheless there are other source data that has an impact on the overall GIS accuracy like: paper maps that are not found to be very suitable to achieve the desired accuracy since the aging of maps affects their dimensional. Developing a Digital Topographic Data Base for a GIS the topographical maps are the main source of data. Aerial photography and satellite images are extra sources for collecting data. The scale of a map is a very important aspect since the information content depends mainly on the scale of the map. In order to digitize the map, the map has to be checked with the theoretical dimensions, than scanned into a raster format, than the raster data has to be given the theoretical dimension by rubber sheeting/warping. Uncertainty is a significant problem in GIS because spatial data tend to be used for purposes for which they were never intended. Some of the maps were made many decades ago and at that time the computer industry was not even in the perspective. Map accuracy is relatively an issue of minor importance in cartography. Maps use a very constrained technology of pen and paper to communicate a view of the world to their users. Cartographers feel little need to communicate information on accuracy, but when the same map is digitized and input into a GIS, the mode of use changes. The new uses extend well beyond the domain for which the original map was intended and designed. A quantitative analysis of maps brings accuracy issues into focus. The equipment used to make measurements in GIS is far more precise than the machines of conventional map analysis. The GIS accuracy depends upon source data. Land Surveyors have been able to provide high level of positional accuracy utilizing the GPS derived positions, www.fgdc.fgdc.gov/standards/documents/standards/accuracy/chapter3.pdf.) the high-resolution digital terrain and aerial imagery, https://njgin.state.nj.us/NJ_NJGINExplorer/IW.jsp) the powerful computers, Web technology, are changing the quality, utility, and expectations of GIS to serve society on a grand scale, but nevertheless there are other source data that has an impact on the overall GIS accuracy like: paper maps that are not found to be very suitable to achieve the desired accuracy since the aging of maps affects their dimensional. Developing a Digital Topographic Data Base for a GIS the topographical maps are the main source of data. Aerial photography and satellite images are extra sources for collecting data. The scale of a map is a very important aspect since the information content depends mainly on the scale of the map. In order to digitize the map, the map has to be checked with the theoretical dimensions, than scanned into a raster format, than the raster data has to be given the theoretical dimension by rubber sheeting/warping. Uncertainty is a significant problem in GIS because spatial data tend to be used for purposes for which they were never intended. Some of the maps were made many decades ago and at that time the computer industry was not even in the perspective. Map accuracy is relatively an issue of minor importance in cartography. Maps use a very constrained technology of pen and paper to communicate a view of the world to their users. Cartographers feel little need to communicate information on accuracy, but when the same map is digitized and input into a GIS, the mode of use changes. The new uses extend well beyond the domain for which the original map was intended and designed. quantitative analysis of maps brings accuracy issues into focus. The equipment used to make measurements in GIS is far more precise than the machines of conventional map analysis. http://nationalmap.gov/gio/standards. The truth is that all geographical data are inherently inaccurate, and these inaccuracies will propagate through GIS operations in ways that are difficult to predict.

Accuracy Standards for 1:24000 Scales Map 1:24,000 ± 40.00 feet This means that when we see a point on a map, its "probable" location is within a +/- 40’ area. EKraemer-352P (talk) 16:37, 23 June 2010 (UTC)E.Kraemer

Image copyright problem with Image:GeaBiosOpenLaszloSatelliteMappingApplication2.PNG
The image Image:GeaBiosOpenLaszloSatelliteMappingApplication2.PNG is used in this article under a claim of fair use, but it does not have an adequate explanation for why it meets the requirements for such images when used here. In particular, for each page the image is used on, it must have an explanation linking to that page which explains why it needs to be used on that page. Please check

 * That there is a non-free use rationale on the image's description page for the use in this article.
 * That this article is linked to from the image description page.

This is an automated notice by FairuseBot. For assistance on the image use policy, see Media copyright questions. --00:23, 13 September 2008 (UTC)

GIS Customisation
GIS customisation is the process of adding and/or modifying user interface and functionalities on an existing system to suit the requirements of a customer —Preceding unsigned comment added by Sajeevang (talk • contribs) 09:00, 31 October 2008 (UTC)

Move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

No consensus to move. Vegaswikian (talk) 21:45, 17 March 2010 (UTC)

Geographic information system → GIS — per WP:COMMONNAME and this discussion. Note that GIS redirects here. —Justin (koavf)❤T☮C☺M☯ 20:01, 9 March 2010 (UTC)

 * Comment didn't you just suggest that the categories be renamed the other way? 70.29.210.242 (talk) 05:16, 10 March 2010 (UTC)
 * Comment Yes I did; I linked it above. —Justin (koavf)❤T☮C☺M☯ 00:25, 14 March 2010 (UTC)

 * Oppose Acronyms should only be used when they are universally understood.  Many people wouldn't have a clue what GIS stands for.  It simply isn't common enough.  Skinsmoke (talk) 17:39, 13 March 2010 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

I need help,
I was directed to this page by User:Opbeith to have a request solved.Can anyone help me.

Can anyone get close to any climate organisation e.g NASA or others to get climate information on Nigeria containing average rainfall for all nigerian regions and use isohyets or contour lines to contruct the rainfall information of Nigeria for the Geography of Nigeria article and arrange them on the map in the format provided below. mm=Millimeters 0 mm  - 500mm 500mm - 750mm 750mm - 1000mm 1000mm - 1250mm 1250mm - 1500mm 1500mm - 1850mm 1850mm - 2000mm 2000mm - 2500mm 2500mm - 3000mm 3000mm - 3500mm 3500mm - 4000mm above 4000mm. thanks  Netknowle  message me!   03:58, 15 June 2011 (UTC)

Section "Slope and Aspect"
Please define 'aspect' in this context Peter (Southwood) (talk): 08:35, 30 June 2011 (UTC)

I added definitions for slope and aspect, and linked formulas to context of definition, and a bit of cleaning up "Slope and Aspect" User:Vrkunkel. Sorry i took a while to update this (>1 year!). —Preceding undated comment added 01:21, 12 July 2012 (UTC)

Advantages of a GIS program over Google Maps/GIMP combo
Shouldn't we mention the advantages of a GIS program over Google Maps (or GPScoordinates/GIMP combo (the latter can capture maps -using printscreen- and edit them too (some google maps as http://flood.firetree.net/ even allow simple elevation info); some advantages I found
 * GIS software may be connected to a online database with very detailed maps (level of zoom and elevation info/3D view; the latter also provides options for flood protection purposes)
 * GIS can use satellite maps and road maps
 * possibility to export/import specific map sections (4 GPS locations can be entered after which the program crops the map to the specified range) ?
 * more options (distance calculation, ...)

In regards to the first (online database with very detailed maps); is GDAL/OGR such a database ? Or is it just a file conversion tool ? See http://grasswiki.osgeo.org/wiki/Importing_data

Other questions: Can openstreetmaps maps be easily printscreen/pasted and/or are there export capabilities in some programs. I'm thinking of programs like navit, Rana, FoxtrotGPS, Trekbuddy, NaviPOWM, mumpot. Perhaps gvSIG mini may also be an option, although it's an Android app (not Linux/Windows program) ? See also Comparison_of_free_off-line_GPS_software

Does a mere printscreen/paste from Google Earth or Marble to a GIS allow to capture the elevation info (I suspect not). Is there an export function for this ? Can a specific map section be entered ?

109.130.201.33 (talk) 07:41, 13 May 2014 (UTC)

 * Small update; copy/pasting doesn't seem to work with one free GIS (gvSIG), yet openstreetmap data can be loaded though (online database available); see

http://blog.gvsig.org/2013/05/24/teselas-de-openstreetmap-sobre-gvsig/ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nUjN7SOwLQ4#action=share 109.130.201.33 (talk) 10:58, 13 May 2014 (UTC)

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Opening paragraph clarification
The opening paragraph states:  Are these boundaries spacial, discipline-based, or something else? An adjective would help. With best wishes. RobbieIanMorrison (talk) 12:16, 26 June 2017 (UTC)

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Excessive length
This article seems to be excessively long, and a handful of the subsections have their own articles (ie. Geostatistics). What is the general approach to this type of situation? Does it make sense to condense the information if it already exists elsewhere? Seems redundant to have a large section on this page that can easily be linked to another page. Or is this standard? I don't want to come in and start deleting information without first checking to see what's acceptable practice. Mejorasi723 (talk) 16:35, 8 December 2020 (UTC)
 * It is common for a broad topic like this to include a brief summary of many subtopics, with Main template links to link to the specific pages for those subtopics. The problem here is that many of those subtopics don't have separate pages into which the longer content can be moved. I would suggest new pages be created for GIS software (possibly just an expansion of List of GIS software), Data acquisition (GIS), Data quality (GIS), GIS application, maybe more. That said, I'm not sure what the encyclopedic head term (the title) should be for some of these.Bplewe (talk) 05:30, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

Page overhaul
I have done a fair amount of revision on this page over the last few days, reorganizing some sections to be in a more logical order, retitling some sections to be more standard, and adding some text that seemed to be necessary. However, this page still needs some serious text editing, perhaps a complete rewrite. Much of it sounds very amateurish, with lots of random sentences that don't flow together. I would still only give it a C grade.Bplewe (talk) 17:20, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

Charles Picquet as author of the 1932 cholera map
Question: everywhere I searched about Charles Picquet, his year of death is 1827. If this is correct, how could he have mapped the data for the cholera outbreak of 1832? It seems his son kept on publishing his father's maps after his death, but in this case, it would not be possible for Charles to have made the map by 1827 or before since the cholera hadn't reached Paris yet. Also, he is not listed as member of the comission who made the report (https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k842918/f5.item). Cassianord (talk) 15:17, 11 November 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Geographic information system


text:
Airspeed Ltd.

Airspeed Limited was established in 1931 to build aeroplanes in York, England, by A. H. Tiltman and Nevil Shute Norway (the aeronautical engineer and novelist, who used his forenames as his pen-name). The other directors were A. E. Hewitt, Lord Grimthorpe and Alan Cobham. Amy Johnson was also one of the initial subscribers for shares.

Foundation
Airspeed Ltd. was founded by Nevil Shute Norway (later to become a novelist as Nevil Shute) and designer Hessell Tiltman. In his autobiography, Slide Rule: Autobiography of an Engineer, Norway gives an account of the founding of the company and of the processes that led to the development and mass production of the Oxford. He received the Fellowship of the Royal Aeronautical Society for his innovative fitting of a retractable undercarriage to aircraft.

Early operations
The AS.1 Tern, the first British high-performance glider (sailplane), was built to get publicity, and attract more capital, by setting British gliding records. A glider was able to fly in two or three months while the design office and workshop was being set up in half of an empty bus garage, on Piccadilly in York. Shute flew the Tern's first test flight.

In 1932, Airspeed produced the AS.4 Ferry, a three-engined, ten-passenger biplane designed specifically for Sir Alan Cobham.

In March 1933, the firm moved to Portsmouth where the City Council gave generous terms for a factory building constructed to Airspeed's requirements at the local airport. The first Airspeed Courier was flown from there in 1933, followed by the first of a twin-engined development of the Courier, the Airspeed Envoy, in 1934. Both the Courier and the Envoy were made in small numbers. In the same year, a long-range racing version of the Envoy, the AS.8 Viceroy, was developed for the England-Australia MacRobertson Air Race.

In August 1934, Airspeed (1934) Limited made a public issue of shares, in association with the Tyneside ship builder Swan Hunter & Wigham Richardson Limited.

In 1934, six Couriers had been sold to an operating company for a hire purchase deposit of £5 each. Managing director, Nevil Shute, wrote that they could come back to Airspeed and as an "obsolescent type" might not be so easy to sell again. He got a reputation as "unscrupulous" for resisting the auditors' attempt to write them down on the books because, with growing talk of war, civil aircraft of any size would "sell immediately". As the six were worth nearly twenty thousand pounds, writing them down to half that would add £10,000 to their loss, making the firm's proposed share issue a very unattractive investment. Shute could see from his office the four hundred workers in the "shop" with families depending on their jobs. In 1936, most of the unsold Couriers and Envoys were sold and found their way to the Spanish Civil War. The demonstration Envoy was sold to the Spanish Nationalists for £6000, paid for in cash (six £1000 Bank of England notes). In 1935, the sole Airspeed Viceroy was nearly sold to Ethiopia for use against Italian forces.

In 1934, Shute negotiated with Anthony Fokker for a licensing agreement with Fokker. Shute found Fokker to be "genial, shrewd and helpful" but "already a sick man", and difficult to deal with because "his domestic life was irregular". Fokker worked "at all hours and in strange places". Frequently "his very efficient legal advisor and secretary could not tell us where he was". In 1935, Airspeed signed a manufacturing licensing agreement for the Douglas DC-2 and several Fokker types, with Fokker to be a consultant for seven years. Airspeed considered making the Fokker D.XVII fighter for Greece, which wanted to buy from Britain for currency reasons. Shute and a Fokker representative "who was well accustomed to methods of business in the Balkans", spent three weeks in Athens but did not close the deal. Shute recommended reading his novel Ruined City to find out what Balkan methods of business were. After a year, the drift to war, and their Air Ministry contracts, meant that the Dutch could not go to the Airspeed factory or board meetings.

Wolseley engine
All Airspeed aeroplanes under manufacture or development in 1936 were to use a Wolseley radial aero engine of about 250 hp which was under development by Nuffield, the Wolseley Scorpio. The project was abandoned in September 1936 after the expenditure of about two hundred thousand pounds when Lord Nuffield got the fixed price I.T.P. (Intention to Proceed) contract papers (which would have required re-orientation of their offices with an army of chartered accountants) and decided to deal only with the War Office and the Admiralty, not the Air Ministry.

According to Nevil Shute Norway it was a very advanced engine (and the price struck Shute as low; much lower than competing engines on the basis of power-to-weight ratio), so its loss was a major disaster for Airspeed (and Britain). But when he asked Lord Nuffield to retain the engine, Nuffield said "I tell you, Norway ... I sent that I.T.P. thing back to them, and I told them they could put it where the monkey put the nuts!" Shute wrote that the loss of the Wolseley engine due to the over-cautious high civil servants of the Air Ministry was a great loss to Britain. Shute said that "admitting Air Ministry methods of doing business ... would be like introducing a maggot into an apple .. Better to stick to selling motor vehicles for cash to the War Office and the Admiralty who retained the normal methods of buying and selling."

Second World War
In June, 1940, formal announcement was made that the de Havilland Aircraft Co., Ltd., had completed negotiations for the purchase from Swan, Hunter and Wigham Richardson, Ltd., of that firm's holding of Airspeed ordinary shares. Airspeed retained its identity as a separate company though as a wholly-owned subsidiary of de Havilland.

Around 1943, presumably to reduce the risk of Luftwaffe bombing, a new dispersed design office was opened at Fairmile Manor in Cobham, Surrey; little is known of this establishment and nothing survives there today.

Airspeed's most productive period was during the Second World War. The graceful, twin-engined trainer-cum-light transport aircraft known as the AS.10 Oxford had a production run exceeding 8,500.

3,800 AS51 and AS58 Horsa military gliders were built for the Royal Air Force and its allies. Many of these made one-way journeys into occupied France as part of the D-Day landings, and later the Netherlands for the Arnhem landing, towed from England behind aircraft such as the Douglas Dakota and Handley Page Halifax.

Postwar operations
The company reverted to the company name of Airspeed Limited on 25 January 1944. Postwar it converted over 150 surplus ex-RAF Oxford aircraft as AS65 Consuls for the commercial market. Airspeed went on to produce the superbly streamlined pressurised twin-engined piston airliner called the AS57 Ambassador. This served successfully for some years with British European Airways as their "Elizabethan Class". In 1951 Airspeed Limited was fully merged with de Havilland who then cancelled further development of the Ambassador, although the Ambassador fleet continued in service with smaller airlines such as Dan-Air until 1971. The original York factory was demolished in November 2015.

Aircraft

 * AS.1 Tern – (1931)
 * Glider (sailplane); built to get publicity by breaking British gliding records (Two built; plus parts for third, which were sold)

 * AS.4 Ferry – (5 April 1932)
 * Three-engine biplane transport aircraft, four built

 * AS.5 Courier – (1 April 1933)
 * Single-engine low-wing monoplane passenger transport with retractable undercarriage of conventional configuration, 16 built

 * AS.6 Envoy – (26 June 1934)
 * Two-engine development of the Courier, 60 built

 * AS.8 Viceroy – (August 1934)
 * Variant of Envoy, adapted for long-range flight. One aircraft was built

 * AS.10 Oxford – (19 June 1937)
 * Larger two-engine development of Envoy, built in large numbers in the Second World War.

 * AS.16
 * Projected licence production of Fokker F.XXII, none built.

 * AS.20
 * Projected licence production of Fokker F.XXXVI, none built.

 * AS.22
 * Projected licence production of Fokker C.X, none built.

 * AS.30 Queen Wasp – (11 June 1937)
 * Single-engine single-seat biplane target drone aircraft, seven built.

 * AS.39 Fleet Shadower – (18 October 1940)
 * Four-engine high-wing monoplane maritime patrol aircraft prototype. Two aircraft were ordered; one was completed

 * AS.45 Cambridge – (19 February 1941)
 * Single-engine two-seater low-wing monoplane trainer aircraft with retractable undercarriage of conventional configuration. Two aircraft were built

 * AS.51 Horsa I – (12 September 1941)
 * Large troop-carrying glider; 2,245 built including seven prototypes.

 * AS.57 Ambassador – (10 July 1947)
 * Two-engine high-wing piston engine airliner, 23 built

 * AS.58 Horsa II –
 * Variant of Horsa with openable nose section for front loading; 1,561 built.

 * AS.65 Consul – (March 1946)
 * Civilian conversion of wartime Oxford; 161 were converted in 1946-48.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Airspeed Ltd.


text:
Georg Ohm

Georg Simon Ohm (, ; 16 March 1789 – 6 July 1854) was a German physicist and mathematician. As a school teacher, Ohm began his research with the new electrochemical cell, invented by Italian scientist Alessandro Volta. Using equipment of his own creation, Ohm found that there is a direct proportionality between the potential difference (voltage) applied across a conductor and the resultant electric current. This relation is called Ohm's law, and the ohm, the unit of electrical resistance, is named after him.

Early life
Georg Simon Ohm was born into a Protestant family in Erlangen, Brandenburg-Bayreuth (then part of the Holy Roman Empire), son to locksmith Johann Wolfgang Ohm, and Maria Elizabeth Beck, daughter of a tailor in Erlangen. Although his parents had not been formally educated, Ohm's father was a respected man who had educated himself to a high level and was able to give his sons an excellent education through his own teachings. Of the seven children of the family only three survived to adulthood: Georg Simon, his younger brother Martin, who later became a well-known mathematician, and his sister Elizabeth Barbara. His mother died when he was ten.

From early childhood, Georg and Martin were taught by their father who brought them to a high standard in mathematics, physics, chemistry and philosophy. Georg Simon attended Erlangen Gymnasium from age eleven to fifteen where he received little in the area of scientific training, which sharply contrasted with the inspired instruction that both Georg and Martin received from their father. This characteristic made the Ohms bear a resemblance to the Bernoulli family, as noted by Karl Christian von Langsdorf, a professor at the University of Erlangen.

Life in university
Georg Ohm's father, concerned that his son was wasting his educational opportunity, sent Ohm to Switzerland. There in September 1806 Ohm accepted a position as a mathematics teacher in a school in Gottstadt bei Nidau.

Karl Christian von Langsdorf left the University of Erlangen in early 1809 to take up a post in the University of Heidelberg. Ohm wanted to restart his mathematical studies with Langsdorf in Heidelberg. Langsdorf, however, advised Ohm to pursue mathematical studies on his own, and suggested that Ohm read works of Euler, Laplace and Lacroix. Rather reluctantly Ohm took his advice but he left his teaching post in Gottstatt Monastery in March 1809 to become a private tutor in Neuchâtel. For two years he carried out his duties as a tutor while he followed Langsdorf's advice and continued his private study of mathematics. Then in April 1811 he returned to the University of Erlangen.

Teaching career
Ohm's own studies prepared him for his doctorate which he received from the University of Erlangen on October 25, 1811. He immediately joined the faculty there as a lecturer in mathematics but left after three semesters because of unpromising prospects. He could not survive on his salary as a lecturer. The Bavarian government offered him a post as a teacher of mathematics and physics at a poor quality school in Bamberg which Ohm accepted in January 1813. Unhappy with his job, Georg began writing an elementary textbook on geometry as a way to prove his abilities. That school was closed in February 1816. The Bavarian government then sent Ohm to an overcrowded school in Bamberg to help out with the teaching of mathematics.

After his assignment in Bamberg, Ohm sent his completed manuscript to King Wilhelm III of Prussia. The King was satisfied with Ohm's book, and offered Ohm a position at the Jesuit Gymnasium of Cologne on 11 September 1817. This school had a reputation for good science education and Ohm was required to teach physics in addition to mathematics. The physics laboratory was well equipped, allowing Ohm to begin experiments in physics. As the son of a locksmith, Ohm had some practical experience with mechanical devices.

Ohm published Die galvanische Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet (The Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically) in 1827. Ohm's college did not appreciate his work and Ohm resigned from his position. He then made an application to, and was employed by, the Polytechnic School of Nuremberg. Ohm arrived at the Polytechnic School of Nuremberg in 1833, and in 1852 he became a professor of experimental physics at the University of Munich.

In 1849, Ohm published Beiträge zur Molecular-Physik (Molecular Physics). In the preface of this work he stated he hoped to write a second and third volume "and if God gives me length of days for it, a fourth". However, on finding that an original discovery recorded in it was being anticipated by a Swedish scientist he did not publish it, stating: "The episode has given a fresh and deep sense for my mind to the saying 'Man proposes, and God disposes'. The project that gave the first impetus to my inquiry has been dissipated into mist, and a new one, undesigned by me, has been accomplished in its place."

Ohm died in Munich in 1854, and is buried in the Alter Südfriedhof. A collection of his family letters would be compiled in a German book, which shows that he used to sign some of his letters with the expression "Gott befohlen, G S Ohm," meaning "Commended to God".

Discovery of Ohm's law
Ohm's law first appeared in the famous book Die galvanische Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet (The Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically) (1827) in which he gave his complete theory of electricity. In this work, he stated his law for electromotive force acting between the extremities of any part of a circuit is the product of the strength of the current, and the resistance of that part of the circuit.

The book begins with the mathematical background necessary for an understanding of the rest of the work. While his work greatly influenced the theory and applications of current electricity, it was coldly received at that time. Ohm presents his theory as one of contiguous action, a theory which opposed the concept of action at a distance. Ohm believed that the communication of electricity occurred between "contiguous particles" which is the term he himself used. The paper is concerned with this idea, and in particular with illustrating the differences in this scientific approach of Ohm's and the approaches of Joseph Fourier and Claude-Louis Navier.

A study of the conceptual framework used by Ohm in producing Ohm's law has been presented by Thomas Archibald. The work of Ohm marked the early beginning of the subject of circuit theory, although this did not become an important field until the end of the century.

Ohm's acoustic law
Ohm's acoustic law, sometimes called the acoustic phase law or simply Ohm's law, states that a musical sound is perceived by the ear as a set of a number of constituent pure harmonic tones. It is well known to be not quite true.

Study and publications
His first paper in 1825 examined the decrease in the electromagnetic force produced by a wire as the length of the wire increased. In 1826, he gave a description of conduction in circuits modelled on Fourier's study of heat conduction. This paper continued Ohm's deduction of results from experimental evidence and, particularly in the second, he was able to propose laws which went a long way to explaining results of others working on galvanic electricity. The most important was his pamphlet published in Berlin in 1827, with the title Die galvanische Kette mathematisch bearbeitet. This work, the germ of which had appeared during the two preceding years in the journals of Schweigger and Poggendorff, has exerted an important influence on the development of the theory and applications of electric current. Ohm's name has been incorporated in the terminology of electrical science in Ohm's Law (which he first published in Die galvanische Kette...), the proportionality of current and voltage in a resistor, and adopted as the SI unit of resistance, the ohm (symbol Ω).

Although Ohm's work strongly influenced theory, at first it was received with little enthusiasm. However, his work was eventually recognized by the Royal Society with its award of the Copley Medal in 1841. He became a foreign member of the Royal Society in 1842, and in 1845 he became a full member of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities. At some extent, Charles Wheatstone drew attention to the definitions which Ohm had introduced in the field of physics.

Works

 * English translation:
 * Erste Hälfte [First half], 1852 — via Munich Digitization Center
 * Zweite Hälfte [Second half], 1853 — via Google Books
 * Erste Abtheilung, Allgemeine Physik [Volume 1 General Physics], 1854 — via Google Books
 * Zweite Abtheilung, Besondere Physik [Volume 2 Special Physics], 1854 — via Google Books
 * Erste Hälfte [First half], 1852 — via Munich Digitization Center
 * Zweite Hälfte [Second half], 1853 — via Google Books
 * Erste Abtheilung, Allgemeine Physik [Volume 1 General Physics], 1854 — via Google Books
 * Zweite Abtheilung, Besondere Physik [Volume 2 Special Physics], 1854 — via Google Books
 * Zweite Abtheilung, Besondere Physik [Volume 2 Special Physics], 1854 — via Google Books

title: Georg Ohm


text:
Supermodel

A supermodel is a highly paid fashion model who has a worldwide reputation and background in haute couture and commercial modeling. The term became popular in the 1990s. Supermodels usually work for prominent fashion designers and clothing brands. They may have multimillion-dollar contracts, endorsements, and campaigns. Supermodels have branded themselves as household names and worldwide recognition is associated with their modeling careers. They have been on the covers of leading fashion magazines. Claudia Schiffer stated in 2007 that, "In order to become a supermodel one must be on all the covers all over the world at the same time so that people can recognise the girls."

Origins
An early use of the term supermodel appeared in 1891, in an interview with artist Henry Stacy Marks for The Strand Magazine, in which Marks told journalist Harry How, "A good many models are addicted to drink, and, after sitting a while, will suddenly go to sleep. Then I have had what I call the 'super' model. You know the sort of man; he goes in for theatrical effect ..." On 6 October 1942, a writer named Judith Cass had used the term super model for her article in the Chicago Tribune, which headlined "Super Models Are Signed for Fashion Show". Later in 1943, an agent named Clyde Matthew Dessner used the term in a "how-to" book about modeling, entitled So You Want to Be a Model!, in which Dessner wrote, "She will be a super-model, but the girl in her will be like the girl in you—quite ordinary, but ambitious and eager for personal development." According to Model: The Ugly Business of Beautiful Women by Michael Gross, the term supermodel was first used by Dessner in the 1940s. In 1949, Cosmopolitan magazine referred to Anita Colby, the highest paid model at the time, as a "super model": "She's been super model, super movie saleswoman, and top brass at Selznick and Paramount." On 18 October 1959, Vancouver's Chinatown News described Susan Chew as a "super model".

The term supermodel had also been used several times in the media in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1965, the encyclopedic guide American Jurisprudence Trials used the term "super model" ("...at issue was patient's belief that her husband was having an affair with a super model"). On 21 March 1967, The New York Times referred to Twiggy as a supermodel; the February 1968 article of Glamour listed all 19 "supermodels"; The Chicago Daily Defender wrote "New York Designer Turns Super Model" in January 1970; The Washington Post and the Mansfield News Journal used the term in 1971; and in 1974, both the Chicago Tribune and The Advocate used the term "supermodel" in their articles. American Vogue used the term "super-model" to describe Jean Shrimpton in the 15 October 1965 edition, and "supermodel" on the cover page to describe Margaux Hemingway in the 1 September 1975 edition. Hemingway was again described as a "supermodel" in the 25 July 1977 edition of Time. Jet also described Beverly Johnson as a "supermodel" in the 22 December 1977 edition.

Model Janice Dickinson has incorrectly stated that she coined the term supermodel in 1979, as a compound of Superman and model. During an interview with Entertainment Tonight, Dickinson stated that her agent, Monique Pilar of Elite Model Management, asked her, "Janice, who do you think you are, Superman?" She replied, "No ... I'm a supermodel, honey, and you will refer to me as a supermodel and you will start a supermodel division." Dickinson also claims to have been the first supermodel.

Lisa Fonssagrives is widely considered to have been the world's first supermodel, with a career that began in the 1930s. She was in most of the major fashion magazines and general interest magazines from the 1930s to the 1950s, including Town & Country, Life, Vogue, the original Vanity Fair, Harper's Bazaar, and Time. Evelyn Nesbit (with a career launched around 1900) and Dorian Leigh (her career launched in 1944) have also been called the world's first supermodel,  as well as Jean Shrimpton (early 1960s),     and Gia Carangi (late 1970s).

Dutch-born model, Wilhelmina Cooper, holds the record for most covers on American Vogue, appearing 27 or 28 times throughout the 1950s and 1960s. Cooper would go on to found Wilhelmina Models modeling and talent agency in 1967.

1960s–1970s
In February 1968, an article in Glamour described 19 models as "supermodels": Cheryl Tiegs, Veruschka, Lisa Palmer, Peggy Moffitt, Sue Murray, Twiggy, Sunny Harnett, Marisa Berenson, Gretchen Harris, Heide Wiedeck, Irish Bianchi, Hiroko Matsumoto, Anne de Zogheb, Kathy Carpenter, Jean Shrimpton, Jean Patchett, Benedetta Barzini, Claudia Duxbury and Agneta Frieberg.

In the 1970s is when many consider the origination of the supermodel, some models becoming more prominent as their names became more recognizable to the general public by commercial endorsements, magazine covers,posters, securing large sums of money for cosmetic contracts, TV appearances and movie roles. Sports Illustrated editor Jule Campbell abandoned then-current modeling trends for its fledgling Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue by photographing "bigger and healthier" California models, and captioning the photographs with their names, turning many of them into household names and establishing the swimsuit issue as a cornerstone of supermodel status.

In 1973, Lauren Hutton became the first model to receive a contract from a cosmetics company, when Revlon hired her to sell their Ultima line. She has also appeared on the cover of Vogue 26 times. Naomi Sims is considered to be the first black supermodel. Donyale Luna, Beverly Johnson and Iman have also been referred to as the first black supermodel.

In 1975, Margaux Hemingway landed a then-unprecedented million-dollar contract as the face of Fabergé's Babe perfume and the same year, appeared on the cover of Time magazine, labelled as one of the "New Beauties", giving further name recognition to fashion models.

Cheryl Tiegs, described by many as America's first supermodel, became a cultural icon during the 1970's. In addition to covers of Vogue, Cosmopolitan, Harper's Bazaar and Glamour magazines, she appeared on the covers of Sports Illustrated, People, Newsweek and US, with the caption, "Why She's America's Top Model." Her 1978 pink bikini poster became a symbol of 70's pop culture and was the second best selling poster of that decade. In 1979, she signed the biggest cosmetics contract at the time: A five year, 1.5 million dollar deal with CoverGirl.

Christie Brinkley has the distinction of having the longest running cosmetics contract of any model in history when she represented CoverGirl for twenty five years.

Anna Bayle, a Filipino-born model who rose to prominence in the 1970s, has been cited as one of the first Southeast Asian supermodels.

Donyale Luna was the first black model to appear in British Vogue, in March 1966. Naomi Sims, who is sometimes regarded as the first black supermodel, became the first African American to feature on the cover of Ladies' Home Journal, in 1968. The first African American model to be on the cover of American Vogue was Beverly Johnson in 1974. Pat Cleveland, another prominent African-American model, has also been described as one of the first black supermodels, in particular by former editor-at-large for American Vogue André Leon Talley, in an article for the June 1980 issue of Ebony magazine, and again in his 2003 memoir.

1980s

In October 1981, Life cited Shelley Hack, Lauren Hutton, and Iman for Revlon, Margaux Hemingway for Fabergé, Karen Graham for Estée Lauder, Cristina Ferrare for Max Factor, and Cheryl Tiegs for CoverGirl by proclaiming them the "million dollar faces" of the beauty industry. These supermodels negotiated previously unheard of lucrative and exclusive deals with the giant cosmetics companies, were instantly recognizable, and their names became well known to the general public.

In the early 1980s, Inès de La Fressange was the first model to sign an exclusive modeling contract with an haute couture fashion house, Chanel. During the early 1980s, fashion designers began advertising on television and billboards. Catwalk regulars like Gia Carangi, Tiegs, Christie Brinkley, Kim Alexis, Paulina Porizkova, Yasmin Le Bon, Kathy Ireland, Brooke Shields, and Elle Macpherson began to endorse products with their names, as well as their faces, through the marketing of brands, such as Diet Pepsi and Ford trucks. In 1980, 14-year-old Shields was the youngest fashion model ever to appear on the cover of Vogue. Later that same year, Shields appeared in controversial print and TV ads for Calvin Klein jeans. The TV ad included her saying the famous tagline, "You want to know what comes between me and my Calvins? Nothing." Brooke Shields' ads would help catapult Klein's career to super-designer status.

As the models began to embrace old-style glamour, they were starting to replace film stars as symbols of luxury and wealth. In this regard, supermodels were viewed not so much as individuals but as images.

1990s

By the 1990s, the supermodel became increasingly prominent in the media. The title became tantamount to superstar, to signify a supermodel's fame having risen simply from "personality". Supermodels did talk shows, were cited in gossip columns, partied at the trendiest nightspots, landed movie roles, inspired franchises, dated or married film stars, and earned themselves millions. Fame empowered them to take charge of their careers, to market themselves, and to command higher fees.

The new era began in 1990, with the era-defining British Vogue cover of Cindy Crawford, Christy Turlington, Linda Evangelista, Naomi Campbell, and Tatjana Patitz, photographed by Peter Lindbergh, which created such an impression on the fashion world that they came to embody the term "supermodel". Each model had gradually attained fame since the mid-1980s and was now among the industry's top stars. Selected by Lindbergh for the January cover of Vogue, the cover inspired singer George Michael to cast the same five models in the music video for his song, "Freedom! '90", directed by David Fincher. The other photograph that captured this new generation of fashion models is the black and white nude of Crawford, Patitz, Campbell and Stephanie Seymour taken by Herb Ritts that originally ran in the May 1989 issue of Rolling Stone, until a variation of this image which included Turlington was released in the 1990s, only after a contract exclusively binding her to Calvin Klein expired - thereby publicly revealing the now iconic image "Stephanie, Cindy, Christy, Tatjana, Naomi, Hollywood 1989." Lindbergh's and Ritts' group images helped each model attain worldwide fame by sharing covers of all the international editions of Vogue, walking the catwalks for the world's top designers, and becoming known by their first names alone.

Today, Campbell, Crawford, Evangelista, Patitz and Turlington are regarded as the "Original Supermodels", but the term has been used to describe the pioneering supermodels before them that paved the way and started the path to prominence, both publicly and professionally, such as Lauren Hutton, Beverly Johnson, Cheryl Tiegs, Christie Brinkley, Pat Cleveland and others.

In 1991, Turlington signed a contract with Maybelline that paid her $800,000 for twelve days' work each year. Four years later, Claudia Schiffer reportedly earned $12 million for her various modeling assignments. Authorities, ranging from Karl Lagerfeld to Time, had declared the supermodels more glamorous than movie stars.

Campbell, Evangelista and Turlington became known as The Trinity, a term first used by photographer Steven Meisel and noted by journalist Michael Gross. Evangelista was known as the "Chameleon", for her ability to transform her look and reinvent herself. Turlington was known as the "insurance model", saying "clients know that if they hire me, nothing will go wrong". Campbell was the first black model to appear on the front covers of Time, French Vogue, British Vogue, and the September issue of American Vogue, traditionally the biggest and most important issue of the year.

Campbell, Crawford, Evangelista, Patitz and Turlington were the original group to be regarded as "The Big Five" supermodels of the 1990s. The term "The Big Five" was later used to describe Campbell, Crawford, Evangelista, Turlington and Claudia Schiffer, and with the addition of Kate Moss, they became known as "the Big Six". It was Linda Evangelista, Tatjana Patitz, Naomi Campbell, Christy Turlington, and Kate Moss who appeared together in the highest budgeted advertising campaign of all time, starring the original supermodels ($4.5 million USD in 1992, adjusted for inflation in 2021, $8.5 million USD) ) and resulted in a now iconic television commercial for the Vauxhall Corsa automobile.

In the 2006 book In Vogue: The Illustrated History of the World's Most Famous Fashion Magazine (Rizzoli), the editors cite the "original supermodels" and Schiffer when quoting Vogue Magazine Editor-In-Chief, Anna Wintour, who said, "Those girls were so fabulous for fashion and totally reflected that time ... [They] were like movie stars." The editors name famous models from previous decades, but explain that, "None of them attained the fame and worldwide renown bestowed on Linda Evangelista, Christy Turlington, Cindy Crawford, Naomi Campbell, Tatjana Patitz, Stephanie Seymour, Claudia Schiffer, Yasmeen Ghauri, and Karen Mulder, in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These models burst out beyond the pages of the magazines. Many became the faces of cosmetics brands and perfumes, had their own television programs and physical-fitness videos, and their own lines of lingerie ... Their lives, activities, influences, and images were the subjects of all types of sociological and historical analysis." Tyra Banks had begun her career as a model, booking a record-breaking 25 shows in 1991, during her breakout year. She achieved Supermodel status, and rivaled Naomi Campbell as the top Black model in the world.

In the mid-1990s, the initial era of the supermodel ended and a new era for the supermodel began driven by heroin chic. By the late 1990s, actresses, pop singers, and other entertainment celebrities began gradually replacing models on fashion magazine covers and ad campaigns. The pendulum of limelight left many models in anonymity. A popular "conspiracy theory" explaining the supermodel's disappearance is that designers and fashion editors grew weary of the "I won't get out of bed for less than $10,000 a day" attitude and made sure no small group of models would ever again have the power of the Big Six.

Charles Gandee, associate editor at Vogue, has said that high prices and poor attitudes contributed less to the decline of the supermodel. As clothes became less flashy, designers turned to models who were less glamorous, so they wouldn't overpower the clothing. Whereas many supermodels of the previous era were American-born, their accents making for an easier transition to stardom, the majority of models began coming from non-English speaking countries and cultures, making the crossover to mainstream spokesperson and cover star difficult. However, the term continued to be applied to notable models such as Kristen McMenamy, Stella Tennant, Laetitia Casta, Eva Herzigová, Carla Bruni, Tatiana Sorokko,  Yasmin Le Bon, Amber Valletta, Shalom Harlow, Nadja Auermann, Helena Christensen, Patricia Velásquez, Adriana Karembeu,  Valeria Mazza and later, Milla Jovovich.

2000s and present day

Emerging in the late 1990s, Gisele Bündchen became the first in a wave of Brazilian models to gain popularity in the industry and with the public. With numerous covers of Vogue under her belt, including an issue that dubbed her the "Return of the Sexy Model", Bündchen was credited with ending the "heroin chic" era of models. Following in her footsteps by signing contracts with Victoria's Secret, fellow Brazilians Adriana Lima and Alessandra Ambrosio rose to prominence; however, they were unable to cross over into the world of TV, movies and talk shows as easily as their predecessors, due to their foreign accents. Not to mention other big stars of 00s era such as Carmen Kass, Karolína Kurková, Hana Soukupová, Isabeli Fontana, Natalia Vodianova and Natasha Poly, which also dominated the runways and ad campaigns along with Bündchen et al.

Several seasons later, they were followed by Eastern Europeans, barely into their teens, pale, and "bordering on anorexic. They were too young to become movie stars or date celebrities; too skeletal to bag Victoria's Secret contracts; and a lack of English didn't bode well for a broad media career". The opportunities for superstardom were waning in the modeling world, and models like Heidi Klum and Tyra Banks took to television with reality shows like Project Runway and Germany's Next Topmodel, and America's Next Top Model, respectively, to not only remain relevant but establish themselves as media moguls.

Contrary to the fashion industry's celebrity trend of the previous decade, lingerie retailer Victoria's Secret continues to groom and launch young talents into supermodel status, awarding their high-profile "Angels" multi-year, multimillion-dollar contracts.

American Vogue dubbed ten models (Doutzen Kroes, Agyness Deyn, Hilary Rhoda, Raquel Zimmermann, Coco Rocha, Lily Donaldson, Chanel Iman, Sasha Pivovarova, Caroline Trentini and Jessica Stam) as the new crop of supermodels in their May 2007 cover story, while the likes of Christie Brinkley, Christy Turlington, and Linda Evangelista returned to reclaim prominent contracts from celebrities and younger models. The rise of social media and so-called "nepotism babies" has seen a shift in the world of modelling from the late 2010s onwards. This means that many of today's 'supermodels' arguably took a rise to fame and were given the opportunities as they have due to their rich and famous families. Examples of these models are Kendall Jenner, Cara Delevingne, Bella Hadid, Gigi Hadid and Kaia Gerber. Despite the controversy surrounding these models and arguments that they only got their fame due to their families, they have proven to be some of the most successful models of today. In 2021, Kendall Jenner was named as the highest-paid supermodel, earning $40 million. The Hadid sisters weren't far behind, with Bella and Gigi earning $19 million and $20 million respectively.

Male supermodels

In addition to the models stated previously, a top-grossing part of the industry that tends to be overlooked is the male side of modeling. Even though women are predominantly known in the modeling industry, men also appear in advertisements for clothing, cologne, sports wear and other such accessories.

Modeling is one of the only industries that sees a gender gap leaning towards women. Women earn up to 75% more than men in the modeling industry. The highest paid models in the world in 2022, the American female model Kendall Jenner earned $40 million while the American male model Sean O’Pry earned $1.5 million, only 3% of what Jenner is making. Historically, the menswear sector has gotten less financial support than the womenswear industry. In addition to that, there is only 1 male designer for every 20 female designers. Overall, the demand for female models is much greater than that for male models. Some also attribute the pay difference to the lengthier career of male models compared to female models due to the fashion industry’s dismissive attitude towards older women.

Study has shown that there has been an annual 17.4% increase in men’s clothing online from 2010-2015. The men’s apparel segment amounts to US$568.9 billion in 2023 and the market is expected to grow annually by 2.9%. Compared to 2014, the men’s apparel market in 2023 has grown by 28%. According to Euromonitor, demand for men’s clothing has even been growing 0.2% faster than that of women’s. In recent years, there have also been separate men’s fashion weeks in Paris, Milan, New York, and London. Studies have shown that this can be attributed to more men being found to begin to care more about fashion and beauty and the social media savvy male models / celebrities, like Lucky Blue Smith, Jason Morgan, and David Gandy.

Diversity and inclusion in the male modeling industry
In 1994, Polo’s sports ad shot by Bruce Weber featured Tyson Beckford, a black masculine male model. Beckford later admitted during an interview in 2014 that, "There's a huge lack of strong African American images in fashion." Beckford also noted that, "I am happy that Ralph Lauren have used guys who look similar like me after."

In the summer of 2011, the Vancouver model Godfrey Gao also became Louis Vuitton, the luxury brand’s first Asian model.

In 2016, IMG Models launched its Brawn division which aimed to elevate the careers of plus-size male models. The first model hired under the new division is Zach Miko. Three years in, IMG has 7 models under the Brawn division.

In October 2022, Steven Green, the Kansas City born fashion photographer, starred in Rihanna’s Savage X Fenty’s men underwear campaign as a plus-size model. Green reflected that, "he was not confident being his size and shirtless on the internet, but the positive feedback he got was inspiring to him."

Male model requirements
Usually, the mass majority (not all) of agencies that sign on fashion/runway male models favor a height range consisting of 5’10”-6’2″. The more strict agencies set a minimum height of 5’11”.

1990s
In 1993, Italian model Fabio Lanzoni, was the highest paid male model worldwide, getting paid several million dollars a year, doing advertisements for high-end brands like Versace.

Milind Soman quickly became a supermodel in India and was one of the most popular supermodels of the world in the 90s, successfully transitioning to films and television later in life.

Tyson Beckford is known for posing in a number of ads for Ralph Lauren's Polo sport cologne line. Since 1990, he has been the face of Gucci and Tommy Hilfiger, won Model of the year on VH1 Fashion award, and he has also appeared in Calvin Klein's campaign.

Tim Boyce was the first openly gay high fashion male supermodel of the 1990s and is credited for increasing the profile of gay celebrities, appearing on the cover of Out magazine as well as campaigns for Giorgio Armani and Gianfranco Ferre.

2000s
In 2000s, Bruno Santos, a Brazilian model, became notorious for being the only male model selected to carry out two campaigns simultaneously for two competing fashion houses: Versace and Giorgio Armani. This earned him the nickname "Gisele Bündchen in pants".

Former professional football player David Beckham is noted as the Underwear Model of the Century. He has modeled for worldwide ads for H&M, Adidas, Calvin Klein, Burger King, Sainsbury's, and Breitling. British model David Gandy was described as achieving "icon status" by ABC News when they featured him on Nightline, stating, "As the face of Dolce & Gabbana and Lucky Jeans, Gandy is arguably one of the most successful male models ever, but he's a bit modest about that "supermodel" title."

2010s
Vogue.com ranked the "Top 10 Male Models of All Time" in September 2014; the list included Tyson Beckford, David Gandy, Brad Kroenig, Sean O'Pry, Jon Kortajarena, Marcus Schenkenberg, Mathias Lauridsen, Mark Vanderloo, Noah Mills, and Evandro Soldati. In 2013, Forbes named O'Pry the highest-paid male model.

Supermodels now
Various magazines and websites, including various international versions of: Elle, Harper's Bazaar, and Vogue, have attributed the 'supermodel' title to a selection of models.

The male models, include: David Gandy, Jon Kortajarena, Mathias Lauridsen, Alton Mason, and Simon Nessman.

The female models, include: Vittoria Ceretti, Imaan Hammam, Cong He, Felice Noordhoff, Blanca Padilla, Mika Schneider, FeiFei Sun, Mona Tougaard, and Rianne Van Rompaey.

Plus-size
Since 2000, there has been an emergence of models known as female "plus-size" top models, including Robyn Lawley, Crystal Renn, Ashley Graham, Candice Huffine, Tara Lynn, Whitney Thompson, Katya Zharkova, Denise Bidot, Sophie Dahl, Jennie Runk and Natalie Laughlin. These models have been in Catwalks, magazines, and Billboards for brands known worldwide like Vogue, Glamour, Levi's, Forever 21, Cover Girl cosmetics, Saks Fifth Avenue, GQ Magazine, and Chanel. Graham had widespread amount of news coverage worldwide after Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue had her as one of the three covers of the 2016 edition.

In-between size
Camille Kostek, an "in-between size" or "middle model", landed a solo cover of the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue in 2019 despite not being on the extreme end of the spectrum as runway size (0–2) or plus-size (10 up). Recalling her difficulty breaking out she has stated, "I was told that it was too bad that I wasn't a size 10. That plus-size is a big market right now and it's too bad I wasn't measuring bigger. My size (4/6) is considered an "in-between size," meaning I'm not a straight model nor plus model, I'm right in the middle." Regardless, she has walked the runways of New York Fashion Week and Miami Beach Swim Week.

Perception
Perception of the supermodel as an industry has been frequent inside and outside the fashion press, from complaints that women desiring this status become unhealthily thin to charges of racism of dominant racial groups of the home countries in the first decade of the twenty-first century, where the "supermodel" generally has to conform to the native majority's standard of beauty, for example Northern European standards in United States or Indian standards in India. According to fashion writer Guy Trebay of The New York Times, in 2007, the "android" look was popular, a vacant stare and thin body serving, according to some fashion industry conventions, to set off the couture. This had not always been the case. In the 1970s in North America, black, heavier and "ethnic" models dominated the runways but social changes in the 1980s to the early 2000s persuaded the power players in the fashion industry to shun suggestions of "otherness". However, since the latter part of the first decade of the twenty-first century, an increasing level of racial diversity has been noted among supermodels in the American fashion scene, catering to the growing East Asian markets, including Japanese model Tao Okamoto and Chinese models Fei Fei Sun and Liu Wen. Due to the rising importance of social media and social movements such as third wave body positivity, the range of diversity within the industry expanded to diversity in sizes, genders and social media visibility.

title: Supermodel