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Emergence

In philosophy, systems theory, science, and art, emergence occurs when a complex entity has properties or behaviors that its parts do not have on their own, and emerge only when they interact in a wider whole.

Emergence plays a central role in theories of integrative levels and of complex systems. For instance, the phenomenon of life as studied in biology is an emergent property of chemistry and physics.

In philosophy, theories that emphasize emergent properties have been called emergentism.

In philosophy
Philosophers often understand emergence as a claim about the etiology of a system's properties. An emergent property of a system, in this context, is one that is not a property of any component of that system, but is still a feature of the system as a whole. Nicolai Hartmann (1882–1950), one of the first modern philosophers to write on emergence, termed this a categorial novum (new category).

Definitions
This concept of emergence dates from at least the time of Aristotle. The many scientists and philosophers who have written on the concept include John Stuart Mill (Composition of Causes, 1843) and Julian Huxley (1887–1975).

The philosopher G. H. Lewes coined the term "emergent" in 1875, distinguishing it from the merely "resultant":

Every resultant is either a sum or a difference of the co-operant forces; their sum, when their directions are the same – their difference, when their directions are contrary. Further, every resultant is clearly traceable in its components, because these are homogeneous and commensurable. It is otherwise with emergents, when, instead of adding measurable motion to measurable motion, or things of one kind to other individuals of their kind, there is a co-operation of things of unlike kinds. The emergent is unlike its components insofar as these are incommensurable, and it cannot be reduced to their sum or their difference.

Strong and weak emergence
Usage of the notion "emergence" may generally be subdivided into two perspectives, that of "weak emergence" and "strong emergence". One paper discussing this division is Weak Emergence, by philosopher Mark Bedau. In terms of physical systems, weak emergence is a type of emergence in which the emergent property is amenable to computer simulation or similar forms of after-the-fact analysis (for example, the formation of a traffic jam, the structure of a flock of starlings in flight or a school of fish, or the formation of galaxies). Crucial in these simulations is that the interacting members retain their independence. If not, a new entity is formed with new, emergent properties: this is called strong emergence, which it is argued cannot be simulated, analysed or reduced.

David Chalmers writes that emergence often causes confusion in philosophy and science due to a failure to demarcate strong and weak emergence, which are "quite different concepts".

Some common points between the two notions are that emergence concerns new properties produced as the system grows, which is to say ones which are not shared with its components or prior states. Also, it is assumed that the properties are supervenient rather than metaphysically primitive.

Weak emergence describes new properties arising in systems as a result of the interactions at a fundamental level. However, Bedau stipulates that the properties can be determined only by observing or simulating the system, and not by any process of a reductionist analysis. As a consequence the emerging properties are scale dependent: they are only observable if the system is large enough to exhibit the phenomenon. Chaotic, unpredictable behaviour can be seen as an emergent phenomenon, while at a microscopic scale the behaviour of the constituent parts can be fully deterministic.

Bedau notes that weak emergence is not a universal metaphysical solvent, as the hypothesis that consciousness is weakly emergent would not resolve the traditional philosophical questions about the physicality of consciousness. However, Bedau concludes that adopting this view would provide a precise notion that emergence is involved in consciousness, and second, the notion of weak emergence is metaphysically benign.

Strong emergence describes the direct causal action of a high-level system on its components; qualities produced this way are irreducible to the system's constituent parts. The whole is other than the sum of its parts. It is argued then that no simulation of the system can exist, for such a simulation would itself constitute a reduction of the system to its constituent parts. Physics lacks well-established examples of strong emergence, unless it is interpreted as the impossibility in practice to explain the whole in terms of the parts. Practical impossibility may be a more useful distinction than one in principle, since it is easier to determine and quantify, and does not imply the use of mysterious forces, but simply reflects the limits of our capability.

Viability of strong emergence
Some thinkers question the plausibility of strong emergence as contravening our usual understanding of physics. Mark A. Bedau observes:

"Although strong emergence is logically possible, it is uncomfortably like magic. How does an irreducible but supervenient downward causal power arise, since by definition it cannot be due to the aggregation of the micro-level potentialities? Such causal powers would be quite unlike anything within our scientific ken. This not only indicates how they will discomfort reasonable forms of materialism. Their mysteriousness will only heighten the traditional worry that emergence entails illegitimately getting something from nothing."

Strong emergence can be criticized for leading to causal overdetermination. The canonical example concerns emergent mental states (M and M∗) that supervene on physical states (P and P∗) respectively. Let M and M∗ be emergent properties. Let M∗ supervene on base property P∗. What happens when M causes M∗? Jaegwon Kim says:

"In our schematic example above, we concluded that M causes M∗ by causing P∗. So M causes P∗. Now, M, as an emergent, must itself have an emergence base property, say P. Now we face a critical question: if an emergent, M, emerges from basal condition P, why cannot P displace M as a cause of any putative effect of M? Why cannot P do all the work in explaining why any alleged effect of M occurred? If causation is understood as nomological (law-based) sufficiency, P, as M's emergence base, is nomologically sufficient for it, and M, as P∗'s cause, is nomologically sufficient for P∗. It follows that P is nomologically sufficient for P∗ and hence qualifies as its cause...If M is somehow retained as a cause, we are faced with the highly implausible consequence that every case of downward causation involves overdetermination (since P remains a cause of P∗ as well). Moreover, this goes against the spirit of emergentism in any case: emergents are supposed to make distinctive and novel causal contributions."

If M is the cause of M∗, then M∗ is overdetermined because M∗ can also be thought of as being determined by P. One escape-route that a strong emergentist could take would be to deny downward causation. However, this would remove the proposed reason that emergent mental states must supervene on physical states, which in turn would call physicalism into question, and thus be unpalatable for some philosophers and physicists.

Objective or subjective quality
Crutchfield regards the properties of complexity and organization of any system as subjective qualities determined by the observer.

Defining structure and detecting the emergence of complexity in nature are inherently subjective, though essential, scientific activities. Despite the difficulties, these problems can be analysed in terms of how model-building observers infer from measurements the computational capabilities embedded in non-linear processes. An observer's notion of what is ordered, what is random, and what is complex in its environment depends directly on its computational resources: the amount of raw measurement data, of memory, and of time available for estimation and inference. The discovery of structure in an environment depends more critically and subtly, though, on how those resources are organized. The descriptive power of the observer's chosen (or implicit) computational model class, for example, can be an overwhelming determinant in finding regularity in data.

The low entropy of an ordered system can be viewed as an example of subjective emergence: the observer sees an ordered system by ignoring the underlying microstructure (i.e. movement of molecules or elementary particles) and concludes that the system has a low entropy. On the other hand, chaotic, unpredictable behaviour can also be seen as subjective emergent, while at a microscopic scale the movement of the constituent parts can be fully deterministic.

In science
In physics, emergence is used to describe a property, law, or phenomenon which occurs at macroscopic scales (in space or time) but not at microscopic scales, despite the fact that a macroscopic system can be viewed as a very large ensemble of microscopic systems.

An emergent behavior of a physical system is a qualitative property that can only occur in the limit that the number of microscopic constituents tends to infinity.

According to Robert Laughlin, for many particle systems, nothing can be calculated exactly from the microscopic equations, and macroscopic systems are characterised by broken symmetry: the symmetry present in the microscopic equations is not present in the macroscopic system, due to phase transitions. As a result, these macroscopic systems are described in their own terminology, and have properties that do not depend on many microscopic details.

Novelist Arthur Koestler used the metaphor of Janus (a symbol of the unity underlying complements like open/shut, peace/war) to illustrate how the two perspectives (strong vs. weak or holistic vs. reductionistic) should be treated as non-exclusive, and should work together to address the issues of emergence. Theoretical physicist PW Anderson states it this way:

"The ability to reduce everything to simple fundamental laws does not imply the ability to start from those laws and reconstruct the universe. The constructionist hypothesis breaks down when confronted with the twin difficulties of scale and complexity. At each level of complexity entirely new properties appear. Psychology is not applied biology, nor is biology applied chemistry. We can now see that the whole becomes not merely more, but very different from the sum of its parts."

Meanwhile, others have worked towards developing analytical evidence of strong emergence. Renormalization methods in theoretical physics enable physicists to study critical phenomena that are not tractable as the combination of their parts. In 2009, Gu et al. presented a class of infinite physical systems that exhibits non-computable macroscopic properties. More precisely, if one could compute certain macroscopic properties of these systems from the microscopic description of these systems, then one would be able to solve computational problems known to be undecidable in computer science. These results concern infinite systems, finite systems being considered computable. However, macroscopic concepts which only apply in the limit of infinite systems, such as phase transitions and the renormalization group, are important for understanding and modeling real, finite physical systems. Gu et al. concluded that

"Although macroscopic concepts are essential for understanding our world, much of fundamental physics has been devoted to the search for a 'theory of everything', a set of equations that perfectly describe the behavior of all fundamental particles. The view that this is the goal of science rests in part on the rationale that such a theory would allow us to derive the behavior of all macroscopic concepts, at least in principle. The evidence we have presented suggests that this view may be overly optimistic. A 'theory of everything' is one of many components necessary for complete understanding of the universe, but is not necessarily the only one. The development of macroscopic laws from first principles may involve more than just systematic logic, and could require conjectures suggested by experiments, simulations or insight."

In humanity
Human beings are the basic elements of social systems, which perpetually interact and create, maintain, or untangle mutual social bonds. Social bonds in social systems are perpetually changing in the sense of the ongoing reconfiguration of their structure. An early argument (1904–05) for the emergence of social formations can be found in Max Weber's most famous work, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Recently, the emergence of a new social system is linked with the emergence of order from nonlinear relationships among multiple interacting units, where multiple interacting units are individual thoughts, consciousness, and actions. In the case of the global economic system, under capitalism, growth, accumulation and innovation can be considered emergent processes where not only does technological processes sustain growth, but growth becomes the source of further innovations in a recursive, self-expanding spiral. In this sense, the exponential trend of the growth curve reveals the presence of a long-term positive feedback among growth, accumulation, and innovation; and the emergence of new structures and institutions connected to the multi-scale process of growth. This is reflected in the work of Karl Polanyi, who traces the process by which labor and nature are converted into commodities in the passage from an economic system based on agriculture to one based on industry. This shift, along with the idea of the self-regulating market, set the stage not only for another economy but also for another society. The principle of emergence is also brought forth when thinking about alternatives to the current economic system based on growth facing social and ecological limits. Both degrowth and social ecological economics have argued in favor of a co-evolutionary perspective for theorizing about transformations that overcome the dependence of human wellbeing on economic growth.

Economic trends and patterns which emerge are studied intensively by economists. Within the field of group facilitation and organization development, there have been a number of new group processes that are designed to maximize emergence and self-organization, by offering a minimal set of effective initial conditions. Examples of these processes include SEED-SCALE, appreciative inquiry, Future Search, the world cafe or knowledge cafe, Open Space Technology, and others (Holman, 2010 ). In international development, concepts of emergence have been used within a theory of social change termed SEED-SCALE to show how standard principles interact to bring forward socio-economic development fitted to cultural values, community economics, and natural environment (local solutions emerging from the larger socio-econo-biosphere). These principles can be implemented utilizing a sequence of standardized tasks that self-assemble in individually specific ways utilizing recursive evaluative criteria.

Looking at emergence in the context of social and systems change, invites us to reframe our thinking on parts and wholes and their interrelation. Unlike machines, living systems at all levels of recursion - be it a sentient body, a tree, a family, an organisation, the education system, the economy, the health system, the political system etc - are continuously creating themselves. They are continually growing and changing along with their surrounding elements, and therefore are more than the sum of their parts. As Peter Senge and co-authors put forward in the book Presence: Exploring profound change in People, Organizations and Society, "as long as our thinking is governed by habit - notably industrial, "machine age" concepts such as control, predictability, standardization, and "faster is better" - we will continue to recreate institutions as they have been, despite their disharmony with the larger world, and the need for all living systems to evolve." While change is predictably constant, it is unpredictable in direction and often occurs at second and nth orders of systemic relationality. Understanding emergence and what creates the conditions for different forms of emergence to occur, either insidious or nourishing vitality, is essential in the search for deep transformations.

The works of Nora Bateson and her colleagues at the International Bateson Institute delves into this. Since 2012, they have been researching questions such as ''what makes a living system ready to change? Can unforeseen ready-ness for change be nourished?'' Here being ready is not thought of as being prepared, but rather as nourishing the flexibility we do not yet know will be needed. These inquiries challenge the common view that a theory of change is produced from an identified preferred goal or outcome. As explained in their paper An essay on ready-ing: Tending the prelude to change: "While linear managing or controlling of the direction of change may appear desirable, tending to how the system becomes ready allows for pathways of possibility previously unimagined." This brings a new lense to the field of emergence in social and systems change as it looks to tending the pre-emergent process. Warm Data Labs are the fruit of their praxis, they are spaces for transcontextual mutual learning in which aphanipoetic phenomena unfold. (Read about Aphanipoesis ). Having hosted hundreds of Warm Data processes with 1000s of participants, they have found that these spaces of shared poly-learning across contexts lead to a realm of potential change, a necessarily obscured zone of wild interaction of unseen, unsaid, unknown flexibility. It is such flexibility that nourishes the ready-ing living systems require to respond to complex situations in new ways and change. In other words, this readying process preludes what will emerge. When exploring questions of social change, it is important to ask ourselves, what is submerging in the current social imaginary and perhaps, rather than focus all our resources and energy on driving direct order responses, to nourish flexibility with ourselves, and the systems we are a part of.

Another approach that engages with the concept of emergence for social change is Theory U, where "deep emergence" is the result of self-transcending knowledge after a successful journey along the U through layers of awareness. This practice nourishes transformation at the inner-being level, which enables new ways of being, seeing and relating to emerge. The concept of emergence has also been employed in the field of facilitation. In Emergent Strategy, adrienne maree brown, defines emergent strategies as "ways for humans to practice complexity and grow the future through relatively simple interactions.".

In linguistics, the concept of emergence has been applied in the domain of stylometry to explain the interrelation between the syntactical structures of the text and the author style (Slautina, Marusenko, 2014). It has also been argued that the structure and regularity of language grammar, or at least language change, is an emergent phenomenon. While each speaker merely tries to reach their own communicative goals, they use language in a particular way. If enough speakers behave in that way, language is changed. In a wider sense, the norms of a language, i.e. the linguistic conventions of its speech society, can be seen as a system emerging from long-time participation in communicative problem-solving in various social circumstances.

In technology
The bulk conductive response of binary (RC) electrical networks with random arrangements, known as the Universal Dielectric Response (UDR), can be seen as emergent properties of such physical systems. Such arrangements can be used as simple physical prototypes for deriving mathematical formulae for the emergent responses of complex systems. Internet traffic can also exhibit some seemingly emergent properties. In the congestion control mechanism, TCP flows can become globally synchronized at bottlenecks, simultaneously increasing and then decreasing throughput in coordination. Congestion, widely regarded as a nuisance, is possibly an emergent property of the spreading of bottlenecks across a network in high traffic flows which can be considered as a phase transition. Some artificially intelligent (AI) computer applications simulate emergent behavior. One example is Boids, which mimics the swarming behavior of birds.

In religion and art
In religion, emergence grounds expressions of religious naturalism and syntheism in which a sense of the sacred is perceived in the workings of entirely naturalistic processes by which more complex forms arise or evolve from simpler forms. Examples are detailed in The Sacred Emergence of Nature by Ursula Goodenough & Terrence Deacon and Beyond Reductionism: Reinventing the Sacred by Stuart Kauffman, both from 2006, as well as Syntheism – Creating God in The Internet Age by Alexander Bard & Jan Söderqvist from 2014 and Emergentism: A Religion of Complexity for the Metamodern World by Brendan Graham Dempsey (2022).

Michael J. Pearce has used emergence to describe the experience of works of art in relation to contemporary neuroscience. Practicing artist Leonel Moura, in turn, attributes to his "artbots" a real, if nonetheless rudimentary, creativity based on emergent principles.

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Complex system

A complex system is a system composed of many components which may interact with each other. Examples of complex systems are Earth's global climate, organisms, the human brain, infrastructure such as power grid, transportation or communication systems, complex software and electronic systems, social and economic organizations (like cities), an ecosystem, a living cell, and, ultimately, for some authors, the entire universe.

Complex systems are systems whose behavior is intrinsically difficult to model due to the dependencies, competitions, relationships, or other types of interactions between their parts or between a given system and its environment. Systems that are "complex" have distinct properties that arise from these relationships, such as nonlinearity, emergence, spontaneous order, adaptation, and feedback loops, among others. Because such systems appear in a wide variety of fields, the commonalities among them have become the topic of their independent area of research. In many cases, it is useful to represent such a system as a network where the nodes represent the components and links to their interactions.

The term complex systems often refers to the study of complex systems, which is an approach to science that investigates how relationships between a system's parts give rise to its collective behaviors and how the system interacts and forms relationships with its environment. The study of complex systems regards collective, or system-wide, behaviors as the fundamental object of study; for this reason, complex systems can be understood as an alternative paradigm to reductionism, which attempts to explain systems in terms of their constituent parts and the individual interactions between them.

As an interdisciplinary domain, complex systems draw contributions from many different fields, such as the study of self-organization and critical phenomena from physics, of spontaneous order from the social sciences, chaos from mathematics, adaptation from biology, and many others. Complex systems is therefore often used as a broad term encompassing a research approach to problems in many diverse disciplines, including statistical physics, information theory, nonlinear dynamics, anthropology, computer science, meteorology, sociology, economics, psychology, and biology.

Adaptation
Complex adaptive systems are special cases of complex systems that are adaptive in that they have the capacity to change and learn from experience. Examples of complex adaptive systems include the stock market, social insect and ant colonies, the biosphere and the ecosystem, the brain and the immune system, the cell and the developing embryo, cities, manufacturing businesses and any human social group-based endeavor in a cultural and social system such as political parties or communities.

Features
Complex systems may have the following features:

 * Complex systems may be open
 * Complex systems are usually open systems — that is, they exist in a thermodynamic gradient and dissipate energy. In other words, complex systems are frequently far from energetic equilibrium: but despite this flux, there may be pattern stability, see synergetics.

 * Complex systems may exhibit critical transitions
 * Critical transitions are abrupt shifts in the state of ecosystems, the climate, financial systems or other complex systems that may occur when changing conditions pass a critical or bifurcation point.   The 'direction of critical slowing down' in a system's state space may be indicative of a system's future state after such transitions when delayed negative feedbacks leading to oscillatory or other complex dynamics are weak.

 * Complex systems may be nested
 * The components of a complex system may themselves be complex systems. For example, an economy is made up of organisations, which are made up of people, which are made up of cells – all of which are complex systems. The arrangement of interactions within complex bipartite networks may be nested as well. More specifically, bipartite ecological and organisational networks of mutually beneficial interactions were found to have a nested structure. This structure promotes indirect facilitation and a system's capacity to persist under increasingly harsh circumstances as well as the potential for large-scale systemic regime shifts.

 * Dynamic network of multiplicity
 * As well as coupling rules, the dynamic network of a complex system is important. Small-world or scale-free networks which have many local interactions and a smaller number of inter-area connections are often employed. Natural complex systems often exhibit such topologies. In the human cortex for example, we see dense local connectivity and a few very long axon projections between regions inside the cortex and to other brain regions.

 * May produce emergent phenomena
 * Complex systems may exhibit behaviors that are emergent, which is to say that while the results may be sufficiently determined by the activity of the systems' basic constituents, they may have properties that can only be studied at a higher level. For example, empirical food webs display regular, scale-invariant features across aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems when studied at the level of clustered 'trophic' species.  Another example is offered by the termites in a mound which have physiology, biochemistry and biological development at one level of analysis, whereas their social behavior and mound building is a property that emerges from the collection of termites and needs to be analyzed at a different level.

 * Relationships are non-linear
 * In practical terms, this means a small perturbation may cause a large effect (see butterfly effect), a proportional effect, or even no effect at all. In linear systems, the effect is always directly proportional to cause. See nonlinearity.

 * Relationships contain feedback loops
 * Both negative (damping) and positive (amplifying) feedback are always found in complex systems. The effects of an element's behavior are fed back in such a way that the element itself is altered.

History
In 1948, Dr. Warren Weaver published an essay on "Science and Complexity", exploring the diversity of problem types by contrasting problems of simplicity, disorganized complexity, and organized complexity. Weaver described these as "problems which involve dealing simultaneously with a sizable number of factors which are interrelated into an organic whole."

While the explicit study of complex systems dates at least to the 1970s, the first research institute focused on complex systems, the Santa Fe Institute, was founded in 1984. Early Santa Fe Institute participants included physics Nobel laureates Murray Gell-Mann and Philip Anderson, economics Nobel laureate Kenneth Arrow, and Manhattan Project scientists George Cowan and Herb Anderson. Today, there are over 50 institutes and research centers focusing on complex systems.

Since the late 1990s, the interest of mathematical physicists in researching economic phenomena has been on the rise. The proliferation of cross-disciplinary research with the application of solutions originated from the physics epistemology has entailed a gradual paradigm shift in the theoretical articulations and methodological approaches in economics, primarily in financial economics. The development has resulted in the emergence of a new branch of discipline, namely "econophysics", which is broadly defined as a cross-discipline that applies statistical physics methodologies which are mostly based on the complex systems theory and the chaos theory for economics analysis.

The 2021 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Syukuro Manabe, Klaus Hasselmann, and Giorgio Parisi for their work to understand complex systems. Their work was used to create more accurate computer models of the effect of global warming on the Earth's climate.

Complexity in practice
The traditional approach to dealing with complexity is to reduce or constrain it. Typically, this involves compartmentalization: dividing a large system into separate parts. Organizations, for instance, divide their work into departments that each deal with separate issues. Engineering systems are often designed using modular components. However, modular designs become susceptible to failure when issues arise that bridge the divisions.

Complexity of cities
Jane Jacobs described cities as being a problem in organized complexity in 1961, citing Dr. Weaver's 1948 essay. As an example, she explains how an abundance of factors interplay into how various urban spaces lead to a diversity of interactions, and how changing those factors can change how the space is used, and how well the space supports the functions of the city. She further illustrates how cities have been severely damaged when approached as a problem in simplicity by replacing organized complexity with simple and predictable spaces, such as Le Corbusier's "Radiant City" and Ebenezer Howard's "Garden City". Since then, others have written at length on the complexity of cities.

Complexity economics
Over the last decades, within the emerging field of complexity economics, new predictive tools have been developed to explain economic growth. Such is the case with the models built by the Santa Fe Institute in 1989 and the more recent economic complexity index (ECI), introduced by the MIT physicist Cesar A. Hidalgo and the Harvard economist Ricardo Hausmann.

Recurrence quantification analysis has been employed to detect the characteristic of business cycles and economic development. To this end, Orlando et al. developed the so-called recurrence quantification correlation index (RQCI) to test correlations of RQA on a sample signal and then investigated the application to business time series. The said index has been proven to detect hidden changes in time series. Further, Orlando et al., over an extensive dataset, shown that recurrence quantification analysis may help in anticipating transitions from laminar (i.e. regular) to turbulent (i.e. chaotic) phases such as USA GDP in 1949, 1953, etc. Last but not least, it has been demonstrated that recurrence quantification analysis can detect differences between macroeconomic variables and highlight hidden features of economic dynamics.

Complexity and education
Focusing on issues of student persistence with their studies, Forsman, Moll and Linder explore the "viability of using complexity science as a frame to extend methodological applications for physics education research", finding that "framing a social network analysis within a complexity science perspective offers a new and powerful applicability across a broad range of PER topics".

Complexity and biology
Complexity science has been applied to living organisms, and in particular to biological systems. Within the emerging field of fractal physiology, bodily signals, such as heart rate or brain activity, are characterized using entropy or fractal indices. The goal is often to assess the state and the health of the underlying system, and diagnose potential disorders and illnesses.

Complexity and chaos theory
Complex systems theory is rooted in chaos theory, which in turn has its origins more than a century ago in the work of the French mathematician Henri Poincaré. Chaos is sometimes viewed as extremely complicated information, rather than as an absence of order. Chaotic systems remain deterministic, though their long-term behavior can be difficult to predict with any accuracy. With perfect knowledge of the initial conditions and the relevant equations describing the chaotic system's behavior, one can theoretically make perfectly accurate predictions of the system, though in practice this is impossible to do with arbitrary accuracy. Ilya Prigogine argued that complexity is non-deterministic and gives no way whatsoever to precisely predict the future.

The emergence of complex systems theory shows a domain between deterministic order and randomness which is complex. This is referred to as the "edge of chaos".

When one analyzes complex systems, sensitivity to initial conditions, for example, is not an issue as important as it is within chaos theory, in which it prevails. As stated by Colander, the study of complexity is the opposite of the study of chaos. Complexity is about how a huge number of extremely complicated and dynamic sets of relationships can generate some simple behavioral patterns, whereas chaotic behavior, in the sense of deterministic chaos, is the result of a relatively small number of non-linear interactions. For recent examples in economics and business see Stoop et al. who discussed Android's market position, Orlando who explained the corporate dynamics in terms of mutual synchronization and chaos regularization of bursts in a group of chaotically bursting cells and Orlando et al. who modelled financial data (Financial Stress Index, swap and equity, emerging and developed, corporate and government, short and long maturity) with a low-dimensional deterministic model.

Therefore, the main difference between chaotic systems and complex systems is their history. Chaotic systems do not rely on their history as complex ones do. Chaotic behavior pushes a system in equilibrium into chaotic order, which means, in other words, out of what we traditionally define as 'order'. On the other hand, complex systems evolve far from equilibrium at the edge of chaos. They evolve at a critical state built up by a history of irreversible and unexpected events, which physicist Murray Gell-Mann called "an accumulation of frozen accidents". In a sense chaotic systems can be regarded as a subset of complex systems distinguished precisely by this absence of historical dependence. Many real complex systems are, in practice and over long but finite periods, robust. However, they do possess the potential for radical qualitative change of kind whilst retaining systemic integrity. Metamorphosis serves as perhaps more than a metaphor for such transformations.

Complexity and network science
A complex system is usually composed of many components and their interactions. Such a system can be represented by a network where nodes represent the components and links represent their interactions. For example, the Internet can be represented as a network composed of nodes (computers) and links (direct connections between computers). Other examples of complex networks include social networks, financial institution interdependencies, airline networks, and biological networks.

Notable scholars
• Robert McCormick Adams

• Christopher Alexander

• Philip Anderson

• Kenneth Arrow

• Robert Axelrod

• W. Brian Arthur

• Per Bak

• Béla H. Bánáthy

• Albert-Laszlo Barabasi

• Gregory Bateson

• Ludwig von Bertalanffy

• Alexander Bogdanov

• Samuel Bowles

• Guido Caldarelli

• Paul Cilliers

• Walter Clemens, Jr.

• James P. Crutchfield

• Chris Danforth

• Peter Sheridan Dodds

• Brian Enquist

• Joshua Epstein

• Doyne Farmer

• Jay Forrester

• Nigel R. Franks

• Murray Gell-Mann

• Nigel Goldenfeld

• Vittorio Guidano

• James Hartle

• F. A. Hayek

• John Holland

• Alfred Hubler

• Arthur Iberall

• Johannes Jaeger

• Stuart Kauffman

• J. A. Scott Kelso

• David Krakauer

• Simon A. Levin

• Ellen Levy

• Robert May

• Donella Meadows

• José Fernando Mendes

• Melanie Mitchell

• Cris Moore

• Edgar Morin

• Harold Morowitz

• Scott Page

• Luciano Pietronero

• David Pines

• Vladimir Pokrovskii

• William T. Powers

• Ilya Prigogine

• Sidney Redner

• Jerry Sabloff

• Cosma Shalizi

• Herbert Simon

• Dave Snowden

• Sergei Starostin

• Steven Strogatz

• Stefan Thurner

• Alessandro Vespignani

• Andreas Wagner

• Duncan Watts

• Geoffrey West

• Stephen Wolfram

• David Wolpert

• Steen Rasmussen

• Yaneer Bar-Yam

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Complex system


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AAI RQ-7 Shadow

The AAI RQ-7 Shadow is an American unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) used by the United States Army, Australian Army, Swedish Army, Turkish Air Force and Italian Army for reconnaissance, surveillance, target acquisition and battle damage assessment. Launched from a trailer-mounted pneumatic catapult, it is recovered with the aid of arresting gear similar to jets on an aircraft carrier. Its gimbal-mounted, digitally stabilized, liquid nitrogen-cooled electro-optical/infrared (EO/IR) camera relays video in real time via a C-band line-of-sight data link to the ground control station (GCS).

The US Army's 2nd Battalion, 13th Aviation Regiment at Fort Huachuca, Arizona, trains soldiers, Marines, and civilians in the operation and maintenance of the Shadow UAS. The Shadow is operated in the U.S. Army at brigade-level.

Development
The RQ-7 Shadow is the result of a continued US Army search for an effective battlefield UAS after the cancellation of the Alliant RQ-6 Outrider aircraft. AAI Corporation followed up their RQ-2 Pioneer with the Shadow 200, a similar, more refined UAS. In late 1999, the army selected the Shadow 200 to fill the tactical UAS requirement, redesignating it the RQ-7. Army requirements specified a UAS that used an aviation gasoline engine, could carry an electro-optic/infrared imaging sensor turret, and had a maximum range of 31 miles (50 kilometers) with four-hour, on-station endurance. The Shadow 200 offered at least twice that range. The specifications also dictated that UAS would be able to land in an athletic field.

Design
The RQ-7 Shadow 200 unmanned aircraft system is of a high-wing, constant chord pusher configuration with a twin-tailboom empennage and an inverted v-tail. The aircraft is powered by a 38 bhp AR741-1101 Wankel engine designed and manufactured by UAV Engines Ltd in the United Kingdom. Onboard electrical systems are powered by a GEC/Plessey 28 volt, direct current, 2 kW generator.

Currently, the primary load of the aircraft is the Israeli Aircraft Industries POP300 Plug-in Optical Payload which consists of a forward-looking infrared camera, a daytime TV camera with a selectable near-infrared filter and a laser pointer. The aircraft has fixed tricycle landing gear. Takeoffs are assisted by a trailer-mounted pneumatic launcher which can accelerate the 170 kg (375 pound) aircraft to 70 kn in 40 ft.

Landings are guided by a Tactical Automatic Landing System, developed by the Sierra Nevada Corporation, which consists of a ground-based micro-millimeter wavelength radar and a transponder carried on the aircraft. Once on the ground, a tailhook mounted on the aircraft catches an arresting wire connected to two disk brake drums which can stop the aircraft in less than 170 ft.

The aircraft is part of a larger system which currently uses the M1152-series of Humvees for ground transport of all ground and air equipment. A Shadow 200 system consists of four aircraft, three of which are transported in the Air Vehicle Transporter (AVT). The fourth is transported in a specially designed storage container to be used as a spare. The AVT also tows the launcher.

The AVT Support Vehicle and trailer contain extra equipment to launch and recover the aircraft, such as the Tactical Automatic Landing System. Maintenance equipment for the aircraft is stored in the Maintenance Section Multifunctional (MSM) vehicle and trailer as well as the M1165 MSM Support Vehicle and its associated trailer.

Two Humvee-mounted Ground Control Stations (GCS), also part of the Shadow 200 system, control the aircraft in flight. Each station has an associated Ground Data Terminal (GDT), which takes commands generated by the GCS and modulates them into radio waves received by the aircraft in flight. The GDT receives video imagery from the payload, as well as telemetry from the aircraft, and sends this information to the GCS.

A trailer, towed by the M1165 GCS support vehicle, carries the GDT and houses a 10 kW Tactical Quiet Generator to provide power for its associated GCS. The Shadow 200 system also includes a Portable Ground Control Station (PGCS) and Portable Ground Data Terminal (PGDT), which are stripped-down versions of the GCS and GDT designed as a backup to the two GCSs.

A fielded Shadow 200 system requires 22 soldiers to operate it. Army modelling indicates that crew workload is highest at takeoff, and second-highest at landing.

The Shadow is restricted from operating in bad weather conditions, not being meant to fly through rain and with sensors that cannot see through clouds.

Service with the United States
By July 2007, the Shadow platform accumulated 200,000 flight hours, doubling its previous record of 100,000 hours in 13 months. The system then surpassed 300,000 flight hours in April 2008, and by May 2010, the Shadow system had accumulated over 500,000 flight hours. As of 2011, the Shadow had logged over 709,000 hours. The Shadow platform has flown over 37,000 sorties in support of operations in Iraq and Afghanistan by US Army and Army National Guard units.

On 6 August 2012, AAI announced that the Shadow had achieved 750,000 flight hours during more than 173,000 missions. More than 900,000 flight hours had been logged by Shadow UAVs by the end of June 2014.

The Shadow did not see service in the Afghanistan campaign of 2001–2002, but it did fly operational missions in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. The operating conditions in Iraq proved hard on the UAVs, with heat and sand leading to engine failures, resulting in a high-priority effort to find fixes with changes in system technology and operating procedures. Shadow UAS have since flown more than 600,000 combat hours in support of the Wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.

In 2007, the United States Marine Corps began to transition from the RQ-2 Pioneer to the RQ-7 Shadow. VMU-1, VMU-2 completed their transition from the RQ-2 to the RQ-7 and ScanEagle while VMU-3 and VMU-4 were activated as Shadow and ScanEagle elements. VMU-3 was activated on 12 September 2008 and VMU-4 conducted its inaugural flight on 28 September 2010 in Yuma, Arizona. In October 2007, VMU-1 became the first Marine Corps squadron to see combat in Iraq. VMU-2 deployed a Shadow detachment to Afghanistan in 2009, with VMU-3 following in January 2010.

The Navy provided personnel for four Shadow platoons in support of army brigades deployed in Iraq. The first two platoons returned from 6-month tours in Iraq in January and February 2008. The Navy personnel went through the Army's training program at Fort Huachuca, Arizona.

The U.S. Army is implementing a plan to reform its aerial scout capabilities by scrapping its fleet of OH-58 Kiowa helicopters from 2015 to 2019 and replacing them with AH-64 Apache attack helicopters teamed with Shadow and MQ-1C Gray Eagle UAVs. Using unmanned assets to scout ahead would put the pilots of manned aircraft out of reach of potential harm. Reformed combat aviation brigades (CAB) would consist of a battalion of 24 Apaches for attack missions and an armed reconnaissance squadron of another 24 Apaches teamed with three Shadow platoons totaling 12 RQ-7s overall; it would also include a Gray Eagle company. The manned-unmanned teaming of Apaches and Unmanned Aircraft (UA) can meet 80 percent of aerial scout requirements.

On 16 March 2015, the 1st Battalion, 501st Aviation Regiment was reflagged the 3rd Squadron, 6th Cavalry Regiment, making it the first of 10 Apache battalions to be converted to a heavy attack reconnaissance squadron by eliminating the Kiowa scout helicopter and having three RQ-7 Shadow platoons organically assigned; the attack battalions will also be aligned with an MQ-1C Gray Eagle company assigned to each division. Moving Shadows from brigade combat team level to the battalions themselves reduces lines of communication, distance issues, and allows operators and pilots to better train and work together.

In early July 2014, the U.S. Army sent RQ-7 Shadows to Baghdad as part of efforts to protect embassy personnel against Islamic State militant attacks, along with Apache attack helicopters which could use them through manned and unmanned teaming to share information and designate targets.

On 29 July 2018, the U.S. Marine conducted its final launch of the RQ-7B during RIMPAC exercises before retiring it. Since first deploying with Marines to Iraq in October 2007, the aircraft eventually equipped four tactical UAS squadrons, flying some 39,000 hours during 11 operational deployments. The Shadow was replaced by the RQ-21 Blackjack, which was first deployed in 2014.

In March 2019, the U.S. Army selected Martin UAV and AAI Corporation to "provide unmanned aircraft systems for platoons to try out as candidates to replace the Shadow tactical UAS." The Army seeks better acoustics and runway independence as compared to the old Shadow, as well as lower equipment requirements. Shortly after the selection of the first teams, L3Harris Technologies and Arcturus-UAV (later under AeroVironment) were also picked to submit candidates. The four aircraft were used to evaluate requirements and assess new capabilities, and in August 2021 the Army decided to proceed with a competition for the Future Tactical Unmanned Aircraft System (FTUAS); a fielding decision is planned for 2025. The Army chose the AeroVironment Jump 20 in August 2022. The procurement will inform requirements for a second program increment, which will rely on a separate competitive acquisition. Although the Army already planned to replace the Shadow in brigade combat teams, it was initially planned to continue to be used by combat aviation brigades and special forces units into the mid-2030s, but the Army revealed in February 2024 that it had decided to replace the entire Shadow fleet as part of an overhaul of its aviation assets.

Service with Romania
The first Shadow 600 UAVs entered service with the Romanian Air Force in 1998, and by 2007, nine drones were in service. The drones were used during the Romanian deployment to Iraq starting from 2003. These drones flew on IMINT missions as part of the General Directorate for Defense Intelligence in support of Multinational Division Central-South. Three drones crashed during this deployment.

RQ-7A Shadow
The RQ-7A was the initial version of the Shadow 200 UAS developed by AAI. The first low-rate initial-production systems were delivered to the US Army in 2002 with the first full-scale production systems being delivered in September 2003. The RQ-7A was 11 ft long and had a wingspan of 12 ft with a 327 lb max takeoff weight. The aircraft's endurance ranged between 4 and 5.5 hours depending on mission. The "A" model aircraft also had the AR741-1100 engine which could use either 87 octane automotive gasoline or 100LL aviation fuel. The "A" model also featured IAI's POP200 payload.

RQ-7B Shadow
Production of Shadow aircraft shifted to a generally improved RQ-7B variant in the summer of 2004. The RQ-7B features new wings increased in length to 14 ft. The new wings are not only more aerodynamically efficient, they are "wet" to increase fuel storage up to 44 liters for an endurance of up to 6 hours. The payload capability has been increased to 45 kg.

After reports from Iraq that engines were failing, in 2005, the Army's UAV project manager called for the use of 100LL, an aviation fuel, rather than the conventional 87 octane mogas. Avionics systems have been generally improved, and the new wing is designed to accommodate a communications relay package, which allows the aircraft to act as a relay station. This allows commanders or even the aircraft operators themselves to communicate via radio to the troops on ground in locations that would otherwise be "dead" to radio traffic.

The Shadow can operate up to 125 km from its brigade tactical operations center, and recognize tactical vehicles up to 8000 ft above the ground at more than 3.5 km slant range.

Other incremental improvements to the system include replacing the AR741-1100 engine with the AR741-1101 which increases reliability through the use of dual spark plugs as well as limiting the fuel to 100LL. Also, the older POP200 payload was replaced with the newer POP300 system. In February 2010, AAI began a fleet update program to improve the Shadow system. The improvements include installing the wiring harnesses and software updates for IAI's POP300D payload which includes a designator for guiding laser-guided bombs.

Other improvements in the program will include an electronic fuel injection engine and fuel system to replace the AR741-1101's carburetted engine. The most visible improvement to the system will be a wider wing of 20 ft in span which is designed to increase fuel capacity and allow for mission endurance of almost 9 hours. The new wings will also include hardpoints for external munitions.

A joint Army-Marine program is testing IED jamming on a Shadow at MCAS Yuma. Another joint effort is to view a 4x4 km ground area from 3,650 m (12,000 feet).

The Army is now proposing the upgraded Shadow 152A, which includes Soldier Radio Waveform software, which allows both the command post and their troops to see the images that the UAV is projecting, as long as they are on the same frequency. It also increases the distance and area of communication.

Preliminary TCDL testing conducted at Dugway Proving Ground was a success. This led to an estimated fielding date of May 2010 for TCDL. In March 2015, the first Shadow unit was equipped with the upgraded RQ-7BV2 Shadow version. New capabilities for the BV2 include the TCDL, encryption of video and control data-links, software that allows interoperability between other UAS platforms, integration of a common control station and control terminal for all Army UAS platforms, an electronic fuel-injection engine, and increased endurance to nine hours through a lengthened wingspan of 20 ft, with weight increased to 204 kg. Shadow systems are being upgraded at a rate of 2-3 per month, with all Army Shadows planned to become BV2s by 2019.

In 2020, the Army introduced the Shadow Block III. The configuration allows the Shadow to fly in rainy conditions of up to two inches per hour, a four-fold increase over previous versions, carries the L3 Wescam MX-10 EO/IR camera with enhanced image collection, has a Joint Tactical Radio System to enable communications relay, and uses a more reliable and powerful engine configuration with reduced noise.

Armed Shadow
On 19 April 2010 the Army issued a "solicitation for sources sought" from defense contractors for a munition for the Shadow system with a deadline for proposals due no later than 10 May 2010. Although no specific munition has been chosen yet, some possible munitions include the Raytheon Pyros bomb, the General Dynamics 81 mm 4.5 kg (10-pound) air-dropped guided mortar, as well as the QuickMEDS system for delivering medical supplies to remote and stranded troops.

The Army subsequently slowed work, and the Marine Corps then took the lead on arming the RQ-7 Shadow. Raytheon has conducted successful flight tests with the Small Tactical Munition, and Lockheed Martin has tested the Shadow Hawk glide weapon from an RQ-7. On 1 November 2012, General Dynamics successfully demonstrated their guided 81 mm Air Dropped Mortar, with three launches at 7,000 ft hitting within seven meters of the target grid.

As of August 2011, the Marine Corps has received official clearance to experiment with armed RQ-7s, and requires AAI to select a precision munition ready for deployment. AAI was awarded $10 million for this in December 2011, and claims a weapon has already been fielded by the Shadow. In 2014, Textron launched the Fury precision weapon from a Shadow 200.

By May 2015, the Marine Corps had run out of funding for weaponizing the RQ-7, and the Army had shown little interest in continuing the effort. The Army's stance is that the Shadow's primary capability is persistent surveillance, while there are many other ways to drop bombs on targets and adding that to the Shadow would add weight and decrease endurance.

Nightwarden
A test version called STTB flew in summer 2011. AAI is developing a bigger version called M2 with a blended wing to include a 3-cylinder 60 hp Lycoming heavy fuel engine, and began flight testing in August 2012. The Shadow M2 has a conformal blended body that reduces drag, wingspan increased to 25 ft, and is 120 lb heavier. It can fly for 16 hours at altitudes up to 18000 - 20000 ft. Its endurance and service ceiling are comparable to Group 4 UASs like the MQ-1 Predator, so the company is pitching the M2 as a budget-conscious alternative to larger unmanned aircraft.

It has a greater payload to carry synthetic aperture radar (SAR), wide-area surveillance, navigation, signals intelligence, and electronic warfare packages. It also has the ability to be controlled beyond line-of-sight through a SATCOM link. Although the M2 uses the same internal components as the RQ-7B Shadow 200 and is compatible with existing support equipment and ground infrastructure, its greater weight necessitates changes to the existing launcher. The Shadow M2 uses 80-85 percent of the components of the Shadow V2, while allowing for an additional 100 lb of capability with total airframe weight increased to 720 lb.

In June 2017, Textron introduced the Nightwarden TUAS as a production-ready model of the developmental Shadow M2, the change in name due to significant improvements and enhancements to the system such as greater flexibility and combat capability, SATCOM features, and enhanced command-and-control. The aircraft has a range of 1100 km, maximum speed of 90 knot, endurance of 15 hours, can fly at an altitude of 16000 ft, and has a maximum takeoff weight of 750 lb with a dual-payload bay with a capacity of 130 lb.

Shadow 600
AAI has also built a scaled-up Pioneer derivative known as the "Shadow 600". It also resembles a Pioneer, except that the outer panels of the wings are distinctively swept back, and it has a stronger Wankel engine, the UAV EL 801, with 52 hp. A number of Shadow 600s are in service in several nations, including Romania.

SR/C Shadow
AAI, in conjunction with Textron sister company Bell Helicopter, intends to modify two Shadows with a Carter rotor on top for vertical take-off and landing, eliminating the need for the recovery and pneumatic launcher systems, while increasing payload and endurance. , it is expected to fly in 2012. AAI also expected to use the SR/C technology for the Shadow Knight, a powered-rotor two-propeller surveillance aircraft for the US Navy MRMUAS program; however, the MRMUAS program was cancelled in 2012.

Current operators

 * Australian Army: The Australian Government has bought 18 aircraft and has replaced ScanEagle, and began using them in Afghanistan in May 2012.
 * Italian Army: In July 2010, the Italian army ordered four Shadow 200 systems.
 * Kosovo Security Force: The Kosovar Minister of Defense Armend Mehaj signed a contract to buy US-made drone, type MQ DRONE, for the Kosovar Security Force.
 * Romanian Air Force: The Romanian Air Force has purchased 11 Shadow 600s, The first six drones were acquired in 1998. One crashed in the country and three in Iraq.
 * Swedish Army: 8 aircraft (2 systems) were delivered early in 2011. These systems were then modified by SAAB to be more suited for Swedish use, named UAV03 Örnen. Set to be replaced.
 * Turkish Air Force: Turkish Air Force; The Turkish Air Force also operates 9 RQ-7 Shadow 600s.
 * United States Army: 450 RQ-7Bs, 20 more on order plus additional 68 ordered as of 2012.
 * Romanian Air Force: The Romanian Air Force has purchased 11 Shadow 600s, The first six drones were acquired in 1998. One crashed in the country and three in Iraq.
 * Swedish Army: 8 aircraft (2 systems) were delivered early in 2011. These systems were then modified by SAAB to be more suited for Swedish use, named UAV03 Örnen. Set to be replaced.
 * Turkish Air Force: Turkish Air Force; The Turkish Air Force also operates 9 RQ-7 Shadow 600s.
 * United States Army: 450 RQ-7Bs, 20 more on order plus additional 68 ordered as of 2012.
 * Turkish Air Force: Turkish Air Force; The Turkish Air Force also operates 9 RQ-7 Shadow 600s.
 * United States Army: 450 RQ-7Bs, 20 more on order plus additional 68 ordered as of 2012.
 * United States Army: 450 RQ-7Bs, 20 more on order plus additional 68 ordered as of 2012.

Former operators

 * United States Marine Corps

Incidents and accidents
On 15 August 2011, a U.S. Air Force C-130 cargo plane collided with a RQ-7 while on approach to Forward Operating Base Sharana in Paktika Province, Afghanistan. The C-130 made an emergency landing with damage to two engines and one wing, while the RQ-7 was destroyed completely. The collision caused the cargo aircraft to be grounded for several months while being fixed, while the RQ-7 wreckage was never recovered.

On 3 April 2014, a Pennsylvanian Army National Guard RQ-7 participating in training exercises at Fort Indiantown Gap crashed near an elementary school in Pennsylvania and was then hit by a civilian vehicle destroying the drone. No injuries were reported.

On 10 July 2019, a U.S. Army RQ-7 operated by the 25th Infantry Division crashed in the Waianae mountains near the Schofield Barracks in Hawaii.

On 17 July 2019, a Wisconsin National Guard RQ-7 lost its link to its operator at Volk Field during a training exercise. The drone went down into trees south of Interstate 90/94 between Oakdale and Camp Douglas. No injuries or damage were reported. The drone suffered "significant" damage.

Specifications (200 Family)
Note: When outfitted with IE (Increased Endurance) Wings, the CRP (Communications Relay Package) and the 1102 engine, endurance time is increased to 9 hours, wing span is increased to approx. 22 ft, and the service ceiling is 5,500 m (18,000 ft) (only with authorization).

title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow


text:
Talk:Strasbourg

And not a word about their language, ethnicity
Amazing that not a word is spared on the ethnicity of the people, their language, their allegiance, or anything remotely threatening to the French overloards of the city and the provincd of Alsace. Well done Wiki, well done.... — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2603:7000:9900:5B67:4464:FBF2:FEB3:33A2 (talk) 00:21, 11 February 2024 (UTC)

Expansion and translation
There's been tag on the article for a year now, asking for information to be included from the fr.wiki article. This is almost certainly a good idea, as the fr.wiki article is unsurprisingly much more comprehensive - but which parts in particular would editors like to seen brought over? Knepflerle (talk) 13:58, 11 December 2009 (UTC)
 * Economy and social structure, in particular. But the history section could still be expanded a lot more. --RCS (talk) 14:30, 11 December 2009 (UTC)

--Uhh, it notes in the text that King Phillip of Swabia granted the city of Strassbourg the status of Imperial Free City in 1262, but on the King Phillip of Swabia page it notes that he died in 1208. Since he would have been dead for 54 years by the time he granted Strassbourg that status, it seems unlikely that he was responsible. Voxexmachina (talk) 05:00, 8 February 2010 (UTC)

Uhh! Funny what? This is but one of hundreds of times that extant printed pages or handwritten pages of information conflict with our existing chronology! Since this is but one of hundreds, just how is it now explained?96.19.156.227 (talk) 20:41, 14 June 2011 (UTC)Ronald L. Hughes

Xavier Leroux
According to the WP article, Leroux was born in Italy, not Strasbourg. Does anyone know any more than I do about this? LynwoodF. 213.48.46.141 (talk) 11:12, 12 July 2011 (UTC)

 * Since no one has come up with a justification for the unsubstantiated assertion, I have undone the relevant edit. LynwoodF (talk) 15:23, 23 July 2011 (UTC)

Etymology
An anonymous edit without an edit summary was claiming a Greek origin for the element -bourg or -burg. It is certainly cognate with English borough and may well also be cognate with a similar Greek word, but I have no evidence that it is derived from Greek. I have undone what is no doubt a good-faith, but naïve edit. LynwoodF (talk) 19:27, 17 November 2011 (UTC)

 * Hey LynwoodF, I will try to help you on the matter, the etymologists are still arguing whether the word has Latin or Germanic roots. If fact the word Burgus was used  by germanics and Latino roughly with the same pronunciation to designated in both case a castle, or "place forte". The word really started to spread out with the Franks (Charlemagne)  and the use of old French especially with the song of Roland that was one of the first song written in old French and that spread quickly in whole Europe . Is at this time that the word started to spread and some new signification appeared like Bourgeois ( the man from the Bourg/burg) and that numerous towns in Germany and France stated to bear the word Bourg in the name of the town ( Cherbourg, Lanslebourg, Bourg en Bresse, Strasbourg, Lauterbourg Cabourg, Luxembourg, Lunenburg, Hamburg etc.... Anyway, still now scientists are still arguing its possible origin, but it seems attested that the Roland song was really on the point to spread the word thoughout western and mittel Europa. I guess the word " borough" might be an "anglicisation" of the term.... Another mystery to resolve https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourg if you can read French --Gabriel Haute Maurienne (talk) 00:09, 19 June 2015 (UTC)

 * Hello, Gabriel Haute Maurienne. The point I was making three or four years ago was that someone had naïvely added the words "from Greek πύργος" to the etymology. Now the element "burg" and its variants exist in a wide range of Germanic languages and there is no reason to suppose that they got there from Greek.

 * Looking at this from a neutral point of view – I am English-born, but lived for some years in France and have studied Romance linguistics – I am inclined to the view that you have been reading some rather francocentric etymologists. I see no evidence of "burgus" in Classical Latin and it seems most likely that it got into Late Latin as a result of the Germanic migrations of the fifth century. The word exists in Old English as "burg" or "burh" and occurs as an element in numerous place names. For example, the name of the city of Salisbury in Wiltshire is attested over 100 years before the Song of Roland is thought to have been composed and even longer before its widespread popularity. The spelling "borough" is rather fanciful. We actually say /bʌrə/.

 * The origin of the name of Strasbourg is clearly Germanic. The city was very much a part of Germany throughout the Middle Ages and became part of France in 1681. Since then it has changed hands several times and when I lived there about 55 years ago the principal language of the city was Alsatian, an Allemanic variety of Upper German. Since then French has taken over almost completely. I have seen something similar happening with Brussels during my lifetime. It is still officially bilingual, but has become overwhelmingly French-speaking. Years ago we used to reckon it was approx. 80% French-speaking and 20% Dutch-speaking. ("Flemish" is just the Belgian name for Dutch – in both Belgium and the Netherlands it is officially called "Nederlands".) LynwoodF (talk) 11:16, 19 June 2015 (UTC)
 * Hi LynwoodF, this is really disappointing. I just sum up some info trying to talk about the origin of the terminology of Bourg/burg. I never made a comment about Strabourg precisely. Furthermore I never said that the word was French, even more surprising, I never talked about Stasbourg as having French name origin. I recall giving city names from France and Germany like Lunenburg or Hamburg to illustrate the spread on the use in both countries. I never stated from which side it definitely came from. I just said that it is probably during the Charlemagne era that the terminology spread (and as far as I'm concerned, back then France nor Germany didn't exist), I never said neither that it was the starting point to the word, and that cities would start to adopt the term all of a sudden (the Roland Song mentioned the term so, it existed prior of the song, I took this fact for obvious.).... I said or I meant if you prefer, that it was one of the first time that the term was specified, and the notoriety of this song was probably a vector to increase the spread. What the heck the French speaking evolution of Bruxelles is related to the origin and use on Bourg/burg? I end my edit saying that the mystery is still to find. And for the history of Alsace (since you open your comment by your place of origin), being Alsatian by my mother, and my family being traced back to the 13th century around Surbourg, I really don't need a refresh of the history of the region. And for your comment about Strabourg being part of "Germany" during the middle age, I'm sure that you are aware that it is a little bit more complex (eg the proclamation in Versailles in 1871). Furthermore during the middle age, the Holy Roman Empire, was spread up to some parts of Italy, Savoie, Burgundy, eastern Belgium and many region in Central Europe. So it is not as simple as you say. But I'm surprised, at first I candidly thought that the question was just about a discussion about the origin of the terminology Bourg/burg. But thank you for your "neutral point of view"--Gabriel Haute Maurienne (talk) 12:53, 21 June 2015 (UTC)

Le plus surprenant en regardant ton profil c'est que tu es probablement francophile (on n'apprend pas le francais, et on n'affiche pas les armoiries du Dauphiné par hasard). Aussi j'imagine que ma contribution à été perdue dans la traduction. Mon intervention était liée uniquement au mot bourg, sans lien direct avec la ville dont est liée la page de discussion. Bonne continuation --Gabriel Haute Maurienne (talk) 13:06, 21 June 2015 (UTC)

 * Hello again, Gabriel Haute Maurienne. I am sorry if I misunderstood your previous post. I was originally commenting specifically on the element "-bourg" in the name of the city of Strasbourg. It seemed naïve to attribute a Greek origin to this when the element was so widespread in Germanic languages. When I used the expression "part of Germany", I meant that it was in that part of the Holy Roman Empire which was known as the Kingdom of Germany and in the area which was linguistically and culturally German.

 * I looked at the article in French WP about the word "bourg" and I see that the Greek origin theory is not widely held, although I would be happy with the notion that the Greek word could be cognate with the Germanic word.

 * As for Brussels, I merely mentioned it in passing, because during my lifetime I have seen an advance in the use of French in both Strasbourg and Brussels. French is continuing to expand, just as English is advancing in parts of the British Isles where it was very much a second language until relatively recently. However, in recent decades the minority languages in the UK have been fighting to avoid extinction.

 * I would not describe myself specifically as a Francophile. I have lived in England, Scotland and France and have travelled widely in the Low Countries and elsewhere in Europe. Over the years I have discovered that, despite superficial differences, people are very much the same. LynwoodF (talk) 14:55, 21 June 2015 (UTC)

Re LynwoodF étant donné que cette partie de la discussion n'est pas liée à l'article, permet moi de te répondre en francais puisque tu le maîtrise sans doute mieux que moi l'anglais. Pour l'origine grecque, je pense, mais je n'ai pas de certitude ni de source, que c'est probablement lié à la version qui soutient l'origine latine du terme. Partant de là, il est techniquement possible d'arguer de la réflexion suivante: étant donné que de nombreux mots latins viennent du grec, il est probable que bourg en provienne également toujours selon cette théorie. A croire les hellénophones, toutes les langues viennent du grec 😜. Enfin pour le déclin de certaines langues régionales frontalières, si beaucoup ne faisait pas le raccourci entre racine du dialecte parlé = nationalité je suis sûr que leur statut se porterait bien mieux. Ce n'est pas un hasard si de nombreux dialectes germaniques ont drastiquement régressé après les deux guerres mondiales, ou certains ont justifié leurs annexions territoriale unilatérales forcées sur ce simple critère. Enfin si tu jettes un œil sur les deux discussions que j'ai en ce moment, tu constateras que certains semblent mélanger réalité et fantasmes de grandeurs, quitte à inventer des sources qui s'autoalimentent. Amicalement --Gabriel Haute Maurienne (talk) 15:27, 21 June 2015 (UTC)

 * Hello again, Gabriel Haute Maurienne. You are welcome to address me in French. I still read it easily, but since I gave up travelling for health reasons, I find it harder to compose text in French, especially as I do not have a suitable keyboard. I have lost a lot of vocabulary and find myself making grammatical mistakes I would not have made 30 years ago.

 * As you suggested, I looked at your talk page on French WP and I see that you have an anonymous correspondent with a tendency to be unreasonable. You have my sympathy. I have had encounters with people who do not wish to be persuaded.

 * There was a reason for putting the arms of the Dauphin on my user page. Two television historians (who should have been more careful) independently described the future Louis VIII as "the Dauphin". You probably know that he was once proclaimed King of England, a fact which was not taught to us when I was at school. Given that you come from nearby, I expect you know that at the time when Louis lived, the Dauphiné was still effectively an independent state within the Kingdom of Arles, which was part of the Holy Roman Empire. I was similarly irritated when a historian speaking on the radio read an extract from a 14th-century chronicle which described a man as coming from "Hainaut in Germany", and then unwisely commented, "So they got that wrong." The chronicler was in fact precisely right.

 * Best wishes, LynwoodF (talk) 11:59, 22 June 2015 (UTC)
 * En effet LynwoodF, le plus dur est souvent de trouver des interlocuteurs raisonnables qui veulent bien échanger. J'ai eu de grosses envolées également sur l'article sur la langue Allemande sur la page de discussion anglaise. Ou il semble qu'une collection de drapeau de pays est plus important que la réalité. Par exemple insister pour faire figurer la slovaquie dans l'info box alors que le nombre total de locuteurs reconnus, concernent deux municipalités avec 89 locuteurs de langue allemande en totalité (communes à facilité), à un moment figurait également Togo et Cameroun (aussi je me surprend à me demander si tout cela ne contient pas une part de nostalgie). Plus dérangeant, voir totalement contraires aux règles éthiques, faire figurer en source .. wikipedia pour un article sur le nombre de germanophones dans une région du Brésil.  Et pour conforter le tout on insère comme seconde référence une simple demande de création d'ISO qui pour justifier du nombre de locuteurs mentionne à son tour Wikipedia. Aussi il est très important de faire attention aux références, les lires et de ne pas prendre Wikipedia pour une source d'information infaillible. Et pour faire une dernière aparté sur l'Alsace, nous  sommes et nous nous sentons français, nous avons combattu pour la révolution française, Mulhouse a voté librement son rattachement à la France, la région à donné nos meilleurs généraux pour la France (Kellermann, Kléber et tant d'autres) nous avons protesté contre l'annexion de l'Allemagne en 1871 (https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Député_protestataire), l'affaire de Saverne https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incident_de_Saverne, et bien sur l'annexion et l'incorporation forcée dans l'armée nazi. On a du "s'engager", avec menace de mort sur la famille en cas de refus,  et fini exterminé sur le front de l'est pour un pays, et une guerre qui n'était pas la notre. Marcel Weinum a 16 ans a créé le premier réseau de résistance en Alsace, il a fini décapité a 18 ans à Stuttgart. Et bien souvent on se heurte aux raccourcis presque raciste assimilant dialectes germaniques à la nationalité allemande. Nous sommes fiers d'être français (ça peut surprendre dans ces temps de francophobie internationale) et c'est fatiguant de toujours avoir à se justifier ma grand mère a toujours porté la cocarde tricolore sur son habit traditionnel et s'est fait enterrée avec.  Sinon pour le Dauphiné c'est effectivement proche de ma région, mais comme tu le sais, la Savoie a été un duché indépendant jusqu'à son annexion en 1860, aussi nous n'avions pas de liens étroit avec le Dauphiné, nous étions tourné vers l'Autriche, et la Bavière.la France en ce temps là était probablement notre plus grand ennemi. Et sinon tu vis ou maintenant??--Gabriel Haute Maurienne (talk) 13:30, 22 June 2015 (UTC)

Timeline of Strasbourg
What is missing from the recently created city timeline article? Please add relevant content! Contributions welcome. Thank you. -- M2545 (talk) 09:01, 18 June 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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River navigation
There has been a difference of opinion today about the use of this term. Here is my contribution to the discussion:

 * "River navigation" is the normal expression in English for what is being discussed. It is perfectly normal in English to use a noun as though it were an adjective in order to modify a following noun. An expression which immediately leapt into my mind was "cliff path". There are plenty more, e.g. "cotton socks".

 * "Fluvial" is used in English chiefly in geological expressions. See The Oxford Dictionary of English.

LynwoodF (talk) 14:18, 15 September 2015 (UTC)
 * Hi, thanks for sharing your view in the talk page instead of reverting. It seems that I was wrong, (and you were right), you are welcome to cancel my edit. Sorry, but being native French speaker, I was misleaded by the word. Sorry for the inconvenience.--Gabriel HM (talk) 15:38, 15 September 2015 (UTC)

 * Hello, . Thank you for your reply. I see that the wording has been changed again. LynwoodF (talk) 16:33, 16 September 2015 (UTC)

Does the Ill flow into the Rhine in Strasbourg
The geography section of the article starts:

 * Strasbourg is on the Eastern border of France, on the Ill River where it flows into the Rhine on the border with Germany, across from the German town Kehl.

My first reaction was to say that is wrong, on the grounds that Ill continues to flow north parallel to the Rhine for c.20km before the two rivers actually meet. But then I began to doubt. Certainly that is what modern maps show, but they also show several waterways linking the two rivers in Strasbourg. Those waterways have canal names, and look like canals, but appearances and names can be deceptive, and it wouldn't be the first time a natural watercourse had been obliterated by its conversion into a much wider and straighter canal.

So I guess my question is, before people started digging extra channels, was there a natural connection between the Ill and the Rhine in Strasbourg, or is the only natural channel of the Ill the one that continues down to Offendorf before entering the Rhine. Either way, I think we need to elaborate that sentence, but best to know the facts (and pick up a cite or two) first. -- chris_j_wood (talk) 16:41, 15 September 2015 (UTC)
 * Here is a very technical and extensive article from 1919, in French, on the subject. It deals with how in the late 19th-century and early 20th-century Strasbourg created a new port along canals that were specially dug to connect the Ill and the Rhine, whose natural flow had been modified by the Germans. I hope this helps... --Edelseider (talk) 19:13, 15 September 2015 (UTC)
 * And here you can see that the little stream Steingiessen (length: 4.4 km, according to ), which runs through the Strasbourg district of La Robertsau, does indeed connect the Ill and the Rhine through natural means. --Edelseider (talk) 20:23, 15 September 2015 (UTC)

Remind
Just a remind. Some important naming conventions which the article's lead violates (WP:LEAD and WP:LEAD): ''Once a Names or Etymology section or paragraph is created, the alternative English or foreign names should not be moved back to the first line. As an exception, a local official name different from a widely accepted English name should be retained in the lead. (Foreign language: Local name; known also by several alternative names)".''' If the case is exceptional, common sense may be applied to ignore all rules. Please discuss to decide if this is an exceptional case.2A02:2430:3:2500:0:0:B807:3DA0 (talk) 03:55, 6 December 2015 (UTC)

 * I don't think this is an issue. The very purpose of an article lead is to summarise the important bits of the following article. And Strasbourg's location on both national and linguistic boundaries is absolutely crucial to any understanding of its story. It would be perverse not to include this in the lead just because of a bit of WP bureaucracy that was clearly intended to discourage inclusion of non-crucial information in the lead. -- chris_j_wood (talk) 12:00, 8 December 2015 (UTC)

 * BTW perversion means something else, is the comment above something like trolling?2A02:2430:3:2500:0:0:B807:3DA0 (talk) 19:32, 8 December 2015 (UTC)

 * Anonymous users lecturing non-anonymous users cannot be taken seriously. Take an user name like everybody else or stop playing the Wikipedia policeman. --Edelseider (talk) 20:07, 8 December 2015 (UTC)

 * To my mind, rules are for the obedience of fools and the guidance of the wise. In my experience, and  have both done good work on articles connected with Strasbourg and, if they are both happy with the lead, I can tell you all that I am reasonably happy with it too. LynwoodF (talk) 21:47, 8 December 2015 (UTC)

 * Thank you . You certainly speak and act wisely! --Edelseider (talk) 09:44, 9 December 2015 (UTC)

 * Just for the record, perverse in this context means "determined or disposed to go counter to what is expected or desired". No trolling involved. -- chris_j_wood (talk) 10:57, 9 December 2015 (UTC)

Armenians in Strasbourg
I made a small mistake with this edit: the author is Noëlla Richard, not Richard Noëlla. See also https://publication-theses.unistra.fr/public/memoires/2012/IEP/2012_RICHARD_Noella.pdf for the full text. --Edelseider (talk) 14:35, 2 January 2016 (UTC)

 * Thank you, . I was suspicious about the 30,000, and so I put a tag on the edit, but I thought you would know more about it than I do. I lived in Strasbourg over 50 years ago and things have changed a bit since then! I had a look at the pdf and found it interesting. LynwoodF (talk) 16:16, 2 January 2016 (UTC)

War edit with the German based IP 78.55.50.76
The user keep changing the sentence that was the fruit of a consensus. It is not accurate to state that the region was historically German speaking, since, many Germanic/alemanic languages and to to some extend romances dialects were initially spoken and are still spoken in the area. I tried to change it in many way (Germanic/alemanic) in order to reach a consensus, but he keeps reverting it to his initial edit. And finally attack me on my talk page saying that I'm an anti German person. I want to be clear by saying that the statement that he wants to change was here long before his intervention. And I just tried to keep it this way, I'm not the initiator of this war edit. I invited him many times to settle this issue on the talk page and he refused, preferring personal attacks on my talk page. I insist here by saying that the statement "historically German speaking" is not accurate since the standard German came in the region late and that most of the natives still now are speaking a Germanic dialect at home wich is different from the standard German. It is not correct to reduce the importance, the varieties and the cultural wealth of the different local dialects to the standard German. This German based IP contributor is new to wiki, and he is focused to add the word German, or a German translation of Alsatian names even in articles where a German translation is not relevant. This is not in the charter of Wikipedia to make personal attacks when we have a different on an article. He keeps saying that I should bring sources, eventhough and doesn't have any to sustain his affirmations.--Gabriel HM (talk) 14:54, 17 March 2016 (UTC)
 * Hello, . I have seen some of this dispute going on in various places and I just wanted you to know that I understand what you are saying. We do not seem to know who this IP user is, but he (I definitely think it is a man.) has a poor understanding of historical linguistics and I suspect he has a political agenda. I am sure you know as well as I do the subtleties of the evolving linguistic situation in Alsace. When I lived in Strasbourg more than half a century ago, the default language in many areas of life was Alsatian, which was regarded as a regional language distinct from, although related to, German. As a neutral linguist with no axe to grind, I would regard it as a series of varieties of Alemannic German with an admixture of Gallicisms. Incidentally, the word Francization is regarded in British English as a specifically Canadian term. LynwoodF (talk) 17:09, 17 March 2016 (UTC)

Hi, thanks for you kind comment. I think that I know who is this IP. Furthermore I suspect this anonymous users to be in fact | Renekm specialised in former German Territorites and its German name mostly during the nazi era, and that spends most of his time to give German names to all territories, cities, communes, provinces, forts etc without any distinction, and even naming French maginot forts  with a German translation, wich is very weird. Indeed his last post under his name was just before I reverted his edit, and in the following hours he disappeared from Wikipedia, and the anonymous IP appeared and started to to do the same. It is shameful for lnguit and the wealth of the dialects and regional languages to truly to reduce them as nothing than the main standard form.

"Historically" means "in the past" and not the current situation. Historic developments should be adressed as such. The university of Strasburg e.g. was teaching in German until the revolution and not in Alsatian. There is a difference when speaking about the distant past. --78.55.50.76 (talk) 17:56, 17 March 2016 (UTC)

Section 1918 to the present
The beginning of the section "1918 to the present" should be reworked. It was apparently written by someone with the aim of downplaying support for France in Strasbourg in 1918. Several points appear dubious or are missing: ព្រះមហាក្សត្ររាជ (talk) 14:37, 25 March 2017 (UTC)
 * unverifiable parallel history: "It is doubtful whether a referendum in Strasbourg would have ended in France's favour"
 * a link to the map of German Reichstag election results in 1912, without explaining the context of that election (in 1912, 41 years after annexation, decline of the autonomist vote everywhere in Alsace, not just Strasbourg, one year before the Saverne Affair which rekindled it, and 2 years before a war nobody in Alsace could have imagined in 1912)
 * no mention of the brutal policies of the German Army during WW1 (martial law imposed on the local inhabitants, bad treatment of their conscripts sent to the Eastern front for fear they would desert to the French, etc) which combined with the Saverne Affair greatly antagonized the Alsatians and changed their feelings toward Germany
 * no mention of the huge crowds of cheering Strasbourgeois who welcomed the arrival of the French troops in November 1918, and the pro-French fervor which so impressed the American correspondents

External links modified
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I have just modified 4 external links on Strasbourg. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20101204060533/http://www.ceaac.org/html/espace_public/pourtales/frame.htm to http://www.ceaac.org/html/espace_public/pourtales/frame.htm
 * Added archive http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516192907/http://ccfr.bnf.fr/portailccfr/servlet/ViewManager?menu=menu_view&record=rnbcd_fonds:FONDS:853&setCache=rnbcd_fonds.FONDS to http://ccfr.bnf.fr/portailccfr/servlet/ViewManager?menu=menu_view&record=rnbcd_fonds%3AFONDS%3A853&setCache=rnbcd_fonds.FONDS
 * Added archive http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160518062629/http://www.alsace.equipement.gouv.fr/pdf/GCO-DUP-Doc_Publ.pdf to http://www.alsace.equipement.gouv.fr/pdf/GCO-DUP-Doc_Publ.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20101002090459/http://www.leicester.gov.uk/your-council-services/lc/twinning/ to http://www.leicester.gov.uk/your-council-services/lc/twinning/

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Salzburg disambiguation
Is this a joke? Do we really expect people to confuse Strasbourg and Salzburg?

I tried to remove it but got a bunch of crazy template warnings in the preview. Can someone who knows how to do it please remove this absolutely nonsensical disambiguation? --91.34.39.52 (talk) 21:54, 12 January 2018 (UTC)
 * You are right. It was a joke, or vandalism, which is the same, eventually. Thank you for pointing it out. --Edelseider (talk) 08:15, 13 January 2018 (UTC)
 * Thanks!
 * I had in fact looked for a Strasbourg disambiguation and there is none. Now I am surprised to see that the Strasburg disambiguation page does in fact include Strasbourg (plus a number of other places spelled differently from Strasburg).
 * Does the English Wikipedia commonly use disambiguation pages for misspellings? Or is there any language in which the name of the town is actually spelled "Strasburg"? --87.150.1.57 (talk) 12:05, 13 January 2018 (UTC)
 * P.S. Yeah, must have been vandalism, btw. Look at this. Why someone would get an account only to make two such nonsensical edits is beyond me. :-) --87.150.1.57 (talk) 12:14, 13 January 2018 (UTC)

the fourth-largest river port in France after Nantes, Rouen and Bordeaux.
As far as I know, Strasbourg is the second river port in France. Nantes, Rouen and Bordeaux are in Esturies, with sea ships.

According to French wiki, Paris is the first river harbour ( Il est le deuxième port fluvial de France après le Port autonome de Paris et le deuxième port rhénan après Duisbourg .)

2A01:CB10:5AF:8C00:88FF:8A9E:5628:752D (talk) 08:54, 23 October 2019 (UTC) Jerome
 * Absolutely. The person who edited that (now reverted, with new added sources) confused "ports" with "river ports". --Edelseider (talk) 10:14, 4 January 2020 (UTC)

Native name etc
The German name should be given more prominence. It should appear in the native name section of the infobox, and also be put directly after the French name. I'm well aware that Alsace has its own vernacular(s), but Hochdeutsch has been used there intermittently in an official capacity and it is widely taught in schools.-86.180.91.149 (talk) 14:31, 6 June 2021 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
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 * Council of Europe Palais de l'Europe aerial view.JPG

title: Talk:Strasbourg