text:
Catherine Parr

Catherine Parr (she signed her letters as Kateryn; c. August 1512 – 5 September 1548 ) was Queen of England and Ireland as the last of the six wives of King Henry VIII from their marriage on 12 July 1543 until Henry's death on 28 January 1547. Catherine was the final queen consort of the House of Tudor, and outlived Henry by a year and eight months. With four husbands, she is the most-married English queen. She was the first woman to publish in print an original work under her own name in England in the English language.

Catherine enjoyed a close relationship with Henry's three children, Mary, Elizabeth and Edward. She was personally involved in the education of Elizabeth and Edward. She was influential in Henry's passing of the Third Succession Act in 1543 that restored his daughters Mary and Elizabeth to the line of succession to the throne. Catherine was appointed regent from July to September 1544 while Henry was on a military campaign in France; in the event that he lost his life, she was to rule as regent until Edward came of age. However, he did not give her any function in government in his will. Following the king's death, she assumed the role of guardian to her stepdaughter, Elizabeth, and took Henry's great-niece Lady Jane Grey into her household.

On 25 April 1544, Catherine published her first book, Psalms or Prayers, anonymously. Her book Prayers or Meditations became the first original book published by an English queen under her own name on 2 June 1545. She published a third book, The Lamentation of a Sinner, on 5 November 1547, nine months after the death of King Henry VIII. On account of her Protestant sympathies, she provoked the enmity of anti-Protestant officials, who sought to turn the king against her; a warrant for her arrest was drawn up, probably in the spring of 1546. However, she and the king soon reconciled.

After Henry's death on 28 January 1547, Catherine was allowed to keep the queen's jewels and dresses as queen dowager. About six months after Henry's death, she married her fourth and final husband, Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley. Seymour was an uncle of Henry's successor, King Edward VI (Catherine's stepson) and the younger brother of Lord Protector of England Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, and of Jane Seymour, Henry's third wife. Catherine's fourth and final marriage was short-lived, for she died on 5 September 1548 due to complications of childbirth. Her funeral was held on 7 September 1548 and was the first Protestant funeral in England, Scotland or Ireland to be held in English.

Early life and adolescence
Catherine Parr was the eldest child of Sir Thomas Parr, lord of the manor of Kendal in Westmorland (now in Cumbria), and Maud Green, daughter and co-heiress of Sir Thomas Green, lord of Greens Norton, Northamptonshire, and Joan Fogge. Like Anne Boleyn, Catherine had been raised as a Catholic but at some point turned to Protestantism. Sir Thomas Parr was a descendant of King Edward III, and the Parrs were a substantial northern family which included many knights. Catherine had a younger brother, William, who after much wrangling was later created first Marquess of Northampton, and a younger sister, Anne, later Countess of Pembroke. Sir Thomas was a close companion to King Henry VIII, and was rewarded as such with responsibilities and/or incomes from his positions as Sheriff of Northamptonshire, Master of the Wards, and Comptroller to the King, in addition to being the lord of Kendal. Catherine's mother was a close friend and attendant of Catherine of Aragon, and Catherine Parr was probably named after Queen Catherine, who was her godmother.

She was born in 1512, probably in August. It was once thought that Catherine Parr had been born at Kendal Castle in Westmorland. However, at the time of her birth, Kendal Castle was already in very poor condition. During her pregnancy, Maud Parr remained at court, attending the queen, and by necessity the Parr family were living in their townhouse at Blackfriars. Historians now consider it unlikely that Sir Thomas would have taken his pregnant wife on an arduous two-week journey north over bad roads to give birth in a crumbling castle in which neither of them seemed to spend much time. Catherine's father died when she was young, and she was close to her mother as she grew up.

Catherine's initial education was similar to other well-born women, but she developed a passion for learning which would continue throughout her life. She was fluent in French, Latin (a language in which she composed), and Italian, and began learning Spanish after becoming queen. According to biographer Linda Porter, the story that as a child, Catherine could not tolerate sewing and often said to her mother that "my hands are ordained to touch crowns and sceptres, not spindles and needles" is very likely apocryphal.

First marriage (1529–1533)
In 1529, when she was seventeen, Catherine married Sir Edward Burgh (pronounced and sometimes written as Borough), a grandson of Edward Burgh, 2nd Baron Burgh. Earlier biographies had mistakenly reported that Catherine had married the older Burgh. Following the 2nd Baron Burgh's death in December 1528, Catherine's father-in-law Sir Thomas Burgh was summoned to Parliament in 1529 as Baron Burgh.

Catherine's first husband was in his twenties and may have been in poor health. He served as a feoffee for Thomas Kiddell and as a justice of the peace. His father also secured a joint patent in survivorship with his son for the office of steward of the manor of the soke of Kirton in Lindsey. The younger Sir Edward Burgh died in the spring of 1533, not surviving to inherit the title of Baron Burgh.

Lady Latimer (1534–1543)
Following her first husband's death, Catherine Parr may have spent time with the Dowager Lady Strickland, Katherine Neville, who was the widow of Catherine's cousin Sir Walter Strickland, at the Stricklands' family residence of Sizergh Castle in Westmorland (now in Cumbria). In the summer of 1534, Catherine married, secondly, John Neville, 3rd Baron Latimer, her father's second cousin and a kinsman of Lady Strickland. With this marriage, Catherine became only the second woman in the Parr family to marry into the peerage.

The twice-widowed Latimer was nearly twice Catherine's age. From his first marriage to Dorothy de Vere, sister of John de Vere, 14th Earl of Oxford, he had two children, John and Margaret. Although Latimer was in financial difficulties after he and his brothers had pursued legal action to claim the title of Earl of Warwick, Catherine now had a home of her own, a title and a husband with a position and influence in the north.

Pilgrimage of Grace and later
Latimer was a supporter of the Catholic Church and had opposed the king's first annulment, his subsequent marriage to Anne Boleyn, and the religious consequences. In October 1536, during the Lincolnshire Rising, Catholic rebels appeared before the Latimers' home, threatening violence if Latimer did not join their efforts to reinstate the links between England and Rome. Catherine watched as her husband was dragged away. Between October 1536 and April 1537, Catherine lived alone in fear with her step-children, struggling to survive. It is probable that, in these uncertain times, Catherine's strong reaction against the rebellion strengthened her adherence to the reformed Church of England. In January 1537, during the uprising known as the Pilgrimage of Grace, Catherine and her step-children were held hostage at Snape Castle in North Yorkshire. The rebels ransacked the house and sent word to Lord Latimer, who was returning from London, that if he did not return immediately they would kill his family. When Latimer returned to the castle, he managed to talk the rebels into releasing his family and leaving, but the aftermath was taxing on the whole family.

The king and Thomas Cromwell heard conflicting reports as to whether Latimer was a prisoner or a conspirator. As a conspirator, he could be found guilty of treason, forfeiting his estates and leaving Catherine and her step-children penniless. The king himself wrote to Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk, pressing him to make sure Latimer would "condemn that villain [Robert] Aske and submit to our clemency". Latimer complied. It is likely that Catherine's brother William Parr and her uncle, William Parr, 1st Baron Parr of Horton, who both fought against the rebellion, intervened to save Latimer's life.

Although no charges were laid against him, Latimer's reputation, which reflected upon Catherine, was tarnished for the rest of his life. Over the next seven years, the family spent much of their time in the south. In 1542, the family spent time in London as Latimer attended Parliament. Catherine visited her brother William Parr, 1st Marquess of Northampton and her sister Anne Parr, Countess of Pembroke at court. It was here that Catherine became acquainted with her future fourth husband, Sir Thomas Seymour. The atmosphere of the court was greatly different from that of the rural estates she knew. There, Catherine could find the latest trends, not only in religious matters, but in less weighty secular matters such as fashion and jewellery.

By the winter of 1542, Lord Latimer's health had worsened. Catherine nursed her husband until his death in 1543. In his will, Catherine was named as guardian of his daughter, Margaret, and was put in charge of his affairs until his daughter's majority. Latimer left Catherine a life interest in the manor of Stowe in Northamptonshire, eleven miles from Horton, and other properties. He also bequeathed money for supporting his daughter, and in the case that his daughter did not marry within five years, Catherine was to take £30 a year out of the income to support her. Catherine was left a rich widow, but after Lord Latimer's death she faced the possibility of having to return north. It is likely that Catherine sincerely mourned her husband; she kept a remembrance of him, his New Testament with his name inscribed inside, until her death.

Using her late mother's friendship with Henry's first queen, Catherine of Aragon, Catherine took the opportunity to renew her own friendship with the former queen's daughter, Lady Mary. By 16 February 1543, Catherine had established herself as part of Mary's household, and it was there that Catherine caught the attention of the king. Although she had begun a romantic friendship with Sir Thomas Seymour, the brother of the late queen Jane Seymour, she saw it as her duty to accept Henry's proposal over Seymour's. Seymour was given a posting in Brussels to remove him from the king's court.

Queen of England and Ireland
Catherine married Henry VIII on 12 July 1543 at Hampton Court Palace. She was the first Queen of England also to be Queen of Ireland following Henry's adoption of the title King of Ireland. She was also the third of his wives to be named Catherine, although she spelled it "Kateryn" in signatures. Catherine and her new husband shared several common royal and noble ancestors, making them multiple cousins. By Henry's mother and Catherine's father they were third cousins once removed, sharing Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland, and Lady Joan Beaufort (granddaughter of Edward III), and by their fathers they were double fourth cousins once removed, sharing Thomas Holland, 2nd Earl of Kent (son of Joan of Kent) and Lady Alice FitzAlan (granddaughter of Henry, 3rd Earl of Lancaster) and John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster (son of Edward III) and Katherine Swynford. On becoming queen, Catherine installed her former stepdaughter, Margaret Neville, as her lady-in-waiting, and gave her cousin Maud, Lady Lane and her stepson John's wife, Lucy Somerset, positions in her household. Catherine was partially responsible for reconciling Henry with his daughters from his first two marriages, and also developed a good relationship with Henry's son Edward. When she became queen, her uncle Lord Parr of Horton became her Lord Chamberlain.

Parr's Psalms or Prayers taken out of Holy Scriptures, was printed by the king's printer on 25 April 1544. It was an anonymous translation of a Latin work by Bishop John Fisher (c. 1525) that had been reprinted on 18 April 1544. Fisher had been executed in 1535 for refusing to take the oath of supremacy, and his name does not appear on the title page. Parr's volume appeared as preparations for war were being finalised, and it served as a powerful piece of wartime propaganda designed to help Henry win the war against France and Scotland via the prayers of his people. The volume contains seventeen "Psalms", focused largely on defeating enemies, and it concludes with "A Prayer for the King", derived from a prayer for the Holy Roman Emperor by Georg Witzel, and "A Prayer for Men to Say Entering into Battle", a translation of a prayer by Erasmus. Parr paid for deluxe gift copies of the book which were printed on vellum and distributed at court. One deluxe copy has annotations by Henry VIII. The "Ninth Psalm" was set to pre-existing music by Thomas Tallis and was likely performed as part of special wartime ceremony at St. Paul's Cathedral on 22 May 1544. Parr's "A Prayer for the King" had an important afterlife. In 1559, it was edited and inserted into the Book of Common Prayer, probably by Elizabeth who was then Supreme Governor of the Church of England. This prayer remains in the Book of Common Prayer and is still used to pray for the British monarch by Anglican communities around the globe.

Henry went on his last campaign to France from July to September 1544, leaving Catherine as his regent. Because her regency council was composed of sympathetic members, including: Thomas Cranmer (the Archbishop of Canterbury), Lord Hertford and her uncle William Parr, Lord Parr of Horton (included at her particular request), Catherine obtained effective control and was able to rule as she saw fit. She handled provision, finances, and musters for Henry's French campaign, signed five royal proclamations, and maintained constant contact with her lieutenant in the northern Marches, Lord Shrewsbury, over the complex and unstable situation with Scotland. It is thought that her actions as regent, together with her strength of character and noted dignity, and later religious convictions, greatly influenced her stepdaughter Lady Elizabeth (the future Elizabeth I of England).

Parr's second publication, Prayers or Meditations, appeared in June 1545, and, like her first book, it was a bestseller. In this case, Parr's compositional method was a complex one as she reworked the third book of Thomas à Kempis's Imitatio Christi to produce a monologue spoken by a generic Christian speaker. The volume also circulated in manuscript and deluxe print copies. Princess Elizabeth translated the work into Latin, Italian and French as a New Year's gift for Henry VIII in December 1545 and presented the manuscript in a beautiful hand-embroidered cover. The volume has been digitised by the British Library.

The queen's religious views were viewed with suspicion by anti-Protestant officials such as Stephen Gardiner (the Bishop of Winchester) and Lord Wriothesley (the Lord Chancellor). Although brought up as a Catholic, she later became sympathetic to and interested in the "New Faith". By the mid-1540s, she came under suspicion that she was actually a Protestant. This view is supported by the strong reformed ideas that she revealed after Henry's death, when her third book, Lamentation of a Sinner, was published in late 1547. In 1546, the Bishop of Winchester and Lord Wriothesley tried to turn the king against her. An arrest warrant was drawn up for her and rumours abounded across Europe that the king was attracted to her close friend, the Duchess of Suffolk. However, she saw the warrant and managed to reconcile with the king after vowing that she had only argued about religion with him to take his mind off the suffering caused by his ulcerous leg. The following day chancellor Wriothesley (with a detachment of the Guard), who was unaware of the reconciliation, tried to arrest her while she walked with Henry. The king angrily dismissed his chancellor.

Final marriage and death
Shortly before he died, Henry made provision for an allowance of £7,000 per year for Catherine to support herself. He further ordered that, after his death, Catherine, though a queen dowager, should be given the respect of a queen of England, as if he were still alive. After the coronation of her stepson, Edward VI, on 31 January 1547, Catherine retired from court to her home at Old Manor in Chelsea.

Following Henry's death, Catherine's old love and the new king's uncle, Thomas Seymour (who was soon created 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley), returned to court. Catherine was quick to accept when Seymour renewed his suit of marriage. Since only four months had passed since the death of King Henry, Seymour knew that the Regency council would not agree to a petition for the queen dowager to marry so soon. Sometime near the end of May, Catherine and Seymour married in secret. King Edward VI and the council were not informed of the union for several months. When their union became public knowledge, it caused a small scandal. The king and Lady Mary were very much displeased by the union. After being censured and reprimanded by the council, Seymour wrote to the Lady Mary asking her to intervene on his behalf. Mary became furious at his forwardness and tasteless actions and refused to help. Mary even went as far as asking her half-sister, Lady Elizabeth, not to interact with Queen Catherine any further.

During this time, Catherine began having altercations with her brother-in-law, Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset. Like Thomas, Edward was the king's uncle, and also was the Lord Protector. A rivalry developed between Catherine and his wife, her own former lady-in-waiting, Anne Seymour, Duchess of Somerset, which became particularly acute over the matter of Catherine's jewels. The Duchess argued that Catherine, as queen dowager, was no longer entitled to wear the jewels belonging to the wife of the king. Instead she, as the wife of the protector, should be the one to wear them. The whole ordeal left her relationship with Catherine permanently damaged; the relationship between the two Seymour brothers also worsened as a result, since Thomas saw the whole dispute as a personal attack by his brother on his social standing.

In November 1547, Catherine published her third book, The Lamentation of a Sinner. The book promoted the Protestant concept of justification by faith alone, which the Catholic Church deemed to be heresy. It was sponsored by Katherine Brandon, the Duchess of Suffolk, and by William Parr (Catherine's brother), and William Cecil, Elizabeth I's future chief minister, wrote the preface. In 1544 or 1545, Parr had started to organise an English translation of Erasmus's Paraphrases Upon the New Testament, and the massive volume was finally printed in January 1548. Parr had enlisted Nicholas Udall, Thomas Keyes and Mary Tudor to translate different sections and she may have produced the paraphrase of Matthew. In July 1547 the Edwardian state ordered every parish to obtain a copy and many generations of literate parishioners would have encountered lengthy dedications praising Parr's learning, her commitment to the vernacular Bible, and her role in the English reformation. Parr owned many books and she participated in the cultural practice of writing in her books and signing books that belonged to others. At the age of 35, Catherine became pregnant. This pregnancy was a surprise, as Catherine had not conceived during her first three marriages. During this time, Seymour began to take an interest in Lady Elizabeth. Seymour had reputedly plotted to marry her before marrying Catherine, and it was reported later that Catherine discovered the two in an embrace. On a few occasions before the situation risked getting completely out of hand, according to the deposition of Kat Ashley, Catherine appears not only to have acquiesced in episodes of horseplay, but actually to have assisted her husband. Whatever actually happened, Elizabeth was sent away in May 1548 to stay with Sir Anthony Denny's household at Cheshunt and never saw her beloved stepmother again, although the two corresponded. Elizabeth immediately wrote a letter to the queen and Seymour after she left Chelsea. The letter demonstrates a sort of remorse.

Kat Ashley, whose deposition was given after Catherine had died and Seymour had been arrested for another attempt at marrying Lady Elizabeth, had developed a crush on Seymour during her time at Chelsea and encouraged her charge to "play along". At one point she even made a comment at how lucky Elizabeth would have been to have a husband like Seymour. Ashley even told Lady Elizabeth that Seymour had confided his sentiments to her of wanting to marry Elizabeth before Catherine. After Catherine's death, Ashley strongly encouraged Elizabeth to write to Seymour offering her condolences; to "comfort him of his sorrow...for he would think great kindness therein."

In June 1548, Catherine, accompanied by Lady Jane Grey, moved to Sudeley Castle in Gloucestershire. The dowager queen promised to provide education for her. It was there that Catherine would spend the last few months of her pregnancy and the last summer of her life.

Catherine gave birth to her only child, a daughter, Mary Seymour, named after Catherine's stepdaughter Mary, on 30 August 1548. Catherine died on 5 September 1548, at Sudeley Castle, from what is thought to have been "childbed fever". This illness was common due to the lack of hygiene around childbirth.

Catherine's funeral was held on 7 September 1548. It was the first Protestant funeral held in English. Her chief mourner was Lady Jane Grey. She was buried in St. Mary's Chapel on the grounds of Sudeley Castle, Gloucestershire, England.

Thomas Seymour was beheaded for treason on 20 March 1549 and Mary Seymour was taken to live with the Dowager Duchess of Suffolk, a close friend of Catherine's. Catherine's other jewels were kept in a coffer with five drawers at Sudeley and this was sent to the Tower of London on 20 April 1549, and her clothes and papers followed in May. After a year and a half, on 17 March 1550, Mary's property was restored to her by the Restitution of Mary Seymour Act 1549 (3 & 4 Edw. 6. c. 14), easing the burden of the infant's household on the duchess. The last mention of Mary Seymour on record is on her second birthday, and although stories circulated that she eventually married and had children, most historians believe she died as a child at Grimsthorpe Castle in Lincolnshire.

Remains
During the English Civil War, Sudeley Castle was used as a base by King Charles I, leading to its siege and sack by Parliamentarians in January 1643, during which Catherine's grave was probably disturbed and her monument destroyed. Contemporary writer Bruno Ryves reported that:

"There is in the castle a goodly fair church, here they dug up the graves, and disturb the ashes of the dead, they break down the monuments of the Chandoses".

The castle changed hands several times during the war, suffering a second siege, before being slighted in 1649, leading to it being largely abandoned, and the royal grave lost.

Catherine's presence at the castle was first rediscovered by the antiquarian Rev. Huggett when researching at the College of Arms, passing his findings onto George Pitt, 1st Baron Rivers, the owner of the castle in 1768.

Joseph Lucas, a member of the local gentry who dwelled in the outer court of the castle, renting it from Baron Rivers, was aware of Huggett's work and searched for the lost grave, discovering it among the ruins of the chapel in 1782. An account of the discovery was later published in Notes and Queries by the daughter of a Mr. Brooks, who had been present at the discovery. "In the summer of the year 1782 the earth in which Qu. K. Par lay inter'd was removed, and at the depth of about two feet (or very little more) her leaden coffin or coffin was found quite whole... Mr. Jno Lucas had the curiosity to rip up the top of the coffin, expecting to discover within it only the bones of the deceased, but to his great surprise found the whole body wrapped in 6 or 7 seer cloth linen, entire and uncorrupted... his unwarranted curiosity led him to make an incision through the seer cloth which covered one of the arms of the corpse, the flesh of which at the time was white and moist".

The coffin was reopened in 1783, 1784, 1786; and in 1792, when local vandals broke into the coffin and threw the corpse in a rubbish heap, leading to Mr. Lucas reinterring the body in a hidden, walled grave.

The last time the coffin was opened was in 1817 when the local rector decided to move it to the crypt under the chapel. When opening it this final time it was found the body had been reduced to a skeleton, and much of the coffin filled with ivy.

During these various openings of the coffin, fragments of Catherine's dress and locks of her hair were collected, one of which was gifted to Elizabeth Hamilton. The majority of these items are now on display at Sudeley Castle.

The coffin was last moved in 1861 to its final location in the fully restored chapel, under a canopied neo-Gothic tomb designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott, with a recumbent marble figure by John Birnie Philip.

Iconography
The full-length portrait of Catherine Parr by Master John in the National Portrait Gallery was for many years thought to represent Lady Jane Grey. The painting has recently been re-identified as Catherine Parr, with whose name it was originally associated. The full-length format was very rare in portraits of this date, and was usually used only for very important sitters. Lady Jane Grey, although of royal blood, was a relatively obscure child of eight when this was painted (c. 1545); it was to be another eight years before the short-lived attempt at placing her on the throne. The distinctive crown-shaped jewel the sitter wears can be traced to an inventory of jewels that belonged to Catherine Parr, and the cameo beads appear to have belonged to Catherine Howard, from whom they would have passed to her successor as queen.

Another contemporary painting of Catherine Parr by Master John was likely painted in c.1547–1548, and in the past mistakenly labelled as Mary I or Lady Jane Grey. The painting, from the collection of the earls of Jersey, was thought to be lost in a fire by 1969, but was auctioned at Sotheby's in July 2023.

Historiography
The popular myth that Catherine Parr acted more as her husband's nurse than his wife was born in the 19th century from the work of Victorian moralist and proto-feminist Agnes Strickland. David Starkey challenged this assumption in his book Six Wives, in which he points out that such a situation would have been vaguely obscene to the Tudors—given that Henry had a huge staff of physicians waiting on him hand and foot, and Catherine was expected to live up to the heavy expectations of queenly dignity.

Catherine's good sense, moral rectitude, compassion, firm religious commitment, and strong sense of loyalty and devotion have earned her many admirers among historians. These include David Starkey, feminist activist Karen Lindsey, Lady Antonia Fraser, Alison Weir, Carolly Erickson, Alison Plowden, Susan James and Linda Porter. Biographers have described her as strong-willed and outspoken, physically desirable, susceptible (like Queen Elizabeth) to roguish charm, and even willing to resort to obscene language if the occasion suited.

title: Catherine Parr


text:
Gabriele D'Annunzio

General Gabriele D'Annunzio, Prince of Montenevoso (,, ; 12 March 1863 – 1 March 1938), sometimes written d'Annunzio as he used to sign himself, was an Italian poet, playwright, orator, journalist, aristocrat, and Royal Italian Army officer during World War I. He occupied a prominent place in Italian literature from 1889 to 1910 and in its political life from 1914 to 1924. He was often referred to by the epithets il Vate ("the Poet"; the Italian vate directly stems from Latin vates, and its meaning is a poet with special emphasis on prophetic, inspiring, or divining qualities) and il Profeta ("the Prophet").

D'Annunzio was associated with the Decadent movement in his literary works, which interplayed closely with French symbolism and British aestheticism. Such works represented a turn against the naturalism of the preceding romantics and was both sensuous and mystical. He came under the influence of Friedrich Nietzsche, which would find outlets in his literary and later political contributions. His affairs with several women, including Eleonora Duse and Luisa Casati, received public attention. In his politics, which evolved many times, he associated himself with socialism and the progressivist views of the political left, responding to the illiberal and reactionary policies of Luigi Pelloux, as well as with the Historical Far Left.

During the Great War, D'Annunzio's image in Italy transformed from literary figure to national war hero. He was associated with the elite Arditi storm troops of the Italian Army and took part in actions such as the Flight over Vienna. As part of an Italian nationalist reaction against the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, he set up the short-lived Italian Regency of Carnaro in Fiume with himself as Duce. The Charter of Carnaro made music the fundamental principle of the state, which was corporatist in nature. Although D'Annunzio later preached nationalism and never called himself a fascist, he has been credited with partially inventing Italian fascism, as both his ideas and his aesthetics were an influence upon Benito Mussolini. At the same time, he was an influence on Italian socialists and an early inspiration to the first phase of the Italian resistance movement to fascism.

Early life and family
D'Annunzio was born in the township of Pescara, in the modern-day Italian region of Abruzzo, the son of a wealthy landowner and mayor of the town, Francesco Paolo Rapagnetta D'Annunzio (1838–1893) and his wife Luisa de Benedictis (1839–1917). His father was born Francesco Paolo Rapagnetta, the sixth child of Camillo Rapagnetta, a shoemaker, and Rita Olimpia Lolli. At the age of 13, he was adopted by a sister of his mother Rita, Anna Lolli, who had remarried, after the death of her first husband, a wealthy merchant and shipowner, Antonio D'Annunzio. D'Annunzio's paternal grandfather, Camillo Rapagnetta (1795–1866) registered his birth. Legend has it that D'Annunzio was initially baptised Gaetano and given the name of Gabriele later in childhood because of his angelic looks; this story is purely fictitious, as can be seen by D'Annunzio's birth certificate and baptismal records, which record Gabriele as both his birth and baptismal name.

D'Annunzio's precocious talent was recognised early in life, and he was sent to school at the Liceo Cicognini in Prato, Tuscany. He published his first poems – a small volume of verses called Primo Vere – in 1879, at the age of sixteen and while still at school. Influenced by Giosuè Carducci's Odi barbare, he placed some almost brutal imitations of Lorenzo Stecchetti, the fashionable poet of Postuma, side by side with translations from the Latin. His verse was so distinguished that the literary critic Giuseppe Chiarini, upon reading it, brought the unknown youth before the public in an enthusiastic article.

In 1881, D'Annunzio entered the University of Rome La Sapienza, where he became a member of various literary groups, including Cronaca Bizantina, and wrote articles and criticism for local newspapers. In those university years, he started to promote Italian irredentism.

Literary work
D'Annunzio published Canto novo (1882), Terra vergine (1882), L'intermezzo di rime (1883), Il libro delle vergini (1884) and the greater part of the short stories that were afterwards collected under the general title of San Pantaleone (1886). Canto novo contains poems full of pulsating youth and the promise of power, some descriptive of the sea and some of the Abruzzese landscape, commented on and completed in prose by Terra vergine, the latter a collection of short stories dealing in radiant language with the peasant life of the author's native province. Intermezzo di rime is the beginning of D'Annunzio's second and characteristic manner. His conception of style was new, and he chose to express all the most subtle vibrations of voluptuous life. Both style and contents began to startle his critics; some who had greeted him as an enfant prodige rejected him as a perverter of public morals, whilst others hailed him as one bringing a breath of fresh air and an impulse of new vitality into the somewhat prim, lifeless work hitherto produced.

Meanwhile, the review of D'Annunzio publisher Angelo Sommaruga perished in the midst of scandal, and his group of young authors found itself dispersed. Some entered the teaching career and were lost to literature, others threw themselves into journalism. D'Annunzio took this latter course, and joined the staff of the Tribuna, under the pseudonym of "Duca Minimo". Here he wrote Il libro d'Isotta (1886), a love poem, in which for the first time he drew inspiration adapted to modern sentiments and passions from the rich colours of the Renaissance. Il libro d'Isotta is also interesting because in it one can find most of the germs of his future work, just as in Intermezzo melico and in certain ballads and sonnets one can find descriptions and emotions which later went to form the aesthetic contents of Il piacere, Il trionfo della morte and Elegie romane (1892).

D'Annunzio's first novel Il Piacere (1889, translated into English as The Child of Pleasure) was followed in 1891 by Giovanni Episcopo, and in 1892 by L'innocente (The Intruder). These three novels made a profound impression. L'innocente, admirably translated into French by Georges Herelle, brought its author the notice and applause of foreign critics. His next work, Il trionfo della morte (The Triumph of Death) (1894), was followed soon by Le vergini delle rocce (The Maidens of the Rocks) (1896) and Il fuoco (The Flame of Life) (1900); the latter is in its descriptions of Venice perhaps the most ardent glorification of a city existing in any language.

D'Annunzio's poetic work of this period, in most respects his finest, is represented by Il Poema Paradisiaco (1893), the Odi navali (1893), a superb attempt at civic poetry, and Laudi (1900). A later phase of D'Annunzio's work is his dramatic production, represented by Il sogno di un mattino di primavera (1897), a lyrical fantasia in one act, and his Città Morta (The Dead City) (1898), written for Sarah Bernhardt. In 1898 he wrote his Sogno di un pomeriggio d'autunno and La Gioconda; in the succeeding year La gloria, an attempt at contemporary political tragedy which met with no success, probably because of the audacity of the personal and political allusions in some of its scenes; and then Francesca da Rimini (1901), based on an episode from Dante Alighieri's Inferno; a perfect reconstruction of medieval atmosphere and emotion, magnificent in style, and declared by an authoritative Italian critic – Edoardo Boutet – to be the first real, if imperfect, tragedy ever given to the Italian theatre. It was adapted by Tito Ricordi to become the libretto for the opera Francesca da Rimini by Riccardo Zandonai, which premiered in 1914.

In 1883, D'Annunzio married Maria Hardouin di Gallese, and had three sons, Mario (1884–1964), Gabriele Maria "Gabriellino" (1886–1945) and Ugo Veniero (1887–1945), but the marriage ended in 1891. In 1894, he began a love affair with the actress Eleonora Duse which became a cause célèbre. He provided leading roles for her in his plays of the time such as La città morta (1898) and Francesca da Rimini (1901), but the tempestuous relationship finally ended in 1910. After meeting the Marchesa Luisa Casati in 1903, he began a lifelong turbulent on again-off again affair with Luisa, that lasted until a few years before his death.

In 1897, D'Annunzio was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for a three-year term, where he sat as an independent. By 1910, his daredevil lifestyle had forced him into debt, and he fled to France to escape his creditors. There he collaborated with composer Claude Debussy on a musical play, Le Martyre de saint Sébastien (The Martyrdom of St Sebastian), 1911, written for Ida Rubinstein. The Holy See reacted by placing all of his works in the Index of Forbidden Books. The work was not successful as a play, but it has been recorded in adapted versions several times, notably by Pierre Monteux (in French), Leonard Bernstein (songs in French, dialogue in English), and Michael Tilson Thomas (in French). In 1912 and 1913, D'Annunzio worked with opera composer Pietro Mascagni, writing the libretto for the opera Parisina, staying sometimes in a house rented by the composer in Bellevue, near Paris. D'Annunzio insisted that the entire, long libretto should be set to music, which eventually meant that the work was too long for audiences of the time, and required the entire last act to be removed.

In 1901, D'Annunzio and Ettore Ferrari, the Grand Master of the Grand Orient of Italy, founded the Università Popolare di Milano (Popular University of Milan), located in via Ugo Foscolo. D'Annunzio held the inaugural speech and subsequently became an associated professor and a lecturer in the same institution. In 1902, D'Annunzio visited Istria, an "irredent land", then under Austro-Hungarian rule. He was welcomed in Pisino by a "pouring of flowers" let down from the windows of the crowded houses, visited the Italian gymnasium and was paid a homage designed by the future wife of Francesco Salata. In a letter addressed to the same Italian historian, D'Annunzio complimented with him about the civility of the Italian population living there, praising the struggle of the "great, manifold, transfiguring Latin civilization against the barbaric abuse".

D'Annunzio was a Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Italy, a Scottish Rite that in 1908 had separated from the Grand Orient of Italy. Subsequently, he adhered to the mystic and philosophic movimento known as Martinism, collaborating in Fiume with other 33rd degree Scottish Rite Freemasons and occultists like Alceste De Ambris, Sante Ceccherini, and Marco Egidio Allegri. The Masonic initiation of D'Annunzio his testified by the choice of Masonic symbols for the flag of the Regence of Carnaro like the Ouroboros and the seven stars of the Ursa Major.

World War I
After the start of World War I, D'Annunzio returned to Italy and made public speeches in favor of Italy's entry on the side of the Triple Entente. Since taking a flight with Wilbur Wright in 1908, D'Annunzio had been interested in aviation. With the war beginning he volunteered and achieved further celebrity as a fighter pilot, losing the sight of an eye in a flying accident.

In February 1918, he took part in a daring, if militarily irrelevant, raid on the harbour of Bakar (known in Italy as La beffa di Buccari, lit. the Bakar Mockery), helping to raise the spirits of the Italian public, still battered by the Caporetto disaster. On 9 August 1918, as commander of the 87th fighter squadron "La Serenissima", he organized one of the great feats of the war, leading nine planes in a 700-mile round trip to drop propaganda leaflets on Vienna. This is called in Italian "il Volo su Vienna", "the Flight over Vienna".

Fiume
The war strengthened D'Annunzio's ultranationalist and Italian irredentist views, and he campaigned widely for Italy to assume a role alongside her wartime allies as a first-rate European power. Angered by the proposed handing over of the city of Fiume (now Rijeka in Croatia) whose population, outside the suburbs, was mostly Italian, at the Paris Peace Conference, on 12 September 1919, he led the seizure by 2,000 Italian nationalist irregulars of the city, forcing the withdrawal of the inter-Allied (American, British and French) occupying forces. The plotters sought to have Italy annex Fiume but were denied. Instead, Italy initiated a blockade of Fiume while demanding that the plotters surrender.

D'Annunzio then declared Fiume an independent state, the Italian Regency of Carnaro; the Charter of Carnaro foreshadowed much of the later Italian Fascist system, with himself as "Duce" (leader). Some elements of the Royal Italian Navy, such as the destroyer Espero joined up with D'Annunzio's local forces. He attempted to organize an alternative to the League of Nations for (selected) oppressed nations of the world (such as the Irish, whom D'Annunzio attempted to arm in 1920), and sought to make alliances with various separatist groups throughout the Balkans (especially groups of Italians, though also some Slavic and Albanian groups), although without much success. D'Annunzio ignored the Treaty of Rapallo and declared war on Italy itself, only finally surrendering the city on 29 December 1920 after a bombardment by the Italian navy and five days of fighting.

Later life
After the Fiume episode, D'Annunzio retired to his home on Lake Garda and spent his latter years writing and campaigning. Although D'Annunzio had a strong influence on the ideology of Benito Mussolini, he never became directly involved in fascist government politics in Italy. In 1922, shortly before the march on Rome, he was pushed out of a window by an unknown assailant, or perhaps simply slipped and fell out himself while intoxicated. He survived but was badly injured, and recovered only after Mussolini had been appointed Prime Minister.

In 1924, D'Annunzio was ennobled by King Victor Emmanuel III and given the hereditary title of Prince of Montenevoso (Principe di Montenevoso). In 1937 he was made president of the Royal Academy of Italy. D'Annunzio died in 1938 of a stroke, at his home in Gardone Riviera. He was given a state funeral by Mussolini and was interred in a magnificent tomb constructed of white marble at Il Vittoriale degli Italiani. His son, Gabriellino D'Annunzio, became a film director. His 1921 film The Ship was based on a novel by his father. In 1924, he co-directed the historical epic Quo Vadis, an expensive failure, before retiring from filmmaking.

D'Annunzio and fascism
Although D'Annunzio initially briefly associated himself with the Historical Right and his political views often evolved, D'Annunzio later associated himself with the Historical Far Left, socialism, and progressivism. D'Annunzio is also often seen within the context of proto-fascism as a precursor of the ideals and techniques of Italian fascism. His political ideals emerged in Fiume when he coauthored a constitution with Alceste de Ambris, a syndicalist, the Charter of Carnaro. De Ambris provided the legal and political framework, to which D'Annunzio added his skills as a poet. De Ambris was the leader of a group of Italian seamen who had mutinied and then given their vessel to the service of D'Annunzio. The constitution established a corporatist state, with nine corporations to represent the different sectors of the economy (workers, employers, and professionals), and a tenth (D'Annunzio's invention) to represent the perceived superior human beings, the heroes, poets, prophets, and supermen. The Charter of Carnaro also declared that music was the fundamental principle of the state. Others disagree and cite his initial opposition to fascism, as well as his influence on Italian socialists and anti-fascists.

D'Annunzio, the de facto dictator of Fiume, maintained control through what has been described as a "new and dangerously potent politics of spectacle". It was this culture of dictatorship that Benito Mussolini imitated and learned from D'Annunzio. D'Annunzio has been described as the John the Baptist of Italian fascism, as virtually the entire ritual of Fascism was invented by D'Annunzio during his occupation of Fiume and his leadership of the Italian Regency of Carnaro. These included the balcony address, the Roman salute, the cries of "Eia, eia, eia! Alala!" taken from Achilles's cry in the Iliad, the dramatic and rhetorical dialogue with the crowd, the use of religious symbols in new secular settings, as well as blackshirted followers (the Arditi) with their disciplined, bestial responses and strongarm repression of dissent. He was even said to have originated the practice of forcibly dosing opponents with large amounts of castor oil, a very effective laxative, to humiliate, disable, or kill them, a practice that became a common tool of Mussolini's Blackshirts.

Rivalry with Benito Mussolini
In his essay "Mussolini and The Cult of the Leader", John Whittam wrote:

"This famous poet, novelist and war hero was a self-proclaimed Superman. He was the outstanding interventionist in May 1915 and his dramatic exploits during the war won him national and international acclaim. In September 1919 he gathered together his 'legions' and captured the disputed seaport of Fiume. He held it for over a year and it was he who popularised the black shirts, the balcony speeches, the promulgation of ambitious charters and the entire choreography of street parades and ceremonies. He even planned a march on Rome. One historian had rightly described him as the 'First Duce' and Mussolini must have heaved a sigh of relief when he was driven from Fiume in December 1920 and his followers were dispersed. But he remained a threat to Mussolini and in 1921 Fascists like Balbo seriously considered turning to him for leadership."

In contrast, Mussolini vacillated from left to right at this time. Although Mussolini's fascism was heavily influenced by the Charter of Carnaro, the constitution for Fiume written by Alceste De Ambris and D'Annunzio, neither wanted to play an active part in the new movement, both refusing when asked by Fascist supporters to run in the elections of 15 May 1921. Before the March on Rome, De Ambris even went so far as to depict the Italian fascist movement as "a filthy pawn in Mister Giolitti's game of chess, and made out of the least dignified section of the bourgeoisie".

D'Annunzio was seriously injured when he fell out of a window on 13 August 1922; subsequently the planned "meeting for national pacification" with Francesco Saverio Nitti and Mussolini was cancelled. The incident was never explained and is considered by some historians an attempt to murder him, motivated by his popularity. Despite D'Annunzio's retreat from active public life after this event, Mussolini still found it necessary to regularly dole out funds to D'Annunzio as a bribe for not re-entering the political arena. When asked about this by a close friend, Mussolini purportedly stated: "When you have a rotten tooth you have two possibilities open to you: either you pull the tooth or you fill it with gold. With D'Annunzio I have chosen for the latter treatment."

D'Annunzio kept attempting to intervene in politics almost until his death in 1938. He wrote to Mussolini in 1933 to try to convince him not to ally with Adolf Hitler. In 1934, he tried to disrupt the relationship between Hitler and Mussolini after their first meeting, even writing a satirical pamphlet about Hitler. In September 1937, D'Annunzio met with Mussolini at the Verona train station to try to convince him to leave the Axis powers.

Literature
At the height of his success, D'Annunzio was celebrated for the originality, power and decadence of his writing. Although his work had immense impact across Europe, and influenced generations of Italian writers, his fin de siècle works are now little known, and his literary reputation has always been clouded by nationalistic ideals, and he had his strong detractors. A New York Times review in 1898 of his novel The Intruder referred to him as "evil", "entirely selfish and corrupt". Three weeks into its December 1901 run at the Teatro Constanzi in Rome, his tragedy Francesca da Rimini was banned by the censor on grounds of morality.

A prolific writer, D'Annunzio's novels in Italian include Il piacere (The Child of Pleasure, 1889), Il trionfo della morte (The Triumph of Death, 1894), and Le vergini delle rocce (The Maidens of the Rocks, 1896). He wrote the screenplay to the feature film Cabiria (1914) based on episodes from the Second Punic War. D'Annunzio's literary creations were strongly influenced by the French Symbolist school, and contain episodes of striking violence and depictions of abnormal mental states interspersed with gorgeously imagined scenes. One of D'Annunzio's most significant novels, scandalous in its day, is Il fuoco (The Flame of Life) of 1900, in which he portrays himself as the Nietzschean Superman (Übermensch) Stelio Effrena, in a fictionalized account of his love affair with Eleonora Duse. His short stories showed the influence of Guy de Maupassant. He was also associated with the Italian noblewoman Luisa Casati, an influence on his novels and one of his mistresses.

The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica wrote of him: "The work of d' Annunzio, although by many of the younger generation injudiciously and extravagantly admired, is almost the most important literary work given to Italy since the days when the great classics welded her varying dialects into a fixed language. The psychological inspiration of his novels has come to him from many sources—French, Russian, Scandinavian, German—and in much of his earlier work there is little fundamental originality. His creative power is intense and searching, but narrow and personal; his heroes and heroines are little more than one same type monotonously facing a different problem at a different phase of life. But the faultlessness of his style and the wealth of his language have been approached by none of his contemporaries, whom his genius has somewhat paralysed. In his later work [meaning as of 1911], when he begins drawing his inspiration from the traditions of bygone Italy in her glorious centuries, a current of real life seems to run through the veins of his personages. And the lasting merit of D'Annunzio, his real value to the literature of his country, consists precisely in that he opened up the closed mine of its former life as a source of inspiration for the present and of hope for the future, and created a language, neither pompous nor vulgar, drawn from every source and district suited to the requirements of modern thought, yet absolutely classical, borrowed from none, and, independently of the thought it may be used to express, a thing of intrinsic beauty. As his sight became clearer and his purpose strengthened, as exaggerations, affectations, and moods dropped away from his conceptions, his work became more and more typical Latin work, upheld by the ideal of an Italian Renaissance."

In Italy, some of D'Annunzio's poetic works remain popular, most notably his poem La pioggia nel pineto ("The Rain in the Pinewood"), which exemplifies his linguistic virtuosity as well as the sensuousness of his poetry. His work was part of the literature event in the art competition at the 1912 Summer Olympics.

Museums
D'Annunzio's life and work are commemorated in a museum, Il Vittoriale degli Italiani ("The Shrine of the Italian People's Victories"). He planned and developed it himself, adjacent to his villa at Gardone Riviera on the southwest bank of Lake Garda, between 1923 and his death. Now a national monument, it is a complex of military museum, library, literary and historical archive, theatre, war memorial and mausoleum. The museum preserves his torpedo boat MAS 96 and the SVA-5 aircraft he flew over Vienna. His birthplace is also open to the public as a museum, Birthplace of Gabriele D'Annunzio Museum in Pescara.

Novels

 * Il Piacere (The Child of Pleasure, 1889)
 * Giovanni Episcopo (1891)
 * L'innocente (The Intruder (UK) or The Victim (US)) (1892)
 * Il trionfo della morte (The Triumph of Death, 1894)
 * Le vergini delle rocce (The Maidens of the Rocks, 1895)
 * Il fuoco (The Flame of Life: A Novel, 1900)
 * Forse che sì forse che no (Maybe Yes, Maybe No, 1910)

Tragedies

 * La città morta (The Dead City: a Tragedy, 1899)
 * La Gioconda (Gioconda, 1899)
 * Francesca da Rimini (1902),
 * L'Etiopia in fiamme (1904)
 * La figlia di Jorio (The Daughter of Jorio, 1904)
 * La fiaccola sotto il moggio (The Torch Under the Bushel, 1905)
 * La nave (1908).
 * Fedra (1909)

Short story collections

 * La Riscossa (1918), Bestetti e Tumminelli Edizioni d'Arte, first edition of warlike prayers held on the Italian front from November 1917 to May 1918, in No. 16, 171 pages, brochure original xilographed, frontispiece, and trim always engraved on wood by Sartorio
 * Terra vergine (1882)
 * Le novelle della Pescara (1884–1886)

Poetry collections

 * Primo vere (1879)
 * Canto novo (1882)
 * Poema paradisiaco (1893)
 * The five books of Laudi del cielo, del mare, della terra e degli eroi (1903–1912)
 * Maia (Canto Amebeo della Guerra)
 * Elettra
 * Alcyone
 * Merope
 * Asterope (La Canzone del Quarnaro)
 * Ode alla nazione serba (1914)

Autobiographical works

 * La Leda senza cigno
 * Notturno
 * Le faville del maglio
 * Le cento e cento e cento e cento pagine del Libro Segreto di Gabriele D'Annunzio tentato di morire o Libro Segreto (as Angelo Cocles)

D'Annunzio's epistolary work, Solus ad solam, was published posthumously.

Filmography

 * Cabiria, directed by Giovanni Pastrone (1914) – screenplay
 * La Nave directed by Gabriellino D'Annunzio (1921) – screenplay

Films about D'Annunzio

 * D'Annunzio, directed by Sergio Nasca (1985) – about the romantic relationships in the life of the poet
 * The Bad Poet, directed by Vincenzo Jodice (2020) – about the poet's last years

Legacy
The D'Annunzio University of Chieti–Pescara is named after him, as is the Brescia Airport. The Chilean poetess Lucila Godoy Alcayaga, 1945 Nobel Prize in Literature, took the first name of her pseudonym, Gabriela Mistral, in his honour. The play Tamara is based on his meeting with the painter Tamara de Lempicka. Luchino Visconti's last film, The Innocent, is based on D'Annunzio's novel. Ernesto Giménez Caballero was given the nickname the "Spanish D'Annunzio".

Italian

 * Cavaliere BAR.svg Knight of the Military Order of Savoy
 * "As an air team leader in the flights of the August offensive, he was able, setting a magnificent example, to make the action coordinated and highly effective. In the battlefield of the sky, opposed by intense fire from every weapon, he dared the limits of human courage, striking the enemy from the lowest altitudes with very audacious persistence."
 * — Sky over the Karst, 19–26 August 1917

 * Ufficiale OMS BAR.svg Officer of the Military Order of Savoy
 * "Animator of every spirit, transfusing his faith and love into everyone, in a magnificent and superb mission he led a flight of brave men over Vienna, affirming in a hitherto unsurpassed way the power of the wings of Italy."
 * — Vienna sky, 9 August 1918

 * Valor militare gold medal - old style BAR.svg Gold Medal of Military Valor
 * "Volunteer and war-maimed, during three years of bitter struggle, with animating faith, with tireless work, participating in very audacious undertakings, on land, on the sea, in the sky, the high intellect and the tenacious will of the purposes – in harmony of thought and action – entirely dedicated to the sacred ideals of the Fatherland, in the pure dignity of duty and sacrifice."
 * — War zone, May 1915–November 1918

 * Valor militare silver medal BAR.svg Silver Medal of Military Valor (first award)
 * "As an observer officer he voluntarily took part in various war missions carried out in enemy territory by seaplanes of the Regia Marine [Royal Navy], always maintaining an exemplary and courageous demeanor and constantly demonstrating cold-blooded and youthful courage even under enemy fire. During a landing he suffered a serious injury to his right eye."
 * — Adriatic, May 1915–February 1916

 * Valor militare silver medal BAR.svg Silver Medal of Military Valor (second award)
 * "During the actions from 10 to 12 October and from 1 to 3 November, he was a companion to the soldiers who conquered Veliki and Faiti. Enthusiastic and daring in every act of his, the example given was equal to the word and the effects obtained were effective and complete."
 * — Veliki Kribak, 10–12 October; Faiti Krib, 1–3 November 1916

 * Valor militare silver medal BAR.svg Silver Medal of Military Valor (third award)
 * "In the grand aerial feat he himself championed and in the harsh land combat he overcame on the Timavo, his courage amazed the brave men themselves."
 * — Karst sky-Timavo, 23–28 May 1917

 * Valor militare bronze medal BAR.svg Bronze Medal of Military Valor (first award)
 * "In land[-based] aircraft, covering a long stretch of open sea, in adverse conditions, he managed, with others, to reach the mouth of Cattaro and hit the naval objectives with great accuracy and effectiveness, returning with all the others to base, despite the inevitable detours in the growing haze."
 * — Bay of Kotor 4–5 October 1917

 * Valor militare bronze medal BAR.svg Bronze Medal of Military Valor (second award)
 * "An effective promoter, admirable for his faith and courage, a persevering example of military virtue, he voluntarily participated in the Buccari incursion."
 * — Bakar 10–11 February 1918

 * MeritoMilitare3.png War Merit Cross (three awards)
 * Medaglia a ricordo dell'Unità d'Italia BAR.svg Commemorative Medal of the Unity of Italy
 * 1GMx4.png Commemorative Medal for the Italo-Austrian War 1915–1918 (four years of campaign)
 * World War I Victory Medal ribbon.svg Allied Victory Medal
 * Medaglia Commemorativa Fiume.png Commemorative Gold Medal of the Fiume Expedition

Foreign

 * Legion of Honour - Knight (France).png Knight of the Order of the Legion of Honour (France)
 * CroixGuerre.png Croix de guerre 1914–1918 (France)
 * Military cross BAR.svg Military Cross (United Kingdom)

Badges of honour and merit

 * [[File:Distintivo promozione merito di guerra ufficiali superiori (forze armate italiane).svg|40px]] War Merit Promotion Badge (two awards)
 * Medaglia 13 febbraio 1917 Mutilato-In-Guerra.jpg Mutilated in War 1915–1918

Noble titles and honourary military ranks

 * Arms of the house of D'annunzio.svg Prince of Montenevoso
 * — Conferred by Royal Decree of 15 March 1924 / 1915–1920

 * IT-Airforce-OF-7.png Honorary Generale di Brigata Aerea ("Air Brigade General")
 * — Awarded by Royal Decree of 1925 / 1915–1918

 * Rank insignia of appuntato of the Guardia di Finanza.svg Honorary Appuntato ("Appointee") of the Guardia di Finanza ("Financial Police")
 * — Awarded by Royal Decree of 1925 / Fiume 25 June 1920

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Gabriele D'Annunzio


text:
530s BC

This article concerns the period 539 BC – 530 BC.

Events and trends

 * 539 BC—Babylon is conquered by Cyrus, defeating Nabonidus.
 * 538 BC— The Babylonian Captivity ends when Cyrus, king of Persia, allows Jews in Babylon to return to Jerusalem.
 * 535 BC—Phocaean Greek colonists clash at sea with Carthaginians and Etruscans in Battle of Alalia (Corsica).
 * 534 BC
 * Lucius Tarquinius Superbus becomes seventh King of Rome, after murdering the sixth king Servius Tullius.
 * Competitions for tragedy are instituted at the City Dionysia festival in Athens.
 * 530 BC
 * Cyrus II is killed in war against obscure tribes.
 * Cambyses II starts to rule in Persia.
 * Royal Arch Masons take this year as the epoch for dating their documents Anno Inventionis after the beginning of the Second Temple by Zerubbabel.
 * c. 530 BC—Temple of Apollo at Delphi is built.
 * c. 530 BC—Peplos Kore, from the Acropolis, Athens, is made. It is now at Acropolis Museum, Athens.
 * c. 530 BC—Kroisos Kouros, from a cemetery at Anavysos, near Athens is made. It is now on display at the National Archaeological Museum, Athens.
 * c. 530 BC—525 BC—Siphnian Treasury, Delphi, is built.
 * c. 530 BC—525 BC—Battle between the Gods and the Giants, fragments of the north frieze of the Siphnian Treasury, from the Sanctuary of Apollo, Delphi, is made. It is now at the Delphi Archaeological Museum.

Significant people

 * 539 BC—Death of Belshazzar, the last king of Babylon?
 * c. 535 BC—Birth of Heraclitus of Ephesus, Greek philosopher
 * c. 531 BC—Death of Laozi, founder of Taoism (traditional date)

title: 530s BC


text:
540s BC

This article concerns the period 549 BC – 540 BC.

Events and trends

 * 546 BC—Croesus, Lydian king, is defeated by Cyrus of Persia near the River Halys.
 * 546 BC—Cyrus of Persia completes his conquest of Lydia, and makes Pasargadae his capital.
 * 546 BC—Cyrus establishes a garrison in Sardis and incorporates the Greek cities of Ionia in Asia Minor into Persian Empire. Thus he gains the important ports that look out to the Mediterranean world.
 * 546 BC—Pisistratus, supported by Thebes and Argos, finally takes power in Athens from the aristocratic party and imposes a moderate tyranny, respect, and even imposing against the oligarchy, the laws of Solon and leaving intact the magistracy (he "merely" to save his family). The same year Pisistratus cut taxes, grants of land and resources to the poor and caters for sick and old. It unifies the Attica, extending the influence of Athens, resuming Sigeion, who commanded the entrance of the Hellespont (Dardanelles), and acquires Taurica (Crimea).
 * 546 BC—Sparta and Argos fight the Battle of the 300 Champions. Both sides had agreed beforehand to resolve their dispute with just 300 picked men on each side, in the end just one Spartan and two Argive soldiers remained alive.  Both sides claimed victory.
 * 546 BC—The architect Eupalinos of Megara built aqueducts that supply water to Athens.
 * 546 BC—The peace conference between the kingdoms in China. A treaty between Jin, Chu and some other kingdoms was signed.
 * 546 BC—A coup d'état in Qi kingdom.
 * 544 BC—People of Teos migrate to Abdera, Thrace to escape the control of Persia.
 * 544 BC—King Jing becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
 * 543 BC—North Indian Prince Vijaya invades Ceylon and establishes a Sri Lankan dynasty.
 * 543 BC—Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens, purifies the island of Delos (approximate date).
 * 543 BC—Guided by the Chinese statesman Zi Chan, the State of Zheng institutes a formal code of law.
 * 540 BC—Cyrus attacks Babylonia.
 * 540 BC—Greek city of Elea of southern Italy founded (approximate date).
 * 540 BC—Persians conquer Lycian city of Xanthos now in southern Turkey (approximate date).
 * c. 540 BC—Amasis Painter makes Dionysos with maenads, black-figure decoration on an amphora. It is now at Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Paris.
 * c. 540 BC—Exekias makes The Suicide of Ajax, black-figure decoration on an amphora. It is now at Chateau-Musee, Boulogne-sur-Mer, France.

Significant people

 * 549 BC—Birth of Darius I
 * 547 BC—Death of Croesus?
 * 546 BC—Death of Anaximander, Greek philosopher (approximate date)
 * 545 BC—Death of Zhou ling wang, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China
 * 544 BC—Birth of Sun Tzu
 * 543 BC—Death of Gautama Buddha (traditional in Thailand and elsewhere—basis of the Thai solar calendar)
 * 543 BC—Death of Thales, Greek philosopher
 * 540 BC—Amyntas I becomes king of Macedonia (approximate date)
 * Amasis Painter, Greek painter

title: 540s BC


text:
Margaret of Anjou

Margaret of Anjou (Marguerite; 23 March 1430 – 25 August 1482) was Queen of England by marriage to King Henry VI from 1445 to 1461 and again from 1470 to 1471. Through marriage, she was also nominally Queen of France from 1445 to 1453. Born in the Duchy of Lorraine into the House of Valois-Anjou, Margaret was the second eldest daughter of René, King of Naples, and Isabella, Duchess of Lorraine.

Margaret was one of the principal figures in the series of dynastic civil wars known as the Wars of the Roses and at times personally led the Lancastrian faction. Some of her contemporaries, such as the Duke of Suffolk, praised "Her valiant courage and undaunted spirit" and the 16th-century historian Edward Hall described her personality in these terms: "This woman excelled all other, as well in beauty and favour, as in wit and policy, and was of stomach and courage, more like to a man, than a woman."

Owing to her husband's frequent bouts of insanity, Margaret ruled the kingdom in his place. It was she who called for a Great Council in May 1455 that excluded the Yorkist faction headed by Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York. This provided the spark that ignited a civil conflict that lasted for more than 30 years, decimated the old nobility of England, and caused the deaths of thousands of men, including her only son Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales, at the Battle of Tewkesbury in 1471.

Margaret was taken prisoner by the victorious Yorkists after the Lancastrian defeat at Tewkesbury. In 1475, she was ransomed by her cousin, King Louis XI of France. She went to live in France as a poor relation of the French king, and she died there at the age of 52.

Childhood
Margaret was born on 23 March 1430 at Pont-à-Mousson in Lorraine, a fief of the Holy Roman Empire east of France ruled by a cadet branch of the French kings, the House of Valois-Anjou. Margaret was the second daughter of René, King of Naples, and of Isabella, Duchess of Lorraine. She had five brothers and four sisters, as well as three half-siblings from her father's relationships with mistresses. Her father, popularly known as "Good King René", was duke of Anjou and titular king of Naples, Sicily, and Jerusalem; he has been described as "a man of many crowns but no kingdoms". Margaret was baptised at Toul in Lorraine and, in the care of her father's old nurse Theophanie la Magine, she spent her early years at the castle at Tarascon on the River Rhône in Provence and in the old royal palace at Capua, near Naples in the Kingdom of Sicily. Her mother took care of her education and may have arranged for her to have lessons with the scholar Antoine de la Sale, who taught her brothers. In childhood, Margaret was known as la petite créature and was interested in French romances and hunting.

Her family included several prominent women who exercised power in politics, war, and administration as regents and queen-lieutenants. Her mother, Isabella of Lorraine, fought wars on behalf of her husband while he was imprisoned in 1431-32 and 1434-36 by the duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, and ruled the Duchy of Lorraine in her own right. Her paternal grandmother, Yolande of Aragon, ruled the Duchy of Anjou as regent for her son while Margaret was a child, repelling an English military presence and supporting the disinherited Dauphin. It has been suggested that this family example provided her with precedents for her later actions as regent for her son. Attitudes to women's exercise of power were different in Western Europe than in England at the time, with England more opposed to women exercising authority.

Marriage, concession of Maine, and subsequent rule
Margaret met with English envoys at Tours on 4 May 1444 to discuss her marriage to Henry VI of England. On 24 May, she was formally betrothed to Henry by proxy. Her uncle, Charles VII of France, who may have suggested the marriage as part of peace efforts between France and England near the conclusion of the Hundred Years' War, was present. The marriage was negotiated principally by William de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk, and the settlement included a remarkably small dowry of 20,000 francs and the unrealised claim, via Margaret's mother, to the territories of Mallorca and Menorca, which had been occupied for centuries by the Crown of Aragon. The marriage settlement also contained the promise of a twenty-three-month truce with France. Opinions were mixed as to the wisdom of the marriage, but the prevailing understanding was that it represented a genuine effort at peace.

Loans were taken out by the government in order to pay for the considerable expense of transporting Margaret to England. Solicitation for the loans emphasised the role that the marriage, and Margaret herself, would play in seeking peace with France. This was a theme that continued throughout the preparations for her wedding. She arrived in England on 9 April 1445 and travelled to London accompanied by various lords and courtiers. She reached London on 28 May, where she was met by the mayor and aldermen of the city. The predicted turnout for her arrival and procession was so large that on 8 May, an inspection of roofs and balconies was ordered due to the expectation that spectators would use them as vantage points for her progress.

Her ceremonial progress through the city lasted two days, the intervening night spent, by custom, in the Tower of London. It was accompanied by eight theatrical pageants. Five of these pageants concerned the peace with France, casting Margaret as a symbol of, or the agent of, peace. Three spoke of her spiritual role as a redeemer and intercessor. It is uncertain whether these pageants represented a propaganda effort on the part of the Crown or reflected popular sentiment.

On 23 April 1445, Margaret married King Henry VI of England at Titchfield Abbey in Hampshire. She was fifteen and he was twenty-three. She was then crowned Queen of England on 30 May 1445 at Westminster Abbey by John Stafford, Archbishop of Canterbury. Those that anticipated the future return of English claims to French territory believed that she already understood her duty to protect the interests of the Crown fervently. The wedding and her transport were very expensive, estimated by some historians at more than £5000.

Shortly after her coronation, René of Anjou entered negotiations with the English crown in an attempt to barter a lifetime's alliance and a twenty-year truce in exchange for the cession of the English-held territory of Maine to Anjou and Henry's agreement to abandon his claim to Anjou. Ultimately, the agreement ended without an alliance with Anjou and with the loss of Maine. Rumours that the concession of Maine was part of Margaret's marriage settlement, though false, circulated, and were repeated by chroniclers. Margaret, alongside Henry, corresponded closely with Charles VII regarding the agreement, attempting to act as a mediator.

The loss of Maine, regarded as a betrayal, was deeply unpopular with the English public, who were already inclined to mistrust Margaret due to her French origins. Blame was cast on William de la Pole, due to his role in negotiations. The reputation of Margaret's marriage suffered as a result, although she herself was not openly blamed for the loss.

In the early years of their marriage, prior to Henry's illness, Margaret and Henry spent significant proportions of their time together by choice. They shared an interest in education and culture. On 30 March 1448, she was granted license to found Queens' College, Cambridge. Prior to 1453, there is little evidence of public political efforts on her part. Most of her surviving letters were written during this period, and the majority pertain to acts of intercession, mediation, and intervention in matters on which she had been asked to act, such as the arranging of marriages, the return of wrongfully taken property, and the collection of alms. These were expected and important parts of the role of a noblewoman or queen. Some were successful, and others regarded as high-handed or ill-thought-out. On one occasion, she recommended a man named Alexander Manning to the role of gaoler at Newgate; shortly after, he turned the prisoners loose in an act of protest at his rumoured dismissal for negligence and was then jailed himself.

Birth of a son
Henry, who was more interested in religion and learning than in military matters, was not a successful king. He had reigned since he was only a few months old, and his actions had been controlled by protectors, magnates who were effectively regents. When he married Margaret, his mental condition was already unstable, and by the time of the birth of their only son, Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales (born 13 October 1453), he had suffered a complete breakdown.

Enmity between Margaret and the Duke of York
After retiring from London to live in lavish state at Greenwich, Margaret was occupied with the care of her young son and did not display any political inclinations until she believed her husband was threatened with deposition by the ambitious Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York, who, to her dismay, had been appointed Lord Protector while Henry was mentally incapacitated from 1453 to 1454. The duke was a credible claimant to the English throne, and by the end of his protectorship there were many powerful nobles and relatives prepared to back his claim. Whereas the Duke of York was ambitious and capable, Henry (surrounded with corrupt advisers) was trusting, pliable, and increasingly unstable. Margaret herself was defiantly unpopular, grimly and gallantly determined to maintain the English crown for her progeny. Yet at least one scholar identifies the source of the eventual Lancastrian downfall not as York's ambitions nearly so much as Margaret's ill-judged enmity toward York and her over-indulgence in unpopular allies. Nevertheless, Queen Margaret was a powerful force in the world of politics. King Henry was putty in her hands when she wanted something done.

Margaret's biographer Helen Maurer, however, disagrees with earlier historians having dated the much-vaunted enmity between the Queen and York to the time he obtained the office of the protectorship. She suggests the mutual antagonism came about two years later in 1455 in the wake of the First Battle of St Albans, when Margaret perceived him as a challenge to the king's authority. Maurer bases this conclusion on a judicious study of Margaret's pattern of presenting gifts; this revealed that Margaret took a great deal of care to demonstrate that she favoured both York and Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, equally in the early 1450s. Maurer also claims that Margaret appeared to accept York's protectorship and asserts there is no substantial evidence to back up the long-standing belief that she was responsible for the Yorkists' exclusion from the Great Council following Henry's recovery (see below).

The late historian Paul Murray Kendall, on the other hand, maintained that Margaret's allies Edmund Beaufort and William de la Pole, then Earl of Suffolk, had no difficulty in persuading her that York, until then one of Henry VI's most trusted advisers, was responsible for her unpopularity and already too powerful to be trusted. Margaret not only persuaded Henry to recall York from his post as governor in France and banish him instead to Ireland, she also repeatedly attempted to have him assassinated during his travels to and from Ireland, once in 1449 and again in 1450. Edmund Beaufort and Suffolk's joint responsibility for the secret surrender of Maine in 1448, and then the subsequent disastrous loss of the rest of Normandy in 1449 embroiled Margaret and Henry's court in riots, uprisings by the magnates, and calls for the impeachment and execution of Margaret's two strongest allies. It also might have made an ultimate battle to the death between Margaret and the House of York inevitable by making manifest Richard's dangerous popularity with the Commons. Richard of York safely returned from Ireland in 1450, confronted Henry, and was readmitted as a trusted advisor. Soon thereafter, Henry agreed to convene Parliament to address the calls for reform. When Parliament met, the demands could not have been less acceptable to Margaret: not only were both Edmund Beaufort and Suffolk impeached for criminal mismanagement of French affairs and subverting justice, but it was charged as a crime against Suffolk (now a duke) that he had antagonised the king against the Duke of York. Further, the demands for reform put forward included that the Duke of York be acknowledged as the first councillor to the king, and the Speaker of Commons, perhaps with more fervour than wisdom, even proposed Richard, Duke of York, be recognised as heir to the throne. Within a few months, however, Margaret had regained control of Henry, Parliament was dissolved, the incautious Speaker thrown in prison, and Richard of York retired to Wales for the time being.

In 1457, the kingdom was again outraged when it was discovered that Pierre de Brézé, a powerful French general and an adherent of Margaret, had landed on the English coast and burnt the town of Sandwich. As leader of a French force of 4,000 men from Honfleur, he aimed at taking advantage of the chaos in England. The mayor, John Drury, was killed in this raid. It thereafter became an established tradition, which survives to this day, that the Mayor of Sandwich wears a black robe mourning this ignoble deed. Margaret, in association with de Brézé, became the object of scurrilous rumours and vulgar ballads. Public indignation was so high that Margaret, with great reluctance, was forced to give the Duke of York's kinsman Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, a commission to keep the sea for three years. He already held the post of Captain of Calais.

Leader of Lancastrian faction
Hostilities between the rival Yorkist and Lancastrian factions soon flared into armed conflict. In May 1455, just over five months after Henry VI recovered from a bout of mental illness and Richard of York's protectorship had ended, Margaret and Henry called for a Great Council from which the Yorkists were excluded. The Council called for an assemblage of the peers at Leicester with the stated purpose to protect the king from his enemies. York, fearing that the purpose of the council was to destroy him, prepared for battle and soon was marching south to meet the Lancastrian army marching north. The Lancastrians suffered a crushing defeat at the First Battle of St Albans on 22 May 1455. Edmund Beaufort, the Earl of Northumberland and Lord Clifford were killed, Wiltshire fled the battlefield, and King Henry was taken prisoner by the victorious Duke of York. In March 1458, along with her husband and leading nobles of the warring factions, she took part in The Love Day procession in London.

In 1459, hostilities resumed at the Battle of Blore Heath, where James Tuchet, 5th Baron Audley, was defeated and killed by the Yorkist army under the command of Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury. The battle had only just begun.

Early campaigns
While Margaret was attempting to raise further support for the Lancastrian cause in Scotland, her principal commander, Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset, gained a major victory for her at the Battle of Wakefield on 30 December 1460 by defeating the combined armies of the Duke of York and the Earl of Salisbury. Both men were beheaded and their heads displayed on the gates of the city of York. As Margaret was in Scotland at the time of the battle, it was impossible that she issued the orders for their execution, despite popular belief to the contrary. Next was the Second Battle of St Albans (at which she was present) on 17 February 1461. In this battle, she defeated the Yorkist forces of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, and recaptured her husband. After this battle, she ordered the execution of two Yorkist prisoners of war, William Bonville, 1st Baron Bonville, the rival of the loyal Lancastrian, the Earl of Devon, and Sir Thomas Kyriell. Both men had kept watch over King Henry, a prisoner to Warwick, to keep him out of harm's way during the battle. The king had promised the two knights immunity, but Margaret gainsaid him and ordered their execution by decapitation. It is alleged that she put the men on trial with her son presiding. "Fair son", she allegedly asked, "what death shall these knights die?" Prince Edward replied that their heads should be cut off, despite the king's pleas for mercy.

Sojourn in France
The Lancastrian army was beaten at the Battle of Towton on 29 March 1461 by the son of the late Duke of York, the future Edward IV of England, who deposed King Henry and proclaimed himself king. Margaret was determined to win back her son's inheritance and fled with him into Wales and later Scotland. Finding her way to France, she made an ally of her cousin, King Louis XI of France, and at his instigation she allowed an approach from Edward's former supporter, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, who had fallen out with his former friend as a result of Edward's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville, and was now seeking revenge for the loss of his political influence. Warwick's daughter, Anne Neville, was married to Margaret's son Edward, Prince of Wales, in order to cement the alliance, and Margaret insisted that Warwick return to England to prove himself before she followed. He did so, restoring Henry VI briefly to the throne on 3 October 1470.

Final defeat at Tewkesbury
By the time Margaret, her son and daughter-in-law Anne were ready to follow Warwick back to England, the tables had again turned in favour of the Yorkists, and the Earl was defeated and killed by the returning King Edward IV in the Battle of Barnet on 14 April 1471. Margaret was forced to lead her own army at the Battle of Tewkesbury on 4 May 1471, at which the Lancastrian forces were defeated and her seventeen-year-old son Edward of Westminster was killed. The circumstances of Edward's death have never been made clear; it is not known whether he was killed in the actual fighting or executed after the battle by the Duke of Clarence. Over the previous ten years, Margaret had gained a reputation for aggression and ruthlessness, but following her defeat at Tewkesbury and the death of her only son, she was completely broken in spirit. After she was taken captive by William Stanley at the end of the battle, Margaret was imprisoned by the order of King Edward. She was sent first to Wallingford Castle and then was transferred to the more secure Tower of London. Henry VI was also imprisoned in the Tower in the wake of Tewkesbury and he died there on the night of 21 May; the cause of his death is unknown, though regicide was suspected, specifically smothering in his sleep. In 1472 she was placed in the custody of her former lady-in-waiting Alice Chaucer, Duchess of Suffolk, where she remained until ransomed by Louis XI of France in 1475.

Final years and death
Margaret lived in France for seven years as a poor relation of the king. She was hosted by Francis de Vignolles and died, impoverished, in his castle of Dampierre-sur-Loire, near Anjou on 25 August 1482 at the age of 52. She was entombed next to her parents in Angers Cathedral, but her remains were removed and scattered by revolutionaries who ransacked the cathedral during the French Revolution.

Margaret's letters
Many letters written by Margaret during her tenure as queen consort are still extant. One was written to the Corporation of London regarding injuries inflicted on her tenants at the manor of Enfield, which comprised part of her dower lands. Another letter was written to the Archbishop of Canterbury. Margaret's letters, which typically began with the words "By the Quene," are compiled in a book edited by Cecil Munro published for the Camden Society in 1863.

Possible connection to Elizabeth Woodville
Elizabeth Woodville (born ca 1437), later Queen of England as the wife of Margaret's husband's rival, King Edward IV, purportedly served Margaret of Anjou as a maid of honour. However, the evidence is too scanty to permit historians to establish this with absolute certainty; several women at Margaret's court bore the name Elizabeth or Isabella Grey.

Depictions in fiction
Margaret is a major character in William Shakespeare's first tetralogy of History plays. Henry VI, Part 1, Part 2, Part 3 and Richard III. She is the only character to appear alive in all four plays, but due to the length of the plays many of her lines are usually cut in modern adaptations. Shakespeare portrays Margaret as an intelligent, ruthless woman who easily dominates her husband and fiercely vies for power with her enemies. In Henry VI, Part 2 Margaret has an affair with the Duke of Suffolk and mourns his death by carrying around his severed head. In Henry VI, Part 3 Richard Plantagenet Duke of York famously calls her "She-wolf of France/ but worse than wolves of France/ Whose tongue more poisons than the adder's tooth!" Later, she personally stabs the Duke of York on the battlefield after humiliatingly taunting him, and becomes suicidal when her son Edward is killed in front of her. Although in reality, Margaret spent the rest of her life outside England after the death of her husband and son, Shakespeare has her return to the court in Richard III. Margaret serves as a Cassandra-like prophetess; in her first appearance she dramatically curses the majority of the nobles for their roles in the downfall of the House of Lancaster. All of her curses come to pass as the noblemen are betrayed and executed by Richard of Gloucester, and each character reflects on her curse before his execution. Shakespeare had famously described Margaret: "How ill-beseeming is it in thy sex/ To triumph like an Amazonian trull/ Upon their woes whom Fortune captivates."

Margaret's prominence in Shakespeare has led many theatre-makers to interpret the story with her at the center, drawing from the plays she is featured in. An adaptation called Margaret of Anjou by Elizabeth Schafer and Philippa Kelly was performed in 2016 in London by By Jove Theatre Company and an adaptation of the three Henry VI plays and Richard III entitled War of the Roses by Eric Ting and Philippa Kelly at California Shakespeare Theater in 2018 gave Margaret great prominence. In 2018, the Royal Exchange Theatre in Manchester premiered Queen Margaret, using all the lines spoken by Margaret over the four plays with additional material by playwright Jeanie O'Hare.

title: Margaret of Anjou


text:
Amp

Amp may refer to:

 * Ampere, a unit of electric current, often shortened to amp
 * Amplifier, a device that increases the amplitude of a signal

Music

 * After Midnight Project, Los Angeles alternative rock band
 * Amp (band), UK
 * AMP (magazine), US, 2003–2013
 * Annual Australian Music Prize
 * MTV's Amp, 1997 compilation

Other uses in arts and entertainment

 * Amp (TV series), music video show
 * The Amp, a British music video channel
 * The Amp (St. Augustine), outdoor amphitheater in St. Augustine, Florida, U.S.
 * AMP Radio Networks, Malaysia

Organizations

 * Africa Muslim Party, a South African political party
 * Alliance of the Presidential Majority (Alliance pour la majorité présidentielle), Democratic Republic of Congo
 * American Manufacturing and Packaging, Cookeville, Tennessee, US
 * American Muslims for Palestine, Illinois
 * Americans for Medical Progress
 * Ameriprise Financial, NYSE symbol
 * The AMP, a youth center and music venue in Minot, North Dakota, U.S.
 * AMP Incorporated, U.S. connector company
 * AMP Limited, Australian financial services company
 * Amp Electric Vehicles
 * Anjaman Mozareen Punjab, organisation for land rights in Pakistan
 * Association of Muslim Professionals, Singapore

People

 * Amp Lee (born 1971), American football coach
 * Air Member for Personnel, RAF appointment
 * Air Member for Personnel (Australia), RAAF

Places

 * Advanced Manufacturing Park, UK
 * Ampanihy Airport (IATA code), Madagascar
 * Atlantic Motorsport Park, near Shubenacadie, Nova Scotia, Canada

Computing

 * &amp; HTML code for the ampersand symbol &
 * AMP (software stack), "Apache, MySQL and PHP"
 * Asymmetric multiprocessing
 * C++ AMP, C++ Accelerated Massive Parallelism
 * Accelerated Mobile Pages, a web component framework

Biology

 * Adenosine monophosphate, a nucleotide found in RNA
 * AMP deaminase, a human enzyme encoded by the AMPD1 gene
 * Antimicrobial peptides, immune system peptides

Other uses in science and technology

 * Affect misattribution procedure, a psychological measure of implicit attitudes
 * AutoMag (pistol)

Other uses

 * Administrative Monetary Penalty, a civil penalty
 * Amp Energy, a drink
 * Amplified Bible, an English translation
 * Asiatic mode of production, a Marxist theory on historical Asian socioeconomic organization
 * Asset Management Plan, in infrastructure management

title: Amp


text:
Talk:White perch

Sentence removed
removed from the main page: "It probably frequents other soft water streams and lakes, though we are not well enough acquainted with its haunts to give any definite information."

If they're not certain, why should we keep it in? Also, are fishermen/scientists/whoever certain about it now? I know this comes from an old text. Koyaanis Qatsi, Wednesday, April 3, 2002

title: Talk:White perch


text:
Talk:White bass

Untitled
I changed "They are exceedingly lively on the hook and afford a good deal of sport." to "They are lively when hooked and challenging to reel in." I'm not a fisherman, so if I've misunderstood, please change it. The way it was was just too anachronistic for me. Koyaanis Qatsi

Roe
Is white bass roe edible? I haven't been able to find any information. Thanks. Qatter (talk) 18:56, 24 April 2008 (UTC)

WikiProject Food and drink Tagging
This article talk page was automatically added with WikiProject Food and drink banner as it falls under Category:Food or one of its subcategories. If you find this addition an error, Kindly undo the changes and update the inappropriate categories if needed. The bot was instructed to tagg these articles upon consenus from WikiProject Food and drink. You can find the related request for tagging here. Maximum and careful attention was done to avoid any wrongly tagging any categories, but mistakes may happen... If you have concerns, please inform on the project talk page -- TinucherianBot (talk) 21:24, 3 July 2008 (UTC)

Picture
I think I have a better picture of a white bass than the one on the bottom of the page. The current picture is taken from an angle that shows little detail of the fish itself. My picture shows better detail, in my opinion.

I would like my picture to be displayed along with the current one. Maybe in a gallery?Superstitionfree (talk) 08:23, 23 March 2010 (UTC)

 * This picture is also of a higher resolution (1024x768) than the current picture (640x480). Also, the author of the current picture has published it under a gnu license. I have released my picture to the public domain. Superstitionfree (talk) 08:33, 23 March 2010 (UTC)

 * I added an image gallery. I used the format that I have seen on other WP pages. On wiki commons there was another picture of a white bass, so I also added that to the gallery as well. I think it works well and has cleaned up the look of the page. Superstitionfree (talk) 04:42, 29 March 2010 (UTC)

The photos have been removed. Is there an encyclopedic reason for doing this? The sketch at the top of the page is not as good a represntation as a photo of a fish caught in the wild. This is also a fish that I have found some confusion over its identification. It looks very much like the other fish in this genus. Also, I would like to add a guide to identifying this fish and distinguishing it from other species in the genus. (Most anglers only know it's a white because it is smaller than a stiper and bigger than a yellow.) 72.204.15.161 (talk) 06:44, 23 September 2011 (UTC)

I am re-adding the gallery on 10-1-2011, if there is no objection. I informed the wikipedian that deleted the gallery: Bceder(talk). If he/she or anyone else can not give me an encyclopedic reason, I am reverting that one change. 72.204.15.161 (talk) 19:31, 25 September 2011 (UTC)

Human importance and conservation
This part claims, "There is no daily bag or size limit for the white bass, but in certain states white bass caught by angling can not be sold."

This is not universally true. Each state (and country) has its own regulations regarding bag, length, and posession limits. For example Missouri does have a daily bag limit on white bass. Also, the last statement is not universally true, either. It is illegal to sell fish caught by sport fishing licenses, in the United States. however there is a comercial fishing industry in the Mississipi River that does catch and sell white bass. Also, White Bass also are found in other countries besides the US. This section appears to speak for all of them. 72.204.15.161 (talk) 06:00, 23 September 2011 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on White bass. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110910154858/http://www.bio.txstate.edu/~tbonner/txfishes/morone%20chrysops.htm to http://www.bio.txstate.edu/~tbonner/txfishes/morone%20chrysops.htm

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 07:47, 5 December 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:White bass


text:
Talk:Turki bin Faisal

What are we supposed to make of this:

 * "He abruptly resigned late in August, 2001, and was replaced by his brother, Prince Nawaf Bin Abdelaziz.

Its not known that Turki bin Faisal was mentioned as a potential heir to king Fahad, and he is not brother of Prince Nawaf !"

title: Talk:Turki bin Faisal


text:
Talk:Sucker-fish

 * , but as that is not legitimate sport, we do not deem it necessary to particularize the manner.

All well and good, but we the readers are probably capable of determining for ourselves what is legitimate sport.

title: Talk:Sucker-fish