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Jonathan Livingston Seagull

Jonathan Livingston Seagull is an allegorical fable in novella form written by American author Richard Bach and illustrated with black-and-white photographs shot by Russell Munson. It is about a seagull who is trying to learn about flying, personal reflection, freedom, and self-realization. It was first published in book form in 1970 with little advertising or expectations; by the end of 1972, over a million copies were in print, the book having reached the number one spot on bestseller lists mostly through word of mouth recommendations.

In 2014, the book was reissued as Jonathan Livingston Seagull: The Complete Edition, which added a 17-page fourth part to the story.

Part One
Jonathan Livingston Seagull is an independent thinker frustrated with the daily squabbles over meager food and sheer survival within his flock of seagulls who have no deeper sense of purpose. Unlike his peers, he is seized with a passion for flight of all kinds, and his soul soars as he aerially experiments and learns more about the nature of his own body and the environment in achieving faster and faster flights. Eventually, his lack of conformity within the Flock causes them to officially banish him with the label "Outcast". Undeterred, Jonathan continues his efforts to reach ever-greater flight goals, finding that he is often successful. He lives a long happy life and is sad not due to his loneliness but only due to the fact that the rest of the Flock will never know the full glories of flying, like him. In his old age, he is met by two radiantly-bright seagulls who share his abilities, explaining to him that he has learned much, but that they have come to take him "home" where he will go "higher".

Part Two

Jonathan transcends into a reality, which he assumes is heaven, where all the gulls enjoy practicing incredible maneuvers and speeds, like him. His instructor, Sullivan, explains that a few gulls progress to this higher existence, but most others live through the same world over and over again. The Elder Gull of the community, Chiang, admits that this reality is not heaven, but that heaven is the achieving of perfection itself: an ability beyond any particular time or place. Suddenly, Chiang disappears, then reappears a moment later, displaying his attainment of perfect speed. When Jon begs to learn Chiang's skills, Chiang explains that the secret to true flight is to recognize that one's nature exists across all time and space. Jon begins successfully following Chiang's teachings. One day, Chiang slowly transforms into a blindingly luminous being and, just before disappearing for the last time, he gives Jon one last tip: "keep working on love." Jon ponders Chiang's words and, in a discussion with Sullivan, decides to go back to his own home planet, to teach his original Flock all that he has learned. Returning there, he finds a fellow lover of flying, Fletcher Lynd Seagull, who is angry at recently being "Outcast" by the Flock. Jon takes on Fletcher as his first pupil.

Part Three
Jonathan has now amassed a small group of Outcasts as flying students, with Fletcher the star pupil, and tells them that "each of us is in truth... an unlimited idea of freedom". The deeper nature of his words is not yet understood by his pupils, who believe they are just getting basic flying lessons. For a month, Jon boldly takes them to perform aerial stunts in front of the bewildered Flock. Some of the Flock slowly join the Outcasts, while others label him a messiah or a devil; Jon feels misunderstood. One day, Fletcher dies in a flying collision. Awaking in another reality, he hears Jon's voice teasing him that the trick to transcending the limitations of time and space is to take it step by step — not so quickly. Fletcher is resurrected in the very midst of the flabbergasted Flock, some of whom fear and decry his supernatural reappearance, but Jon insists that he must learn to love the ignorant Flock. Jon's body suddenly begins to fade away, he requests that Fletcher stop others from thinking of him as anything silly like a god, and he gives a final piece of advice: "find out what you already know". Soon, Fletcher faces a group of eager new students of his own. He passes on Jon's sentiments that seagulls are limitless ideas of freedom and their bodies nothing more than thought itself, but this only baffles the young gulls. He realizes now why Jon taught him to take lessons slowly, step by step. Privately musing on Jon's idea that there are no limits, Fletcher smiles at the implication of this: that he will see Jon again, one day soon.

Part Four in 2014's re-print, Jonathan Livingston Seagull: The Complete Edition
In 2013, Richard Bach took up a non-published fourth part of the book which he had written contemporaneously with the original. He edited and polished it, and then sent the result to a publisher. Bach reported that he was inspired to finish the fourth part of the novella by a near-death experience which had occurred in relation to a nearly fatal plane crash in August 2012. In February 2014, the 138-page Bach work Illusions II: The Adventures of a Reluctant Student was published as a booklet by Kindle Direct Publishing. Illusions II also contains allusions to and insights regarding the same near-death experience. In October 2014, Jonathan Livingston Seagull: The Complete Edition, was published, and this edition includes Part Four of the story.

Part Four focuses on the period several hundred years after Jonathan and his students have left the Flock and their teachings become venerated rather than practiced. The birds spend all their time extolling the virtues of Jonathan and his students and spend no time flying for flying's sake. The seagulls practice strange rituals and use demonstrations of their respect for Jonathan and his students as status symbols. Eventually some birds reject the ceremony and rituals and just start flying. Eventually one bird named Anthony Gull questions the value of living since "...life is pointless and since pointless is by definition meaningless then the only proper act is to dive into the ocean and drown. Better not to exist at all than to exist like a seaweed, without meaning or joy [...] He had to die sooner or later anyway, and he saw no reason to prolong the painful boredom of living." As Anthony makes a dive-bomb to the sea, at a speed and from an altitude which would kill him, a white blur flashes alongside him. Anthony catches up to the blur, which turns out to be a seagull, and asks what the bird was doing.

Development
Bach initially wrote it as a series of short stories that were published in Flying magazine in the late 1960s.

Bach, who said the book came to him as "a visionesque spooky thing," stopped after he wrote 10 pages and didn't pick it up again for a few years.

The book was rejected by several publishers before coming to the attention of Eleanor Friede at Macmillan in 1969. "I think it has a chance of growing into a long-lasting standard book for readers of all ages," she wrote presciently in her acquisition memo. She convinced Macmillan to buy it and Bach received a $2,000 advance ($15,000 in 2022 dollars).

Jonathan Livingston Seagull is named after John H. Livingston, a Waco Aircraft Company test pilot. Livingston died of a heart attack in 1974, at the age of 76, just after he had test-flown an acrobatic home-built Pitts Special.

In the book 'The Nature of Personal Reality' by Jane Roberts/Seth, page 55 of the paperback edition, Richard Bach was visiting Jane Roberts and stated that in 1959 he was walking beside a canal and heard a voice say 'Jonathan Livingston Seagull'. This puts into question the idea that the book was named after a particular person.

Reception
The book was a sleeper hit; the first edition in 1970 was only 3,000 copies and it would take two years before reaching number one on the New York Times Bestseller List. "Not a single magazine or newspaper — including The New York Times Book Review — so much as mentioned" the book when it first came out, The Times reported in 1972. Macmillan failed to secure any advance publicity for Bach, but he personally took out two very small ads in The New York Times Book Review and Publishers Weekly. The first printing sold out by the end of 1970, and in 1971 an additional 140,000 copies were printed. Mostly a word of mouth phenomenon, it entered the NYT Bestseller List on April 20, 1972, where it remained for 37 weeks, and by July 1972 it had 440,000 copies in print. Reader's Digest published a condensed version. In 1972 and 1973, the book topped the Publishers Weekly list of bestselling novels in the United States.

Book sellers didn't know how to classify it. "Some put it under nature, some under religion, some under photography, some under children’s books." Friede's advice was, "put it next to the cash register."

Several early commentators, emphasizing the first part of the book, see it as part of the US self-help and positive thinking culture, epitomized by Norman Vincent Peale and by the New Thought movement. Film critic Roger Ebert wrote that the book was "so banal that it had to be sold to adults; kids would have seen through it."

The book is listed as one of fifty "timeless spiritual classics" in a book by Tom Butler-Bowdon, who noted that "it is easy now, thirty-five years on, to overlook the originality of the book's concept, and though some find it rather naïve, in fact it expresses timeless ideas about human potential."

John Clute, for The Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1997), wrote: "an animal fantasy about a philosophical gull who is profoundly affected by flying, but who demands too much of his community and is cast out by it. He becomes an extremely well-behaved accursed wanderer, then dies, and in posthumous fantasy sequences--though he is too wise really to question the fact of death, and too calmly confident to have doubts about his continuing upward mobility--he learns greater wisdom. Back on Earth, he continues to preach and heal and finally returns to heaven, where he belongs."

Bibliography, editions and translations
Jonathan Livingston Seagull has been translated into over thirty languages. Here is a partial list of editions and translations:

In 1980, a Spanish edition was published by Pomaire (Barcelona) featuring illustrations by photographer Jordi Olavarrieta, translated by Carol and Frederick Howell. In 1981, a French edition was published by Flammarion (Paris) featuring illustrations by photographer Jordi Olavarrieta, translated by Pierre Clostermann.

Parodies

 * A 1972 parody, Marvin Stanley Pigeon, was published by Thomas Meehan in The New Yorker: "Marvin Stanley Pigeon was no ordinary pigeon. While other pigeons spent their time grubbing for food, Marvin Stanley Pigeon worked away on his book on the window ledge outside the Manuscript Room of the Public Library in Bryant Park. He wanted to get his novel done in time for Macmillan's spring list."
 * Hubert Bermont wrote and published another parody, Jonathan Livingston Fliegle, with illustrations drawn by Harold Isen, in 1973. Its content contained many examples of Jewish humor.
 * Another parody featuring Jewish humor, Jonathan Segal Chicken, was written by Sol Weinstein and Howard Albrecht. A self-proclaimed fable, it tells the story of a high-flying fabulous fowl who “dreamed of being more than soup.” It was published by Pinnacle Books in May 1973.
 * Also in 1973, Price Stern Sloan published Ludwig von Wolfgang Vulture, a Satire, written by Dolph Sharp, a story about a vulture determined to push the limits on speed-reading.
 * In 1998, a parody titled Jonathan Livingston Trafalgar Square Pigeon, written by David K. Lines, was published by Random House.

Music

 * Jonathan Livingston's passion for flying is illustrated in the song "Martı" (Seagull) by Turkish singer Yaşar Kurt.
 * Jonathan Seagull is mentioned in the 1973 James Gang song "Ride the Wind" in the lyric "I wanna be like Jonathan Seagull, try to fly high on his wing."
 * The novel inspired the Barclay James Harvest track, "Jonathan," written by Les Holroyd, from the band's 1975 album, Time Honoured Ghosts.
 * ABBA member Björn Ulvaeus found his inspiration in Jonathan Seagull when writing the 1978 song "Eagle."
 * "Jonathan's Dream," a song by Sid Sound, is inspired by the book. The song is featured on the dance simulation game Pump It Up Fiesta Ex.
 * A song by Turkish singer Yasemin Mori, "Oyna" includes the lyric "Martı Jonathan" as a catchy phrase; the song is believed to draw inspiration from the book.
 * The novel was one of the inspirations for the band name of A Flock of Seagulls.
 * A song by English singer Sampha, Jonathan L. Seagull, is inspired by the book. The song is featured on Sampha's second full length album Lahai. There is also a reference in the single Spirit 2.0 from the same album.

Adaptations
The novella inspired the production of a film of the same title in 1973. The film was made by Hall Bartlett many years before computer-generated effects were available. In order to make seagulls act on cue and perform aerobatics, Mark Smith of Escondido, California built radio-controlled gliders that looked like real seagulls from a few feet away. This footage was not used in the final cut of the film.

Bach had written the film's original screenplay, but he sued Paramount Pictures before the film's release because he felt that there were too many discrepancies between the film and the book. Director Bartlett had allegedly violated a term in his contract with Bach which stated that no changes could be made to the film's adaptation without Bach's consent. Bach took offense to scenes Bartlett had filmed which were not present in the book, most notably the sequence in which Jonathan is suddenly attacked by a wild hawk, which was voiced by Bartlett himself. Ultimately, the court ruled that Bach's name would be taken off the screenplay credits, and that the film would be released with a card indicating that Bach disapproved of the final cut. Bach's attorney claimed, "It took tremendous courage to say this motion picture had to come out of theaters unless it was changed. Paramount was stunned."

The Grammy Award-winning soundtrack album was composed and performed by Neil Diamond and produced by Tom Catalano. It won the 1974 Grammy Award as Best Original Score Written for a Motion Picture or a Television Special. The album apparently also made more money than the film, selling two million copies in the United States, 400,000 in France, 250,000 in Germany, 200,000 in Canada and 100,000 in the United Kingdom.

The Irish actor Richard Harris won a Grammy in 1973 for the Audiobook LP Jonathan Livingston Seagull. To date, Harris's reading has not been released on any other format. Versions read by the author, Richard Bach, have been released on LP, cassette, and CD.

title: Jonathan Livingston Seagull


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Robert Peel

Sir Robert Peel, 2nd Baronet (5 February 1788 – 2 July 1850), was a British Conservative statesman who twice was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1834–1835, 1841–1846), and simultaneously was Chancellor of the Exchequer (1834–1835). He previously was Home Secretary twice (1822–1827, 1828–1830). He is regarded as the father of modern British policing, owing to his founding of the Metropolitan Police Service while he was Home Secretary. Peel was one of the founders of the modern Conservative Party.

The son of a wealthy textile manufacturer and politician, Peel was the first prime minister from an industrial business background. He earned a double first in classics and mathematics from Christ Church, Oxford. He entered the House of Commons in 1809 and became a rising star in the Tory Party. Peel entered the Cabinet as home secretary (1822–1827), where he reformed and liberalised the criminal law and created the modern police force, leading to a new type of officer known in tribute to him as "" and "peelers". After a brief period out of office he returned as home secretary under his political mentor the Duke of Wellington (1828–1830), also serving as Leader of the House of Commons. Initially, a supporter of continued legal discrimination against Catholics, Peel reversed himself and supported the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 and the 1828 repeal of the Test Act, claiming that "though emancipation was a great danger, civil strife was a greater danger".

After being in opposition from 1830 to 1834, he became prime minister in November 1834. Peel issued the Tamworth Manifesto (December 1834), laying down the principles upon which the modern British Conservative Party is based. His first ministry was a minority government, dependent on Whig support and with Peel serving as his own chancellor of the Exchequer. After only four months, his government collapsed and he was Leader of the Opposition during Melbourne's second government (1835–1841). Peel became prime minister again after the 1841 general election. His second government ruled for five years. He cut tariffs to stimulate trade, replacing the lost revenue with a 3% income tax. He played a central role in making free trade a reality and set up a modern banking system. His government's major legislation included the Mines and Collieries Act 1842, the Income Tax Act 1842, the Factories Act 1844 and the Railway Regulation Act 1844. Peel's government was weakened by anti-Catholic sentiment following the controversial increase in the Maynooth Grant of 1845. After the outbreak of the Great Irish Famine, his decision to join with Whigs and Radicals to repeal the Corn Laws led to his resignation as prime minister in 1846. Peel remained an influential MP and leader of the Peelite faction until his death in 1850.

Peel often started from a traditional Tory position in opposition to a measure, then reversed his stance and became the leader in supporting liberal legislation. This happened with the Test Act, Catholic emancipation, the Reform Act, income tax and, most notably, the repeal of the Corn Laws. Historian A. J. P. Taylor wrote: "Peel was in the first rank of 19th-century statesmen. He carried Catholic Emancipation; he repealed the Corn Laws; he created the modern Conservative Party on the ruins of the old Toryism."

Early life
Peel was born at Chamber Hall, Bury, Lancashire, to the industrialist and parliamentarian Sir Robert Peel, 1st Baronet, and his wife Ellen Yates. His father was one of the richest textile manufacturers of the early Industrial Revolution. The family moved from Lancashire to Drayton Manor near Tamworth, Staffordshire; the manor house has since been demolished, and the site occupied by Drayton Manor Theme Park.

Peel received his early education from a clergyman tutor in Bury and at a clergyman's local school in Tamworth. He may also have attended Bury Grammar School or Hipperholme Grammar School, though evidence for either is anecdotal rather than textual. He started at Harrow School in February 1800.

At Harrow, he was a contemporary of Lord Byron, who recalled of Peel that "we were on good terms" and that "I was always in scrapes, and he never". On Harrow's Speech Day in 1804, Peel and Byron acted part of Virgil's Aeneid, Peel playing Turnus and Byron playing Latinus. In 1805, Peel matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford. His tutor was Charles Lloyd, later Regius Professor of Divinity, on Peel's recommendation appointed bishop of Oxford. In 1808 Peel became the first Oxford student to take a double first in Classics and Mathematics.

Peel was a law student at Lincoln's Inn in 1809. He also held military commissions as a captain in the Manchester Regiment of Militia in 1808, and later as lieutenant in the Staffordshire Yeomanry Cavalry in 1820.

Member of Parliament
Peel entered politics in 1809 at the age of 21, as MP for the Irish rotten borough of Cashel, County Tipperary. With a scant 24 electors on the rolls, he was elected unopposed. His sponsor for the election (besides his father) was the chief secretary for Ireland, Sir Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington, with whom Peel's political career would be entwined for the next 25 years. Peel made his maiden speech at the start of the 1810 session, when he was chosen by prime minister Spencer Perceval to second the reply to the king's speech. His speech was a sensation, famously described by the Speaker, Charles Abbot, as "the best first speech since that of William Pitt".

Peel changed constituency twice, becoming one of the two Members for Chippenham in 1812, and then one of those for Oxford University in 1817.

Junior minister
In 1810, Peel was appointed an Under-Secretary of State for War and the Colonies; his secretary of state was Lord Liverpool. When Lord Liverpool formed a government in 1812, Peel was appointed chief secretary for Ireland. The Peace Preservation Act of 1814 authorised the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland to appoint additional magistrates in a county in a state of disturbance, who were authorised to appoint paid special constables (later called "peelers" ). Peel thus laid the basis for the Royal Irish Constabulary.

Peel was firmly opposed to Catholic emancipation, believing that Catholics could not be admitted to Parliament as they refused to swear the Oath of Allegiance to the Crown. In May 1817, Peel delivered the closing speech in opposition to Henry Grattan's Catholic emancipation bill; the bill was defeated by 245 votes to 221. Peel resigned as chief secretary and left Ireland in August 1818.

In 1819, the House of Commons appointed a Select Committee, the Bullion Committee, charged with stabilising British finances after the end of the Napoleonic Wars, and Peel was chosen as its chairman. Peel's Bill planned to return British currency to the gold standard, reversing the Bank Restriction Act 1797, within four years (it was actually accomplished by 1821).

Senior minister
Peel was considered one of the rising stars of the Tory party, first entering the cabinet in 1822 as home secretary. As home secretary, he introduced a large number of important reforms to British criminal law.

Reforms and policies
In one of his policies, he reduced the number of crimes punishable by death, and simplified the law by repealing a large number of criminal statutes and consolidating their provisions into what are known as Peel's Acts. He reformed the gaol system, introducing payment for gaolers and education for the inmates in the Gaols Act 1823 (4 Geo. 4. c. 64).

In 1827 the prime minister Lord Liverpool became incapacitated and was replaced by George Canning. Peel resigned as home secretary. Canning favoured Catholic emancipation, while Peel had been one of its most outspoken opponents (earning the nickname "Orange Peel", with Orange the colour of the Protestant Orange Order). George Canning himself died less than four months later and, after the brief premiership of Lord Goderich, Peel returned to the post of home secretary under the premiership of his long-time ally the Duke of Wellington. During this time he was widely perceived as the number-two in the Tory Party, after Wellington himself.

The Test and Corporation Acts required many officials to be communicants in the Anglican Church and penalised both nonconformists and Catholics. They were no longer enforced but were a matter of humiliation. Peel at first opposed the repeal, but reversed himself and led the repeal on behalf of the government, after consultation with Anglican Church leaders. The Sacramental Test Act 1828 passed into law in May 1828. In future religious issues he made it a point to consult with church leaders from the major denominations.

The 1828 Clare by-election returned the Catholic Irish nationalist leader Daniel O'Connell. By autumn 1828, the Chief Secretary for Ireland was alarmed by the extent of civil disorder and the prospect of a rebellion if O'Connell were barred from Parliament. Wellington and Peel now conceded the necessity of Catholic emancipation, Peel writing to Wellington that "though emancipation was a great danger, civil strife was a greater danger".

Peel drew up the Catholic Relief bill. He felt compelled to stand for re-election to his seat in Oxford, as he was representing the graduates of Oxford University (many of whom were Anglican clergymen), and had previously stood on a platform of opposition to Catholic Emancipation. Peel lost his seat in a by-election in February 1829 to Ultra-Tory Robert Inglis, but soon found another by moving to a rotten borough, Westbury, retaining his Cabinet position. He stood for Tamworth in the general election of 1830, representing Tamworth until his death.

Peel guided the Catholic Relief (Emancipation) bill through the House of Commons, Wellington through the House of Lords. With many Ultra-Tories vehemently opposed to emancipation, the bill could pass only with Whig support.

Wellington threatened to resign if King George IV did not give Royal assent; the King finally relented. The Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 passed into law in April 1829. Peel's U-turn cost him the trust of many Tories: according to Norman Gash, Peel had been "the idolized champion of the Protestant party; that party now regarded him as an outcast".

Founding the Metropolitan Police
It was in 1829 that Peel established the Metropolitan Police Force for London based at Scotland Yard. The 1,000 constables employed were affectionately nicknamed 'bobbies' or, somewhat less affectionately, 'peelers'. Although unpopular at first, they proved very successful in cutting crime in London, and, by 1857, all cities in Britain were obliged to form their own police forces. Known as the father of modern policing, Peel is thought to have contributed to the Metropolitan Police's first set of "Instructions to Police Officers", emphasising the importance of its civilian nature and policing by consent. However, what are now commonly known as the Peelian Principles were not written by him but were instead produced by Charles Reith in his 1948 book, A Short History of the British Police, as a nine-point summary of the 1829 "Instructions".

Opposition: 1830–1834
The middle and working classes in England at that time, however, were clamouring for reform, and Catholic Emancipation was only one of the ideas in the air. The Tory ministry refused to bend on other issues and were swept out of office in 1830 in favour of the Whigs. The following few years were extremely turbulent, but eventually enough reforms were passed that King William IV felt confident enough to invite the Tories to form a ministry again in succession to those of Lord Grey and Lord Melbourne in December 1834. Peel was selected as prime minister but was in Italy at the time, so Wellington acted as a caretaker for three weeks until Peel's return.

Appointment
Following the resignation of former prime minister Charles Grey, because of an issue regarding Ireland's conciliatory reform and at the invitation of King William IV, Peel became prime minister in early December 1834. Peel formed his own government, though it was a Tory government that was a minority government and depended on Whig goodwill for its continued existence. Parliament was dissolved in late December 1834 and a general election was called. Voting took place in January and February 1835, and Peel's supporters gained around 100 seats, but this was not enough to give them a majority.

Tamworth Manifesto
As his statement of policy at the general election of January 1835, Peel issued the Tamworth Manifesto. This document was the basis on which the modern Conservative Party was founded. In it, Peel pledged that the Conservatives would endorse reform such as reforms concerning economic and financial affairs, free trade and factory workers' rights.

The Whigs formed a compact with Daniel O'Connell's Irish Radical members to repeatedly defeat the government on various bills. Eventually, after only about 100 days in government, Peel's ministry resigned out of frustration and the Whigs under Lord Melbourne returned to power. The only real achievement of Peel's first administration was a commission to review the governance of the Church of England. This ecclesiastical commission was the forerunner of the Church Commissioners.

Confidence vote and resignation
Despite the January 1835 general election, from which Peel attempted to consolidate his party's majority in Parliament, the Conservatives still remained a minority. This made Peel's position in the Commons precarious from the start.

The immediate cause of Peel's downfall was a debate over the Church of Ireland. On 7 April 1835, Whig MP Ralph Bernal brought forward a report critical of Peel's administration of the Church of Ireland's revenues and proposed reforms. The report was passed in the House of Commons by a vote of 285 to 258, signifying a lack of confidence in Peel's government. This defeat underscored the government's inability to secure enough support to govern effectively.

This loss led to Peel's resignation the following day, on 8 April 1835. The passing of the vote of no confidence highlighted the conditions in British politics at the time in a parliamentary system. After Peel's resignation, King William IV invited Lord Melbourne to form a new government, allowing the Whigs to return to power.

Leader of the Opposition: 1835–1841
Peel's party was bolstered by the adherence of a number of dissident Whigs associated with the Derby Dilly. These self-described 'moderate Whigs' were lead by former cabinet ministers Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby, and Sir James Graham, 2nd Baronet.

In May 1839, Peel was offered another chance to form a government, this time by the new monarch, Queen Victoria. However, this too would have been a minority government, and Peel felt he needed a further sign of confidence from his Queen. Lord Melbourne had been Victoria's confidant since her accession in 1837, and many of the higher posts in Victoria's household were held by the wives and female relatives of Whigs; there was some feeling that Victoria had allowed herself to be too closely associated with the Whig party. Peel, therefore, asked that some of this entourage be dismissed and replaced with their Conservative counterparts, provoking the so-called Bedchamber Crisis. Victoria refused to change her household, and despite pleadings from the Duke of Wellington, relied on assurances of support from Whig leaders. Peel refused to form a government, and the Whigs returned to power.

Economic reforms
Peel finally had a chance to head a majority government following the election of July 1841. Peel came to office during an economic recession which had seen a slump in world trade and a budget deficit of £7.5 million run up by the Whigs. Confidence in banks and businesses was low, and a trade deficit existed. To raise revenue Peel's 1842 budget saw the re-introduction of the income tax, removed previously at the end of the Napoleonic Wars. The rate was 7d in the pound, or just under 3 per cent. The money raised was more than expected and allowed for the removal and reduction of over 1,200 tariffs on imports including the controversial sugar duties. It was also in the 1842 budget that the repeal of the corn laws was first proposed. It was defeated in a Commons vote by a margin of 4:1.

The economic historian Charles Read has analysed Peel's economic policies as: (i) Fixing the value of British currency to a gold standard, with the paper pound currency freely convertible to gold.

(ii) A limited banknote supply based on a fixed relationship to the gold reserve.

(iii) Free movement of bullion flows from 1819 and lower import tariffs on food and raw materials from 1842 (often loosely referred to as free trade).

(iv) Control of interest rates and a balanced budget in order to reduce the national debt.

Health
A Board of Supervision was established, and two measures passed, under which county asylums were erected and prompt medical treatment was ensured. In addition, it was provided "that a certificate of insanity, signed by two disinterested doctors, had to be presented before any person was confined to an asylum." According to one study, "the whole treatment of lunacy was humanised and lifted out of the atmosphere of profits into that of curative effort and civic responsibility."

Factory Act
Peel's promise of modest reform was held to, and the second most famous bill of this ministry, while "reforming" in 21st-century eyes, was in fact aimed at the reformers themselves, with their constituency among the new industrial rich. The Factory Act 1844 acted more against these industrialists than it did against the traditional stronghold of the Conservatives, the landed gentry, by restricting the number of hours that children and women could work in a factory and setting rudimentary safety standards for machinery. This was a continuation of his own father's work as an MP, as the elder Robert Peel was most noted for the reform of working conditions during the first part of the 19th century. Helping him was Lord Shaftesbury, a British MP who also established the coal mines act.

Assassination attempt
In 1843 Peel was the target of a failed assassination attempt; a criminally insane Scottish woodturner named Daniel M'Naghten stalked him for several days before, on 20 January, killing Peel's personal secretary Edward Drummond thinking he was Peel, which led to the formation of the controversial criminal defence of insanity.

Corn Laws
The most notable act of Peel's second ministry, however, was the one that would bring it down. Peel moved against the landholders by repealing the Corn Laws, which supported agricultural revenues by restricting grain imports. This radical break with Conservative protectionism was triggered by the Great Irish Famine (1845–1849). Tory agriculturalists were sceptical of the extent of the problem, and Peel reacted slowly to the famine, famously stating in October 1846 (already in opposition): "There is such a tendency to exaggeration and inaccuracy in Irish reports that delay in acting on them is always desirable".

His own party failed to support the bill, but it passed with Whig and Radical support. On the third reading of Peel's Bill of Repeal (Importation Act 1846) on 15 May, MPs voted 327 votes to 229 (a majority of 98) to repeal the Corn Laws. On 25 June the Duke of Wellington persuaded the House of Lords to pass it. On that same night Peel's Irish Coercion Bill was defeated in the Commons by 292 to 219 by "a combination of Whigs, Radicals, and Tory protectionists". Following this, on 29 June 1846, Peel resigned as prime minister.

Famine in Ireland
Though he knew repealing the laws would mean the end of his ministry, Peel decided to do so. It is possible that Peel merely used the Irish Famine as an excuse to repeal the Corn Laws as he had been an intellectual convert to free trade since the 1820s. Blake points out that if Peel had been convinced that total repeal was necessary to stave off the famine, he would have enacted a bill that brought about immediate temporary repeal, not permanent repeal over a three-year period of gradual tapering-off of duties. Peel's support for free trade could already be seen in his 1842 and 1845 budgets; in late 1842 Graham wrote to Peel that "the next change in the Corn Laws must be to an open trade" while arguing that the government should not tackle the issue. Speaking to the cabinet in 1844, Peel argued that the choice was the maintenance of the 1842 Corn Law or total repeal. The historian Boyd Hilton argued that Peel knew from 1844 he was going to be deposed as the Conservative leader. Many of his MPs had taken to voting against him, and the rupture within the party between liberals and paternalists, which had been so damaging in the 1820s but masked by the issue of parliamentary reform in the 1830s, was brought to the surface over the Corn Laws. Hilton's hypothesis is that Peel wished to be deposed on a liberal issue so that he might later lead a Peelite/Whig/Liberal alliance. Peel was magnanimous towards Irish famine and permitted quick settlements of disputes at frontiers in India and America ( Treaty of Amritsar (1846) on 16 March 1846 and Oregon Treaty on 15 June 1846) in order to repeal Corn Laws on 29 June 1846. As an aside in reference to the repeal of the Corn Laws, Peel managed to keep minimum casualties of Irish Famine in its first year, Peel did make some moves to subsidise the purchase of food for the Irish, but this attempt was small and had little tangible effect. In the age of laissez-faire, government taxes were small, and subsidies or direct economic interference was almost nonexistent. That subsidies were actually given was very much out of character for the political times; his successor, Lord John Russell, received more criticism than Peel on Irish policy, the worst year being 1847, despite all of Peel's efforts, his reform programmes had little effect on the situation in Ireland. Russell could not manage public distribution system during Irish Famine even though subsidized food from USA was made available in Ireland. The repeal of the Corn Laws became more political than humanitarian.

Later career and death
Peel did, however, retain a hard core of supporters, known as Peelites, and at one point in 1849 was actively courted by the Whig/Radical coalition. He continued to stand on his conservative principles, however, and refused. Nevertheless, he was influential on several important issues, including the furtherance of British free trade with the repeal of the Navigation Acts. Peel was a member of the committee which controlled the House of Commons Library, and on 16 April 1850 was responsible for passing the motion that controlled its scope and collection policy for the rest of the century.

Peel was thrown from his horse while riding on Constitution Hill in London on 29 June 1850. The horse stumbled on top of him, and he died three days later on 2 July at the age of 62 due to a broken collarbone rupturing his subclavian vessels.

His body was buried in the churchyard of St Peter Church, Drayton Bassett. Inside the church is a memorial tablet which reads "In Memory of / The Rt Hon Sir Robert Peel, Bart. / to whome the People / have raised Monuments /in many places. / His Children / erect this in the place / where his body / has been buried".

His Peelite followers, led by Lord Aberdeen and William Gladstone, went on to fuse with the Whigs as the Liberal Party.

Family

Peel became engaged to Julia Floyd (1795–1859) (daughter of General Sir John Floyd, 1st Baronet, and his first wife Rebecca Darke) in March 1820; they married on 8 June 1820. They had seven children:
 * Julia Peel (30 April 1821 – 14 August 1893). She married George Child Villiers, 6th Earl of Jersey, on 12 July 1841. They had five children. He died in 1859, and she married her second husband, Charles Brandling, on 12 September 1865.
 * Robert Peel (4 May 1822 – 9 May 1895). He married Lady Emily Hay on 17 June 1856. They had five children. He succeeded his father in the baronecty in 1895.
 * Frederick Peel (26 October 1823 – 6 June 1906). He married Elizabeth Shelley (niece of the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley through his brother John) on 12 August 1857. She died on 30 July 1865. He was remarried to Janet Pleydell-Bouverie on 3 September 1879.
 * William Peel (2 November 1824 – 27 April 1858), a captain in the Royal Navy.
 * John Peel (24 May 1827 – 21 April 1910). He married Annie Jenny in 1851.
 * Arthur Peel (3 August 1829 – 24 October 1912). He married Adelaide Dugdale, daughter of William Stratford Dugdale and Harriet Ella Portman, on 14 August 1862. They had seven children. He was created Viscount Peel in 1895; his eldest son William was created Earl Peel in 1929.
 * Eliza Peel (c. 1832 – April 1883). She married the Hon. Francis Stonor (son of Thomas Stonor, 3rd Baron Camoys) on 25 September 1855. They had four children.

Lady Peel died in 1859. Some of their direct descendants now reside in South Africa, the Australian states of New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria and Tasmania, and in various parts of the United States and Canada.

Memory and recognition
In his lifetime many critics called him a traitor to the Tory cause, or as "a Liberal wolf in sheep's clothing", because his final position reflected liberal ideas. Others idealised Peel in heroic terms; Thomas Carlyle referred to him as a "reforming Hercules" in Latter-Day Pamphlets (1850).

The latter would become the consensus view of scholars for much of the 20th century. Historian Boyd Hilton wrote that he was portrayed as:"The great Conservative patriot: a pragmatic gradualist, as superb in his grasp of fundamental issues as he was adroit in handling administrative detail, intelligent enough to see through abstract theories, a conciliator who put nation before party and established consensus politics."

Biographer Norman Gash wrote that Peel "looked first, not to party, but to the state; not to programmes, but to national expediency". Gash added that among his personal qualities were, "administrative skill, capacity for work, personal integrity, high standards, a sense of duty [and] an outstanding intellect".

Gash emphasised the role of personality in Peel's political career:"Peel was endowed with great intelligence and integrity, and an immense capacity for hard work. A proud, stubborn, and quick-tempered man he had a passion for creative achievement; and the latter part of his life was dominated by his deep concern for the social condition of the country. Though his great debating and administrative talents secured him an outstanding position in Parliament, his abnormal sensitivity and coldness of manner debarred him from popularity among his political followers, except for the small circle of his intimate friends. As an administrator he was one of the greatest public servants in British history; in politics he was a principal architect of the modern conservative tradition. By insisting on changes unpalatable to many of his party, he helped to preserve the flexibility of the parliamentary system and the survival of aristocratic influence. The repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 won him immense prestige in the country, and his death in 1850 caused a national demonstration of sorrow unprecedented since the death of William Pitt in 1806."

Peel was the first British Prime Minister to have been photographed while in office. Peel is featured on the cover of The Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band album.

A 2021 study in The Economic Journal found that the repeal of the corn laws adversely affected the welfare of the top 10% of income earners in Britain, whereas the bottom 90% of income earners gained.

Statues
Statues of Sir Robert Peel are found in the following British and Australian locations: • Memorial outside the Robert Peel public house in Bury town centre, his birthplace.

• Parliament Square, London.

• Peel Park in Accrington.

• Winckley Square in Preston city centre.

• West Midlands Police Training Centre, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

• Piccadilly Gardens in Manchester.

• Montrose town centre.

• Woodhouse Moor, Leeds.

• Tamworth town centre.

• George Square, Glasgow.

• Peel Park, Bradford.

• Wool Exchange, Bradford.

• Peel Centre, Hendon Police College, Hendon.

• Gawsworth Old Hall, Cheshire.

• High Street, Dronfield

• Sandy Bay, Tasmania, Australia.

Public houses and hotels
The following public houses, bars or hotels are named after Peel:

United Kingdom

 * Sir Robert Peel pub Bury, behind his statue Former Wetherspoon.
 * Sir Robert Peel public house, Tamworth.
 * Peel Hotel, Tamworth.
 * Sir Robert Peel public house, Edgeley, Stockport, Cheshire.
 * Sir Robert Peel public house, Heckmondwike, West Yorkshire.
 * Sir Robert Peel public house, Leicester.
 * Sir Robert Peel public house, Malden Road, London NW5.
 * Sir Robert Peel public house, Peel Precinct, Kilburn, London NW6.
 * Sir Robert Peel public house, London SE17.
 * Sir Robert Peel Hotel, Preston.
 * Peel Park Hotel, Accrington, Lancashire.
 * Sir Robert Peel public house Rowley Regis.
 * Sir Robert Peel public house, Southsea.
 * Sir Robert Peel public house, Stoke-on-Trent.
 * Sir Robert Peel public house, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey.
 * Sir Robert Peel public house, Bloxwich, Walsall.

Elsewhere

 * The Sir Robert Peel Hotel (colloquially known as "The Peel"), a gay bar and nightclub located at the corner of Peel and Wellington Streets in the Melbourne suburb of Collingwood, in Australia.
 * The Sir Robert Peel Hotel on the corner of Queensberry Street and Peel Street in the Melbourne suburb of North Melbourne, Victoria, in Australia.
 * The Sir Robert Peel Motor Lodge Hotel, Alexandria Bay, New York.

Other memorials

 * Peel Park, Bradford is named after Sir Robert Peel. It is one of the largest parks in the city, and indeed Yorkshire.
 * Peel Tower Monument, built on top of Holcombe Hill in Ramsbottom, Bury.
 * The Sir Robert Peel Hospital in Tamworth.
 * A small monument in the centre of the town of Dronfield in Derbyshire. Nearby is the Peel Centre, a community centre in a former Methodist church.
 * Peel Streets in the CBD of Melbourne, and in Collingwood, both in Victoria, Australia.
 * Peel Street in the CBD, Adelaide, South Australia.
 * Peel Street, Montreal and its Peel Metro station. The street also features a high-rise residential building named Sir-Robert-Peel.
 * The Peel River in Tamworth, New South Wales, Australia.
 * Peel High School in Tamworth, New South Wales, Australia.
 * Peel in New South Wales, Australia.
 * Robert Peel Primary School in Sandy, Bedfordshire.
 * A British steamer named SS Sir Robert Peel, based in Canada, was burned by American forces on 29 May 1838, at the height of American-Canadian tensions over the Caroline Affair.
 * Tamworth-raised musician Julian Cope sings "the king and queen have offered me the estate of Robert Peel" on the song "Laughing Boy", from his 1984 LP Fried.
 * The right wing of the Trafford Centre is called Peel Avenue, named after Robert Peel.
 * The official mascot of Bury Football Club is Robbie the Bobby, in honour of Sir Robert Peel.
 * One of the buildings which make up the Home Office headquarters, 2 Marsham St, is named Peel.
 * The Peel building, situated on Peel Campus of the University of Salford.
 * The Sir Robert Peel monument on the corner of George and High Streets, Montrose, Scotland
 * Peel Crescent in Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, UK.
 * Peel Street, Hong Kong, a small street in Hong Kong.
 * The Peel River in the Yukon and Northwest Territories, Canada.
 * Peel Street in Simcoe, Ontario, Canada is named in his honour.
 * The Regional Municipality of Peel (originally Peel County) in Ontario, Canada.
 * 10 Peel Centre Drive and Peel Centre.
 * Peel Regional Police.
 * Peel Regional Paramedic Services.
 * Dufferin-Peel Catholic District School Board.
 * Peel District School Board.
 * former Peel Memorial Hospital (closed 2007) in Brampton, Ontario.
 * New Zealand pioneer Francis Jollie settled in Canterbury in 1853 and named Peel Forest after the former prime minister, as he had died in the year that Canterbury was founded. The adjacent mountain and the settlement that formed also took Peel's name.
 * The names "bobbies" and "peelers" for British police officers.
 * Peel's Acts are named after Peel.

In literature
Letitia Elizabeth Landon gave her tribute to Sir Robert in her poetical illustration Sir Robert Peel to Thomas Lawrence's portrait in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837.

Robert Peel is a secondary character in the novel Dodger by Terry Pratchett.

Peel is an unseen nemesis of Harry Flashman in the humorous Flashman novels by George MacDonald Fraser. A young Flashman regularly battled with Peel's nascent London police force.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Robert Peel


text:
Gérard Depardieu

Gérard Xavier Marcel Depardieu (,, ; born 27 December 1948) is a French actor, known to be one of the most prolific in film history. He has completed over 250 films since 1967, almost exclusively as a lead. Depardieu has worked with over 150 film directors whose most notable collaborations include Jean-Luc Godard, François Truffaut, Maurice Pialat, Alain Resnais, Claude Chabrol, Ridley Scott, and Bernardo Bertolucci. He is the second highest-grossing actor in the history of French cinema behind Louis de Funès. As of January 2022, his body of work also includes countless television productions, 18 stage plays, 16 records and 9 books. He is known for having portrayed numerous leading historical and fictitious figures of the Western world including Georges Danton, Joseph Stalin, Honoré de Balzac, Alexandre Dumas, Auguste Rodin, Cyrano de Bergerac, Jean Valjean, Edmond Dantès, Christopher Columbus, Obélix, and Dominique Strauss-Kahn.

Depardieu is a Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur and Chevalier of the Ordre national du Mérite. He was granted citizenship of Russia in January 2013 (officially adopted name in Жерар Ксавие Депардьё), and became a cultural ambassador of Montenegro during the same month. Depardieu has received acclaim for his performances in The Last Metro (1980), for which he won the César Award for Best Actor, in Police (1985), for which he won the Volpi Cup for Best Actor, Jean de Florette (1986), and Cyrano de Bergerac (1990), for which he won the Best Actor award at the Cannes Film Festival and his second César Award for Best Actor as well as garnering a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor. He co-starred in Peter Weir's comedy Green Card (1990), winning a Golden Globe Award, and later acted in many big-budget Hollywood films, including Ridley Scott's 1492: Conquest of Paradise (1992), Kenneth Branagh's Hamlet (1996), Randall Wallace's The Man in the Iron Mask (1998), and Ang Lee's Life of Pi (2012).

Depardieu has been repeatedly accused of sexual assault. The French authorities have charged him with rape and, since 2021, have had him under formal investigation. Depardieu has denied any wrongdoing and has not been convicted in connection with any of the accusations against him, but he was stripped of the National Order of Quebec in 2023.

Early life
Gérard Depardieu was born on 27 December 1948 in Châteauroux, Indre, France. He is one of the five children of Anne Jeanne Josèphe (née Marillier), a stay-at-home mother known as "La Lilette", and René Maxime Lionel Depardieu (better known in his neighborhood as "Dédé" because he could write only two letters),  a metal worker and volunteer fireman. His father and mother were both born in 1923 and both died in 1988.

Gérard Depardieu grew up in poverty in a two-room apartment at 39 rue du Maréchal-Joffre, Châteauroux, in a proletarian family with five brothers and sisters. Gérard helped his mother in the deliveries of his younger brothers and sisters. He spent more time on the streets than in school, leaving at the age of 13. Practically illiterate and half stammering, he learned to read only later. He worked at a printworks, while participating in boxing matches. He also became involved in selling stolen goods, and was put on probation.

During a difficult adolescence, he "got by" through committing theft and smuggling all kinds of goods (cigarettes, alcohol), among others with the GIs of the large American air base of Châteauroux-Déols. He also acted as a bodyguard for prostitutes who came down from Paris on weekends, the GIs' payday. His family nicknamed him "Pétard" or "Pétarou", because of the habit he had acquired of farting incessantly, in all places. In 1968, Depardieu's childhood best friend Jacky Merveille, also a kingpin from Châteauroux, died in a car accident, prompting him to take decisive control over his future.

Acting career
At the age of sixteen, Depardieu left Châteauroux for Paris. There, he began acting in the new comedy theatre Café de la Gare, along with Patrick Dewaere, Romain Bouteille, Sotha, Coluche, and Miou-Miou. He studied theater under Jean-Laurent Cochet. Regardless of his lack of culture, he heavily studied the classics and followed a therapy to correct his disastrous diction and improve his memory. Moreover, through his first wife, Élisabeth Guignot, he discovered the Parisian bourgeoisie. Thus, he met Agnès Varda and her husband Jacques Demy. His first film role to gain attention was playing Jean-Claude in Bertrand Blier's comedy Les Valseuses (Going Places, 1974). Other prominent early films include Barbet Schroeder's controversial Maîtresse (1975), a starring role in Bernardo Bertolucci's historical epic 1900 (1976), with Robert De Niro, and a role in François Truffaut's The Last Metro (1980), with Catherine Deneuve for which he won his first César Award for Best Actor. Depardieu and Deneuve have made nine more films together since then.

Depardieu's international profile rose as a result of his performance as a doomed, hunchbacked farmer in the film Jean de Florette (1986) and received notice for his starring role in Cyrano de Bergerac (1990), for which he won his second César Award for Best Actor, the Cannes Film Festival for Best Actor, and received a nomination for an Academy Award. Depardieu co-starred in Peter Weir's English language romantic comedy Green Card (1991), for which he won a Golden Globe Award. He has since had other roles in other English language films, including Ridley Scott's 1492: Conquest of Paradise (1992), Kenneth Branagh's Hamlet (1996), 102 Dalmatians (2000, Between Strangers (2002), and Ang Lee's Life of Pi (2012). He played Obélix in the four live-action Astérix films in which he is said to have discovered Mélanie Laurent when she was fourteen. In 2009, he took part in a rare performance of Sardou's La Haine at the Festival de Radio France et Montpellier Languedoc Roussillon, with Fanny Ardant; subsequently broadcast on France Musique. In 2013, he starred in an independent film titled A Farewell to Fools. Depardieu featured as a main character in Antwerp (Edinburgh Festival 2014), a play in The Europeans Trilogy (Bruges, Antwerp, Tervuren) by Paris-based UK playwright Nick Awde. In 2014, he starred in the controversial Welcome to New York in the thinly-disguised impersonation of disgraced former IMF chief Dominique Strauss-Kahn.

Personal life
In 1970, Depardieu married Élisabeth Guignot, with whom he had two children, actor Guillaume (1971–2008) and actress Julie (b. 1973). On 28 January 1992, while separated from Guignot, he had a daughter, Roxanne, with the model Karine Silla (sister of producer Virginie Besson-Silla). In 1996, he divorced Guignot and began a relationship with actress Carole Bouquet, his partner from 1997 to 2005. On 14 July 2006, he had a son, Jean, with French-Cambodian Hélène Bizot (daughter of François Bizot, not actress Hélène Bizot). Between 2005 and 2023, Depardieu was in a relationship with Clémentine Igou. Since 2024, he is in a relationship with Magda Vavrusova.

On 13 October 2008, Depardieu's son Guillaume died from pneumonia at the age of 37. Guillaume's health had been adversely affected by drug addiction and a 1995 motorcycle crash that eventually required the amputation of his right leg in 2003. Depardieu and Guillaume had a turbulent relationship but had reconciled prior to Guillaume's death. In September 2020, Depardieu converted to Eastern Orthodox Christianity in Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Paris.

Health
On 18 May 1998, Depardieu had a motorcycle accident with a high blood alcohol content, of 2.5 g/L on the way to the shooting of Asterix and Obelix vs. Caesar, by Claude Zidi. He was prescribed forty days off work. In 2000, Depardieu underwent heart bypass surgery after two weeks of chest pains. As Depardieu weighed 150 kg at the end of 2008, film critic Pascal Mérigeau commented on Depardieu's large amounts of food consumption, "at lunch he ingests 1 kg of red meat, swallows handfuls of saltine crackers".

In 2012, Depardieu was hit by a car while riding his scooter in Paris. The same year, while intoxicated with 1.8 g/L of alcohol in the blood, he had another scooter accident, without injury and without collision with another party. Since the 2000s, he has suffered at least seven motorcycle or scooter accidents. In September 2014, Depardieu stated he drank twelve, thirteen or fourteen bottles of alcohol daily, starting at 10:00 a.m., drinking champagne, wine, and pastis, and ending the day with vodka, whisky, or both. He said: "I'm never totally drunk, just a bit of a pain in the ass". Laurent Audiot, the chef of the Parisian restaurant La Fontaine Gaillon, compared Depardieu to Gargantua, saying that "he has excessive energy and he compensates with food, but sometimes it takes on incredible proportions".

Sexual assault and rape allegations
In a 1978 interview, Depardieu reportedly confirmed a story that he first participated in a rape when he was nine years old and that he had participated in more rapes since then. He reportedly stated there were "too many [rapes] to count... There was nothing wrong with it. The girls wanted to be raped. I mean, there's no such thing as rape. It's only a matter of a girl putting herself in a situation where she wants to be." The story re-emerged in Time magazine in 1991. On 15 March 1991, Depardieu's American publicist Lois Smith, stated "he's sorry, but it happened". The National Organization for Women requested an apology from Depardieu. Later that month, Depardieu's French publicist Claude Devy discounted the statements made by Smith, and Depardieu threatened legal action against any media outlet that published the comments. Depardieu's team said his words were mistranslated and he only admitted to having witnessed rapes. Time refused to retract the story.

In August 2018, Depardieu was accused of sexual assault and rape by a 22-year-old actress and dancer. The actress reported being assaulted twice by Depardieu in his home during rehearsal sessions. The unnamed actress made her statement to police in Lambesc, southern France, after which the case was passed to prosecutors in the capital. Depardieu denied the allegations. In 2019, the charges were dropped after a nine-month police investigation. The case was reopened in October 2020 after his accuser refiled the complaint. In February 2021, it was announced that French authorities had charged Depardieu with rape in December 2020, stemming from the incident in August 2018. According to Depardieu's lawyer, Hervé Témime, speaking to Le Monde, the actor rejects the allegation. In March 2022, the Paris Court of Appeal rejected Depardieu's attempt to have the charges dropped and announced the actor will remain under formal investigation. Following this investigation, the case will either be brought to trial or dismissed.

In April 2023, 13 women accused Depardieu of sexual assault and sexual harassment pertaining to incidents that occurred between 2004 and 2022. On 19 December 2023, Ruth Baza, a Spanish author and journalist, told La Vanguardia that Depardieu had kissed and groped her without her consent in 1995 when she was 23, after she had interviewed him in Paris for Cinemania magazine, and that she has filed a complaint. Baza explained that she hid the story through the years until the allegations against him emerged in 2023, which had a profound impact on her and led her to discover a description of the 1995 events in her diary from that time. By rereading her personal notes, she remembered this traumatic event that her memory had buried.

One of his accusers, Emmanuelle Debever, who had made allegations against Depardieu, committed suicide and died on 6 December 2023 after one week at the hospital. On 25 December 2023, a group of over 50 French actors and other prominent figures including Charlotte Rampling, Carla Bruni, and Carole Bouquet, denounced the "lynching" of Depardieu, in an open letter published in French newspaper Le Figaro. The group claims the star is the victim of a "torrent of hatred", adding "Gérard Depardieu is probably the greatest of all actors". His former partner Karine Silla defends him. Some of his colleagues have spoken out against him, including Sophie Marceau, Muriel Robin and Swann Arlaud. On 29 April 2024, the police detained Depardieu for questioning.

Removal from the National Order of Quebec
On 13 December 2023, Gérard Depardieu was stripped of the National Order of Quebec. This was prompted by what Quebec premier François Legault called "scandalous remarks made by Gérard Depardieu in front of the cameras," which had, in the premier's view, "shocked the international public, with good reason". He had been appointed as a Knight of the National Order of Quebec in 2002 by premier Bernard Landry.

Citizenship
Depardieu has been an official resident of Néchin, Belgium, since 7 December 2012. French Prime Minister Jean-Marc Ayrault criticised his move. On 15 December 2012, Depardieu publicly stated he was handing back his French passport. On 3 January 2013, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed an Executive Order granting Russian citizenship to Depardieu. In his first interview thereafter, Depardieu attacked Putin's critics for "lacking vision". In his autobiography, Depardieu said Putin "immediately liked my hooligan side." In February 2013, he registered as a resident of Saransk. Also in January 2013, he was appointed a cultural ambassador for Montenegro. In the summer of 2015, Depardieu's films were banned from television and cinemas in Ukraine due to his remarks questioning Ukraine's right to exist as an independent state. In February 2022, Depardieu revealed that he had become a citizen of the United Arab Emirates, although he did not specify when this occurred. In March 2022, he condemned the Russian invasion of Ukraine and accused Russian President Putin of "crazy, unacceptable excesses".

Wealth
In 1983, Depardieu created DD Productions to co-produce his films. Apart from his acting career, Depardieu is also a viticulturist, having invested in vineyards at the end of the 1980s. He owns wine estates in the Médoc, Hérault, Burgundy, Eastern Europe, Maghreb, and South America. In addition, Depardieu is the owner of the Château de Tigné (Tigne Castle) in Anjou. He also collects works of art and motorcycles. In 2003, Depardieu bought the restaurant La Fontaine Gaillon in the 2nd arrondissement of Paris. Its wine cellar, which consisted of bottles of Château Haut-Brion, Château Latour, Meursault and Saint-Émilion, was rewarded by the Gault Millau guide. La Fontaine Gaillon was described as "a Parisian institution". In Paris, Depardieu owns luxury restaurants, a Japanese delicatessen, a wine bar, and a seafood shop. By 2012, he employed over a hundred people in France through fifteen companies. In 2013, Depardieu's wealth was valued at US $200 million. Depardieu owns a luxury hotel built in 1805 in the 6th arrondissement of Paris valued at 50 million euros ($53.5 million). Depardieu sold La Fontaine Gaillon in 2019.

Awards
Depardieu has been nominated for the César for Best Actor in a Leading Role 17 times during his career and won it twice, in 1981 and 1991. He was also nominated for an Oscar in 1990 for his role in Cyrano de Bergerac.

 * 1985: Volpi Cup for Best Actor for his role in Police
 * 1985: Chevalier (Knight) of the Ordre national du Mérite
 * 1990: Cannes Film Festival: Best actor award for his role in Cyrano de Bergerac
 * 1996: Chevalier (Knight) of the Légion d'honneur
 * 2006: Moscow Film Festival: Stanislavsky Award for the outstanding achievement in the career of acting

title: Gérard Depardieu


text:
Subalgebra

In mathematics, a subalgebra is a subset of an algebra, closed under all its operations, and carrying the induced operations.

"Algebra", when referring to a structure, often means a vector space or module equipped with an additional bilinear operation. Algebras in universal algebra are far more general: they are a common generalisation of all algebraic structures. "Subalgebra" can refer to either case.

Subalgebras for algebras over a ring or field
A subalgebra of an algebra over a commutative ring or field is a vector subspace which is closed under the multiplication of vectors. The restriction of the algebra multiplication makes it an algebra over the same ring or field. This notion also applies to most specializations, where the multiplication must satisfy additional properties, e.g. to associative algebras or to Lie algebras. Only for unital algebras is there a stronger notion, of unital subalgebra, for which it is also required that the unit of the subalgebra be the unit of the bigger algebra.

Example
The 2×2-matrices over the reals form a unital algebra in the obvious way. The 2×2-matrices for which all entries are zero, except for the first one on the diagonal, form a subalgebra. It is also unital, but it is not a unital subalgebra.

Subalgebras in universal algebra
In universal algebra, a subalgebra of an algebra A is a subset S of A that also has the structure of an algebra of the same type when the algebraic operations are restricted to S. If the axioms of a kind of algebraic structure is described by equational laws, as is typically the case in universal algebra, then the only thing that needs to be checked is that S is closed under the operations.

Some authors consider algebras with partial functions. There are various ways of defining subalgebras for these. Another generalization of algebras is to allow relations. These more general algebras are usually called structures, and they are studied in model theory and in theoretical computer science. For structures with relations there are notions of weak and of induced substructures.

Example
For example, the standard signature for groups in universal algebra is (•, −1, 1). (Inversion and unit are needed to get the right notions of homomorphism and so that the group laws can be expressed as equations.) Therefore, a subgroup of a group G is a subset S of G such that:
 * the identity e of G belongs to S (so that S is closed under the identity constant operation);
 * whenever x belongs to S, so does x−1 (so that S is closed under the inverse operation);
 * whenever x and y belong to S, so does x • y (so that S is closed under the group's multiplication operation).

title: Subalgebra


text:
Kernel (algebra)

In algebra, the kernel of a homomorphism (function that preserves the structure) is generally the inverse image of 0 (except for groups whose operation is denoted multiplicatively, where the kernel is the inverse image of 1). An important special case is the kernel of a linear map. The kernel of a matrix, also called the null space, is the kernel of the linear map defined by the matrix.

The kernel of a homomorphism is reduced to 0 (or 1) if and only if the homomorphism is injective, that is if the inverse image of every element consists of a single element. This means that the kernel can be viewed as a measure of the degree to which the homomorphism fails to be injective.

For some types of structure, such as abelian groups and vector spaces, the possible kernels are exactly the substructures of the same type. This is not always the case, and, sometimes, the possible kernels have received a special name, such as normal subgroup for groups and two-sided ideals for rings.

Kernels allow defining quotient objects (also called quotient algebras in universal algebra, and cokernels in category theory). For many types of algebraic structure, the fundamental theorem on homomorphisms (or first isomorphism theorem) states that image of a homomorphism is isomorphic to the quotient by the kernel.

The concept of a kernel has been extended to structures such that the inverse image of a single element is not sufficient for deciding whether a homomorphism is injective. In these cases, the kernel is a congruence relation.

This article is a survey for some important types of kernels in algebraic structures.

Linear maps
Let V and W be vector spaces over a field (or more generally, modules over a ring) and let T be a linear map from V to W. If 0W is the zero vector of W, then the kernel of T is the preimage of the zero subspace {0W}; that is, the subset of V consisting of all those elements of V that are mapped by T to the element 0W. The kernel is usually denoted as ker T, or some variation thereof:
 * $$ \ker T = \{\mathbf{v} \in V : T(\mathbf{v}) = \mathbf{0}_{W}\} . $$

Since a linear map preserves zero vectors, the zero vector 0V of V must belong to the kernel. The transformation T is injective if and only if its kernel is reduced to the zero subspace.

The kernel ker T is always a linear subspace of V. Thus, it makes sense to speak of the quotient space V / (ker T). The first isomorphism theorem for vector spaces states that this quotient space is naturally isomorphic to the image of T (which is a subspace of W). As a consequence, the dimension of V equals the dimension of the kernel plus the dimension of the image.

If V and W are finite-dimensional and bases have been chosen, then T can be described by a matrix M, and the kernel can be computed by solving the homogeneous system of linear equations Mv = 0. In this case, the kernel of T may be identified to the kernel of the matrix M, also called "null space" of M. The dimension of the null space, called the nullity of M, is given by the number of columns of M minus the rank of M, as a consequence of the rank–nullity theorem.

Solving homogeneous differential equations often amounts to computing the kernel of certain differential operators. For instance, in order to find all twice-differentiable functions f from the real line to itself such that
 * $$x f''(x) + 3 f'(x) = f(x),$$

let V be the space of all twice differentiable functions, let W be the space of all functions, and define a linear operator T from V to W by
 * $$(Tf)(x) = x f''(x) + 3 f'(x) - f(x)$$

for f in V and x an arbitrary real number. Then all solutions to the differential equation are in ker T.

One can define kernels for homomorphisms between modules over a ring in an analogous manner. This includes kernels for homomorphisms between abelian groups as a special case. This example captures the essence of kernels in general abelian categories; see Kernel (category theory).

Group homomorphisms
Let G and H be groups and let f be a group homomorphism from G to H. If eH is the identity element of H, then the kernel of f is the preimage of the singleton set {eH}; that is, the subset of G consisting of all those elements of G that are mapped by f to the element eH.

The kernel is usually denoted ker f (or a variation). In symbols:
 * $$ \ker f = \{g \in G : f(g) = e_{H}\} .$$

Since a group homomorphism preserves identity elements, the identity element eG of G must belong to the kernel.

The homomorphism f is injective if and only if its kernel is only the singleton set {eG}. If f were not injective, then the non-injective elements can form a distinct element of its kernel: there would exist a, b ∈ G such that a ≠ b and f(a) = f(b). Thus f(a)f(b)−1 = eH. f is a group homomorphism, so inverses and group operations are preserved, giving f(ab−1) = eH; in other words, ab−1 ∈ ker f, and ker f would not be the singleton. Conversely, distinct elements of the kernel violate injectivity directly: if there would exist an element g ≠ eG ∈ ker f, then f(g) = f(eG) = eH, thus f would not be injective.

ker f is a subgroup of G and further it is a normal subgroup. Thus, there is a corresponding quotient group G / (ker f). This is isomorphic to f(G), the image of G under f (which is a subgroup of H also), by the first isomorphism theorem for groups.

In the special case of abelian groups, there is no deviation from the previous section.

Example
Let G be the cyclic group on 6 elements $\{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5\}$ with modular addition, H be the cyclic on 2 elements $\{0, 1\}$ with modular addition, and f the homomorphism that maps each element g in G to the element g modulo 2 in H. Then, since all these elements are mapped to 0H. The quotient group G / (ker f) has two elements: $\{0, 2, 4\}$ and $\{1, 3, 5\}$. It is indeed isomorphic to H.

Ring homomorphisms
Let R and S be rings (assumed unital) and let f be a ring homomorphism from R to S. If 0S is the zero element of S, then the kernel of f is its kernel as linear map over the integers, or, equivalently, as additive groups. It is the preimage of the zero ideal $\{0_{S}\}$, which is, the subset of R consisting of all those elements of R that are mapped by f to the element 0S. The kernel is usually denoted ker f (or a variation). In symbols:
 * $$ \operatorname{ker} f = \{r \in R : f(r) = 0_{S}\} .$$

Since a ring homomorphism preserves zero elements, the zero element 0R of R must belong to the kernel. The homomorphism f is injective if and only if its kernel is only the singleton set $\{0_{R}\}$. This is always the case if R is a field, and S is not the zero ring.

Since ker f contains the multiplicative identity only when S is the zero ring, it turns out that the kernel is generally not a subring of R. The kernel is a subrng, and, more precisely, a two-sided ideal of R. Thus, it makes sense to speak of the quotient ring R / (ker f). The first isomorphism theorem for rings states that this quotient ring is naturally isomorphic to the image of f (which is a subring of S). (Note that rings need not be unital for the kernel definition).

To some extent, this can be thought of as a special case of the situation for modules, since these are all bimodules over a ring R: However, the isomorphism theorem gives a stronger result, because ring isomorphisms preserve multiplication while module isomorphisms (even between rings) in general do not.
 * R itself;
 * any two-sided ideal of R (such as ker f);
 * any quotient ring of R (such as R / (ker f)); and
 * the codomain of any ring homomorphism whose domain is R (such as S, the codomain of f).

This example captures the essence of kernels in general Mal'cev algebras.

Monoid homomorphisms
Let M and N be monoids and let f be a monoid homomorphism from M to N. Then the kernel of f is the subset of the direct product M × M consisting of all those ordered pairs of elements of M whose components are both mapped by f to the same element in N. The kernel is usually denoted ker f (or a variation thereof). In symbols:
 * $$\operatorname{ker} f = \left\{\left(m, m'\right) \in M \times M : f(m) = f\left(m'\right)\right\}.$$

Since f is a function, the elements of the form (m, m) must belong to the kernel. The homomorphism f is injective if and only if its kernel is only the diagonal set $\{(m, m) : m in M\}$.

It turns out that ker f is an equivalence relation on M, and in fact a congruence relation. Thus, it makes sense to speak of the quotient monoid M / (ker f). The first isomorphism theorem for monoids states that this quotient monoid is naturally isomorphic to the image of f (which is a submonoid of N; for the congruence relation).

This is very different in flavour from the above examples. In particular, the preimage of the identity element of N is not enough to determine the kernel of f.

Universal algebra
All the above cases may be unified and generalized in universal algebra.

General case
Let A and B be algebraic structures of a given type and let f be a homomorphism of that type from A to B. Then the kernel of f is the subset of the direct product A × A consisting of all those ordered pairs of elements of A whose components are both mapped by f to the same element in B. The kernel is usually denoted ker f (or a variation). In symbols:
 * $$\operatorname{ker} f = \left\{\left(a, a'\right) \in A \times A : f(a) = f\left(a'\right)\right\}\mbox{.}$$

Since f is a function, the elements of the form (a, a) must belong to the kernel.

The homomorphism f is injective if and only if its kernel is exactly the diagonal set $\{(a, a) : a ∈ A\}$.

It is easy to see that ker f is an equivalence relation on A, and in fact a congruence relation. Thus, it makes sense to speak of the quotient algebra A / (ker f). The first isomorphism theorem in general universal algebra states that this quotient algebra is naturally isomorphic to the image of f (which is a subalgebra of B).

Note that the definition of kernel here (as in the monoid example) doesn't depend on the algebraic structure; it is a purely set-theoretic concept. For more on this general concept, outside of abstract algebra, see kernel of a function.

Malcev algebras
In the case of Malcev algebras, this construction can be simplified. Every Malcev algebra has a special neutral element (the zero vector in the case of vector spaces, the identity element in the case of commutative groups, and the zero element in the case of rings or modules). The characteristic feature of a Malcev algebra is that we can recover the entire equivalence relation ker f from the equivalence class of the neutral element.

To be specific, let A and B be Malcev algebraic structures of a given type and let f be a homomorphism of that type from A to B. If eB is the neutral element of B, then the kernel of f is the preimage of the singleton set {eB}; that is, the subset of A consisting of all those elements of A that are mapped by f to the element eB. The kernel is usually denoted ker f (or a variation). In symbols:
 * $$ \operatorname{ker} f = \{a \in A : f(a) = e_{B}\} .$$

Since a Malcev algebra homomorphism preserves neutral elements, the identity element eA of A must belong to the kernel. The homomorphism f is injective if and only if its kernel is only the singleton set $\{e_{A}\}$.

The notion of ideal generalises to any Malcev algebra (as linear subspace in the case of vector spaces, normal subgroup in the case of groups, two-sided ideals in the case of rings, and submodule in the case of modules). It turns out that ker f is not a subalgebra of A, but it is an ideal. Then it makes sense to speak of the quotient algebra G / (ker f). The first isomorphism theorem for Malcev algebras states that this quotient algebra is naturally isomorphic to the image of f (which is a subalgebra of B).

The connection between this and the congruence relation for more general types of algebras is as follows. First, the kernel-as-an-ideal is the equivalence class of the neutral element eA under the kernel-as-a-congruence. For the converse direction, we need the notion of quotient in the Mal'cev algebra (which is division on either side for groups and subtraction for vector spaces, modules, and rings). Using this, elements a and b of A are equivalent under the kernel-as-a-congruence if and only if their quotient a/b is an element of the kernel-as-an-ideal.

Algebras with nonalgebraic structure
Sometimes algebras are equipped with a nonalgebraic structure in addition to their algebraic operations. For example, one may consider topological groups or topological vector spaces, which are equipped with a topology. In this case, we would expect the homomorphism f to preserve this additional structure; in the topological examples, we would want f to be a continuous map. The process may run into a snag with the quotient algebras, which may not be well-behaved. In the topological examples, we can avoid problems by requiring that topological algebraic structures be Hausdorff (as is usually done); then the kernel (however it is constructed) will be a closed set and the quotient space will work fine (and also be Hausdorff).

Kernels in category theory
The notion of kernel in category theory is a generalisation of the kernels of abelian algebras; see Kernel (category theory). The categorical generalisation of the kernel as a congruence relation is the kernel pair. (There is also the notion of difference kernel, or binary equaliser.)

title: Kernel (algebra)


text:
Isomorphism theorems

In mathematics, specifically abstract algebra, the isomorphism theorems (also known as Noether's isomorphism theorems) are theorems that describe the relationship between quotients, homomorphisms, and subobjects. Versions of the theorems exist for groups, rings, vector spaces, modules, Lie algebras, and various other algebraic structures. In universal algebra, the isomorphism theorems can be generalized to the context of algebras and congruences.

History
The isomorphism theorems were formulated in some generality for homomorphisms of modules by Emmy Noether in her paper Abstrakter Aufbau der Idealtheorie in algebraischen Zahl- und Funktionenkörpern, which was published in 1927 in Mathematische Annalen. Less general versions of these theorems can be found in work of Richard Dedekind and previous papers by Noether.

Three years later, B.L. van der Waerden published his influential Moderne Algebra, the first abstract algebra textbook that took the groups-rings-fields approach to the subject. Van der Waerden credited lectures by Noether on group theory and Emil Artin on algebra, as well as a seminar conducted by Artin, Wilhelm Blaschke, Otto Schreier, and van der Waerden himself on ideals as the main references. The three isomorphism theorems, called homomorphism theorem, and two laws of isomorphism when applied to groups, appear explicitly.

Groups
We first present the isomorphism theorems of the groups.

Theorem A (groups)

Let G and H be groups, and let f : G → H be a homomorphism. Then: In particular, if f is surjective then H is isomorphic to G / ker(f).
 * 1) The kernel of f is a normal subgroup of G,
 * 2) The image of f is a subgroup of H, and
 * 3) The image of f is isomorphic to the quotient group G / ker(f).

This theorem is usually called the first isomorphism theorem.

Theorem B (groups)
Let $$G$$ be a group. Let $$S$$ be a subgroup of $$G$$, and let $$N$$ be a normal subgroup of $$G$$. Then the following hold: Technically, it is not necessary for $$N$$ to be a normal subgroup, as long as $$S$$ is a subgroup of the normalizer of $$N$$ in $$G$$. In this case, $$N$$ is not a normal subgroup of $$G$$, but $$N$$ is still a normal subgroup of the product $$SN$$.
 * 1) The product $$SN$$ is a subgroup of $$G$$,
 * 2) The subgroup $$N$$ is a normal subgroup of $$SN$$,
 * 3) The intersection $$S \cap N$$ is a normal subgroup of $$S$$, and
 * 4) The quotient groups $$(SN)/N$$ and $$S/(S\cap N)$$ are isomorphic.

This theorem is sometimes called the second isomorphism theorem, diamond theorem or the parallelogram theorem.

An application of the second isomorphism theorem identifies projective linear groups: for example, the group on the complex projective line starts with setting $$G = \operatorname{GL}_2(\mathbb{C})$$, the group of invertible 2 × 2 complex matrices, $$S = \operatorname{SL}_2(\mathbb{C})$$, the subgroup of determinant 1 matrices, and $$N$$ the normal subgroup of scalar matrices $$\mathbb{C}^{\times}\!I = \left\{\left( \begin{smallmatrix} a & 0 \\ 0 & a \end{smallmatrix} \right) : a \in \mathbb{C}^{\times} \right\}$$, we have $$S \cap N = \{\pm I\}$$, where $$I$$ is the identity matrix, and $$SN = \operatorname{GL}_2(\mathbb{C})$$. Then the second isomorphism theorem states that:

 * $$\operatorname{PGL}_2(\mathbb{C}) := \operatorname{GL}_2 \left(\mathbb{C})/(\mathbb{C}^{\times}\!I\right) \cong \operatorname{SL}_2(\mathbb{C})/\{\pm I\} =: \operatorname{PSL}_2(\mathbb{C})$$

Theorem C (groups)
Let $$G$$ be a group, and $$N$$ a normal subgroup of $$G$$. Then
 * 1) If $$K$$ is a subgroup of $$G$$ such that $$N \subseteq K \subseteq G$$, then $$G/N$$ has a subgroup isomorphic to $$K/N$$.
 * 2) Every subgroup of $$G/N$$ is of the form $$K/N$$ for some subgroup $$K$$ of $$G$$ such that $$N \subseteq K \subseteq G$$.
 * 3) If $$K$$ is a normal subgroup of $$G$$ such that $$N \subseteq K \subseteq G$$, then $$G/N$$ has a normal subgroup isomorphic to $$K/N$$.
 * 4) Every normal subgroup of $$G/N$$ is of the form $$K/N$$ for some normal subgroup $$K$$ of $$G$$ such that $$N \subseteq K \subseteq G$$.
 * 5) If $$K$$ is a normal subgroup of $$G$$ such that $$N \subseteq K \subseteq G$$, then the quotient group $$(G/N)/(K/N)$$ is isomorphic to $$G/K$$.

The last statement is sometimes referred to as the third isomorphism theorem. The first four statements are often subsumed under Theorem D below, and referred to as the lattice theorem, correspondence theorem, or fourth isomorphism theorem.

Theorem D (groups)
Let $$G$$ be a group, and $$N$$ a normal subgroup of $$G$$. The canonical projection homomorphism $$G\rightarrow G/N$$ defines a bijective correspondence between the set of subgroups of $$G$$ containing $$N$$ and the set of (all) subgroups of $$G/N$$. Under this correspondence normal subgroups correspond to normal subgroups.

This theorem is sometimes called the correspondence theorem, the lattice theorem, and the fourth isomorphism theorem.

The Zassenhaus lemma (also known as the butterfly lemma) is sometimes called the fourth isomorphism theorem.

Discussion
The first isomorphism theorem can be expressed in category theoretical language by saying that the category of groups is (normal epi, mono)-factorizable; in other words, the normal epimorphisms and the monomorphisms form a factorization system for the category. This is captured in the commutative diagram in the margin, which shows the objects and morphisms whose existence can be deduced from the morphism $$ f : G \rightarrow H$$. The diagram shows that every morphism in the category of groups has a kernel in the category theoretical sense; the arbitrary morphism f factors into $$\iota \circ \pi$$, where ι is a monomorphism and π is an epimorphism (in a conormal category, all epimorphisms are normal). This is represented in the diagram by an object $$\ker f$$ and a monomorphism $$\kappa: \ker f \rightarrow G$$ (kernels are always monomorphisms), which complete the short exact sequence running from the lower left to the upper right of the diagram. The use of the exact sequence convention saves us from having to draw the zero morphisms from $$\ker f$$ to $$H$$ and $$G / \ker f$$.

If the sequence is right split (i.e., there is a morphism σ that maps $$G / \operatorname{ker} f$$ to a $\pi$-preimage of itself), then G is the semidirect product of the normal subgroup $$\operatorname{im} \kappa$$ and the subgroup $$\operatorname{im} \sigma$$. If it is left split (i.e., there exists some $$\rho: G \rightarrow \operatorname{ker} f$$ such that $$\rho \circ \kappa = \operatorname{id}_{\text{ker} f}$$), then it must also be right split, and $$\operatorname{im} \kappa \times \operatorname{im} \sigma$$ is a direct product decomposition of G. In general, the existence of a right split does not imply the existence of a left split; but in an abelian category (such as that of abelian groups), left splits and right splits are equivalent by the splitting lemma, and a right split is sufficient to produce a direct sum decomposition $$\operatorname{im} \kappa \oplus \operatorname{im} \sigma$$. In an abelian category, all monomorphisms are also normal, and the diagram may be extended by a second short exact sequence $$0 \rightarrow G / \operatorname{ker} f \rightarrow H \rightarrow \operatorname{coker} f \rightarrow 0$$.

In the second isomorphism theorem, the product SN is the join of S and N in the lattice of subgroups of G, while the intersection S ∩ N is the meet.

The third isomorphism theorem is generalized by the nine lemma to abelian categories and more general maps between objects.

Note on numbers and names
Below we present four theorems, labelled A, B, C and D. They are often numbered as "First isomorphism theorem", "Second..." and so on; however, there is no universal agreement on the numbering. Here we give some examples of the group isomorphism theorems in the literature. Notice that these theorems have analogs for rings and modules.

It is less common to include the Theorem D, usually known as the lattice theorem or the correspondence theorem, as one of isomorphism theorems, but when included, it is the last one.

Rings
The statements of the theorems for rings are similar, with the notion of a normal subgroup replaced by the notion of an ideal.

Theorem A (rings)
Let $$R$$ and $$S$$ be rings, and let $$\varphi:R\rightarrow S$$ be a ring homomorphism. Then: In particular, if $$\varphi$$ is surjective then $$S$$ is isomorphic to $$R/\ker\varphi$$.
 * 1) The kernel of $$\varphi$$ is an ideal of $$R$$,
 * 2) The image of $$\varphi$$ is a subring of $$S$$, and
 * 3) The image of $$\varphi$$ is isomorphic to the quotient ring $$R/\ker\varphi$$.

Theorem B (rings)
Let R be a ring. Let S be a subring of R, and let I be an ideal of R. Then:
 * 1) The sum S + I = {s + i | s ∈ S, i ∈ I } is a subring of R,
 * 2) The intersection S ∩ I is an ideal of S, and
 * 3) The quotient rings (S + I) / I and S / (S ∩ I) are isomorphic.

Theorem C (rings)
Let R be a ring, and I an ideal of R. Then
 * 1) If $$A$$ is a subring of $$R$$ such that $$I \subseteq A \subseteq R$$, then $$A/I$$ is a subring of $$R/I$$.
 * 2) Every subring of $$R/I$$ is of the form $$A/I$$ for some subring $$A$$ of $$R$$ such that $$I \subseteq A \subseteq R$$.
 * 3) If $$J$$ is an ideal of $$R$$ such that $$I \subseteq J \subseteq R$$, then $$J/I$$ is an ideal of $$R/I$$.
 * 4) Every ideal of $$R/I$$ is of the form $$J/I$$ for some ideal $$J$$ of $$R$$ such that $$I \subseteq J \subseteq R$$.
 * 5) If $$J$$ is an ideal of $$R$$ such that $$I \subseteq J \subseteq R$$, then the quotient ring $$(R/I)/(J/I)$$ is isomorphic to $$R/J$$.

Theorem D (rings)
Let $$I$$ be an ideal of $$R$$. The correspondence $$A\leftrightarrow A/I$$ is an inclusion-preserving bijection between the set of subrings $$A$$ of $$R$$ that contain $$I$$ and the set of subrings of $$R/I$$. Furthermore, $$A$$ (a subring containing $$I$$) is an ideal of $$R$$ if and only if $$A/I$$ is an ideal of $$R/I$$.

Modules
The statements of the isomorphism theorems for modules are particularly simple, since it is possible to form a quotient module from any submodule. The isomorphism theorems for vector spaces (modules over a field) and abelian groups (modules over $$\mathbb{Z}$$) are special cases of these. For finite-dimensional vector spaces, all of these theorems follow from the rank–nullity theorem.

In the following, "module" will mean "R-module" for some fixed ring R.

Theorem A (modules)
Let M and N be modules, and let φ : M → N be a module homomorphism. Then: In particular, if φ is surjective then N is isomorphic to M / ker(φ).
 * 1) The kernel of φ is a submodule of M,
 * 2) The image of φ is a submodule of N, and
 * 3) The image of φ is isomorphic to the quotient module M / ker(φ).

Theorem B (modules)
Let M be a module, and let S and T be submodules of M. Then:
 * 1) The sum S + T = {s + t | s ∈ S, t ∈ T} is a submodule of M,
 * 2) The intersection S ∩ T is a submodule of M, and
 * 3) The quotient modules (S + T) / T and S / (S ∩ T) are isomorphic.

Theorem C (modules)
Let M be a module, T a submodule of M.

 * 1) If $$S$$ is a submodule of $$M$$ such that $$T \subseteq S \subseteq M$$, then $$S/T$$ is a submodule of $$M/T$$.
 * 2) Every submodule of $$M/T$$ is of the form $$S/T$$ for some submodule $$S$$ of $$M$$ such that $$T \subseteq S \subseteq M$$.
 * 3) If $$S$$ is a submodule of $$M$$ such that $$T \subseteq S \subseteq M$$, then the quotient module $$(M/T)/(S/T)$$ is isomorphic to $$M/S$$.

Theorem D (modules)
Let $$M$$ be a module, $$N$$ a submodule of $$M$$. There is a bijection between the submodules of $$M$$ that contain $$N$$ and the submodules of $$M/N$$. The correspondence is given by $$A\leftrightarrow A/N$$ for all $$A\supseteq N$$. This correspondence commutes with the processes of taking sums and intersections (i.e., is a lattice isomorphism between the lattice of submodules of $$M/N$$ and the lattice of submodules of $$M$$ that contain $$N$$).

Universal algebra
To generalise this to universal algebra, normal subgroups need to be replaced by congruence relations.

A congruence on an algebra $$A$$ is an equivalence relation $$\Phi\subseteq A \times A$$ that forms a subalgebra of $$A \times A$$ considered as an algebra with componentwise operations. One can make the set of equivalence classes $$A/\Phi$$ into an algebra of the same type by defining the operations via representatives; this will be well-defined since $$\Phi$$ is a subalgebra of $$A \times A$$. The resulting structure is the quotient algebra.

Theorem A (universal algebra)
Let $$f:A \rightarrow B$$ be an algebra homomorphism. Then the image of $$f$$ is a subalgebra of $$B$$, the relation given by $$\Phi:f(x)=f(y)$$ (i.e. the kernel of $$f$$) is a congruence on $$A$$, and the algebras $$A/\Phi$$ and $$\operatorname{im} f$$ are isomorphic. (Note that in the case of a group, $$f(x)=f(y)$$ iff $$f(xy^{-1}) = 1$$, so one recovers the notion of kernel used in group theory in this case.)

Theorem B (universal algebra)
Given an algebra $$A$$, a subalgebra $$B$$ of $$A$$, and a congruence $$\Phi$$ on $$A$$, let $$\Phi_B = \Phi \cap (B \times B)$$ be the trace of $$\Phi$$ in $$B$$ and $$[B]^\Phi=\{K \in A/\Phi: K \cap B \neq\emptyset\}$$ the collection of equivalence classes that intersect $$B$$. Then
 * 1) $$\Phi_B$$ is a congruence on $$B$$,
 * 2) $$ \ [B]^\Phi$$ is a subalgebra of $$A/\Phi$$, and
 * 3) the algebra $$[B]^\Phi$$ is isomorphic to the algebra $$B/\Phi_B$$.

Theorem C (universal algebra)
Let $$A$$ be an algebra and $$\Phi, \Psi$$ two congruence relations on $$A$$ such that $$\Psi \subseteq \Phi$$. Then $$\Phi/\Psi = \{ ([a']_\Psi,[a]_\Psi): (a',a)\in \Phi\} = [\ ]_\Psi \circ \Phi \circ [\ ]_\Psi^{-1}$$ is a congruence on $$A/\Psi$$, and $$A/\Phi$$ is isomorphic to $$(A/\Psi)/(\Phi/\Psi).$$

Theorem D (universal algebra)
Let $$A$$ be an algebra and denote $$\operatorname{Con}A$$ the set of all congruences on $$A$$. The set $$\operatorname{Con}A$$ is a complete lattice ordered by inclusion. If $$\Phi\in\operatorname{Con}A$$ is a congruence and we denote by $$\left[\Phi,A\times A\right]\subseteq\operatorname{Con}A$$ the set of all congruences that contain $$\Phi$$ (i.e. $$\left[\Phi,A\times A\right]$$ is a principal filter in $$\operatorname{Con}A$$, moreover it is a sublattice), then the map $$\alpha:\left[\Phi,A\times A\right]\to\operatorname{Con}(A/\Phi),\Psi\mapsto\Psi/\Phi$$ is a lattice isomorphism.

title: Isomorphism theorems