text:
SPARC

SPARC (Scalable Processor ARChitecture) is a reduced instruction set computer (RISC) instruction set architecture originally developed by Sun Microsystems. Its design was strongly influenced by the experimental Berkeley RISC system developed in the early 1980s. First developed in 1986 and released in 1987, SPARC was one of the most successful early commercial RISC systems, and its success led to the introduction of similar RISC designs from many vendors through the 1980s and 1990s.

The first implementation of the original 32-bit architecture (SPARC V7) was used in Sun's Sun-4 computer workstation and server systems, replacing their earlier Sun-3 systems based on the Motorola 68000 series of processors. SPARC V8 added a number of improvements that were part of the SuperSPARC series of processors released in 1992. SPARC V9, released in 1993, introduced a 64-bit architecture and was first released in Sun's UltraSPARC processors in 1995. Later, SPARC processors were used in symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) and non-uniform memory access (CC-NUMA) servers produced by Sun, Solbourne, and Fujitsu, among others.

The design was turned over to the SPARC International trade group in 1989, and since then its architecture has been developed by its members. SPARC International is also responsible for licensing and promoting the SPARC architecture, managing SPARC trademarks (including SPARC, which it owns), and providing conformance testing. SPARC International was intended to grow the SPARC architecture to create a larger ecosystem; SPARC has been licensed to several manufacturers, including Atmel, Bipolar Integrated Technology, Cypress Semiconductor, Fujitsu, Matsushita and Texas Instruments. Due to SPARC International, SPARC is fully open, non-proprietary and royalty-free.

As of 2024, the latest commercial high-end SPARC processors are Fujitsu's SPARC64 XII (introduced in September 2017 for its SPARC M12 server) and Oracle's SPARC M8 introduced in September 2017 for its high-end servers.

On September 1, 2017, after a round of layoffs that started in Oracle Labs in November 2016, Oracle terminated SPARC design after completing the M8. Much of the processor core development group in Austin, Texas, was dismissed, as were the teams in Santa Clara, California, and Burlington, Massachusetts.

Fujitsu will also discontinue their SPARC production (has already shifted to producing their own ARM-based CPUs), after two "enhanced" versions of Fujitsu's older SPARC M12 server in 2020–22 (formerly planned for 2021) and again in 2026–27, end-of-sale in 2029, of UNIX servers and a year later for their mainframe and end-of-support in 2034 "to promote customer modernization".

Features
The SPARC architecture was heavily influenced by the earlier RISC designs, including the RISC I and II from the University of California, Berkeley and the IBM 801. These original RISC designs were minimalist, including as few features or op-codes as possible and aiming to execute instructions at a rate of almost one instruction per clock cycle. This made them similar to the MIPS architecture in many ways, including the lack of instructions such as multiply or divide. Another feature of SPARC influenced by this early RISC movement is the branch delay slot.

The SPARC processor usually contains as many as 160 general-purpose registers. According to the "Oracle SPARC Architecture 2015" specification an "implementation may contain from 72 to 640 general-purpose 64-bit" registers. At any point, only 32 of them are immediately visible to software — 8 are a set of global registers (one of which, g0, is hard-wired to zero, so only seven of them are usable as registers) and the other 24 are from the stack of registers. These 24 registers form what is called a register window, and at function call/return, this window is moved up and down the register stack. Each window has eight local registers and shares eight registers with each of the adjacent windows. The shared registers are used for passing function parameters and returning values, and the local registers are used for retaining local values across function calls.

The "scalable" in SPARC comes from the fact that the SPARC specification allows implementations to scale from embedded processors up through large server processors, all sharing the same core (non-privileged) instruction set. One of the architectural parameters that can scale is the number of implemented register windows; the specification allows from three to 32 windows to be implemented, so the implementation can choose to implement all 32 to provide maximum call stack efficiency, or to implement only three to reduce cost and complexity of the design, or to implement some number between them. Other architectures that include similar register file features include Intel i960, IA-64, and AMD 29000.

The architecture has gone through several revisions. It gained hardware multiply and divide functionality in version 8. 64-bit (addressing and data) were added to the version 9 SPARC specification published in 1994.

In SPARC version 8, the floating-point register file has 16 double-precision registers. Each of them can be used as two single-precision registers, providing a total of 32 single-precision registers. An odd–even number pair of double-precision registers can be used as a quad-precision register, thus allowing 8 quad-precision registers. SPARC Version 9 added 16 more double-precision registers (which can also be accessed as 8 quad-precision registers), but these additional registers can not be accessed as single-precision registers. No SPARC CPU implements quad-precision operations in hardware as of 2024.

Tagged add and subtract instructions perform adds and subtracts on values checking that the bottom two bits of both operands are 0 and reporting overflow if they are not. This can be useful in the implementation of the run time for ML, Lisp, and similar languages that might use a tagged integer format.

The endianness of the 32-bit SPARC V8 architecture is purely big-endian. The 64-bit SPARC V9 architecture uses big-endian instructions, but can access data in either big-endian or little-endian byte order, chosen either at the application instruction (load–store) level or at the memory page level (via an MMU setting). The latter is often used for accessing data from inherently little-endian devices, such as those on PCI buses.

History
There have been three major revisions of the architecture. The first published version was the 32-bit SPARC version 7 (V7) in 1986. SPARC version 8 (V8), an enhanced SPARC architecture definition, was released in 1990. The main differences between V7 and V8 were the addition of integer multiply and divide instructions, and an upgrade from 80-bit "extended-precision" floating-point arithmetic to 128-bit "quad-precision" arithmetic. SPARC V8 served as the basis for IEEE Standard 1754-1994, an IEEE standard for a 32-bit microprocessor architecture.

SPARC version 9, the 64-bit SPARC architecture, was released by SPARC International in 1993. It was developed by the SPARC Architecture Committee consisting of Amdahl Corporation, Fujitsu, ICL, LSI Logic, Matsushita, Philips, Ross Technology, Sun Microsystems, and Texas Instruments. Newer specifications always remain compliant with the full SPARC V9 Level 1 specification.

In 2002, the SPARC Joint Programming Specification 1 (JPS1) was released by Fujitsu and Sun, describing processor functions which were identically implemented in the CPUs of both companies ("Commonality"). The first CPUs conforming to JPS1 were the UltraSPARC III by Sun and the SPARC64 V by Fujitsu. Functionalities which are not covered by JPS1 are documented for each processor in "Implementation Supplements".

At the end of 2003, JPS2 was released to support multicore CPUs. The first CPUs conforming to JPS2 were the UltraSPARC IV by Sun and the SPARC64 VI by Fujitsu.

In early 2006, Sun released an extended architecture specification, UltraSPARC Architecture 2005. This includes not only the non-privileged and most of the privileged portions of SPARC V9, but also all the architectural extensions developed through the processor generations of UltraSPARC III, IV IV+ as well as CMT extensions starting with the UltraSPARC T1 implementation:

 * the VIS 1 and VIS 2 instruction set extensions and the associated GSR register
 * multiple levels of global registers, controlled by the GL register
 * Sun's 64-bit MMU architecture
 * privileged instructions ALLCLEAN, OTHERW, NORMALW, and INVALW
 * access to the VER register is now hyperprivileged
 * the SIR instruction is now hyperprivileged

In 2007, Sun released an updated specification, UltraSPARC Architecture 2007, to which the UltraSPARC T2 implementation complied.

In August 2012, Oracle Corporation made available a new specification, Oracle SPARC Architecture 2011, which besides the overall update of the reference, adds the VIS 3 instruction set extensions and hyperprivileged mode to the 2007 specification.

In October 2015, Oracle released SPARC M7, the first processor based on the new Oracle SPARC Architecture 2015 specification. This revision includes VIS 4 instruction set extensions and hardware-assisted encryption and silicon secured memory (SSM).

SPARC architecture has provided continuous application binary compatibility from the first SPARC V7 implementation in 1987 through the Sun UltraSPARC Architecture implementations.

Among various implementations of SPARC, Sun's SuperSPARC and UltraSPARC-I were very popular, and were used as reference systems for SPEC CPU95 and CPU2000 benchmarks. The 296 MHz UltraSPARC-II is the reference system for the SPEC CPU2006 benchmark.

Architecture
SPARC is a load–store architecture (also known as a register–register architecture); except for the load/store instructions used to access memory, all instructions operate on the registers, in accordance with the RISC design principles.

A SPARC processor includes an integer unit (IU) that performs integer load, store, and arithmetic operations. It may include a floating-point unit (FPU) that performs floating-point operations  and, for SPARC V8, may include a co-processor (CP) that performs co-processor-specific operations; the architecture does not specify what functions a co-processor would perform, other than load and store operations.

Registers
The SPARC architecture has an overlapping register window scheme. At any instant, 32 general-purpose registers are visible. A Current Window Pointer (CWP) variable in the hardware points to the current set. The total size of the register file is not part of the architecture, allowing more registers to be added as the technology improves, up to a maximum of 32 windows in SPARC V7 and V8 as CWP is 5 bits and is part of the PSR register.

In SPARC V7 and V8 CWP will usually be decremented by the SAVE instruction (used by the SAVE instruction during the procedure call to open a new stack frame and switch the register window), or incremented by the RESTORE instruction (switching back to the call before returning from the procedure). Trap events (interrupts, exceptions or TRAP instructions) and RETT instructions (returning from traps) also change the CWP. For SPARC V9, CWP register is decremented during a RESTORE instruction, and incremented during a SAVE instruction. This is the opposite of PSR.CWP's behavior in SPARC V8. This change has no effect on nonprivileged instructions.

SPARC registers are shown in the figure above.

There is also a non-windowed Y register, used by the multiply-step, integer multiply, and integer divide instructions.

A SPARC V8 processor with an FPU includes 32 32-bit floating-point registers, each of which can hold one single-precision IEEE 754 floating-point number. An even–odd pair of floating-point registers can hold one double-precision IEEE 754 floating-point number, and a quad-aligned group of four floating-point registers can hold one quad-precision IEEE 754 floating-point number.

A SPARC V9 processor with an FPU includes:

 * 32 32-bit floating-point registers, each of which can hold one single-precision IEEE 754 floating-point number;
 * 32 64-bit floating-point registers, each of which can hold one double-precision IEEE 754 floating-point number;
 * 16 128-bit floating-point registers, each of which can hold one quad-precision IEEE 754 floating-point number.

The registers are organized as a set of 64 32-bit registers, with the first 32 being used as the 32-bit floating-point registers, even–odd pairs of all 64 registers being used as the 64-bit floating-point registers, and quad-aligned groups of four floating-point registers being used as the 128-bit floating-point registers.

Floating-point registers are not windowed; they are all global registers.

Instruction formats
All SPARC instructions occupy a full 32-bit word and start on a word boundary. Four formats are used, distinguished by the first two bits. All arithmetic and logical instructions have 2 source operands and 1 destination operand. RD is the "destination register", where the output of the operation is deposited. The majority of SPARC instructions have at least this register, so it is placed near the "front" of the instruction format. RS1 and RS2 are the "source registers", which may or may not be present, or replaced by a constant.

Loads and stores
Load and store instructions have a three-operand format, in that they have two operands representing values for the address and one operand for the register to read or write to. The address is created by adding the two address operands to produce an address. The second address operand may be a constant or a register. Loads take the value at the address and place it in the register specified by the third operand, whereas stores take the value in the register specified by the first operand and place it at the address. To make this more obvious, the assembler language indicates address operands using square brackets with a plus sign separating the operands, instead of using a comma-separated list. Examples:

ld [%L1+%L2],%L3 !load the 32-bit value at address %L1+%L2 and put the value into %L3 ld [%L1+8],%L2   !load the value at %L1+8 into %L2 ld [%L1],%L2     !as above, but no offset, which is the same as +%G0 st %L1,[%I2]     !store the value in %L1 into the location stored in %I2 st %G0,[%I1+8]   !clear the memory at %I1+8

Due to the widespread use of non-32-bit data, such as 16-bit or 8-bit integral data or 8-bit bytes in strings, there are instructions that load and store 16-bit half-words and 8-bit bytes, as well as instructions that load 32-bit words. During a load, those instructions will read only the byte or half-word at the indicated location and then either fill the rest of the target register with zeros (unsigned load or with the value of the uppermost bit of the byte or half-word (signed load). During a store, those instructions discard the upper bits in the register and store only the lower bits. There are also instructions for loading double-precision values used for floating-point arithmetic, reading or writing eight bytes from the indicated register and the "next" one, so if the destination of a load is L1, L1 and L2 will be set. The complete list of load and store instructions for the general-purpose registers in 32-bit SPARC is LD, ST, LDUB (unsigned byte), LDSB (signed byte), LDUH (unsigned half-word), LDSH (signed half-word), LDD (load double), STB (store byte), STH (store half-word), STD (store double).

In SPARC V9, registers are 64-bit, and the LD instruction, renamed LDUW, clears the upper 32 bits in the register and loads the 32-bit value into the lower 32 bits, and the ST instruction, renamed STW, discards the upper 32 bits of the register and stores only the lower 32 bits. The new LDSW instruction sets the upper bits in the register to the value of the uppermost bit of the word and loads the 32-bit value into the lower bits. The new LDX instruction loads a 64-bit value into the register, and the STX instruction stores all 64 bits of the register.

The LDF, LDDF, and LDQF instructions load a single-precision, double-precision, or quad-precision value from memory into a floating-point register; the STF, STDF, and STQF instructions store a single-precision, double-precision, or quad-precision floating-point register into memory.

The memory barrier instruction, MEMBAR, serves two interrelated purposes: it articulates order constraints among memory references and facilitates explicit control over the completion of memory references. For example, all effects of the stores that appear prior to the MEMBAR instruction must be made visible to all processors before any loads following the MEMBAR can be executed.

ALU operations
Arithmetic and logical instructions also use a three-operand format, with the first two being the operands and the last being the location to store the result. The middle operand can be a register or a 13-bit signed integer constant; the other operands are registers. Any of the register operands may point to G0; pointing the result to G0 discards the results, which can be used for tests. Examples include:

add %L1,%L2,%L3  !add the values in %L1 and %L2 and put the result in %L3 add %L1,1,%L1    !increment %L1 add %G0,%G0,%L4  !clear any value in %L4

The list of mathematical instructions is ADD, SUB, AND, OR, XOR, and negated versions ANDN, ORN, and XNOR. One quirk of the SPARC design is that most arithmetic instructions come in pairs, with one version setting the NZVC condition code bits in the status register, and the other not setting them, with the default being not to set the codes. This is so that the compiler has a way to move instructions around when trying to fill delay slots. If one wants the condition codes to be set, this is indicated by adding cc to the instruction:

subcc %L1,10,%G0 !compare %L1 to 10 and ignore the result, but set the flags

add and sub also have another modifier, X, which indicates whether the operation should set the carry bit:

addx %L1,100,%L1 !add 100 to the value in %L1 and track carry

SPARC V7 does not have multiplication or division instructions, but it does have MULSCC, which does one step of a multiplication testing one bit and conditionally adding the multiplicand to the product. This was because MULSCC can complete over one clock cycle in keeping with the RISC philosophy. SPARC V8 added UMUL (unsigned multiply), SMUL (signed multiply), UDIV (unsigned divide), and SDIV (signed divide) instructions, with both versions that do not update the condition codes and versions that do. MULSCC and the multiply instructions use the Y register to hold the upper 32 bits of the product; the divide instructions use it to hold the upper 32 bits of the dividend. The RDY instruction reads the value of the Y register into a general-purpose register; the WRY instruction writes the value of a general-purpose register to the Y register. SPARC V9 added MULX, which multiplies two 64-bit values and produces a 64-bit result, SDIVX, which divides a 64-bit signed dividend by a 64-bit signed divisor and produces a 64-bit signed quotient, and UDIVX, which divides a 64-bit unsigned dividend by a 64-bit unsigned divisor and produces a 64-bit signed quotient; none of those instructions use the Y register.

Branching
Conditional branches test condition codes in a status register, as seen in many instruction sets such the IBM System/360 architecture and successors and the x86 architecture. This means that a test and branch is normally performed with two instructions; the first is an ALU instruction that sets the condition codes, followed by a branch instruction that examines one of those flags. The SPARC does not have specialized test instructions; tests are performed using normal ALU instructions with the destination set to %G0. For instance, to test if a register holds the value 10 and then branch to code that handles it, one would:

subcc %L1,10,%G0 !subtract 10 from %L1, setting the zero flag if %L1 is 10 be WASEQUAL     !if the zero flag is set, branch to the address marked WASEQUAL

In a conditional branch instruction, the icc or fcc field specifies the condition being tested. The 22-bit displacement field is the address, relative to the current PC, of the target, in words, so that conditional branches can go forward or backward up to 8 megabytes. The ANNUL (A) bit is used to get rid of some delay slots. If it is 0 in a conditional branch, the delay slot is executed as usual. If it is 1, the delay slot is only executed if the branch is taken. If it is not taken, the instruction following the conditional branch is skipped.

There are a wide variety of conditional branches: BA (branch always, essentially a jmp), BN (branch never), BE (equals), BNE (not equals), BL (less than), BLE (less or equal), BLEU (less or equal, unsigned), BG (greater), BGE (greater or equal), BGU (greater unsigned), BPOS (positive), BNEG (negative), BCC (carry clear), BCS (carry set), BVC (overflow clear), BVS (overflow set).

The FPU and CP have sets of condition codes separate from the integer condition codes and from each other; two additional sets of branch instructions were defined to test those condition codes. Adding an F to the front of the branch instruction in the list above performs the test against the FPU's condition codes, while, in SPARC V8, adding a C tests the flags in the otherwise undefined CP.

The CALL (jump to subroutine) instruction uses a 30-bit program counter-relative word offset. As the target address is specifying the start of a word, not a byte, 30-bits is all that is needed to reach any address in the 4 gigabyte address space. The CALL instruction deposits the return address in register R15, also known as output register O7.

The JMPL (jump and link) instruction is a three-operand instruction, with two operands representing values for the target address and one operand for a register in which to deposit the return address. The address is created by adding the two address operands to produce a 32-bit address. The second address operand may be a constant or a register.

Large constants
As the instruction opcode takes up some bits of the 32-bit instruction word, there is no way to load a 32-bit constant using a single instruction. This is significant because addresses are manipulated through registers and they are 32-bits. To ease this, the special-purpose SETHI instruction copies its 22-bit immediate operand into the high-order 22 bits of any specified register, and sets each of the low-order 10 bits to 0. In general use, SETHI is followed by an or instruction with only the lower 10 bits of the value set. To ease this, the assembler includes the %hi(X) and %lo(X) macros. For example:

sethi %hi(0x89ABCDEF),%L1      !sets the upper 22 bits of L1 or    %L1,%lo(0x89ABCDEF),%L1   !sets the lower 10 bits of L1 by ORing

The hi and lo macros are performed at assembly time, not runtime, so it has no performance hit yet makes it clearer that L1 is set to a single value, not two unrelated ones. To make this even easier, the assembler also includes a "synthetic instruction", set, that performs these two operations in a single line:

set  0x89ABCDEF,% L1

This outputs the two instructions above if the value is larger than 13 bits, otherwise it will emit a single ld with the value.

Synthetic instructions
As noted earlier, the SPARC assembler uses "synthetic instructions" to ease common coding tasks. Additional examples include (among others):

SPARC architecture licensees
The following organizations have licensed the SPARC architecture:

 * Afara Websystems
 * Bipolar Integrated Technology (BIT)
 * Cypress Semiconductor
 * European Space Research and Technology Center (ESTEC)
 * Fujitsu (and its Fujitsu Microelectronics subsidiary)
 * Gaisler Research
 * HAL Computer Systems
 * Hyundai
 * LSI Logic
 * Matra Harris Semiconductors (MHS)
 * Matsushita Electrical Industrial Co.
 * Meiko Scientific
 * Metaflow Technologies
 * Philips Electronics
 * Prisma
 * Ross Technology
 * Solbourne Computer
 * Systems & Processes Engineering Corporation (SPEC)
 * TEMIC
 * Weitek

Implementations
Notes:

Operating system support
SPARC machines have generally used Sun's SunOS, Solaris, JavaOS, or OpenSolaris including derivatives illumos and OpenIndiana, but other operating systems have also been used, such as NeXTSTEP, RTEMS, FreeBSD, OpenBSD, NetBSD, and Linux.

In 1993, Intergraph announced a port of Windows NT to the SPARC architecture, but it was later cancelled.

In October 2015, Oracle announced a "Linux for SPARC reference platform".

Open source implementations
Several fully open source implementations of the SPARC architecture exist:

 * LEON, a 32-bit radiation-tolerant, SPARC V8 implementation, designed especially for space use. Source code is written in VHDL, and licensed under the GPL.
 * OpenSPARC T1, released in 2006, a 64-bit, 32-thread implementation conforming to the UltraSPARC Architecture 2005 and to SPARC Version 9 (Level 1). Source code is written in Verilog, and licensed under many licenses. Most OpenSPARC T1 source code is licensed under the GPL.  Source based on existent open source projects will continue to be licensed under their current licenses.  Binary programs are licensed under a binary software license agreement.
 * S1, a 64-bit Wishbone compliant CPU core based on the OpenSPARC T1 design. It is a single UltraSPARC V9 core capable of 4-way SMT. Like the T1, the source code is licensed under the GPL.
 * OpenSPARC T2, released in 2008, a 64-bit, 64-thread implementation conforming to the UltraSPARC Architecture 2007 and to SPARC Version 9 (Level 1). Source code is written in Verilog, and licensed under many licenses. Most OpenSPARC T2 source code is licensed under the GPL. Source based on existing open source projects will continue to be licensed under their current licenses.  Binary programs are licensed under a binary Software License Agreement.

A fully open source simulator for the SPARC architecture also exists:

 * RAMP Gold, a 32-bit, 64-thread SPARC Version 8 implementation, designed for FPGA-based architecture simulation. RAMP Gold is written in ~36,000 lines of SystemVerilog, and licensed under the BSD licenses.

Supercomputers
For HPC loads Fujitsu builds specialized SPARC64 fx processors with a new instruction extensions set, called HPC-ACE (High Performance Computing – Arithmetic Computational Extensions).

Fujitsu's K computer ranked in the TOP500 June 2011 and November 2011 lists. It combines 88,128 SPARC64 VIIIfx CPUs, each with eight cores, for a total of 705,024 cores—almost twice as many as any other system in the TOP500 at that time. The K Computer was more powerful than the next five systems on the list combined, and had the highest performance-to-power ratio of any supercomputer system. It also ranked in the Green500 June 2011 list, with a score of 824.56 MFLOPS/W. In the November 2012 release of TOP500, the K computer ranked, using by far the most power of the top three. It ranked on the corresponding Green500 release. Newer HPC processors, IXfx and XIfx, were included in recent PRIMEHPC FX10 and FX100 supercomputers.

Tianhe-2 (TOP500 as of November 2014 ) has a number of nodes with Galaxy FT-1500 OpenSPARC-based processors developed in China. However, those processors did not contribute to the LINPACK score.

title: SPARC


text:
Cappuccino

Cappuccino (, ; : cappuccini; from German Kapuziner ) is an espresso-based coffee drink that is traditionally prepared with steamed milk including a layer of milk foam.

Variations of the drink involve the use of cream instead of milk, using non-dairy milk substitutes and flavoring with cocoa powder (in Europe and Australasia) or cinnamon (in the United States). It is typically smaller in volume than that of caffè latte, and topped with a thick layer of foam rather than being made with microfoam.

The name comes from the Capuchin friars, referring to the color of their habits, and in this context referring to the color of the beverage when milk is added in small portion to dark, brewed coffee (today mostly espresso). The physical appearance of a modern cappuccino with espresso crema and steamed milk is a result of a long evolution of the drink.

The Viennese bestowed the name Kapuziner, possibly in the 18th century, on an early version that included whipped cream and spices. Later the Kapuziner was introduced in northern Italy during the period of Austrian domination and took an italian name. It is sometimes said to have been served in the coffeehouses of Trieste and other Italian areas of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the early 20th century, spreading throughout Italy after World War I. The existence in central Italy of a coffee drink mixed with milk with the name cappuccino is for example documented in the 19th century.

Definition
Cappuccino is a coffee drink that today is typically composed of a single, double, or triple espresso shot and hot milk, with the surface topped with foamed milk. Cappuccinos are most often prepared with an espresso machine. The espresso is poured into the bottom of the cup, followed by a similar amount of hot milk which is prepared by heating and texturing the milk using the espresso machine steam wand. The top third of the drink consists of milk foam which is also made using the steam wand. The drink is then topped with powdered chocolate or cocoa powder.

In a traditional cappuccino, as served in Europe and artisan coffeehouses in the United States, the total of espresso and milk/foam make up between approximately 150 and 180 ml. Commercial coffee restaurant chains in the US more often serve the cappuccino as a 360 ml drink or larger. In Italy, a cappuccino consists of 25 ml of espresso; the rest of the cup is filled with equal parts of milk and foam. Outside of Italy, the ratios of espresso, milk, and foam typically equal 1/3 each.

Cappuccino is traditionally served in a small cup with a handle (180 ml maximum) with a thick layer of foam, while a caffè latte (often abbreviated to just "latte") is just espresso and milk (200–300 ml), with the milk steamed to be hot and to form microfoam, and is usually served in a large glass.

The World Barista Championships have been arranged annually since 2000, and during the course of the competition, the competing barista must produce—for four sensory judges—among other drinks four cappuccinos, defined in WBC Rules and Regulations as "[...] a coffee and milk beverage that should produce a harmonious balance of rich, sweet milk and espresso [...] The cappuccino is prepared with one (1) single shot of espresso, textured milk and foam ("textured milk" is milk that has been aerated to its proper foam level). A minimum of 1 centimeter of foam depth [...] A cappuccino is a beverage between 150 ml and 180 ml in total volume [...]."

Etymology
Cappuccino comes from Latin caputium, later borrowed in German/Austrian and modified into Kapuziner. It is the diminutive form of cappuccio in Italian, meaning 'hood' or something that covers the head, thus cappuccino literally means 'small capuchin'.

The coffee beverage has its name not from the hood but from the color of the hooded robes worn by friars and nuns of the Capuchin order. This color is quite distinctive, and capuchin was a common description of the color of red-brown in 17th century Europe. The Capuchin friars chose the particular design of their orders' robes both in color and shape of the hood back in the 16th century, inspired by Francis of Assisi's preserved 13th century vestments. The long and pointed hood was characteristic and soon gave the brothers the nickname "capuchins" (hood-wearing). It was, however, the choice of red-brown as the order's vestment color that, as early as the 17th century, saw "capuchin" used also as a term for a specific color. While Francis of Assisi used uncolored and unbleached wool for his robes, the Capuchins colored their vestments to differ from Augustinians, Benedictines, Franciscans, and other orders.

The word cappuccino, in its Italian form, appears in Italian writings in the 19th century and is described as "black coffee with a few drops of milk or cream which give it the color the tunic of the Capuchins, from which it takes its name". The German language Kapuziner is mentioned as a coffee beverage in the 18th century in Austria, and is described as, "coffee with sugar, egg yolks and cream", in dictionary entries from 1800 onwards.

The use of fresh milk in coffee in cafés and restaurants is a newer phenomenon (from the 20th century), introduced when refrigeration became common. The use of full cream is known much further back in time (but not in the use as whipped cream [chantilly]), as this was a product more easily stored and frequently used also in cooking and baking. Thus, a Kapuziner was prepared with a very small amount of cream to get the capuchin color. Today, Kapuziner is still served in Viennese traditional cafés, comprising still black coffee with only a few drops of cream (in some establishments developed into a dollop of whipped cream), or frothed milk instead of cream.

History and evolution
The consumption of coffee in Europe was initially based on the traditional Ottoman preparation of the drink, by bringing to boil the mixture of coffee and water together, sometimes adding sugar. The British seem to have already started filtering and steeping coffee in the second half of the 18th century, and France and continental Europe followed suit. By the 19th century, coffee was brewed in different devices designed for both home and public cafés.

Adding milk to coffee was already mentioned by Europeans in the 1700s.

Kapuziner showed up in coffee house menus all over the Habsburg monarchy around the late 1700s, and is described in an 1805 dictionary as "coffee with cream and sugar" (although it does not say how it is composed). Kapuziner is mentioned again in writings in the 1850s, described as "coffee with cream, spices and sugar". Around the same time, the coffee beverage Melange is mentioned in writings, explained as a blend of coffee and milk, presumably similar to the modern day latte or Wiener Melange. Other coffees containing cream surfaced in Vienna, and outside Austria these are referred to as "Viennese coffee" or café Viennois, coffee with whipped cream. Predecessors of Irish coffee, sweetened coffee with different alcohols, topped with whipped cream, also spread out from Vienna.

Kapuziner took its name from the color of coffee with a few drops of cream, so nicknamed because the Capuchin friars in Vienna and elsewhere wore vestments of this color. Another popular coffee was Franziskaner, with more cream, referring to the somewhat lighter brown of the tunics of the Franciscan order. Kapuziner coffee spread throughout Central Europe, including the Italian-speaking parts of the Habsburg monarchy. The main port of the empire, the city of Trieste, already had many Viennese coffee houses. According to a popular but unverified legend, cappuccino was named after the Italian Capuchin friar Marco d'Aviano, who contributed to the victory of the Battle of Vienna.

According to the controversial academic and professor Alberto Grandi, cappuccino appeared recently in Italy as an adaptation to the taste of German tourists who tend to mix coffee and milk.

Cappuccino as written today (in Italian) is first mentioned in the 19th century  and is described as "black coffee with a few drops of milk or cream". The modern Italian cappuccino evolved and developed in the following decades: the steamed milk on top is a later addition, and in the US a slight misunderstanding has led to the naming of this "cap" of milk foam "monk's head", although it originally had nothing to do with the name of the beverage. Kapuziner remained unchanged on some Austrian coffee menu and in Bratislava, Budapest, Prague, and other cities of the former empire but it also found in a modernized version that include black coffee and frothed milk only.

Espresso machines were introduced at the beginning of the 20th century, although the first generations of machines certainly did not make espresso the way we define it today.

Coffee making in cafés changed in the first decades of the 20th century. These first machines made it possible to serve coffee espresso specifically to each customer. The cups were still the same size, and the dose of beans was ground coarse as before. The too high temperature of the boilers scalded the coffee, and there were several attempts at improving this in the years after the First World War.

After the Second World War, the Italians launched the "age of crema", as the new coffee machines could create a higher pressure, leading to a finer grind and the now classic crema.

The first small cups appeared in the 1950s, and the machines could by then also heat milk. In Vienna, espresso bars were introduced in the 1950s, leading to both the Kapuziner and the new-born Italian cappuccino being served as two different beverages alongside each other.

In the United Kingdom, espresso coffee initially gained popularity in the form of cappuccino, influenced by the British custom of drinking coffee with milk, the desire for a longer drink to preserve the café as a destination, and the exotic texture of the beverage.

Although coffee was brewed differently all over Europe after the Second World War, espresso machines became widespread in Italy only during the 1950s, and "cappuccino" was redefined: it was now made from espresso and frothed milk (although far from the quality of "microfoam" steamed milk today). As the espresso machines improved, so did the dosing of coffee and the heating of the milk. Outside Italy, cappuccino spread, but was generally made from dark coffee with whipped cream, as it still is in large parts of Europe today.

In the United States, cappuccino spread alongside espresso in Italian American neighborhoods, such as Boston's North End, New York's Little Italy, and San Francisco's North Beach. New York City's Caffe Reggio (founded 1927) claims to have introduced cappuccino to the United States, while San Francisco's Caffe Trieste (founded 1956) claims to have introduced it to the west coast; the earlier Tosca Cafe in San Francisco (founded 1919) served a "cappuccino" earlier, but this was without coffee, and instead consisted of chocolate, steamed milk, and brandy.

Popularity
Cappuccino was traditionally a taste largely appreciated in Europe, Australia, South America, and some of North America. By the mid-1990s, cappuccino was made more available to North Americans, as upscale coffee houses sprang up.

In Italy and throughout continental Europe, cappuccino is traditionally consumed in the morning, usually as part of breakfast, often with some type of pastry. Italians generally do not drink cappuccino with meals other than breakfast, although they often drink espresso after lunch or dinner. In Italy, cappuccino is usually consumed up to 11:00 am, since cappuccinos are milk-based and considered too heavy to drink later in the day. Instead, espresso is usually ordered after a meal due to the belief that the lack of milk aids in digestion. In North America, cappuccinos have become popular concurrent with the boom in the American coffee industry through the late 1990s and early 2000s, especially in the urban Pacific Northwest. In South Korea, espresso and its variants (cappuccino, caffè latte, caffè mocha) became popular in 2000.

Cappuccino is traditionally served in 150 - 180 ml cups. By the start of the 21st century, a modified "short-cut" version was being served by fast-food chains in servings up to 600 ml.

Traditional
Although size is what varies most among cappuccinos served in different regions, the traditional way of preparing cappuccino is to add equal proportions of the ingredients: $1/3$ espresso, $1/3$ steamed milk and $1/3$ milk foam. The drink may often be topped with a dusting of chocolate or cocoa powder. Instead of pouring the steamed milk and then adding the foam, some baristas may instead prepare an extra foamy milk with the steam wand and then pour in this mixture of hot milk and foam as one, as this saves time compared to separately pouring the hot milk and then layering on the foam.

Cappuccino freddo
Cappuccino freddo is the cold version of a cappuccino, and the drink usually has a small amount of cold frothed milk on top. The drink is available in Greece, Cyprus, and parts of Italy.

In Rome, coffee bars have the drink already prepared and chilled. In cities of northern Italy, such as Milan, the cappuccino freddo is less common. Instead, gelato da bere (a thick blend of gelato and espresso) or shakerato (espresso and ice shaken together) are more popular. The term has also spread throughout the Mediterranean region where foam is added to the drink just before serving, often varying from the Italian original. A caffè freddo or freddo espresso is a cold version of an espresso (without milk).

In North America, the terms cappuccino freddo or iced cappuccino, if offered, may be somewhat of a misnomer if the characteristic frothed milk is omitted in the iced variation. For example, at Starbucks, without the frothed milk the drink is called an "iced latte".

Freddo cappuccino
In Greece and Cyprus, a cold cappuccino is widespread known as freddo cappuccino, as opposed to cappuccino freddo. Despite its Italian name, the drink both tastes and is prepared differently from its Italian counterpart, and is uncommon outside of Greece. The freddo cappuccino is topped with a cold milk-based foam known as afrógala (Greek: αφρόγαλα), which is created by blending cold milk using an electric frother. These frothers are commonplace in Greek coffee shops due to their usage during the preparation of frappé coffee. The foam is then added to espresso poured over ice.

Along with the freddo espresso, they were conceived in Greece in 1991 and are in higher demand during summer. Outside Greece and Cyprus, freddo cappuccino or cappuccino freddo is mostly found in coffee shops and delis catering to the Greek expat community. In 2017, Starbucks added the cappuccino freddo to branch menus in Europe.

Iced cappuccino
In Canada, the Tim Hortons coffee chain sells iced coffee cappuccino under the brand name Iced Capps. The coffee drink mix comes to the stores as a thick black syrup which is mixed at three parts water to one part syrup in a Slurpee machine. The frozen coffee drink is then blended with cream at the time of service (or blended with milk, or chocolate milk upon customer request). The Iced Capp can also be prepared as a Supreme, which includes a flavour shot, whipped topping, and either caramel or chocolate syrup. The chain also carries iced coffee on both its Canadian and U.S. menus.

Similar drinks
Other milk and espresso drinks similar to the cappuccino include:
 * Macchiato (short for caffè macchiato, sometimes espresso macchiato) is a significantly shorter drink, which consists of espresso with only a small amount of milk.
 * Cortado is a Spanish hybrid: a slightly shorter drink, which consists of espresso mixed with milk in a 1:1 to 1:2 ratio, and is not topped with foam. Café cortado has traditionally been served in a small glass on a saucer, and its character comes from the Spanish preference of coffee beans and roast plus condensed milk replacing fresh dairy milk. Modern coffee shops have started using fresh milk.
 * Flat white is a drink which is popular in Australia and New Zealand. It can be described either as a caffè latte served in a small cup (like a cappuccino would be), or a cappuccino made with steamed textured milk and with no foam on top ("flat" indicating less foam), and is typically prepared with latte art.
 * Latte (short for "caffè latte") is a larger drink, with the same amount of espresso, but with more milk textured to contain microfoam, served in a large cup or tall glass, sometimes with the milk poured to make a pattern (latte art).
 * Steamer (or "babycino") is a drink of frothed milk without coffee (hence no caffeine). In the United States it often has flavored syrup added, while in Commonwealth countries it instead often has a dusting of cocoa powder.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cappuccino


text:
User:Dragon Dave

If you're looking for the 'Dragon Dave' of Durham University, Treasure Trap or Lorien Trust, you're in the right place.

(This page is/was fourth ranked on Google for 'Dragon Dave'. Wow.

Merciless LARPer from Durham...

Messages

Welcome to the 'pedia! I like what you have done to the place (especially your work on the pi meson -- I do love my subatomic particles). BTW Cool handle. --User:maveric149 -

Hi, so there are other LRPers on Wikipedia :-) user:Alex

--

Hi Dave, I'm afraid I'm not at The Gathering this year, the battle is great but I'm too much of an old hand to get that excited by it anymore. I do however still go to Omega. Which reminds me we could add a bit more LRP stuff into this Wiki. I wonder waht the naming conventions are..... user:Alex

title: User:Dragon Dave


text:
User:Rjstott

I worked in Information Technology for Shell and have lived in England, Scotland, Ireland, Oman and Netherlands. We're currently living in France.

I've put some effort into Computing but probably more into Famous Scotsmen.

Some aspects of physics are extremely interesting, especially where the argument for a physical result is explained by a law of physics. I prefer to understand the mechanisms as experience has taught, that few laws are absolute.

My interests are computing (Apple in particular), Music (classical and Jazz) Photography, DIY, Travel.

 * Username Rjstott
 * Total edits 2566
 * Image uploads 4 (4 cur, 0 old)
 * Distinct pages edited 1322
 * Edits/page (avg) 1.67
 * Deleted edits 76 (browse)
 * First edit 2001-07-26 10:25:46
 * Edits by namespace Namespace Edits
 * Articles 1927*Talk 84
 * User 55
 * User talk 255
 * Project 103
 * Image 7

title: User:Rjstott


text:
Kenneth Williams

Kenneth Charles Williams (22 February 1926 – 15 April 1988) was a British actor and comedian. He was best known for his comedy roles and in later life as a raconteur and diarist. He was one of the main ensemble in 26 of the 31 Carry On films, and appeared in many British television programmes and radio comedies, including series with Tony Hancock and Kenneth Horne, as well as being a regular panellist on BBC Radio 4's comedy panel show Just a Minute from its second series in 1968 until his death 20 years later.

Williams grew up in Central London in a working-class family; he claimed his father spoke Cockney. He served in the Royal Engineers during World War II, where he first became interested in becoming an entertainer. After a short spell in repertory theatre as a serious actor, he turned to comedy and achieved national fame in Hancock's Half Hour. He sustained continued success throughout the 1960s and 1970s with his regular appearances in Carry On films, and subsequently kept himself in the public eye with chat shows and other television work.

Williams was fondly regarded in the entertainment industry; in his private life, however, he suffered from depression. He kept a series of diaries throughout his life that achieved posthumous acclaim.

Early life and education
Kenneth Charles Williams was born on 22 February 1926 in Bingfield Street, King's Cross, London. His parents were Charles George Williams, who managed a hairdressers in the Kings Cross area, and Louisa Alexandra ( Morgan), who worked in the salon. Charles was a Methodist who had "a hatred of loose morals and effeminacy", according to Barry Took, Williams's biographer. Charles thought the theatre immoral and effeminate, although his son aspired to be involved in the profession from an early age. Between 1935 and 1956, Williams lived with his parents in a flat above his father's barber shop at 57 Marchmont Street, Bloomsbury. Williams had a half-sister, Alice Patricia "Pat", born to his mother in 1923 before she had met Charles and three years before Kenneth was born.

He was educated at The Lyulph Stanley Boys' Central Council School, a state-owned Central school, in Camden Town, North London, and subsequently became apprenticed as a draughtsman to a mapmaker. His apprenticeship was interrupted by the Blitz, and he was evacuated to the home of a bachelor veterinary surgeon in Bicester. It provided his first experience of an educated, middle-class life. He returned to London with a new, vowel-elongated accent. In 1944, aged 18, he was called up to the British Army. He became a sapper in the Royal Engineers Survey Section, doing much the same work that he did as a civilian. When the war ended he was in Ceylon and he opted to transfer to the Combined Services Entertainment Unit, which put on revue shows. While in that unit he met Stanley Baxter, Peter Vaughan, Peter Nichols and John Schlesinger.

Both of Williams' parents were born in London, but with a Welsh heritage extending for several generations. Williams sometimes described himself as Welsh, noting his parents' surnames and origins in his diaries and in interviews.: In 1968, during the filming of Carry On Up the Khyber in Snowdonia National Park, Williams stated that "I always like being back in Wales. I always feel a hiraeth, it always comes back to you, once you step back into the place where you have atavistic memories." A year later, Williams would describe a debate in Ireland when he was told he had some nerve showing his "English face in Dublin". Williams dramatically responded with a "very slow take and riposted 'Wanna get your facts right, dear, I'm Welsh'" before rising to his feet and reciting The Bard. A Pindaric Ode by Thomas Gray. Williams noted that this performance was cut short by applause, for which he was grateful as he did not know any more of the poem. Two years before his death, Williams guest hosted the Wogan chatshow; drawing the audience's attention to a display of red roses, Williams commented, "It's St George's Day today and the rose is the symbol of St George, the patron saint of England. I wouldn't know anything about it. I'm not English, I'm Welsh." before proclaiming "Mymryn bach o Gymru, Cymru fydd, Cymru sydd – Cymru am byth!" (A little bit of Wales, Wales will be, Wales is – Wales forever!) Despite this, he disliked nationalism, and opposed devolution.

Early career
Williams's professional career began in 1948 in repertory theatre. Failure to become a serious dramatic actor disappointed him, but his potential as a comic performer gave him his break when he was spotted playing the Dauphin in Bernard Shaw's St Joan in the West End, in 1954 by radio producer Dennis Main Wilson. Main Wilson was casting Hancock's Half Hour, a radio series starring Tony Hancock. Playing mostly funny voice roles, Williams stayed in the series almost to the end, five years later. His nasal, whiny, camp-cockney inflections (epitomised in his "Stop messing about ... !" catchphrase) became popular with listeners. Despite the success and recognition the show brought him, Williams considered theatre, film and television to be superior forms of entertainment. In 1955 he appeared in Orson Welles's London stage production Moby Dick—Rehearsed. The pair fell out after Williams became annoyed with Welles's habit of repeatedly changing the script.

When Hancock steered his show away from what he considered gimmicks and silly voices, Williams found he had less to do. Tiring of this reduced status, he joined Kenneth Horne in Beyond Our Ken (1958–64), and its sequel, Round the Horne (1965–68). His roles in Round the Horne included Rambling Syd Rumpo, the eccentric folk singer; Dr Chou En Ginsberg, MA (failed), Oriental criminal mastermind; J. Peasemold Gruntfuttock, telephone heavy breather and dirty old man; and Sandy of the camp couple Julian and Sandy (Julian was played by Hugh Paddick). Their double act was characterised by double entendres and Polari, the homosexual argot.

Williams also appeared in West End revues including Share My Lettuce with Maggie Smith, written by Bamber Gascoigne, and Pieces of Eight with Fenella Fielding. The latter included material specially written for him by Peter Cook, then a student at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Cook's "One Leg Too Few" and "Interesting Facts" were part of the show and became routines in his own performances. Williams's last revue, in 1961, was One Over The Eight at the Duke of York's Theatre, with Sheila Hancock.

Carry On films
Williams worked regularly in British film during the late 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, mainly in the Carry On series (1958–78) with its double entendre humour; and appeared in the series more than any other actor. The films were commercially successful but Williams claimed the cast were poorly paid. In his diaries, Williams wrote that he earned more in a St Ivel advert than for any Carry On film, although he was still earning the average Briton's annual salary in a year for the latter. He often privately criticised and "dripped vitriol" upon the films, considering them beneath him, even though he continued to appear in them. This became the case with many of the films and shows in which he appeared. He was quick to find fault with his own work, and also that of others. Despite this, he spoke fondly of the Carry Ons in interviews. Peter Rogers, producer of the series, recollected, "Kenneth was worth taking care of because, while he cost very little—£5,000 a film, he made a great deal of money for the franchise."

Radio and television shows
Williams was a regular on the BBC Radio impromptu-speaking panel game Just a Minute from its second series in 1968 until his death. He frequently got into arguments with host Nicholas Parsons and other guests on the show. (Russell Davies, editor of The Kenneth Williams Letters, explains that Williams's "famous tirades on the programme occurred when his desire to entertain was fuelled by his annoyance." ) He was also remembered for such phrases as "I've come all the way from Great Portland Street" (i.e. one block away) and "They shouldn't have women on the show!" (directed at Sheila Hancock, Aimi MacDonald and others). He once talked for almost a minute about a supposed Austrian psychiatrist called Heinrich Swartzberg, correctly guessing that the show's creator, Ian Messiter, had just made the name up. Williams was also a regular on the BBC Radio comedy show Round the Horne, playing, alongside Hugh Paddick, the characters Julian and Sandy who spoke in a comedic version of Polari.

On television, he co-hosted his own TV variety series on BBC2 with the Young Generation entitled Meanwhile, On BBC2, which ran for ten episodes from 17 April 1971. He was a frequent contributor to the 1973–74 revival of What's My Line?, hosted the weekly entertainment show International Cabaret and was a regular reader on the children's storytelling series Jackanory on BBC1, hosting 69 episodes. He also narrated and provided all of the voices for the BBC children's cartoon Willo the Wisp (1981).

In 1983, Williams was the subject of an episode of the BBC series Comic Roots, in which he revisited the places in London where he grew up and went to school.

Personal life and death
On 14 October 1962, Williams' father, Charlie Williams, was taken to hospital after drinking carbon tetrachloride that had been stored in a cough-mixture bottle. He died the following day. An hour after being given the news, Williams went on stage in the West End. Williams was later denied a visa to the United States when it emerged that Scotland Yard had suspected him of poisoning his father. The coroner's court recorded a verdict of accidental death due to corrosive poisoning by carbon tetrachloride. Williams said he believed his father had committed suicide, because the circumstances leading to the poisoning seemed unlikely to have happened by bad luck.

Williams often said that he was asexual and celibate, and his diaries appear to substantiate his claims—at least from his early forties onwards. He lived alone all his adult life and had few close companions apart from his mother, and no significant romantic relationships. His diaries contain references to unconsummated or barely consummated homosexual dalliances, which he describes as "traditional matters" or "tradiola". He befriended gay playwright Joe Orton, who wrote the role of Inspector Truscott in Loot (1965) for him. Williams went on holidays to Morocco with Orton and his partner, Kenneth Halliwell. Other close friends included Stanley Baxter, Gordon Jackson and his wife Rona Anderson, Sheila Hancock, and Maggie Smith and her playwright husband, Beverley Cross. Williams was also fond of fellow Carry On regulars Barbara Windsor, Bernard Bresslaw, Peter Butterworth, Kenneth Connor, Hattie Jacques and Joan Sims.

From the mid-1950s, Williams lived in a succession of small rented flats in central London. After his father died, his mother Louisa lived near him, and then in the flat next to his. His last home was a flat on Osnaburgh Street in Bloomsbury (since demolished).

Williams rarely revealed details of his private life although, in two half-hour documentary programmes in 1977 on BBC Radio London entitled Carry On Kenneth, he spoke openly to Owen Spencer-Thomas about his loneliness, despondency and sense of underachievement.

He died on 15 April 1988 in his flat. His last words, recorded in his diary, were "Oh, what's the bloody point?" and the cause of death was an overdose of barbiturates. An inquest recorded an open verdict, because it was not possible to establish whether his death was suicide or an accident. His diaries reveal that he had often had suicidal thoughts, and some of his earliest diaries record periodic feelings that there was no point in living. His authorised biography argues that Williams did not take his own life but died of an accidental overdose. He had doubled his dosage of antacid without discussing it with his doctor. That, combined with the mixture of medication, is the widely accepted cause of death. He had a stock of painkilling tablets and it is argued that he would have taken more of them if he had been intending suicide. He was cremated at East Finchley Cemetery, and his ashes were scattered in the memorial gardens. Williams left an estate worth just under £540,000 (approximately ).

Diaries and biographies
In April 2008 Radio 4 broadcast the two-part The Pain of Laughter: The Last Days of Kenneth Williams. The programmes were researched and written by Wes Butters and narrated by Rob Brydon. Butters purchased a collection of Williams's personal belongings from the actor's godson, Robert Chidell, to whom they had been bequeathed.

The first of the programmes said that, towards the end of his life and struggling with depression and ill health, Williams abandoned Christianity following discussions with the poet Philip Larkin. Williams had been brought up a Wesleyan and then a Methodist, though he spent much of his life struggling with Christianity's teachings on homosexuality.

Kenneth Williams Unseen by Wes Butters and Russell Davies, the first Williams biography in 15 years, was published by HarperCollins in October 2008.

An authorised biography, Born Brilliant: The Life of Kenneth Williams, by Christopher Stevens, was published in October 2010. This drew for the first time on the full Williams archive of diaries and letters, which had been stored in a London bank for 15 years following publication of edited extracts. The biography notes that Williams used a variety of handwriting styles and colours in his journals, switching between different hands on the page.

Portrayals

David Benson's 1996 Edinburgh Fringe show Think No Evil of Us: My Life with Kenneth Williams saw Benson playing Williams; after touring, the show ran in London's West End. Benson reprised his performance at the 2006 Edinburgh Fringe and continues to tour.

Williams was played by Adam Godley in Terry Johnson's play Cleo, Camping, Emmanuelle and Dick, which premiered at the National Theatre in 1998. Godley reprised the role in the subsequent film adaptation, Cor, Blimey!

In 2006, Williams' life was the subject of the television play Kenneth Williams: Fantabulosa!. Michael Sheen portrayed Williams.

Recognition
A flat in the Osnaburgh Street block in which Williams lived from 1972 until his death was bought by Rob Brydon and Julia Davis for the writing of their comedy series Human Remains. The building was demolished in 2007.

Williams is commemorated by a blue plaque at the address of his father's barber shop, 57 Marchmont Street, London, where he lived from 1935 to 1956. The plaque was unveiled on 11 October 2009 by Leslie Phillips, Bill Pertwee and Nicholas Parsons, with whom Williams performed.

On 22 February 2014—on what would have been Williams' 88th birthday—an English Heritage blue plaque was unveiled at Farley Court off Marylebone Road, where Williams lived between 1963 and 1970. Speaking at the ceremony, his Carry On co-star Barbara Windsor said: "Kenny was a one-off, a true original".

Stage
Victoria Theatre and Concert Hall Singapore (1946) The Newquay Repertory Players (1948) in order of performance:
 * Seven Keys to Baldpate (début)
 * The First Mrs. Fraser
 * The Sacred Heart
 * Night Must Fall
 * This Blessed Plot
 * George and Margaret
 * Fools Rush In
 * The Bread Winner
 * Pink String and Sealing Wax
 * The Dover Road
 * The Long Mirror
 * Private Lives
 * Frieda
 * The Poltergeist
 * Jupiter Laughs
 * Grand National Night
 * The Sacred Flame
 * High Temperature
 * The Light of Heart
 * The Importance of Being Earnest

The Dolphin Players (1948) in order of performance:
 * On Approval
 * Candida
 * An Inspector Calls
 * Tobias and the Angel

Other plays:
 * Saint Joan at the Arts Theatre and New Theatre, London (1954)
 * Moby Dick—Rehearsed at the Duke of York's Theatre, London (1955)
 * The Buccaneer at the Apollo Theatre, London (1956)
 * Hotel Paradiso at the Winter Garden Theatre, London (1956)
 * Share My Lettuce (revue) at the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith, Comedy Theatre and Garrick Theatre, London (1957)
 * Cinderella (pantomime) at the London Coliseum (1958)
 * Pieces of Eight (revue) at the Apollo Theatre, London (1959)
 * One Over the Eight (revue) at the Duke of York's Theatre, London (1961)
 * The Private Ear and The Public Eye at the Globe Theatre, London (1962)
 * Gentle Jack at the Queen's Theatre, London (1963)
 * Loot – UK Tour (1965)
 * The Platinum Cat at Wyndham's Theatre, London (1965)
 * Captain Brassbound's Conversion at the Cambridge Theatre, London (1971)
 * My Fat Friend at the Globe Theatre, London (1972)
 * Signed and Sealed at the Comedy Theatre, London (1976)
 * The Undertaking at the Fortune Theatre, London (1979)
 * Loot (directed) at the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith and Arts Theatre, London (1980)
 * Entertaining Mr Sloane (directed) at the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith, London (1981)

Radio

 * Monday Matinee: Passport to Pimlico (6 October 1952), Light Programme - (as Benny)
 * Hancock's Half Hour
 * Beyond Our Ken
 * Round the Horne
 * Julian and Sandy
 * The Betty Witherspoon Show
 * Kenneth Williams Playhouse
 * Kenneth Williams Cabaret
 * The Secret Life of Kenneth Williams
 * Oh Get On with It
 * Stop Messing About
 * Just a Minute
 * The Wind in the Willows
 * Post Mortem by Stuart Jackman
 * Diary of a Madman by Nikolai Gogol

Films

 * Trent's Last Case (1952) as Horace Evans, the gardener (uncredited)
 * Valley of Song (1953) as Lloyd The Haulage
 * The Beggar's Opera (1953) as Jack The Pot Boy
 * Innocents in Paris (1953) as window dresser at London airport (uncredited)
 * The Seekers (1954) as Peter Wishart
 * Three Men in a Boat (1956) as Hampton Court Maze Attendant (uncredited)
 * Carry On Sergeant (1958) as James Bailey
 * Carry On Nurse (1959) as Oliver Reckitt
 * Carry On Teacher (1959) as Edwin Milton
 * Tommy the Toreador (1959) as Vice-Consul
 * Carry On Constable (1960) as Constable Stanley Benson
 * Make Mine Mink (1960) as Freddie Warrington
 * His and Hers (1961) as Policeman; uncredited airport reporter's overdubbed voice
 * Raising the Wind (1961) as Harold Chesney
 * Carry On Regardless (1961) as Francis Courtenay
 * Twice Round the Daffodils (1962) as Henry Halfpenny
 * Carry On Cruising (1962) as First Officer Leonard Marjoribanks
 * Carry On Jack (1963) as Captain Fearless
 * Carry On Spying (1964) as Desmond Simpkins
 * Carry On Cleo (1964) as Julius Caesar
 * Carry On Cowboy (1965) as Judge Burke
 * Carry On Screaming! (1966) as Dr Watt
 * Don't Lose Your Head (1966) as Citizen Camembert
 * Follow That Camel (1967) as Commandant Burger
 * Carry On Doctor (1967) as Dr Kenneth Tinkle
 * Carry On Up the Khyber (1968) as the Khasi of Khalabar
 * Carry On Camping (1969) as Dr Kenneth Soaper
 * Carry On Again Doctor (1969) as Frederick Carver
 * Carry On Loving (1970) as Percival Snooper
 * Carry On Henry (1971) as Thomas Cromwell
 * Carry On at Your Convenience (1971) as WC Boggs
 * Carry On Matron (1972) as Sir Bernard Cutting
 * Carry On Abroad (1972) as Stuart Farquhar
 * Carry On Dick (1974) as Captain Desmond Fancey
 * Carry On Behind (1975) as Professor Roland Crump
 * That's Carry On! (1977) as Presenter
 * The Hound of the Baskervilles (1978) as Sir Henry Baskerville
 * Carry On Emmannuelle (1978) as Emile Prevert
 * The Thief and the Cobbler (1993) as Goblet / Tickle (voice) (final film role)

Television

 * Wogan's Radio Fun ((1987) Julian and Sandy sketch with Hugh Paddick
 * International Cabaret (1966–1974) as Himself – Host
 * The Kenneth Williams Show (1970–1976) as Himself
 * Jackanory (1968–1986) as Storyteller
 * Willo the Wisp (all voices, 1981)
 * Galloping Galaxies (1985–1986)
 * An Audience with Kenneth Williams (1983) as Himself
 * Bilko on Parade (1984) as Narrator (Phil Silvers)
 * Parkinson in Australia (1981) as Himself/Singer
 * What's My Line?
 * Some You Win as Himself
 * Whizzkids Guide (1981) as Himself
 * Tomorrow's World (1981) as Himself
 * Let's Make a Musical (1977) as Himself
 * Going Places (1975) as Presenter
 * Meanwhile, on BBC2 (1971)
 * Join Jim Dale (1969) as Himself
 * The Wednesday Play (1964) as Himself
 * BBC Sunday Night Theatre (1952–1958) as Captain Chalford / The Angel
 * Saint Joan (1958) as The Dauphin
 * Sword of Freedom
 * The School
 * Dick and the Duchess (1957) as Clive
 * The Armoured Car
 * Misalliance (1954) as Bentley Summerhays
 * Countdown

Recordings

 * Kenneth Williams on Pleasure Bent 1967, Decca LK 4856. Music by Ted Dicks, lyrics by Myles Rudge. Arrangements and musical direction by Barry Booth, sound supervision by Roger Cameron.
 * The World of Kenneth Williams 1970, Decca SPA 64. Stereo edition of recordings from the 1950s and 1960s.
 * The Bona World of Julian and Sandy 1976, DJM DJF20487
 * Castle on Luke Street 1978, Sanctuary Records, SU0803. Roy Castle narrated eight stories from the David Lewis Series of books on side 1. Williams recorded "Lost and Found" on side 2. Dora Bryan, Derek Nimmo and Thora Hird narrated one story each.
 * Williams also released several albums as Rambling Syd Rumpo.
 * Kenneth Williams read eight Just William stories for Argo in the early 1980s.
 * An audio reading of Monkey, Arthur Waley's translation of Journey to the West, for Nimbus Records (1981). Re-released on MP3 CD:NI5888, in 2008.
 * Parlour Poetry: Comic, Patriotic and Improving Verse from the Victorian Age: (1978): Saydisc Label: SDL294: CD Re-release: 2009.

There are also several recordings of Round the Horne and Just a Minute that include Williams.

Books

 * Acid Drops (1980)
 * Back Drops (1983)
 * Just Williams (1985)
 * I Only Have To Close My Eyes (1986)
 * The Kenneth Williams Diaries (1993)
 * The Kenneth Williams Letters (1994)

title: Kenneth Williams


text:
Pion

In particle physics, a pion or pi meson, denoted with the Greek letter pi, is any of three subatomic particles: , , and. Each pion consists of a quark and an antiquark and is therefore a meson. Pions are the lightest mesons and, more generally, the lightest hadrons. They are unstable, with the charged pions and  decaying after a mean lifetime of 26.033 nanoseconds ($139.57 MeV/c2$ seconds), and the neutral pion  decaying after a much shorter lifetime of 85 attoseconds ($134.977 MeV/c2$ seconds). Charged pions most often decay into muons and muon neutrinos, while neutral pions generally decay into gamma rays.

The exchange of virtual pions, along with vector, rho and omega mesons, provides an explanation for the residual strong force between nucleons. Pions are not produced in radioactive decay, but commonly are in high-energy collisions between hadrons. Pions also result from some matter–antimatter annihilation events. All types of pions are also produced in natural processes when high-energy cosmic-ray protons and other hadronic cosmic-ray components interact with matter in Earth's atmosphere. In 2013, the detection of characteristic gamma rays originating from the decay of neutral pions in two supernova remnants has shown that pions are produced copiously after supernovas, most probably in conjunction with production of high-energy protons that are detected on Earth as cosmic rays.

The pion also plays a crucial role in cosmology, by imposing an upper limit on the energies of cosmic rays surviving collisions with the cosmic microwave background, through the Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin limit.

History
Theoretical work by Hideki Yukawa in 1935 had predicted the existence of mesons as the carrier particles of the strong nuclear force. From the range of the strong nuclear force (inferred from the radius of the atomic nucleus), Yukawa predicted the existence of a particle having a mass of about $2.6 s$. Initially after its discovery in 1936, the muon (initially called the "mu meson") was thought to be this particle, since it has a mass of $8.5 s$. However, later experiments showed that the muon did not participate in the strong nuclear interaction. In modern terminology, this makes the muon a lepton, and not a meson. However, some communities of astrophysicists continue to call the muon a "mu-meson". The pions, which turned out to be examples of Yukawa's proposed mesons, were discovered later: the charged pions in 1947, and the neutral pion in 1950.

In 1947, the first true mesons, the charged pions, were found by the collaboration led by Cecil Powell at the University of Bristol, in England. The discovery article had four authors: César Lattes, Giuseppe Occhialini, Hugh Muirhead and Powell. Since the advent of particle accelerators had not yet come, high-energy subatomic particles were only obtainable from atmospheric cosmic rays. Photographic emulsions based on the gelatin-silver process were placed for long periods of time in sites located at high-altitude mountains, first at Pic du Midi de Bigorre in the Pyrenees, and later at Chacaltaya in the Andes Mountains, where the plates were struck by cosmic rays. After development, the photographic plates were inspected under a microscope by a team of about a dozen women. Marietta Kurz was the first person to detect the unusual "double meson" tracks, characteristic for a pion decaying into a muon, but they were too close to the edge of the photographic emulsion and deemed incomplete. A few days later, Irene Roberts observed the tracks left by pion decay that appeared in the discovery paper. Both women are credited in the figure captions in the article.

In 1948, Lattes, Eugene Gardner, and their team first artificially produced pions at the University of California's cyclotron in Berkeley, California, by bombarding carbon atoms with high-speed alpha particles. Further advanced theoretical work was carried out by Riazuddin, who in 1959 used the dispersion relation for Compton scattering of virtual photons on pions to analyze their charge radius.

Since the neutral pion is not electrically charged, it is more difficult to detect and observe than the charged pions are. Neutral pions do not leave tracks in photographic emulsions or Wilson cloud chambers. The existence of the neutral pion was inferred from observing its decay products from cosmic rays, a so-called "soft component" of slow electrons with photons. The was identified definitively at the University of California's cyclotron in 1950 by observing its decay into two photons. Later in the same year, they were also observed in cosmic-ray balloon experiments at Bristol University.

"... Yukawa choose the letter π because of its resemblance to the Kanji character for 介 [kai], which means 'to mediate'. Due to the concept that the meson works as a strong force mediator particle between hadrons."

Possible applications
The use of pions in medical radiation therapy, such as for cancer, was explored at a number of research institutions, including the Los Alamos National Laboratory's Meson Physics Facility, which treated 228 patients between 1974 and 1981 in New Mexico, and the TRIUMF laboratory in Vancouver, British Columbia.

Theoretical overview
In the standard understanding of the strong force interaction as defined by quantum chromodynamics, pions are loosely portrayed as Goldstone bosons of spontaneously broken chiral symmetry. That explains why the masses of the three kinds of pions are considerably less than that of the other mesons, such as the scalar or vector mesons. If their current quarks were massless particles, it could make the chiral symmetry exact and thus the Goldstone theorem would dictate that all pions have a zero mass.

In fact, it was shown by Gell-Mann, Oakes and Renner (GMOR) that the square of the pion mass is proportional to the sum of the quark masses times the quark condensate:, with  the quark condensate. This is often known as the GMOR relation and it explicitly shows that in the massless quark limit. The same result also follows from Light-front holography.

Empirically, since the light quarks actually have minuscule nonzero masses, the pions also have nonzero rest masses. However, those masses are almost an order of magnitude smaller than that of the nucleons, roughly $0.659 fm$$2.603$ ≈ $8.5$ ≈ $100 MeV/c2$ 45 MeV, where $106 MeV/c2$ are the relevant current-quark masses in MeV, around 5−10 MeV.

The pion is one of the particles that mediate the residual strong interaction between a pair of nucleons. This interaction is attractive: it pulls the nucleons together. Written in a non-relativistic form, it is called the Yukawa potential. The pion, being spinless, has kinematics described by the Klein–Gordon equation. In the terms of quantum field theory, the effective field theory Lagrangian describing the pion-nucleon interaction is called the Yukawa interaction.

The nearly identical masses of and  indicate that there must be a symmetry at play: this symmetry is called the SU(2) flavour symmetry or isospin. The reason that there are three pions,, and , is that these are understood to belong to the triplet representation or the adjoint representation 3 of SU(2). By contrast, the up and down quarks transform according to the fundamental representation 2 of SU(2), whereas the anti-quarks transform according to the conjugate representation 2*.

With the addition of the strange quark, the pions participate in a larger, SU(3), flavour symmetry, in the adjoint representation, 8, of SU(3). The other members of this octet are the four kaons and the eta meson.

Pions are pseudoscalars under a parity transformation. Pion currents thus couple to the axial vector current and so  participate in the chiral anomaly.

Basic properties
Pions, which are mesons with zero spin, are composed of first-generation quarks. In the quark model, an up quark and an anti-down quark make up a, whereas a down quark and an anti-up quark make up the , and these are the antiparticles of one another. The neutral pion is a combination of an up quark with an anti-up quark or a down quark with an anti-down quark. The two combinations have identical quantum numbers, and hence they are only found in superpositions. The lowest-energy superposition of these is the, which is its own antiparticle. Together, the pions form a triplet of isospin. Each pion has isospin (I = 1) and third-component isospin equal to its charge (Iz = +1, 0 or −1).

Charged pion decays
The mesons have a mass of $3$ and a mean lifetime of $3$. They decay due to the weak interaction. The primary decay mode of a pion, with a branching fraction of 0.999877, is a leptonic decay into a muon and a muon neutrino:

 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }

The second most common decay mode of a pion, with a branching fraction of 0.000123, is also a leptonic decay into an electron and the corresponding electron antineutrino. This "electronic mode" was discovered at CERN in 1958:

 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }

The suppression of the electronic decay mode with respect to the muonic one is given approximately (up to a few percent effect of the radiative corrections) by the ratio of the half-widths of the pion–electron and the pion–muon decay reactions,
 * $$ R_\pi = \left(\frac{m_e}{m_\mu}\right)^2 \left(\frac{m_\pi^2 - m_e^2}{m_\pi^2 - m_\mu^2}\right)^2 = 1.283 \times 10^{-4}$$

and is a spin effect known as helicity suppression.

Its mechanism is as follows: The negative pion has spin zero; therefore the lepton and the antineutrino must be emitted with opposite spins (and opposite linear momenta) to preserve net zero spin (and conserve linear momentum). However, because the weak interaction is sensitive only to the left chirality component of fields, the antineutrino has always left chirality, which means it is right-handed, since for massless anti-particles the helicity is opposite to the chirality. This implies that the lepton must be emitted with spin in the direction of its linear momentum (i.e., also right-handed). If, however, leptons were massless, they would only interact with the pion in the left-handed form (because for massless particles helicity is the same as chirality) and this decay mode would be prohibited. Therefore, suppression of the electron decay channel comes from the fact that the electron's mass is much smaller than the muon's. The electron is relatively massless compared with the muon, and thus the electronic mode is greatly suppressed relative to the muonic one, virtually prohibited.

Although this explanation suggests that parity violation is causing the helicity suppression, the fundamental reason lies in the vector-nature of the interaction which dictates a different handedness for the neutrino and the charged lepton. Thus, even a parity conserving interaction would yield the same suppression.

Measurements of the above ratio have been considered for decades to be a test of lepton universality. Experimentally, this ratio is $m$.

Beyond the purely leptonic decays of pions, some structure-dependent radiative leptonic decays (that is, decay to the usual leptons plus a gamma ray) have also been observed.

Also observed, for charged pions only, is the very rare "pion beta decay" (with branching fraction of about 10−8) into a neutral pion, an electron and an electron antineutrino (or for positive pions, a neutral pion, a positron, and electron neutrino).

 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }

The rate at which pions decay is a prominent quantity in many sub-fields of particle physics, such as chiral perturbation theory. This rate is parametrized by the pion decay constant (ƒπ), related to the wave function overlap of the quark and antiquark, which is about $π$.

Neutral pion decays
The meson has a mass of $\sqrt{v mq }⁄fπ$ and a mean lifetime of $\sqrt{mq }$. It decays via the electromagnetic force, which explains why its mean lifetime is much smaller than that of the charged pion (which can only decay via the weak force). The dominant decay mode, with a branching ratio of BR$mq$ = 0.98823, is into two photons:

 * || → || 2.
 * }

The decay → 3 (as well as decays into any odd number of photons) is forbidden by the C-symmetry of the electromagnetic interaction: The intrinsic C-parity of the  is +1, while the C-parity of a system of $139.6 MeV/c2$ photons is (−1)$2.603 s$.

The second largest decay mode (BR$1.233$ = 0.01174) is the Dalitz decay (named after Richard Dalitz), which is a two-photon decay with an internal photon conversion resulting a photon and an electron-positron pair in the final state:

 * }
 * }

The third largest established decay mode (BR$130 MeV$ = $135 MeV/c2$) is the double-Dalitz decay, with both photons undergoing internal conversion which leads to further suppression of the rate:

 * }
 * }

The fourth largest established decay mode is the loop-induced and therefore suppressed (and additionally helicity-suppressed) leptonic decay mode (BR$8.5 s$ = $2γ$):

 * }
 * }

The neutral pion has also been observed to decay into positronium with a branching fraction on the order of. No other decay modes have been established experimentally. The branching fractions above are the PDG central values, and their uncertainties are omitted, but available in the cited publication.

[a] Make-up inexact due to non-zero quark masses.

title: Pion