text:
Sinhala script

The Sinhala script (සිංහල අක්ෂර මාලාව), also known as Sinhalese script, is a writing system used by the Sinhalese people and most Sri Lankans in Sri Lanka and elsewhere to write the Sinhala language as well as the liturgical languages Pali and Sanskrit. The Sinhalese Akṣara Mālāva, one of the Brahmic scripts, is a descendant of the Ancient Indian Brahmi script. It ultimately descended from the Grantha script.

History
The Sinhala script is a Brahmi derivate and was thought to have been imported from Northern India around the 3rd century BCE. It developed in a complex manner, partly independently but also strongly influenced by South Indian scripts at various stages, ultimately descending from Grantha script. Pottery from the 6th century BCE has been found in Anuradhapura with lithic Brahmi inscriptions written in Prakrit or Sinhala Prakrit. It has caused debate as to whether Ceylonese Brahmi influenced Brahmi in the Indian mainland.

Medieval Sinhalese, which emerged around 750 AD, is marked by very strong influence from the Grantha script. Subsequently, Medieval (and modern) Sinhalese resemble the South Indian scripts. By the 9th century CE, literature written in the Sinhala script had emerged and the script began to be used in other contexts. For instance, the Buddhist literature of the Theravada-Buddhists of Sri Lanka, written in Pali, used Sinhala script.

Modern Sinhalese emerged in the 13th century and is marked by the composition of the grammar book Sidat Sangara. In 1736, the Dutch were the first to print with Sinhala type on the island. The resulting type followed the features of the native Sinhala script used on palm leaves. The type created by the Dutch was monolinear and geometric in fashion, with no separation between words in early documents. During the second half of the 19th century, during the colonial period, a new style of Sinhala letterforms emerged in opposition to the monolinear and geometric form that used high contrast and had varied thicknesses. This high contrast type gradually replaced the monolinear type as the preferred style and continues to be used in the present day. The high contrast style is still preferred for text typesetting in printed newspapers, books, and magazines in Sri Lanka.

Today, the alphabet is used by over 16 million people to write Sinhala in very diverse contexts, such as newspapers, TV commercials, government announcements, graffiti, and schoolbooks.

Sinhala is the main language written in this script, but rare instances of its use for writing Sri Lanka Malay have been recorded.

Structure

Sinhala script is an abugida written from left to right. It uses consonants as the basic unit for word construction as each consonant has an inherent vowel, which can be changed with a different vowel stroke. To represent different sounds it is necessary to add vowel strokes, or diacritics called පිලි (Pili), that can be used before, after, above, or below the base-consonant. Most of the Sinhala letters are curlicues; straight lines are almost completely absent from the alphabet, and it does not have joining characters. This is because Sinhala used to be written on dried palm leaves, which would split along the veins on writing straight lines. This was undesirable, and therefore, the round shapes were preferred. Upper and lower cases do not exist in Sinhala.

Sinhala letters are ordered into two sets. The core set of letters forms the pure Sinhala (ශුද්ධ සිංහල alphabet, which is a subset of the mixed Sinhala මිශ්‍ර සිංහල alphabet . The definition of the two sets is thus a historic one. The śuddha alphabet, also called the Eḷu alphabet (එළු හෝඩිය), contains everything necessary to write Eḷu, or classical Sinhala, as described in the classical grammar Sidatsan̆garā (1300 AD). The śuddha alphabet is also a good representation of the phoneme inventory of present-day colloquial Sinhala; all native sounds of the Modern Sinhala can be represented by . The śuddha also includes the letters and diacritics for the retroflex consonants $\langleḷ\rangle$ and $\langleṇ\rangle$, which are not used in modern Sinhala but are needed letters were needed for the representation of Eḷu. However, words which historically contain these two phonemes are still often written with these letters, despite changes in pronunciation.

The alphabet includes letters forMiddle Indic aspirate, retroflex and sibilant consonants which are not found in modern Sinhala, but are used in the transcription of are used for transcribing loanwords from Sanskrit (tatsama), Pali or English. Although modern Sinhala sounds are not aspirated, aspiration is marked in the sound where it was historically present, to highlight the differences in modern spelling. The use of letters is mainly a question of prestige. From a purely phonemic point of view, their sounds can all be represented by by śuddha letters.

Although most phonemes of Sinhala can be represented by a śuddha letter or by a miśra letter, normally only one of them is considered correct. This one-to-many mapping of phonemes onto graphemes is a frequent source of misspellings.

While a phoneme can be represented by more than one grapheme, each grapheme can be pronounced in only one way, with the exceptions of the inherent vowel sound, which can be either (stressed) or  (unstressed), and "ව" where the consonant is either  or  depending on the word. This means that the actual pronunciation of a word is almost always clear from its spelling. Stress is almost always predictable; only words with or  (which are both allophones of "ව"), and a very few other words need to be learnt individually.

Consonants
The śuddha alphabet includes eight plosives, two fricatives, two affricates, two nasals, two liquids and two glides. As in other Brahmic scripts, each consonant carries an inherent vowel,.

Prenasalization
The prenasalized consonants resemble their plain counterparts. $⟨ළ⟩$, m̆ba $⟨න⟩$ is made up of the left half of $⟨⟩$ ma and the right half of $⟨ඹ⟩$ ba, while the other three are just like the grapheme for the plosive with a little stroke added. Vowel diacritics attach to a prenasalised consonant in the same way as they would to the corresponding plain plosives.

Consonant conjuncts

Certain combinations of letters are written with ligatures. Some graphical conventions include a $⟨ම⟩$ ra following a consonant represented by and inverted arch $⟨බ⟩$ (rakāransaya), a $⟨ර⟩$ r preceding a consonant by a loop above $⟨◌්ර⟩$ (rēpaya), and a $⟨ර⟩$, ya following a consonant as a half of a ya $⟨ර්◌⟩$ on the right (yansaya. Some very frequent combinations can be written in one stroke, like $⟨ය⟩$, ddha, $⟨්ය⟩$, kva or $⟨ද්ධ⟩$, kś.

Touching letters were used in ancient scriptures but are not used in modern Sinhala. Vowels may be attached to any of the ligatures formed, attaching to the rightmost part of the glyph except for vowels that use the kombuva, where the kombuva is written before the ligature or cluster and the remainder of the vowel, if any, is attached to the rightmost part.

Vowels and diacritics
Each vowel has two forms, an independent and a diacritic or vowel stroke (පිලි). The independent form is used when a vowel occurs at the beginning of a word. The diacritic is used when a vowel follows a consonant.

While most diacritics are regular, $⟨ක්‍ව⟩$, u and $⟨ක්‍ෂ⟩$ ū take on a different shape when attached to a $⟨ප්⟩$, ka, $⟨බ්⟩$, ga, $⟨ු⟩$, n̆ga, $⟨ූ⟩$, ta, $⟨ක⟩$, bha, or $⟨ග⟩$, śa. E.g.: $⟨ඟ⟩$, ku, $⟨ත⟩$, kū.

The inherent vowel of a letter can be removed by a hal kirīma (◌්), which has two shapes depending on which consonant it attaches to.

Combinations of ර(r) or ළ(ḷ) with $⟨භ⟩$ have idiosyncratic shapes, viz රු (ru), රූ (rū), ළු (ḷu) and ළූ (ḷū). The diacritic used for රු (ru) and රූ (rū) is what is normally used for the $⟨ශ⟩$, and therefore there are idiosyncratic forms for ræ and rǣ, viz රැ and රෑ.

Śuddha vowels
There are six long and six short śuddha vowels.

Miśra vowels and vocalics
There are six additional vowel and syllabic consonants in the miśra alphabet. The two diphthongs are quite common, while the vocalic ṛ is much rarer, and ḷ is all but obsolete. The latter two are almost exclusively found in loanwords from Sanskrit.

The miśra $⟨කු⟩$ can also be written with śuddha $⟨කූ⟩$+$\langleu\rangle$ or $\langleæ\rangle$+$⟨ක⟩$, which corresponds to the actual pronunciation. The miśra syllabic ḷ can be replaced by śuddha $⟨බ⟩$+$⟨අ⟩$. Miśra $⟨ක⟩$ is rendered as śuddha $⟨බ⟩$, miśra $\langleṛ\rangle$  as śuddha $\langler\rangle$.

Other diacritics
The anusvara (often called binduva 'zero') is represented by one small circle $\langleu\rangle$, and the visarga (technically part of the miśra alphabet) by two $\langleu\rangle$.

Letter names
The Sinhala śuddha graphemes are named in a uniform way adding -yanna to the sound produced by the letter, including vocalic diacritics. The name for the letter අ is thus ayanna, for the letter ආ āyanna, for the letter ක kayanna, for the letter කා kāyanna, for the letter කෙ keyanna and so forth. For letters with hal kirīma, an epenthetic a is added for easier pronunciation: the name for the letter ක් is akyanna. Another naming convention is to use al- before a letter with suppressed vowel, thus alkayanna.

Since the extra miśra letters are phonetically not distinguishable from the śuddha letters, proceeding in the same way would lead to confusion. Names of miśra letters are normally made up of the names of two śuddha letters pronounced as one word. The first one indicates the sound, the second one the shape. For example, the aspirated ඛ  (kh) is called bayanu kayanna. kayanna indicates the sound, while bayanu indicates the shape: ඛ (kh) is similar in shape to  බ (b) (bayunu = like bayanna). Another method is to qualify the miśra aspirates by mahāprāna (ඛ: mahāprāna kayanna) and the miśra retroflexes by mūrdhaja (ළ: mūrdhaja layanna).

Numerals
Sinhala had its numerals (Sinhala illakkam), which were used from prior to the fall of Kandyan Kingdom in 1815. They can be seen primarily in Royal documents and artefacts. Sinhala Illakkam did not have a zero, but did have signs for 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 1000.

This system has been replaced by the Hindu–Arabic numeral system.

Astrological numbers
Prior to the fall of Kandyan Kingdom all calculations were carried out using Sinhala lith illakkam. After that event, Sinhala lith illakkam became known as or Sinhala astrological number and were primarily used for writing horoscopes. The tradition of writing degrees and minutes of zodiac signs in lith numbers continued into the 20th century. Unlike the Sinhala illakkam, Sinhala lith illakkam included a 0.

Neither the Sinhala numerals nor the Sinhala punctuation mark kunddaliya is in general use today, but some use it in social media, Internet messaging and blogs. The kunddaliya was formerly used as a full stop.

Transliteration
Sinhala transliteration (Sinhala: රෝම අකුරින් ලිවීම rōma akurin livīma, literally "Roman letter writing") can be done in analogy to Devanāgarī transliteration.

Layman's transliterations in Sri Lanka normally follow neither of these. Vowels are transliterated according to English spelling equivalences, which can yield a variety of spellings for a number of phonemes. for instance can be $\langler\rangle$, $\langlel\rangle$, $\langlei\rangle$, $\langleau\rangle$, etc. A transliteration pattern peculiar to Sinhala, and facilitated by the absence of phonemic aspirates, is the use of $\langleawu\rangle$ for the voiceless dental plosive, and the use of $\langleai\rangle$ for the voiceless retroflex plosive. This is presumably because the retroflex plosive is perceived the same as the English alveolar plosive, and the Sinhala dental plosive  is equated with the English  voiceless dental fricative. Dental and retroflex voiced plosives are always rendered as $\langleayi\rangle$, though, presumably because $⟨ක⟩$ is not found as a representation of in English orthography.

Use for the Pali language
Many of the oldest Pali manuscripts are written in the Sinhala script. Miśra consonants are used to represent Pali phonemes that have no Sinhala counterpart. Consonant sequences may be combined in ligatures the same way as inSinhala.

The vowels are a subset of those for writing Sinhala, comprising long and short a, i, and u, short 'e' and short 'o'.

The is represented with the sign ං.

Relation to other scripts
Sinhala is one of the Brahmic scripts, and thus shares many similarities with other members of the family, such as the Kannada, Malayalam, Telugu, Tamil script and Devanāgarī. As a general example, is the inherent vowel in all these scripts (except Devanagari, where it is /ə/). Other similarities include the diacritic for $⟨ෙ⟩$, which resembles a doubled $⟨◌ං⟩$ in all scripts and the diacritic for $⟨◌ඃ⟩$ which is composed of preceding $\langleee\rangle$ and following $\langlee\rangle$.
 * Similarities

Likewise, the combination of the diacritics for $\langleea\rangle$ and $\langlei\rangle$ yields $\langleth\rangle$ in all these scripts.

Sinhala alphabet differs from other Indo-Aryan alphabets in that it contains a pair of vowel sounds (U+0DD0 and U+0DD1 in the proposed Unicode Standard) that are unique to it. These are the two vowel sounds that are similar to the two vowel sounds that occur at the beginning of the English words at (ඇ) and ant (ඈ).
 * Differences

Computer encoding
Generally speaking, Sinhala support is less developed than support for Devanāgarī, for instance. A recurring problem is the rendering of diacritics which precede the consonant and diacritic signs which come in different shapes, like the one for $\langlet\rangle$.

Sinhala support did not come built in with Microsoft Windows XP, unlike Tamil and Hindi, but was supported by third-party means such as Keyman by SIL International. Thereafter, all versions of Windows Vista and above, including Windows 10 come with Sinhala support by default, and do not require external fonts to be installed to read Sinhala script. Nirmala UI is the default Sinhala font in Windows 10. The latest versions of Windows 10 have added support for Sinhala Archaic Numbers that were not supported by default in previous versions.

For macOS, Apple Inc. has provided Sinhala font support for versions of macOS that are Catalina and above through Unicode integration. Keyboard support is available by third-party means such as Helakuru and Keyman. In Mac OS X, Sinhala font and keyboard support were provided by Nickshanks and Xenotypetech.

For Linux, the IBus, and SCIM input methods allow the use Sinhala script in applications with support for a number of key maps and techniques such as traditional, phonetic and assisted techniques. In addition, newer versions of the Android mobile operating system also support both rendering and input of Sinhala script by default and applications like Helakuru serve as dedicated keyboard integrators.

Unicode
Sinhala script was added to the Unicode Standard in September 1999 with the release of version 3.0. This character allocation has been adopted in Sri Lanka as the Standard SLS1134.

The main Unicode block for Sinhala is U+0D80–U+0DFF. Another block, Sinhala Archaic Numbers, was added to Unicode in version 7.0.0 in June 2014. Its range is U+111E0–U+111FF.

title: Sinhala script


text:
Ashley Judd

Ashley Judd (born April 19, 1968) is an American actress. She grew up in a family of performing artists, the daughter of country music singer Naomi Judd and the half-sister of country music singer Wynonna Judd. Her acting career has spanned more than three decades, and she has become heavily involved in global humanitarian efforts and political activism. Judd made her television debut in 1991 with a guest role on Star Trek: The Next Generation and her film debut in 1992's Kuffs.

Early life
Judd was born in 1968 in Granada Hills, Los Angeles. Her parents are Naomi Judd, who later became a country music singer and motivational speaker, and Michael Charles Ciminella, a marketing analyst for the horse racing industry. Ashley's elder half-sister, Wynonna Judd, is also a country music singer.

Ashley's paternal grandfather was of Sicilian (Italian) descent, and her paternal grandmother was a distant descendant of Mayflower pilgrim William Brewster.

When Judd was born, her mother was a homemaker. Judd's parents divorced in 1972 when she was four. The following year, Judd's mother Naomi returned with Ashley to Kentucky, where Judd lived for most of her childhood.

Judd attended 13 schools before college, including the Sayre School (Lexington, Kentucky), Paul G. Blazer High School (Ashland, Kentucky), and Franklin High School in Tennessee. She briefly tried modeling in Japan during a school break. At the University of Kentucky, she majored in French and minored in anthropology, art history, theater, and women's studies. She joined the sorority Kappa Kappa Gamma. Judd spent a semester studying in France as part of her major. She graduated from the University of Kentucky Honors Program and was nominated to Phi Beta Kappa.

After college Judd moved to Hollywood, where she studied with acting teacher Robert Carnegie at Playhouse West. During this time, she worked as a hostess at The Ivy restaurant and lived in a Malibu rental house. Around that time, she returned East to Williamson County, Tennessee, where she lived near her mother and sister.

Career
Starting in 1991, Judd appeared as Ensign Robin Lefler, a Starfleet officer, in two episodes of Star Trek: The Next Generation, "Darmok" and "The Game". From 1991 to 1994, she had a recurring role as Reed, the daughter of Alex (Swoosie Kurtz), on the NBC drama Sisters.

She made her feature film debut with a small role in 1992's Kuffs. In 1993, she was cast in her first starring role playing the title character in Victor Nuñez's Ruby in Paradise. This won the Sundance Film Festival Grand Jury Prize. Believing that this role would shape the rest of her career, Judd was extremely nervous before the audition, nearly getting into a car accident en route. "From the first three sentences, I knew it was written for me", she told the San Jose Mercury News. She received rave reviews in her role as Ruby Lee Gissing, a young woman trying to make a new life for herself.

Nuñez told biographer James L. Dickerson that Judd created the resonance of this character: "The resonance, those moments, was not contrived. It was just a matter of creating the scene and trusting that it was worth telling."

Oliver Stone, who had seen Judd in Nuñez's film, cast her in Natural Born Killers, but her scenes were cut from the version of the film released theatrically. The following year, she gained critical acclaim for her role as Harvey Keitel's estranged daughter in Wayne Wang's Smoke and as Val Kilmer's wife in Michael Mann's Heat. That same year she played the role of Callie in Philip Ridley's dark adult fairy tale The Passion of Darkly Noon.

In 1996, she co-starred with Mira Sorvino as Marilyn Monroe in Norma Jean and Marilyn, where she recreated the photo shoot for the centerfold for the first issue of Playboy. The same year she had a supporting role in the thriller film A Time to Kill. It received positive reviews and was a major box office success. By the end of the 1990s, Judd had achieved considerable success as a leading actress, having lead roles in additional thrillers that performed well at the box office, including Kiss the Girls (1997) and Double Jeopardy (1999).

In the early 2000s she starred in Where the Heart Is (2000), Someone Like You (2001), and High Crimes (2002). These were moderate box office successes. Her film Divine Secrets of the Ya-Ya Sisterhood (2002) performed well. In 2002 she acted in the critically acclaimed film Frida.

Judd played the role of Maggie the Cat in the 2003 Broadway revival of Tennessee Williams's Cat on a Hot Tin Roof.

In 2004 she received praise and a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress, for her performance in De-Lovely, opposite Kevin Kline, who played Cole Porter. She also starred in Twisted (2004). This was widely panned.

In 2010, Judd was Janet Tamaro's original choice for the role of Detective Jane Rizzoli in the TV series Rizzoli & Isles but she declined. Angie Harmon took the role. In 2011, Judd co-starred with Patrick Dempsey in the film Flypaper. In 2012, she starred as Rebecca Winstone on the ABC series Missing. In 2014, she appeared as Natalie Prior in Divergent, which she reprised in the 2015 sequel Insurgent.

In 2014, Judd was the narrator of the documentary film about Turkish preacher Fethullah Gülen, Love Is a Verb, directed by Terry Spencer Hesser. The following year she became the first woman to narrate the opening for the telecast of the Kentucky Derby.

Sponsorships
Starting in 2004, Judd was the advertising "face" of American Beauty, an Estée Lauder cosmetic brand sold at Kohl's department stores, and of H. Stern jewelers. In June 2007, Goody's Family Clothing launched three fashion clothing lines with Judd in the fall to be called "AJ", "Love Ashley", and "Ashley Judd". In 2008 they added an "Ashley Judd Plus" line.

Personal life
In December 1999, Judd became engaged to Dario Franchitti, a Scottish racing driver who competed in Championship Auto Racing Teams (CART). They married in December 2001 at Skibo Castle in Scotland. They did not have any children, as she is known to have said: "It's unconscionable to breed with the number of children who are starving to death in impoverished countries." They divorced in 2013.

Judd is an avid martial arts practitioner: She has practiced kickboxing, judo, and Tae Bo.

In February 2006, she entered a program at Shades of Hope Treatment Center in Buffalo Gap, Texas and stayed for 47 days. She was there for treatment of depression, insomnia, and codependency.

In 2011, Judd released her memoir All That is Bitter and Sweet, in which she discusses her life from adolescence to adulthood. The memoir concentrates on her humanitarian work as an adult.

In February 2021, while hiking in the jungle in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Judd shattered her leg. Porters transported her for 55 hours to reach a hospital for surgery in South Africa.

Judd is a Christian and cited her faith as why she went public against Harvey Weinstein.

Education
By May 2007, Judd had completed a BA at the University of Kentucky. She was awarded an Honorary DHL degree from Union College in Barbourville, Kentucky, on May 9, 2009. Judd undertook postgraduate study, earning a mid-career MPA degree from Harvard Kennedy School in 2010.

In August 2016, Judd enrolled at UC Berkeley to pursue a PhD in Public Policy at the Goldman School of Public Policy. She took a medical leave of absence two months later because she was suffering from siege migraines.

Interests
Judd follows sports at her alma mater, and has attended many University of Kentucky basketball games.

During the 2007 IndyCar season, Judd criticized allowing rookie Milka Duno to race. After the final race, Judd said to reporters "I know this is not very sportsmanlike, but they've got to get the 23 car (Duno) off the track. It's very dangerous. I'm tired of holding my tongue. She shouldn't be out there. When a car is 10 miles [an hour] off the pace, it's not appropriate to be racing. People's lives are at stake."

Sexual harassment and assault
In October 2015, Judd told Variety that she had been sexually harassed by a studio mogul but did not name the person. In October 2017, she said the person was Harvey Weinstein, co-founder of Miramax, and said that the sexual harassment occurred during the filming of Kiss the Girls.

On April 30, 2018, Judd filed a defamation and sexual harassment lawsuit against Weinstein, stating that he hurt her career by spreading lies about her after she rejected his sexual advances. Weinstein filed a motion to dismiss in July. In January 2019, a federal judge in California dismissed Judd's claim of sexual harassment against Weinstein but allowed Judd to pursue her defamation claim that Weinstein sabotaged her career.

At the Women in the World summit in April 2019, Judd addressed Georgia's six-week abortion ban, which had been passed in March 2019. She said that she had been raped three times, and became pregnant once. She said, "As everyone knows, and I'm very open about it, I'm a three-time rape survivor. One of the times that I was raped there was conception and I'm very thankful I was able to access safe and legal abortion. Because the rapist, who is a Kentuckian, as am I, and I reside in Tennessee, has paternity rights in Kentucky and Tennessee, I would've had to co-parent with my rapist."

Humanitarian work
Judd has conducted humanitarian work that focuses on gender equality, pro abortion causes and the rights of women and girls. In 2016, she was appointed a Goodwill Ambassador for UNFPA, the United Nations agency with responsibilities including sexual and reproductive health. As of May 2018, she had visited UNFPA's projects for women and girls affected by humanitarian crises in Jordan, Turkey, Ukraine, and Bangladesh, and its development work in India and Sri Lanka.

Judd has travelled with YouthAIDS to places affected by illness and poverty, such as Cambodia, Kenya, and Rwanda. She has become an advocate for preventing poverty and promoting awareness internationally. She has met with political and religious leaders on behalf of the deprived about political and social change. Judd has narrated three documentaries for YouthAIDS that aired on the Discovery Channel, in National Geographic, and on VH1.

In 2011, she joined the Leadership Council of the International Center for Research on Women. Other organizations Judd has been involved with include Women for Women International and Equality Now. She is a member of the advisory board for Apne Aap Women Worldwide, an organization fighting sex-trafficking and inter-generational prostitution in India. Judd is active on the speakers' circuit, giving speeches about gender equality, abuse and humanitarian topics.

Political activities
In 2008, Judd supported Barack Obama's presidential campaign. In 2009, she appeared in a one-minute video advertisement for the Defenders of Wildlife Action Fund, in which Judd condemned Alaska Governor Sarah Palin for supporting aerial wolf hunting. In response, Palin stated the reason these wolves are killed is to protect the caribou population in Alaska. Palin called the Defenders of Wildlife Action Fund an "extreme fringe group". In 2010, Judd signed the Animal Legal Defense Fund's petition to urge Kentucky Governor Steve Beshear to protect that state's homeless animals through tough enforcement of Kentucky's Humane Shelter Law. She was appointed Global Ambassador for YouthAIDS, an education and prevention program of the international NGO Population Services International (PSI), promoting AIDS prevention and treatment. Judd was honored November 10, 2009, as the recipient of the fourth annual USA Today Hollywood Hero, awarded for her work with PSI. On October 29, 2006, Judd appeared at a "Women for Ford" event for Democratic Tennessee Senate candidate Harold Ford Jr. She has also campaigned extensively both locally and nationally for a variety of Democratic candidates, including President Barack Obama in critical swing states.

On September 8, 2010, CNN interviewed Judd about her second humanitarian mission to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Judd traveled with the Enough Project, a project to end genocide and crimes against humanity. In the interview, Judd discussed her efforts to raise awareness about how conflict minerals fuel sexual violence in Congo. During her trip, Judd visited hospitals for victims of sexual violence, camps for displaced persons, mines, and civil society organizations. On September 30, 2010, CNN published an op-ed titled "Ashley Judd: Electronics fuel unspeakable violence" by Judd and Enough Project co-founder John Prendergast regarding the continued violence in Congo. On November 26, 2010, she published a subsequent op-ed, "Costs of Convenience", excerpted from her trip diary from eastern Congo. These pieces discussed the recent provision in the Dodd-Frank Reform bill that requires companies to prove where their minerals originated, and the link between modern electronics (which rely on those minerals) and mining camps plagued by such violence.

Judd represented Tennessee as a delegate to the 2012 Democratic National Convention. She also considered returning to Kentucky and challenging Senator Mitch McConnell in 2014. In response, the conservative Super PAC American Crossroads released an attack ad against Judd in Kentucky.

In February 2013, she invited her Twitter followers to join a mailing list, hinting that she might ultimately announce a run for the Senate to those on the list. However, she announced on March 27, 2013, that she would not run, citing her need to be focused on her family. Judd later endorsed Kentucky Secretary of State Alison Lundergan Grimes.

On July 26, 2016, Judd attended a Creative Coalition luncheon in support of DC Statehood that took place during the Democratic National Convention in Philadelphia. The event, hosted by Washington, DC Mayor Muriel Bowser and Del. Eleanor Holmes Norton, also included actors Elizabeth Banks, Tim Daly, Josh Gad, William Baldwin, and David Schwimmer.

Judd attended the 2017 Women's March. She performed a poem written by Nashville-area poet Nina Donovan, "Nasty Woman", to applause from the crowd.

In January 2020, Judd endorsed Democratic Senator Elizabeth Warren in her run for the presidency.

On July 12, 2024, Judd wrote an op-ed for USA Today calling on President Joe Biden to suspend his 2024 reelection campaign. She wrote Biden was "incapable of countering Trump, while he, unchecked, gushed a firehose of galling lies" at the first presidential debate of the cycle in late June, 2024. The Independent called it "a deeply personal and heartfelt op-ed".

Honors

 * Kentucky Colonel
 * Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters, Union College, Barbourville, Kentucky
 * 2017 Time Person of the Year, as part of the "Silence Breakers"

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ashley Judd


text:
Ava Gardner

Ava Lavinia Gardner (December 24, 1922 – January 25, 1990) was an American actress. She first signed a contract with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in 1941 and appeared mainly in small roles until she drew critics' attention in 1946 with her performance in Robert Siodmak's film noir The Killers. She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance in John Ford's Mogambo (1953), and for best actress for both a Golden Globe Award and BAFTA Award for her performance in John Huston's The Night of the Iguana (1964). She was a part of the Golden Age of Hollywood.

During the 1950s, Gardner established herself as a leading lady and one of the era's top stars with films like Show Boat, Pandora and the Flying Dutchman (both 1951), The Snows of Kilimanjaro (1952), The Barefoot Contessa (1954), Bhowani Junction (1956) and On the Beach (1959). She continued her film career for three more decades, appearing in the films 55 Days at Peking (1963), Seven Days in May (1964), The Bible: In the Beginning... (1966), Mayerling (1968), The Life and Times of Judge Roy Bean (1972), Earthquake (1974) and The Cassandra Crossing (1976). And in 1985, she had the major recurring role of Ruth Galveston on the primetime soap opera Knots Landing. She continued to act regularly until 1986, four years before her death in 1990, at the age of 67.

In 1999, the American Film Institute ranked Gardner No. 25 on its greatest female screen legends list.

Early life
Ava Lavinia Gardner was born on December 24, 1922, in Grabtown, North Carolina, the youngest of seven children. Her parents were poor tobacco sharecroppers. She was of English and Scots-Irish ancestry.

She was raised in the Baptist faith of her mother. While the children were still young, the family lost their property, and Gardner's mother received an offer to work as a cook and housekeeper at a dormitory for teachers at the nearby Brogden School that included board for the family and where Gardner's father continued sharecropping tobacco and supplemented the dwindling work with odd jobs at sawmills. In 1931, the teachers’ school closed, forcing the family to finally give up on their property dreams and move to Newport News, Virginia, where Gardner's mother found work managing a boarding house for the city's many shipworkers. While in Newport News, Gardner's father became ill and died from bronchitis in 1938, when Gardner was 15 years old. After her father's death, the family moved to Rock Ridge near Wilson, North Carolina, where Gardner's mother ran another boarding house for teachers. Gardner attended high school in Rock Ridge and she graduated from there in 1939. She then attended secretarial classes at Atlantic Christian College in Wilson for about a year.

Career
Gardner was visiting her sister in New York City in the summer of 1940 when her brother-in-law, a professional photographer, offered to take her portrait as a gift for her mother. He was so pleased with the results that he displayed the finished product in the front window of his photography studio on Fifth Avenue.

Barnard Duhan, a legal clerk at Loews Theatres, spotted Gardner's portrait in her brother-in-law’s studio. At the time, Duhan often posed as a Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) talent scout to meet girls, using the fact that MGM was a subsidiary of Loews. Duhan entered Gardner’s brother-in-law's studio and tried to get her number, but he was rebuffed by the receptionist. Duhan made the comment "Somebody should send her info to MGM", and her brother-in-law did so immediately. Shortly after, Gardner, who at the time was a student at Atlantic Christian College, traveled to New York to be interviewed at MGM's New York office by Al Altman, head of MGM's New York talent department. With cameras rolling, he directed the 18-year-old to walk toward the camera, turn and walk away, then rearrange some flowers in a vase. He did not attempt to record her voice because her strong Southern accent made understanding her difficult for him. Louis B. Mayer, head of MGM, however, sent a telegram to Altman: "She can't sing. She can't act. She can't talk. She's terrific!" She was offered a standard contract by the studio and left school for Hollywood in 1941, with her sister accompanying her. MGM's first order of business was to provide her with a speech coach because her Carolina drawl was nearly incomprehensible to them, and Harriet Lee as her singing teacher. Her first appearance in a feature film was as a walk-on in the Norma Shearer vehicle We Were Dancing (1942). Fifteen bit parts later, she received her first screen billing in Ghosts on the Loose (1943), and she is featured by name on the theatrical poster. After five years of bit parts, mostly at MGM and many of them uncredited, Gardner came to prominence in the Mark Hellinger production The Killers (1946), playing the femme fatale Kitty Collins.

Films from the next decade or so include The Hucksters (1947), Show Boat (1951), The Snows of Kilimanjaro (1952), Lone Star (1952), Mogambo, nominated for a Best Actress Academy Award (1953), The Barefoot Contessa (1954), Bhowani Junction (1956), The Sun Also Rises (1957) and On the Beach (1959). Off-camera, she could be witty and pithy, as in her assessment of director John Ford, who directed Mogambo ("The meanest man on earth. Thoroughly evil. Adored him!"). In The Barefoot Contessa, she played the role of doomed beauty Maria Vargas, a fiercely independent woman who goes from Spanish dancer to international movie star with the help of a Hollywood director played by Humphrey Bogart, with tragic consequences. Gardner's decision to accept the role was influenced by her own lifelong habit of going barefoot. Gardner played the role of Guinevere in Knights of the Round Table (1953), with actor Robert Taylor as Sir Lancelot. Indicative of her sophistication, she portrayed a duchess, a baroness and other women of noble lineage in her films of the 1950s. Gardner played the role of Soledad in The Angel Wore Red (1960) with Dirk Bogarde as the male lead. She was billed between Charlton Heston and David Niven for 55 Days at Peking (1963), which was set in China during the Boxer Rebellion in 1900. The following year, she played her last major leading role in the critically acclaimed The Night of the Iguana (1964), based upon a Tennessee Williams play, and starring Richard Burton as an atheist clergyman and Deborah Kerr as a gentle artist traveling with her aged poet grandfather. John Huston directed the movie in Puerto Vallarta, Mexico, insisting on making the film in black-and-white – a decision he later regretted because of the vivid colors of the flora. Gardner received billing below Burton, but above Kerr. She was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama and BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role for her performance.

She next appeared again with Burt Lancaster, her co-star from The Killers, this time with Kirk Douglas and Fredric March, in Seven Days in May (1964), a thriller about an attempted military takeover of the US government. Gardner played a former love interest of Lancaster's who could have been instrumental in Douglas preventing a coup against the President of the United States.

John Huston chose Gardner for the part of Sarah, the wife of Abraham (played by George C. Scott), in the Dino De Laurentiis film The Bible: In the Beginning..., which was released in 1966. In a 1964 interview, she talked about why she accepted the role: "He [Huston] had more faith in me than I did myself. Now I'm glad I listened, for it is a challenging role and a very demanding one. I start out as a young wife, and age through various periods, forcing me to adjust psychologically to each age. It is a complete departure for me, and most intriguing. In this role, I must create a character, not just play one."

Two years later, in 1966, Gardner briefly sought the role of Mrs. Robinson in Mike Nichols' The Graduate (1967). She reportedly called Nichols and said "I want to see you! I want to talk about this Graduate thing!" Nichols never seriously considered her for the part, preferring to cast a younger woman (Anne Bancroft was 35, while Gardner was 44), but he did visit her hotel, where he later said "she sat at a little French desk with a telephone, she went through every movie star cliché. She said, 'All right, let's talk about your movie. First of all, I strip for nobody.'"

Gardner moved to London in 1968, undergoing an elective hysterectomy to allay her worries of contracting the uterine cancer that had claimed the life of her mother. That year, she appeared in Mayerling, in which she played the supporting role of Austrian Empress Elisabeth of Austria, with James Mason as Emperor Franz Joseph I.

She appeared in disaster films throughout the 1970s, notably Earthquake (1974) with Heston, The Cassandra Crossing (1976) with Lancaster, and the Canadian movie City on Fire (1979). She appeared briefly as Lillie Langtry at the end of The Life and Times of Judge Roy Bean (1972), and in The Blue Bird (1976). Her last movie was Regina Roma (1982). In the 1980s, she acted primarily on television, including the miniseries remake of The Long, Hot Summer and in a story arc on Knots Landing (both 1985).

Marriages
Soon after Gardner arrived in Los Angeles, she met fellow MGM contract player Mickey Rooney; they married on January 10, 1942. The ceremony was held in the remote town of Ballard, California because MGM studio head Louis B. Mayer was worried that fans would desert Rooney's Andy Hardy movie series if it became known that their star was married. Gardner divorced Rooney in 1943, citing mental cruelty; privately blaming his gambling and womanizing, she didn't ruin his on-screen image as the clean-cut, judge's son Andy Hardy that the public adored.

Gardner's second marriage was equally brief, to jazz musician and bandleader Artie Shaw, from 1945 to 1946. Shaw previously had been married to Lana Turner. Gardner's third and last marriage was to singer and actor Frank Sinatra from 1951 to 1957. She later said in her autobiography that he was the love of her life. Sinatra left his wife Nancy for Gardner, and their marriage made headlines.

Sinatra was blasted by gossip columnists Hedda Hopper and Louella Parsons, the Hollywood establishment, the Catholic Church, and by his fans for leaving his wife. Gardner used her considerable influence, particularly with Harry Cohn, to get Sinatra cast in his Oscar-winning role in From Here to Eternity (1953). This role and the award revitalized both Sinatra's acting and singing careers.

The Gardner-Sinatra marriage was tumultuous. Gardner confided to Artie Shaw, her second husband, that, "With him [Frank], it's impossible...It's like being with a woman. He's so gentle. It's as though he thinks I'll break, as though I'm a piece of Dresden china, and he's gonna hurt me." During their marriage, Gardner became pregnant twice, but aborted both pregnancies. "MGM had all sorts of penalty clauses about their stars having babies", according to her autobiography, which was published eight months after her death. Gardner filed for divorce in 1954, and the divorce was finalized in 1957. Following their divorce, Gardner and Sinatra remained good friends for the rest of her life.

Relationships
Gardner became a friend of businessman and aviator Howard Hughes in the early to mid-1940s, and the relationship lasted into the 1950s. Gardner stated in her autobiography, Ava: My Story, that she was never in love with Hughes, but he was in and out of her life for about 20 years. Hughes' trust in Gardner was what kept their relationship alive. She described him as "painfully shy, completely enigmatic, and more eccentric...than anyone [she] had ever met".

Gardner lived her last 35 years outside of the United States. She first visited Spain during the filming of Pandora and the Flying Dutchman in 1950, and moved to that country in 1955, living there until 1968, when she moved to London. While in Spain, she began a friendship with writer Ernest Hemingway. She had starred in an adaptation of his The Sun Also Rises that year. Five years earlier, Hemingway had successfully urged producer Darryl F. Zanuck to cast Gardner in The Snows of Kilimanjaro, a film which adapted several of his short stories. While staying with Hemingway at his villa in San Francisco de Paula in Havana, Gardner once swam alone without a swimsuit in his pool. After watching her, Hemingway ordered his staff: "The water is not to be emptied".

Her time spent in Spain in the 1950s made her a fan of bullfighting and bullfighters, such as Luis Miguel Dominguín, who became her lover. She began dating Dominguín in 1954, around the time she filed for divorce from Sinatra. "It was a sort of madness, honey", she later said of the time. She was also linked to another bullfighter, Mario Cabre, in 1950.

Gardner was also involved in a relationship with her live-in boyfriend and companion, American actor Benjamin Tatar, who worked in Spain as a foreign-language dubbing director. Tatar later wrote an autobiography in which he discussed his relationship with Gardner, though the book was never published.

Gardner had a close friendship with Gregory Peck, with whom she starred together in three films, the first one being The Great Sinner (1949). Their friendship lasted the rest of Gardner's life, and upon her death in 1990, Peck took in both her housekeeper and her dog.

Religion and political views
Although Gardner was exposed to Christianity throughout her early years, she was an atheist later in life. Religion never played a positive role in her life, according to biographers and Gardner, in her autobiography Ava: My Story. Her friend Zoe Sallis, who met her on the set of The Bible: In the Beginning... when Gardner was living with John Huston in Puerto Vallarta, said Gardner always seemed unconcerned about religion. When Sallis asked her about religion once, Gardner replied, "It doesn't exist". Another factor that contributed to this was the death of Gardner's father in her youth, "Nobody wanted to know Daddy when he was dying. He was so alone. He was scared. I could see the fear in his eyes when he was smiling. I went to see the preacher, the guy who'd baptized me. I begged him to come and visit Daddy, just to talk to him, you know? Give him a blessing or something. But he never did. He never came. God, I hated him. Cold-arse bastards like that ought to...I don't know...they should be in some other racket, I know that. I had no time for religion after that. I never prayed. I never said another prayer". Concerning politics, Gardner was a lifelong Democrat, and supported Adlai Stevenson II in the 1952 United States presidential election.

Gardner was a staunch supporter of civil rights for African-Americans throughout her life. As a child growing up in North Carolina, she would often sit with African-American children in segregated parts of movie theaters. Her personal assistant, Rene Jordan, was African-American, and Gardner would often take her to clubs that were for whites only. She supported Henry A. Wallace of the Progressive Party, whose campaign in 1948 for the presidential election sought racial equality and desegregation.

She became a member of the NAACP in August 1968.

Death
A bout of pneumonia, after a lifetime of smoking, coupled with her underlying condition of lupus erythematosus brought on a stroke in 1986 that left Gardner partially paralyzed. Although she could afford her medical expenses, Frank Sinatra wanted to pay for her visit to a specialist in the United States, and she allowed him to make the arrangements for a medically staffed private plane. She died on January 25, 1990, at the age of 67, of pneumonia and fibrosing alveolitis at her London home 34 Ennismore Gardens, where she had lived since 1968.

Gardner was buried on January 29 in Sunset Memorial Park in Smithfield, North Carolina, next to her siblings and their parents, Jonas and Molly Gardner. The Ava Gardner Museum, incorporated in 1996, is located nearby.

Accolades
Gardner was nominated for an Academy Award for Mogambo (1953); the award was won by Audrey Hepburn for Roman Holiday. Her performance as Maxine Faulk in The Night of the Iguana (1964) was well reviewed, and she was nominated for a BAFTA Award and a Golden Globe. Additionally, Ava Gardner won the Silver Shell for Best Actress at the San Sebastián International Film Festival in 1964 for her performance in The Night of the Iguana.

Film portrayals
Gardner has been portrayed by Marcia Gay Harden in the 1992 miniseries Sinatra, by Deborah Kara Unger in the 1998 television movie The Rat Pack, by Kate Beckinsale in the 2004 Howard Hughes biopic The Aviator, Anna Drijver in the 2012 Italian TV film Walter Chiari – Fino all'ultima risata, and Emily Elicia Low in Frank & Ava (2018).

The images of Gardner and Clark Gable are featured on the cover of Robin Gibb's 1983 album How Old Are You?

The 2018 Spanish television series Arde Madrid is a comedy-drama with thriller elements based on elements of Ava Gardner's life in Francoist Spain. Gardner is portrayed by Debi Mazar.

title: Ava Gardner


text:
NoCGV Svalbard

NoCGV Svalbard (W303) is a Norwegian Coast Guard icebreaker and offshore patrol vessel constructed by Langsten at Tangen Verft shipyard in Kragerø and launched on 17 February 2001. She was named 15 December 2001 in Tomrefjord with Minister of Defence Kristin Krohn Devold as godmother, and delivered to the Coast Guard on 18 January 2002. She entered service in mid-2002 and is homeported in Sortland. Her primary operating area is in the Arctic waters north of Norway, the Barents Sea and around the Svalbard islands.

Svalbard is the second largest ship in Norway's military armed forces (by tonnage), designed to supplement the three other helicopter-carrying ships of the Norwegian Coast Guard - the Nordkapp-class offshore patrol vessels. She is NBC-protected with constant overpressure, and is capable of icebreaking and emergency towing up to 100,000 tons. The Norwegian coastline is generally free of ice, thus Svalbard is the one of just two Norwegian icebreaking-capable vessel, the other being RV Kronprins Haakon. A double acting ship, Svalbard is designed to break ice both ahead and astern.

Career
On 21 August 2019, Svalbard became the first Norwegian ship to reach the North Pole.

In October 2020, Svalbard was deployed to the Bering Sea to retrieve scientific instruments belonging to the Coordinated Arctic Acoustic Thermometry Experiment (CAATEX) from the seabed, a task previously assigned to the United States Coast Guard icebreaker USCGC Healy (WAGB-20) that had been sidelined earlier that year following an onboard fire. The vessel sailed to the western hemisphere along a high-latitude route north of Svalbard and Franz Josef Land, and outside of Russian territorial waters. Despite the scientific mission, a number of Russian media outlets interpreted this voyage as an "intrusion" to the Russian Arctic by an "armed NATO warship".

The 2023 defence acquisition plan indicated that the ship would receive necessary upgrades to permit her to continue in service.

Foreign analogs
On 9 July 2007 Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced that Canada would build six to eight arctic offshore patrol ships (AOPS) for the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN), modeled after Svalbard's design. The vessels' design was modified to meet the needs of the RCN. Some of the modifications include: increasing the ships' ice breaking capabilities, adding a larger and fully enclosed forecastle/cable deck for greater arctic protection, addition of a multipurpose operational space, updated command and control systems, an updated sensor suite, and an extended hangar for the larger Sikorsky CH-148 Cyclone helicopter. The project was criticized for its high costs. For example, Irving Shipbuilding was awarded a CA$288 million design contract for the vessel while the design of Svalbard and similar patrol ships within other countries paid less than one-tenth as much. The first ship in its class, HMCS Harry DeWolf, was delivered to the RCN on 31 July 2020, with its commissioning anticipated in mid-2021 following the completion of post-acceptance sea trials.

In 2015 Russia started constructing the first of several vessels in its Project 23550. Think tank Global Security pointed out these vessels are almost the same length, displacement, power and endurance as the Svalbard class. They will also be able to travel through roughly the same depth of ice. The Russian vessels will be more heavily armed, with a 76 or main cannon, an anti-missile gatling gun, and launchers for eight cruise missiles.

title: NoCGV Svalbard


text:
Cilium

The cilium (: cilia; ) is a membrane-bound organelle found on most types of eukaryotic cell. Cilia are absent in bacteria and archaea. The cilium has the shape of a slender threadlike projection that extends from the surface of the much larger cell body. Eukaryotic flagella found on sperm cells and many protozoans have a similar structure to motile cilia that enables swimming through liquids; they are longer than cilia and have a different undulating motion.

There are two major classes of cilia: motile and non-motile cilia, each with a subtype, giving four types in all. A cell will typically have one primary cilium or many motile cilia. The structure of the cilium core called the axoneme determines the cilium class. Most motile cilia have a central pair of single microtubules surrounded by nine pairs of double microtubules called a 9+2 axoneme. Most non-motile cilia have a 9+0 axoneme that lacks the central pair of microtubules. Also lacking are the associated components that enable motility including the outer and inner dynein arms, and radial spokes. Some motile cilia lack the central pair, and some non-motile cilia have the central pair, hence the four types.

Most non-motile cilia are termed primary cilia or sensory cilia and serve solely as sensory organelles. Most vertebrate cell types possess a single non-motile primary cilium, which functions as a cellular antenna. Olfactory neurons possess a great many non-motile cilia. Non-motile cilia that have a central pair of microtubules are the kinocilia present on hair cells.

Motile cilia are found in large numbers on respiratory epithelial cells – around 200 cilia per cell, where they function in mucociliary clearance, and also have mechanosensory and chemosensory functions. Motile cilia on ependymal cells move the cerebrospinal fluid through the ventricular system of the brain. Motile cilia are also present in the oviducts (fallopian tubes) of female (therian) mammals where they function in moving the egg cell from the ovary to the uterus. Motile cilia that lack the central pair of microtubules are found in the cells of the embryonic primitive node, termed nodal cells, and these nodal cilia are responsible for the left-right asymmetry of bilaterians.

Structure
A cilium is assembled and built from a basal body on the cell surface. From the basal body, the ciliary rootlet forms ahead of the transition plate and transition zone where the earlier microtubule triplets change to the microtubule doublets of the axoneme.

Basal body
The foundation of the cilium is the basal body, a term applied to the mother centriole when it is associated with a cilium. Mammalian basal bodies consist of a barrel of nine triplet microtubules, subdistal appendages and nine strut-like structures, known as distal appendages, which attach the basal body to the membrane at the base of the cilium. Two of each of the basal body's triplet microtubules extend during growth of the axoneme to become the doublet microtubules.

Ciliary rootlet
The ciliary rootlet is a cytoskeleton-like structure that originates from the basal body at the proximal end of a cilium. Rootlets are typically 80-100 nm in diameter and contain cross striae distributed at regular intervals of approximately 55-70 nm. A prominent component of the rootlet is rootletin a coiled coil rootlet protein coded for by the CROCC gene.

Transition zone
To achieve its distinct composition, the proximal-most region of the cilium consists of a transition zone, also known as the ciliary gate, that controls the entry and exit of proteins to and from the cilium. At the transition zone, Y-shaped structures connect the ciliary membrane to the underlying axoneme. Control of selective entry into cilia may involve a sieve-like function of transition zone. Inherited defects in components of the transition zone cause ciliopathies, such as Joubert syndrome. Transition zone structure and function is conserved across diverse organisms, including vertebrates, Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila melanogaster and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. In mammals, disruption of the transition zone reduces the ciliary abundance of membrane-associated ciliary proteins, such as those involved in Hedgehog signal transduction, compromising Hedgehog-dependent embryonic development of digit number and central nervous system patterning.

Axoneme
Inside a cilium is a microtubule-based cytoskeletal core called the axoneme. The axoneme of a primary cilium typically has a ring of nine outer microtubule doublets (called a 9+0 axoneme), and the axoneme of a motile cilium has, in addition to the nine outer doublets,  two central microtubule singlets (called a 9+2 axoneme). This is the same axoneme type of the flagellum. The axoneme in a motile cilium acts as a scaffold for the inner and outer dynein arms that move the cilium, and provides tracks for the microtubule motor proteins of kinesin and dynein. The transport of ciliary components is carried out by intraflagellar transport (IFT) which is similar to the axonal transport in a nerve fibre. Transport is bidirectional and cytoskeletal motor proteins kinesin and dynein transport ciliary components along the microtubule tracks; kinesin in an anterograde movement towards the ciliary tip and dynein in a retrograde movement towards the cell body. The cilium has its own ciliary membrane enclosed within the surrounding cell membrane.

Non-motile cilia
In animals, non-motile primary cilia are found on nearly every type of cell, blood cells being a prominent exception. Most cells only possess one, in contrast to cells with motile cilia, an exception being olfactory sensory neurons, where the odorant receptors are located, which each possess about ten cilia. Some cell types, such as retinal photoreceptor cells, possess highly specialized primary cilia.

Although the primary cilium was discovered in 1898, it was largely ignored for a century and considered a vestigial organelle without important function. Recent findings regarding its physiological roles in chemosensation, signal transduction, and cell growth control, have revealed its importance in cell function. Its importance to human biology has been underscored by the discovery of its role in a diverse group of diseases caused by the dysgenesis or dysfunction of cilia, such as polycystic kidney disease, congenital heart disease, mitral valve prolapse, and retinal degeneration, called ciliopathies. The primary cilium is now known to play an important role in the function of many human organs. Primary cilia on pancreatic beta cells regulate their function and energy metabolism. Cilia deletion can lead to islet dysfunction and type 2 diabetes.

Cilia are assembled during the G1 phase and are disassembled before mitosis occurs. Disassembly of cilia requires the action of aurora kinase A. The current scientific understanding of primary cilia views them as "sensory cellular antennae that coordinate many cellular signaling pathways, sometimes coupling the signaling to ciliary motility or alternatively to cell division and differentiation." The cilium is composed of subdomains and enclosed by a plasma membrane continuous with the plasma membrane of the cell. For many cilia, the basal body, where the cilium originates, is located within a membrane invagination called the ciliary pocket. The cilium membrane and the basal body microtubules are connected by distal appendages (also called transition fibers). Vesicles carrying molecules for the cilia dock at the distal appendages. Distal to the transition fibers form a transition zone where entry and exit of molecules is regulated to and from the cilia. Some of the signaling with these cilia occur through ligand binding such as Hedgehog signaling. Other forms of signaling include G protein-coupled receptors including the somatostatin receptor 3 in neurons.

Modified non-motile cilia
Kinocilia that are found on hair cells in the inner ear are termed as specialized primary cilia, or modified non-motile cilia. They possess the 9+2 axoneme of the motile cilia but lack the inner dynein arms that give movement. They do move passively following the detection of sound, allowed by the outer dynein arms.

Motile cilia
Mammals also have motile cilia or secondary cilia that are usually present on a cell's surface in large numbers (multiciliate), and beat in coordinated metachronal waves. Multiciliated cells are found lining the respiratory tract where they function in mucociliary clearance sweeping mucus containing debris away from the lungs. Each cell in the respiratory epithelium has around 200 motile cilia.

In the reproductive tract, smooth muscle contractions help the beating of the cilia in moving the egg cell from the ovary to the uterus. In the ventricles of the brain ciliated ependymal cells circulate the cerebrospinal fluid.

The functioning of motile cilia is strongly dependent on the maintenance of optimal levels of periciliary fluid bathing the cilia. Epithelial sodium channels (ENaCs) are specifically expressed along the entire length of cilia in the respiratory tract, and fallopian tube or oviduct that apparently serve as sensors to regulate the periciliary fluid.

Modified motile cilia
Motile cilia without the central pair of singlets (9+0) are found in early embryonic development. They are present as nodal cilia on the nodal cells of the primitive node. Nodal cells are responsible for the left-right asymmetry in bilateral animals. While lacking the central apparatus there are dynein arms present that allow the nodal cilia to move in a spinning fashion. The movement creates a current flow of the extraembryonic fluid across the nodal surface in a leftward direction that initiates the left-right asymmetry in the developing embryo.

Motile, multiple, 9+0 cilia are found on the epithelial cells of the choroid plexus. Cilia also can change structure when introduced to hot temperatures and become sharp. They are present in large numbers on each cell and move relatively slowly, making them intermediate between motile and primary cilia. In addition to 9+0 cilia that are mobile, there are also solitary 9+2 cilia that stay immobile found in hair cells.

Nodal cilia
Nodal cells have a single cilium called a monocilium. They are present in the very early development of the embryo on the primitive node. There are two areas of the node with different types of nodal cilia. On the central node are motile cilia, and on the peripheral area of the node the nodal cilia are modified motile.

The motile cilia on the central cells rotate to generate the leftward flow of extracellular fluid needed to initiate the left-right asymmetry.

Cilia versus flagella
The motile cilia on sperm cells and many protozoans enables swimming through liquids and are traditionally referred to as "flagella". As these protrusions are structurally identical to motile cilia, attempts at preserving this terminology include making a distinction by morphology ("flagella" are typically longer than ordinary cilia and have a different undulating motion) and by number.

Microorganisms
Ciliates are eukaryotic microorganisms that possess motile cilia exclusively and use them for either locomotion or to simply move liquid over their surface. A Paramecium for example is covered in thousands of cilia that enable its swimming. These motile cilia have been shown to be also sensory.

Ciliogenesis
Cilia are formed through the process of ciliogenesis. An early step is docking of the basal body to the growing ciliary membrane, after which the transition zone forms. The building blocks of the ciliary axoneme, such as tubulins, are added at the ciliary tips through a process that depends partly on intraflagellar transport (IFT). Exceptions include Drosophila sperm and Plasmodium falciparum flagella formation, in which cilia assemble in the cytoplasm.

At the base of the cilium where it attaches to the cell body is the microtubule organizing center, the basal body. Some basal body proteins as CEP164, ODF2 and CEP170, are required for the formation and the stability of the cilium.

In effect, the cilium is a nanomachine composed of perhaps over 600 proteins in molecular complexes, many of which also function independently as nanomachines. Flexible linkers allow the mobile protein domains connected by them to recruit their binding partners and induce long-range allostery via protein domain dynamics.

Function
The dynein in the axoneme – axonemal dynein forms bridges between neighbouring microtubule doublets. When ATP activates the motor domain of dynein, it attempts to walk along the adjoining microtubule doublet. This would force the adjacent doublets to slide over one another if not for the presence of nexin between the microtubule doublets. And thus the force generated by dynein is instead converted into a bending motion.

Sensing the extracellular environment
Some primary cilia on epithelial cells in eukaryotes act as cellular antennae, providing chemosensation, thermosensation and mechanosensation of the extracellular environment. These cilia then play a role in mediating specific signalling cues, including soluble factors in the external cell environment, a secretory role in which a soluble protein is released to have an effect downstream of the fluid flow, and mediation of fluid flow if the cilia are motile.

Some epithelial cells are ciliated, and they commonly exist as a sheet of polarized cells forming a tube or tubule with cilia projecting into the lumen. This sensory and signalling role puts cilia in a central role for maintaining the local cellular environment and may be why ciliary defects cause such a wide range of human diseases.

In the embryo, nodal cilia are used to direct the flow of extracellular fluid. This leftward movement is to generate left-right asymmetry across the midline of the embryo. Central cilia coordinate their rotational beating while the immotile cilia on the sides sense the direction of the flow. Studies in mice suggest a biophysical mechanism by which the direction of flow is sensed.

Axo-ciliary synapse
With axo-ciliary synapses, there is communication between serotonergic axons and primary cilia of CA1 pyramidal neurons that alters the neuron's epigenetic state in the nucleus – "a way to change what is being transcribed or made in the nucleus" via this signalling distinct from that at the plasma membrane which also is longer-term.

Clinical significance
Ciliary defects can lead to a number of human diseases. Defects in cilia adversely affect many critical signaling pathways essential to embryonic development and to adult physiology, and thus offer a plausible hypothesis for the often multi-symptom nature of diverse ciliopathies. Known ciliopathies include primary ciliary dyskinesia, Bardet–Biedl syndrome, polycystic kidney and liver disease, nephronophthisis, Alström syndrome, Meckel–Gruber syndrome, Sensenbrenner syndrome and some forms of retinal degeneration. Genetic mutations compromising the proper functioning of cilia, ciliopathies, can cause chronic disorders such as primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD), nephronophthisis, and Senior–Løken syndrome. In addition, a defect of the primary cilium in the renal tubule cells can lead to polycystic kidney disease (PKD). In another genetic disorder called Bardet–Biedl syndrome (BBS), the mutant gene products are the components in the basal body and cilia. Defects in cilia cells are linked to obesity and often pronounced in type 2 diabetes. Several studies already showed impaired glucose tolerance and reduction in the insulin secretion in the ciliopathy models. Moreover, the number and length of cilia was decreased in the type 2 diabetes models.

Epithelial sodium channels (ENaCs) that are expressed along the length of cilia regulate periciliary fluid level. Mutations that decrease the activity of ENaCs result in multisystem pseudohypoaldosteronism, that is associated with fertility problems. In cystic fibrosis that results from mutations in the chloride channel CFTR, ENaC activity is enhanced leading to a severe reduction of the fluid level that causes complications and infections in the respiratory airways.

Since the flagellum of human sperm has the same internal structure of a cilium, ciliary dysfunction can also be responsible for male infertility.

There is an association of primary ciliary dyskinesia with left-right anatomic abnormalities such as situs inversus (a combination of findings is known as Kartagener syndrome), and situs ambiguus (also known as Heterotaxy syndrome). These left-right anatomic abnormalities can also result in congenital heart disease. It has been shown that proper cilial function is responsible for the normal left-right asymmetry in mammals.

The diverse outcomes caused by ciliary dysfunction may result from alleles of different strengths that compromise ciliary functions in different ways or to different extents. Many ciliopathies are inherited in a Mendelian manner, but specific genetic interactions between distinct functional ciliary complexes, such as transition zone and BBS complexes, can alter the phenotypic manifestations of recessive ciliopathies. Some mutations in transition zone proteins can cause specific serious ciliopathies.

Extracellular changes
Reduction of cilia function can also result from infection. Research into biofilms has shown that bacteria can alter cilia. A biofilm is a community of bacteria of either the same or multiple species of bacteria. The cluster of cells secretes different factors which form an extracellular matrix. Cilia in the respiratory system is known to move mucus and pathogens out of the airways. It has been found that patients with biofilm positive infections have impaired cilia function. The impairment may present as decreased motion or reduction in the number of cilia. Though these changes result from an external source, they still effect the pathogenicity of the bacteria, progression of infection, and how it is treated.

The transportation of the immature egg cell, and the embryo to the uterus for implantation depends on the combination of regulated smooth muscle contractions, and ciliary beating. Dysfunction in this transportation can result in an ectopic pregnancy where the embryo is implanted (usually) in the fallopian tube before reaching its proper destination of the uterus. Many factors can affect this stage including infection and menstrual cycle hormones. Smoking (causing inflammation), and infection can reduce the numbers of cilia, and the ciliary beat can be affected by hormonal changes.

Primary cilia in pancreatic cells
The pancreas is a mixture of highly differentiated exocrine and endocrine cells. Primary cilia are present in exocrine cells, which are centroacinar duct cells. Endocrine tissue is composed of different hormone-secreting cells. Insulin-secreting beta cells and glucagon-secreting alpha cells are highly ciliated.

title: Cilium


text:
Breakbeat hardcore

Breakbeat hardcore (also referred to as hardcore rave, oldskool hardcore or simply hardcore) is a music genre that spawned from the UK rave scene during the early 1990s. It combines four-on-the-floor rhythms with breakbeats usually sampled from hip hop. In addition to the inclusion of breakbeats, the genre also features shuffled drum machine patterns, hoover, and other noises originating from new beat and Belgian techno, sounds from acid house and bleep techno, and often upbeat house piano riffs and vocals.

Early 1990s: origins
The rave scene expanded rapidly in the very early 1990s, both at clubs up and down the country including Labrynth, Shelley's Laserdome, The Eclipse, and Sanctuary Music Arena, and large raves in Warehouses and in the open air attracting 20–50,000 whether put on legally from promoters such as Fantazia and Raindance, or unlicensed by free party sound systems such as Spiral Tribe. Breakbeat hardcore drew its melting pot of sound from a vast array of influences – from new beat and Belgian techno that had for a short period been prominent in the UK rave scene, to house and acid house, and furthermore drawing on hip hop and reggae culture. Amongst the influences from within the rave scene itself upon which this strain of hardcore drew were such acts as Manix, The Hypnotist, CJ Bolland with his "Ravesignal" series, and T99. The huge increase in producers was also driven by the increasing availability of cheap home computer-based studio setups, particularly Cubase for the Atari ST.

Mid-1990s: fragmentation
By late 1992, breakbeat hardcore started to fragment into a number of subsequent genres: darkcore (piano rolls giving way to dark-themed samples and stabs), hardcore jungle (where reggae basslines and samples became prominent), and happy hardcore (retaining piano rolls and more uplifting vocals).

2000s: revival
In the 2000s, the style experienced a revival as part of the nu-rave scene.

Hardcore breaks is a style of breakbeat hardcore that appeared in early-to-mid 2000s as part of growing nu-rave scene. The style is inspired by the sound and characteristics of old school breakbeat, while being fused with modern production techniques that distinguish the genre from the classic hardcore breakbeat sound. The music is composed of looped, edited and processed breakbeat samples, intense bassline sounds, melodic piano lines, staccato synthesizer riffs, and various vocal samples (mostly taken from old house records). The speed of this genre typically fell between the range of 145–155 bpm, while the speed may variate on live sets. Originally being produced by a small group of artists with the vision of carrying on where oldskool hardcore left off before the jungle and happy hardcore split using new production techniques and technology, its appeal has now expanded to include artists from the original breakbeat hardcore scene creating new productions. By the late 2000s, hardcore breaks tend to be produced and played at a bit faster tempos, often between 160–180 bpm. Therefore, it is often played at UK hardcore, freeform hardcore and drum and bass events.

Notable releases
Notable releases include:

 * "A Trip to Trumpton" – Urban Hype (Faze 2, 1992)
 * "Baptised by Dub" – The Criminal Minds (White House, 1992)
 * "Be Free" / "Breakage #4" - Noise Factory (Ibiza, 1992)
 * "Charly" / "Everybody in the Place" – The Prodigy (XL Recordings, 1992)
 * "Close Your Eyes" / "Trip II the Moon" – Acen (Production House Records, 1992)
 * "Cookin Up Yah Brain" – 4hero (Reinforced Records, 1992)
 * "Dancehall Dangerous" - Hackney Hardcore (Strictly Underground, 1992)
 * "DJ's Take Control" / "On a Ragga Tip" – SL2 (XL Recordings, 1992)
 * "Far Out" – Sonz of a Loop Da Loop Era (Suburban Base, 1991)
 * "Frequency" / "Infiltrate 202" – Altern-8 (Network Records, 1991)
 * "Homicide" / "Exorcist" / "Frequency" – Shades of Rhythm (ZTT Records, 1991)
 * "Hurt You So" – Jonny L (Yoyo, 1992)
 * "I Feel Love" – Messiah (Kickin Records, 1992)
 * "Let Me Be Your Fantasy" – Baby D (Production House, 1992)
 * "Loves Got to Be Free" - Noise Factory (XL Recordings/Ibiza, 1992)
 * "Mohamed's Mind" - 2 Kilos (Radioactive Lamb, 1990)
 * "Music Takes You" - Blame (Moving Shadow, 1991)
 * "NHS (Disco Remix)" – Doc Scott (Absolute 2, 1992)
 * "Sesame's Treet" – Smart E's (Suburban Base/Atlantic, 1992)
 * "Some Justice" – Urban Shakedown (Urban Shakedown, 1992)
 * "Spliffhead" / "Hooligan 69" – Ragga Twins (SUAD Records, 1991)
 * "Sweet Harmony" – Liquid (XL Recordings, 1992)
 * "Teach Me to Fly" - DJ Trace & LTJ Bukem (Out of Orbit, 1992)
 * "The Bouncer" – Kicks Like a Mule (Tribal Base, 1992)
 * "The Green Man" / "Raving I'm Raving" – Shut Up and Dance (SUAD Records, 1992)
 * "The Wickedest Sound" – Rebel MC (Desire, 1991)
 * "Waremouse" / "Bombscare" – 2 Bad Mice (Moving Shadow, 1992)
 * "We Are I.E." – Lennie De Ice (Reel 2 Reel, 1991)

title: Breakbeat hardcore


text:
Talk:Tsar

"All Russia" versus "All Russias"
I think "all Russia" is a (common) mistranslation. Looking at various coins from various Tsar eras, the titles are: The final "И" or "І" indicate their being plural. I believe - though I don't know Russian very well - that singular would be "РУСІІ" or "РѠССІЯ." I've seen this plural either refer to "Great, Little, and White" or to the various states absorbed by Muscovy. The more accurate translation of the first two is "Rus's" (or whatever the plural of "Rus'" would be), but "Russias" is more often used in English since it's less confusing. Of course, this could be deemed "original research," so I'm hoping that someone else can be of help here with a secondary source rather than a primary one. Calbaer (talk) 17:29, 21 March 2018 (UTC)
 * Ivan IV: "ВСЕꙖ РУСИ"
 * Michael I: "ВСЕЯ РУСІ"
 * Peter I: "ВСЕѦ РѠССІИ"
 * The corresponding Russian wikipedia page is here in auto-translated form. There's an English version, but it refers only to the use of related phrases in the Imperial and post-Imperial periods, not pre-Imperial. Calbaer (talk) 23:49, 21 March 2018 (UTC)
 * I ultimately decided to change this to "all Rus'" as on List of Russian rulers, parenthetically adding "all the Russias" as on Ivan the Terrible, with the above Cyrillic (which I could reference if needed, but which seemed like overkill, since it's the English we really need to reference if anything). Calbaer (talk) 15:43, 22 March 2018 (UTC)

It's a big question. The "i" at the end is usually understood as singular Genitive case. However, not everyone agrees, primarily because of foreign plural translations and because "great, small and white" (or something similar) is regularly used. --Yomal Sidoroff-Biarmskii (talk) 17:15, 17 December 2018 (UTC)
 * Interesting. If we assumed that the language was as close as possible to present day, that would make sense, at least for the first two.  Looking at declension tables, "руси" would be "of Rus'" while "of Rus's" would be "русей."  Likewise, "России" would be "of Russia" and "Россий" "of Russias."  The fact that the final two letters in the time of Peter I are different makes me suspicious of which option is more accurate.  And as far as I can tell, none of the forms of "всё" are consistent with modern Russian, where the genitive feminine and plural are "всей" and "всех", respectively, not "всея."  However, Всея Руси claims that that corresponds to the modern genitive feminine, which would support the idea of it being singular in both cases. Calbaer (talk) 16:07, 20 December 2018 (UTC)
 * I put up that question among Russian linguistic specialists, and almost everyone is strongly in favor of singular. However, I'm not 100% convinced. I thought it could actually be plural Nominative case, or that Bulgarian 1000 years ago would be different from today's Russian. --Yomal Sidoroff-Biarmskii (talk) 19:23, 26 December 2018 (UTC)
 * Going by other articles here, the "І" was used at the time for when the next letter was a vowel... with exceptions - for example, "й" was considered a vowel then but not now, so this doesn't rule out "Россий." In fact, "и" and "й" weren't even considered different letters until the 1930s, and other words like "великий" were written with the "ІИ" ending at the time.  But, unless "всех" had a very different form then, all signs point to singular. Calbaer (talk) 04:05, 28 December 2018 (UTC)
 * That's a great point! Moreover, ВСЕЯ РУСІ almost never or totally never existed before the 19th century. It was always ВСЕѦ РѠССІИ, not ВСЕЯ РУСІ or ВСЕꙖ РУСИ . ВСЕЯ РУСІ was popularized in the 19th century, because it was Slavic and because Russia (РѠССІИ) became a much larger empire with a different meaning. Independent researchers even claim it was done on political purpose to 'steal' the heritage of Kievan Rus' from the Ukrainians. --Yomal Sidoroff-Biarmskii (talk) 17:47, 2 November 2020 (UTC)
 * "ВСЕѦ РУСИ" and its variants precede the 19th century by several centuries. See, for example, these coins from the reign of Basil III: http://silver-copeck.ru/8016/1.html (1505-1533).  The left side of the coin on the upper left clearly has "ВСЕѦ РУСИ" on it.  It was only under Peter the Great that "РѠССІИ" began being used (though early in his rule, it was "РОСИЇ"). Calbaer (talk) 19:47, 2 November 2020 (UTC)
 * It looks like РУСII like here https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8C%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE_1504.JPG Also here https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB:%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB_%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE.jpg . The phrase itself was of Greek origin. --Yomal Sidoroff-Biarmskii (talk) 19:58, 2 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Here's a more detailed depiction of Ivan IV's seal: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Seal_of_Ivan_3.png?1604347470769 . I think it's clear there that what looks like "II" in your link is meant to be "И."  Looking at the most common coins of the 16th and 17th century (denga and kopek coins), coins prior to Feodor III (reign starting 1676) used "РУСИ."  Feodor had "РУСИІ," while Peter/Ivan had "РОСИЇ," then "РѠССІИ."  As for the bell tower, here's a better view - https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Ivan_the_Great_Bell_Tower_-_Cupola_%28Moscow%2C_2001%29.jpg - which clearly shows "ВСЕѬ РУСИ," not "ВСЕѬ РУСII." Calbaer (talk) 00:11, 3 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Does the bell-tower spell РУСИ or РУСIИ ? --Yomal Sidoroff-Biarmskii (talk) 05:19, 3 November 2020 (UTC)
 * It looks like "РУСИ" to me, but I could see it as "РУСIИ." The Russian Wikipedia page for it cites a book and claims that it was originally, "Руси сий," but that the inscription was removed during the Time of Troubles and only restored by Peter the Great.  So it stands to reason that it's not the original.  I tend to favor looking at coins for evidence, since they still exist in their unmodified form and can be somewhat accurately dated.  And the fact remains that Moscow has seen itself as Kiev's successor since the migration of the Orthodox Metropolitan of Kiev from Vladimir to Moscow in 1325.  In any event, it seems as though it was "all Rus'" for centuries, then "all Russia" under Peter.  Even when they claimed "Great, Little, and White," "Rus'" and later "Russia" were likely still singular, given the declination of "всея." Calbaer (talk) 18:05, 4 November 2020 (UTC)
 * The correct title was Emperor and Supreme Autocrat of All the Russias. There were a number of Russian states in the Middle Ages, which is why when the Grand Dukes of Moscow conquered the other ones, they came to style themselves as the ruler of "all the Russias". It should be the plural "all the Russias", not the singular "all Russia". --A.S. Brown (talk) 09:13, 11 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Russian academics vehemently deny that. --Yomal Sidoroff-Biarmskii (talk) 02:02, 18 January 2021 (UTC)
 * Russian is here. The way of addressing "of All Russia" is the most commonly used one in English books. I find it correct relative to the meaning of the phrase. The word all in this context must be interpreted as entire (whole). Given the sources I think it's safe to close this discussion per WP:COMMONNAME . AXO NOV  (talk) ⚑ 14:22, 3 December 2021 (UTC)
 * Согласитесь, фраза "вся Великая, Малая и Белая Русь" звучит как-то странно. Вообще, странно, что не сохранилась ни одного примера существования этой фразы в именительном падеже с достаточно древних времён. Тогда бы и вопрос отпал сам собой. --Yomal Sidoroff-Biarmskii (talk) 09:17, 7 December 2021 (UTC)
 * First thing, Sidoroff-B, with all due respect, you need to provide a RS for that assertion. For what it is worth, here is the full title of Nicholas II: "By the grace of God Almighty, the Emperor and Supreme Autocrat of all the Russias, Tsar of Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod, Kazan, Astrakhan, Poland, Siberia, Tauric Chersonese, and Georgia, Lord of Pskov, Grand Duke of Smolensk, Lithuania, Volhynia, Podolia and Finland" (Harcave, Sidney First Blood The Russian Revolution of 1905 Macmillan: London, 1964 p.12). Sidney Harcave is a RS, being one of the leading American historians of Russia during his lifetime, and note that when he translates the title, he uses the plural "of the Russias", not of the singular "Of Russia". And for further statement, here is this book published in 1914 from the State Department, where it gives the title as "Emperor and Autocrat of all the Russias", see here . It was the job of the diplomats of the State Department to use the correct title when addressing foreign leaders, so I don't think that was a typo. And see this source here, when states the title imperator was adopted by Peter the Great in 1722, he was the imperator of "all the Russias", not Russia. See here: . Here is a translation of a letter from 1797 when the Orthodox Emperor Pavel somehow got elected the Grand Master of the Knights of Malta (just how precisely does an Orthodox emperor become the grand master of an order of Catholic warrior monks is another matter that does not concern us here): . Note the source states the Emperor Pavel is "His Imperial Majesty, the Emperor of the Russias". And note the title of this biography of the Emperor Nicholas II by Dominic Lieven Nicholas II Emperor of All the Russias. Lieven is one of the world's leading historians of Russia, who speaks and writes Russian quite fluently. He refers to the last emperor as "Emperor of All the Russias". And note this biography by W. Bruce Lincoln that is entitled Nicholas I, Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias.  And this source here, which describes the Empress Elizabeth as the "empress of all the Russias": . From the reign of the Emperor Nicholas I came this degree that stated: "The Tsar of all the Russias is an autocratic and absolute monarch" (Riasanovsky, Nicholas Nicholas I and Official Nationality in Russia 1825-1855 Los Angeles, University of California Press 1959 p. 96).  Nicholas V. Riasanovsky grew up speaking Russian in Manchuria and Russian was definitely his first language. If the title was the singular "of all Russia" rather than the plural "of all the Russias", it seems very odd and strange that Riasanovsky would mistranslate the term from Russian into English.
 * For more evidence, here is the full title relating to the sale of Alaska to the United States in 1867: Treaty Concerning the Cession of the Russian Possessions in North America by His Majesty the Emperor of All Russias to the United States of America. Again, it is the plural, not the singular. And here is a the peace treaty ending the war between Russia and France in 1801: Treaty of Peace Between the French Republic and the Emperor of all the Russias. And here is another translation of a treaty between some petty Iranian nobleman, Ebrahim Khan, who swears loyalty to the Emperor Alexander I in 1805, who is referred here as "the Emperor of all the Russias": . George Bournoutian is a RS who again was fluent in Russian, and again it is the plural form that he used he translated the title. It would be easier to translate the title as Emperor of all Russia into English rather than the awkward "Emperor of all the Russias", so the fact that multiple sources keep using the more awkward plural form indicates that this is the correct term. And see this proclamation by the Empress Catherine II from 1763 where Catherine the Great describes herself as "the Empress of all the Russias" . Here is another RS by Vincent Chen, Sino-Russian Relations in the Seventeenth Century that provides a translation of a letter written by Tsar Alexis to the Kangxi Emperor of China in 1670 where Alexis calls himself "the Autocrat of all the Russias": . Here is the preamble from the First International Anti-Opium Conference in 1912 where Nicholas II is again described as (you guess it) "the Emperor of all the Russias" . Here is this RS which notes that in 1922 the Grand Duke Cyril in exile proclaimed himself "emperor of all the Russias".
 * Janet M. Hartley is a respected British historian of Russia and in her 2021 book The Volga A History, she translates a 16th century Russian chronicle that refers to Ivan the Terrible as "Autocrat of all the Russias", see here: . The chronicle, which celebrates the conquest of the Muslim khanate of Kazan, which was one of the successor states to the Mongol Golden Horde states: "With the aid of our Almighty Lord Jesus Christ and the prayers of the mother of God...our pious Tsar and Grand Prince Ivan Vasilevich, crowned by God, Autocrat of all the Russias, fought against the infidels, defeated them finally and captured the Tsar of Kazan". Through it is true that the Muslim Mongol-Turkic khanate of Kazan could scarcely be considered Russian, Hartely does note that after conquering Kazan Ivan started calling himself Tsar of Kazan, which seems to have been a standard Muscovite practice. Finally, Adam Ulam was a well respected Polish historian of Russia, and in this book he refers to Nicholas II as "the Autocrat of all the Russias" . And furthermore, note the way that the emperor's full title as rendered by the State Department and Harcave is tsar of Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod, etc, etc. Places like the Grand Duchies of Vladimir, Tver, Novgorod, etc were just as much Russia as the Grand Duchy of Moscow. I know that there were all ruled by different branches of the House of Rurik but for our purposes here, after the Mongol conquest, there was not one single state that could call itself Russia. Over time, the other Russian states were conquered by the grand dukes of Moscow, so the plural term would make sense, indicating that the Grand Dukes of Moscow were ruling over all the other "Russias" that they had conquered. This is not the most important of matters, but this article should be using the right title. It may be true that some books and articles call Napoleon the "emperor of France", but that is not true. Napoleon's title was the "emperor of the French", never emperor of France. Even if the majority of the sources called Napoleon "emperor of France", we should still call him the emperor of the French because that was the title that he actually used.  --A.S. Brown (talk) 06:59, 8 December 2021 (UTC)
 * Thanks for all that hard work out there. I have to admit that the said title was, in fact, widespread in the past in English literature. I think It's fair to state that In the sources you have provided the title often follows specific ruler (including indirect referring) so we have to take this into acount as well. It's not just a title-to-go with every Russian monarch for sure. I would propose to use this title within Tsardom of Russia context only (monarchs of 1547 to 1721 period) and be cautionary with others. Also I would like note that for the last two decades «all the Russia» usage was on par with «all the Russias» (the same source on Google Ngram). I'm with you if you agree to put both into the article. Just out of curiosity: did you scrutinize literature in the same way for «all the Russia» as you did for «''all the Russias» form?  AXO NOV  (talk) ⚑ 14:29, 9 December 2021 (UTC)
 * Thank you for your thoughtful and considerate reply. We may have some disagreements here, but it is nice to meet an editor with whom one have a reasonable discussion with. Yes, I did check that. I'm always willing to the possibility that I might be wrong. Just a bit of background info. Once many moons ago, when I was studying history, I was planning to major in Russian history, which led me to read all sorts of books and articles on the subject. That plan was sadly derailed as the professor in charge of the Russian studies was an insufferably arrogant jerk whose views were the opposite of mine, and the possibility of studying under him for two more years was not appealing at all, forcing me to switch my focus. But before that happened, I read all sorts of books and articles on Russian history, and I seem to recall that about 99% of them used the plural term "emperor of all the Russias". There has got to be a reason for that.
 * Some Russian terms do get mistrusted. Take for an example, the famous Official Nationality ideology of the Emperor Nicholas I, which is usually translated into English as Nationalism, Orthodoxy, Autocracy. But the actual Russian term that is used by Nicholas means something more like national-mindness rather than nationalism. Which is not just a semantic difference. Russian nationalism or national-mindness in the Russian empire traditionally was defined in terms of loyalty to the House of Romanov. So in Nicholas's view, the people loyal to the Russian state were Russian and the people who were disloyal were not. This explains Nicholas's otherwise mysterious remark that the people who took place in the Decemberist rebellion ceased to be Russian the moment that they rebelled. This is a point that is not well understood around here, which has led to a number of editors who are probably acting in good faith to completely distort Nicholas's ideology and foreign policy. Nicholas was never a Russian nationalist in the ethnic sense. Anyone familiar with his reign will know that a disproportionate number of his ministers, generals, admirals, and advisers were Baltic German noblemen. Count Alexander von Benckendorff, the chief of the Third Section of His Imperial Majesty's Chancellery as the secret police were called and one of Nicholas's most trusted advisers was his name would suggest a Baltic German. The point here is that all these Baltic German aristocrats spoke German as their first language, but they all considered themselves to be good Russians because they were loyal to the Russian state. Likewise the emperor considered them to be loyal subjects and hence Russians. The article on Nicholas does not tell the reader this, but many of the conservative Slavophile intellectuals who were otherwise supportive of the monarchy were ethnic Russian nationalists and criticized the emperor for his dynastic conception of Russian nationalism, which promptly led to them being imprisoned or exiled to Siberia for their pains. This may sound a tangent here, but the point there were differing concepts of Russianness in the past. The editors who are acting in good faith, but in much ignorance in casting Nicholas I as an ethnic Russian nationalist as I noticed in a number of articles around here, seem not to be aware of this aspect of Russian history. I think the use of the plural term might reflect the viewpoint that any place was presumably loyal to the empire was Russia. As I already mentioned, the idea of a sense of Russianness based on the Russian language and culture is more of a 19th century development, and even then, the dynastic and ethnic concepts of Russianess uneasily co-existed right up until the end of the monarchy in 1917. I do not have any RS at hand as sadly my private library is in storage, but it might be worthwhile exploring this aspect of Russian history. There is an article on JSTOR that does talk about the concept of the "White Tsar" and how that the concept was used to persuade Muslim and Asian subjects of the empire to be good Russians (in the dynastic sense). I've try to see if I find it and bring some of that material into this article. Yes, I will admit Hartley does use the term emperor of all Russia as well. She states that term that was used in the reign of Ivan the Terrible was vseia Rusi, which believe can mean either "of all Russia" or "of all the Russias".
 * I'm OK if you want the article to use both singular and plural terms as long is all backed yo by a RS. I'm open to having the article give differing views of the subject and to note how things changed over time. Thank for your reply and best wishes! --A.S. Brown (talk) 08:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)
 * As Russian I can tell you that Rusi is not just a plural form, but a possesive one. It indicates a subject of possession. I think it's a bit hard for a foreigner to grasp it but I can tell you for sure that it's an inflection of the word Rus' (Русь, the word is only partially inflectible in fact and the same word is used to indicate plural and singulare form).The plural Russias may be considered a wrong translation of the said word but I'm fine with it given extensive sourcing. I would suggest you to not waste time on it because It doesn't belong to this article. Secondly, you may want to look at highly relevant Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality one. My best. AXO NOV  (talk) ⚑ 10:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Pronounciation.
How do we know that the contraction "czar" from "ceasar" was actually PRONOUNCED in the contracted way in such EARLY times, not just written? In Russia "gospodar" was ALWAYS contracted in writing as "gdar", but it was NEVER pronounced that way and was only contracted in pronounciation to "gosudar" in the 18th century. --Yomal Sidoroff-Biarmskii (talk) 16:05, 2 November 2020 (UTC)
 * I don't think the article makes any such claim.  Pepper Beast    (talk)  22:00, 2 November 2020 (UTC)
 * I'm sorry, I didn't understand which claim. --Yomal Sidoroff-Biarmskii (talk) 05:20, 3 November 2020 (UTC)
 * I don't think the article makes any claims about the early pronunciation of Czar. This isn't a forum for general discussion.  Pepper Beast    (talk)  12:21, 3 November 2020 (UTC)
 * The article claims it was pronounced czar instead of ceasar more than 1000 years ago, doesn't it? Even if the article DOESN'T claim that, I'm still pretty sure almost everyone reading this article will get precisely THAT impression. So, it needs clarification. --Yomal Sidoroff-Biarmskii (talk) 18:22, 4 November 2020 (UTC)

Copyright violation
User:Bulgarian.chad, I don't understand why the painting about Tsar Simeon by a famous artist as Alfons Mucha, which has been here for years, is removed from the article and replaced with an obviously copyright-infringed painting by a modern artist who almost is not known outside of Bulgaria. Please clarify this matter. Thanks.Jingiby (talk) 03:04, 5 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tsar


text: User:Wolzm

title: User:Wolzm


text:
User:Abb~enwiki

Abb, it appears you are uploading copyright material to Wikipedia. If you do not desist, the system administrators will ban your IP address. --Robert Merkel

Just finished blotting out his uploads. Got what appears to be a zip file containing a Tetris game, too. Bryan Derksen

title: User:Abb~enwiki