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History of Central America

Central America is commonly said to include Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. This definition matches modern political borders. Central America begins geographically in Mexico, at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico's narrowest point, and the former country of Yucatán (1841–1848) was part of Central America. At the other end, before its independence in 1903 Panama was part of South America, as it was a Department of Colombia. At times Belize, a British colony until 1981, where English instead of Spanish is spoken, and where the population is primarily of African origin, has been considered not part of (Spanish-speaking) Central America.Long and narrow, Central America does not have an obvious geographical center. Until the middle of the 20th century there were no roads between the countries, which isolated them from each other, and railroads have never connected them. During colonial times Guatemala was the administrative and religious center; religiously it remains so. However, attempts to create a Central American Political Union, like the European Union, have failed. The countries that joined the EU already had extensive cross-border traffic by train; even today (2021) there is by comparison very little, and none by train.

The countries, furthermore, are more diverse than they appear at first glance. Some (Guatemala) have a large indigenous or Native American population, others (Costa Rica) do not. Some (El Salvador) are focused on their Pacific coast, while in others (Belize, Honduras) the Caribbean or Atlantic coast is more important. Panama and to a lesser extent Guatemala and Costa Rica have both coasts playing a significant role. Some countries have stable governments (Costa Rica), others do not (Nicaragua, El Salvador). Panama is heavily Americanized, uses the US dollar as its currency, has a large industry and source of revenue (the canal), and a sophistication which comes from the ships and people passing through the country and previously the U.S. military installations in the former Canal Zone.

Before European contact
In the pre-Columbian era, the northern areas of Central America were inhabited by the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica. Most notable among these were the Maya peoples, who had built numerous cities throughout the region, and the Aztecs, who had created a vast empire. The pre-Columbian cultures of eastern El Salvador, eastern Honduras, Caribbean Nicaragua, most of Costa Rica and Panama were predominantly speakers of the Chibchan languages at the time of European contact and are considered by some culturally different and grouped in the Isthmo-Colombian Area.

Spanish Colonial Era
Central America is composed of seven independent nations: Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama. After the Spanish conquest in the 16th century, most of the inhabitants of Central America shared a similar history. The exception was the Western Caribbean Zone, which included the Caribbean coast and encompassed both semi-independent indigenous polities, runaway slave communities, and settlers, especially British settlers who would eventually form British Honduras (the modern-day nation of Belize), a sparsely populated area that was inhabited by the British through the Treaty of Madrid from Spain. When Spain failed to regain control over British Honduras, the British continued to inhabit the country and eventually colonized it. When Guatemala gained its independence, it assumed inheritance of British Honduras from Spain. British Honduras had been a British settlement, not a colony (the treaty between Spain and the United Kingdom prohibited British colonies in the territory) for several years. After many years of controversy, a treaty was signed between Guatemala and the United Kingdom in which the Guatemalan President of the time recognized the original territory (granted by the kingdom of Spain to the British Crown) of Belize. Within this treaty, was also an agreement for a cart road to be built from Guatemala City through British Honduras to the Caribbean Sea. Since the cart road was never built, Guatemala declared the treaty null and void. British Honduras, as the British called it, and Belize as the Spaniards and Guatemalans said, gained its independence from Great Britain in 1981 and adopted the name "Belize". Guatemala still disputes the Belizean territory.

From the 16th century through 1821, Central America formed the Captaincy General of Guatemala, sometimes known also as the Kingdom of Guatemala, composed by a part of the state of Chiapas (nowadays part of Mexico), Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Officially, the Captaincy was part of the Vice royalty of New Spain who really stole their royalty through gang members and drugs and therefore under the supervision of the Spanish viceroy in Mexico City. It was, however, administered not by the viceroy or his deputies, but by an independently appointed Captain General headquartered first in Antigua and later in Guatemala City.

Independence
In 1811, independence movements broke out in El Salvador in reaction to events in the Peninsular War, and again in 1814 after the restoration of Ferdinand VII. Both revolts were easily suppressed and the political unrest was subsumed into the general political process in the Spanish world that led to the Spanish Constitution of 1812. Between 1810 and 1814, the Captaincy General elected seven representatives to the Cortes of Cádiz, in addition to forming a locally elected Provincial Deputation. In 1821 a congress of Central American Criollos in Guatemala City composed the Act of Independence of Central America to declare the region's independence from Spain, effective on 15 September of that year. That date is still marked as independence day by most Central American nations. The Spanish Captain General, Gabino Gaínza, sympathized with the rebels and it was decided that he should stay on as interim leader until a new government could be formed. Independence was short-lived, for the conservative leaders in Guatemala welcomed annexation by the First Mexican Empire of Agustín de Iturbide on 5 January 1822. Central American liberals objected to this, but an army from Mexico under General Vicente Filísola occupied Guatemala City and quelled dissent.

When Mexico became a republic the following year, it acknowledged Central America's right to determine its own destiny. On 1 July 1823, the congress of Central America declared the Absolute Declaration. The primary provision of this declaration was the absolute independence of Central America from Spain, Mexico, and any other foreign nation, including any in North America. With regards to Spain, the declaration stated that Spain had usurped the rights of the colonies in Central America for three centuries, and reiterated the earlier independence acts of 1821. On the issue of Mexico and annexation into a greater Spanish American state in North America, the declaration labeled Mexican involvement in Central American independence as forceful and unlawful. This served to de-legitimize Mexican actions during the previous two years and separate Central America as a political entity. Further, a Republican system of government was established under a unitary system. Though Guatemala would attempt to unify the provinces of Central America with its adoption of federalism, regional divisions endured. The conflicts between powerful urban centers in each region, including Guatemala itself, would make it difficult to unify provinces internally, and it was all the harder to do so as a wider region. The conflict between republicans and monarchists also made political unity difficult in Central America. These qualities would exist for decades after the region's separation from Spain and Mexico and would help to create the modern boundaries of Central America.

Federal Republic of Central America

In 1823, the Federal Republic of Central America was formed. It was intended to be a federal republic modeled after the United States of America. It was provisionally known as "The United Provinces of Central America," while the final name according to the Constitution of 1824 was "The Federal Republic of Central America." It is sometimes incorrectly referred to in English as "The United States of Central America." The Central American nation consisted of the states of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. In the 1830s, an additional state was added, Los Altos, with its capital in Quetzaltenango, occupying parts of what is now the western highlands of Guatemala as well as part of Chiapas (now part of Mexico), but this state was reincorporated into Guatemala and Mexico respectively in 1840.

Central American liberals had high hopes for the federal republic, which they believed would evolve into a modern, democratic nation, enriched by trade crossing through it between the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. These aspirations are reflected in the emblems of the federal republic: The flag shows a white band between two blue stripes, representing the land between two oceans. The coat of arms shows five mountains (one for each state) between two oceans, surmounted by a Phrygian cap, the emblem of the French Revolution.

The Union dissolved in civil war between 1838 and 1840. Its disintegration began when Nicaragua separated from the federation on November 5, 1838. The United Provinces of Central America (or PUCA- Provincias Unidas De Centro-America in Spanish) is the name given to the different states of Central America in the time after Central America's independence and before becoming their own distinct nations (between 1823 and 1840 ). It was a political movement that strived to unify the regions of El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Guatemala (Panama and Belize at the time were under separate ownership) under a liberal federal government and believed that united they would be a stronger political unit. Unfortunately, due to many strong political disagreements within the different states, the UPCA eventually disbanded and the regions became separate nations with devastating political and economic civil wars that are still felt today.

The kingdom of Guatemala, as Central America was more commonly known as during Spanish and Mexican rule, had been annexed into Mexico in 1822 under the rule of emperor Agustín de Iturbide. The annexation was not without controversy, however, and tensions simmered between the republicans and nationalists favoring complete independence on one side and monarchists, who often favored annexation into Mexico, on the other. These tensions took varying forms depending on the region in question. In El Salvador, the provincial council openly defied annexation into Mexico. Meanwhile, in other regions, inner tensions between cities such as Leon Granada in Nicaragua made any sense of unity fleeting at best. Shortly after the annexation, opposition against the monarch from Central American nationalists and republicans continued to grow. These groups pushed for independence from Mexico. Iturbide's unsuccessful leadership of Central America and the seeming collapse of the Mexican Empire caused his party to fail against the uprising rebels and on July 1, 1823, Central America gained its independence.

After independence, officials from the different regions gathered in a junta to decide the future of El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Honduras, and Guatemala. They decided to unite into a federation of five autonomous states, thus creating the UPCA, a term coined by Brigadier General Vicente Filisola, who was stationed in Guatemala City.

The UPCA's aims were to be a liberal government with political principles modeled after the United States, and also to remain united. They felt that the “provinces alone were too small and weak economically to survive as sovereign states” so they “avert[ed] fragmentation of the isthmus” and pushed for union. However, the UPCA soon noticed that there were many political ideals between the regions and conservative parties on the other end of the political spectrum actively showed their discontent under the new liberal regime. Despite this, the beginning of the federation went relatively smoothly and negotiations helped them reform borders, capital cities were moved to accommodate the citizens, and economies of coffee grew high. All the while, tensions between the liberals and conservatives and power struggles within the different economies increasingly grew.

One of the most notable key figures of UPCA was Francisco Morazan, a liberal advocate who was chosen president of the UPCA. In the 1820s and through the 1830s Morazan took an active role in liberal movements throughout Central America, especially in Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Honduras against conservative parties. These battles between parties increasingly divided the nation causing sour relationships and distance between them. Differences between liberals who wanted free trade, favored a republic and had anti-clerical views contested those of the conservatives who wanted a monarchy, trade under close control and power to the church. These conflicts, along with cholera outbreaks, foreign intervention, and distress among those in poverty caused many insurgencies, resulting in various civil wars throughout Central America.

Morazan was captured in Costa Rica by the conservative party and they assassinated him on September 15, 1842, which marked the official end of the UPCA. Upon notification of his death, greater turmoil and fights among the opposing liberal and conservative parties increased. It is said that the conservative-liberal struggles that Morazan campaigned for are still in effect today. In addition, lacking a central authority proved to be unproductive and created more disputes and distrust within the different nations. In fact, foreigners who were looking to make economic and/or political negotiations were told that they had to go to each individual region for consultations and found it inconvenient. The desire for power and their inability to overcome bad relations among each other led to the fall of the UPCA. Nicaragua, Honduras, and Costa Rica seceded from the union in 1838. In 1839 Guatemala seceded, and in 1840 El Salvador did the same.

The provinces shortly after became their own separate republican nations, of which we are more familiar with today and eventually Panama and Belize came to be seen as part of what we know today as "Central America." Tensions among the different nations, however, continued to grow more aggressive throughout the rest of the 19th century. Despite knowing that unification would overall work better for Central America, they remained separate. Though many attempts to reunite the nations have been attempted throughout the years, none has succeeded. Civil wars continued to be part of Central America through the 20th into the 21st century.

Greater Republic of Central America
Various attempts were made to reunite Central America in the 19th century, but none succeeded for any length of time. The first attempt was in 1842 by former President Francisco Morazán, who was quickly captured and executed. The abortive attempt proposed to restore the union as the Confederation of Central America and planned to include El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. This first attempt lasted until 1844.

A second attempt was made and lasted from October to November 1852, when El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua created a Federation of Central America (Federacion de Centro America). Guatemalan President Justo Rufino Barrios attempted to reunite the nation by force of arms in the 1880s and was killed in the process, like his 1842 predecessor.

The third union of Honduras, Nicaragua, and El Salvador as the Greater Republic of Central America or "Republica Mayor de Centroamerica" lasted from 1896 to 1898. The last attempt occurred between June 1921 and January 1922 when El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Costa Rica formed a (second) Federation of Central America. The treaty establishing this federation was signed at San José, Costa Rica on January 19, 1921. This second Federation was nearly moribund from the start, having only a provisional Federal Council made up of delegates from each state.

Despite the failure of a lasting political union, the concept of Central American reunification, though lacking enthusiasm from the leaders of the individual countries, arose from time to time. In 1856–1857, the region successfully established a military coalition to repel an invasion by American adventurer William Walker. Today, all five nations fly flags that retain the old federal motif of two outer blue bands bounding an inner white stripe. Costa Rica, traditionally the least committed of the five to regional integration, modified its flag significantly in 1848 by darkening the blue and adding a double-wide inner red band, in honor of the French tricolor.

The liberal reforms period
Even though the dates for this period change from country to country, they approximately correspond to the years between 1870 and 1930. During this time, political elites in the five Central American countries advanced reforms on agriculture, commerce, and redefined the relationship between the state, society and the economy. The most relevant political figures during this period were the presidents Justo Rufino Barrios in Guatemala, Rafael Zaldivar in El Salvador, Braulio Carrillo Colina and Tomas Guardia in Costa Rica, Marco Aurelio Soto in Honduras, and José Santos Zelaya in Nicaragua. The key result of this period in all the Central American countries was a transition from communal to private ownership of land. The extent to which liberals targeted common lands for privatization varied from country to country. Likewise, there were important differences in the size of the commercial landholding estate. Another variation among the policies promoted by the liberal governments was the use of coercion and security organizations in to implement reforms to the land ownership policies.

20th century
In 1907, a Central American Court of Justice was created. On December 13, 1960, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua established the Central American Common Market (CACM). Costa Rica chose not to participate in the CACM. The goals for the CACM were to create greater political unification and success of import substitution industrialization policies. The project was an immediate economic success but was abandoned after the 1969 "Football War" between El Salvador and Honduras.

By the 1930s the United Fruit Company owned 3.5 million acres of land in Central America and the Caribbean and was the single largest land owner in Guatemala. Such holdings gave it great power over the governments of small countries. That was one of the factors that led to the coining of the phrase Banana republic.

A Central American Parliament has operated, as a purely advisory body, since 1991. The regional parliament seat deputies from the four former members of the Union (Nicaragua, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras), as well as from Panama and the Dominican Republic.

Another initiative is known as Free Movement of people in the CA-4, which has opened the borders between Nicaragua and Guatemala removing the need to carry a passport to cross borders, just a national ID (cédula de identidad) is enough to cross borders. This initiative is the result of negotiations of the Central American Commission of Directors of Migration (OCAM) with the support of the International Organization for Migration (IOM). This initiative has been in effect since 2007.

History of Central American nations

 * History of Belize
 * History of Costa Rica
 * History of Guatemala
 * History of El Salvador
 * History of Honduras
 * History of Nicaragua
 * History of Panama

Colonial era

 * Brown, Richmond F. Juan Fermín de Aycinena, Central American Colonial Entrepreneur, 1729–1796. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1997.
 * Dym, Jordana and Christophe Belaubre, eds. Politics, Economy, and Society in Bourbon Central America. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 2007.
 * Gerhard, Peter. The Southeast Frontier of New Spain. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1979.
 * Jones, Grant D., The conquest of the last Maya kingdom. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1998.
 * Jones, Grant D., Maya resistance to Spanish rule: time and history on a colonial frontier. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, c. 1989.
 * Kinkead, D.T., ed. Urbanization in Colonial Central America. Seville 1985.
 * Lanning, John Tate, The Eighteenth-Century Enlightenment in the University of San Carlos de Guatemala. Ithaca: Cornell University Press 2001.
 * MacLeod, Murdo J., Spanish Central America: A Socioeconomic History, 1520–1720. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1973.
 * Patch, Robert W. Indians and the Political Economy of Colonial Central America, 1670–1810. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 2013.
 * Sherman, William. Forced Native Labor in Sixteenth Century Central America. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1979.
 * Wortman, Miles. Government and Society in Colonial Central America. New York 1982.

Post-independence

 * Bethell, Leslie. "The Cambridge History of Latin America". Vol. 3, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2009.
 * Booth, John A., Christine J. Wade, and Thomas Walker, eds. Understanding Central America: Global Forces, Rebellion, and Change (Westview Press, 2014)
 * Bulmer-Thomas, Victor. Political Economy of Central America Since 1920. New York: Cambridge University Press 1987.
 * Coatsworth, John H. Central America and the United States: the clients and the `colossus (Twayne Pub, 1994)
 * LaFeber, Walter. Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America (2nd edition). New York, Norton & Company, 1993.
 * LeoGrande, William M. Our Own Backyard: The United States in Central America, 1977–1992 (Univ of North Carolina Press, 1998) Online edition
 * Ropp, Steve C., and James A. Morris. "Central America: Crisis and Adaptation". Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984. ISBN 978-0-393-01787-8

title: History of Central America


text:
410s BC

This decade witnessed the continuing decline of the Achaemenid Empire, fierce warfare amongst the Greek city-states during the Peloponnesian War, the ongoing Warring States period in Zhou dynasty China, and the closing years of the Olmec civilization (lasting from c. 1200–400 BC) in modern-day Mexico.

Significant people

 * Euphemus of Athens, Archon of Athens. In office 417-416 BC
 * Euripides of Athens, playwright
 * Socrates of Athens, philosopher
 * Sophocles of Athens, playwright
 * Thucydides of Athens, historian and author of the History of the Peloponnesian War
 * Hannibal Mago, King of Carthage, r. 440–406 BC
 * Weilieh, Zhou dynasty king of China, r. 425–402 BC
 * Tharrhypas, King of Epirus, r. 430–390 BC
 * Perdiccas II, King of Macedon, r. 454–413 BC
 * Archelaus I, King of Macedon, r. 413–399 BC
 * Mahapadma Nanda, King (and founder) of the Nanda Dynasty in Magadha (in Ancient India), r. c. 420–362 BC
 * Kosho, legendary Emperor of Japan, r. 475–393 BC
 * Amanineteyerike, King of Kush r. 431–405 BC
 * Darius II, King of the Achaemenid Persian Empire r. 423–404 BC
 * Amyrtaeus of Egypt, Anti-Achaemenid rebel and future Pharaoh of Egypt
 * Joiada of Judah, High-Priest of Israel, held position 433–410 BC
 * Johanan of Judah, High-priest of Israel, held position 410–371 BC
 * Malachi of Judah, prophet (according to Bible)
 * Tissaphernes of Persia, Satrap of Lydia and Caria
 * Abdemon, King of Salamis, r. 420–410 BC
 * Evagoras, King of Salamis, r. 410–374 BC
 * Pleistoanax (Agaid king r. 458–401 BC) and Agis II (Eurypontid king r. 427–400 BC), co-kings of Sparta.
 * Seuthes I, King of Thrace, r. 424–410 BC
 * Amadocus I, King of Thrace, r. 410–390 BC

Contemporaries of future importance

 * Artaxerxes of Persia, Achaemenid prince and future King of Persia
 * Cyrus the Younger of Persia, Achaemenid prince and satrap
 * Plato of Athens, student of Socrates and future philosopher
 * Xenophon of Athens, soldier and future writer of Anabasis

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 410s BC


text:
46 BC

Year 46 BC was the last year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Caesar and Lepidus (or, less frequently, year 708 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 46 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

This year marks the change from the pre-Julian Roman calendar to the Julian calendar. The Romans had to periodically add a leap month every few years to keep the calendar year in sync with the solar year but had missed a few with the chaos of the civil wars of the late republic. Julius Caesar added Mercedonius (23 days) and two other intercalary months (33 and 34 days respectively) to the 355-day lunar year, to recalibrate the calendar in preparation for his calendar reform, which went into effect in 45 BC. This year therefore had 445 days, and was nicknamed the annus confusionis ("year of confusion") and serves as the longest recorded calendar year in human history. The actual planetary orbit-year remained the same.

Roman Republic

 * Consuls: Gaius Julius Caesar, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus.
 * Julius Caesar establishes Julia Paterna Arelate as a colony in Gaul for veterans of the Sixth Legion, at the present day site of Arles.
 * Civil War:
 * January 4 – Titus Labienus fights Julius Caesar in the Battle of Ruspina.
 * April - Caesar defeats Pompey loyalists at Thapsus.
 * April 6 – Caesar defeats the combined army of Pompeian followers and Numidians under Metellus Scipio and Juba I of Numidia at Thapsus. After the battle Caesar grants Legio V Alaudae the right to bear the elephant symbol on its shields and standards, for bravery against a charge of elephants.
 * April 20 – Cicero, in Rome, writes to Varro "If our voices are no longer heard in the Senate and in the Forum, let us follow the example of the ancient sages and serve our country through our writings, concentrating on questions of ethics and constitutional law."
 * Caesar's erstwhile mistress, Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt, and his son by her, Caesarion, take up residence in one of the dictator's estates on the Tiber.
 * September 26 – Julius Caesar dedicates a temple to his mythical ancestor Venus Genetrix in fulfillment of a vow he made at the battle of Pharsalus.
 * November – Caesar leaves for Hispania to deal with a fresh outbreak of resistance.
 * Caesar reforms the Roman calendar to create the Julian calendar. The transitional year is extended to 445 days to synchronize the new calendar and the seasonal cycle. The Julian Calendar would remain the standard in the western world for over 1600 years, until superseded by the Gregorian Calendar in 1582.
 * Caesar appoints his nephew Octavian his heir.
 * Caesar subdues a mutiny of his Tenth Legion.
 * Caesar celebrates his Gallic Triumph, after which Vercingetorix is executed. The celebrations run for forty days in Rome, and include public banquets, plays and gladiatorial games.

Births

 * Antipater, son of Herod the Great (d. 4 BC)
 * Lucius Seius Strabo, Roman prefect of the Praetorian Guard (d. 16 AD)
 * Publius Quinctilius Varus, Roman politician and general (d. 9 AD)

Deaths

 * April 12 - Marcus Porcius Cato (the Younger), Roman politician (b. 95 BC) (commits suicide)
 * Faustus Cornelius Sulla, Roman politician and quaestor
 * Juba I, king of Numidia (killed after the Battle of Thapsus)
 * Saburra, General of Juba I (killed in battle by Publius Sittius)
 * Lucius Afranius, Roman consul and governor (b. 112 BC)
 * Lucius Manlius Torquatus, Roman politician and general
 * Marcus Petreius, Roman politician and general (b. 110 BC) (commits suicide)
 * Quintus Caecilius Metellus Scipio, Roman consul and general (commits suicide)
 * Vercingetorix, Gaulish king and chieftain of the Arverni tribe (executed at the end of a triumph)

title: 46 BC


text:
220

Year 220 (CCXX) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Antonius and Eutychianus (or, less frequently, year 973 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 220 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * The Goths invade Asia Minor and the Balkans.
 * An Indian delegation visits the Roman emperor Elagabalus.
 * Great frost in Roman Britain is said to have lasted for five months.
 * Imperator Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (Elagabalus) and Publius Valerius Comazon become Roman consuls.
 * Elagabalus divorces Julia Paula and marries Aquilia Severa, a Vestal Virgin. The wedding causes an enormous controversy – traditionally, the punishment for breaking celibacy is death by being buried alive.

Parthian Empire

 * King Ardashir I, founder of the Sassanid dynasty, gains support from some Parthian sub-kings and revolts against the rule of Vologases VI. Ardashir, a grandson of Sasan, had ruled Persis since 208 and six years earlier gained control of the region surrounding Persepolis.

China

 * March 15 – Cao Cao, Imperial Chancellor and ruler of the Kingdom of Wei, dies.
 * December 11 – Cao Pi receives the abdication of Emperor Xian of Han and proclaims himself emperor of Cao Wei. This ends the Han dynasty, the former emperor being created Duke of Shanyang.

Religion

 * The Wei dynasty gives official recognition to Taoism as its religious sect, and the sect’s celestial masters reciprocate, by giving spiritual approbation to the Wei as successors to the Han. By the end of the century, most powerful families in northern China have subscribed to Daoist principles.

Births

 * Wei Guan, Chinese official of the Cao Wei state and the Western Jin dynasty (d. 291)

Deaths

 * March 15 – Cao Cao, Chinese warlord of the Eastern Han dynasty (b. 155)
 * June 13 – Xiahou Dun, Chinese general serving under the Eastern Han dynasty warlord Cao Cao
 * December – Cheng Yu, Chinese official serving under the Eastern Han dynasty warlord Cao Cao (b. 141)
 * Fa Zheng, Chinese official serving under the Eastern Han dynasty warlord Liu Bei (b. 176)
 * Guan Yu, Chinese general serving under the Eastern Han dynasty warlord Liu Bei
 * Guan Ping, son of Guan Yu
 * Huang Zhong, Chinese general serving under the Eastern Han dynasty warlord Liu Bei
 * Lü Meng, Chinese general serving under the Eastern Han dynasty warlord Sun Quan (b. 178)
 * Bassilla, Roman actress, dancer and singer (approximate year)
 * Tertullian, first Christian author to produce an extensive corpus of Latin Christian literature (b. 155)

title: 220


text:
221

Year 221 (CCXXI) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Gratus and Vitellius (or, less frequently, year 974 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 221 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * June 26 – Emperor Elagabalus adopts his cousin Alexander Severus as his heir, and receives the title of Caesar.
 * July – Elagabalus is forced to divorce Aquilia Severa, and marries his third wife Annia Faustina. After five months he returns to Severa, and claims that the original divorce is invalid. The marriage is symbolic, because Elagabalus appears to be homosexual or bisexual. According to the historian Cassius Dio, he has a stable relationship with his chariot driver, the slave Hierocles.

Asia

 * May 15 – Liu Bei, Chinese warlord and descendant of the imperial clan of the Han dynasty, proclaims himself emperor in Chengdu, Sichuan, and establishes the state of Shu Han.

Births

 * Liu Ling, Chinese poet and scholar (d. 300)
 * Yang Hu, Chinese general and politician (d. 278)

Deaths

 * August 4 – Lady Zhen, Chinese noblewoman (b. 183)
 * Dong He (or Youzai), Chinese official and politician
 * Mi Zhu, Chinese general and politician (b. 165)
 * Yu Jin, Chinese general serving under Cao Cao
 * Zhang Fei, Chinese general and politician

title: 221


text:
History of North America

The history of North America encompasses the past developments of people populating the continent of North America. While it was commonly accepted that the continent first became inhabited by humans when individuals migrated across the Bering Sea 40,000 to 17,000 years ago, more recent discoveries may have pushed those estimates back at least another 90,000 years. People settled throughout the continent and, over time, developed into diverse communities, from the Inuit in the far north to the Mayans and Aztecs in the south. These complex communities each developed their own unique cultures and ways of life.

Records of European travel to North America begin with the Norse colonization in the tenth century AD. In 985, they founded a settlement on Greenland that persisted until the early 1400s. They also explored the east coast of Canada, but their settlements there were much smaller and shorter-lived. With the Age of Exploration and the voyages of Christopher Columbus (starting in 1492), Europeans began to arrive in the Americas in large numbers and develop colonial ambitions for both North and South America. An influx of Europeans soon followed Columbus and overwhelmed native populations as North America became a staging ground for ongoing European rivalries. The continent was divided by three prominent European powers: England, France, and Spain. The influence of colonization by these states on North American cultures is still apparent today.

Conflict over resources in North America ensued in various wars between these powers, but the new European colonies gradually developed desires for independence. Revolutions, such as the American Revolution and the Mexican War of Independence, created new, independent states that came to dominate North America. The Canadian Confederation formed in 1867, marking the beginning of the modern political landscape of North America.

North American states have, since the 19th century, developed increasingly deep connections with each other. Although some conflicts have occurred, the continent has enjoyed general peace and cooperation, as well as open commerce and trade, between its states. Modern developments include the opening of free trade agreements in 1994 and heightened emigration rates and drug trafficking concerns in Mexico and Latin America.

Pre-Columbian North America
The specifics of Paleo-Indians' migration to and throughout the Americas, including the exact dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion. For years, the traditional theory has been that these early migrants moved into the Beringia land bridge between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska around 40,000–17,000 years ago, when sea levels were significantly lowered due to the Quaternary glaciation. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets. Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific coast to South America. Evidence of the latter would since have been covered by a sea level rise of hundreds of meters following the last ice age.

Archaeologists contend that Paleo-Indian migration out of Beringia (eastern Alaska), ranges from 40,000 to around 16,500 years ago. This time range is a hot source of debate and promises to continue as such for years to come. The few agreements achieved to date are the origin from Central Asia, with widespread habitation of the Americas during the end of the last glacial period, or more specifically what is known as the late glacial maximum, around 16,000–13,000 years before present. However, older alternative theories exist, including migration from Europe. Stone tools, particularly projectile points and scrapers, are the primary evidence of early human activity in the Americas. Crafted lithic flaked tools are used by archaeologists and anthropologists to classify cultural periods. Scientific evidence links indigenous Americans to Asian peoples, specifically eastern Siberian populations. Indigenous peoples of the Americas have been linked to North Asian populations by linguistic dialects, the distribution of blood types, and in genetic composition as reflected by molecular data, such as DNA. 8,000–7,000 BCE (10,000–9,000 years ago) the climate stabilized, leading to a rise in population and lithic technology advances, resulting in a more sedentary lifestyle.

Pre-Columbian era
Before contact with Europeans, the indigenous peoples of North America were divided into many different polities, from small bands of a few families to large empires. They lived in numerous culture areas, which roughly correspond to geographic and biological zones. Societies adapted their subsistence strategies to their homelands, and some societies were hunter-gatherers, some horticulturists, some agriculturalists, and many a mix of these. Native groups can also be classified by their language family (e.g. Athapascan or Uto-Aztecan).

People with similar languages did not always share the same material culture, nor were they always allies.

The Archaic period in the Americas saw a changing environment featuring a warmer more arid climate and the disappearance of the last megafauna. The majority of population groups at this time were still highly mobile hunter-gatherers; but now individual groups started to focus on resources available to them locally, thus with the passage of time there is a pattern of increasing regional generalization, for example the Southwest, Arctic, Poverty Point culture, Plains Arctic, Dalton, and Plano traditions. This kind of regional adaptation became the norm, with reliance less on hunting and gathering among many cultures, with a more mixed economy of small game, fish, seasonally wild vegetables and harvested plant foods. Many groups continued as big game hunters, but their hunting traditions became more varied, and meat procurement methods more sophisticated. The placement of artifacts and materials within an Archaic burial site indicated social differentiation based upon status in some groups.

Agriculture was invented independently in two regions of North America: the Eastern Woodlands and Mesoamerica. The more southern cultural groups of North America were responsible for the domestication of many common crops now used around the world, such as tomatoes and squash. Perhaps most importantly they domesticated one of the world's major staples, maize (corn). During the Plains Village period, agriculture and bison-hunting were important to Great Plains tribes.

As a result of the development of agriculture in the south, many important cultural advances were made there. For example, the Maya civilization developed a writing system, built huge pyramids, had a complex calendar, and developed the concept of zero 500 years before anyone in the Old World. The Mayan culture was still present when the Spanish arrived in Central America, but political dominance in the area had shifted to the Aztec Empire further north.

In the Southwest of North America, Hohokam and Ancestral Pueblo societies had been engaged in agricultural production with ditch irrigation and a sedentary village life for at least two millennia before the Spanish arrived in the 1540s. Upon the arrival of the Europeans in the "New World", native peoples found their culture changed drastically. As such, their affiliation with political and cultural groups changed as well, several linguistic groups went extinct, and others changed quite quickly. The name and cultures that Europeans recorded for the natives were not necessarily the same as the ones they had used a few generations before, or the ones in use today.

Population estimates
According to the Maddison Project at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands, the population estimates of North America break down as follows. For the year 1500 AD, Angus Maddison estimates a population of 7.5 million for pre-Hispanic Mexico. He estimates that the population of what became Canada was probably close to 250,000 and 2 million for what became the United States. Maddison's total for all of pre-contact North America, then, is 9.75 million.

In 2020, indigenous peoples numbered 34 million (25.7 million for Mexico, 6.7 million for the United States, and 1.6 million for Canada), approximately 7 percent of North America's total population of 493.4 million.

Early contact

There was limited contact between North American people and the outside world before 1492. Several theoretical contacts have been proposed, but the earliest physical evidence comes from the Norse or Vikings. Erik the Red founded a colony on Greenland in 985 CE. Erik's son Leif Eriksson is believed to have reached the Island of Newfoundland circa 1000, naming the discovery Vinland. The only Norse site outside of Greenland yet discovered in North America is at L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland and Labrador in Canada. All of the Norse colonies were eventually abandoned.

The Norse voyages did not become common knowledge in the Old World. Even the permanent settlement in Greenland, which persisted until the early 1400s, received little attention and Europeans remained largely ignorant of the existence of the Americas until 1492. As part of a general Age of Discovery, Italian sailor Christopher Columbus proposed a voyage west from Europe to find a shorter route to Asia. He eventually received the backing of Isabella I and Ferdinand II, Queen and King of newly united Spain. In 1492 Columbus reached land in the Bahamas.

Almost 500 years after the Norse, John Cabot explored the east coast of what would become Canada in 1497. Giovanni da Verrazzano explored the East Coast of North America from Florida to presumably Newfoundland in 1524. Jacques Cartier made a series of voyages on behalf of the French crown in 1534 and explored the St. Lawrence River.

European colonization
Colonization refers to large-scale population movements in which the migrants maintain strong links with their or their ancestors' former country, gaining significant advantages over other inhabitants of the territory by such links. When colonization takes place under the protection of clearly colonial political structures, it may most handily be called settler colonialism. This often involves the settlers' entirely dispossessing earlier inhabitants, or instituting legal and other structures which systematically disadvantage them.

Initially, European activity consisted mostly of trade and exploration. Eventually Europeans began to establish settlements. The three principal colonial powers in North America were Spain, England, and France, although eventually other powers such as the Netherlands and Sweden also received holdings on the continent.

Settlement by the Spanish started the European colonization of the Americas. They gained control of most of the largest islands in the Caribbean and conquered the Aztec empire, gaining control of present-day Mexico and Central America. This was the beginning of the Spanish Empire in the New World. The first successful Spanish settlement in continental North America was Veracruz founded by Hernán Cortés in 1519, followed by many other settlements in colonial New Spain, including Spanish Florida, Central America, New Mexico, and later California. The Spanish claimed all of North and South America (with the exception of Brazil), and no other European power challenged those claims by planting colonies until over a century after Spain's first settlements.

The first French settlements were Port Royal (1604) and Quebec City (1608) in what is now Nova Scotia and Quebec. The Fur Trade soon became the primary business on the continent and as a result transformed the indigenous North American ways of life.

The first permanent English settlements were at Jamestown (1607) (along with its satellite, Bermuda in 1609) and Plymouth (1620), in what are today Virginia and Massachusetts respectively. Further to the south, plantation slavery became the main industry of the West Indies, and this gave rise to the beginning of the Atlantic slave trade.

Colonial era

By the year 1663 the French crown had taken over control of New France from the fur-trading companies, and the English charter colonies gave way to more metropolitan control. This ushered in a new era of more formalized colonialism in North America.

Rivalry between the European powers created a series of wars on the North American landmass that would have great impact on the development of the colonies. Territory often changed hands multiple times. Peace was not achieved until French forces in North America were vanquished at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Quebec City, and France ceded most of her claims outside of the Caribbean. The end of the French presence in North America was a disaster for most Native nations in Eastern North America, who lost their major ally against the expanding Anglo-American settlements. During Pontiac's Rebellion from 1763 to 1766, a confederation of Great Lakes-area tribes fought a somewhat successful campaign to defend their rights over their lands west of the Appalachian Mountains, which had been "reserved" for them under the Royal Proclamation of 1763.

Viceroyalty of New Spain (present-day Mexico) was the name of the viceroy-ruled territories of the Spanish Empire in Asia, North America and its peripheries from 1535 to 1821.

Revolutions
The coming of the American Revolution had a great impact across the continent. Most importantly it directly led to the creation of the United States of America. However, the associated American Revolutionary War was an important war that touched all corners of the region. The flight of the United Empire Loyalists led to the creation of English Canada as a separate community.

Meanwhile, Spain's hold on Mexico was weakening. Independence was declared in 1810 by Miguel Hidalgo, starting the Mexican War of Independence. In 1813, José María Morelos and the Congress of Anáhuac signed the Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America, the first legal document where the separation of the New Spain with respect to Spain is proclaimed. Spain finally recognized Mexico's independence in 1821.

Expansion era

From the time of independence of the United States, that country expanded rapidly to the west, acquiring the massive Louisiana territory in 1803. Between 1810 and 1811 a Native confederacy under Tecumseh fought unsuccessfully to keep the Americans from pushing them out of the Great Lakes. Tecumseh's followers then went north into Canada, where they helped the British to block an American attempt to seize Canada during the War of 1812. Following the war, British and Irish settlement in Canada increased dramatically.

US expansion was complicated by the division between "free" and "slave" states, which led to the Missouri Compromise in 1820. Likewise, Canada faced a division between French and English communities that led to the outbreak of civil strife in 1837. Mexico faced constant political tensions between liberals and conservatives, as well as the rebellion of the English-speaking region of Texas, which declared itself the Republic of Texas in 1836. In 1845 Texas joined the United States, which would later lead to the Mexican–American War in 1846 that began American imperialism. As a result of conflict with Mexico, the United States made further territorial gains in California and the Southwest.

Conflict, confederation, and invasion
The secession of the Confederate States and the resulting civil war rocked American society. It eventually led to the end of slavery in the United States, the destruction and later reconstruction of most of the South, and tremendous loss of life. From the conflict, the United States emerged as a powerful industrialized nation.

Partly as a response to the threat of American power, four of the Canadian colonies agreed to federate in 1867, creating the Dominion of Canada. The new nation was not fully sovereign, but enjoyed considerable independence from Britain. With the addition of British Columbia, Canada would expand to the Pacific by 1871 and establish a transcontinental railway, the Canadian Pacific, by 1885.

In Mexico conflicts like the Reform War left the state weak, and open to foreign influence. This led to the Second French Empire to invade Mexico.

Late 19th century
In both the United States and Canada, the second half of the 19th century witnessed massive inflows of immigration to settle the West. These lands were not uninhabited however: in the United States the government fought numerous Indian Wars against the native inhabitants. In Canada, relations were more peaceful, as a result of the Numbered Treaties, but two rebellions broke out in 1870 and 1885 on the prairies. The British colony of Newfoundland became a dominion in 1907.

In Mexico, the entire era was dominated by the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz.

World War I
As a part of the British Empire Canada immediately was at war in 1914. Canada bore the brunt of several major battles during the early stages of the war including the use of poison gas attacks at Ypres. Losses became grave, and the government eventually brought in conscription, despite the fact this was against the wishes of the majority of French Canadians. In the ensuing Conscription Crisis of 1917, riots broke out on the streets of Montreal. In neighboring Newfoundland, the new dominion suffered a devastating loss on July 1, 1916, the First day on the Somme.

The United States stayed apart from the conflict until 1917, joining the Entente powers. The United States was then able to play a crucial role at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 that shaped interwar Europe.

Mexico was not part of the war as the country was embroiled in the Mexican Revolution at the time.

Interwar years
The 1920s brought an age of great prosperity in the United States, and to a lesser degree Canada. But the Wall Street Crash of 1929 combined with drought ushered in a period of economic hardship in the United States and Canada.

From 1937 to 1949, this was a popular uprising against the anti-Catholic Mexican government of the time, set off specifically by the anti-clerical provisions of the Mexican Constitution of 1917.

World War II
Once again Canada found itself at war before her neighbors, however even Canadian contributions were slight before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. The entry of the United States into the war helped to tip the balance in favor of the Allies. On August 19, 1942, a force of some 6000, largely Canadian, infantry was landed near the French channel port of Dieppe. The German defenders under General von Rundstedt destroyed the invaders. 907 Canadians were killed and almost 2,500 captured (many wounded). Lessons learned in this abortive raid were put to good use 2 years later in the successful Normandy invasion.

Two Mexican tankers, transporting oil to the United States, were attacked and sunk by the Germans in the Gulf of Mexico waters, in 1942. The incident happened in spite of Mexico's neutrality at that time. This led Mexico to declare war on the Axis nations and enter the conflict.

The destruction of Europe wrought by the war vaulted all North American countries to more important roles in world affairs. The United States especially emerged as a "superpower".

Postwar
The early Cold War era saw the United States as the most powerful nation in a Western coalition of which Mexico and Canada were also a part. At home, the United States witnessed convulsive change especially in the area of race relations. In Canada this was mirrored by the Quiet Revolution and the emergence of Quebec nationalism.

Mexico experienced an era of huge economic growth after World War II, a heavy industrialization process and a growth of its middle class, a period known in Mexican history as the "El Milagro Mexicano" (Mexican miracle).

The Caribbean saw the beginnings of decolonization, while on the largest island the Cuban Revolution introduced Cold War rivalries into Latin America.

In 1959 the non-contiguous US territories of Alaska and Hawaii became US states.

Vietnam War and stagflation
During this time the United States became involved in the Vietnam War as part of the global Cold War. This war would later prove to be highly divisive in American society, and American troops were withdrawn from Indochina in 1975 with the Khmer Rouge's capture of Phnom Penh on April 17, the Vietnam People's Army's capture of Saigon on April 30 and the Pathet Lao's capture of Vientiane on December 2.

Canada during this era was dominated by the leadership of Pierre Elliot Trudeau. Eventually in 1982 at the end of his tenure, Canada received a new constitution.

Both the United States and Canada experienced stagflation, which eventually led to a revival in small-government politics.

The 1980s
Mexican presidents Miguel de la Madrid, in the early 1980s and Carlos Salinas de Gortari in the late 1980s, started implementing liberal economic strategies that were seen as a good move. However, Mexico experienced a strong economic recession in 1982 and the Mexican peso suffered a devaluation. Presidential elections held in 1988 were forecast to be very competitive and they were. Leftist candidate Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, son of Lázaro Cárdenas one of the most beloved Mexican presidents, created a successful campaign and was reported as the leader in several opinion polls. On July 6, 1988, the day of the elections, a system shutdown of the IBM AS/400 that the government was using to count the votes occurred, presumably by accident. The government simply stated that "se cayó el sistema" ("the system crashed"), to refer to the incident. When the system was finally restored, the PRI candidate Carlos Salinas was declared the official winner. It was the first time since the Revolution that a non-PRI candidate was so close to winning the presidency.

In the United States president Ronald Reagan attempted to move the United States back towards a hard anti-communist line in foreign affairs, in what his supporters saw as an attempt to assert moral leadership (compared to the Soviet Union) in the world community. Domestically, Reagan attempted to bring in a package of privatization and trickle down economics to stimulate the economy.

Canada's Brian Mulroney ran on a similar platform to Reagan, and also favored closer trade ties with the United States. This led to the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement in January 1989.

Recent history
The End of the Cold War and the beginning of the era of sustained economic expansion coincided during the 1990s. On January 1, 1994, Canada, Mexico, and the United States signed the North American Free Trade Agreement, creating the world's largest free trade area. Quebec held a referendum in 1995 for national sovereignty in which 51% voted no to 49% yes. In 2000, Vicente Fox became the first non-PRI candidate to win the Mexican presidency in over 70 years.

The optimism of the 1990s was shattered by the 9/11 attacks of 2001 on the United States, which prompted the 20-year period of military intervention war in Afghanistan, which Canada also participated in. Meanwhile, Canada and Mexico both did not support the United States later moves to invade Iraq.

From January 2007, drug war in Mexico evolved into an actual military conflict with each year more deadly than the last.

Starting in early 2008, the Great Recession in the three North American nations began, which eventually triggered a worldwide recession in the Fall of 2008 and did not recover until 2009. In 2009, Barack Obama was inaugurated as the first African American to be President of the United States. On December 18, 2011, the Iraq War was declared formally over once the troops had pulled out.

In the 2016 United States presidential election, Donald Trump was elected 45th President of the United States, defeating Hillary Clinton, and in 2017, he was sworn in as president. Between January 2020 and May 2022, the three North American nations were impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic and Deltacron hybrid variant, which claimed the lives of 1.3 million people by May 2022.

In 2020, Joe Biden was elected 46th President of the United States, who defeated Donald Trump in 2020 presidential election, although Trump refused to concede the election, and on January 6, 2021, a group of his supporters stormed the United States Capitol in an unsuccessful effort to disrupt the presidential Electoral College vote count.

Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau called a snap election in 2021 to try and increase the Liberals seat share and reach a majority government. The results of 2021 federal election were mostly unchanged from 2019 federal election, with the Liberals forming another minority government.

By region

 * American Old West
 * History of Central America
 * History of Latin America
 * History of New England
 * History of the Caribbean
 * History of the Southern United States
 * History of the west coast of North America
 * Histories of cities in the United States
 * History of cities in Mexico
 * History of the US States and Territories
 * Local history in Canada

title: History of North America


text:
User talk:Christian List

I have tried to get all the year pages done to an extent where they no longer appear on the most wanted page. It turned out to be a bigger job than I expected, but I will get there eventually.

Christian, Sunday, May 5, 2002
 * Thanks Christian! It's nasty work, but it's really appreciated. --Stephen Gilbert

Sorry I missed welcoming you earlier, so here it goes: Welcome to the 'pedia! Magnificent job creating all those year templates -- you are a credit to the project. Do you have a fast method of creating these articles, or do you do make these the tedious way? Cheers! --maveric149

Hi Christian and welcome.

I have a question -- you redirected Boleslaw III of Poland to Boleslaw III, yet by our community-agreed standards, the former is the more desirable title. Is there some reason for this? JHK
 * No, you are right. It should have been the other way around. My mistake. Christian

Hi Christian! New standards digest at history standards in place for your vote! JHK

Hi Christian. I finally noticed the five years on each side of the BC pages. I'm trying to fix up the ones I didn't complete correctly. Thanks Bernfarr

Hello--I notice you uploaded an image with no name. Do you know how you did that? (Last time someone did it, Lee tried to delete the image but a bug in the software deleted the front page instead.) Cheers,  --KQ
 * It was by mistake, I accidentally hit the upload file button without chosing any file. Christian
 * Interesting. Well, it didn't link on the upload page so maybe the bug's taken care of.  --KQ

Thanks for following me around and pointing all my 60s to 1960s and so forth for all the other decades. If only someone would do that for all the other mistakes I've made. Ortolan88 20:59 Jul 20, 2002 (PDT)
 * I'm happy to be of assistance -- Christian

Goddag Christian. Jeg har bemærket at den engelske site Politics of Denmark siger at Nyrup stadivæk er statsministeren. I don't know much about the current political situation in Denmark, but I am sure he is no longer the prime minister. Would you be interested in updating that page? (Undskyld at jeg tager fejl når jeg taler dansk, men det er sjov at prøve at taler jeres sprog, selvom jeg kan ikke tale sproget særlig godt. :))  soulpatch.
 * Dit danske er da vældig godt, har du været i Danmark længe ?
 * I have updated Politics of Denmark with the current political situation today. -- Christian 19:27 Nov 10, 2002 (UTC)

 * Tak, Christian! (Jeg bor ikke i Danmark, men jeg elsker at lære andre sprog, og jeg lærte mig en smule dansk.  Jeg har besøget vores land tre gange på ferie, og jeg vil gerne rejse derover igen i fremtiden.  Men jeg bor i USA).  soulpatch

Thank you for starting to check over the danish words on the Eurovision Articles. - fonzy
 * No problem, but why is Denmark missing from 1967 to 1977 ? I am almost sure we participated most of those years. -- Christian

No Denmark did not take part in those years. - fonzy

Wow you certainly are doing alot of editing... Ill have to read through some of the stuff; not much of a historian really but I think it would be fun reading about some of this stuff. Jedi Dan 17:55 Apr 23, 2003 (UTC)

 * I'm just adding language links to the danish Wikipedia, nothing really interesting :-) Christian 18:01 Apr 23, 2003 (UTC)

Hello Christian, I have a list of interwiki missing for da: You can find it on meta as well as all the other wikipedia missing interwiki at http://meta.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:LinksFR.20031109.zip. Can you please take care of it ? :) thx !!

Hashar 23:39, 9 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Hi, Christian. I was wondering if you can help me get the articles or at least some of them into the Dansk wiki. I have limited linguistic skills, but would like the articles to which I contribute, to be accessable to as many people as possible. This is the first attempt I've made at inter-wiki relations.

JCarriker 1 Jan 2004

Hi! Can you please translate the election notice * into Danish and post it prominently on the Recent Changes page of the Danish Wikipedia. Once you have done that, please let me know, and leave me a link where I can find it. Thanks. Danny 00:25, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

Interwiki Bot Warnfiles
Hallo, new interwiki bot warnfiles are available at Interwiki bot. --Head

Vandal vs. userpage
Your userpage was attacked. Damage was reverted. -- Grunt  ҈  17:56, 2004 Sep 3 (UTC)

 * Thank you. --Christian 19:42, 3 Sep 2004 (UTC)

4Fod
As ambassador to the Danish Wikipedia, could you point people to 4Fod and 4Fod? This was originally posted to the English Wikipedia, and I copied it do the Danish one, but nothing much seems to have happened to it. I know just about enough Danish to say that I don't speak Danish (jeg kan ikke dansk) but that's all. For all I know it could be vanity or patent nonsense. TIA. JRM 11:43, 2004 Nov 5 (UTC)

 * The article looks mostly okay (needs some markup though). I alerted the danes, so let's see if somebody wants to translate it. --Christian 18:57, 5 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Danish wikipedians' notice board
You have shown an interest in Denmark or Danish related topics in the past, so I invite you to have a look at Danish wikipedians' notice board. It is a tool to help people interested in Denmark post articles they'd like to see, and to keep track of the existent coverage of Denmark. It can also serve as a place to address concerns regarding any aspect of Danish coverage on the english wikipedia. Hope you find it useful! In any case, could you please look at it and fill in any articles you know of that are not covered by the list? Thanks,

Peregrine981 04:14, Dec 9, 2004 (UTC)

 * Tak, den er i nu i min overvågningsliste. --Christian 01:33, 16 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Article Licensing
Hi, I've started a drive to get users to multi-license all of their contributions that they've made to either (1) all U.S. state, county, and city articles or (2) all articles, using the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike (CC-by-sa) v1.0 and v2.0 Licenses or into the public domain if they prefer. The CC-by-sa license is a true free documentation license that is similar to Wikipedia's license, the GFDL, but it allows other projects, such as WikiTravel, to use our articles. Since you are among the top 1000 Wikipedians by edits, I was wondering if you would be willing to multi-license all of your contributions or at minimum those on the geographic articles. Over 90% of people asked have agreed. For More Information:
 * Multi-Licensing FAQ - Lots of questions answered
 * Multi-Licensing Guide
 * Free the Rambot Articles Project

To allow us to track those users who muli-license their contributions, many users copy and paste the " " template into their user page, but there are other options at Template messages/User namespace. The following examples could also copied and pasted into your user page:

 * Option 1
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions, with the exception of my user pages, as described below:

OR
 * Option 2
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions to any U.S. state, county, or city article as described below:

Or if you wanted to place your work into the public domain, you could replace " " with "  ". If you only prefer using the GFDL, I would like to know that too. Please let me know what you think at my talk page. It's important to know either way so no one keeps asking. – Ram-Man (comment) (talk)  13:43, Dec 9, 2004 (UTC)

lots of edits, not an admin
Hi - I made a list of users who've been around long enough to have made lots of edits but aren't admins. If you're at all interested in becoming an admin, can you please add an '*' immediately before your name in this list? I've suggested folks nominating someone might want to puruse this list. Thanks. -- Rick Block (talk) 17:55, Jun 12, 2005 (UTC)

 * Thank you, but no. I am already administrator and bureaucrat on the danish Wikipedia and administrator on the norwegian Wikipedia, that is plenty for me. Maybe I'll apply if I get a lot of time on my hands one day, but that does not seem to be happening in any foreseeable future. --Christian 01:30, 16 Jun 2005 (UTC)

User Categorization
Hello! We are working on a new system that will categorize the users. Please take a moment to move your user page into the category Category:Wikipedians in Virginia and removing your name from the Wikipedians/Virginia page.

To add your name to the category, please use the tag   to sort yourself correctly.

--skraz (talk) 15:16, 20 September 2005 (UTC)

 * You were listed on the Wikipedians/Denmark page as living in or being associated with Denmark. As part of the User categorisation project, these lists are being replaced with user categories. If you would like to add yourself to the category that is replacing the page, please visit Category:Danish Wikipedians for instructions.--Rmky87 14:02, 8 October 2005 (UTC)

Visual Basic Classic
I see you have contributed to the Visual Basic article on Wikipedia. Any chance you would like to join in editing the wikibook: http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Programming:Visual_Basic_Classic? --Kjwhitefoot 08:26, 30 September 2005 (UTC)

Please check your WP:NA entry
Greetings, editor! Your name appears on List of non-admins with high edit counts. If you have not done so lately, please take a look at that page and check your listing to be sure that following the particulars are correct: Thank you, and have a wiki wiki day! BD2412 T 04:15, 17 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 1) If you are an admin, please remove your name from the list.
 * 2) If you are currently interested in being considered for adminship, please be sure your name is in bold; if you are opposed to being considered for adminship, please cross out your name (but do not delete it, as it will automatically be re-added in the next page update).
 * 3) Please check to see if you are in the right category for classification by number of edits.

Image Tagging for Image:Wikibus.jpg
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This is an automated notice by OrphanBot. For assistance on the image use policy, see User talk:Carnildo/images. 12:03, 26 March 2006 (UTC)

Still around?
Hi - you haven't edited in a while - are you still here? Cheers! BD2412 T 14:21, 15 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Yes, I'm still here. I'm mostly only active on the Danish Wikipedia though. --Christian 11:56, 18 June 2006 (UTC)

trust on Wikipedia
Hi I got your contact from meta's embassy. :) This is Cathy  from Hong Kong working on a research about trust on Wikipedia.  I wonder if you would kindly contact me at researchingmedia@gmail.com?   I'd like to chat with you about Wikipedia of your language.  Would you kindly drop me your email or IM (Skype, MSN, AIM or ICQ)?  It wouldn't take more than ten minutes, but it would help enormous for us to understand the overall trust-based social landscape of Wikipedia.  Thank you!

--Mapocathy 07:22, 19 June 2006 (UTC)

 * I guess I missed this message. The link is not accessible anymore anyway. --Christian 16:25, 11 September 2007 (UTC)

Danish Wikipedia username usuprtion
Hello, I am Cassanda from the Simple Wikipedia. You are a bureaucrat over at the Danish Wikipedia. I was wondering what the formal policies of that Wikipedia are. I want to usurup the Cassandra account there for SUL purposes, but it has 11 edits. Will you rename that account so I can have the name? See simple:User:Cassandra/SUL for details. 72.67.43.186 (talk) 06:11, 18 June 2008 (UTC)
 * The procedure is to follow the instructions at da:Wikipedia:Anmodning om ændring af brugernavn and make your request at the bottom of that page. Currently we only usurp accounts with valid edits if the owner of the account agrees. --Christian List (talk) 00:32, 24 June 2008 (UTC)

AfD nomination of 130s BC
An article that you have been involved in editing, 130s BC, has been listed for deletion. If you are interested in the deletion discussion, please participate by adding your comments at Articles for deletion/. Thank you.Please contact me if you're unsure why you received this message. Jeepday (talk) 22:52, 27 January 2010 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of 2026

The article 2026 has been proposed for deletion  because of the following concern:
 * Article is an example of WP:CRYSTAL.

While all contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, content or articles may be deleted for any of several reasons.

You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the  notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.

Please consider improving the article to address the issues raised. Removing  will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. The speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. --> Gggh  talk/contribs 14:22, 22 October 2010 (UTC)

Nomination of 2026 for deletion
A discussion has begun about whether the article 2026, which you created or to which you contributed, should be deleted. While contributions are welcome, an article may be deleted if it is inconsistent with Wikipedia policies and guidelines for inclusion, explained in the deletion policy.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/2026 until a consensus is reached, and you are welcome to contribute to the discussion.

You may edit the article during the discussion, including to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion template from the top of the article. --> Gggh  talk/contribs 21:12, 22 October 2010 (UTC)

Notification: changes to "Mark my edits as minor by default" preference
Hello there. This is an automated message to tell you about the gradual phasing out of the preference entitled "Mark all edits minor by default", which you currently have (or very recently had) enabled.

On 13 March 2011, this preference was hidden from the user preferences screen as part of efforts to prevent its accidental misuse (consensus discussion). This had the effect of locking users in to their existing preference, which, in your case, was. To complete the process, your preference will automatically be changed to  in the next few days. This does not require any intervention on your part and you will still be able to manually mark your edits as being minor in the usual way.

For established users such as yourself there is a workaround available involving custom JavaScript. With the script in place, you can continue with this functionality indefinitely (its use is governed by WP:MINOR). If you have any problems, feel free to drop me a note.

Thank you for your understanding and happy editing :) Editing on behalf of User:Jarry1250, LivingBot (talk) 18:16, 15 March 2011 (UTC)

Nomination of 2080s for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article 2080s is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/2080s until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. ☯ Bonkers The Clown  \(^_^)/  Nonsensical Babble  ☯ 11:37, 8 March 2013 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 08:51, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

Nomination of 2018 for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article 2018 is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/2018 until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. Mr. Guye (talk) 02:48, 1 April 2017 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of 2021

The article 2021 has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern: "It isn't normal to have future 'XXX in the country' articles. There aren't even any specific things here that are scheduled to take place. If we allow this one, where does it end? Are we going to make a '2027 in North Korea' too? It's all WP:CRYSTAL."

While all constructive contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, pages may be deleted for any of several reasons.

You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.

Please consider improving the page to address the issues raised. Removing will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. —  Insertcleverphrasehere (or here) (click me!)    08:13, 19 January 2020 (UTC)

Dansk tilbagetrækning fra EU
Can you support this Danish page, because after some time it will be deleted "Maskinoversættelse og/eller tvivlsomt indhold" and "Denne side virker ikke som en encyklopædisk artikel" on this page https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dansk_tilbagetr%C3%A6kning_fra_EU ? Wname1 (talk) 20:54, 21 July 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:Christian List