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Gyrocompass

A gyrocompass is a type of non-magnetic compass which is based on a fast-spinning disc and the rotation of the Earth (or another planetary body if used elsewhere in the universe) to find geographical direction automatically. A gyrocompass makes use of one of the seven fundamental ways to determine the heading of a vehicle. A gyroscope is an essential component of a gyrocompass, but they are different devices; a gyrocompass is built to use the effect of gyroscopic precession, which is a distinctive aspect of the general gyroscopic effect. Gyrocompasses, such as the fibre optic gyrocompass are widely used to provide a heading for navigation on ships. This is because they have two significant advantages over magnetic compasses:
 * they find true north as determined by the axis of the Earth's rotation, which is different from, and navigationally more useful than, magnetic north, and
 * they have a greater degree of accuracy because they are unaffected by ferromagnetic materials, such as in a ship's steel hull, which distort the magnetic field.

Aircraft commonly use gyroscopic instruments (but not a gyrocompass) for navigation and attitude monitoring; for details, see flight instruments (specifically the heading indicator) and gyroscopic autopilot.

History
The first, not yet practical, form of gyrocompass was patented in 1885 by Marinus Gerardus van den Bos. A usable gyrocompass was invented in 1906 in Germany by Hermann Anschütz-Kaempfe, and after successful tests in 1908 became widely used in the German Imperial Navy. Anschütz-Kaempfe founded the company Anschütz & Co. in Kiel, to mass produce gyrocompasses; the company is today Raytheon Anschütz GmbH. The gyrocompass was an important invention for nautical navigation because it allowed accurate determination of a vessel’s location at all times regardless of the vessel’s motion, the weather and the amount of steel used in the construction of the ship.

In the United States, Elmer Ambrose Sperry produced a workable gyrocompass system (1908: ), and founded the Sperry Gyroscope Company. The unit was adopted by the U.S. Navy (1911 ), and played a major role in World War I. The Navy also began using Sperry's "Metal Mike": the first gyroscope-guided autopilot steering system. In the following decades, these and other Sperry devices were adopted by steamships such as the RMS Queen Mary, airplanes, and the warships of World War II. After his death in 1930, the Navy named the USS Sperry after him.

Meanwhile, in 1913, C. Plath (a Hamburg, Germany-based manufacturer of navigational equipment including sextants and magnetic compasses) developed the first gyrocompass to be installed on a commercial vessel. C. Plath sold many gyrocompasses to the Weems’ School for Navigation in Annapolis, MD, and soon the founders of each organization formed an alliance and became Weems & Plath.

Before the success of the gyrocompass, several attempts had been made in Europe to use a gyroscope instead. By 1880, William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) tried to propose a gyrostat to the British Navy. In 1889, Arthur Krebs adapted an electric motor to the Dumoulin-Froment marine gyroscope, for the French Navy. That gave the Gymnote submarine the ability to keep a straight line while underwater for several hours, and it allowed her to force a naval block in 1890.

In 1923 Max Schuler published his paper containing his observation that if a gyrocompass possessed Schuler tuning such that it had an oscillation period of 84.4 minutes (which is the orbital period of a notional satellite orbiting around the Earth at sea level), then it could be rendered insensitive to lateral motion and maintain directional stability.

Operation
A gyroscope, not to be confused with a gyrocompass, is a spinning wheel mounted on a set of gimbals so that its axis is free to orient itself in any way. When it is spun up to speed with its axis pointing in some direction, due to the law of conservation of angular momentum, such a wheel will normally maintain its original orientation to a fixed point in outer space (not to a fixed point on Earth). Since the Earth rotates, it appears to a stationary observer on Earth that a gyroscope's axis is completing a full rotation once every 24 hours. Such a rotating gyroscope is used for navigation in some cases, for example on aircraft, where it is known as heading indicator or directional gyro, but cannot ordinarily be used for long-term marine navigation. The crucial additional ingredient needed to turn a gyroscope into a gyrocompass, so it would automatically position to true north, is some mechanism that results in an application of torque whenever the compass's axis is not pointing north.

One method uses friction to apply the needed torque: the gyroscope in a gyrocompass is not completely free to reorient itself; if for instance a device connected to the axis is immersed in a viscous fluid, then that fluid will resist reorientation of the axis. This friction force caused by the fluid results in a torque acting on the axis, causing the axis to turn in a direction orthogonal to the torque (that is, to precess) along a line of longitude. Once the axis points toward the celestial pole, it will appear to be stationary and won't experience any more frictional forces. This is because true north (or true south) is the only direction for which the gyroscope can remain on the surface of the earth and not be required to change. This axis orientation is considered to be a point of minimum potential energy.

Another, more practical, method is to use weights to force the axis of the compass to remain horizontal (perpendicular to the direction of the center of the Earth), but otherwise allow it to rotate freely within the horizontal plane. In this case, gravity will apply a torque forcing the compass's axis toward true north. Because the weights will confine the compass's axis to be horizontal with respect to the Earth's surface, the axis can never align with the Earth's axis (except on the Equator) and must realign itself as the Earth rotates. But with respect to the Earth's surface, the compass will appear to be stationary and pointing along the Earth's surface toward the true North Pole.

Since the gyrocompass's north-seeking function depends on the rotation around the axis of the Earth that causes torque-induced gyroscopic precession, it will not orient itself correctly to true north if it is moved very fast in an east to west direction, thus negating the Earth's rotation. However, aircraft commonly use heading indicators or directional gyros, which are not gyrocompasses and do not align themselves to north via precession, but are periodically aligned manually to magnetic north.

Errors
A gyrocompass is subject to certain errors. These include steaming error, where rapid changes in course, speed and latitude cause deviation before the gyro can adjust itself. On most modern ships the GPS or other navigational aids feed data to the gyrocompass allowing a small computer to apply a correction. Alternatively a design based on a strapdown architecture (including a triad of fibre optic gyroscopes, ring laser gyroscopes or hemispherical resonator gyroscopes and a triad of accelerometers) will eliminate these errors, as they do not depend upon mechanical parts to determinate rate of rotation.

Mathematical model
We consider a gyrocompass as a gyroscope which is free to rotate about one of its symmetry axes, also the whole rotating gyroscope is free to rotate on the horizontal plane about the local vertical. Therefore there are two independent local rotations. In addition to these rotations we consider the rotation of the Earth about its north-south (NS) axis, and we model the planet as a perfect sphere. We neglect friction and also the rotation of the Earth about the Sun.

In this case a non-rotating observer located at the center of the Earth can be approximated as being an inertial frame. We establish cartesian coordinates $$(X_{1},Y_{1},Z_{1})$$ for such an observer (whom we name as 1-O), and the barycenter of the gyroscope is located at a distance $$R$$ from the center of the Earth.

First time-dependent rotation
Consider another (non-inertial) observer (the 2-O) located at the center of the Earth but rotating about the NS-axis by $$\Omega.$$ We establish coordinates attached to this observer as $$\begin{pmatrix} X_{2}\\ Y_{2}\\ Z_{2} \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} \cos\Omega t & \sin\Omega t & 0\\ -\sin\Omega t & \cos\Omega t & 0\\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix} X_{1}\\ Y_{1}\\ Z_{1} \end{pmatrix}$$ so that the unit $$\hat{X}_{1}$$ versor $$(X_{1}=1,Y_{1}=0,Z_{1}=0)^{T}$$ is mapped to the point $$(X_{2} = \cos\Omega t, Y_{2}=-\sin\Omega t, Z_{2}=0)^{T}$$. For the 2-O neither the Earth nor the barycenter of the gyroscope is moving. The rotation of 2-O relative to 1-O is performed with angular velocity $$\vec{\Omega}=(0,0,\Omega)^{T}$$. We suppose that the $$X_{2}$$ axis denotes points with zero longitude (the prime, or Greenwich, meridian).

Second and third fixed rotations
We now rotate about the $ Z_{2}$ axis, so that the $ X_{3}$ -axis has the longitude of the barycenter. In this case we have $$\begin{pmatrix} X_{3}\\ Y_{3}\\ Z_{3} \end{pmatrix}=\begin{pmatrix} \cos\Phi & \sin\Phi & 0\\ -\sin\Phi & \cos\Phi & 0\\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} X_{2}\\ Y_{2}\\ Z_{2} \end{pmatrix}.$$

With the next rotation (about the axis $ Y_{3}$ of an angle $ \delta$, the co-latitude) we bring the $ Z_{3}$  axis along the local zenith ($ Z_{4}$ -axis) of the barycenter. This can be achieved by the following orthogonal matrix (with unit determinant) $$\begin{pmatrix} X_{4}\\ Y_{4}\\ Z_{4} \end{pmatrix}=\begin{pmatrix} \cos\delta & 0 & -\sin\delta\\ 0 & 1 & 0\\ \sin\delta & 0 & \cos\delta \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} X_{3}\\ Y_{3}\\ Z_{3} \end{pmatrix},$$

so that the $\hat{Z}_{3}$ versor $ (X_{3}=0,Y_{3}=0,Z_{3}=1)^{T}$  is mapped to the point $ (X_{4}=-\sin\delta,Y_{4}=0,Z_{4}=\cos\delta)^{T}.$

Constant translation
We now choose another coordinate basis whose origin is located at the barycenter of the gyroscope. This can be performed by the following translation along the zenith axis $$\begin{pmatrix} X_{5}\\ Y_{5}\\ Z_{5} \end{pmatrix}=\begin{pmatrix} X_{4}\\ Y_{4}\\ Z_{4} \end{pmatrix}- \begin{pmatrix} 0\\ 0\\ R \end{pmatrix},$$

so that the origin of the new system, $$(X_{5}=0,Y_{5}=0,Z_{5}=0)^{T}$$ is located at the point $$(X_{4}=0,Y_{4}=0,Z_{4}=R)^{T},$$ and $$R$$ is the radius of the Earth. Now the $$X_{5}$$-axis points towards the south direction.

Fourth time-dependent rotation
Now we rotate about the zenith $$Z_{5}$$-axis so that the new coordinate system is attached to the structure of the gyroscope, so that for an observer at rest in this coordinate system, the gyrocompass is only rotating about its own axis of symmetry. In this case we find $$\begin{pmatrix} X_{6}\\ Y_{6}\\ Z_{6} \end{pmatrix}=\begin{pmatrix} \cos\alpha & \sin\alpha & 0\\ -\sin\alpha & \cos\alpha & 0\\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix} X_{5}\\ Y_{5}\\ Z_{5} \end{pmatrix}.$$

The axis of symmetry of the gyrocompass is now along the $$X_{6}$$-axis.

Last time-dependent rotation
The last rotation is a rotation on the axis of symmetry of the gyroscope as in $$\begin{pmatrix} X_{7}\\ Y_{7}\\ Z_{7} \end{pmatrix}=\begin{pmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0\\ 0 & \cos\psi & \sin\psi\\ 0 & -\sin\psi & \cos\psi \end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix} X_{6}\\ Y_{6}\\ Z_{6} \end{pmatrix}.$$

Dynamics of the system
Since the height of the gyroscope's barycenter does not change (and the origin of the coordinate system is located at this same point), its gravitational potential energy is constant. Therefore its Lagrangian $$\mathcal{L}$$ corresponds to its kinetic energy $$K$$ only. We have $$\mathcal{L}=K=\frac{1}{2} \vec{\omega}^{T}I\vec\omega+\frac{1}{2} M \vec{v}_{\rm CM}^{2},$$ where $$M$$ is the mass of the gyroscope, and $$\vec{v}_{\rm CM}^{2}=\Omega^2 R^2 \sin^2\delta={\rm constant}$$ is the squared inertial speed of the origin of the coordinates of the final coordinate system (i.e. the center of mass). This constant term does not affect the dynamics of the gyroscope and it can be neglected. On the other hand, the tensor of inertia is given by $$I=\begin{pmatrix} I_{1}&0&0\\ 0 & I_{2}&0\\ 0 &0 & I_{2} \end{pmatrix}$$ and $$\begin{align} \vec{\omega}&=\begin{pmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0\\ 0 & \cos\psi & \sin\psi\\ 0 & -\sin\psi & \cos\psi \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} \dot{\psi}\\ 0\\ 0 \end{pmatrix}+\begin{pmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0\\ 0 & \cos\psi & \sin\psi\\ 0 & -\sin\psi & \cos\psi \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} \cos\alpha & \sin\alpha & 0\\ -\sin\alpha & \cos\alpha & 0\\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} 0\\ 0\\ \dot{\alpha} \end{pmatrix}\\ &\qquad + \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0\\ 0 & \cos\psi & \sin\psi\\ 0 & -\sin\psi & \cos\psi \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} \cos\alpha & \sin\alpha & 0\\ -\sin\alpha & \cos\alpha & 0\\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} \cos\delta & 0 & -\sin\delta\\ 0 & 1 & 0\\ \sin\delta & 0 & \cos\delta \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} \cos\Phi & \sin\Phi & 0\\ -\sin\Phi & \cos\Phi & 0\\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} \cos\Omega t & \sin\Omega t & 0\\ -\sin\Omega t & \cos\Omega t & 0\\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} 0\\ 0\\ \Omega \end{pmatrix}\\ &= \begin{pmatrix} \dot{\psi}\\ 0\\ 0\\ \end{pmatrix}+ \begin{pmatrix} 0\\ \dot{\alpha}\sin\psi\\ \dot{\alpha}\cos\psi \end{pmatrix}+ \begin{pmatrix} -\Omega\sin\delta\cos\alpha\\ \Omega(\sin\delta\sin\alpha\cos\psi+\cos\delta\sin\psi)\\ \Omega(-\sin\delta\sin\alpha\sin\psi+\cos\delta\cos\psi) \end{pmatrix} \end{align}$$

Therefore we find $$\begin{align} \mathcal{L} &= \frac{1}{2} \left [I_{1}\omega_{1}^{2}+I_{2} \left (\omega_{2}^{2}+\omega_{3}^{2} \right ) \right ]\\ &= \frac{1}{2} I_{1} \left (\dot{\psi}-\Omega\sin\delta\cos\alpha \right )^{2} +\frac{1}{2} I_{2} \left \{ \left [\dot{\alpha}\sin\psi+\Omega(\sin\delta\sin\alpha\cos\psi+\cos\delta\sin\psi) \right ]^{2} + \left [\dot{\alpha}\cos\psi+\Omega(-\sin\delta\sin\alpha\sin\psi+\cos\delta\cos\psi) \right ]^{2} \right \} \\ &= \frac{1}{2} I_{1} \left (\dot{\psi}-\Omega\sin\delta\cos\alpha \right )^{2}+\frac{1}{2} I_{2} \left \{ \dot{\alpha}^{2} +\Omega^{2} \left (\cos^{2}\delta+\sin^{2}\alpha\sin^{2}\delta \right ) +2\dot{\alpha}\Omega\cos\delta \right \} \end{align}$$

The Lagrangian can be rewritten as $$\mathcal{L}=\mathcal{L}_{1}+\frac{1}{2} I_{2}\Omega^{2}\cos^{2}\delta+\frac{d}{dt}(I_{2}\alpha\Omega\cos\delta),$$ where $$\mathcal{L}_{1}=\frac{1}{2} I_{1} \left (\dot{\psi}-\Omega\sin\delta\cos\alpha \right )^{2}+\frac{1}{2} I_{2}\left (\dot{\alpha}^{2}+\Omega^{2}\sin^{2}\alpha\sin^{2}\delta \right )$$ is the part of the Lagrangian responsible for the dynamics of the system. Then, since $$\partial \mathcal{L}_1/\partial\psi = 0$$, we find $$L_{x}\equiv\frac{\partial \mathcal{L}_1}{\partial\dot{\psi}}=I_1 \left (\dot{\psi}-\Omega\sin\delta\cos\alpha \right )=\mathrm{constant}.$$

Since the angular momentum $$\vec L$$ of the gyrocompass is given by $$\vec L=I\vec\omega,$$ we see that the constant $$L_x$$ is the component of the angular momentum about the axis of symmetry. Furthermore, we find the equation of motion for the variable $$\alpha$$ as $$\frac{d}{dt} \left(\frac{\partial \mathcal{L}_{1}}{\partial\dot{\alpha}}\right)=\frac{\partial \mathcal{L}_{1}}{\partial\alpha},$$ or $$\begin{align} I_{2}\ddot{\alpha} &=I_{1}\Omega \left (\dot{\psi}-\Omega\sin\delta\cos\alpha \right )\sin\delta\sin\alpha+\frac{1}{2} I_{2} \Omega^{2}\sin^{2}\delta\sin2\alpha\\ &=L_{x}\Omega\sin\delta\sin\alpha+\frac{1}{2} I_{2} \Omega^{2}\sin^{2}\delta\sin2\alpha \end{align}$$

Particular case: the poles
At the poles we find $$\sin\delta=0,$$ and the equations of motion become $$\begin{align} L_{x} &=I_{1}\dot{\psi}=\mathrm{constant}\\ I_{2}\ddot{\alpha}&=0 \end{align}$$

This simple solution implies that the gyroscope is uniformly rotating with constant angular velocity in both the vertical and symmetrical axis.

The general and physically relevant case
Let us suppose now that $$\sin\delta\neq0$$ and that $$\alpha\approx0$$, that is the axis of the gyroscope is approximately along the north-south line, and let us find the parameter space (if it exists) for which the system admits stable small oscillations about this same line. If this situation occurs, the gyroscope will always be approximately aligned along the north-south line, giving direction. In this case we find $$\begin{align} L_{x}&\approx I_{1} \left (\dot{\psi}-\Omega\sin\delta \right )\\ I_{2}\ddot{\alpha}&\approx \left (L_{x}\Omega\sin\delta+I_{2} \Omega^{2}\sin^{2}\delta \right) \alpha \end{align}$$

Consider the case that $$L_{x}<0,$$ and, further, we allow for fast gyro-rotations, that is $$\left |\dot{\psi} \right |\gg\Omega.$$

Therefore, for fast spinning rotations, $$L_x<0$$ implies $$\dot\psi<0.$$ In this case, the equations of motion further simplify to $$\begin{align} L_{x}             &\approx -I_{1} \left |\dot{\psi} \right | \approx \mathrm{constant}\\ I_{2}\ddot{\alpha} &\approx -I_{1} \left |\dot{\psi} \right |\Omega \sin\delta\alpha \end{align}$$

Therefore we find small oscillations about the north-south line, as $$\alpha\approx A\sin(\tilde\omega t+B)$$, where the angular velocity of this harmonic motion of the axis of symmetry of the gyrocompass about the north-south line is given by $$\tilde\omega=\sqrt{\frac{I_{1}\sin\delta}{I_{2}}}\sqrt{\left |\dot{\psi} \right |\Omega},$$ which corresponds to a period for the oscillations given by $$T=\frac{2\pi}{\sqrt{\left |\dot{\psi} \right |\Omega}}\sqrt{\frac{I_{2}}{I_{1}\sin\delta}}.$$

Therefore $$\tilde\omega$$ is proportional to the geometric mean of the Earth and spinning angular velocities. In order to have small oscillations we have required $$\dot{\psi}<0$$, so that the North is located along the right-hand-rule direction of the spinning axis, that is along the negative direction of the $$X_7$$-axis, the axis of symmetry. As a side result, on measuring $$T$$ (and knowing $$\dot{\psi}$$), one can deduce the local co-latitude $$\delta.$$

title: Gyrocompass


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Palatino

Palatino is the name of an old-style serif typeface designed by Hermann Zapf, initially released in 1949 by the Stempel foundry and later by other companies, most notably the Mergenthaler Linotype Company.

Named after the 16th-century Italian master of calligraphy Giambattista Palatino, Palatino is based on the humanist types of the Italian Renaissance, which mirror the letters formed by a broad nib pen reflecting Zapf's expertise as a calligrapher. Its capital 'Y' is in the unusual 'palm Y' style, inspired by the Greek letter upsilon, a trait found in some of the earliest versions of the letter such as that of Aldus Manutius.

Unlike most Renaissance typeface revivals, which tend to have delicate proportions such as a low x-height (short lower-case letters and longer ascenders and descenders), Palatino has larger proportions, increasing legibility. Palatino was particularly intended as a design for trade or 'jobbing' use, such as headings, advertisements and display printing, and was created with a solid, wide structure and wide apertures that could appear clearly on poor-quality paper, when read at a distance or printed at small sizes.

Palatino is one of several related typefaces by Zapf, which Stempel marketed as an "extended family". The group includes Palatino, Sistina, Michelangelo, and Aldus; Zapf's biographer Jerry Kelly describes them as forming "the largest type family based on classic renaissance forms at the time." These designs were strongly influenced by Italian Renaissance letter forms and Roman square capitals, although Zapf was unable to visit Italy until after he had finished the Palatino roman. Palatino rapidly became popular for book body text use, overshadowing the narrower and lighter Aldus, which Zapf had designed for this role. It has been described as one of the ten most used serif typefaces. Since Palatino was not originally designed for body text, some of its characters were intended to stand out with quirky, calligraphic design features, and Zapf later redesigned them with more sober alternates, which have become the norm on most digital versions.

Linotype licensed Palatino to Adobe and Apple who incorporated it into the PostScript digital printing technology as a standard font. This guaranteed its importance in digital and desktop publishing and made it (or a variant of it) a preinstalled font on most computers. As with many popular fonts, knockoff designs and rereleases under different names are common. Zapf retained an interest in the design, and continued to collaborate on new versions into his eighties.

Palatino
Palatino itself, as previously noted, has a solid structure, intended to read clearly on poor-quality paper and printing. Zapf's friend Alexander Lawson wrote that "the open counters that make Palatino such a legible letter were provided to overcome a then current printing problem in Germany, poor-quality paper. The weight of the type was also thickened beyond that of a normal roman in order to adapt to the lithographic and gravure printing processes of that period. Zapf has steadily maintained that he did not create Palatino as a book type but rather as a commercial face." Due to Palatino's increasing popularity in body text, multiple versions have been released for the changing technologies of handsetting, hot metal typesetting, phototypesetting and digital font design. Later versions often have regularised details such as a lower 't' and foot serifs on 'p' and 'q'. The italic in particular has gone through several redesigns, with the original for hand-set foundry type being distinctly narrow, the version for the Linotype machine distinctly wide to enable duplexing with the roman, and the versions for subsequent photosetting and digital technologies being in between the two extremes. Hutner and Kelly have described Palatino as "distinctly modern... a modern type not copied from any specific early model."

Palatino's italic in metal type included a set of swash capitals. These have not been found in digitisations, although digitisations of Zapf's Renaissance Antiqua design (discussed below) do include a (slightly different) set. Later versions alter the descenders on many letters; Zapf originally had to keep these short to fit on the German common line standard, optimised for blackletter typefaces; later versions escape this restriction.

Aldus
Aldus is an old-style serif design, popular for use in book printing. Compared to Palatino, released some years earlier, it has a more condensed design lighter in colour, more graceful and refined and better suited to the high average quality of book printing. Aldus has a non-kerning roman and italic f, allowing the typographer to avoid ligatures. It appeared in the D. Stempel AG catalog in 1954 and Zapf used it to set his own Manuale Typographicum, a history of letter design.

Aldus is named for the Venetian Renaissance printer Aldus Manutius. The decision annoyed Zapf (who preferred the name "Palatino Book") since it bears little direct resemblance to Aldus's typefaces.

Like Palatino, an upgraded digitisation, Aldus Nova, has been released by Linotype.

Michelangelo
A set of titling capitals, based on Roman square capitals. The design has a 'U' with a foot serif at bottom right, a 'double-V'-style 'W' with four top terminals and a 'palm Y' similar to that on Palatino, inspired by the Greek letter upsilon. It was renamed "Palatino Titling" in the Palatino nova release (see below), since the rights to the name were held by Berthold who also published a digitisation.

Sistina
A slightly bolder set of titling capitals than Michaelangelo on the same basic structure. It was originally named 'Aurelia Titling' after the Roman road named Via Aurelia; Zapf would later use the name for another separate font. The Palatino nova version (see below) is renamed "Palatino Imperial" and has small capitals as a lower case. It was created following an artistically productive 1950 visit to Italy, which Zapf had been unable to visit before. Zapf was very interested in the quality of Italian art and lettering, and his sketches of stonecarving in Florence also inspired the humanist sans-serif Optima.

Kompakt
An ultra-bold display type, with a slight slope but roman rather than italic letter forms. Unlike Palatino, it is very unlike the style of roman type printing used during the Renaissance, which did not use bold type.

Zapf Renaissance Antiqua (1984–1986)
Not part of Stempel's metal Palatino family, Zapf Renaissance Antiqua is a separate interpretation by Zapf of the same Renaissance models dating to 1984–1986, initially created for Scangraphic and later digitised and sold by Linotype along with Palatino. Compared to Palatino, Zapf Renaissance Antiqua has greater stroke contrast, which carries through to the sharp serifs and wedge-like punctuation marks, but it also features smoother transitions between thick and thin strokes. It is also notable for including a full set of swash letterforms, with as many as five variants of each lowercase letter – something not included on digital versions of Palatino. According to Linotype the currently available digitisation is based on the versions prepared by Scangraphic for display use, with tight spacing and striking contrasts in stroke weight. A version marketed under the name “Zapf Renaissance Antiqua SB” contains these same high-contrast letterforms, but with looser spacing for running text. However, some typographers have criticized the poor quality of the spacing in all available digitizations, attributing it to an inaccurate conversion from its original, proprietary digital format into PostScript.

Digitisations
Palatino's early digitisation intended for PostScript use is very widely used or cloned. Later Palatino digitisations have different features and spacing. In 1999, Zapf revised Palatino for Linotype and Microsoft, called Palatino Linotype. The revised family incorporated extended Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic character sets. Linotype released a more complex redesign named Palatino nova, together with digitisations of some of Zapf's other Renaissance-inspired designs and Aldus. Zapf also created a matching Palatino Sans and Palatino Sans Informal design in 2006.

Palatino Linotype
Palatino Linotype is the version of the Palatino family included with modern versions of Microsoft software. It incorporates extended Latin, Greek, Cyrillic characters, as well as currency signs, subscripts and superscripts, and fractions. The family includes roman and italic in text and bold weights.

Palatino Linotype was notable as being the first western OpenType font that Microsoft shipped; Palatino Linotype was bundled with Windows 2000. The OpenType version showcased some (then new) alternate features, including ligatures, true small caps, proportional and tabular figures, text figures and a variety of special alternate characters, such as the swash Capital Qu combination. This marks it out from earlier digitisations such as the OS X system version, which do not include ligatures such as Th and Qu. On release it was one of the few fonts to incorporate an interrobang.

Palatino nova
Palatino nova is a redesigned version of Palatino, by Hermann Zapf and Akira Kobayashi. This Palatino nova typeface family includes roman and italics in the light, text, medium, and bold weights, a new release of Aldus and versions of Michelangelo and Sistina under the name of "Palatino Titling" and "Palatino Imperial".

The font family was premiered on November 24, 2005, the same day as Hermann Zapf's 87th birthday celebration. A new digitisation of Aldus named Aldus nova was created at the same time.

Palatino Sans
Palatino Sans is a sans-serif design with stroke width modulation, resembling Zapf's classic design Optima but with a softer, more organic feel. Unlike the serifed counterpart, the Sans families do not have full Greek or Cyrillic characters. Reviewing it for Typographica on release, font designer Hrant Papazian commented: "The confluence of competence, freedom and kiai... evident in Palatino Sans is breathtaking. The sober organicity, the bravado of the raised 'r', the confident flair of the italic; all done before, but never in such a usable, contemporary whole."

Palatino Sans Informal
Palatino Sans Informal incorporates informal characteristics to the Palatino Sans, such as asymmetrical A, K, N, W, X, Y, w.

Palatino Arabic
It is a family designed by Lebanese designer Nadine Chahine and Hermann Zapf. The design is based on the Al-Ahram typeface designed by Zapf in 1956 but reworked and modified to fit the Palatino nova family. The design is Naskh in style but with a strong influence of Thuluth style.

This family only comes in 1 font, with the Arabic characters based on Palatino nova Regular. It supports basic Latin, Arabic, Persian, and Urdu scripts. Chahine also created a version of Zapf's Zapfino.

Palatino eText (2013)
It is a family designed by Toshi Omagari of Monotype Imaging, optimised for on-screen use. It includes a larger x-height and wider spacing. It is the standard four-font family, with bolds and italics.

Palatino clones
As one of the most iconic typefaces of the twentieth century, derivative designs based on Palatino were rapidly developed, taking advantage of the lack of practical copyright and the easy copying possible in the phototypesetting font market of the 1960s and 70s onwards. Many of these are almost indistinguishable from Palatino, and some even had Zapf's involvement as a consultant.

Palazzo Original
Softmaker's clone of Palatino, Palazzo Original, is unique for being based on the original metal type of Palatino: as a result, it contains many design features not seen in the digital versions of Palatino endorsed by Zapf and most clones. These include a 'p' and 'q' without foot serif and no serif on the centre stroke of the 'E' and 'F', as well as a slightly more delicate design with a lower x-height. It has also been released as Marathon Serial without italics.

PostScript clones
Most modern Palatino clones are set to match the spacing and design of the PostScript version of Palatino that was a standard font in early digital publishing. In the Bitstream font collection, the Palatino equivalent is called "Zapf Calligraphic".

URW++ sells its version as "URW Palladio L". A version of this font was later released by URW under a free and open-source licence as part of the Ghostscript project to develop an open-source alternative to PostScript. As a result, it (or a derivative) is used by much open-source software such as R as a system font. Palladio, however, lacks the subtle stroke modulation and rounded corners which can be found for example in Palatino Linotype.

Book Antiqua
One of the best-known Palatino PostScript clones is "Book Antiqua" (originally by Monotype), distributed with much Microsoft software, beginning with Microsoft Windows. It is one of many clone PostScript typefaces distributed by Microsoft and Monotype around this time, including Arial (similar to Helvetica), Century Gothic (ITC Avant Garde) and Bookman Old Style (ITC Bookman). Book Antiqua resembles Palatino extremely closely and is almost indistinguishable from the original apart from a few detail differences. ("Antiqua" is another word for the "Roman" style of typefaces that Palatino is based on, as opposed to blackletter. The genre, inspired by Italian traditions of handwriting and calligraphy, has been a dominant influence on most typefaces and lettering created in the Western world since the Renaissance. )

In 1993, Zapf resigned from l'Association Typographique Internationale (ATypI) over what he viewed as its hypocritical attitude toward unauthorized copying by prominent ATypI members (namely Monotype). In the United States, the abstract design of a typeface is not protected by copyright, and can be imitated freely (unless the typeface is protected by a design patent, which is of much more limited duration and rarely applied for). Copyright protection is available for the representation of a typeface in software (a computer font), and the names of typefaces can be protected by trademark.

Microsoft has since licensed and distributes Linotype's version of Zapf's original design called Palatino Linotype in all versions of Windows since Windows 2000. During the Palatino Linotype development process, Zapf and Linotype requested that Microsoft cease to include Book Antiqua with Office, but Microsoft concluded that this was impossible as too many documents had already been created using it. A custom version of Book Antiqua was created by Monotype as a corporate font for the Parliament of the UK.

Free and open-source versions and derivatives
The first legal free version of Palatino was URW Palladio L. The open-source community greatly extended the character sets of the fonts and releases new, updated versions under new names.

 * FPL Neu is a typeface based on URW Palladio L font. It has both text figures and lining figures. It is available both in Type 1 format and OpenType format.
 * TeX Gyre Pagella is another similar typeface based on the URW Palladio L font. Pagella includes accents for European languages as well as glyphs for a few non-European languages. This typeface is released in formats compatible with LaTeX as well as with modern OpenType compatible systems. It is a part of the TeX Gyre project to make updated, expanded, OpenType versions of URW's open-source fonts.
 * Domitian is a typeface based on URW Palladio L font released recently in 2020. It was meant to be a drop in of Adobe Palatino, and extends more characters on top of Palladio.

Asana Math is an OpenType mathematical font designed to look like Palatino (so that math can visually match the text). It is based on the Type 1 pxfonts by Young Ryu.

Awards
Palatino Sans and Palatino Sans Informal won Type Directors Club Type Design Competition 2007 award under Type System / Superfamily category.

Palatino Arabic won 2008 Type Directors Club TDC2 2008 award under Text / Type Family category.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Palatino


text:
Optima

Optima is a humanist sans-serif typeface designed by Hermann Zapf and released by the D. Stempel AG foundry, Frankfurt, West Germany in 1958.

Though classified as a sans-serif, Optima has a subtle swelling at the terminals suggesting a glyphic serif. Optima was inspired by classical Roman capitals and the stonecarving on Renaissance-period tombstones Zapf saw in Florence on a 1950 holiday to Italy.

Zapf intended Optima to be a typeface that could serve for both body text and titling. To prove its versatility, Zapf set his entire book About Alphabets in the regular weight. Zapf retained an interest in the design, collaborating on variants and expansions into his eighties.

History
Interested in calligraphy and the history of Italian printing and lettering, Zapf first visited Italy in 1950. While in Florence, Zapf was particularly interested in the design of the lettering in tombstones of the cemetery of the Basilica di Santa Croce in Florence, in which the strokes subtly widen as they reach stroke terminals without ending in a serif. He quickly sketched an early draft of the design on a 1000 lira banknote. Zapf was to work on the development of Optima during most of the following decade.

In his book About Alphabets, Zapf commented that his key aim in designing Optima's capitals, inspired by the Roman capital model, was the desire to avoid the monotony of all capital letters having a roughly square footprint, as he felt was true of some early sans-serif designs. Like the Roman capitals, Optima's 'E' and 'R' occupy about a half-square, the 'M' is wide and its sides are splayed.

On the suggestion of Monroe Wheeler of the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, Zapf decided to adapt his typeface to be used as a book type. "He thereupon changed the proportions of the lowercase, and by means of photography, he tested the suitability of the design for continuous reading application." Zapf designed the capital letters of Optima after the inscriptions on the Trajan Column (A.D. 113). Optima was the first German typeface not based on the standard baseline alignment. Zapf stated: "This base line is not ideal for a roman, as it was designed for the high x-height of the Fraktur and Textura letters. Thus, too many German types have ascenders which are too long and descenders which are too short. The proportions of Optima Roman are now in the Golden Section: lowercase x-height equalling the minor and ascenders-descenders the major. However, the curved lines of the stems of each letter result from technical considerations of type manufacturing rather than purely esthetic considerations."

The development of Optima occurred during the period 1955–1958. Optima was first manufactured as a foundry version in 1958 by Stempel of Frankfurt, and by Mergenthaler in America shortly thereafter. It was released to the public at an exhibition in Düsseldorf the same year. Zapf himself wanted to name the new type face New Roman, but the marketing staff insisted that it be named Optima. In a memoir written for Linotype, Zapf commented: "The name 'Optima' was not my idea at all. It is for me too presumptuous and was the invention of the sales people at Stempel."

Zapf wrote later in his life of his preference for Optima over all of his other typefaces, but he also mentioned “a father should not have a favorite among his daughters.”

Structure
Optima's design follows humanist lines; its capitals (like those of Palatino, Hans Eduard Meier's Syntax and Carol Twombly's Trajan) originate from the classic Roman monumental capital model, reflecting a reverence for Roman capitals as an ideal form.

Optima is an example of a modulated-stroke sans-serif, a design type where the strokes are variable in width. The design style has been intermittently favored since the late nineteenth century; Optima is one of the most lasting examples of the genre. Optima was originally targeted by Stempel's Walter Cunz as a competitor to Ludwig & Mayer's Colonia design, which has not been digitised. Shaw also suggests the little-known 1948 design Romann Antiqua, as well as Stellar by Robert Hunter Middleton as predecessors, and notes the existence of Pascal by José Mendoza y Almeida (1962) as a design with a similar set of influences. Optima is however quite restrained in stroke width variation; more display-oriented predecessors such as Britannic show far more differentiation in stroke width than Optima does.

Optima's sloped version was originally an oblique or sloped roman, in which the letters do not take on handwriting characteristics. For Optima nova (discussed below) Zapf decided to create a new true italic with a greater slant angle.

During late development of Optima, Zapf also began working on a non-modulated sans for Linotype, to be named Magnus and intended to compete with Gill Sans. It has never been released.

Optima Greek (1973)
A Greek variant designed by Matthew Carter, based on sketches from Hermann Zapf. No digital versions have been produced.

Optima Classified (1976)
A variant designed by Matthew Carter, based closely on Optima Medium. No digital versions have been produced.

Optima nova (2002)
"Optima nova" is a redesign of the original font family, designed by Hermann Zapf and Linotype GmbH type director Akira Kobayashi. The new family contains seven font weights, adding light, demi, and heavy font weights, but removing extra black weight. Medium weight is readjusted to between medium and bold weights in the old family scale. Glyph sets are expanded to include Adobe CE and Latin Extended characters, with light to bold weight fonts supporting proportional lining figures, old style figures, and small caps.

The initial and most common release of Optima, like many sans-serif fonts, has an oblique style instead of an italic: the shapes are merely tilted to the right. In Optima nova, this is replaced by a true italic. (In interviews, Zapf has said that this was his original goal from the beginning, but the need to release Optima quickly forced him to settle for an oblique.)

Even in Roman fonts, letters such as Q, a, f are redesigned. The overall bounding boxes were widened in Optima nova.

Reviewing it, John Berry wrote that "its 'color' on the page comes much closer to that of the original metal version than any of the earlier photo/digital versions did" but that "ends of the strokes in the letters 'a', 'c', and 's' flare much more dramatically than they ever did in the older Optima — so much so that these letters almost look as though they have serifs...It’s a subtle difference, but it’s disturbing if you’re used to the understated elegance of Optima’s letterforms."

Optima nova Condensed
A condensed variant which consists of light to bold weights, but no italic fonts. The glyph set does not support proportional lining figures, old style figures, or small caps.

Optima nova Titling
A titling capitals variant, which contains only capital letters, with restyled letterform. The glyph set is the same as "Optima nova Condensed", but also includes extra ligatures. Berry writes in his review of the "nova" release: "it has softly curved joins and interior angles. Instead of the added crispness of detail that you might expect of a face designed for display use, this one looks more sculptural."

In the tradition of hand lettering and lapidary inscription, the titling face shares similarities with the work of Zapf's friend Herb Lubalin, especially the exuberant ligatures (for which Lubalin's ITC Lubalin Graph and ITC Avant Garde are notable). Further influence of A.M. Cassandre and Rudolf Koch, whose work greatly inspired the young Zapf, can also be seen in Optima.

Optima Pro Cyrillic (2010)
In April 2010, Linotype announced the release of Cyrillic version of the original Optima family, in OpenType Pro font formats. Released fonts include Optima Pro Cyrillic Roman, Oblique, Bold, Bold Oblique.

Derivatives
As with many commonly used fonts, knockoff designs and re-releases under different names have been released, some created by Zapf himself. These all tend to copy the original version, rather than the Optima nova design which represents Zapf's final thoughts on the design. In the Bitstream font collection, Zapf Humanist 601 is provided as an Optima clone. Other Optima clones include Optane from the WSI Fonts collection, Opulent by Rubicon Computer Labs Inc., Ottawa from Corel, CG Omega and Eterna. Freely available implementations include URW Classico (available with URW Font package from Ghostscript). Linux Biolinum and Libertinus Sans are libre fonts inspired by it. Zapf's Palatino Sans is a more informal typeface in the same style, with a design reminiscent of brushstrokes or calligraphy.

Kontour Type designed the Utile Display typeface, inspired from the Optima typeface.

Notable usages
Optima is used for the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington and used in the official logo and most publications associated with Expo 67 in Montreal.

Optima was chosen as the font to be used for the names of those who lost their lives in the September 11 attacks, carved into bronze parapets, at the National September 11 Memorial & Museum, which is named "Reflecting Absence". More recently, was used by U.S. politician John McCain's 2008 presidential campaign.

Opinions on the design have been variable, partly because of its extensive use. Erik Spiekermann described it as "used on parking garages & hospitals across the United States. Tired & inappropriate. I don’t blame the typeface but the designers." He also commented "Optima is patronizing. It hasn't got the guts to be either a proper Sans or Serif, so it keeps all its options open and appeals to the middle...It suits everything and pleases nobody."

Jonathan Hoefler described it as "signifying a very down-market notion of luxe...the font of choice for the hygiene aisle."

Usage examples
Brands and other entities using Optima include:
 * Endeavour – ITV's Inspector Morse crime prequel series set in 1960s Oxford, in the opening credits only.
 * British Airways – The British national airline's titles, in the Landor livery used from 1984 to 1997.
 * Qatar Airways – The Qatari national airline's titles in the livery used since 2006.
 * Wordmark for Expo 67 in Montreal.
 * Where's Wally
 * Marks and Spencer – Logo used from 2000 to 2007.
 * BBC One O'Clock News – Opening titles used Optima in 1986.
 * Lindt
 * Hunters Law
 * Parker Pens
 * Amblin Entertainment
 * Aston Martin
 * Call of Duty: World at War
 * Jeopardy!
 * Persona 5 series – Optima Bold is used as the text font for Dancing in Starlight, Strikers, and Royal (English versions).
 * Rachel Cusk's books have been set in Optima since at least Outline (novel).
 * The credits for the sitcom Growing Pains used Optima Bold throughout the series' run.
 * Trans TV – Logo used from 2001 to 2013.
 * Sampoerna

title: Optima


text:
Hermann Zapf

Hermann Zapf (8 November 1918 – 4 June 2015) was a German type designer and calligrapher who lived in Darmstadt, Germany. He was married to the calligrapher and typeface designer Gudrun Zapf-von Hesse. Typefaces he designed include Palatino, Optima, and Zapfino. He is considered one of the greatest type designers of all time.

Early life
Zapf was born in Nuremberg during turbulent times marked by the German Revolution of 1918–1919 in Munich and Berlin, the end of World War I, the exile of Kaiser Wilhelm, and the establishment of Bavaria as a free state by Kurt Eisner. In addition, the Spanish flu pandemic took hold in Europe in 1918 and 1919. Two of Zapf's siblings died of the disease. Famine later struck Germany, and Zapf's mother was grateful to send him to school in 1925, where he received daily meals in a program organized by Herbert Hoover. In school, Zapf was mainly interested in technical subjects. One of his favorite books was the annual science journal Das neue Universum (The New Universe). He and his older brother experimented with electricity, building a crystal radio and an alarm system for his house. Even at this early age, Zapf was already getting involved with type, inventing cipher alphabets to exchange secret messages with his brother.

Zapf left school in 1933 with the ambition of pursuing a career in electrical engineering. However, his father had become unemployed and was in trouble with the newly established Third Reich, having been involved with trade unions, and was sent to the Dachau concentration camp for a short time.

Introduction to typography
Under the new political regime, Zapf was not able to attend the Ohm Technical Institute in Nuremberg, and therefore he needed to find an apprenticeship. His teachers, aware of the new political difficulties, noticed Zapf's skill in drawing and suggested that he become a lithographer. Each company that interviewed him for an apprenticeship would ask him political questions, and every time he was interviewed, he was complimented on his work but was rejected. Ten months later, in 1934, he was interviewed by the last company in the telephone directory, and the company did not ask any political questions. They also complimented Zapf's work, but did not do lithography and did not need an apprentice lithographer. However, they allowed him to become a retoucher, and Zapf began his four-year apprenticeship in February 1934.

In 1935, Zapf attended an exhibition in Nuremberg in honor of the late typographer Rudolf Koch. This exhibition gave him his first interest in lettering. Zapf bought two books there, using them to teach himself calligraphy. He also studied examples of calligraphy in the Nuremberg city library. Soon, his master noticed his expertise in calligraphy, and Zapf's work shifted to retouching lettering and improving his colleagues' retouching.

Frankfurt
A few days after finishing his apprenticeship, Zapf left for Frankfurt. He did not bear a journeyman's certificate and thus would not be able to get a work permit at another company in Nuremberg, as they would not have been able to check on his qualifications. Zapf went to the Werkstatt Haus zum Fürsteneck, a building run by Paul Koch, son of Rudolf Koch. He spent most of his time there working in typography and writing songbooks.

Through print historian Gustav Mori, Zapf came into contact with the type foundries D. Stempel, AG, and Linotype GmbH of Frankfurt. In 1938, he designed his first printed typeface for them, Gilgengart, a Fraktur.

War service
On 1 April 1939, Zapf was conscripted and sent to Pirmasens to help reinforce the Siegfried Line against France. As a consequence of hard labor, he developed heart trouble in a few weeks and was given a desk job, writing camp records and sports certificates in Fraktur.

World War II broke out in September, and Zapf's unit was to be taken into the Wehrmacht. However, because of his heart trouble, Zapf was not transferred to the Wehrmacht but was instead dismissed. On 1 April 1942, he was summoned again for the war effort. Zapf had been chosen for the Luftwaffe, but instead was sent to the artillery in Weimar. He did not perform well, confusing left and right during training and being too cautious and clumsy with his gun. His officers soon brought an unusually early end to his career in the artillery.

Zapf was sent back to the office and then to Jüterbog to train as a cartographer. After that, he went to Dijon and then Bordeaux, joining the staff of the First Army. In the cartography unit at Bordeaux, Zapf drew maps of Spain, especially the railway system, which could have been used to transport artillery had Francisco Franco not used narrow-gauge tracks to repair bridges after the Spanish Civil War. Zapf was happy in the cartography unit. His eyesight was so good that he could write letters 1 millimeter in height without using a magnifying glass, and this skill probably prevented him from being commissioned back into the army.

After the war had ended, Zapf was held by the French as a prisoner of war at a field hospital in Tübingen. He was treated with respect because of his artwork and, on account of his poor health, was sent home only four weeks after the end of the war. He went back to Nuremberg, which had suffered great damage in air raids.

Postwar career
Zapf taught calligraphy in Nuremberg in 1946. He returned to Frankfurt in 1947, where the type foundry Stempel offered him a position as artistic head of their printshop. They did not ask for qualifications, certificates, or references, but instead only required him to show them his sketchbooks from the war and a calligraphic piece he did in 1944 of Hans von Weber's "Junggesellentext".

One of Zapf's projects was the book Feder und Stichel ("Pen and Graver"), printed from metal plates designed by Zapf and cut by the punchcutter August Rosenberger during the war. It was printed at the Stempel printshop in 1949.

From 1948 to 1950, Zapf taught calligraphy at the Arts and Crafts School in Offenbach, giving lettering lessons twice a week to two classes of graphics students. On 1 August 1951 he married Gudrun von Hesse, who taught at the school of Städel in Frankfurt.

Most of Zapf's work as a graphic artist was in book design. He worked for various publishing houses, including Suhrkamp Verlag, Insel Verlag, Büchergilde Gutenberg, Hanser Verlag, Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, and Verlag Philipp von Zabern.

Type design
Zapf's career in type design spanned the three most recent stages of printing: hot metal composition, phototypesetting (also called cold type), and digital typesetting. His two most famous typefaces, Palatino and Optima, were designed in 1948 and 1952, respectively. Palatino was designed in conjunction with August Rosenberger, with careful attention to detail. It was named after the 16th-century Italian writing master Giambattista Palatino. It became better known after it became one of the core 35 PostScript fonts in 1984, bundled with virtually all PostScript devices from laser printers to imagesetters. Optima, a flared sans-serif, was released by Stempel in 1958. Zapf intended the design to bridge serifs and sans serifs and to be suitable for both headings and continuous passages of text.

Zapf's work reached into a range of genres. Palatino is a warm, organic design inspired by Italian Renaissance calligraphy and printing. Melior suggests the work of the great German neoclassical printer Justus Erich Walbaum but also is based on the mathematical "super-ellipse". His sans serif series URW Grotesk was designed for newspaper use and presents a wide range of widths and weights, reminiscent of geometric sans serif fonts like Futura but in a more eccentric style. Dan Margulis commented on his death that that "you would have to say that his historical standing will be based on the first ten years of his professional career."

Zapf's later releases for Linotype in the 1990s and 2000s, often created in collaboration with Akira Kobayashi, were radical reformations of his previous work, often removing compromises that had been necessary in the manufacture of metal type. In this period he created Palatino Sans, a more informal modulated sans serif than Optima.

Zapf's typefaces have been widely copied, sometimes against his will. The best-known example may be Monotype's Book Antiqua, which was included in Microsoft Office and is often considered an imitation of Palatino. In 1993, Zapf resigned from ATypI (Association Typographique Internationale) over what he viewed as its hypocritical attitude toward unauthorized copying by prominent ATypI members. At a 1994 conference of the Raster Imaging and Digital Typography association in Darmstadt, Germany, a panel discussion on digital typefaces and designers' rights strongly criticized the alleged plagiarism of Zapf's Palatino, while several Microsoft attendees listened in the audience. In 1999, Microsoft worked with Zapf and Linotype to develop a new, authorized version of Palatino for Microsoft, called Palatino Linotype.

Sometimes, however, Zapf worked with a font maker to make new versions of his existing typefaces created for another company. For example, in the 1980s Zapf worked with Bitstream to make versions of many of his prior typefaces, including Palatino, Optima and Melior, all with "Zapf" in their new names.

Calligraphy
Zapf is considered one of the great calligraphers, but he did not work extensively doing commercial lettering and calligraphy. His largest calligraphic project was the "Preamble to the United Nations Charter", written in four languages, commissioned by the Pierpont Morgan Library in New York in 1960, for which he received $1000. But his ideas about calligraphy indirectly influenced the look of the mid-20th century as he served as a consultant to Hallmark Cards throughout the 1960s and 70s, helping them to develop a style manual for their lettering artists. His calligraphy was primarily limited to studies and personal works of art. He also taught calligraphy as a part of his workshops every summer at Rochester Institute of Technology during the 1980s.

Computer typography
Zapf worked on typography for computer programs from the 1960s onwards. His ideas were considered radical, not taken seriously in West Germany, and rejected by the Technische Universität Darmstadt, where he lectured from 1972 to 1981. Because he had no success in Germany, Zapf went to the United States, where he lectured about computerized typesetting, and was invited to speak at Harvard University in 1964. The University of Texas at Austin was also interested in Zapf and offered him a professorship, which he did not take, because his wife opposed a move to that state.

Because Zapf's plans for the United States had come to nothing, and because their house in Frankfurt had become too small, Zapf and his wife moved to Darmstadt in 1972.

In 1976, Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT) offered Zapf a professorship in typographic computer programming, the first of its kind in the world. He taught there from 1977 to 1987, flying between Darmstadt and Rochester. There he developed his ideas further, with the help of his connections in companies such as IBM and Xerox and his discussions with computer specialists at Rochester. A number of Zapf's students from this time at RIT went on to become influential type designers, including Kris Holmes and Charles Bigelow, who together created the Lucida type family. Other prominent students include the calligrapher and type designer Julian Waters and book designer Jerry Kelly.

In 1977, Zapf and his friends Aaron Burns and Herb Lubalin founded Design Processing International, Inc., in New York and developed typographical computer software. It existed until 1986, when Lubalin died. Zapf and Burns founded Zapf, Burns & Company in 1987. Burns, also an expert in typeface design and typography, was in charge of marketing until his death in 1992. Shortly before, two of their employees had stolen Zapf's ideas and founded a company of their own.

Zapf knew that he could not run an American company from Darmstadt and did not want to move to New York. Instead, he used his experience to begin the development of a typesetting program, the "Hz-program", building on the hyphenation and justification system in TeX.

During financial problems and bankruptcy of URW++ in the mid-1990s, Adobe Systems acquired the Hz patent(s) and later made some use of the concepts in their InDesign program.

Zapfino
In 1983, Zapf completed the typeface AMS Euler with Donald Knuth and graduate students in Knuth's and Charles Bigelow's digital typography program at Stanford University, including students Dan Mills, Carol Twombly, and David Siegel and Knuth's computer science PhD students Scott Kim and John Hobby, for the American Mathematical Society. Euler digital font production was eventually finished by Siegel as his M.S. thesis project in 1985. Euler is a typeface family for mathematical composition including Latin, Fraktur and Greek letters. After Siegel finished his studies at Stanford and was interested in entering the field of typography, he told Zapf his idea of making a typeface with a large number of glyph variations and wanted to start with an example of Zapf's calligraphy, which had been reproduced in a publication of the Society of Typographic Arts in Chicago.

Zapf was concerned that this was the wrong way to go, and while he was interested in creating a complicated program, he was worried about starting something new. However, Zapf remembered a page of calligraphy from his sketchbook from 1944 and considered the possibility of making a typeface from it. He had tried to create a calligraphic typeface for Stempel in 1948, but hot metal composition placed too many limits on the freedom of swash characters. Such a pleasing result could only be achieved using modern digital technology, and so Zapf and Siegel began work on the complicated software necessary. Siegel also hired Gino Lee, a programmer from Boston, Massachusetts, to work on the project.

However, just before the project was completed, Siegel wrote a letter to Zapf, saying that his girlfriend had left him and that he had lost all interest in anything. Siegel abandoned the project and started a new life, working on bringing color to Macintosh computers and later becoming an Internet design expert.

The development of Zapfino had become seriously delayed until Zapf presented the project to Linotype. The company was prepared to complete it and reorganized the project. Zapf worked with Linotype to create four alphabets and various ornaments, flourishes, and other dingbats. Zapfino was released in 1998.

Later versions of Zapfino using the Apple Advanced Typography and OpenType technologies were able to make automatic ligatures and glyph substitutions (especially contextual ones, in which the nature of ligatures and substituted glyphs is determined by other glyphs nearby or even in different words), to more accurately reflect the fluid and dynamic nature of Zapf's calligraphy.

Death
Zapf died on 4 June 2015, at the age of 96 in Darmstadt, Germany.

List of typefaces
Zapf designed the following typefaces:

Awards

 * 1969 Frederic W. Goudy Award
 * 1974 Gutenberg Prize of the International Gutenberg Society and the City of Mainz
 * 2010 Bundesverdienstkreuz 1. Klasse

Appearances in film
Zapf starred in the film The Art of Hermann Zapf, produced in 1967 at Hallmark Cards in Kansas City, Missouri, and in Zapf's design studio in Dreieichenhain, Germany. He was also featured in the 2007 documentary Helvetica, by Gary Hustwit. The documentary "Alphabet Magic" about the life and work of Hermann Zapf and Gudrun Zapf-von Hesse, produced and conceived by their niece Professor Alexa Albrand and directed by Marita Neher, was shown in 2019 in Germany and at the Zapf Centennial celebrations that included an exhibit of their work and the Zapf Centennial Symposium at the Grolier Club in New York City.

Publications

 * Cusick, Rick (2011). What Our Lettering Needs: The Contribution of Hermann Zapf to Calligraphy & Type Design at Hallmark Cards. RIT Cary Graphic Arts Press. An account of Zapf's contributions to the artistry and success of Hallmark Cards.
 * Kelly, Jerry (2009). "Hermann Zapf: A survey of his early books". Parenthesis 16. pp. 12–15.
 * Weichselbaumer, Nikolaus. Der Typograph Hermann Zapf: Eine Werkbiographie. Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-041498-1.
 * Calligraphic Salutations: Hermann Zapf's Letterheadings to Paul Standard. Collection of calligraphic embellishments that appeared at the heads of letters written by Zapf to Paul Standard in the 1940s and 1950s.
 * August Rosenberger 1893–1980: A Tribute to One of the Greatest Masters of Punchcutting, an Art Now All but Extinct. Zapf's tribute to Rosenberger, with his recollections of their collaboration in Germany during and after World War II.
 * The World of Alphabets by Hermann Zapf: A Kaleidoscope of Drawings and Letterforms. CD-ROM illustrating Zapf's typographic designs.
 * Spend Your Alphabets Lavishly!: The Work of Hermann & Gudrun Zapf. Collection of works by Hermann and Gudrun Zapf.
 * Alphabet Stories: A Chronicle of Technical Developments by Hermann Zapf (Alphabetgeschichten, in the German edition). Narrative encompassing Zapf's life and work from his childhood in Nuremberg though the release of his typeface designs by Linotype GmbH. The first edition was published in 2007.
 * The second edition, published in 2008, includes an added a two-colour insert of letterpress-printed broadsides designed by Zapf, typeset in his metal Virtuosa and printed at the RIT Cary Graphic Arts Collection.

title: Hermann Zapf


text:
Drum machine

A drum machine is an electronic musical instrument that creates percussion sounds, drum beats, and patterns. Drum machines may imitate drum kits or other percussion instruments, or produce unique sounds, such as synthesized electronic tones. A drum machine often has pre-programmed beats and patterns for popular genres and styles, such as pop music, rock music, and dance music. Most modern drum machines made in the 2010s and 2020s also allow users to program their own rhythms and beats. Drum machines may create sounds using analog synthesis or play prerecorded samples.

While a distinction is generally made between drum machines (which can play back pre-programmed or user-programmed beats or patterns) and electronic drums (which have pads that can be struck and played like an acoustic drum kit), there are some drum machines that have buttons or pads that allow the performer to play drum sounds "live", either on top of a programmed drum beat or as a standalone performance. Drum machines have a range of capabilities, which go from playing a short beat pattern in a loop, to being able to program or record complex song arrangements with changes of meter and style.

Drum machines have had a lasting impact on popular music in the 20th century. The Roland TR-808, introduced in 1980, significantly influenced the development of dance music, especially electronic dance music, and hip hop. Its successor, the TR-909, introduced in 1983, heavily influenced techno and house music. The first drum machine to use samples of real drum kits, the Linn LM-1, was introduced in 1980 and was adopted by rock and pop artists including Prince and Michael Jackson. In the late 1990s, software emulations began to overtake the popularity of physical drum machines housed in a separate plastic or metal chassis.

Rhythmicon (1930–1932)
In 1930–32, the innovative and hard-to-use Rhythmicon was developed by Léon Theremin at the request of Henry Cowell, who wanted an instrument that could play compositions with multiple rhythmic patterns, based on the overtone series, that were far too hard to perform on existing keyboard instruments. The invention could produce sixteen different rhythms, each associated with a particular pitch, either individually or in any combination, including en masse, if desired. Received with considerable interest when it was publicly introduced in 1932, the Rhythmicon was soon set aside by Cowell.

Chamberlin Rhythmate (1957)
In 1957, Harry Chamberlin, an engineer from Iowa, created the Chamberlin Rhythmate, which allowed users to select between 14 tape loops of drum kits and percussion instruments performing various beats. Like the Chamberlin keyboard, the Rhythmate was intended for family singalongs. Around 100 units were sold.

First commercial product – Wurlitzer Side Man (1959)
In 1959, Wurlitzer released the Side Man, which generates sounds mechanically by a rotating disc, similar to a music box. A slider controls the tempo (between 34 and 150 beats per minute). Sounds can also be triggered individually through buttons on a control panel. The Side Man was a success and drew criticism from the American Federation of Musicians, which ruled in 1961 that its local jurisdictions could not prohibit Side Man use, though it could not be used for dancing. Wurlitzer ceased production of the Sideman in 1969.

Raymond Scott (1960–1963)
In 1960, Raymond Scott constructed the Rhythm Synthesizer and, in 1963, a drum machine called Bandito the Bongo Artist. Scott's machines were used for recording his album Soothing Sounds for Baby series (1964).

First fully transistorized drum machines – Seeburg/Gulbransen (1964)
During the 1960s, the implementation of rhythm machines had evolved into fully solid-state (transistorized) from early electro-mechanical with vacuum tubes, and also size was reduced to desktop size from earlier floor type. In the early 1960s, a home organ manufacturer, Gulbransen (later acquired by Fender) cooperated with an automatic musical equipment manufacturer Seeburg Corporation, and released early compact rhythm machines Rhythm Prince (PRP), although, at that time, these sizes were still as large as small guitar amp head, due to the use of bulky electro-mechanical pattern generators. Then in 1964, Seeburg invented a compact electronic rhythm pattern generator using "diode matrix" ( in 1967), and fully transistorized electronic rhythm machine with pre-programmed patterns, Select-A-Rhythm (SAR1), was released. As a result of its robustness and enough compact size, these rhythm machines were gradually installed on the electronic organ as an accompaniment of organists and finally spread widely.

Keio-Giken (Korg), Nippon Columbia, and Ace Tone (1963–1967)
In the early 1960s, a nightclub owner in Tokyo, Tsutomu Katoh was consulted by a notable accordion player, Tadashi Osanai, about the rhythm machine he used for accompaniment in the club, a Wurlitzer Side Man. Osanai, a graduate of the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Tokyo, convinced Katoh to finance his efforts to build a better one. In 1963, their new company Keio-Giken (later Korg) released their first rhythm machine, the Donca-Matic DA-20, using vacuum tube circuits for sounds and a mechanical wheel for rhythm patterns. It was a floor-type machine with a built-in speaker, and featured a keyboard for manual play, in addition to the multiple automatic rhythm patterns. Its price was comparable with the average annual income of Japanese at that time.

Next, their effort was focused on the improvement of reliability and performance, along with size and cost reductions. Unstable vacuum tube circuits were replaced with reliable transistor circuits on the Donca-Matic DC-11 in the mid-1960s. In 1966, the bulky mechanical wheel was also replaced with a compact transistor circuit on the Donca-Matic DE-20 and DE-11. In 1967, the Mini Pops MP-2 was developed as an option for the Yamaha Electone (electric organ), and Mini Pops was established as a series of compact desktop rhythm machines. In the United States, Mini Pops MP-3, MP-7, etc. were sold under the Univox brand by the distributor at that time, Unicord Corporation.

In 1965, Nippon Columbia filed a patent for an automatic rhythm instrument. It described it as an "automatic rhythm player which is simple but capable of electronically producing various rhythms in the characteristic tones of a drum, a piccolo and so on." It has some similarities to Seeburg's slightly earlier 1964 patent.

In 1967, Ace Tone founder Ikutaro Kakehashi (later founder of Roland Corporation) developed the preset rhythm-pattern generator using diode matrix circuit, which has some similarities to the earlier Seeburg and Nippon Columbia patents. Kakehashi's patent describes his device as a "plurality of inverting circuits and/or clipper circuits" which "are connected to a counting circuit to synthesize the output signal of the counting circuit" where the "synthesized output signal becomes a desired rhythm."

Ace Tone commercialized its preset rhythm machine, called the FR-1 Rhythm Ace, in 1967. It offered 16 preset patterns, and four buttons to manually play each instrument sound (cymbal, claves, cowbell and bass drum). The rhythm patterns could also be cascaded together by pushing multiple rhythm buttons simultaneously, and the possible combination of rhythm patterns were more than a hundred (on the later models of Rhythm Ace, the individual volumes of each instrument could be adjusted with the small knobs or faders). The FR-1 was adopted by the Hammond Organ Company for incorporation within their latest organ models. In the US, the units were also marketed under the Multivox brand by Peter Sorkin Music Company, and in the UK, marketed under the Bentley Rhythm Ace brand.

Early preset drum machine users
A number of other preset drum machines were released in the 1970s, but early examples of the use can be found on The United States of America's eponymous album from 1967–8. The first major pop song to use a drum machine was "Saved by the Bell" by Robin Gibb, which reached #2 in Britain in 1969. Drum machine tracks were also heavily used on the Sly & the Family Stone album There's a Riot Goin' On, released in 1971. Sly & the Family Stone was the first group to have a number #1 pop single that used a drum machine: that single was "Family Affair".

The German krautrock band Can also used a drum machine on their songs "Peking O" and "Spoon". The 1972 Timmy Thomas single "Why Can't We Live Together"/"Funky Me" featured a distinctive use of a drum machine and keyboard arrangement on both tracks. Another early example of electronic drums used by a rock band is Obscured by Clouds by Pink Floyd in 1972. The first album on which a drum machine produced all the percussion was Kingdom Come's Journey, recorded in November 1972 using a Bentley Rhythm Ace. French singer-songwriter Léo Ferré mixed a drum machine with a symphonic orchestra in the song "Je t'aimais bien, tu sais..." in his album L'Espoir, released in 1974. Miles Davis' live band began to use a drum machine in 1974 (played by percussionist James Mtume), which can be heard on Dark Magus (1977). Osamu Kitajima's progressive psychedelic rock album Benzaiten (1974) also used drum machines.

Programmable drum machines
In 1972, Eko released the ComputeRhythm, which was one of the first programmable drum machines. It had a 6-row push-button matrix that allowed the user to enter a pattern manually. The user could also push punch cards with pre-programmed rhythms through a reader slot on the unit.

Another stand-alone drum machine released in 1975, the PAiA Programmable Drum Set was also one of the first programmable drum machines, and was sold as a kit with parts and instructions which the buyer would use to build the machine.

In 1975, Ace Tone released the Rhythm Producer FR-15 that enables the modification of the pre-programmed rhythm patterns. In 1978, Roland released the Roland CR-78, the first microprocessor-based programmable rhythm machine, with four memory storage for user patterns. In 1979, a simpler version with four sounds, Boss DR-55, was released.

Drum sound synthesis
A key difference between such early machines and more modern equipment is that they use sound synthesis rather than digital sampling in order to generate their sounds. For example, a snare drum or maraca sound would typically be created using a burst of white noise whereas a bass drum sound would be made using sine waves or other basic waveforms. This meant that while the resulting sound was not very close to that of the real instrument, each model tended to have a unique character. For this reason, many of these early machines have achieved a certain "cult status" and are now sought after by producers for use in production of modern electronic music, most notably the Roland TR-808.

Digital sampling

The Linn LM-1 Drum Computer, released in 1980 at $4,995, was the first drum machine to use digital samples. It also featured revolutionary rhythmic concepts such as swing factors, shuffle, accent, and real-time programming, all of which have since rooted themselves in beat box technology. Only about 500 were ever made, but its effect on the music industry was extensive. Its distinctive sound almost defines 1980s pop, and it can be heard on hundreds of hit records from the era, including The Human League's Dare, Gary Numan's Dance, Devo's New Traditionalists, and Ric Ocasek's Beatitude. Prince bought one of the first LM-1s and used it on nearly all of his most popular albums, including 1999 and Purple Rain.

Many of the drum sounds on the LM-1 were composed of two chips that were triggered at the same time, and each voice was individually tunable with individual outputs. Due to memory limitations, a crash cymbal sound was not available except as an expensive third-party modification. A cheaper version of the LM-1 was released in 1982 called the LinnDrum. Priced at $2,995, not all of its voices were tunable, but crash cymbal was included as a standard sound. Like its predecessor the LM-1, it featured swappable sound chips. The LinnDrum can be heard on records such as The Cars' Heartbeat City and Giorgio Moroder's soundtrack for the film Scarface.

It was feared the LM-1 would put every session drummer in Los Angeles out of work and it caused many of L.A.'s top session drummers (Jeff Porcaro is one example) to purchase their own drum machines and learn to program them themselves in order to stay employed. Linn even marketed the LinnDrum specifically to drummers.

Following the success of the LM-1, Oberheim introduced the DMX, which also featured digitally sampled sounds and a "swing" feature similar to the one found on the Linn machines. It became very popular in its own right, becoming a staple of the nascent hip-hop scene.

Other manufacturers soon began to produce machines, e.g. the Sequential Circuits Drumtraks and Tom, the E-mu Drumulator and the Yamaha RX11.

In 1986, the SpecDrum by Cheetah Marketing, an inexpensive 8-bit sampling drum external module for the ZX Spectrum, was introduced, with a price less than £30, when similar models cost around £250.

Roland TR-808 and TR-909

In 1980, the Roland Corporation launched the TR-808 Rhythm Composer. It was one of the earliest programmable drum machines, with which users could create their own rhythms rather than having to use preset patterns. Unlike the more expensive LM-1, the 808 is completely analog, meaning its sounds are generated non-digitally via hardware rather than samples (prerecorded sounds). Launched when electronic music had yet to become mainstream, the 808 received mixed reviews for its unrealistic drum sounds and was a commercial failure. Having built approximately 12,000 units, Roland discontinued the 808 after its semiconductors became impossible to restock.

Over the course of the 1980s, the 808 attracted a cult following among underground musicians for its affordability on the used market, ease of use, and idiosyncratic sounds, particularly its deep, "booming" bass drum. It became a cornerstone of the emerging electronic, dance, and hip hop genres, popularized by early hits such as Marvin Gaye's "Sexual Healing" and Afrika Bambaataa and the Soulsonic Force's "Planet Rock". The 808 was eventually used on more hit records than any other drum machine; its popularity with hip hop in particular has made it one of the most influential inventions in popular music, comparable to the Fender Stratocaster's influence on rock. Its sounds continue to be used as samples included with music software and modern drum machines.

The 808 was followed in 1983 by the TR-909, the first Roland drum machine to use MIDI, which synchronizes devices built by different manufacturers. It was also the first Roland drum machine to use samples for some sounds. Like the 808, the 909 was a commercial failure, but had a lasting influence on popular music after cheap units circulated on the used market; alongside the Roland TB-303 bass synthesizer, it influenced the development of electronic genres such as techno, house and acid.

Later machines

By 2000, standalone drum machines had become less common, partly supplanted by general-purpose hardware samplers controlled by sequencers (built-in or external), software-based sequencing and sampling and the use of loops, and music workstations with integrated sequencing and drum sounds. TR-808 and other digitized drum machine sounds can be found in archives on the Internet. However, traditional drum machines are still being made by companies such as Roland Corporation (under the name Boss), Zoom, Korg and Alesis, whose SR-16 drum machine has remained popular since it was introduced in 1991.

There are percussion-specific sound modules that can be triggered by pickups, trigger pads, or through MIDI. These are called drum modules; the Alesis D4 and Roland TD-8 are popular examples. Unless such a sound module also features a sequencer, it is, strictly speaking, not a drum machine.

In the 2010s a revival of interest in analogue synthesis resulted in a new wave of analogue drum machines, ranging from the budget-priced Korg Volca Beats and Akai Rhythm Wolf to the mid-priced Arturia DrumBrute, and the high-end MFB Tanzbär and Dave Smith Instruments Tempest. Roland's TR-08 and TR-09 Rhythm Composers were digital recreations of the original TR-808 and 909, while Behringer released an analogue clone of the 808 as the Behringer RD-8 Rhythm Designer. Korg released an analog drum machine, the Volca Beats, in 2013.

Programming

Programming of drum machines varies from product to product. On most products, it can be done in real time: the user creates drum patterns by pressing the trigger pads as though a drum kit were being played; or using step-sequencing: the pattern is built up over time by adding individual sounds at certain points by placing them, as with the TR-808 and TR-909, along a 16-step bar. For example, a generic 4-on-the-floor dance pattern could be made by placing a closed high hat on the 3rd, 7th, 11th, and 15th steps, then a kick drum on the 1st, 5th, 9th, and 13th steps, and a clap or snare on the 5th and 13th. This pattern could be varied in a multitude of ways to obtain fills, breakdowns and other elements that the programmer sees fit, which in turn could be sequenced with song-sequence — essentially the drum machine plays back the programmed patterns from memory in an order the programmer has chosen. The machine will quantize entries that are slightly off-beat in order to make them exactly in time.

If the drum machine has MIDI connectivity, then one could program the drum machine with a computer or another MIDI device.

Comparison with live drumming
While drum machines have been used much in popular music since the 1980s, "...scientific studies show there are certain aspects of human-created rhythm that machines cannot replicate, or can only replicate poorly" such as the "feel" of human drumming and the ability of a human drummer to respond to changes in a song as it is being played live onstage. Human drummers also have the ability to make slight variations in their playing, such as playing "ahead of the beat" or "behind the beat" for sections of a song, in contrast to a drum machine that plays a pre-programmed rhythm. As well, human drummers play a "tremendously wide variety of rhythmic variations" that drum machines cannot reproduce.

Labor costs
Drum machines developed out of a need to create drum beats when a drum kit was not available. Increasingly, drum machines and drum programming are used by major record labels to undercut the costly expense of studio drummers.

title: Drum machine


text:
Talk:Agritourism

Untitled
Can we please use the English titles? Danny
 * There is locally a certain confusion about english names, the term is translated in at least 4 or 5 different ways; so if one is looking for this kind of facilities, this should be the common name surely identifying the matter, otherwise one would risk to have a partial result (try a simple google search and you'll see). Gianfranco

 * I redirected the page to Agritourism, which is the English term. It is wrong to give the impression that this is an Italian phenomenon. It happens everywhere. In fact, the first entries in Google were to Portugal, the U.K., and the United States. Danny

 * There are some differences in how it is organised and run in Italy, as you know, with some peculiarities as a touristic product, but we are not here to advertise anything, indeed. Sorry if this was appearing. Gianfranco

Adding external links to Agritourism
I would like to start making some edits and adding external links to the Agritourism project. In fact, I am interested in transferring information I have been maintaining on my own academic website to Wikipedia pages. Agritourism happens to be my specialty, so I thought it best to start here. Regarding external agritourism links, I have carefully selected about 20 or so that I feel meet Wikipedias standards, but want to be careful not to turn this into a repository of external links as Wikipedia states. As this is my first foray into the world of Wikipedia editing, I would appreciate your experienced guidance in this process.Delayreality 05:19, 25 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Hello friend, maybe you could suggest those links here, for now? MarekTT (talk) 22:00, 13 December 2007 (UTC)

Call for further contributions
Some suggestions to expand this article... ex: find villages from other wikipedia articles that are agrotourism sustained (I added the village Agros, in Cyprus). More related external links (check out some useful links and resources collection here: ... another problem is that from country to country the definition of what constitutes "agrotourism" differs, sometimes dramatically. I am currently doing a research to gather various definitions and try to find common grounds for a diversified description. So, your ideas are welcomed, cheers MarekTT (talk) 22:07, 13 December 2007 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20090116050731/http://ces.uwyo.edu/pubs/B1125-2.pdf to http://ces.uwyo.edu/pubs/B1125-2.pdf

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External links modified
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File nominated for deletion on commons
file=c:File:Agritourism - The Vaidelotes farm, in Bauska Municipality, Zemgale, Latvia.jpg|patten=No permission indicated subpage= Message automatically deposited by a robot on 07:28, 2 January 2018 (UTC). — Preceding unsigned comment added by Harideepan (talk • contribs)

title: Talk:Agritourism


text:
Talk:Pseudoprime/Archive 1

The term "pseudoprime" rather than "pseudo prime" is used in the Handbook of Applied Cryptography, the online encyclopedias [Mathworld] and the [Prime Glossary], and in the papers at [www.pseudoprime.com]. Google prefers "pseudoprime" to "pseudo prime" by 1900 to 300. I'd suggest moving this article to pseudoprime.

title: Talk:Pseudoprime/Archive 1