text:
Talk:Homeland

Joining Mother-, Father- and Homeland
Is there any reason for not redirecting Motherland and Fatherland to Homeland? Brallan 14:32, 14 April 2007 (UTC)

 * That makes sense, and a number of people have suggested it on other pages. I am now merging them.  SilkTork  *YES! 09:14, 7 June 2010 (UTC)
 * I do not agree with this merge, now all the disamb Motherland topics are orphaned. Motherland is a completely separate word in English language and hence it should not be merged. It would be better to ref to Motherland here but then have a sep Motherland page.--Halqh حَلَقَة הלכהሐላቃህ (talk) 11:48, 7 June 2010 (UTC)

 * I also protest this undiscussed merger. Lars T. (talk) 01:29, 8 June 2010 (UTC)
 * Per this discussion i have restored it, It can be a stub in this article. It is far too common and expression on its own to be hidden in a homeland, which reminds me of American security. So these words have connotations and need their seperate space to be developed. Plus all the content on words for Motherland were lost including the fact that it orphaned disabig terms for Motherland. no solid reason for the merger.--Halqh حَلَقَة הלכהሐላቃህ (talk) 05:54, 21 June 2010 (UTC)

the merger is necessary simply because Motherland and Fatherland had no content other than what is here, plus a completely unreferenced list of terms.
 * After you copied the content here. ''Surprise!' 'Lars T. (talk) 20:29, 20 July 2010 (UTC)

Of course it would be possible to turn Motherland and Fatherland into standalone articles, but for that we would need referenced content that goes beyond a short paragraph. --dab (𒁳) 11:17, 20 July 2010 (UTC)

Africa the Motherland of humanity and civilization?
«The term "Motherland" is very often applied to Africa due to it being the origin of humanity and civilization», is declared in this article. Well, mmmh, yes, there seems to be full agreement on an Oldowan origin of mankind (hence civilization). But I really never heard or read anybody applying the term "Motherland" to Olduvai Gorge or the like in Africa. Would someone provide with references for such a strong expresion "very often applied"?
 * Zack Holly Venturi (talk) 10:12, 8 August 2010 (UTC)

Fatherland merger
Fatherland needs to be merged into this article. They are the same topic. I read some comments about fatherland having a different connotation. This is mostly untrue. The word fatherland does tend to be used in different contexts than homeland but that does not make them different topics, just different words for the same topic. Regardless the fatherland article is currently mostly a lookup of translations into different languages.

--192.88.165.35 (talk) 19:19, 4 November 2011 (UTC)
 * I completely disagree -- "Fatherland" references a Patriarchal history. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 124.46.156.23 (talk) 16:54, 26 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Disagree: Why bother?  They have different meanings and been used differently throughout history.  There's enough content for both.--Hutcher (talk) 20:10, 21 October 2012 (UTC)

 * Merge Motherland has already been merged here, and Fatherland is nothing but a list of countries that use the term and some OR garbage about Nazis. --BDD (talk) 05:06, 25 October 2012 (UTC)

 * Don't merge. There are two different ensembles of articles in Wikidata:
 * The Vaterland/Patria concept (from germanic/latin languages, like Vaterland in German, "fatherland" or "motherland" in English, patria in Spanish, patrie in French etc)
 * The "homeland" concept (with its own articles in the list, corresponding with this "homeland" article)
 * Kintaro (talk) 14:42, 18 November 2013 (UTC)

Scots term
Within the 'Fatherland' heading is the bullet point: -*Scots heauinlie (besides the more common faitherland)*

I'm fairly sure that this is nonsensical. The Dictionary of the Scots language doesn't have a definition for 'heauinlie', but it arises in the supporting quotations for a number of other words from which it is clear that it is an antique spelling of 'heavenly'. I suspect the confusion has arisen from the definition for 'Patrie-(One's) fatherland or native country' which includes a quoted line from a prayer 'In my patrie of ȝour heauinlie kingdom; '

I am not and have no ambition to be an editor, and I'm not even sure if I'll get this posted successfully, but hopefully next time and editor wanders by they could look at this apparent misapprehension? Many thanks 164.134.0.180 (talk) 10:11, 4 August 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
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Merge
Homeland, motherland, and fatherland are all synonyms. The lead in this article even says so. The key here is WP:NAD. We do not create articles simply to provide a definition of each word. Unless there is something especially important about the word itself that merits a whole article separate from topic the word describes, creating a separate article for each word is a violation of WP:NAD. As it stands, the Fatherland article is nothing but a listing of translations of the word into different languages. ???

Let's merge and clean up.

-- MC 141.131.2.3 (talk) 23:35, 27 February 2018 (UTC)

I agree. Both articles are already short enough as is and Homeland already features a Fatherland section which is mostly a repeat of the translations already mentioned here. I say we scrap this one altogether and just copy it wholesale into the aforementioned Homeland section. Fritz1776 (talk) 17:15, 8 March 2018 (UTC)

I would support this merge. I think Homeland is an obvious search term and the concepts of Fatherland and Motherland could be described as being part of the wider idea of Homeland. Dunarc (talk) 17:54, 30 March 2018 (UTC)

Most dictionaries state that all three words are synonymous with each other and every time someone searches "motherland" they get redirected to "homeland." I believe we should just do away with this article and and contribute it to the homeland article. --Scarslayer01 (talk) 01:28, 8 January 2019 (UTC)
 * I note that you've removed one template out of two on a merge proposal with this edit, with the edit comment Discussion is very much closed. See for yourself. I can indeed see that the 2011-13 proposal, was a clear no, but I also note that this is 2018 proposal is a clear yes. Perhaps times and views have changed? Given that the discussion is for the merge, perhaps you could close it with a merge recommendation or replace the merge template and add your views here? Klbrain (talk) 16:20, 11 July 2019 (UTC)
 * Oops. Merge template restored. Debresser (talk) 23:15, 11 July 2019 (UTC)
 * Agree with merging Fatherland into Homeland. Debresser (talk) 23:17, 11 July 2019 (UTC)

Clean up WP:NAD problem
As a separate concern, the current structure/content of this article has some problems. A lot of the article is devoted to discussing which cultures use the "mother" concept and which use the "father" concept. While this is an interesting thing to discuss, it hardly deserves the space that is currently allotted. Even the "Various connotations" section largely talks about how the term is used.

IMHO the existing content should be simplified and meaningful content added. The concept of a homeland actually is an important topic. See the following as examples of scholarly discussions of homelands:
 * Constitutional Design for Divided Societies: Integration Or Accommodation?
 * The Philosophy of International Law
 * National Identity

-- MC 141.131.2.3 (talk) 23:45, 27 February 2018 (UTC)

Requested move 26 June 2019

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: not moved (non-admin closure) ~SS49~   {talk}  12:37, 3 July 2019 (UTC)

– Like the recently moved The Americans, the award-winning and historically significant drama TV series Homeland is the clear WP:PRIMARYTOPIC here, and so this use, though the root term of many other uses including Homeland security, needs to be disambiguated since the page view stats show there is relatively very little interest in this article (for better or for worse), and the vast, vast majority of those searching with "homeland" are searching for the TV series, and are not served well by being taken to this article. Four to five THOUSAND users view the TV series page daily; while the others get 200 or fewer each, including the ones when a WP search for the series incorrectly takes the user to this page. This is not a close at all by any measure. If you support this move in general but prefer a different disambiguator (or a different title altogether), please support and propose the alternative disambiguator in your comment. A hatnote to Homeland (disambiguation) will be more than adequate to manage the few that end up at this page mistakenly. В²C ☎ 17:51, 26 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Homeland → Homeland (native land)
 * Homeland (TV series) → Homeland
 * Oppose 2nd per WP:ASTONISH, User:Andrewa/Incoming links and PT#2 however I'm comfortable with putting the DAB page at the base name as a compromise.  Crouch, Swale  ( talk ) 18:08, 26 June 2019 (UTC)
 * The MOS and a user space essay do not trump policy and guidelines. --В²C ☎ 20:31, 26 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Guideline, not policy. Also, as I argue below, the guideline does not in reality support your proposal. Debresser (talk) 21:06, 26 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Just to be pedantic, WP:MOS is a guideline. Colin M (talk) 22:56, 26 June 2019 (UTC)

 * Oppose 2nd Even if the series' page is visited more, but it still is not the obvious first meaning of the term. Also, the interest in the article about the series will dwindle with time after the series ends, while the term "Homeland" will always be part of the English language. Debresser (talk) 21:06, 26 June 2019 (UTC)
 * The "obvious first meaning of the term" is not what PRIMARYTOPIC means. In fact, it says the exact opposite of that. See: Disambiguation: in no case does "what comes first to mind" to any particular person have much bearing, either positive or negative, on which topic, if any, actually is the primary topic. Just because the TV series does not come to mind first to you when you hear "homeland", I'm sure it does to the thousands of users who seek and read the TV series article every single day.    --В²C ☎ 21:15, 26 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Strong oppose and speedy close - ridiculous that the concept the TV show was NAMED FOR is suggested to be secondary. A TV show while its airing is of course going to have a temporary boost in page views. This drops significantly once the show concludes and trails off progressively over time. This proposal is both ridiculous on the long-term significance basis because its title derives from the broader concept - but it also is inevitably going to fail on the usage due to this sure drop in page views to come. -- Netoholic @ 10:56, 27 June 2019 (UTC)
 * I don't think it's ridiculous a priori to have a case where A is named after B and A is the primary topic over B. The primary topic for Forrest Gump is the 1994 film, not the 1986 novel on which it's based. The primary topic for Macbeth is the Shakespeare play, not the historical figure with that name that the play is about. Colin M (talk) 21:18, 30 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Strong oppose, speedy close and possibly consider further action regarding proposer - pushing a personal crusade on titling, again, and shows a complete misunderstanding of the basic principles of an encyclopedia. In ictu oculi (talk) 10:59, 27 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose. The primary topic is generally the one which has long-term significance. Celia Homeford (talk) 12:49, 27 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose 2nd per WP:ASTONISH. However, I'm neutral on 1st move, so I'd support a disambiguation page at the basename. Paintspot Infez (talk) 23:54, 29 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose – B2C ignores the concept of longterm significance in the primarytopic grab proposal for a popular TV series. Dicklyon (talk) 05:29, 30 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose as In ictu oculi  --Pierpao (talk) 13:03, 30 June 2019 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

title: Talk:Homeland


text:
Castile (historical region)

Castile or Castille (Castilla ) is a territory of imprecise limits located in Spain. The use of the concept of Castile relies on the assimilation (via a metonymy) of a 19th-century determinist geographical notion, that of Castile as Spain's centro mesetario ("tableland core", connected to the Meseta Central) with a long-gone historical entity of diachronically variable territorial extension (the Kingdom of Castile).

The proposals advocating for a particular semantic codification/closure of the concept (a dialogical construct) are connected to essentialist arguments relying on the reification of something that does not exist beyond the social action of those building Castile not only by identifying with it as a homeland of any kind, but also in opposition to it. A hot topic concerning the concept of Castile is its relation with Spain, insofar intellectuals, politicians, writers, or historians have either endorsed, nuanced or rejected the idea of the maternity of Spain by Castile, thereby permeating non-scholar discourses about Castile.

Castile's name is generally thought to derive from "land of castles" (castle in Spanish is castillo) in reference to the castles built in the area to consolidate the Christian Reconquest from the Moors.

The Encyclopædia Britannica ascribes the concept to the sum of the regions of Old Castile and New Castile, as they were formally defined in the 1833 territorial division of Spain.

History
Originally an eastern county of the kingdom of León, in the 11th century, Castile became an independent realm with its capital at Burgos. The County of Castile, which originally included most of Burgos and parts of Vizcaya, Álava, Cantabria and La Rioja, became the leading force in the northern Christian states' 800-year Reconquista ("reconquest") of central and southern Spain from the Moorish rulers who had dominated most of the peninsula since the early 8th century.

The capture of Toledo in 1085 added New Castile to the crown's territories, and the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) heralded the Moors' loss of most of southern Spain. The kingdom of León was integrated in the Crown of Castile in 1230, and the following decades saw the capture of Córdoba (1236), Murcia (1243) and Seville (1248). By the Treaty of Alcaçovas with Portugal on March 6, 1460, the ownership of the Canary Islands was transferred to Castile.

The dynastic union of Castile and Aragon in 1469, when Ferdinand II of Aragon wed Isabella I of Castile, would eventually lead to the formal creation of Spain as a single entity in 1516 when their grandson Charles V assumed both thrones. See List of Spanish monarchs and Kings of Spain family tree. The Muslim Kingdom of Granada (roughly encompassing the modern day provinces of Granada, Malaga and Almeria) was conquered in 1492, formally passing to the Crown of Castile in that year.

Geography
Since it lacks official recognition, Castile does not have clearly defined borders. Historically, the area consisted of the Kingdom of Castile. After the kingdom merged with its neighbours to become the Crown of Castile and later the Kingdom of Spain, when it united with the Crown of Aragon and the Kingdom of Navarre, the definition of what constituted Castile gradually began to change. Its historical capital was Burgos. In modern Spain, it is generally considered to comprise Castile and León and Castile–La Mancha, with Madrid as its centre. West Castile and León, Albacete, Cantabria and La Rioja are sometimes included in the definition (controversial for historical, political, and cultural reasons).

Since 1982 there have been two nominally Castilian autonomous communities in Spain, incorporating the toponym in their own official names: Castile and Leon and Castile-La Mancha. A third, the Community of Madrid is also regarded as part of Castile, by dint of its geographic enclosure within the entity and, above all, by the statements of its Statute of Autonomy, since its autonomic process originated in national interest and not in popular disaffection with Castile.

Other territories in the former Crown of Castile are left out for different reasons. The territory of the Castilian Crown actually comprised all other autonomous communities within Spain with the exception of Aragon, Balearic Islands, Valencia and Catalonia, all belonging to the former Crown of Aragon, and Navarre, offshoot of the older Kingdom of the same name. Castile was divided between Old Castile in the north, so called because it was where the Kingdom of Castile was founded, and New Castile, called the Kingdom of Toledo in the Middle Ages. The Leonese region, part of the Crown of Castile from 1230, was from medieval times considered a region in its own right on a par with the two Castiles, and appeared on maps alongside Old Castile until the two joined as one region - Castile and Leon - in the 1980s. In 1833, Spain was further subdivided into administrative provinces.

Two non-administrative, nominally Castilian regions existed from 1833 to 1982: Old Castile, including Santander (autonomous community of Cantabria since 1981), Burgos, Logroño (autonomous community of La Rioja since 1982), Palencia, Valladolid, Soria, Segovia and Ávila, and New Castile consisting of Madrid (autonomous community of Madrid since 1983), Guadalajara, Cuenca, Toledo and Ciudad Real.

Language
The language of Castile emerged as the primary language of Spain—known to many of its speakers as castellano and in English sometimes as Castilian, but generally as Spanish. See Names given to the Spanish language. Historically, the Castilian Kingdom and people were considered to be the main architects of the Spanish State by a process of expansion to the South against the Moors and of marriages, wars, assimilation, and annexation of their smaller Eastern and Western neighbours. From the advent of the Bourbon Monarchy following the War of the Spanish Succession until the arrival of parliamentary democracy in 1977, the Castilian language was the only one with official status in the Spanish state.

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Castilian identity and cultural expansion
Castilians are defined as a community with a shared culture and history. Their origin is, as well as most of other parts of Spain, a heterogeneous mixture of peoples who settled the area over millennia. Thus, it is not correct to establish a strict common origin, but a common cultural identity. Over time, most Castilians have mixed with other Spaniards due to their past political dominance, and present-day cultural dominance. Castilians and their cultural influence spread throughout the entire plateau of central Spain during the Reconquista, carried out principally by the Kingdom of Toledo which was renamed New Castile. Castilian ethnicity is the product of the conquest, by a small kingdom in northern Spain, of vast tracts of sparsely populated lands (the central "mesetas"). These lands were populated, during the reconquest, by peoples from all over the peninsula, even from southern Spain (see exile of Mozarabs from Al Andalus and even the dispersal of Moriscos from Granada in the 16th century).

At present, Castilians are known as the inhabitants of those regions of Spain where there is no regional identity which conflicts with that of Castilians. The Castilian territories roughly coincide with the plateaus of north-central Spain, historically sparsely populated harsh highlands.

Castilian identity is ambiguous: since Castilian nationalism was the first to have been suppressed by the Spanish Crown during the revolt and war of the Castilian War of the Communities against the Spanish Monarchy, between 1520 and 1521, a strong sense of identity cannot be found in Castilians and there are differences about what can be considered Castile.

Castilian identity is thus excluded from the historical nationalities of Spain such as Catalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country, but also other autonomous communities of Spain which due to historical reasons have their own strong identities, such as Andalusia, Asturias, Aragon, Balearic Islands, Canary Islands and the Valencian Community. Both Andalusia and the Canary Islands experienced an early Castilian colonisation and subsequent immigration, but the survival and absorption of by the large local populations allowed for characteristics and separate identities particular to those regions to survive. Certain regions are not considered Castilian, such as Valencia and the Balearic Islands because historically they belong to the Crown of Aragon and because their local languages are Catalan dialects. Galicians are not considered to be Castilian, although the former Kingdom of Galicia was annexed by the Crown of Castile.

Their language, Galician, is akin to Portuguese, and they possess a local culture and identity. Navarre, a former kingdom, has a culture that is mainly Basque in the north and closer to that of Old Castile in the south, especially in La Rioja and Aragon, in the south. Extremadura, a region in western Spain, is usually not considered to be Castilian; it has a strong link to neighbouring Andalusia. Murcia has always been a region of its own. The Leonese region was a separate region before democracy in the 1970s, and had its own language, Leonese, which is moribund. However, Castile and León (Spanish: Castilla y León) had the Spanish conjunction y ('and') inserted as the León region is not considered to be in Castile (the north half) but joint with it in this autonomous community.

Leonese regionalists want Castile and León to be dissolved and become an autonomous community in its own right as the Leonese Country. Cantabria was previously considered as part of Old Castile, but it has its own identity and had achieved independence from Castile in the 1970s and is now a comunidad autonoma in its own right. Madrid had been in New Castile until the 1970s and has traditionally been considered Castilian. However, its status as the capital of Spain, meant that it gained its own autonomous community. Also, its people are not all Castilian as there have been immigration from other regions in Spain and indeed the world. In terms of cultural identity, there is a divide and controversy. Older Madrid people as well as Castilians nationalist in the region consider their city to be in Castile (cultural identity). Younger Madrid people, look at the modern reality of the administration, and do not consider it to be in Castile, as there is no reference to it in the name or the symbols of the autonomous community. However, the folk culture in the Madrid region is Castilian, even though the city itself has its own folklore, the chotis. As for La Mancha, they are still in Castile as their autonomous community is called Castile–La Mancha. However, their cultural identity focuses on the La Mancha rather than on the Castile. They have their own identity even though they are recognised as fully Castilian, for example, they had no language of their own, unlike, León.

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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Castile (historical region)


text:
Homeland defense

Homeland defense (HD) is the protection of a territory, sovereignty, domestic population, and critical infrastructure against external threats and aggression. (Definition will be incorporated into JP 3-26 upon its approval).

Homeland security (HS) is a concerted national effort to prevent terrorist attacks, reduce a nation's vulnerability to terrorism, and minimize the damage and recover from attacks that do occur.

Full definition
"Homeland defense (HD) is the protection of a sovereignty, territory, domestic population, and critical defense infrastructure against external threats and aggression, or other threats as directed by the leader of that nation such as the President of the United States. The United States Department of Defense is partially responsible for the Homeland defense mission of the United States, and therefore leads the HD response, with other departments and agencies in support of DOD efforts."

Threat strategy
HD strategic threat environment is based on the following conditions and profiles: Responses to the changes in any of the above can affect US's international environment through the application of diplomatic, economic, military, and informational means. Thus, a proactive and comprehensive approach to HD is required for US's response.
 * Diminished protection afforded by geographic distances
 * Traditional threats remain
 * Greater risk of a weapon of mass destruction attack
 * Increased potential for miscalculation and surprise
 * Increased potential for terrorist attacks
 * Increased challenges from weak and failing states and non-state actors
 * Increasing diversity in sources and unpredictability of the locations of conflict
 * Threats to US vital interests overseas
 * Increasing transnational.

title: Homeland defense


text:
Tarocchini

Tarocchini (plural for tarocchino) are point trick-taking tarot card games popular in Bologna, capital city of the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy and has been confined mostly to this area. They are the diminutive form of tarocchi (plural for tarocco), referring to the reduction of the Bolognese pack from 78 to 62 cards, which probably occurred in the early 16th century.

The games of Tarocchini are very complex, yet the rules have changed little over the years.

Deck description
Tarocchini can be played with a 78-card Tarot deck (where the 2–5 pip cards in each suit have been removed), though normally, a special Tarot deck, the Tarocco Bolognese is used. The trump cards have a unique ordering where the second to fifth trumps are known collectively as the Moretti (Moors) and are of equal rank (the last one played is the highest, in regards to taking a trick). In the Tarocco Bolognese, these cards are depicted with four Moors, two of which are identical.

The Fool is not a trump, it can't beat any cards and is played as an excuse from following suit. The Magician is the lowest trump. However, both the Fool and the Magician may be used as contatori (counters or wild cards) to assist in making sequences. The contatori are very valuable, because they can be used as wild cards in multiple locations. The four highest trumps, which are unnumbered, are Angel, World, Sun, and Moon and they are collectively known as grande (big). Angel, World, Magician, and the Fool are collectively known as tarocchi.

The grande, Moretti, and contatori are not numbered in the Tarocco Bolognese.

In the modern game, the cards won by each side are counted in pairs, with 1 being subtracted from the total for each pair. There are also six points for winning the final trick, giving a total of 93 points.

Common rules
In tarocchini, card points are not as important as bonus or meld points gained from combinations. Combinations can either be associative or sequential. Associative combinations or cricche (formerly as pariglie) consist of three or four of a kind sets.

There are four types of sequential combinations although two of them are more like associative combinations. Each sequence needs at least three cards for 10 points and every extra card is worth 5 points. What separates the sequences from the cricche is the use of the contatori. The contatori may not be used to substitute Angel or a King. For trumps, the sequence ends if the contatori are used consecutively with one exception: if the two cards replaced are trump 16 and a grande.

Multiplicative bonuses occur when three or more cricche or three or more sequences are made at one time. This doubles the points.

Ottocento
Ottocento, is the most popular version. It is played by 4 players in two partnerships sitting opposite each other. The middle part of the game is very similar to the basic tarot game. It adds a round of point-counting before and after the game based on sets and runs of the cards. An unusual feature is that the partners are allowed to make certain limited signals to each other during play.

As usual for Tarot card games, dealing and card play are counter-clockwise. The dealer gives 15 cards to each player, in 3 rounds of five cards apiece. The dealer picks up the last two cards adding it to those in hand. The dealer has to discard two cards, which can not be "5 point" cards (such as kings, or the trumps worth 5 points). The discards are counted as points to the dealer's side, unless they make no tricks at all during the card play in which case the discarded cards must be surrendered to the opponents.

After the first 5 cards have been dealt, if all players agree the game may andare a monte. If this happens, all the cards are thrown in, and the deal passes to the next player. Eldest hand speaks first, declaring a monte if wishing to restart the game. This continues with each player until it reaches the dealer. If all have declared a monte, then the game will be restarted.

The game consists of three parts. Just after the hand has been dealt, all players may score their hands according to the meld points contained within. Next, normal card play occurs. Finally, the partners score any meld points that they have in their captured tricks. The scoring of meld points after card play is unique to Tarocchini and Minchiate.

Declarations
After the cards have been dealt, each player may declare certain combinations of hand cards to collect meld points. The player does not have to declare anything, and may optionally declare a smaller set or run than actually held. Anything that is declared must be placed face-up on the table. The decision of what to declare is an interesting strategic choice.

Game play
Once the first declaration of points is finished, normal card play ensues. Note that some information has been disclosed by the declarations, so players will have more clues than usual as to the contents of the other players' hands. As in all tarocchi games, there is the rule that a player that can't follow suit must trump if possible. If lacking trumps, then any card can be discarded. The Fool excuses the player from following suit: it is played to the trick instead of following suit, and then retrieved to its player's pile of won tricks. The Fool's player gives a low valued card to the trick's winner (only if it is an opponent) at the end of the hand. If the Fool's team failed to win any trick, the Fool is surrendered to the opponents but this is very rare. One of the most important strategies is to capture or protect the Begato as it is very useful in scoring. The last trick has a bonus of 6 points.

During play, eldest is permitted to make certain signals to his or her partner. The current game allows only three signals:
 * Throwing up the card up which means "I'm now void in this suit". Originally, the signal was opening a hand.
 * Drawing back the card towards oneself means "You should lead with trumps".
 * Knocking the table with a fist means "You should try to win with your highest card and lead the next trick with the same suit."

These are some of the formerly allowed signals:
 * Saying sminchiate means " Lead your highest trump"
 * Striking the centre of the table means "I have the highest card of the suit (including trumps)."
 * Striking the table's edge means "I have the second highest card..."
 * When on lead, drawing back the card slightly towards oneself before laying it down means "Do not play your highest card of the suit in question".

Scoring
Once all tricks have been completed, the captured cards are examined for meld points. Combine these meld points with the meld points from declarations at the beginning of the hand. Next, count card points in pairs with one point subtracted from each pair. Then add the last trick bonus. After adding the meld points with the card points and last trick bonus, the first team to reach 800 wins. It is actually possible to win at the declarations if one team can reach 800 points. If both teams can do it, the team with the higher points win.

Terziglio
Terziglio is for three players and the only version to include bidding. Each player is dealt 18 or 19 cards with 8 or 5 going to the stock. During bidding, players can pass, bid gioco, or bid solo which is the highest bid. In gioco, the declarer can exchange cards with the stock but cannot discard 5-point cards. The stock counts towards the declarer if able to win at least one trick otherwise it is surrendered to their opponents. In solo, the declarer plays without exchanging with the stock which remains hidden and is awarded to the winner of the last trick. All other rules are the same as Ottocento but some players restrict signalling until the highest card of the trick's suit has been played (Kings or the Angel).

Scoring
Each side adds up all their points as in Ottocento. The declarer must have more points than their opponents to win the hand, a tie is counted as a loss. The winning side's points are rounded down to the nearest multiple of 50 (except if it fell short of a multiple of 50 by less than 5 points it will be rounded up). The score is then divided by 50 to arrive at the game points. If it was a solo game, the game points are doubled. Score calculation is unnecessary if one side won all the tricks; they are automatically awarded 40 game points.

title: Tarocchini


text:
Talk:National Parks of Poland

Untitled
Yes, it should be "Tatrzanski National Park", but as far as I remember, in this park there is name "Tatra National Park" written on the information boards in English. That's why I used this name.

Legal

 * Rozporządzenie Ministra Środowiska z dnia 2 lipca 2003 r. w sprawie nadania statutu Babiogórskiemu Parkowi Narodowemu, Dz.U. 2003 nr 136 poz. 1276
 * Rozporządzenie Ministra Środowiska z dnia 2 lipca 2003 r. w sprawie nadania statutu Bialowieskiemu Parkowi Narodowemu, Dz.U. 2003 nr 136 poz. 1277
 * Rozporządzenie Ministra Środowiska z dnia 2 lipca 2003 r. w sprawie nadania statutu Biebrzańskiemu Parkowi Narodowemu, Dz.U. 2003 nr 136 poz. 1278
 * Rozporządzenie Ministra Środowiska z dnia 2 lipca 2003 r. w sprawie nadania statutu Bieszczadzkiemu Parkowi Narodowemu, Dz.U. 2003 nr 136 poz. 1279
 * Rozporządzenie Ministra Środowiska z dnia 2 lipca 2003 r. w sprawie nadania statutu Parkowi Narodowemu "Bory Tucholskie", Dz.U. 2003 nr 136 poz. 1280
 * Rozporządzenie Ministra Środowiska z dnia 2 lipca 2003 r. w sprawie nadania statutu Drawieńskiemu Parkowi Narodowemu, Dz.U. 2003 nr 136 poz. 1280
 * Rozporządzenie Ministra Środowiska z dnia 2 lipca 2003 r. w sprawie nadania statutu Gorczańskiemu Parkowi Narodowemu, Dz.U. 2003 nr 136 poz. 1282
 * Rozporządzenie Ministra Środowiska z dnia 2 lipca 2003 r. w sprawie nadania statutu Parkowi Narodowemu Gór Stołowych,
 * more...

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title: Talk:National Parks of Poland


text:
Congress of Vienna

The Congress of Vienna of 1814–1815 was a series of international diplomatic meetings to discuss and agree upon a possible new layout of the European political and constitutional order after the downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. Participants were representatives of all European powers and other stakeholders. The Congress was chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, and was held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815.

The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars through negotiation. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries, but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace, being at the same time shepherds for the smaller powers. More generally, conservative leaders like Metternich also sought to restrain or eliminate republican, liberal, and revolutionary movements which, from their point of view, had upended the constitutional order of the European ancien régime.

At the negotiation table, the position of France was weak in relation to that of Britain, Prussia, Austria, and Russia, partly due to the military strategy of its leader, Napoleon Bonaparte, over the previous two decades, and his recent defeat. In the settlement the parties did reach, France had to give up all recent conquests, while the other three main powers made major territorial gains around the world. Prussia added territory from smaller states: Swedish Pomerania, most of the Kingdom of Saxony, and the western part of the former Duchy of Warsaw. Austria gained much of northern Italy. Russia added the central and eastern parts of the Duchy of Warsaw. All agreed upon ratifying the creation of the new Kingdom of the Netherlands, which had been created just months before from formerly Austrian territory, and would serve as a buffer between the German Confederation and France.

The immediate background was Napoleonic France's defeat and surrender in May 1814, which brought an end to 23 years of nearly continuous war. Remarkably, negotiations continued unaffected despite the outbreak of fighting triggered by Napoleon's return from exile and resumption of power in France during the Hundred Days of March to July 1815. The Congress's agreement was signed nine days before Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo on 18 June 1815.

Some historians have criticised the outcomes of the Congress for causing the subsequent suppression of national, democratic, and liberal movements, and it has been seen as a reactionary settlement for the benefit of traditional monarchs. Others have praised the Congress for protecting Europe from large and widespread wars for almost a century.

The Congress format
The name "Congress of Vienna" was not meant to suggest a formal plenary session, but rather the creation of a diplomatic organizational framework bringing together stakeholders of all flocks to enable the expression of opinions, interests and sentiments and facilitate discussion of general issues among them. The Congress format had been developed by Austrian Foreign Minister Klemens von Metternich, assisted by Friedrich von Gentz, and was the first occasion in history where, on a continental scale, national representatives and other stakeholders came together in one city at the same time to discuss and formulate the conditions and provisions of treaties. Before the Congress of Vienna the common method of diplomacy involved the exchange of notes sent back and forth among the several capitals and separate talks in different places, a cumbersome process that required much in the way of time and transportation. The format set at the Congress of Vienna would serve as inspiration for the 1856 peace conference brokered by France (the Congress of Paris) that settled the Crimean War. The Congress of Vienna settlement gave birth to the Concert of Europe, an international political doctrine that emphasized the maintaining of political boundaries, the balance of powers, and respecting spheres of influence and which guided foreign policy among the nations of Europe until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.

To reach amiable consensus among the many different nations holding great interest in the settlement proceedings, informal, face-to-face deliberative sessions were held where opinions and proposed solutions could be inventoried. The policy work on which the Concert of Europe was built on came about through closed-doors dealing among the five Great Powers – Austria, Britain, Russia, Prussia and France. The first four of the five dominant peacemakers held sway simply because they brought to the table "negotiating power" that came of hard-won victory in the Napoleonic Wars; France enjoyed her advantageous position largely through the brilliant diplomatic maneuvering by senior statesman Talleyrand. Lesser powers, like Spain, Sweden, and Portugal, were given few opportunities to advocate their interests and only occasionally partook in the meetings held between the great powers. However, because all representatives were gathered in one city it was relatively easy to communicate, to hear and spread news and gossip, and to present points of view for both powerful and less powerful nations. Also of great importance to the parties convened in Vienna were the opportunities presented at wine and dinner functions to establish formal relationships with one another and build-up diplomatic networks.

Preliminaries
The Treaty of Chaumont in 1814 had reaffirmed decisions that had been made already and that would be ratified by the more important Congress of Vienna. They included the establishment of a confederated Germany, the division of Italy into independent states, the restoration of the Bourbon kings of Spain, and the enlargement of the Netherlands to include what in 1830 became modern Belgium. The Treaty of Chaumont became the cornerstone of the European Alliance that formed the balance of power for decades.

Other partial settlements had already occurred at the Treaty of Paris between France and the Sixth Coalition, and the Treaty of Kiel that covered issues raised regarding Scandinavia. The Treaty of Paris had determined that a "general congress" should be held in Vienna and that invitations would be issued to "all the Powers engaged on either side in the present war". The opening was scheduled for July 1814.

Participants
[[File:Congress of Vienna.PNG|thumb | upright=1.8| Delegates of the Congress of Vienna in a contemporary engraving by Jean Godefroy after the painting by Jean-Baptiste Isabey: 1. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland: Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington

2. Kingdom of Portugal: Joaquim Lobo Silveira, 7th Count of Oriola

3. Kingdom of Portugal: António de Saldanha da Gama, Count of Porto Santo

4. 🇸🇪 SWE: Count Carl Löwenhielm

5. Bourbon Restoration: Louis Joseph Alexis, Comte de Noailles

6. Austrian Empire: Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich

7. Bourbon Restoration: Frédéric-Séraphin de La Tour du Pin Gouverne

8. Russian Empire: Count Karl Robert Nesselrode

9. Kingdom of Portugal: Pedro de Sousa Holstein, 1st Count of Palmela

10. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland: Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh

11. Bourbon Restoration: Emmerich Joseph, Duke of Dalberg

12. Austrian Empire: Baron Johann von Wessenberg

13. Russian Empire: Prince Andrey Kirillovich Razumovsky

14. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland: Charles Stewart, 1st Baron Stewart

15. 🇪🇸 ESP: Pedro Gómez Labrador, 1st Marquess of Labrador

16. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland: Richard Le Poer Trench, 2nd Earl of Clancarty

17. (Recorder)

18. Austrian Empire: Friedrich von Gentz (Congress Secretary)

19. Prussia: Baron Wilhelm von Humboldt

20. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland: William Cathcart, 1st Earl Cathcart

21. Prussia: Prince Karl August von Hardenberg

22. Bourbon Restoration: Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord

23. Russian Empire: Count Gustav Ernst von Stackelberg ]] The Congress functioned through formal meetings such as working groups and official diplomatic functions; however, a large portion of the Congress was conducted informally at salons, banquets, and balls.

The four great powers and Bourbon France
Four great powers had previously formed the core of the Sixth Coalition, a covenant of nations allied in the war against France. On the verge of Napoleon's defeat they had outlined their common position in the Treaty of Chaumont (March 1814), and negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1814) with the Bourbons during their restoration:
 * Austria was represented by Prince von Metternich, the Foreign Minister, and by his deputy, Baron Johann von Wessenberg. The Austrians sought to maintain the balance of power, while protecting the interests of the Conservative nations and rebuilding Austria's position diplomatically in Germany and Italy. As the Congress's sessions were in Vienna, Emperor Francis was kept closely informed.
 * The United Kingdom was represented first by its Foreign Secretary, Viscount Castlereagh; then by the Duke of Wellington, after Castlereagh's return to England in February 1815. The United Kingdom wanted to prevent the return of France as a superpower (and stop Russia from attaining that status). It also sought to promote the balance of power by protecting the rights of smaller nations. In the last weeks it was headed by the Earl of Clancarty, after Wellington left to face Napoleon during the Hundred Days.
 * Tsar Alexander I controlled the Russian delegation which was formally led by the foreign minister, Count Karl Robert Nesselrode. The tsar had two main goals, to gain control of Poland and to promote the peaceful coexistence of European nations, with Russia as the pre-eminent land power. He succeeded in forming the Holy Alliance (1815), based on monarchism and anti-secularism, and formed to combat any threat of revolution or republicanism.
 * Prussia was represented by Prince Karl August von Hardenberg, the Chancellor, and the diplomat and scholar Wilhelm von Humboldt. The Prussians wanted to strengthen their position in Germany, particularly by annexing all of Saxony and parts of the Ruhr. King Frederick William III of Prussia was also in Vienna, playing his role behind the scenes.
 * France, the "fifth" power, was represented by its foreign minister, Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, 1st Duke of Benevento, as well as the Minister Plenipotentiary, Emmerich Joseph de Dalberg, 1st Duke of Dalberg. Talleyrand had already negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1814) for Louis XVIII of France. He sought to ensure that France rejoined the group of Great Powers, and avoided being dismembered by the occupying powers. Louis XVIII, however, distrusted him and was also secretly negotiating with Metternich, by mail.

The lesser powers, parties to the Treaty of Paris, 1814
These parties had not been part of the Chaumont agreement, but had joined the Treaty of Paris (1814):
 * Spain – Don Pedro Gómez de Labrador, 1st Marquess of Labrador
 * Portugal – Plenipotentiaries: Pedro de Sousa Holstein, Count of Palmela; António de Saldanha da Gama, Count of Porto Santo; Joaquim Lobo da Silveira.
 * Sweden – Count Carl Löwenhielm

Other nations

 * Denmark – Count Niels Rosenkrantz, foreign minister. King Frederick VI was also present in Vienna.
 * Netherlands – Earl of Clancarty, the British Ambassador at the Dutch court, and Baron Hans von Gagern
 * Switzerland – Every canton had its own delegation. Charles Pictet de Rochemont from Geneva played a prominent role.
 * Kingdom of Sardinia – Marquis.
 * The Papal States – Ercole Cardinal Consalvi, Secretary of State of His Holiness
 * The Order of St. John of Malta – Fra' Antonio Miari, Fra' Daniello Berlinghieri and Fra' Augusto Viè de Cesarini
 * Republic of Genoa – Marquise Agostino Pareto, Senator of the Republic.
 * Grand Duchy of Tuscany –.
 * Kingdom of Sicily – Alvaro Ruffo della Scaletta, Luigi de' Medici di Ottajano, Antonio Maresca di Serracapriola and Fabrizio Ruffo di Castelcicala
 * On German issues:
 * Bavaria – Maximilian Graf von Montgelas
 * Württemberg –
 * Hanover, then in a personal union with the British crown – Graf Ernst zu Münster. (King George III had refused to recognize the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and maintained a separate diplomatic staff as Elector of Hanover to conduct the affairs of the family estate, the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg, until the results of the Congress were concluded establishing the Kingdom of Hanover.)
 * Mecklenburg-Schwerin –

Other stakeholders, entertaining side program
Virtually every state in Europe had a delegation in Vienna – more than 200 states and princely houses were represented at the Congress. In addition, there were representatives of cities, corporations, religious organizations (for instance, abbeys) and special interest groups – e.g., a delegation representing German publishers, demanding a copyright law and freedom of the press. With them came a host of courtiers, secretaries, civil servants and ladies to enjoy the magnificent social life of the Austrian court. The Congress was noted for its lavish entertainment: according to a famous joke of an attendee, it danced a lot but did not move forward. On the other hand, the possibilities for informal gatherings created by this "side program" may have helped ensure the Congress's success.

Talleyrand (France)

Initially, the representatives of the four victorious powers hoped to exclude the French from serious participation in the negotiations, but Talleyrand skillfully managed to insert himself into "her inner councils" in the first weeks of negotiations. He allied himself to a Committee of Eight lesser powers (including Spain, Sweden, and Portugal) to control the negotiations. Once Talleyrand was able to use this committee to make himself a part of the inner negotiations, he then left it, once again abandoning his allies.

The major Allies' indecision on how to conduct their affairs without provoking a united protest from the lesser powers led to the calling of a preliminary conference on the protocol, to which Talleyrand and the Marquess of Labrador, Spain's representative, were invited on 30 September 1814.

Congress Secretary Friedrich von Gentz reported, "The intervention of Talleyrand and Labrador has hopelessly upset all our plans. Talleyrand protested against the procedure we have adopted and soundly [be]rated us for two hours. It was a scene I shall never forget." The embarrassed representatives of the Allies replied that the document concerning the protocol they had arranged actually meant nothing. "If it means so little, why did you sign it?" snapped Labrador.

Talleyrand's policy, directed as much by national as personal ambitions, demanded the close but by no means amicable relationship he had with Labrador, whom Talleyrand regarded with disdain. Labrador later remarked of Talleyrand: "that cripple, unfortunately, is going to Vienna." Talleyrand skirted additional articles suggested by Labrador: he had no intention of handing over the 12,000 afrancesados – Spanish fugitives, sympathetic to France, who had sworn fealty to Joseph Bonaparte, nor the bulk of the documents, paintings, pieces of fine art, and books that had been looted from the archives, palaces, churches and cathedrals of Spain.

Polish-Saxon questions
The most complex topic at the Congress was the Polish-Saxon Crisis. Russia wanted most of Poland, and Prussia wanted all of Saxony, whose king had allied with Napoleon. The tsar would like to become king of Poland. Austria analysed, this could make Russia too powerful, a view which was supported by Britain. The result was a deadlock, for which Talleyrand proposed a solution: admit France to the inner circle, and France would support Austria and Britain. The three nations signed a treaty on 3 January 1815, among only the three of them, agreeing to go to war against Russia and Prussia, if necessary, to prevent the Russo-Prussian plan from coming to fruition.

When the Tsar heard of the treaty he agreed to a compromise that satisfied all parties on 24 October 1815. Russia received most of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw as a "Kingdom of Poland" – called Congress Poland, with the tsar as a king ruling it independently of Russia. However, the majority of Greater Poland and Kuyavia, as well as the Chełmno Land, were given to Prussia and mostly included within the newly formed Grand Duchy of Posen (Poznań), while Kraków became a free city as a shared protectorate of Austria, Prussia and Russia. Furthermore, the tsar was forbidden from uniting his new realm with the parts of Poland that had been incorporated into Russia in the 1790s. Prussia received 60 percent of Saxony, much of which became part of the new Province of Saxony from 1816 (the now-Prussian parts of Lower Lusatia and some other areas instead became part of the Province of Brandenburg, with Prussian Upper Lusatia becoming part of the Province of Silesia by 1825); the remainder of Saxony returned to King Frederick Augustus I as his Kingdom of Saxony.

Subsidies
It can be learned from the diaries of the master of affairs Von Gentz that diplomatic tactics possibly included bribing. He notes that at the Congress he received £22,000 through Talleyrand from Louis XVIII, while Castlereagh gave him £600, accompanied by "les plus folles promesses" ("the wildest promises"); his diary is full of such entries.

Final agreement
The Final Act, embodying all the separate treaties, was signed on 9 June 1815 (nine days before the Battle of Waterloo). Its provisions included:
 * Russia received most of the Duchy of Warsaw (Poland) and retained Finland (which it had annexed from Sweden in 1809 and would hold until 1917, as the Grand Duchy of Finland).
 * Prussia received three-fifths of Saxony, western parts of the Duchy of Warsaw (most of which became part of the newly formed Grand Duchy of Posen), Gdańsk (Danzig), the Grand Duchy of the Lower Rhine (merger of the former French departments of Rhin-et-Moselle, Sarre, and Roer (Province of Jülich-Cleves-Berg, itself a merger of the former Prussian Guelders, Principality of Moers, and the Grand Duchy of Berg).
 * A German Confederation of 39 states, under the presidency of the Austrian Emperor, formed from the previous 300 states of the Holy Roman Empire. Only portions of the territories of Austria and Prussia were included in the Confederation (roughly the same portions that had been within the Holy Roman Empire).
 * The Netherlands and the Southern Netherlands (approximately modern-day Belgium) became a united monarchy, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, with the House of Orange-Nassau providing the king (the Eight Articles of London).
 * To compensate for Orange-Nassau's loss of the Nassau lands to Prussia, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg were to form a personal union under the House of Orange-Nassau, with Luxembourg (but not the Netherlands) inside the German Confederation.
 * Swedish Pomerania, given to Denmark in January 1814 in return for the Kingdom of Norway was sold to Prussia. France received back Guadeloupe from Sweden, with yearly installments payable to the Swedish king.
 * The neutrality of the 22 cantons of Switzerland was guaranteed and a federal pact was recommended to them in strong terms. Bienne and the Prince-Bishopric of Basel became part of the Canton of Bern. The Congress also suggested a number of compromises for resolving territorial disputes between cantons.
 * The former Electorate of Hanover was expanded to a kingdom. It gave up the Duchy of Lauenburg to the Kingdom of Denmark, but gained former territories of the Bishop of Münster and formerly Prussian East Frisia.
 * Most of the territorial gains of Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Nassau under the mediatizations of 1801–1806 were recognized. Bavaria also gained control of the Rhenish Palatinate and of parts of the Napoleonic Duchy of Würzburg and Grand Duchy of Frankfurt. Hesse-Darmstadt, in exchange for giving up the Duchy of Westphalia to Prussia, received Rhenish Hesse with its capital at Mainz.
 * Austria regained control of the Tyrol and Salzburg; of the former Illyrian Provinces; of Tarnopol district (from Russia); and received Lombardy–Venetia in Italy and Ragusa in Dalmatia. Former Austrian territory in Southwest Germany remained under the control of Württemberg and Baden; the Austrian Netherlands were also not recovered.
 * Ferdinand III was restored as Grand Duke of Tuscany.
 * Archduke Francis IV was acknowledged as the ruler of the Duchy of Modena, Reggio and Mirandola;
 * Maria Beatrice d'Este was restored as Duchess of Massa and Princess of Carrara, and the Imperial fiefs in Lunigiana, which were not re-established, were also bestowed upon her.
 * The Papal States under the rule of the Pope were restored to their former extent, with the exception of Avignon and the Comtat Venaissin, which remained part of France.
 * Britain retained control of the Cape Colony in Southern Africa; Tobago; Ceylon; and various other colonies in Africa and Asia. Other colonies, most notably the Dutch East Indies and Martinique, reverted to their previous overlords.
 * The King of Sardinia, re-established in Piedmont, Nice, and Savoy, gained control of Genoa (putting an end to the brief proclamation of a restored Republic of Genoa).
 * The Duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla were taken from the House of Bourbon-Parma and given to Marie Louise of Austria for her lifetime.
 * The Duchy of Lucca was established temporarily as compensation for the House of Bourbon-Parma, (with reversionary rights to Parma after the death of Marie Louise, which were attributed through a in 1817, also stipulating that, from the same date, the Duchy of Lucca would in turn be annexed by the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, as already provided in the Final Act).
 * The slave trade was condemned.
 * Freedom of navigation was guaranteed for many rivers, notably the Rhine and the Danube.

Representatives of Austria, France, Portugal, Prussia, Russia, Sweden-Norway, and Britain signed the Final Act. Spain did not sign, but ratified the outcome in 1817.

Subsequently, Ferdinand IV, the Bourbon King of Sicily, regained control of the Kingdom of Naples after Joachim Murat, the king installed by Bonaparte, supported Napoleon in the Hundred Days and started the 1815 Neapolitan War by attacking Austria.

Other changes
The Congress's principal results, apart from its confirmation of France's loss of the territories annexed between 1795 and 1810, which had already been settled by the Treaty of Paris, were the enlargement of Russia, (which gained most of the Duchy of Warsaw) and Prussia, which acquired the district of Poznań, Swedish Pomerania, Westphalia and the northern Rhineland. The consolidation of Germany from the nearly 300 states of the Holy Roman Empire (dissolved in 1806) into a much less complex system of thirty-nine states (4 of which were free cities) was confirmed. These states formed a loose German Confederation under the leadership of Austria.

Representatives at the Congress agreed to numerous other territorial changes. By the Treaty of Kiel, Norway had been ceded by the king of Denmark-Norway to the king of Sweden. This sparked the nationalist movement which led to the establishment of the Kingdom of Norway on 17 May 1814 and the subsequent personal Union with Sweden. Austria gained Lombardy–Venetia in Northern Italy, while much of the rest of North-Central Italy went to Habsburg dynasties (the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Modena, and the Duchy of Parma).

The Papal States were restored to the Pope. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was restored to its mainland possessions, and also gained control of the Republic of Genoa. In Southern Italy, Napoleon's brother-in-law, Joachim Murat, was originally allowed to retain his Kingdom of Naples, but his support of Napoleon in the Hundred Days led to the restoration of the Bourbon Ferdinand IV to the throne.

A large United Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed for the Prince of Orange, including both the old United Provinces and the formerly Austrian-ruled territories in the Southern Netherlands, which gave way to the formation of a democratic state, formally headed by a monarch (constitutional monarchy). Other, less important, territorial adjustments included significant territorial gains for the German Kingdoms of Hanover (which gained East Frisia from Prussia and various other territories in Northwest Germany) and Bavaria (which gained the Rhenish Palatinate and territories in Franconia). The Duchy of Lauenburg was transferred from Hanover to Denmark, and Prussia annexed Swedish Pomerania. Switzerland was enlarged, and Swiss neutrality was established. Swiss mercenaries had played a significant role in European wars for several hundred years: the Congress intended to put a stop to these activities permanently.

During the wars, Portugal had lost its town of Olivenza to Spain and moved to have it restored. Portugal is historically Britain's oldest ally, and with British support succeeded in having the re-incorporation of Olivenza decreed in Article CV of the General Treaty of the Final Act, which stated that "The Powers, recognizing the justice of the claims of ... Portugal and the Brazils, upon the town of Olivenza, and the other territories ceded to Spain by the Treaty of Badajoz of 1801". Portugal ratified the Final Act in 1815 but Spain would not sign, and this became the most important hold-out against the Congress of Vienna. Deciding in the end that it was better to become part of Europe than to stand alone, Spain finally accepted the Treaty on 7 May 1817; however, Olivenza and its surroundings were never returned to Portuguese control and, to the present day, this issue remains unresolved.

The United Kingdom received parts of the West Indies at the expense of the Netherlands and Spain and kept the former Dutch colonies of Ceylon and the Cape Colony as well as Malta and Heligoland. Under the Treaty of Paris (1814) Article VIII France ceded to Britain the islands of "Tobago and Saint Lucia, and of the Isle of France and its dependencies, especially Rodrigues and Les Seychelles", and under the Treaty between Great Britain and Austria, Prussia and Russia, respecting the Ionian Islands (signed in Paris on 5 November 1815), as one of the treaties signed during the Peace of Paris (1815), Britain obtained a protectorate over the United States of the Ionian Islands.

Later criticism and praise
The Congress of Vienna has been criticized by 19th century and more recent historians and politicians for ignoring national and liberal impulses, and for imposing a stifling reaction on the Continent. It was an integral part in what became known as the Conservative Order, in which democracy and civil rights associated with the American and French Revolutions were de-emphasized.

In the 20th century, however, historians and politicians looking backward came to praise the Congress as well, because they saw it did prevent another widespread European war for nearly 100 years (1815–1914) and a significant step in the transition to a new international order in which peace was largely maintained through diplomatic dialogue. Among these is Henry Kissinger, who in 1954 wrote his doctoral dissertation, A World Restored, on it and Paul Schroeder. Historian and jurist Mark Jarrett argues that the diplomatic congress format marked "the true beginning of our modern era". To his analyses the Congress organisation was deliberate conflict management and was the first genuine attempt to create an international order based upon consensus rather than conflict. "Europe was ready," Jarrett states, "to accept an unprecedented degree of international cooperation in response to the French Revolution." Historian Paul Schroeder argues that the old formulae for "balance of power" were in fact highly destabilizing and predatory. He says the Congress of Vienna avoided them and instead set up rules that produced a stable and benign equilibrium. The Congress of Vienna was the first of a series of international meetings that came to be known as the Concert of Europe, which was an attempt to forge a peaceful balance of power in Europe. It served as a model for later organizations such as the League of Nations in 1919 and the United Nations in 1945.

Before the opening of the Paris peace conference of 1918, the British Foreign Office commissioned a history of the Congress of Vienna to serve as an example to its own delegates of how to achieve an equally successful peace. Besides, the main decisions of the Congress were made by the Four Great Powers and not all the countries of Europe could extend their rights at the Congress. The Italian peninsula became a mere "geographical expression" as divided into seven parts: Lombardy–Venetia, Modena, Naples–Sicily, Parma, Piedmont–Sardinia, Tuscany, and the Papal States under the control of different powers. Poland remained partitioned between Russia, Prussia and Austria, with the largest part, the newly created Kingdom of Poland, remaining under Russian control.

The arrangements made by the Four Great Powers sought to ensure future disputes would be settled in a manner that would avoid the terrible wars of the previous 20 years. Although the Congress of Vienna preserved the balance of power in Europe, it could not check the spread of revolutionary movements across the continent some 30 years later.

Some authors have suggested that the Congress of Vienna may provide a model for settling multiple interlocking conflicts in Eastern Europe that arose after the break-up of the Soviet Union.

title: Congress of Vienna


text:
Diphthong

A diphthong, also known as a gliding vowel or a vowel glide, is a combination of two adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: that is, the tongue (and/or other parts of the speech apparatus) moves during the pronunciation of the vowel. In most varieties of English, the phrase "no highway cowboy" has five distinct diphthongs, one in every syllable.

Diphthongs contrast with monophthongs, where the tongue or other speech organs do not move and the syllable contains only a single vowel sound. For instance, in English, the word ah is spoken as a monophthong, while the word ow is spoken as a diphthong in most varieties. Where two adjacent vowel sounds occur in different syllables (e.g. in the English word re-elect) the result is described as hiatus, not as a diphthong.

Diphthongs often form when separate vowels are run together in rapid speech during a conversation. However, there are also unitary diphthongs, as in the English examples above, which are heard by listeners as single-vowel sounds (phonemes).

Transcription
In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), monophthongs are transcribed with one symbol, as in English sun, in which ⟨ʌ⟩ represents a monophthong. Diphthongs are transcribed with two symbols, as in English high or cow, in which ⟨aɪ⟩ and ⟨aʊ⟩ represent diphthongs.

Diphthongs may be transcribed with two vowel symbols or with a vowel symbol and a semivowel symbol. In the words above, the less prominent member of the diphthong can be represented with the symbols for the palatal approximant and the labiovelar approximant, with the symbols for the close vowels  and , or the symbols for the near-close vowels  and :

Some transcriptions are broader or narrower (less precise or more precise phonetically) than others. Transcribing the English diphthongs in high and cow as ⟨aj aw⟩ or ⟨ai̯ au̯⟩ is a less precise or broader transcription, since these diphthongs usually end in a vowel sound that is more open than the semivowels or the close vowels. Transcribing the diphthongs as ⟨aɪ̯ aʊ̯⟩ is a more precise or narrower transcription, since the English diphthongs usually end in the near-close vowels.

The non-syllabic diacritic, the inverted breve below $⟨◌̯⟩$, is placed under the less prominent part of a diphthong to show that it is part of a diphthong rather than a vowel in a separate syllable:. When there is no contrastive vowel sequence in the language, the diacritic may be omitted. Other common indications that the two sounds are not separate vowels are a superscript, ⟨aᶦ aᶷ⟩, or a tie bar, ⟨a͡ɪ a͡ʊ⟩ or ⟨a͜ɪ a͜ʊ⟩. The tie bar can be useful when it is not clear which symbol represents the syllable nucleus, or when they have equal weight. Superscripts are especially used when an on- or off-glide is particularly fleeting.

The period ⟨.⟩ is the opposite of the non-syllabic diacritic: it represents a syllable break. If two vowels next to each other belong to two different syllables (hiatus), meaning that they do not form a diphthong, they can be transcribed with two vowel symbols with a period in between. Thus, lower can be transcribed ⟨ˈloʊ.ɚ⟩, with a period separating the first syllable,, from the second syllable, ⟨ɚ⟩.

The non-syllabic diacritic is used only when necessary. It is typically omitted when there is no ambiguity, as in ⟨haɪ kaʊ⟩. No words in English have the vowel sequences, so the non-syllabic diacritic is unnecessary.

Falling and rising
Falling (or descending) diphthongs start with a vowel quality of higher prominence (higher pitch or volume) and end in a semivowel with less prominence, like in eye, while rising (or ascending) diphthongs begin with a less prominent semivowel and end with a more prominent full vowel, similar to the  in yard. (Sometimes, however, the terms "falling" and "rising" are used, instead, to refer to vowel height, i.e. as synonyms of the terms "closing" and "opening". See below.) The less prominent component in the diphthong may also be transcribed as an approximant, thus in eye and  in yard. However, when the diphthong is analysed as a single phoneme, both elements are often transcribed with vowel symbols. Semivowels and approximants are not equivalent in all treatments, and in the English and Italian languages, among others, many phoneticians do not consider rising combinations to be diphthongs, but rather sequences of approximant and vowel. There are many languages (such as Romanian) that contrast one or more rising diphthongs with similar sequences of a glide and a vowel in their phonetic inventory (see semivowel for examples).

Closing, opening, and centering
In closing diphthongs, the second element is more close than the first (e.g. ); in opening diphthongs, the second element is more open (e.g. ). Closing diphthongs tend to be falling, and opening diphthongs are generally rising , as open vowels are more sonorous and therefore tend to be more prominent. However, exceptions to this rule are not rare in the world's languages. In Finnish, for instance, the opening diphthongs and  are true falling diphthongs, since they begin louder and with higher pitch and fall in prominence during the diphthong.

A third, rare type of diphthong that is neither opening nor closing is height-harmonic diphthongs, with both elements at the same vowel height. These may have occurred in Old English:
 * beorht "bright"
 * ċeald "cold"

A centering diphthong is one that begins with a more peripheral vowel and ends with a more central one, such as, , and in Received Pronunciation or  and  in Irish. Many centering diphthongs are also opening diphthongs.

Diphthongs may contrast in how far they open or close. For example, Samoan contrasts low-to-mid with low-to-high diphthongs:
 * 'ai 'probably'
 * 'ae 'but'
 * 'auro 'gold'
 * ao 'a cloud'

Narrow and wide
Narrow diphthongs are the ones that end with a vowel which on a vowel chart is quite close to the one that begins the diphthong, for example Northern Dutch, and. Wide diphthongs are the opposite – they require a greater tongue movement, and their offsets are farther away from their starting points on the vowel chart. Examples of wide diphthongs are RP/GA English and.

Length
Languages differ in the length of diphthongs, measured in terms of morae. In languages with phonemically short and long vowels, diphthongs typically behave like long vowels, and are pronounced with a similar length. In languages with only one phonemic length for pure vowels, however, diphthongs may behave like pure vowels. For example, in Icelandic, both monophthongs and diphthongs are pronounced long before single consonants and short before most consonant clusters.

Some languages contrast short and long diphthongs. In some languages, such as Old English, these behave like short and long vowels, occupying one and two morae, respectively. Languages that contrast three quantities in diphthongs are extremely rare, but not unheard of; Northern Sami is known to contrast long, short and "finally stressed" diphthongs, the last of which are distinguished by a longer second element.

Phonology
In some languages, diphthongs are single phonemes, while in others they are analyzed as sequences of two vowels, or of a vowel and a semivowel.

Sound changes
Certain sound changes relate to diphthongs and monophthongs. Vowel breaking or diphthongization is a vowel shift in which a monophthong becomes a diphthong. Monophthongization or smoothing is a vowel shift in which a diphthong becomes a monophthong.

Difference from semivowels and vowel sequences
While there are a number of similarities, diphthongs are not the same phonologically as a combination of a vowel and an approximant or glide. Most importantly, diphthongs are fully contained in the syllable nucleus while a semivowel or glide is restricted to the syllable boundaries (either the onset or the coda). This often manifests itself phonetically by a greater degree of constriction, but the phonetic distinction is not always clear. The English word yes, for example, consists of a palatal glide followed by a monophthong rather than a rising diphthong. In addition, the segmental elements must be different in diphthongs and so when it occurs in a language, it does not contrast with. However, it is possible for languages to contrast and.

Diphthongs are also distinct from sequences of simple vowels. The Bunaq language of Timor, for example, distinguishes 'exit' from  'be amused',  'dance' from  'stare at', and  'choice' from  'good'.

English
In words coming from Middle English, most cases of the Modern English diphthongs originate from the Middle English long monophthongs  through the Great Vowel Shift, although some cases of  originate from the Middle English diphthongs.

Dutch
The dialect of Hamont (in Limburg) has five centring diphthongs and contrasts long and short forms of, , , and.

Afrikaans
The Afrikaans language has its origin in Dutch but differs in many significant ways, including the use of diphthongs in the place of several non-diphthong Dutch double vowels, or double-vowels being pronounced differently. Examples include:
 * ee as in leer
 * eu as in deur
 * ui as in buite

 * Falling diphthongs. Their first element may be short or somewhat lengthened.
 * Rising diphthongs . These variants do not seem to appear word-finally. The sequence is commonly realised as  or, more often,, with  realised as breathy
 * The scholar Daan Wissing argues that is not a phonetically correct transcription and that  is more accurate. In his analysis, he found that  makes for 65% of the realisations, the other 35% being monophthongal,,  and.
 * Most often, has an unrounded offset. For some speakers, the onset is also unrounded. That can cause  to merge with, which is considered non-standard.
 * occur mainly in loanwords.
 * Older sources describe as a narrow back diphthong . However, newer sources describe its onset as more front. For example,, states that the onset of  is central.
 * In some words which, in English, are pronounced with, the Afrikaans equivalent tends to be pronounced with , rather than . That happens because Afrikaans is more similar to the usual South African realization of English.

The long diphthongs (or 'double vowels') are phonemically sequences of a free vowel and a non-syllabic equivalent of or :. Both and  tend to be pronounced as, but they are spelled differently: the former as $⟨ai au eu⟩$, the latter as $⟨ieu⟩$.

In diminutives ending in formed to monosyllabic nouns, the vowels  are realised as closing diphthongs. In the same environment, the sequences are realized as, i.e. as closing diphthongs followed by palatal nasal.

 * The suffixes $⟨eeu⟩$ and $⟨-aad⟩$ (phonemically and, respectively) and the diminutive suffix  are realised as  (with a monophthong), rather than.
 * In practice, the diphthong is realised the same as the phonemic diphthong.
 * , when it has arisen from diphthongisation of, differs from the phonemic diphthong by having a slightly different onset, although the exact nature of that difference is unclear. This means that puntjie 'point' sounds somewhat different from puintjie 'rubble'.

Standard German
Phonemic diphthongs in German:
 * as in Ei 'egg'
 * as in Maus 'mouse'
 * as in neu 'new'

In the varieties of German that vocalize the in the syllable coda, other diphthongal combinations may occur. These are only phonetic diphthongs, not phonemic diphthongs, since the vocalic pronunciation alternates with consonantal pronunciations of  if a vowel follows, cf. du hörst 'you hear' – ich höre  'I hear'. These phonetic diphthongs may be as follows:

 * notes that the length contrast is not very stable before non-prevocalic and that ", following the pronouncing dictionaries  judge the vowel in Art, Schwert, Fahrt to be long, while the vowel in Ort, Furcht, hart is supposed to be short. The factual basis of this presumed distinction seems very questionable." He goes on stating that in his own dialect, there is no length difference in these words, and that judgements on vowel length in front of non-prevocalic  which is itself vocalized are problematic, in particular if  precedes.

 * According to the 'lengthless' analysis, the aforementioned 'long' diphthongs are analyzed as, , , , , , and . This makes non-prevocalic  and  homophonous as  or . Non-prevocalic  and  may also merge, but the vowel chart in  shows that they have somewhat different starting points.

 * also states that "laxing of the vowel is predicted to take place in shortened vowels; it does indeed seem to go hand in hand with the vowel shortening in many cases."

Bernese German
The diphthongs of some German dialects differ from standard German diphthongs. The Bernese German diphthongs, for instance, correspond rather to the Middle High German diphthongs than to standard German diphthongs:
 * as in lieb 'dear'
 * as in guet 'good'
 * as in müed 'tired'
 * as in Bei 'leg'
 * as in Boum 'tree'
 * as in Böim 'trees'

Apart from these phonemic diphthongs, Bernese German has numerous phonetic diphthongs due to L-vocalization in the syllable coda, for instance the following ones:
 * as in Stau 'stable'
 * as in Staau 'steel'
 * as in Wäut 'world'
 * as in wääut 'elects'
 * as in tschúud 'guilty'

Yiddish
Yiddish has three diphthongs:
 * as in פּליטה ('refugee' f.)
 * as in נײַן ('nine')
 * as in אופֿן ('way')

Diphthongs may reach a higher target position (towards ) in situations of coarticulatory phenomena or when words with such vowels are being emphasized.

Norwegian
There are five diphthongs in the Oslo dialect of Norwegian, all of them falling:

 * as in nei, "no"
 * as in øy, "island"
 * as in sau, "sheep"
 * as in hai, "shark"
 * as in joik, "Sami song"

An additional diphthong,, occurs only in the word hui in the expression i hui og hast "in great haste". The number and form of diphthongs vary between dialects.

Faroese
Diphthongs in Faroese are:
 * as in bein (can also be short)
 * as in havn
 * as in har, mær
 * as in hey
 * as in nevnd
 * as in nøvn
 * as in hús
 * as in mín, bý, ið (can also be short)
 * as in ráð
 * as in hoyra (can also be short)
 * as in sól, ovn

Icelandic
Diphthongs in Icelandic are the following:
 * as in átta, "eight"
 * as in nóg, "enough"
 * as in auga, "eye"
 * as in kær, "dear"
 * as in þeir, "they"
 * as in koja, "bunk bed", "berth" (rare, only in handful of words)

Combinations of semivowel and a vowel are the following:
 * as in éta, "eat"
 * as in jata, "manger"
 * as in já, "yes"
 * as in joð, "iodine", "jay", "yod" (only in a handful of words of foreign origin)
 * as in jól, "Christmas"
 * as in jötunn, "giant"
 * as in jæja, "oh well"
 * as in jú, "yes"

French
In French,, , and  may be considered true diphthongs (that is, fully contained in the syllable nucleus: ). Other sequences are considered part of a glide formation process that turns a high vowel into a semivowel (and part of the syllable onset) when followed by another vowel.

Diphthongs
 * as in roi "king", coi "quiet", croix "cross", doigt "finger", droit "right", foi "faith", loi "law", proie "prey", soie "silk", toit "roof", voie "way", voix "voice"
 * as in groin "muzzle", coin "corner", coing "quince", foin "hay", moins "less", loin "far", point "point", poing "fist", soin "care"
 * as in huit "eight", bruit "noise", buis "boxwood", fruit "fruit", fuite "leak", luire "glow", nuire "harm", nuit "night", pluie "rain", suite "continuation"
 * as in juin "June", suint "ooze (tar)"

Semivowels
 * as in oui "yes"
 * as in lien "bond"
 * as in Ariège
 * as in pied "foot"
 * as in yin
 * as in travail "work"
 * as in Marseille
 * as in bille "ball"
 * as in feuille "leaf"
 * as in grenouille "frog"
 * as in vieux "old"

Quebec French
In Quebec French, long vowels are generally diphthongized in informal speech when stressed.

 * as in tard "late"
 * as in père "father"
 * as in fleur "flower"
 * as in autre "other"
 * as in neutre "neutral"
 * as in banque "bank"
 * as in mince "thin"
 * as in bon "well"
 * as in un "one"

Catalan
Catalan possesses a number of phonetic diphthongs, all of which begin (rising diphthongs) or end (falling diphthongs) in or.

In standard Eastern Catalan, rising diphthongs (that is, those starting with or ) are possible only in the following contexts:
 * in word initial position, e.g. iogurt.
 * Both occur between vowels as in feia and veiem.
 * In the sequences or  and vowel, e.g. guant, quota, qüestió, pingüí (these exceptional cases even lead some scholars to hypothesize the existence of rare labiovelar phonemes  and ).

There are also certain instances of compensatory diphthongization in the Majorcan dialect so that ('logs') (in addition to deleting the palatal plosive) develops a compensating palatal glide and surfaces as  (and contrasts with the unpluralized ). Diphthongization compensates for the loss of the palatal stop (part of Catalan's segment loss compensation). There are other cases where diphthongization compensates for the loss of point of articulation features (property loss compensation) as in ('year') vs  ('years'). The dialectal distribution of this compensatory diphthongization is almost entirely dependent on the dorsal plosive (whether it is velar or palatal) and the extent of consonant assimilation (whether or not it is extended to palatals).

Portuguese
The Portuguese diphthongs are formed by the labio-velar approximant and palatal approximant  with a vowel, European Portuguese has 14 phonemic diphthongs (10 oral and 4 nasal), all of which are falling diphthongs formed by a vowel and a nonsyllabic high vowel. Brazilian Portuguese has roughly the same amount, although the European and non-European dialects have slightly different pronunciations ( is a distinctive feature of some southern and central Portuguese dialects, especially that of Lisbon). A onglide after  or  and before all vowels as in quando  ('when') or guarda  ('guard') may also form rising diphthongs and triphthongs. Additionally, in casual speech, adjacent heterosyllabic vowels may combine into diphthongs and triphthongs or even sequences of them.

In addition, phonetic diphthongs are formed in most Brazilian Portuguese dialects by the vocalization of in the syllable coda with words like sol  ('sun') and sul  ('south') as well as by yodization of vowels preceding  or its allophone at syllable coda  in terms like arroz  ('rice'), and  (or ) in terms such as paz mundial  ('world peace') and dez anos  ('ten years').

Spanish
Phonetically, Spanish has seven falling diphthongs and eight rising diphthongs. In addition, during fast speech, sequences of vowels in hiatus become diphthongs wherein one becomes non-syllabic (unless they are the same vowel, in which case they fuse together) as in poeta ('poet'), almohada  ('pillow'), maestro  ('teacher') and línea  ('line'). The Spanish diphthongs are:

Italian
The existence of true diphthongs in Italian is debated; however, a list is:

The second table includes only 'false' diphthongs, composed of a semivowel + a vowel, not two vowels. The situation is more nuanced in the first table: a word such as 'baita' is actually pronounced ['baj.ta] and most speakers would syllabify it that way. A word such as 'voi' would instead be pronounced and syllabified as ['vo.i], yet again without a diphthong.

In general, unstressed in hiatus can turn into glides in more rapid speech (e.g. biennale  'biennial'; coalizione  'coalition') with the process occurring more readily in syllables further from stress.

Romanian
Romanian has two true diphthongs: and. There are, however, a host of other vowel combinations (more than any other major Romance language) which are classified as vowel glides. As a result of their origin (diphthongization of mid vowels under stress), the two true diphthongs appear only in stressed syllables and make morphological alternations with the mid vowels and. To native speakers, they sound very similar to and  respectively. There are no perfect minimal pairs to contrast and, and because  does not appear in the final syllable of a prosodic word, there are no monosyllabic words with ; exceptions might include voal ('veil') and trotuar ('sidewalk'), though Ioana Chițoran argues that these are best treated as containing glide-vowel sequences rather than diphthongs. In addition to these, the semivowels and  can be combined (either before, after, or both) with most vowels, while this arguably forms additional diphthongs and triphthongs, only  and  can follow an obstruent-liquid cluster such as in broască ('frog') and dreagă ('to mend'), implying that  and  are restricted to the syllable boundary and therefore, strictly speaking, do not form diphthongs.

Irish
All Irish diphthongs are falling.
 * , spelled aigh, aidh, agh, adh, eagh, eadh, eigh, or eidh
 * , spelled abh, amh, eabh, or eamh
 * , spelled ia, iai
 * , spelled ua, uai

Scottish Gaelic
There are 9 diphthongs in Scottish Gaelic. Group 1 occur anywhere (eu is usually before -m, e.g. Seumas). Group 2 are reflexes that occur before -ll, -m, -nn, -bh, -dh, -gh and -mh.

For more detailed explanations of Gaelic diphthongs see Scottish Gaelic orthography.

Cornish
The following diphthongs are used in the Standard Written Form of Cornish. Each diphthong is given with its Revived Middle Cornish (RMC) and Revived Late Cornish (RLC) pronunciation.

Welsh
Welsh is traditionally divided into Northern and Southern dialects. In the north, some diphthongs may be short or long according to regular vowel length rules but in the south they are always short (see Welsh phonology). Southern dialects tend to simplify diphthongs in speech (e.g. gwaith is reduced to ).
 * † The plural ending -au is reduced to in the north and  in the south, e.g. cadau 'battles' is  (north) or  (south).

Czech
There are three diphthongs in Czech:

 * as in auto (almost exclusively in words of foreign origin)
 * as in euro (in words of foreign origin only)
 * as in koule

The vowel groups ia, ie, ii, io, and iu in foreign words are not regarded as diphthongs, they are pronounced with between the vowels.

Serbo-Croatian
may be pronounced as a diphthong, but also as in hiatus or separated by a semivowel,. For example, in the first line of the national anthem of Croatia, Lijepa naša domovina, ije is pronounced as a diphthong, but in the first line of the national anthem of Montenegro, Oj, svijetla majska zoro, ije is pronounced as two syllables.
 * i(j)e, as in mlijeko (in Ijekavian varieties)

Some Serbo-Croatian dialects also have uo, as in kuonj, ruod, uon whereas, in Standard Croatian and Serbian, these words are konj, rod, on.

Estonian
All nine vowels can appear as the first component of an Estonian diphthong, but only occur as the second component.

There are additional diphthongs less commonly used, such as in Euroopa (Europe),  in söandama (to dare), and  in näuguma (to mew).

Finnish
All Finnish diphthongs are falling. Notably, Finnish has true opening diphthongs (e.g. ), which are not very common crosslinguistically compared to centering diphthongs (e.g. in English). Vowel combinations across syllables may in practice be pronounced as diphthongs, when an intervening consonant has elided, as in näön instead of  for the genitive of näkö ('sight').
 * closing
 * as in laiva (ship)
 * as in keinu (swing)
 * as in poika (boy)
 * as in äiti (mother)
 * as in öisin (at nights)
 * as in lauha (mild)
 * as in leuto (mild)
 * as in koulu (school)
 * as in leyhyä (to waft)
 * as in täysi (full)
 * as in löytää (to find)
 * close
 * as in uida (to swim)
 * as in lyijy (lead)
 * as in viulu (violin)
 * as in siistiytyä (to smarten up)
 * opening
 * as in kieli (tongue)
 * as in suo (bog)
 * as in yö (night)

Northern Sami
The diphthong system in Northern Sami varies considerably from one dialect to another. The Western Finnmark dialects distinguish four different qualities of opening diphthongs:

 * as in leat "to be"
 * as in giella "language"
 * as in boahtit "to come"
 * as in vuodjat "to swim"

In terms of quantity, Northern Sami shows a three-way contrast between long, short and finally stressed diphthongs. The last are distinguished from long and short diphthongs by a markedly long and stressed second component. Diphthong quantity is not indicated in spelling.

Maltese
Maltese has seven falling diphthongs, though they may be considered VC sequences phonemically.

 * ej or għi
 * aj or għi
 * oj
 * iw
 * ew
 * aw or għu
 * ow or għu

Mandarin Chinese
Rising sequences in Mandarin are usually regarded as a combination of a medial semivowel plus a vowel, while falling sequences are regarded as one diphthong.

 * ai:, as in ài (愛, love)
 * ei:, as in lèi (累, tired)
 * ao:, as in dào (道, way)
 * ou:, as in dòu (豆, bean)

Cantonese
Cantonese has eleven diphthongs.

 * aai:, as in gaai1 (街, street)
 * aau:, as in baau3 (爆, explode)
 * ai:, as in gai1 (雞, chicken)
 * au:, as in au1 (勾, hook)
 * ei:, as in gei1 (機, machine)
 * eu:, as in deu6 (掉, throw)
 * iu:, as in giu3 (叫, call)
 * oi:, as in oi3 (愛, love)
 * ou:, as in gou1 (高, high)
 * ui:, as in pui4 (陪, accompany)
 * eui:, as in zeoi3 (醉, drunk)

Thai
In addition to vowel nuclei following or preceding and, Thai has three diphthongs:
 * เ–ีย ia
 * เ–ือ uea
 * –ัว ua

Vietnamese
In addition to vowel nuclei following or preceding and, Vietnamese has three diphthongs:
 * ia~iê
 * ưa~ươ
 * ua~uô

Khmer
Khmer language has rich vocalics with an extra distinction of long and short register to the vowels and diphthongs.

Zulu
Zulu has only monophthongs. Y and w are semi-vowels:

 * as in ngiyabeka (I am placing it)
 * as in ngiwa (I fall/I am falling)

Indonesian
Indonesian has four diphthongs which may be located at the beginning, middle or end of a word. They are:
 * : balairung ('hall'), kedai ('shop'), pandai ('clever')
 * : autodidak ('autodidact'), Taufik (Indonesian given name), kerbau ('buffalo'), limau ('lemon')
 * (or in Indonesian): boikot ('boycott'), amboi (an expression when amazed)
 * : eigendom ('property'), survei ('survey')

title: Diphthong