text:
Talk:Horseradish

Old discussions
Bitter herbs are specified in the Bible. Horseradish is a tradition. Maybe not among all Jews, but the ones I've been around do eat horseradish at Passover. -phma
 * Yes, but only among some Jews from Eastern Europe, who had difficulty finding the kind of herbs mentioned in the Bible at that particular time of year (same reason why the green vegetable (karpas), which was probably parsley or celery, was replaced by potatoes in some communities. Horseradish has been used traditionally, but even now there is a move to use more traditional herbs (Romaine lettuce, for example) as maror. Danny

--- The elaborate folk etymology would then be the same I suppose for "horse chestnut" vis-a-vis "chestnut", for "horse parsley" and "horse mushroom." Or is it simply that "horse" connotes coarse and large? Wetman 04:55, 16 Oct 2004 (UTC)

---

I removed the following line from the text describing Popeye's corporation's offering of a particular burger only on the east coast:

"The reason it doesn't offer this meal in its stores elsewhere is something of a mystery. "

Why? Because it is something of a mystery mainly to the author. That doesn't help anybody. The author is in effect telling us about his personal experience. And, besides... it isn't a mystery to Popeye's corporation. If one really wants to know why they don't offer this burger in locations other than the east coast, I'm sure that information can be obtained from the company.

(I'm not sure why I get caught up in something like this.)

Etymology
I removed this section from the article because it is doubtful and uncited. If anyone has reliable citations on the etymology of the word, please edit the article accordingly. Thanks Vectro 05:29, 14 May 2007 (UTC)

Origin of name
It has been speculated that the word is a partial translation of its German name Meerrettich. The element Meer (meaning 'ocean, sea', although it could be derived from the similar sounding Mähren, the German word for Moravia, an area where the vegetable is cultivated and used extensively, or indeed from Mähre, meaning 'mare') is pronounced like the English word mare, which might have been reinterpreted as horseradish. On the other hand, many English plant names have "horse" as an element denoting strong or coarse, so the etymology of the English word (which is attested in print from at least 1597) is uncertain. (The OED contains no reference to the derivation from the German Meer.)
 * I do agree that the etymology section should be expanded. By the way, the German Meer, Mehr, and variations thereof, share the same origins as that of möhre, carrot. Maybe there should be a qualified opinion from a lingusit, on the Indo-European root of the word, since the names of root vegetables in Germanic, Celtic, Baltic and Slavic languages are centered on ratt, ret, radisk, radish, redisk, redis, redkev, rotkv-.--Bo Basil (talk) 14:53, 26 August 2013 (UTC)

Cultivation
I started this section because I was looking for this information and started here at Wikipedia. I didn't find anything here, so I started a section.

Hope I'm doing this talk page right! I only edit occasionally and I keep having to review the How To pages as I go. My apologies if I've cause anyone extra work.

Valereee 15:45, 1 July 2007 (UTC)

English (British) Horseradish
This is my very first post on Wikipedia. Hope I don't screw up! I read the Horseradish page as I was interested in the comparison between it and Wasabi and found the description differed from my own knowledge of it. I have consulted my 'best' gardening book (Readers Digest Encyclopaedia of Garden Plants and Flowers) which supports my experience and so am considering adding info to the article. The plant in my book is listed as Cochlearia armoracia. Cruciferae. Reaches a height of 24" only. The picture on the existing page doesn't look the same as the plant I am familar with, nor does the pic of the root itself. I should be able to take pictures to upload.  Tell me everyone, is this a suitable thing to add to the article?  I am no botanist nor any kind of scientist but feel more comprehensive info would be useful/of interest to other readers.   Many thanks.  Muffet-at-19 17:21, 23 August 2007 (UTC)

Good job!!!!! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.37.228.44 (talk) 21:44, 11 August 2008 (UTC)

Damn Antiquity?
I am curious as to why it says this plant was cultivated in some damn antiquity? What does that have to do with anything? That probably needs to be edited. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 140.32.16.100 (talk) 19:25, 17 August 2008 (UTC)

'cultivated in antiquity' or 'from antiquity' means that it's been cultivated since before historical records were kept. It doesn't mean it was planted and grown in an antique, if that's what you're wondering about.valereee (talk) 10:48, 26 March 2011 (UTC)
 * Actually, at the time that original question was asked, the article did say "Horseradish was cultivated in some, damn antiquity". It was vandalism (and reverted shortly after the question was asked).  Wardog (talk) 16:17, 11 September 2012 (UTC)

Antimicrobial properties
Request for comment: Added recently - note that horseradish is an "antibiotic" due to the mustard oil. Mustard oil is derived from mustard seeds. Horseradish is a root in itself. The prepared horseradish sauce for consumption includes various ingredients, depending on the recipe; it may include mustard. Seems that if there is to be information on the "antimicrobial" properties of horseradish, it should be with respect to the horseradish root itself (which apparently has antimicrobial properties ). — ERcheck (talk) 20:39, 3 January 2009 (UTC)

Mustard oil is found in many different crucifers, possibly even all of them, for instance Brassica and Capsella. Its popular name is mustard oil, but it's not confined to mustard, and may even be more easily obtained from horseradish. Nineteenthly (talk) 22:31, 19 December 2009 (UTC)

 * It is important to be aware of the way we are affected by the chemicals that are released through grating. Nowadays you might think "Oh I will use a blender" because it is quicker. If you do this you will find that the  comment that it "irritates the sinuses and eyes" is an understatement.  It is extremely important to not directly inhale over the grated root as you remove it.  I did this and my nose and throat passages were so badly affected that I could not speak for several days and breathing was almost unbearably raw for much longer. I don't think that could be used as a citation though I think there is probably one out there somewhere.  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 208.63.161.79 (talk) 15:10, 23 March 2010 (UTC)

http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&client=firefox-a&rls=org.mozilla%3Aen-US%3Aofficial&hs=aEQ&q=mustard+oil+antimicrobial+site%3A.edu&btnG=Search
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&client=firefox-a&rls=org.mozilla%3Aen-US%3Aofficial&hs=aEQ&q=mustard+oil+antimicrobial+site%3A.edu&btnG=Search

mustard oil antimicrobial site:.edu
 * check the above as spam--Bo Basil (talk) 22:35, 26 August 2013 (UTC)

If wishes were...
Can anybody explain the origin of the name? TREKphiler  hit me ♠  22:25, 15 January 2009 (UTC) There seems to be a decent amount about that in the etymology section on this page. No idea if it's good for citation as I'm a kompleeeet noob, but it certainly sounds more than plausible (ie researched). Harveymuso (talk) 00:34, 20 April 2009 (UTC)

Changed the stats
OK, the article said that such and such percentage was produced in the city and such and such was produced in the surrounding areas, and the this and that did NOT add up to a possible number. I'm assuming that it was meant that thus and so is produced within the burg and INCLUDING that figure, this and that is produced in the area. Correct me if I'm wrong... but the original text WAS wrong. And confusing. And... wrong, by definition. 69.29.69.28 (talk) 02:16, 24 March 2010 (UTC)

Confusing sentence
From the article: Although technically a root, horseradish is generally treated as a condiment or ingredient.

Perhaps I don't know enough about the culinary arts, but to me, this sentence doesn't make much sense. The word "although" indicates an apparent contradiction, but I don't see how being a root even appears to contradict being a condiment or an ingredient. --Tanner Swett (talk) 20:16, 21 May 2010 (UTC)

 * Agreed. I deleted that line. It was confusing and unnecessary. –BMRR (talk) 22:18, 21 May 2010 (UTC)

Opinion/ advice?
"It will keep for months refrigerated but eventually will start to darken, indicating it is losing flavour and should be replaced"

although the first part of this is true, the last part is opinion and instructional. If someone could finds some non-industry supportive sources, i guess it would be okay, but as it stands I don't think it is very encyclopedic. with sources maybe:

"It will keep for months refrigerated but will eventually, due to oxidation, start to darken. At this point the prepared horseradish is losing it's 'hotness'."

well, damn. now that just sounds silly now that I've written it. But the original should be cleaned up. I will do if I can't find anything but personal preference to back this up. personally I like the sweet old horseradish for different uses such as cocktail sauce, tartar, etc.. Moss Ryder (talk) 07:05, 26 July 2011 (UTC)

root dimensions
All this article says, is that the root is "large". For an encyclopedia article, I don't think this is specific enough. Dimensions of the root should be included in millimetres.

Etoombs (talk) 13:32, 15 January 2012 (UTC)

In Media
Might it be worth mentioning the key role that horseradish plays in Book 13 of Series of Unfortunate Events?

The third external link doesn't work for me
Supposedly it was plant of the year - but this year seems to have gone... http://www.herbsocietydelawarevalleyunit.org/herbOfTheYear.php Bernburgerin (talk) 12:11, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Chraine
If you search for "Chraine" it redirects to here, although there is a separate article for "Chrain". I don't know how to fix that but somebody probably shoud. 86.20.66.253 (talk) 09:38, 15 April 2017 (UTC)
 * ✅ Peter coxhead (talk) 20:37, 15 April 2017 (UTC)

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Written like a how-to
The first half of this article details how to cook horseradish, not relevant to Wikipedia. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 73.118.241.67 (talk) 04:15, 19 September 2019 (UTC)

Ma Cohen's Beet Root Horseradish
I looked up Ma Cohen's and it's an actual business, by having an article with a product with large letters Ma Cohen it's advertising a commercial company which still is extant https://www.macohens.com/ please have a look. ConnieBland (talk) 23:07, 6 November 2019 (UTC)

Biomedical
HRP, an exzyme, is used extensively in Enzyme Immuno Assays (EIA). This is a testing method often used in clinical laboratories. I believe it is one of two enzymes readily available for EIA, but perhaps I missed something. Can someone find an expert or sources on this. I'm out of the field for years now. 2601:644:4482:42C0:1091:A511:58E5:FFBF (talk) 10:41, 15 April 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Horseradish


text:
Talk:Chemistry

Origins of chemistry
Alchemical tradition Prechemical tradition Medical tradition Technical tradition Phlogistic tradition Joybubexe (talk) 11:27, 13 September 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 13 November 2023
124.104.9.39 (talk) 12:17, 13 November 2023 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. Liu1126 (talk) 12:29, 13 November 2023 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: CHEM 300
— Assignment last updated by UBC24 AT (talk) 04:22, 1 April 2024 (UTC)

CHEM 300 Student's Project
Hello everyone! I have a plan to improve the subdisciplines portion of this article:

-         I’d like to include an example of each subdiscipline’s chemistry. For example, I would include a wet lab synthesis or even a minor reaction in Organic Chemistry, or something like a metallocentre species for Inorganic/Organometallic Chemistry

-         I’d add images about these examples, or even people/application/other appropriate illustrations about that specific subdiscipline to give it a face.

-         I’d clean up and add more than one citation for everything, so that each subdiscipline has more room to be discussed.

-         I’d add even more hyperlinks/referenced pages to make each subdiscipline more unique. I'd of course get good reliable sources.

Please let me know what you think!!!

CoolChemist (talk) 04:21, 15 March 2024 (UTC)CoolChemist
 * I like the idea of illustrating topics (especially if they highlight a key distinguishing feathre), and the §Disciplines section seems like it could be better-organized or explained. And it is already tagged as needing better citations. Contrast that with the other sections, that have prose and representative images. But I fear this already-long article will become even more unwieldy if more detail is added to that list. See WP:SUMMARYSTYLE for general guidance about a hierarchy of articles. Please also think carefully about the audience of an article that is just "chemistry", the overall topic, and whether they would benefit from any technical detail at all. DMacks (talk) 04:31, 15 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Yes! Making this less accessible and being more technical is NOT the goal! Thanks for the advice and the link to the summary style page, I had no idea it existed. CoolChemist (talk) 03:55, 30 March 2024 (UTC)
 * What is Uuo ? 185.206.82.81 (talk) 09:16, 4 May 2024 (UTC)

What is Uuo on electronegativity?
Tell me thx 185.206.82.81 (talk) 09:15, 4 May 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Chemistry


text:
Schleswig, Schleswig-Holstein

Schleswig (,,   ; Slesvig; South Jutlandic: Sljasvig; Sleswig) is a town in the northeastern part of Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. It is the capital of the Kreis (district) Schleswig-Flensburg. It has a population of about 27,000, the main industries being leather and food processing. It takes its name from the Schlei (Slien), an inlet of the Baltic Sea at the end of which it sits, and vik or vig which means "bay" in Old Norse and Danish. Schleswig or Slesvig therefore means "bay of the Schlei".

History
The Viking settlement of Hedeby, located south of the modern town, was first mentioned in 804. It was a powerful settlement in the Baltic region, dominating the area for more than 200 years. In 1050, following several destructions, the population was moved to the opposite shore of the Schlei, becoming the city of Schleswig. In 1066 Hedeby was finally destroyed, and Schleswig remained a part of the Danish kingdom.

In 1544, Gottorf Castle became the residence of the local rulers. The dukes of Gottorf were vassals of the Danish kings and ruled over much of present-day Schleswig-Holstein. In 1721, when the Great Northern War ended, the dukes of Gottorf lost their power and their land became Danish crown land. After the Second Schleswig War (1864), Schleswig was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia.

Geography
Schleswig lies at the western end of the Schlei Förde, which separates the two peninsulas of Angeln and Schwansen, and is on the western edge of the Schleswig-Holstein Uplands on the transition to the Geest country. The urban area ranges from 0 to 20 m above sea level. Brautsee (lake) is in the town.

The nearest major cities are Flensburg, Husum and Kiel. Autobahn 7 runs immediately west of the city. Highways 76 and 77 end in Schleswig and B 201 runs to the north of the town. Schleswig station is a stop for InterCity and Intercity-Express trains and is on the Hamburg–Neumünster–Flensburg and Husum–Kiel lines.

Climate
The climate is oceanic (Köppen: Cfb), humid and mild with a slight continental influence. The annual mean temperature is 8 °C and precipitation averages 925 mm.

Sights

 * Schleswig Cathedral (1134), with the tomb of King Frederick I of Denmark
 * Gottorf Castle (built 1161), former residence of the dukes, with the baroque Neuwerk garden, containing a replica of the Globe of Gottorf
 * Holm: old fishing village at the Schlei shore
 * Hedeby, Viking settlement

Twin towns – sister cities
Schleswig is twinned with:
 * 🏴 Hillingdon, England, United Kingdom
 * 🇫🇷 Mantes-la-Jolie, France
 * Vejle, Denmark
 * 🇩🇪 Waren, Germany

Notable people

 * Valdemar I of Denmark (1131–1182), King of Denmark from 1154 until his death in 1182.
 * Christian III of Denmark (1503–1559), King of Denmark
 * Adolf Frederick, King of Sweden (1710–1771), King of Sweden
 * Frederick August I, Duke of Oldenburg (1711–1785), nobleman
 * Asmus Jacob Carstens (1754–1798) a Danish-German painter, committed to German Neoclassicism.
 * Princess Louise Caroline of Hesse-Kassel (1789–1867), matriarch of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg
 * Herman Wilhelm Bissen (1798–1868), Danish sculptor
 * Friedrich Bernhard Westphal (1803–1844), German-Danish genre painter and illustrator
 * Christian IX of Denmark (1818–1906), King of Denmark, 1863 - 1906.
 * Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Jessen (1821–1889), botanist
 * Frederick VIII, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein (1821–1889), patriarch of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg
 * Friedrich Krichauff (1824–1904), politician in colonial South Australia
 * Victor Hensen (1835–1924), zoologist
 * Ove H. Berg (1840–1922), American politician and businessman, emigrated to the US in 1881
 * Julius Friedrich Theodor Engel (1842–1926), judge and politician
 * Hans von Seeckt (1866–1936), military officer
 * Ulrich von Brockdorff-Rantzau (1869–1928), politician and diplomat, first Foreign Minister of the Weimar Republic
 * Christian Hansen (1885–1972), general
 * Hermann-Bernhard Ramcke (1889–1968), General of paratroop forces
 * Anton Franzen (1896–1968), lawyer, judge and politician
 * Bernhard Rogge (1899–1982), naval officer
 * Bernd Kröplin (1944–2019), engineer and academic
 * Ralf Rothmann (born 1953), novelist
 * Thomas Heberer (born 1965), musician and composer
 * Ekkehard Wölk (born 1967), pianist, arranger and composer

Sport

 * Jobst Hirscht (born 1948), athlete who competed mainly in the 100 metres
 * Hole Rößler (born 1949), modern pentathlete
 * Jan-Ingwer Callsen-Bracker (born 1984), footballer

title: Schleswig, Schleswig-Holstein


text:
Talk:Tyrannosaurus rex

The comments that were previously on this page, and are in this page's history, are now at Talk:Tyrannosaurus/Archive 1. Graham 87 14:29, 13 February 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tyrannosaurus rex


text:
Hamburger

A hamburger, or simply a burger, is a dish consisting of fillings—usually a patty of ground meat, typically beef—placed inside a sliced bun or bread roll. The patties are often served with cheese, lettuce, tomato, onion, pickles, bacon or chilis with condiments such as ketchup, mustard, mayonnaise, relish or a "special sauce", often a variation of Thousand Island dressing and are frequently placed on sesame seed buns. A hamburger patty topped with cheese is called a cheeseburger.

Hamburgers are typically associated with fast-food restaurants and diners, but are also sold at various other restaurants, including more expensive high end establishments. There are numerous international and regional variations of hamburger. Some of the largest multinational fast-food chains have a burger as one of their core products: McDonald's Big Mac and Burger King's Whopper have become global icons of American culture.

Etymology and terminology
The term hamburger originally derives from Hamburg, the second-largest city in Germany; however, there is no certain connection between the food and the city.

By rebracketing, the term "burger" eventually became a self-standing word that is associated with many different types of sandwiches that are similar to a hamburger but contain different meats such as buffalo in the buffalo burger, venison, kangaroo, chicken, turkey, elk, lamb or fish such as salmon in the salmon burger, and even with meatless sandwiches as is the case of the veggie burger.

The term burger can also be applied to a meat patty on its own. Since the term hamburger usually implies beef, for clarity burger may be prefixed with the type of meat or meat substitute used, as in beef burger, turkey burger, bison burger, portobello burger, or veggie burger. In most English-speaking countries, including the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, a piece of chicken breast in a bun is a chicken burger. Americans would call this a chicken sandwich because the meat is not ground, whereas in other countries anything with a bun is considered a burger and a sandwich has sliced bread.

History

Versions of the meal have been served for over a century, but its origins remain obscure. The 1758 edition of the book The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy by Hannah Glasse included a recipe called "Hamburgh sausage", suggesting that it should be served "roasted with toasted bread under it." A similar snack was also popular in Hamburg under the name of "Rundstück warm" ("bread roll warm") in 1869 or earlier, and was supposedly eaten by emigrants on their way to America. However this may have contained roasted beefsteak rather than Frikadelle. It has alternatively been suggested that Hamburg steak served between two pieces of bread and eaten by Jewish passengers travelling from Hamburg to New York on Hamburg America Line vessels (which began operations in 1847) became so well known that the shipping company gave its name to the dish. It is not known which of these stories actually marks the invention of the hamburger and explains the name.

There is a reference to a "Hamburg steak" as early as 1884 in The Boston Journal.[OED, under "steak"] On July 5, 1896, the Chicago Daily Tribune made a highly specific claim regarding a "hamburger sandwich" in an article about a "Sandwich Car": "A distinguished favorite, only five cents, is Hamburger steak sandwich, the meat for which is kept ready in small patties and 'cooked while you wait' on the gasoline range."

Claims of invention
The origin of the hamburger is unclear, though "hamburger steak sandwiches" have been advertised in U.S. newspapers from New York to Hawaii since at least the 1890s. The invention of hamburgers is commonly attributed to various people, including Charlie Nagreen, Frank and Charles Menches, Oscar Weber Bilby, Fletcher Davis, or Louis Lassen. White Castle traces the origin of the hamburger to Hamburg, Germany, with its invention by Otto Krause. Some have pointed to a recipe for "Hamburgh sausages" on toasted bread, published in The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy by Hannah Glasse in 1758. Hamburgers gained national recognition in the U.S. at the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair when the New York Tribune referred to the hamburger as "the innovation of a food vendor on the pike." No conclusive argument has ended the dispute over invention. An article from ABC News sums up: "One problem is that there is little written history. Another issue is that the spread of the burger happened largely at the World's Fair, from tiny vendors that came and went in an instant. And it is entirely possible that more than one person came up with the idea at the same time in different parts of the country."

Louis Lassen
Although debunked by The Washington Post, a popular myth recorded by Connecticut Congresswoman Rosa DeLauro stated the first hamburger served in America was by Louis Lassen, a Danish immigrant, after he opened Louis' Lunch in New Haven in 1895. Louis' Lunch, a small lunch wagon in New Haven, Connecticut, is said to have sold the first hamburger and steak sandwich in the U.S. in 1900. New York Magazine states that "The dish actually had no name until some rowdy sailors from Hamburg named the meat on a bun after themselves years later", also noting that this claim is subject to dispute. A customer ordered a quick hot meal and Louis was out of steaks. Taking ground beef trimmings, Louis made a patty and grilled it, putting it between two slices of toast. Some critics such as Josh Ozersky, a food editor for New York Magazine, claim that this sandwich was not a hamburger because the bread was toasted.

Charlie Nagreen
One of the earliest claims comes from Charlie Nagreen, who in 1885 sold a meatball between two slices of bread at the Seymour Fair now sometimes called the Outagamie County Fair. The Seymour Community Historical Society of Seymour, Wisconsin, credits Nagreen, now known as "Hamburger Charlie", with the invention. Nagreen was 15 when he reportedly sold pork sandwiches at the 1885 Seymour Fair, made so customers could eat while walking. The Historical Society explains that Nagreen named the hamburger after the Hamburg steak with which local German immigrants were familiar.

Otto Kuase
According to White Castle, Otto Kuase was the inventor of the hamburger. In 1891, he created a beef patty cooked in butter and topped with a fried egg. German sailors later omitted the fried egg.

Oscar Weber Bilby
The family of Oscar Weber Bilby claims the first-known hamburger on a bun was served on July 4, 1891, on Grandpa Oscar's farm. The bun was a yeast bun. In 1995, Governor Frank Keating proclaimed that the first true hamburger on a bun was created and consumed in Tulsa, Oklahoma in 1891, calling Tulsa, "The Real Birthplace of the Hamburger".

Frank and Charles Menches
Frank and Charles Menches claim to have sold a ground beef sandwich at the Erie County Fair in 1885 in Hamburg, New York. During the fair, they ran out of pork sausage for their sandwiches and substituted beef. The brothers exhausted their supply of sausage, so they purchased chopped-up beef from a butcher, Andrew Klein. Historian Joseph Streamer wrote that the meat was from Stein's market, not Klein's, despite Stein's having sold the market in 1874. The story notes that the name of the hamburger comes from Hamburg, New York, not Hamburg, Germany. Frank Menches's obituary in The New York Times states that these events took place at the 1892 Summit County Fair in Akron, Ohio.

Fletcher Davis
Fletcher Davis of Athens, Texas claimed to have invented the hamburger. According to oral histories, in the 1880s, he opened a lunch counter in Athens and served a 'burger' of fried ground beef patties with mustard and Bermuda onion between two slices of bread, with a pickle on the side. The story is that in 1904, Davis and his wife Ciddy ran a sandwich stand at the St. Louis World's Fair. Historian Frank X. Tolbert noted that Athens resident Clint Murchison said his grandfather dated the hamburger to the 1880s with Fletcher "Old Dave" Davis. A photo of "Old Dave's Hamburger Stand" from 1904 was sent to Tolbert as evidence of the claim.

Other hamburger-steak claims
Various non-specific claims of the invention relate to the term "hamburger steak" without mention of its being a sandwich. The first printed American menu which listed hamburger is said to be an 1834 menu from Delmonico's in New York. However, the printer of the original menu was not in business in 1834. In 1889, a menu from Walla Walla Union in Washington offered hamburger steak as a menu item.

Between 1871 and 1884, "Hamburg Beefsteak" was on the "Breakfast and Supper Menu" of the Clipper Restaurant at 311/313 Pacific Street in San Fernando, California. It cost 10 cents—the same price as mutton chops, pig's feet in batter, and stewed veal. It was not, however, on the dinner menu. Only "Pig's Head", "Calf Tongue", and "Stewed Kidneys" were listed. Another claim ties the hamburger to Summit County, New York, or Ohio. Summit County, Ohio, exists, but Summit County, New York, does not.

Early major vendors

 * 1921: White Castle, Wichita, Kansas. Due to wide-spread anti-German sentiment in the U.S. during World War I, an alternative name for hamburgers was Salisbury steak. Following the war, hamburgers became unpopular until the White Castle restaurant chain marketed and sold large numbers of small 2+1/2 in square hamburgers, known as sliders. They created five holes in each patty, which helped them cook evenly and eliminated the need to flip the burger. In 1995, White Castle began selling frozen hamburgers in convenience stores and vending machines.
 * 1923: Kewpee Hamburgers, or Kewpee Hotels, Flint, Michigan. Kewpee was the second hamburger chain and peaked at 400 locations before World War II. Many of these were licensed but not strictly franchised. Many closed during WWII. Between 1955 and 1967, another wave closed or caused changes in name. In 1967 the Kewpee licensor moved the company to a franchise system. Currently, only five locations exist.
 * 1926: White Tower Hamburgers
 * 1927: Little Tavern
 * 1930s: White Castle (II; run by Henry Cassada)
 * 1931: Krystal
 * 1936: Big Boy. In 1937, Bob Wian created the double-deck hamburger at his stand in Glendale, California. Big Boy would become the name of the hamburger, the mascot, and the restaurants. Big Boy expanded nationally through regional franchising and subfranchising. Primarily operating as drive-in restaurants in the 1950s, interior dining gradually replaced curb service by the early 1970s. Many franchises have closed or operate independently, but at the remaining American restaurants, the Big Boy double-deck hamburger remains the signature item.
 * 1940: McDonald's restaurant, San Bernardino, California, was opened by Richard and Maurice McDonald. Their introduction of the "Speedee Service System" in 1948 established the principles of the modern fast-food restaurant. The McDonald brothers began franchising in 1953. In 1961, Ray Kroc (the supplier of their multi-mixer milkshake machines) purchased the company from the brothers for $2.7 million and a 1.9% royalty.

In the United States
Hamburgers are often a feature of fast food restaurants. In the United States, the hamburger patties served by major fast food chains are usually mass-produced in factories and frozen for delivery to the site. These hamburgers are thin and of uniform thickness, differing from the traditional American hamburger prepared in homes and conventional restaurants, which is thicker and prepared by hand from ground beef. Most American hamburgers are round, but some fast-food chains, such as Wendy's, sell square-cut hamburgers. Hamburgers in fast food restaurants are usually grilled on a flat top, but some firms, such as Burger King, use a gas flame grilling process. At conventional American restaurants, hamburgers may be ordered "rare" but normally are served medium-well or well-done for food safety reasons. Fast food restaurants do not usually offer this option.

The McDonald's fast-food chain sells the Big Mac, one of the world's top-selling hamburgers, with an estimated 550 million sold annually in the United States. Other major fast-food chains, including Burger King (also known as Hungry Jack's in Australia), A&W, Culver's, Whataburger, Carl's Jr./Hardee's chain, Wendy's (known for their square patties), Jack in the Box, Cook Out, Harvey's, Hesburger, Supermac's, Shake Shack, In-N-Out Burger, Five Guys, Fatburger, Vera's, Burgerville, Back Yard Burgers, Lick's Homeburger, Roy Rogers, Smashburger, and Sonic also rely heavily on hamburger sales. Fuddruckers and Red Robin are hamburger chains that specialize in the mid-tier "restaurant-style" variety of hamburgers.

Some restaurants offer elaborate hamburgers using expensive cuts of meat and various cheeses, toppings, and sauces. One example is the Bobby's Burger Palace chain founded by well-known chef and Food Network star Bobby Flay.

Hamburgers are often served as a fast dinner, picnic, or party food and are often cooked outdoors on barbecue grills.

A high-quality hamburger patty is made entirely of ground (minced) beef and seasonings; these may be described as "all-beef hamburger" or "all-beef patties" to distinguish them from inexpensive hamburgers made with cost-savers like added flour, textured vegetable protein, ammonia treated defatted beef trimmings (which the company Beef Products Inc, calls "lean finely textured beef"), advanced meat recovery, or other fillers. In the 1930s, ground liver was sometimes added. Some cooks prepare their patties with binders like eggs or breadcrumbs. Seasonings may include salt and pepper and others like parsley, onions, soy sauce, Thousand Island dressing, onion soup mix, or Worcestershire sauce. Many name-brand seasoned salt products are also used.

Safety
Raw hamburger may contain harmful bacteria that can produce food-borne illnesses such as Escherichia coli O157:H7, due to the occasional initial improper preparation of the meat, so caution is needed during handling and cooking. Because of the potential for food-borne illness, the USDA, recommends hamburgers be cooked to an internal temperature of 160 F. If cooked to this temperature, they are considered well-done.

Other meats
Burgers can also be made with patties made from ingredients other than beef. For example, a turkey burger uses ground turkey meat, a chicken burger uses ground chicken meat. A buffalo burger uses ground meat from a bison, and an ostrich burger is made from ground seasoned ostrich meat. A deer burger uses ground venison from deer.

Veggie burgers
Vegetarian and vegan burgers can be formed from a meat analogue, a meat substitute such as tofu, TVP, seitan (wheat gluten), quorn, beans, grains or an assortment of vegetables, ground up and mashed into patties.

Vegetable patties have existed in various Eurasian cuisines for millennia and are a commonplace item in Indian cuisine.

Steak burgers

In the United States, a steak burger is a marketing term for a hamburger claimed to be of superior quality. Elsewhere, it is a burger containing a steak.

Use of the term "steakburger" dates to the 1920s in the United States. In the U.S. in 1934, A.H. "Gus" Belt, the founder of Steak 'n Shake, devised a higher-quality hamburger and offered it as a "steakburger" to customers at the company's first location in Normal, Illinois. This burger used a combination of ground meat from the strip portion of T-bone steak and sirloin steak in its preparation. Steakburgers are a primary menu item at Steak 'n Shake restaurants, and the company's registered trademarks included "original steakburger" and "famous for steakburgers". Steak 'n Shake's "Prime Steakburgers" are now made of choice grade brisket and chuck.

Beef is typical, although other meats such as lamb and pork may also be used. The meat is ground or chopped.

In other places - including Australia and New Zealand - a steak burger contains a whole steak, not ground meat.

Steak burgers may be cooked to various degrees of doneness.

Steakburgers may be served with standard hamburger toppings such as lettuce, onion, and tomato. Some may have various additional toppings such as cheese, bacon, fried egg, mushrooms, additional meats, and others.

Various fast food outlets and restaurants — such as Burger King, Carl's Jr., Hardee's, IHOP, Steak 'n Shake, Mr. Steak, and Freddy's — market steak burgers. Some restaurants offer high-end burgers prepared from aged beef. Additionally, many restaurants have used the term "steakburger" at various times.

Some baseball parks concessions in the United States call their hamburgers steak burgers, such as Johnny Rosenblatt Stadium in Omaha, Nebraska.

Burger King introduced the Sirloin Steak sandwich in 1979 as part of a menu expansion that, in turn, was part of a corporate restructuring effort for the company. It was a single oblong patty made of chopped steak served on a sub-style sesame seed roll. Additional steak burgers that Burger King has offered are the Angus Bacon Cheddar Ranch Steak Burger, the Angus Bacon & Cheese Steak Burger, and a limited edition Stuffed Steakhouse Burger.

In 2004, Steak 'n Shake sued Burger King over the latter's use of the term Steak Burger in conjunction with one of its menu items, claiming that such use infringed on trademark rights. (According to the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Burger King's attorneys "grilled" Steak 'n Shake's CEO in court about the precise content of Steak 'n Shake's steakburger offering.) The case was settled out of court.

United States and Canada
The hamburger is considered a national dish of the United States. In the United States and Canada, burgers may be classified as two main types: fast food hamburgers and individually prepared burgers made in homes and restaurants. The latter are often prepared with a variety of toppings, including lettuce, tomato, onion, and often sliced pickles (or pickle relish). French fries (or commonly Poutine in Canada) often accompany the burger. Cheese (usually processed cheese slices but often Cheddar, Swiss, pepper jack, or blue), either melted directly on the meat patty or crumbled on top, is generally an option.

Condiments might be added to a hamburger or may be offered separately on the side, including ketchup, mustard, mayonnaise, relish, salad dressings and barbecue sauce.

Other toppings can include bacon, avocado or guacamole, sliced sautéed mushrooms, cheese sauce, chili (usually without beans), fried egg, scrambled egg, feta cheese, blue cheese, salsa, pineapple, jalapeños and other kinds of chili peppers, anchovies, slices of ham or bologna, pastrami or teriyaki-seasoned beef, tartar sauce, french fries, onion rings or potato chips.

 * Standard toppings on hamburgers may depend upon location, particularly at restaurants that are not national or regional franchises.
 * Restaurants may offer hamburgers with multiple meat patties. The most common variants are double and triple hamburgers, but California-based burger chain In-N-Out once sold a sandwich with one hundred patties, called a "100x100".
 * Pastrami burgers may be served in Salt Lake City, Utah.
 * A patty melt consists of a patty, sautéed onions and cheese between two slices of rye bread. The sandwich is then buttered and fried.
 * A slider is a very small square hamburger patty served on an equally small bun and usually sprinkled with diced onions. According to the earliest citations, the name originated aboard U.S. Navy ships due to how greasy burgers slid across the galley grill as the ship pitched and rolled. Other versions claim the term "slider" originated from the hamburgers served by flight line galleys at military airfields, which were so greasy they slid right through one, or because their small size allows them to "slide" right down the throat in one or two bites.
 * In Alberta, Canada, a "kubie burger" is a hamburger made with a pressed Ukrainian sausage (kubasa).
 * A butter burger, found commonly throughout Wisconsin and the upper midwest, is a normal burger with a pad of butter as a topping or a heavily buttered bun. It is the signature menu item of the restaurant chain Culver's.
 * The Fat Boy is an iconic hamburger with chili meat sauce originating in the Greek burger restaurants of Winnipeg, Manitoba
 * In Minnesota, a "Juicy Lucy" (also spelled "Jucy Lucy"), is a hamburger having cheese inside the meat patty rather than on top. A piece of cheese is surrounded by raw meat and cooked until it melts, resulting in a molten core of cheese within the patty. This scalding hot cheese tends to gush out at the first bite, so servers frequently instruct customers to let the sandwich cool for a few minutes before consumption.
 * A low-carb burger is a hamburger served without a bun and replaced with large slices of lettuce, with mayonnaise or mustard being the sauces primarily used.
 * A ramen burger, invented by Keizo Shimamoto, is a hamburger patty sandwiched between two discs of compressed ramen noodles in lieu of a traditional bun.
 * Luther Burger is a bacon cheeseburger with two glazed doughnuts instead of buns.
 * Steamed cheeseburger is a cheeseburger where the burger is steamed instead of grilled. It was invented in Connecticut.

France
In 2012, according to a study by the NDP cabinet, the French consume 14 hamburgers in restaurants per year per person, placing them fourth in the world and second in Europe, just behind the British.

According to a study by Gira Conseil on the consumption of hamburgers in France in 2013, 75% of traditional French restaurants offer at least one hamburger on their menu, and for a third of these restaurants, it has become the leader in the range of dishes, ahead of rib steaks, grills or fish.

Mexico
In Mexico, burgers (called hamburguesas) are served with ham and slices of American cheese fried on top of the meat patty. The toppings include avocado, jalapeño slices, shredded lettuce, onion, and tomato. The bun has mayonnaise, ketchup, and mustard. Bacon may also be added, which can be fried or grilled along with the meat patty. A slice of pineapple may be added to a hamburger for a "Hawaiian hamburger".

Some restaurants' burgers also have barbecue sauce, and others replace the ground patty with sirloin, Al pastor meat, barbacoa, or fried chicken breast. Many burger chains from the United States can be found all over Mexico, including Carl's Jr., Sonic, McDonald's, and Burger King.

United Kingdom and Ireland
Hamburgers in the UK and Ireland are very similar to those in the US, and the same big two chains dominate the High Street as in the U.S. — McDonald's and Burger King. The menus offered to both countries are virtually identical, although portion sizes tend to be smaller in the UK. In Ireland, the food outlet Supermacs is widespread throughout the country, serving burgers as part of its menu. In Ireland, Abrakebabra (started out selling kebabs) and Eddie Rocket's are also major chains.

An original and indigenous rival to the big two U.S. giants was the quintessentially British fast-food chain Wimpy, originally known as Wimpy Bar (opened 1954 at the Lyon's Corner House in Coventry Street London), which served its hamburgers on a plate with British-style chips, accompanied by cutlery and delivered to the customer's table. In the late 1970s, to compete with McDonald's, Wimpy began to open American-style counter-service restaurants, and the brand disappeared from many UK high streets when those restaurants were re-branded as Burger Kings between 1989 and 1990 by the then-owner of both brands, Grand Metropolitan. A management buyout in 1990 split the brands again, and now Wimpy table-service restaurants can still be found in many town centres, whilst new counter-service Wimpys are now often found at motorway service stations.

Hamburgers are also available from mobile kiosks, commonly known as "burger vans", particularly at outdoor events such as football matches. Burgers from this type of outlet are usually served without any form of salad — only fried onions and a choice of tomato ketchup, mustard, or brown sauce.

Chip shops, particularly in the West Midlands and North-East of England, Scotland, and Ireland, serve battered hamburgers called batter burgers. This is where the burger patty is deep-fat-fried in batter and is usually served with chips.

Hamburgers and veggie burgers served with chips, and salad is standard pub grub menu items. Many pubs specialize in "gourmet" burgers. These are usually high-quality minced steak patties topped with things such as blue cheese, brie, avocado, anchovy mayonnaise, et cetera. Some British pubs serve burger patties made from more exotic meats, including venison burgers (sometimes nicknamed Bambi Burgers), bison burgers, ostrich burgers, and in some Australian-themed pubs even kangaroo burgers can be purchased. These burgers are served similarly to the traditional hamburger but are sometimes served with a different sauce, including redcurrant sauce, mint sauce, and plum sauce.

In the early 21st century, "premium" hamburger chains and independent restaurants have arisen, selling burgers produced from meat stated to be of high quality and often organic, usually served to eat on the premises rather than to take away. Chains include Gourmet Burger Kitchen, Ultimate Burger, Hamburger Union and Byron Hamburgers in London. Independent restaurants such as Meatmarket and Dirty Burger developed a style of rich, juicy burger in 2012 which is known as a dirty burger or third-wave burger.

In recent years Rustlers has sold pre-cooked hamburgers reheatable in a microwave oven in the United Kingdom.

In the UK, as in North America and Japan, the term "burger" can refer simply to the patty, be it beef, some other kind of meat, or vegetarian.

Australia and New Zealand
Fast food franchises sell American-style fast-food hamburgers in Australia and New Zealand. The traditional Australasian hamburgers are usually bought from fish and chip shops or milk bars rather than from chain restaurants. These traditional hamburgers are becoming less common as older-style fast food outlets decrease in number. The hamburger meat is almost always ground beef, or "mince", as it is more commonly referred to in Australia and New Zealand. They commonly include tomato, lettuce, grilled onion, and meat as minimum—in this form, known in Australia as a "plain hamburger", which often also includes a slice of beetroot—and, optionally, can include cheese, beetroot, pineapple, a fried egg, and bacon. If all these optional ingredients are included, it is known in Australia as a "burger with the lot".

In Australia and New Zealand, as in the United Kingdom, the word sandwich is generally reserved for two slices of bread (from a loaf) with fillings in between them – unlike in American English where a sandwich is fillings between two pieces of any kind of bread, not only slices of bread – as such burgers are not generally considered to be sandwiches. The term burger is applied to any cut bun with a hot filling, even when the filling does not contain beef, such as a chicken burger (generally with chicken breast rather than chicken mince), salmon burger, pulled pork burger, veggie burger, etc.

The only variance between the two countries' hamburgers is that New Zealand's equivalent to "The Lot" often contains a steak (beef). The condiments regularly used are barbecue sauce and tomato sauce. The traditional Australasian hamburger never includes mayonnaise. The McDonald's "McOz" Burger is partway between American and Australian style burgers, having beetroot and tomato in an otherwise typical American burger; however, it is no longer a part of the menu. Likewise, McDonald's in New Zealand created a Kiwiburger, similar to a Quarter Pounder, but features salad, beetroot, and a fried egg. The Hungry Jack's (Burger King) "Aussie Burger" has tomato, lettuce, onion, cheese, bacon, beetroot, egg, ketchup, and a meat patty, while adding pineapple is an upcharge. It is essentially a "Burger with the lot" but uses the standard HJ circular breakfast Egg rather than the fully fried egg used by local fish shops.

China
In China, due to the branding of their sandwiches by McDonald's and KFC restaurants in China, the word "burger" (汉堡) refers to all sandwiches that consist of two pieces of bun and a meat patty in between. This has led to confusion when Chinese nationals try to order sandwiches with meat fillings other than beef in fast-food restaurants in North America.

A popular Chinese street food, known as (肉夹馍), consists of meat (most commonly pork) sandwiched between two buns. has been called the "Chinese hamburger". Since the sandwich dates back to the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and fits the aforementioned Chinese word for burger, Chinese media have claimed that the hamburger was invented in China.

Japan
In Japan, hamburgers can be served in a bun, called hanbāgā (ハンバーガー), or just the patties served without a bun, known as hanbāgu (ハンバーグ) or "hamburg", short for "hamburg steak".

Hamburg steaks (served without buns) are similar to what are known as Salisbury steaks in the US. They are made from minced beef, pork, or a blend of the two mixed with minced onions, eggs, breadcrumbs, and spices. They are served with brown sauce (or demi-glace in restaurants) with vegetable or salad sides, or occasionally in Japanese curries. Hamburgers may be served in casual, western-style suburban restaurant chains known in Japan as "family restaurants".

On the other hand, Hamburgers in buns are predominantly the domain of fast food chains. Japan has homegrown hamburger chain restaurants such as MOS Burger, First Kitchen, and Freshness Burger. Local varieties of burgers served in Japan include teriyaki burgers, burgers (containing ) and burgers containing shrimp. Some of the more unusual examples include the rice burger, where the bun is made of rice, and the luxury 1,000-yen (US$10) "Takumi Burger" (meaning "artisan taste"), featuring avocados, freshly grated wasabi, and other rare seasonal ingredients. In terms of the actual patty, there are burgers made with Kobe beef, butchered from cows that are fed with beer and massaged daily. McDonald's Japan also recently launched a McPork burger made with US pork. McDonald's has been gradually losing market share in Japan to these local hamburger chains due partly to the preference of Japanese diners for fresh ingredients and more refined, "upscale" hamburger offerings. Burger King once retreated from Japan, but re-entered the market in summer 2007 in cooperation with the Korean-owned Japanese fast-food chain Lotteria.

Denmark
In Denmark, the hamburger was introduced in 1949, though it was called the bøfsandwich. There are many variations. While the original bøfsandwich was simply a generic meat patty containing a mix of beef and horse meat, with slightly different garnish (mustard, ketchup, and soft onions), it has continued to evolve. Today, a bøfsandwich usually contains a beef patty, pickled cucumber, raw, pickled, fried or soft onions, pickled red beets, mustard, ketchup, remoulade, and perhaps most strikingly, is often overflowing with brown gravy, which is sometimes even poured on top of the assembled bøfsandwich. The original bøfsandwich is still on the menu at the same restaurant from which it originated in 1949, now run by the original owner's grandson.

Following the popularity of the bøfsandwich, many variations sprung up, using different types of meat instead of the beef patty. One variation, the flæskestegssandwich, grew especially popular. This variation replaces the minced beef patty with slices of pork loin or belly and typically uses sweet-and-sour pickled red cabbage, mayonnaise, mustard, and pork rinds as garnish.

Today, the bøfsandwich, flæskestegssandwich, and their many variations co-exist with the more typical hamburger, with the opening of the first Burger King restaurant in 1977 popularizing the original dish in Denmark. Many local, high-end burger restaurants dot the major cities, including Popl, an offshoot of Noma.

East Asia

Rice burgers mentioned above are also available in several East Asian countries such as Taiwan and South Korea. Lotteria is a big hamburger franchise in Japan owned by the South Korean Lotte group, with outlets also in China, South Korea, Vietnam, and Taiwan. In addition to selling beef hamburgers, they have hamburgers made from squid, pork, tofu, and shrimp. Variations available in South Korea include Bulgogi burgers and Kimchi burgers.

In the Philippines, a wide range of major U.S. fast-food franchises are well represented, together with local imitators, often amended to the local palate. The chain McDonald's (locally nicknamed "McDo") has a range of burger and chicken dishes often accompanied by plain steamed rice or French fries. The Philippines boasts its own burger chain called Jollibee, which offers burger meals and chicken, including a signature burger called "Champ". Jollibee now has several outlets in the United States, the Middle East, and East Asia.

India
In India, burgers are usually made from chicken or vegetable patties due to cultural beliefs against eating beef (which stem from Hindu religious practice) and pork (which stems from Islamic religious practice). Because of this, most fast food chains and restaurants in India do not serve beef. McDonald's in India, for instance, does not serve beef, offering the "Maharaja Mac" instead of the Big Mac, substituting the beef patties with chicken. Another version of the Indian vegetarian burger is the wada pav, consisting of a deep-fried potato patty dipped in gram flour batter. It is usually served with mint chutney and fried green chili. Another alternative is the "Buff Burger", made with buffalo meat.

Pakistan
In Pakistan, apart from American fast food chains, burgers can be found in stalls near shopping areas, the best known being the "shami burger". This is made from "shami kebab", made by mixing lentils and minced lamb. Onions, scrambled eggs, and ketchup are the most popular toppings.

Malaysia
In Malaysia, there are 300 McDonald's restaurants. The menu in Malaysia also includes eggs and fried chicken on top of regular burgers. Burgers are also easily found at nearby mobile kiosks, especially Ramly Burger.

Mongolia
In Mongolia, a recent fast food craze due to the sudden influx of foreign influence has led to the prominence of the hamburger. Specialized fast food restaurants serving to Mongolian tastes have sprung up and seen great success.

Turkey
In Turkey, in addition to the internationally familiar offerings, numerous localized variants of the hamburger may be found, such as the Islak Burger (lit. "Wet-Burger"), which is a beef slider doused in seasoned tomato sauce and steamed inside a special glass chamber, and has its origins in the Turkish fast food retailer Kizilkayalar. Other variations include lamb burgers and offal-burgers, which are offered by local fast food businesses and global chains alike, such as McDonald's and Burger King. Most burger shops have also adopted a pizzeria-like approach to home delivery, and almost all major fast food chains deliver.

Yugoslavia and Serbia
In the former Yugoslavia, and originally in Serbia, there is a local version of the hamburger known as the pljeskavica. It is often served as a patty but may also have a bun.

Belgium and Netherlands
Throughout Belgium and in some eateries in the Netherlands, a Bicky Burger is sold that combines pork, chicken, and horse meat. The hamburger, usually fried, is served between a bun, sprinkled with sesame seeds. It often comes with a specific Bickysaus (Bicky dressing) made with mayonnaise, mustard, cabbage, and onion.

Unusual hamburgers

 * In May 2012, Serendipity 3 was recognized as the Guinness World Record holder for serving the world's most expensive hamburger, the $295 Le Burger Extravagant.
 * At $499, the world's largest hamburger commercially available weighs 185.8 lb and is sold at Mallie's Sports Grill & Bar in Southgate, Michigan. Called the "Absolutely Ridiculous Burger", it takes about 12 hours to prepare. It was cooked and adjudicated on May 30, 2009.
 * A $777 Kobe beef and Maine lobster burger, topped with caramelized onion, Brie cheese, and prosciutto, was reported available at Le Burger Brasserie, inside the Paris Las Vegas casino.
 * On August 5, 2013, the first hamburger from a meat lab grown from cow stem cells was served. The hamburger was the result of research in the Netherlands led by Mark Post at Maastricht University and sponsored by Google's co-founder Sergey Brin.

Slang

 * "$100 hamburger" ("hundred-dollar hamburger") is aviation slang for a general aviation pilot needing an excuse to fly. A $100 hamburger trip typically involves flying a short distance (less than two hours), eating at an airport restaurant, and flying home.

title: Hamburger


text:
Panthera

Panthera is a genus within the family Felidae, and one of two extant genera in the subfamily Pantherinae. It contains the largest living members of the cat family. There are five living species: the jaguar, leopard, lion, snow leopard and tiger, as well as a number of extinct species.

Etymology
The word panther derives from classical Latin panthēra, itself from the ancient Greek pánthēr (πάνθηρ).

Characteristics
In Panthera species, the dorsal profile of the skull is flattish or evenly convex. The frontal interorbital area is not noticeably elevated, and the area behind the elevation is less steeply sloped. The basic cranial axis is nearly horizontal. The inner chamber of the bullae is large, the outer small. The partition between them is close to the external auditory meatus. The convexly rounded chin is sloping. All Panthera species have an incompletely ossified hyoid bone and a specially adapted larynx with large vocal folds covered in a fibro-elastic pad; these characteristics enable them to roar. Only the snow leopard cannot roar, as it has shorter vocal folds of 9 mm that provide a lower resistance to airflow; it was therefore proposed to be retained in the genus Uncia. Panthera species can prusten, which is a short, soft, snorting sound; it is used during contact between friendly individuals. The roar is an especially loud call with a distinctive pattern that depends on the species.

Evolution
The geographic origin of the Panthera is most likely northern Central Asia. Panthera blytheae, possibly the oldest known Panthera species, is similar in skull features to the snow leopard, though its taxonomic placement has been disputed by other researchers who suggest that the species likely belongs to a different genus. The tiger, snow leopard, and clouded leopard genetic lineages dispersed in Southeast Asia during the Miocene. Genetic studies indicate that the pantherine cats diverged from the subfamily Felinae between six and ten million years ago. The genus Neofelis is sister to Panthera. The clouded leopard appears to have diverged about. Panthera diverged from other cat species about and then evolved into the species tiger about, snow leopard about  and leopard about. Mitochondrial sequence data from fossils suggest that the American lion (P. atrox) is a sister lineage to Panthera spelaea (the Eurasian cave or steppe lion) that diverged about, and that both P. atrox and P. spelaea are most closely related to lions among living Panthera species. The snow leopard is nested within Panthera and is the sister species of the tiger.

Results of a 2016 study based on analysis of biparental nuclear genomes suggest the following relationships of living Panthera species:

The extinct species Panthera gombaszoegensis, was probably closely related to the modern jaguar. The first fossil remains were excavated in Olivola, in Italy, and date to. Fossil remains found in South Africa that appear to belong within the Panthera lineage date to about.

Classification
Panthera was named and described by Lorenz Oken in 1816 who placed all the spotted cats in this group. During the 19th and 20th centuries, various explorers and staff of natural history museums suggested numerous subspecies, or at times called "races", for all Panthera species. The taxonomist Reginald Innes Pocock reviewed skins and skulls in the zoological collection of the Natural History Museum, London, and grouped subspecies described, thus shortening the lists considerably. Reginald Innes Pocock revised the classification of this genus in 1916 as comprising the tiger (P. tigris), lion (P. leo), jaguar (P. onca), and leopard (P. pardus) on the basis of common features of their skulls. Since the mid-1980s, several Panthera species became subjects of genetic research, mostly using blood samples of captive individuals. Study results indicate that many of the lion and leopard subspecies are questionable because of insufficient genetic distinction between them. Subsequently, it was proposed to group all African leopard populations to P. p. pardus and retain eight subspecific names for Asian leopard populations. Results of genetic analysis indicate that the snow leopard (formerly Uncia uncia) also belongs to the genus Panthera (P. uncia), a classification that was accepted by IUCN Red List assessors in 2008.

Based on genetic research, it was suggested to group all living sub-Saharan lion populations into P. l. leo. Results of phylogeographic studies indicate that the Western and Central African lion populations are more closely related to those in India and form a different clade than lion populations in Southern and East Africa; southeastern Ethiopia is an admixture region between North African and East African lion populations.

Black panthers do not form a distinct species, but are melanistic specimens of the genus, most often encountered in the leopard and jaguar.

Contemporary species
The following list of the genus Panthera is based on the taxonomic assessment in Mammal Species of the World and reflects the taxonomy revised in 2017 by the Cat Classification Task Force of the Cat Specialist Group:

Extinct species and subspecies
Other, now invalid, species have also been described, such as Panthera crassidens from South Africa, which was later found to be based on a mixture of leopard and cheetah fossils.

Phylogeny
The cladogram below follows Mazák, Christiansen and Kitchener (2011).

In 2018, results of a phylogenetic study on living and fossil cats were published. This study was based on the morphological diversity of the mandibles of saber-toothed cats, their speciation and extinction rates. The generated cladogram indicates a different relation of the Panthera species, as shown below:

title: Panthera


text:
Hieronymus Bosch

Hieronymus Bosch (, ; born Jheronimus van Aken ; c. 1450 – 9 August 1516) was a Dutch painter from Brabant. He is one of the most notable representatives of the Early Netherlandish painting school. His work, generally oil on oak wood, mainly contains fantastic illustrations of religious concepts and narratives. Within his lifetime, his work was collected in the Netherlands, Austria, and Spain, and widely copied, especially his macabre and nightmarish depictions of hell.

Little is known of Bosch's life, though there are some records. He spent most of it in the town of 's-Hertogenbosch, where he was born in his grandfather's house. The roots of his forefathers are in Nijmegen and Aachen (which is visible in his surname: Van Aken). His pessimistic fantastical style cast a wide influence on northern art of the 16th century, with Pieter Bruegel the Elder being his best-known follower. Today, Bosch is seen as a highly individualistic painter with deep insight into humanity's desires and deepest fears. Attribution has been especially difficult; today only about 25 paintings are confidently given to his hand along with eight drawings. About another half-dozen paintings are confidently attributed to his workshop. His most acclaimed works consist of a few triptych altarpieces, including The Garden of Earthly Delights.

Life
Hieronymus Bosch's first name was originally Jheronimus (or Joen, respectively the Latin and Middle Dutch form of the name "Jerome"), and he signed a number of his paintings as Jheronimus Bosch.

His surname Bosch derives from his birthplace, 's-Hertogenbosch ('Duke's forest'), which is commonly called "Den Bosch" ('the forest').

Little is known of Bosch's life or training. He left behind no letters or diaries, and what has been identified has been taken from brief references to him in the municipal records of 's-Hertogenbosch, and in the account books of the local order of the Illustrious Brotherhood of Our Blessed Lady. Nothing is known of his personality or his thoughts on the meaning of his art. Bosch's date of birth has not been determined with certainty. It is estimated at c. 1450 on the basis of a hand-drawn portrait (which may be a self-portrait) made shortly before his death in 1516. The drawing shows the artist at an advanced age, probably in his late sixties.

Bosch lived all his life in and near 's-Hertogenbosch, in the Duchy of Brabant. His grandfather Jan van Aken (died 1454) was a painter and is first mentioned in the records in 1430. Jan had five sons, four of whom were also painters. Bosch's father, Anthonius van Aken (died c. 1478), acted as artistic adviser to the Illustrious Brotherhood of Our Blessed Lady. It is generally assumed that either Bosch's father or one of his uncles taught the artist to paint, but none of their works survive. Bosch first appears in the municipal record on 5 April 1474, when he is named along with two brothers and a sister.

's-Hertogenbosch was a flourishing city in 15th-century Brabant, in the south of the present-day Netherlands, at the time part of the Burgundian Netherlands, and during its lifetime passing through marriage to the Habsburgs. In 1463, four thousand houses in the town were destroyed by a catastrophic fire, which the then (approximately) thirteen-year-old Bosch presumably witnessed. He became a popular painter in his lifetime and often received commissions from abroad. In 1486/7 he joined the highly respected Brotherhood of Our Lady, a devotional confraternity of some forty influential citizens of 's-Hertogenbosch, and seven thousand 'outer-members' from around Europe.

Sometime between 1479 and 1481, Bosch married Aleid Goyaerts van den Meervenne, who was a few years his senior. The couple moved to the nearby town of Oirschot, where Aleid Goyaerts van den Meervenne had inherited a house and land from her wealthy family. An entry in the accounts of the Brotherhood of Our Lady records Bosch's death in 1516. A funeral mass served in his memory was held in the church of Saint John on 9 August of that year.

Works

Bosch produced at least sixteen triptychs: of them, eight survive fully intact with another five surviving in fragments. Bosch's works are generally organised into three periods of his life dealing with the early works (c. 1470–1485), the middle period (c. 1485–1500), and the late period (c. 1500 until his death). According to Stefan Fischer, thirteen of Bosch's surviving paintings were completed in the late period, with seven attributed to his middle period. Bosch's early period is studied in terms of his workshop activity and possibly some of his drawings. Indeed, he taught pupils in the workshop, who were influenced by him. The recent dendrochronological investigation of the oak panels by the scientists at the Bosch Research and Conservation Project led to a more precise dating of the majority of Bosch's paintings.

Bosch sometimes painted in a comparatively sketchy manner, contrasting with the traditional Early Netherlandish style of painting in which the smooth surface—achieved by the application of multiple transparent glazes—conceals the brushwork. Bosch's paintings with their rough surfaces, so called impasto painting, differed from the tradition of the great Netherlandish painters of the end of the 15th, and beginning of the 16th centuries, who wished to hide the work done and so suggest their paintings as more nearly divine creations.

Bosch did not date his paintings, but—unusual for the time—he seems to have signed several of them, although some signatures purporting to be his are certainly not. About twenty-five paintings remain today that can be attributed to him. In the late 16th century, Philip II of Spain acquired many of Bosch's paintings. As a result, the Prado Museum in Madrid now owns The Adoration of the Magi, The Garden of Earthly Delights, the tabletop painting of The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things and The Haywain Triptych.

Painting materials
Bosch painted his works mostly on oak panels using oil as a medium. Bosch's palette was rather limited and contained the usual pigments of his time. He mostly used azurite for blue skies and distant landscapes, green copper-based glazes and paints consisting of malachite or verdigris for foliage and foreground landscapes, and lead-tin-yellow, ochres and red lake (carmine or madder lake) for his figures.

The Garden of Earthly Delights
One of his most famous triptychs is The Garden of Earthly Delights (c. 1495–1505) whose outer panels are intended to bracket the main central panel between the Garden of Eden depicted on the left panel and the Last Judgment depicted on the right panel. It is attributed by Fischer as a transition painting rendered by Bosch from between his middle period and his late period. In the left hand panel God presents Eve to Adam; innovatively God is given a youthful appearance. The figures are set in a landscape populated by exotic animals and unusual semi-organic hut-shaped forms. The central panel is a broad panorama teeming with nude figures engaged in innocent, self-absorbed joy, as well as fantastical compound animals, oversized fruit, and hybrid stone formations.

The right panel presents a hellscape; a world in which humankind has succumbed to the temptations of evil and is reaping eternal damnation. Set at night, the panel features cold colours, tortured figures and frozen waterways. The nakedness of the human figures has lost any eroticism suggested in the central panel, as large explosions in the background throw light through the city gate and spill onto the water in the panel's midground.

Triptych of the Temptation of St. Anthony

Triptych of the Temptation of St. Anthony is one of the most famous Bosch's works along with The Garden of Earthly Delights. It shows Saint Anthony being tempted or assailed in the desert by demons, whose temptations he resisted; the Temptation of St Anthony (or Trial...) is the more common name of the subject. But strictly there are at least two different episodes deriving from Athanasius's Life of St. Anthony and later versions of the life that may be represented, though all usually have this name.

The most common is the temptation, by seductive women and other demonic forms, but the Martin Schongauer composition (copied by Michelangelo) probably shows a later episode where St Anthony, normally flown about the desert supported by angels, was ambushed and attacked in mid-air by devils. Anasthasius describes another episode where the saint was attacked on the ground.

With copied content from Triptych of the Temptation of St. Anthony; see that page for attribution.

Interpretation
In the 20th century, when changing artistic tastes made artists like Bosch more palatable to the European imagination, it was sometimes argued that Bosch's art was inspired by heretical points of view (e.g., the ideas of the Cathars and/or putative Adamites or Brethren of the Free Spirit) as well as by obscure hermetic practices. Again, since Erasmus had been educated at one of the houses of the Brethren of the Common Life in 's-Hertogenbosch, and the town was religiously progressive, some writers have found it unsurprising that strong parallels exist between the caustic writing of Erasmus and the often bold painting of Bosch.

Others, following a strain of Bosch-interpretation datable already to the 16th century, continued to think his work was created merely to titillate and amuse, much like the "grotteschi" of the Italian Renaissance. While the art of the older masters was based in the physical world of everyday experience, Bosch confronts his viewer with, in the words of the art historian Walter Gibson, "a world of dreams [and] nightmares in which forms seem to flicker and change before our eyes". In one of the first known accounts of Bosch's paintings, in 1560 the Spaniard Felipe de Guevara wrote that Bosch was regarded merely as "the inventor of monsters and chimeras". In the early 17th century, the artist-biographer Karel van Mander described Bosch's work as comprising "wondrous and strange fantasies"; however, he concluded that the paintings are "often less pleasant than gruesome to look at".

In recent decades, scholars have come to view Bosch's vision as less fantastic, and accepted that his art reflects the orthodox religious belief systems of his age. His depictions of sinful humanity and his conceptions of Heaven and Hell are now seen as consistent with those of late medieval didactic literature and sermons. Most writers attach a more profound significance to his paintings than had previously been supposed, and attempt to interpret them in terms of a late medieval morality. It is generally accepted that Bosch's art was created to teach specific moral and spiritual truths in the manner of other Northern Renaissance figures, such as the poet Robert Henryson, and that the images rendered have precise and premeditated significance. According to Dirk Bax, Bosch's paintings often represent visual translations of verbal metaphors and puns drawn from both biblical and folkloric sources.

Latterly art historians have added a further dimension to the subject of ambiguity in Bosch's work, emphasising ironic tendencies, for example in The Garden of Earthly Delights, both in the central panel (delights), and the right panel (hell). They theorise that the irony offers the option of detachment, both from the real world and from the painted fantasy world, thus appealing to both conservative and progressive viewers. According to Joseph Koerner, some of the cryptic qualities of the artist's work are due to his special focus on social, political, and spiritual enemies, whose symbolism is, by nature, disguised because it is intended to conceal the artist from criticism and harm.

A 2012 study on Bosch's paintings alleges that they actually conceal a strong nationalist consciousness, censuring the foreign imperial government of the Burgundian Netherlands, especially Maximilian Habsburg. By systematically superimposing images and concepts, the study asserts that Bosch also made his expiatory self-punishment, for he was accepting well-paid commissions from the Habsburgs and their deputies, and therefore betraying the memory of Charles the Bold.

Debates on attribution
The exact number of Bosch's surviving works has been a subject of considerable debate. His signature can be seen on only seven of his surviving paintings, and there is uncertainty whether all the paintings once ascribed to him were actually from his hand. It is known that from the early 16th century onwards numerous copies and variations of his paintings began to circulate. In addition, his style was highly influential, and was widely imitated by his numerous followers.

Over the years, scholars have attributed to him fewer and fewer of the works once thought to be his. This is partly a result of technological advances such as infrared reflectography, which enable researchers to examine a painting's underdrawing. Art historians of the early and mid-20th century, such as Tolnay and Baldass, identified between thirty and fifty paintings that they believed to be by Bosch's hand. A later monograph by Gerd Unverfehrt (1980) attributed twenty-five paintings and 14 drawings to him.

In early 2016, The Temptation of St. Anthony, a small panel in the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art in Kansas City, Missouri, long attributed to the workshop of Hieronymus Bosch, was credited to the painter himself after intensive forensic study by the Bosch Research and Conservation Project. The BRCP has also questioned whether two well-known paintings traditionally accepted to be by Bosch, The Seven Deadly Sins in the Prado and Christ Carrying the Cross in the Museum of Fine Arts, Ghent should instead be credited to the artist's workshop rather than to the painter's own hand.

title: Hieronymus Bosch


text:
Talk:Best, worst and average case

Worst case... A person won't know that this refers to sorting algorithms... Does this have any sort of potential as an encyclopedia article? Been a long time since I talked the lingo so I don't feel qualified... --Rgamble

This looks like some kind of sorting routine, possibly in C#.

A Java programmer would never write such a travesty. He'd simply call the Arrays.sort method in the Java API.

 * Actually the sort below is written in C. And it isn't a travesty at all.  Suppose you know that all the elements in an array are between a and b, this sort will run in Θ(max(n, b-a)) time (in many cases, this is equivalent to &Theta(n) time: not too shabby :-) --Hari

void pigeonhole_sort ( int *low, int *high , int minvalue , int maxvalue ) {   /* minvalue and maxvalue can also easily be determined within this function */ int count, size = maxvalue - minvalue + 1 , *current ; bool holes[size] ; for ( count = 0 ; count < size ; count++ ) /*Initializing*/ holes[count] = false ; for ( current = low ; current <= high ; current++ ) /*Sorting*/ holes[(*current)-minvalue] = true ; for ( current = low, count = 0 ; count < size ; count++ ) {      if ( holes[count] ) {         *current = count + minvalue ; current++ ; }      } }

Are there quicksort implementations which push the worst case performance below O(n2)? AxelBoldt

 * Well, the STL uses the "introspection sort", which basically uses a median-of-three pivot, and switches to a true O(n log n) sort if the recursion depth is greater than k*log n, for some k, typically 2. One such O(n log n) algorithm would be a quicksort that uses the true median as the pivot in the partition.  Since the true median can be found in O(n) time, and partition is O(n) time, this is O(n log n).  However, the constant factor in such a sort would be somewhat large, and hence should be used only if the recursion depth gets out of hand (the STL uses heapsort instead).  So, you can achieve O(n log n) with the quicksort structure.  --Hari

-- Actually, I am thinking maybe we should just merge this to algorithm or have an article like complexity analysis of algorithm or something. -- Taku 08:15, Mar 30, 2004 (UTC)

Merge with average performance
I merged this with average performance and did some cleanup. I'll leave any extra work (and this article could use it) for others to do. --Phils 16:01, 20 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Linear search on an array has a worst-case performance O(n) (see Big O notation), because in the worst case, the algorithm has to check every element. However, the average running time is O(n/2).

This is a poor example, because O(n/2) is really just O(n) as well in Big O notation (the 1/2 is just a scalar multiple).--Malcohol 13:48, 31 January 2006 (UTC)

Removed content from best case
This kind of analysis differs from the other two in that we consider not the algorithm but the problem itself. It should really be referred to as 'best worse case' analysis, because we aim to arrive at bounds on the performance of all possible algorithmic solutions, assuming their worst case.

Best case analysis is based on a consideration of the logical demands of the problem at hand - what is the very minimum that any algorithm to solve this problem would need to do, in the worst case, for an input of size n?

 * I don't think you ever do best case analysis on the problem. There will almost always be an algorithm that have a constant best case performance.  Taemyr (talk) 18:52, 1 May 2008 (UTC)

 * This content is confusing "best case" with "lower bounds"; you can very well analyze the best case performance of a specific algorithm over all inputs (see the table in sorting algorithm for example). On the other hand, a lower bound can specify the minimum resources required in the worst case, with the minimum taken over all possible algorithms, a good example being the Ω(n log n) lower bound on comparison sorts. Dcoetzee 21:23, 1 May 2008 (UTC)

Merger proposal
I propose the three articles Best, worst and average case, Worst-case complexity and Average-case complexity be merged to make one informative and complete article. --Robin (talk) 16:13, 11 August 2009 (UTC)

 * I'm removing the merge tag. After over three years, there is no discussion on this topic. If you still want to merge, I suggest that you be WP:BOLD and WP:JUSTDOIT. WTF? (talk) 14:02, 24 January 2013 (UTC)

WTF? you want a merge 'just to see some action', ...so you remove the 'action'? It's all told here, in the Annals of Wikipedia. TOOFUNNYWTFLOL :D Henrik Erlandsson 03:01, 30 March 2019 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by HenrikErlandsson (talk • contribs)

Confusion
What is worst case space complexity?

Worst case space complexity and worst case performance both link here. It is explained what is worst case perfomance, but what is worst case space complexity? They are different things, because article [|quicksort] has both of them. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Rmasta (talk • contribs) 22:28, 3 January 2010 (UTC)

I second Rmasta. At the very least, the stub of Space Complexity should be linked to first occurrence. Also, there's not much depth of thought in mentioning it (or calling it "Complexity"). This factor may be completely disregarded, as far as anyone developing or testing a sort algorithm is concerned, even considering early attempts on low-memory-space computers. Performance, perhaps measured in the number of "swaps", but for a good algorithm probably not, is the real unsolved problem since time immemorial.

Henrik Erlandsson 02:39, 30 March 2019 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by HenrikErlandsson (talk • contribs)

title: Talk:Best, worst and average case


text:
User:Brooke Vibber/Maps and images for Wikipedia

fr:Wikipédia:Cartes et imagesBrion_VIBBER/Mapoj_kaj bildoj_por_Vikipedio

Maps
These maps are based on public domain maps, and I'm providing them for the good of Wikipedia in any language that needs em. Yea verily etc etc.

Here I'm linking to the articles which contain the maps. I've also put up versions without text (in Photoshop, Gimp, and/or PNG formats) at http://leuksman.com/misc/maps.php, so if you want to adapt them for your own nefarious purposes (or just label in another language I haven't done yet), feel free to do so!

Political entities
 * European Union: en eo fr pl ja ro cy (needed: es, nl...)
 * State maps for California counties showing county borders and location within the state. See hi-res source image.

Continents, with countries marked
 * Europe: en eo de cy (needed: fr, ja, pl, es, nl...)
 * Africa: eo de cy
 * North America: eo cy
 * South America: eo en de cy
 * Asia: eo de cy
 * Australia and Oceania (not finished yet)
 * Antarctica (not done yet)
 * Middle-east close up (not done yet)

Other images
Warning: I'm not putting all of the following in public domain (that is, I retain copyright unless I say otherwise), but you may use them freely in accordance with the GFDL.
 * 35mm film: simulated image of a couple frames of 35mm motion picture film. Needs some adjustment; could use markings to indicate what's what. This is projection film with all the soundtracks put in; something with key numbers etc. as you get it from the camera (via the developer, that is) would be nice too. en eo
 * Multicamera setup: overhead diagram of set with a couple of actors and four cameras. I put this one in the public domain; what are you gonna do, copy it? Ha!
 * The United Nations building: I took this photo on a visit in 1996 (an overcast wintry day, unfortunately), and now release it to the public domain, at least at low resolution. ;) en eo
 * The Eiffel Tower: I took this photo in 1997, and now release it to public domain. en fr
 * Light meter - a photo of my light meter. GFDL.
 * Circle of confusion - attempt at a diagram clarifying what this thang means. GFDL.
 * Telecine - 3:2 pulldown visual demonstration. GFDL.

Scanned images from public domain sources

 * Illustrations of North American birds from Citizen Bird (first printed 1897; using a 1907 edition)
 * Hummingbird, Golden eagle, Goldfinch, Kingfisher
 * (More to come... optionally I can put up higher-res copies as well; I'm scanning at 600dpi and scaling down. For a preview, see an online copy of the book with lower-quality scans. Caveat: these are black-and-white, no color. However they're quite nice, and much better than nothing.)

Sound files
Not exactly maps or images, but I don't feel like creating another page just now. I've recorded a few language samples (in MP3 format; others can be made available instead [ogg?] if Wikipedia is concerned about license issues). The texts are public domain, and what the heck, so are my recordings. Enjoy!
 * The Pater Noster (traditionally used due to its frequent availability in translation)
 * Basic English: eo
 * Esperanto: eo
 * Interlingua: eo en ia
 * English (US accent): eo