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Otter

Otters are carnivorous mammals in the subfamily Lutrinae. The 13 extant otter species are all semiaquatic, aquatic, or marine. Lutrinae is a branch of the Mustelidae family, which includes weasels, badgers, mink, and wolverines, among other animals.

Otters' habitats include dens known as holts or couches, with their social structure described by terms such as dogs or boars for males, bitches or sows for females, and pups or cubs for offspring. Groups of otters can be referred to as a bevy, family, lodge, romp, or raft when in water, indicating their social and playful characteristics. Otters are known for their distinct feces, termed spraints, which can vary in smell from freshly mown hay to putrefied fish.

Otters exhibit a varied life cycle with a gestation period of about 60–86 days, and offspring typically stay with their family for a year. They can live up to 16 years, with their diet mainly consisting of fish and sometimes frogs, birds, or shellfish, depending on the species. Otters are distinguished by their long, slim bodies, powerful webbed feet for swimming, and their dense fur, which keeps them warm and buoyant in water. They are playful animals, engaging in activities like sliding into water on natural slides and playing with stones.

There are 13 known species of otters, ranging in size and habitat preferences, with some species adapted to cold waters requiring a high metabolic rate for warmth. Otter-human interactions have varied over time, with otters being hunted for their pelts, used in fishing practices in southern Bangladesh, and occasionally attacking humans, though such incidents are rare and often a result of provocation. Otters hold a place in various cultures' mythology and religion, symbolizing different attributes and stories, from Norse mythology to Native American totems and Asian folklore, where they are sometimes believed to possess shapeshifting abilities.

Etymology
The word otter derives from the Old English word otor or oter. This and cognate words in other Indo-European languages ultimately stem from the Proto-Indo-European root, which also gave rise to the English word "water".

Terminology
An otter's den is called a holt, or couch. Male otters are called dogs or boars; females are called bitches or sows; and their offspring are called pups or cubs. The collective nouns for otters are bevy, family, lodge, romp (being descriptive of their often playful nature), or, when in water, raft.

The feces of otters are typically identified by their distinctive aroma, the smell of which has been described as ranging from freshly mown hay to putrefied fish; these are known as spraints.

Life cycle
The gestation period in otters is about 60 to 86 days. The newborn pup is cared for by the bitch, dog, and older offspring. Female otters reach sexual maturity at approximately two years of age and males at approximately three years. The holt is built under tree roots or a rocky cairn, more common in Scotland. It is lined with moss and grass.

After one month, the pup can leave the holt and after two months, it is able to swim. The pup lives with its family for approximately one year. Otters live up to 16 years; they are by nature playful, and frolic in the water with their pups. Its usual source of food is fish, and further downriver, eels, but it may sample frogs and birds.

Description
Otters have long, slim bodies and relatively short limbs. Their most striking anatomical features are the powerful webbed feet used to swim, and their seal-like abilities for holding breath underwater. Most have sharp claws on their feet and all except the sea otter have long, muscular tails. The 13 species range in adult size from 0.6 to 1.8 m in length and 1 to 45 kg in weight. The Asian small-clawed otter is the smallest otter species and the giant otter and sea otter are the largest. They have very soft, insulated underfur, which is protected by an outer layer of long guard hairs. This traps a layer of air which keeps them dry, warm, and somewhat buoyant under water.

Several otter species live in cold waters and have high metabolic rates to help keep them warm. Eurasian otters must eat 15% of their body weight each day, and sea otters 20 to 25%, depending on the temperature. In water as warm as 10 °C, an otter needs to catch 100 g of fish per hour to survive. Most species hunt for three to five hours each day and nursing mothers up to eight hours each day.

Feeding
For most otters, fish is the staple of their diet. This is often supplemented by frogs, crayfish and crabs. Some otters are experts at opening shellfish, and others will feed on available small mammals or birds. Prey-dependence leaves otters very vulnerable to prey depletion. Sea otters are hunters of clams, sea urchins and other shelled creatures. They are notable for their ability to use stones to break open shellfish on their bellies. This skill must be learned by the young.

Otters are active hunters, chasing prey in the water or searching the beds of rivers, lakes or the seas. Most species live beside water, but river otters usually enter it only to hunt or travel, otherwise spending much of their time on land to prevent their fur becoming waterlogged. Sea otters are considerably more aquatic and live in the ocean for most of their lives.

Otters are playful animals and appear to engage in various behaviors for sheer enjoyment, such as making waterslides and sliding on them into the water. They may also find and play with small stones. Different species vary in their social structure, some being largely solitary, while others live in groups – in a few species these groups may be fairly large.

Species
Cladogram, after Koepfli et al. 2008 and Bininda-Emonds et al. 1999

Extinct species
Subfamily Lutrinae
 * Genus Lutra
 * †Lutra castiglionis – Corsica, Pleistocene
 * †Lutra euxena – Malta, Pleistocene
 * †Japanese otter (Lutra nippon) – Japan, extinct c. 1979''
 * Genus Lutrogale
 * †Lutrogale cretensis
 * Genus Enhydra
 * †Enhydra macrodonta
 * †Enhydra reevei
 * Genus †Algarolutra – Corsica and Sardinia, Pleistocene
 * Genus †Cyrnaonyx – Europe, Pleistocene
 * Genus †Enhydriodon – Ethiopia, Late Miocene to Pliocene
 * Genus †Enhydritherium – North America, Late Miocene to Early Pliocene

 * Genus †Lutraeximia – Italy, Pleistocene
 * Genus †Limnonyx – Germany, Late Miocene
 * Genus †Megalenhydris – Sardinia, Pleistocene
 * Genus †Paludolutra – Italy, Late Miocene
 * Genus †Sardolutra – Sardinia, Pleistocene
 * Genus †Siamogale – eastern Asia, Late Miocene to Early Pliocene
 * Genus †Sivaonyx – Asia and Africa, Late Miocene to Early Pliocene
 * Genus †Teruelictis – Spain, Late Miocene
 * Genus †Torolutra – Africa, Pliocene
 * Genus †Tyrrhenolutra – Italy, Late Miocene
 * Genus †Vishnuonyx – Europe, Asia and Africa, Late Miocene to Early Pliocene

Hunting
Otters have been hunted for their pelts from at least the 1700s, although it may have begun well before then. Early hunting methods included darts, arrows, nets and snares but later, traps were set on land and guns used.

There has been a long history of otter pelts being worn around the world. In China it was standard for the royalty to wear robes made from them. People that were financially high in status also wore them. The tails of otters were often made into items for men to wear. These included hats and belts. Even some types of mittens for children have been made from the fur of otters.

Otters have also been hunted using dogs, especially the otterhound. From 1958 to 1963, the 11 otter hunts in England and Wales killed 1,065 otters between them. In such hunts, the hunters notched their poles after every kill. The prized trophy that hunters would take from the otters was the baculum, which would be worn as a tie-pin.

Traffic (the wildlife trade monitoring network) reported that otters are at serious risk in Southeast Asia and have disappeared from parts of their former range. This decline in populations is due to hunting to supply the demand for skins.

Fishing for humans
For many generations, fishermen in southern Bangladesh have bred smooth-coated otters and used them to chase fish into their nets. Once a widespread practice, passed down from father to son throughout many communities in Asia, this traditional use of domesticated wild animals is still in practice in the district of Narail, Bangladesh.

Attacks on humans
A 2011 review by the IUCN/SSC Otter Specialist Group showed that otter attacks reported between 1875 and 2010 occurred most often in Florida, where human and otter populations have substantially increased since 2000, with the majority involving the North American otter. At least 42 instances of attack were found, including one resulting in death and another case of serious injury. Attacking otters had rabies in 36% of anecdotal reports. 80% of otter bite victims do not seek medical treatment.

Animal welfare groups say that, unless threatened, otters rarely attack humans. In November 2021, about 20 otters ambushed a British man in his 60s during an early morning walk in Singapore Botanic Gardens. Despite weighing over 200 pounds, he was trampled and bitten and could not stand up without help from a nearby rescuer. The man speculated that another runner might have stepped on one of the animals earlier, and wished that there could be more lighting installed at that location.

Religion and mythology
Norse mythology tells of the dwarf Ótr habitually taking the form of an otter. The myth of "Otter's Ransom" is the starting point of the Volsunga saga.

In Irish mythology, the character Lí Ban was turned from a woman into a mermaid, half human and half salmon, and given three hundred years of life to roam the oceans. Her lapdog assumed the form of an otter and shared her prolonged lifetime and her extensive wanderings.

In some Native American cultures, otters are considered totem animals.

The otter is held to be a clean animal belonging to Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrian belief, and taboo to kill.

In popular Korean mythology, it is told that people who see an otter (soodal) will attract 'rain clouds' for the rest of their lives.

In the Buddhist Jataka tales, The Otters and The Wolf, two otters agreed to let a wolf settle their dispute in dividing their caught fish but it was taken away by the cunning wolf.

Japanese folklore
In Japanese, otters are called "kawauso" (獺、川獺). In Japanese folklore, they fool humans in the same way as foxes (kitsune) and tanuki.

In the Noto region, Ishikawa Prefecture, there are stories where they shapeshift into beautiful women or children wearing checker-patterned clothing. If a human attempts to speak to one, they will answer "oraya" and then answer "araya," and if anybody asks them anything, they say cryptic things like "kawai." There are darker stories, such as one from Kaga Province (now Ishikawa Prefecture) in which an otter that lives in the castle's moat shapeshifts into a woman, invites males, and then kills and eats them.

In the kaidan, essays, and legends of the Edo period like the "Urami Kanawa" (裏見寒話), "Taihei Hyaku Monogatari" (太平百物語), and the "Shifu Goroku" (四不語録), there are tales about strange occurrences like otters that shapeshift into beautiful women and kill men.

In the town of Numatachi, Asa District, Hiroshima Prefecture (now Hiroshima), they are called "tomo no kawauso" (伴のカワウソ) and "ato no kawauso" (阿戸のカワウソ). It is said that they shapeshift into bōzu (a kind of monk) and appear before passers-by, and if the passer-by tries to get close and look up, its height steadily increases until it becomes a large bōzu.

In the Tsugaru region, Aomori Prefecture, they are said to possess humans. It is said that those possessed by otters lose their stamina as if their soul has been extracted. They are also said to shapeshift into severed heads and get caught in fishing nets.

In the Kashima District and the Hakui District in Ishikawa Prefecture, they are seen as a yōkai under the name kabuso or kawaso. They perform pranks like extinguishing the fire of the paper lanterns of people who walk on roads at night, shapeshifting into a beautiful woman of 18 or 19 years of age and fooling people, or tricking people and making them try to engage in sumo against a rock or a tree stump. It is said that they speak human words, and sometimes people are called and stopped while walking on roads.

In the Ishikawa and Kochi Prefectures, they are said to be a type of kappa, and there are stories told about how they engage in sumo with otters. In places like the Hokuriku region, Kii, and Shikoku, the otters are seen as a type of kappa. In the Kagakushū, a dictionary from the Muromachi period, an otter that grew old becomes a kappa.

In an Ainu folktale, in Urashibetsu (in Abashiri, Hokkaido), there are stories where monster otters shapeshift into humans, go into homes where there are beautiful girls, and try to kill the girl and make her its wife.

In China, like in Japan, there are stories where otters shapeshift into beautiful women in old books like In Search of the Supernatural and the Zhenyizhi (甄異志).

title: Otter


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Egyptian language

The Egyptian language, or Ancient Egyptian, is an extinct branch of the Afro-Asiatic languages that was spoken in ancient Egypt. It is known today from a large corpus of surviving texts, which were made accessible to the modern world following the decipherment of the ancient Egyptian scripts in the early 19th century.

Egyptian is one of the earliest known written languages, first recorded in the hieroglyphic script in the late 4th millennium BC. It is also the longest-attested human language, with a written record spanning over 4,000 years. Its classical form, known as "Middle Egyptian," served as the vernacular of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt and remained the literary language of Egypt until the Roman period.

By the time of classical antiquity, the spoken language had evolved into Demotic, and by the Roman era, diversified into various Coptic dialects. These were eventually supplanted by Arabic after the Muslim conquest of Egypt, although Bohairic Coptic remains in use as the liturgical language of the Coptic Church.

Classification
The Egyptian language branch belongs to the Afroasiatic language family. Among the typological features of Egyptian that are typically Afroasiatic are its fusional morphology, nonconcatenative morphology, a series of emphatic consonants, a three-vowel system, a nominal feminine suffix *-at, a nominal prefix m-, an adjectival suffix -ī and characteristic personal verbal affixes. Of the other Afroasiatic branches, linguists have variously suggested that the Egyptian language shares its greatest affinities with Berber and Semitic languages, particularly Arabic (which is spoken in Egypt today) and Hebrew. However, other scholars have argued that the Egyptian language shared closer linguistic ties with northeastern African regions.

There are two theories that seek to establish the cognate sets between Egyptian and Afroasiatic, the traditional theory and the neuere Komparatistik, founded by Semiticist Otto Rössler. According to the neuere Komparatistik, in Egyptian, the Proto-Afroasiatic voiced consonants developed into pharyngeal $⟨ꜥ⟩$ : Egyptian ꜥr.t 'portal', Semitic dalt 'door'. The traditional theory instead disputes the values given to those consonants by the neuere Komparatistik, instead connecting $⟨ꜥ⟩$ with Semitic and. Both schools agree that Afroasiatic merged with Egyptian $⟨n⟩$, $⟨r⟩$, $⟨ꜣ⟩$, and $⟨j⟩$ in the dialect on which the written language was based, but it was preserved in other Egyptian varieties. They also agree that original palatalise to $⟨ṯ j ḏ⟩$ in some environments and are preserved as $⟨k g q⟩$ in others.

The Egyptian language has many biradical and perhaps monoradical roots, in contrast to the Semitic preference for triradical roots. Egyptian is probably more conservative, and Semitic likely underwent later regularizations converting roots into the triradical pattern.

Although Egyptian is the oldest Afroasiatic language documented in written form, its morphological repertoire is very different from that of the rest of the Afroasiatic languages in general, and Semitic languages in particular. There are multiple possibilities: perhaps Egyptian had already undergone radical changes from Proto-Afroasiatic before it was recorded; or the Afroasiatic family has so far been studied with an excessively Semitocentric approach; or, as G. W. Tsereteli suggests, Afroasiatic is an allogenetic rather than a genetic group of languages.

History
The Egyptian language can be grouped thus:

 * Egyptian
 * Earlier Egyptian, Older Egyptian, or Classical Egyptian
 * Old Egyptian
 * Early Egyptian, Early Old Egyptian, Archaic Old Egyptian, Pre-Old Egyptian, or archaic Egyptian
 * standard Old Egyptian
 * Middle Egyptian
 * Later Egyptian
 * Late Egyptian
 * Demotic Egyptian
 * Coptic

The Egyptian language is conventionally grouped into six major chronological divisions:
 * Archaic Egyptian (before 2600 BC), the reconstructed language of the Early Dynastic Period,
 * Old Egyptian (c. 2600 – 2000 BC), the language of the Old Kingdom,
 * Middle Egyptian (c. 2000 – 1350 BC), the language of the Middle Kingdom to early New Kingdom and continuing on as a literary language into the 4th century,
 * Late Egyptian (c. 1350 – 700 BC), Amarna period to Third Intermediate Period,
 * Demotic Egyptian (c. 700 BC – 400 AD), the vernacular of the Late Period, Ptolemaic and early Roman Egypt,
 * Coptic (after c. 200 AD), the vernacular at the time of Christianisation, and the liturgical language of Egyptian Christianity.

Old, Middle, and Late Egyptian were all written using both the hieroglyphic and hieratic scripts. Demotic is the name of the script derived from the hieratic beginning in the 7th century BC.

The Coptic alphabet was derived from the Greek alphabet, with adaptations for Egyptian phonology. It was first developed in the Ptolemaic period, and gradually replaced the Demotic script in about the 4th to 5th centuries of the Christian era.

Old Egyptian

The term "Archaic Egyptian" is sometimes reserved for the earliest use of hieroglyphs, from the late fourth through the early third millennia BC. At the earliest stage, around 3300 BC, hieroglyphs were not a fully developed writing system, being at a transitional stage of proto-writing; over the time leading up to the 27th century BC, grammatical features such as nisba formation can be seen to occur.

Old Egyptian is dated from the oldest known complete sentence, including a finite verb, which has been found. Discovered in the tomb of Seth-Peribsen (dated c. 2690 BC), the seal impression reads:

 * {| cellpadding=5

 * ||  ||  ||  || -.sn(j)
 * unite.PRF.he || land.two for || son.his || sedge-bee || house-heart.their
 * colspan=6 | "He has united the Two Lands for his son, Dual King Peribsen."
 * }
 * unite.PRF.he || land.two for || son.his || sedge-bee || house-heart.their
 * colspan=6 | "He has united the Two Lands for his son, Dual King Peribsen."
 * }
 * colspan=6 | "He has united the Two Lands for his son, Dual King Peribsen."
 * }

Extensive texts appear from about 2600 BC. The Pyramid Texts are the largest body of literature written in this phase of the language. One of its distinguishing characteristics is the tripling of ideograms, phonograms, and determinatives to indicate the plural. Overall, it does not differ significantly from Middle Egyptian, the classical stage of the language, though it is based on a different dialect.

In the period of the 3rd dynasty (c. 2650), many of the principles of hieroglyphic writing were regularized. From that time on, until the script was supplanted by an early version of Coptic (about the third and fourth centuries), the system remained virtually unchanged. Even the number of signs used remained constant at about 700 for more than 2,000 years.

Middle Egyptian
Middle Egyptian was spoken for about 700 years, beginning around 2000 BC, during the Middle Kingdom and the subsequent Second Intermediate Period. As the classical variant of Egyptian, Middle Egyptian is the best-documented variety of the language, and has attracted the most attention by far from Egyptology. While most Middle Egyptian is seen written on monuments by hieroglyphs, it was also written using a cursive variant, and the related hieratic.

Middle Egyptian first became available to modern scholarship with the decipherment of hieroglyphs in the early 19th century. The first grammar of Middle Egyptian was published by Adolf Erman in 1894, surpassed in 1927 by Alan Gardiner's work. Middle Egyptian has been well-understood since then, although certain points of the verbal inflection remained open to revision until the mid-20th century, notably due to the contributions of Hans Jakob Polotsky.

The Middle Egyptian stage is taken to have ended around the 14th century BC, giving rise to Late Egyptian. This transition was taking place in the later period of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt (known as the Amarna Period).

Egyptien de tradition
Original Old Egyptian and Middle Egyptian texts were still used after the 14th century BCE. And an emulation of predominately Middle Egyptian, but also with characteristics of Old Egyptian, Late Egyptian and Demotic, called "Égyptien de tradition" or "Neo-Middle Egyptian" by scholars, was used as a literary language for new texts since the later New Kingdom in official and religious hieroglyphic and hieratic texts in preference to Late Egyptian or Demotic. Égyptien de tradition as a religious language survived until the Christianisation of Roman Egypt in the 4th century.

Late Egyptian
Late Egyptian was spoken for about 650 years, beginning around 1350 BC, during the New Kingdom of Egypt. Late Egyptian succeeded but did not fully supplant Middle Egyptian as a literary language, and was also the language of the New Kingdom administration.

Texts written wholly in Late Egyptian date to the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt and later. Late Egyptian is represented by a large body of religious and secular literature, comprising such examples as the Story of Wenamun, the love poems of the Chester–Beatty I papyrus, and the Instruction of Any. Instructions became a popular literary genre of the New Kingdom, which took the form of advice on proper behavior. Late Egyptian was also the language of New Kingdom administration.

Late Egyptian is not completely distinct from Middle Egyptian, as many "classicisms" appear in historical and literary documents of this phase. However, the difference between Middle and Late Egyptian is greater than the difference between Middle and Old Egyptian. Originally a synthetic language, Egyptian by the Late Egyptian phase had become an analytic language. The relationship between Middle Egyptian and Late Egyptian has been described as being similar to that between Latin and Italian.
 * Written Late Egyptian was seemingly a better representative than Middle Egyptian of the spoken language in the New Kingdom and beyond: weak consonants ꜣ, w, j, as well as the feminine ending .t were increasingly dropped, apparently because they stopped being pronounced.
 * The demonstrative pronouns pꜣ (masc.), tꜣ (fem.), and nꜣ (pl.) were used as definite articles.
 * The old form sḏm.n.f (he heard) of the verb was replaced by sḏm-f which had both prospective (he shall hear) and perfective (he heard) aspects. The past tense was also formed using the auxiliary verb jr (make), as in jr.f saḥa.f (he has accused him).
 * Adjectives as attributes of nouns are often replaced by nouns.

The Late Egyptian stage is taken to have ended around the 8th century BC, giving rise to Demotic.

Demotic
Demotic is a later development of the Egyptian language written in the Demotic script, following Late Egyptian and preceding Coptic, the latter of which it shares much with. In the earlier stages of Demotic, such as those texts written in the early Demotic script, it probably represented the spoken idiom of the time. However, as its use became increasingly confined to literary and religious purposes, the written language diverged more and more from the spoken form, leading to significant diglossia between the late Demotic texts and the spoken language of the time, similar to the use of classical Middle Egyptian during the Ptolemaic Period.

Coptic
Coptic is the name given to the late Egyptian vernacular when it was written in a Greek-based alphabet, the Coptic alphabet; it flourished from the time of Early Christianity (c. 31/33–324), but Egyptian phrases written in the Greek alphabet first appeared during the Hellenistic period c. 3rd century BC, with the first known Coptic text, still pagan (Old Coptic), from the 1st century AD.

Coptic survived into the medieval period, but by the 16th century was dwindling rapidly due to the persecution of Coptic Christians under the Mamluks. It probably survived in the Egyptian countryside as a spoken language for several centuries after that. Coptic survives as the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church and the Coptic Catholic Church.

Dialects
Most hieroglyphic Egyptian texts are written in a literary prestige register rather than the vernacular speech variety of their author. As a result, dialectical differences are not apparent in written Egyptian until the adoption of the Coptic alphabet. Nevertheless, it is clear that these differences existed before the Coptic period. In one Late Egyptian letter (dated c. 1200 BC), a scribe jokes that his colleague's writing is incoherent like "the speech of a Delta man with a man of Elephantine."

Recently, some evidence of internal dialects has been found in pairs of similar words in Egyptian that, based on similarities with later dialects of Coptic, may be derived from northern and southern dialects of Egyptian. Written Coptic has five major dialects, which differ mainly in graphic conventions, most notably the southern Saidic dialect, the main classical dialect, and the northern Bohairic dialect, currently used in Coptic Church services.

Writing systems
Most surviving texts in the Egyptian language are written on stone in hieroglyphs. The native name for Egyptian hieroglyphic writing is zẖꜣ n mdw-nṯr ("writing of the gods' words"). In antiquity, most texts were written on the quite perishable medium of papyrus though a few have survived that were written in hieratic and (later) demotic. There was also a form of cursive hieroglyphs, used for religious documents on papyrus, such as the Book of the Dead of the Twentieth Dynasty; it was simpler to write than the hieroglyphs in stone inscriptions, but it was not as cursive as hieratic and lacked the wide use of ligatures. Additionally, there was a variety of stone-cut hieratic, known as "lapidary hieratic". In the language's final stage of development, the Coptic alphabet replaced the older writing system.

Hieroglyphs are employed in two ways in Egyptian texts: as ideograms to represent the idea depicted by the pictures and, more commonly, as phonograms to represent their phonetic value.

As the phonetic realisation of Egyptian cannot be known with certainty, Egyptologists use a system of transliteration to denote each sound that could be represented by a uniliteral hieroglyph.

Egyptian scholar Gamal Mokhtar argued that the inventory of hieroglyphic symbols derived from "fauna and flora used in the signs [which] are essentially African" and in "regards to writing, we have seen that a purely Nilotic, hence African origin not only is not excluded, but probably reflects the reality" although he acknowledged the geographical location of Egypt made it a receptacle for many influences.

Phonology
While the consonantal phonology of the Egyptian language may be reconstructed, the exact phonetics is unknown, and there are varying opinions on how to classify the individual phonemes. In addition, because Egyptian is recorded over a full 2,000 years, the Archaic and Late stages being separated by the amount of time that separates Old Latin from Modern Italian, significant phonetic changes must have occurred during that lengthy time frame.

Phonologically, Egyptian contrasted labial, alveolar, palatal, velar, uvular, pharyngeal, and glottal consonants. Egyptian also contrasted voiceless and emphatic consonants, as with other Afroasiatic languages, but exactly how the emphatic consonants were realised is unknown. Early research had assumed that the opposition in stops was one of voicing, but it is now thought to be either one of tenuis and emphatic consonants, as in many Semitic languages, or one of aspirated and ejective consonants, as in many Cushitic languages.

Since vowels were not written until Coptic, reconstructions of the Egyptian vowel system are much more uncertain and rely mainly on evidence from Coptic and records of Egyptian words, especially proper nouns, in other languages/writing systems.

The actual pronunciations reconstructed by such means are used only by a few specialists in the language. For all other purposes, the Egyptological pronunciation is used, but it often bears little resemblance to what is known of how Egyptian was pronounced.

Consonants
The following consonants are reconstructed for Archaic (before 2600 BC) and Old Egyptian (2686–2181 BC), with IPA equivalents in square brackets if they differ from the usual transcription scheme:

has no independent representation in the hieroglyphic orthography, and it is frequently written as if it were or. That is probably because the standard for written Egyptian is based on a dialect in which had merged with other sonorants. Also, the rare cases of occurring are not represented. The phoneme is written as ⟨j⟩ in the initial position (⟨jt⟩ =  'father') and immediately after a stressed vowel (⟨bjn⟩ =  'bad') and as ⟨jj⟩ word-medially immediately before a stressed vowel ($⟨ḫꜥjjk⟩$ =  'you will appear') and are unmarked word-finally (⟨jt⟩ =  'father').

Middle Egyptian
In Middle Egyptian (2055–1650 BC), a number of consonantal shifts take place. By the beginning of the Middle Kingdom period, and  had merged, and the graphemes $⟨s⟩$ and $⟨z⟩$ are used interchangeably. In addition, had become  word-initially in an unstressed syllable (⟨jwn⟩  >  "colour") and after a stressed vowel ($⟨ḥjpw⟩$  >  '[the god] Apis').

Late Egyptian
In Late Egyptian (1069–700 BC), the phonemes d ḏ g gradually merge with their counterparts t ṯ k ($⟨dbn⟩$ > Akkadian transcription ti-ba-an 'dbn-weight'). Also, ṯ ḏ often become, but they are retained in many lexemes; ꜣ becomes ; and become  at the end of a stressed syllable and eventually null word-finally: $⟨pḏ.t⟩$  > Akkadian transcription -pi-ta 'bow'.

Phonology
The most important source of information about Demotic phonology is Coptic. The consonant inventory of Demotic can be reconstructed on the basis of evidence from the Coptic dialects. Demotic orthography is relatively opaque. The Demotic "alphabetical" signs are mostly inherited from the hieroglyphic script, and due to historical sound changes they do not always map neatly onto Demotic phonemes. However, the Demotic script does feature certain orthographic innovations, such as the use of the sign h̭ for //, which allow it to represent sounds that were not present in earlier forms of Egyptian.

The Demotic consonants can be divided into two primary classes: obstruents (stops, affricates and fricatives) and sonorants (approximants, nasals, and semivowels). Voice is not a contrastive feature; all obstruents are voiceless and all sonorants are voiced. Stops may be either aspirated or tenuis (unaspirated), although there is evidence that aspirates merged with their tenuis counterparts in certain environments.

The following table presents the consonants of Demotic Egyptian. The reconstructed value of a phoneme is given in IPA transcription, followed by a transliteration of the corresponding Demotic "alphabetical" sign(s) in angle brackets $⟨⟩$.

Coptic
More changes occur in the 1st millennium BC and the first centuries AD, leading to Coptic (1st or 3rd – c. 19th centuries AD). In Sahidic ẖ ḫ ḥ had merged into š (most often from ḫ) and   (most often ẖ ḥ). Bohairic and Akhmimic are more conservative and have a velar fricative ( in Bohairic,  in Akhmimic). Pharyngeal *ꜥ had merged into glottal after it had affected the quality of the surrounding vowels. is not indicated orthographically unless it follows a stressed vowel; then, it is marked by doubling the vowel letter (except in Bohairic): Akhmimic, Sahidic and Lycopolitan  šoʔp, Bohairic  šoʔp 'to be' < ḫpr.w * 'has become'. The phoneme  was probably pronounced as a fricative, becoming   after a stressed vowel in syllables that had been closed in earlier Egyptian (compare  <  'gold' and  < * 'horn'). The phonemes occur only in Greek loanwords, with rare exceptions triggered by a nearby :  < ꜥ.t n.t sbꜣ.w 'school'.

Earlier *d ḏ g q are preserved as ejective t' c' k' k' before vowels in Coptic. Although the same graphemes are used for the pulmonic stops ($⟨p⟩$), the existence of the former may be inferred because the stops $⟨t ṯ⟩$ are allophonically aspirated  before stressed vowels and sonorant consonants. In Bohairic, the allophones are written with the special graphemes $⟨ṯ⟩$, but other dialects did not mark aspiration: Sahidic, Bohairic 'the sun'.

Thus, Bohairic does not mark aspiration for reflexes of older *d ḏ g q: Sahidic and Bohairic  'horn'. Also, the definite article is unaspirated when the next word begins with a glottal stop: Bohairic  'the account'.

The consonant system of Coptic is as follows:

Vowels
Here is the vowel system reconstructed for earlier Egyptian: Vowels are always short in unstressed syllables ($⟨k⟩$ = 'first') and long in open stressed syllables ($⟨k⟩$ =  'man'), but they can be either short or long in closed stressed syllables ($⟨d ḏ t ṯ ṱ⟩$ =  'we', $⟨ḏ ṯ⟩$ =  'to stay').

In the Late New Kingdom, after Ramses II, around 1200 BC, changes to  (like the Canaanite shift), $⟨g k q⟩$ '(the god) Horus'  >  (Akkadian transcription: -ḫuru). , therefore, changes to : $⟨q k g⟩$ 'tree' >  (Akkadian transcription: -sini).

In the Early New Kingdom, short stressed changes to : $⟨f⟩$ "Menes"  >  (Akkadian transcription: ma-né-e). Later, probably 1000–800 BC, a short stressed changes to : $⟨s⟩$ "Tanis"  was borrowed into Hebrew as *ṣuʕn but would become transcribed as $⟨š⟩$ during the Neo-Assyrian Empire.

Unstressed vowels, especially after a stress, become : $⟨h̭ ḫ⟩$ 'good' >  (Akkadian transcription -na-a-pa). changes to next to  and : $⟨ẖ ḫ⟩$ 'soldier'  >  (earlier Akkadian transcription: ú-i-ú, later: ú-e-eḫ).

In Sahidic and Bohairic Coptic, Late Egyptian stressed becomes  and  becomes, but are unchanged in the other dialects:
 * $⟨ḥ⟩$ 'brother'
 * Sahidic and Bohairic $⟨h⟩$
 * Akhmimic, Lycopolitan and Fayyumic $⟨b⟩$
 * $⟨r⟩$ 'name' >
 * Sahidic and Bohairic $⟨l r⟩$
 * Akhmimic, Lycopolitan and Fayyumic $⟨y ı͗⟩$

However, in the presence of guttural fricatives, Sahidic and Bohairic preserve, and Fayyumic renders it as $⟨w⟩$:
 * $⟨ꜥ⟩$ 'ten thousand'
 * Sahidic, Akhmimic and Lycopolitan $⟨ꜥ⟩$
 * Bohairic $⟨⟩$
 * Fayyumic $⟨⟩$

In Akhmimic and Lycopolitan, becomes  before etymological :
 * $⟨⟩$ 'river' >
 * Sahidic $⟨tpj⟩$
 * Bohairic $⟨rmṯ⟩$
 * Akhmimic $⟨jnn⟩$
 * Fayyumic $⟨mn⟩$

Similarly, the diphthongs, , which normally have reflexes , in Sahidic and are preserved in other dialects, are in Bohairic $⟨ḥrw⟩$ (in non-final position) and $⟨šnj⟩$ respectively:
 * "to me, to them"
 * Sahidic $⟨mnj⟩$
 * Akhmimic and Lycopolitan $⟨ḏꜥn.t⟩$
 * Fayyumic $⟨ṣe-e'-nu/ṣa-a'-nu⟩$
 * Bohairic $⟨nfr⟩$

Sahidic and Bohairic preserve before  (etymological or from lenited  or tonic-syllable coda ),: Sahidic and Bohairic $⟨wꜥw⟩$  'to you (fem.)' <  <. may also have different reflexes before sonorants, near sibilants and in diphthongs.

Old surfaces as  after nasals and occasionally other consonants: $⟨sn⟩$ 'god'  >  $⟨son⟩$  has acquired phonemic status, as is evidenced by minimal pairs like 'to approach' $⟨san⟩$  <  ẖnn vs. 'inside' $⟨rn⟩$  <  ẖnw. An etymological >  often surfaces as  next to  and after etymological pharyngeals: $⟨ran⟩$ <  'street' (Semitic loan).

Most Coptic dialects have two phonemic vowels in unstressed position. Unstressed vowels generally became, written as $⟨ren⟩$ or null ($⟨e⟩$ in Bohairic and Fayyumic word-finally), but pretonic unstressed /a/ occurs as a reflex of earlier unstressed near an etymological pharyngeal, velar or sonorant ('to become many' $⟨ḏbꜥ⟩$ < ꜥšꜣ ) or an unstressed. Pretonic [i] is underlyingly : Sahidic 'ibis' $⟨tba⟩$ < h(j)bj.w.

Thus, the following is the Sahidic vowel system c. AD 400:

Phonotactics
Earlier Egyptian has the syllable structure CV(ː)(C) in which V is long in open stressed syllables and short elsewhere. In addition, CVːC or CVCC can occur in word-final, stressed position. However, CVːC occurs only in the infinitive of biconsonantal verbal roots, CVCC only in some plurals.

In later Egyptian, stressed CVːC, CVCC, and CV become much more common because of the loss of final dentals and glides.

Stress
Earlier Egyptian stresses one of the last two syllables. According to some scholars, that is a development from a stage in Proto-Egyptian in which the third-last syllable could be stressed, which was lost as open posttonic syllables lost their vowels: >  'transformation'.

Egyptological pronunciation
As a convention, Egyptologists make use of an "Egyptological pronunciation" in English: the consonants are given fixed values, and vowels are inserted according to essentially arbitrary rules. Two of these consonants known as alef and ayin are generally pronounced as the vowel. Yodh is pronounced, w. Between other consonants, is then inserted. Thus, for example, the Egyptian name Ramesses is most accurately transliterated as ("Ra is the one who bore him") and pronounced as.

In transcription, $⟨tʰba⟩$, $⟨tbe⟩$, and $⟨jtrw⟩$ all represent consonants. For example, the name Tutankhamun (1341–1323 BC) was written in Egyptian as ("living image of Amun"). Experts have assigned generic sounds to these values as a matter of convenience, which is an artificial pronunciation and should not be mistaken for how Egyptian was ever pronounced at any time. So although twt-ꜥnḫ-ı͗mn is pronounced in modern Egyptological pronunciation, in his lifetime, it was likely to be pronounced something like *,     transliterable as təwā́təʾ-ʿā́nəkh-ʾamā́nəʾ.

Morphology
Egyptian is fairly typical for an Afroasiatic language in that most of its vocabulary is built around a root of three consonants, though there are sometimes only two consonants in the root: (, "sun"--the  is thought to have been something like a voiced pharyngeal fricative). Larger roots are also common and can have up to five consonants: ("be upside-down").

Vowels and other consonants are added to the root to derive different meanings, as Arabic, Hebrew, and other Afroasiatic languages still do. However, because vowels and sometimes glides are not written in any Egyptian script except Coptic, it can be difficult to reconstruct the actual forms of words. Thus, orthographic ("to choose"), for example, can represent the stative (whose endings can be left unexpressed), the imperfective forms or even a verbal noun ("a choosing").

Nouns
Egyptian nouns can be masculine or feminine (the latter is indicated, as with other Afroasiatic languages, by adding a ) and singular or plural ( / ), or dual ( / ).

Articles, both definite and indefinite, do not occur until Late Egyptian but are used widely thereafter.

Pronouns
Egyptian has three different types of personal pronouns: suffix, enclitic (called "dependent" by Egyptologists) and independent pronouns. There are also a number of verbal endings added to the infinitive to form the stative and are regarded by some linguists as a "fourth" set of personal pronouns. They bear close resemblance to their Semitic counterparts. The three main sets of personal pronouns are as follows:

Demonstrative pronouns have separate masculine and feminine singular forms and common plural forms for both genders:

Finally, interrogative pronouns bear a close resemblance to their Semitic and Berber counterparts:

Verbs
Egyptian verbs have finite and non-finite forms.

Finite verbs convey person, tense/aspect, mood and voice. Each is indicated by a set of affixal morphemes attached to the verb: For example, the basic conjugation is ("to hear") is sḏm.f ("he hears").

Non-finite verbs occur without a subject and are the infinitive, the participles and the negative infinitive, which Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs calls "negatival complement". There are two main tenses/aspects in Egyptian: past and temporally-unmarked imperfective and aorist forms. The latter are determined from their syntactic context.

Adjectives
Adjectives agree in gender and number with the nouns they modify:

man good.MASC

"[the] good man"

woman good.FEM

"[the] good woman"

Attributive adjectives in phrases are after the nouns they modify:  ("[the] great god").

However, when they are used independently as a predicate in an adjectival phrase, as  ("[the] god [is] great", lit.  "great [is the] god"), adjectives precede the nouns they modify.

Prepositions
Egyptian makes use of prepositions.

Adverbs
Adverbs, in Egyptian, are at the end of a sentence: For example:

went god there

"[the] god went there"

Here are some common Egyptian adverbs:

Syntax
Old Egyptian, Classical Egyptian, and Middle Egyptian have verb-subject-object as the basic word order. For example, the equivalent of "he opens the door" would be   ("opens he [the] door"). The so-called construct state combines two or more nouns to express the genitive, as in Semitic and Berber languages. However, that changed in the later stages of the language, including Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic.

The early stages of Egyptian have no articles, but the later forms use, and.

As with other Afroasiatic languages, Egyptian uses two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. It also uses three grammatical numbers: singular, dual and plural. However, later Egyptian has a tendency to lose the dual as a productive form.

Legacy
The Egyptian language survived through the Middle Ages and into the early modern period in the form of the Coptic language. Coptic survived past the 16th century only as an isolated vernacular and as a liturgical language for the Coptic Orthodox and Coptic Catholic Churches. Coptic also had an enduring effect on Egyptian Arabic, which replaced Coptic as the main daily language in Egypt; the Coptic substratum in Egyptian Arabic appears in certain aspects of syntax and to a lesser degree in vocabulary and phonology.

In antiquity, Egyptian exerted some influence on Classical Greek, so that a number of Egyptian loanwords into Greek survive into modern usage. Examples include:
 * (Egyptian, via Greek and then Latin)
 * (Egyptian, via Latin)
 * (Egyptian, via Greek)
 * (Egyptian, Coptic , via Greek)
 * (Egyptian, via Greek)
 * (Egyptian, via Greek)
 * (Egyptian, via Greek))
 * possibly
 * (Egyptian, lit. "great house", via Hebrew and Greek)

The Hebrew Bible also contains some words, terms, and names that are thought by scholars to be Egyptian in origin. An example of this is Zaphnath-Paaneah, the Egyptian name given to Joseph.

The etymological root of "Egypt" is the same as Copts, ultimately from the Late Egyptian name of Memphis, Hikuptah, a continuation of Middle Egyptian (lit.  "temple of the ka (soul) of Ptah").

Overviews

 * Allen, James P., The Ancient Egyptian Language: An Historical Study, Cambridge University Press, 2013. ISBN 978-1-107-03246-0 (hardback), ISBN 978-1-107-66467-8 (paperback).
 * Loprieno, Antonio, Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction, Cambridge University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-521-44384-9 (hardback), ISBN 0-521-44849-2 (paperback).
 * Vergote, Jozef, "Problèmes de la «Nominalbildung» en égyptien", Chronique d'Égypte 51 (1976), pp. 261–285.
 * Vycichl, Werner, La Vocalisation de la Langue Égyptienne, IFAO, Cairo, 1990. ISBN 9782-7247-0096-1.
 * Vycichl, Werner, La Vocalisation de la Langue Égyptienne, IFAO, Cairo, 1990. ISBN 9782-7247-0096-1.

Grammars

 * Allen, James P., Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs, first edition, Cambridge University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-521-65312-6 (hardback) ISBN 0-521-77483-7 (paperback).
 * Borghouts, Joris F., Egyptian: An Introduction to the Writing and Language of the Middle Kingdom, two vols., Peeters, 2010. ISBN 978-9-042-92294-5 (paperback).
 * J. Cerny, S. Israelit-Groll, C. Eyre, A Late Egyptian Grammar, 4th, updated edition – Biblical Institute; Rome, 1984
 * Collier, Mark, and Manley, Bill, How to Read Egyptian Hieroglyphs: A Step-by-Step Guide to Teach Yourself, British Museum Press (ISBN 0-7141-1910-5) and University of California Press (ISBN 0-520-21597-4), both 1998.
 * Gardiner, Sir Alan H., Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs, Griffith Institute, Oxford, 3rd ed. 1957. ISBN 0-900416-35-1.
 * Hoch, James E., Middle Egyptian Grammar, Benben Publications, Mississauga, 1997. ISBN 0-920168-12-4.
 * Selden, Daniel L., Hieroglyphic Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Literature of the Middle Kingdom, University of California Press, 2013. ISBN 978-0-520-27546-1 (hardback).

Dictionaries

 * Faulkner, Raymond O., A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian, Griffith Institute, Oxford, 1962. ISBN 0-900416-32-7 (hardback).
 * Lesko, Leonard H., A Dictionary of Late Egyptian, 2nd ed., 2 vols., B. C. Scribe Publications, Providence, 2002 et 2004. ISBN 0-930548-14-0 (vol.1), ISBN 0-930548-15-9 (vol. 2).
 * Shennum, David, English-Egyptian Index of Faulkner's Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian, Undena Publications, 1977. ISBN 0-89003-054-5.
 * Bonnamy, Yvonne and Sadek, Ashraf-Alexandre, Dictionnaire des hiéroglyphes: Hiéroglyphes-Français, Actes Sud, Arles, 2010. ISBN 978-2-7427-8922-1.
 * Vycichl, Werner, Dictionnaire Étymologique de la Langue Copte, Peeters, Leuven, 1984. ISBN 2-8017-0197-1.
 * de Vartavan, Christian, Vocalised Dictionary of Ancient Egyptian (Open Access), Projectis Publishing, London, 2022. ISBN 978-1-913984-16-8. [Free PDF download: https://www.academia.edu/101048552/Vocalised_Dictionary_of_Ancient_Egyptian_Open_Access_]
 * de Vartavan, Christian, Vocalised Dictionary of Ancient Egyptian (Open Access), Projectis Publishing, London, 2022. ISBN 978-1-913984-16-8. [Free PDF download: https://www.academia.edu/101048552/Vocalised_Dictionary_of_Ancient_Egyptian_Open_Access_]

Online dictionaries

 * The Beinlich Wordlist, an online searchable dictionary of ancient Egyptian words (translations are in German).
 * Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae, an online service available from October 2004 which is associated with various German Egyptological projects, including the monumental Altägyptisches Wörterbuch of the Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Berlin, Germany).
 * Mark Vygus Dictionary 2018, a searchable dictionary of ancient Egyptian words, arranged by glyph.

Important Note: The old grammars and dictionaries of E. A. Wallis Budge have long been considered obsolete by Egyptologists, even though these books are still available for purchase.

More book information is available at Glyphs and Grammars.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Egyptian language


text:
Coptic

Coptic may refer to:

Afro-Asia

 * Copts, an ethnoreligious group mainly in the area of modern Egypt but also in Sudan and Libya
 * Coptic language, a Northern Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Egypt until at least the 17th century
 * Coptic script, the script used for writing the Coptic language, encoded in Unicode as:
 * Greek and Coptic (Unicode block), a block of Unicode characters for writing the Coptic language, from which Coptic was disunified in Unicode 4.1
 * Coptic (Unicode block), a block of Unicode characters for writing the Coptic language, introduced in Unicode 4.1
 * Coptic Epact Numbers, a block of Unicode characters for writing Coptic numerals
 * Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria or Coptic Church, the largest Christian church in Egypt and the Middle East
 * Coptic Catholic Church, an Alexandrian Rite particular Church
 * Coptic architecture, the architecture of the Copts
 * Coptic binding or Coptic sewing, methods of bookbinding employed by early Christians in Egypt

Other uses

 * SS Coptic (1881), a ship of the White Star Line
 * Coptic Egypt: The Christians of the Nile, a 2000 nonfiction book written by Christian Cannuyer
 * Coptic Encyclopedia, an eight-volume work covering all areas of knowledge of Coptic Egypt

title: Coptic


text:
Nubian

Nubian may refer to:

 * Something of, from, or related to Nubia, a region along the Nile river in southern Egypt and northern Sudan
 * Nubians
 * Nubian languages
 * Anglo-Nubian goat, a British breed of domestic goat
 * HMS Nubian, several ships of the British Royal Navy
 * Les Nubians, a French musical duo

title: Nubian