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Hot air balloon

A hot air balloon is a lighter-than-air aircraft consisting of a bag, called an envelope, which contains heated air. Suspended beneath is a gondola or wicker basket (in some long-distance or high-altitude balloons, a capsule), which carries passengers and a source of heat, in most cases an open flame caused by burning liquid propane. The heated air inside the envelope makes it buoyant, since it has a lower density than the colder air outside the envelope. As with all aircraft, hot air balloons cannot fly beyond the atmosphere. The envelope does not have to be sealed at the bottom, since the air inside the envelope is at about the same pressure as the surrounding air. In modern sport balloons the envelope is generally made from nylon fabric, and the inlet of the balloon (closest to the burner flame) is made from a fire-resistant material such as Nomex. Modern balloons have been made in many shapes, such as rocket ships and the shapes of various commercial products, though the traditional shape is used for most non-commercial and many commercial applications.

The hot air balloon is the first successful human-carrying flight technology. The first untethered manned hot air balloon flight in the world was performed in Paris, France, by Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier and François Laurent d'Arlandes on November 21, 1783, in a balloon created by the Montgolfier brothers. The first hot air balloon flown in the Americas was launched from the Walnut Street Jail in Philadelphia on January 9, 1793, by the French aeronaut Jean Pierre Blanchard. Hot air balloons that can be propelled through the air rather than simply drifting with the wind are known as thermal airships.

Premodern and unmanned balloons

A precursor of the hot air balloon was the sky lantern. Zhuge Liang of the Shu Han kingdom, during the Three Kingdoms era (220–280 CE), used these airborne lanterns for military signaling. The Mongolian army studied Kongming lanterns from China and used them in the Battle of Legnica during the Mongol invasion of Poland in the 13th century. This is the first time ballooning was known in the western world.

In the 18th century the colonial Brazilian Jesuit priest Bartolomeu de Gusmão envisioned an aerial apparatus named Passarola, which was the predecessor of the hot air balloon. The Passarola was intended to serve as air vessel in order to facilitate communication and as a strategical device. In 1709 John V of Portugal decided to fund Bartolomeu de Gusmão's project following a petition made by the Jesuit priest, and an unmanned demonstration was performed at Casa da Índia in the presence of John V and the queen, Maria Anna of Austria, with the Italian cardinal Michelangelo Conti, two members of the Portuguese Royal Academy of History, one Portuguese diplomat and one chronicler serving as witnesses. This event would bring some European attention to this event and this project. A later article dated on October 20, 1786, by the London Daily Universal Register would state that the inventor was able to raise himself by the use of his prototype. Also in 1709, the Portuguese Jesuit wrote Manifesto summário para os que ignoram poderse navegar pelo elemento do ar (Short Manifesto for those who are unaware that is possible to sail through the element air); he also left designs for a manned air vessel.

In the 1970s, balloonist Julian Nott hypothesized that the Nazca Lines geoglyphs' creation two millennia ago could have been guided by Nazca leaders in a balloon, possibly the earliest hot air balloon flights in human history. To support this theory, in 1975 he designed and piloted the Nazca Prehistoric Balloon, claiming to have used only methods and materials available to the Pre-Inca Peruvians 1,000 years ago.

First manned flight
The French brothers Joseph-Michel and Jacques-Étienne Montgolfier developed a hot-air balloon in Annonay, Ardèche, France, and demonstrated it publicly on September 19, 1783, making an unmanned flight lasting 10 minutes. After experimenting with unmanned balloons and flights with animals, the first balloon flight with humans aboard, a tethered flight, performed on or around October 15, 1783, by Jean-Francois Pilatre de Rozier, who made at least one tethered flight from the yard of the Reveillon workshop in the Faubourg Saint-Antoine. Later that same day, Pilatre de Rozier became the second human to ascend into the air, reaching an altitude of 26 m, the length of the tether. The first free flight with human passengers was made a few weeks later, on November 21, 1783. King Louis XVI had originally decreed that condemned criminals would be the first pilots, but de Rozier, along with Marquis François d'Arlandes, petitioned successfully for the honor. The first military use of a hot air balloon happened in 1794 during the battle of Fleurus, when the French used the balloon l'Entreprenant for observation.

Jean-Pierre Blanchard became the first person to fly a hot air balloon in various countries, including the United States, the Netherlands, and Germany. His most notable flight crossed the English Channel heading to the Dover Castle accompanied by John Jeffries, which occurred on 7 January 1785. In 1808, Blanchard suffered a heart attack while ballooning above The Hague, fell from his balloon, and experienced fatal injuries. His wife Sophie Blanchard continued his profession, but also died a decade later on a balloon, due to a firework festival causing the hydrogen in the balloon to be set on fire.

Modern balloons
Modern hot air balloons, with an onboard heat source, were developed by Ed Yost and Jim Winker, beginning during the 1950s; their work resulted in his a first successful flight on October 22, 1960. The first modern hot air balloon to be made in the United Kingdom (UK) was the Bristol Belle, built in 1967. Presently, hot air balloons are used primarily for recreation.

Records
Hot air balloons are able to fly to extremely high altitudes. On November 26, 2005 Vijaypat Singhania set the world altitude record for highest hot air balloon flight, reaching 21027 m. He took off from downtown Mumbai, India, and landed 240 km south in Panchale. The previous record of 19811 m had been set by Per Lindstrand on June 6, 1988, in Plano, Texas.

On January 15, 1991, the Virgin Pacific Flyer balloon completed the longest flight in a hot air balloon, when Per Lindstrand (born in Sweden, but resident in the UK) and Richard Branson of the UK flew 7671.91 km from Japan to Northern Canada. With a volume of 74,000 cubic meters (2.6 million cubic feet), the balloon envelope was the largest ever built for a hot air craft. Designed to fly in the trans-oceanic jet streams, the Pacific Flyer recorded the fastest ground speed for a manned balloon at 245 mph. The longest duration record was set by Swiss psychiatrist Bertrand Piccard (Auguste Piccard's grandson) and Briton Brian Jones, flying in the Breitling Orbiter 3. It was the first nonstop trip around the world by balloon. The balloon left Château-d'Oex, Switzerland, on March 1, 1999, and landed at 1:02 a.m. on March 21 in the Egyptian desert 300 mi south of Cairo. The two men exceeded distance, endurance, and time records, traveling 19 days, 21 hours, and 55 minutes. Steve Fossett, flying solo, exceeded the record for briefest time traveling around the world on 3 July 2002 on his sixth attempt, in 320 h 33 min. Fedor Konyukhov flew solo round the world on his first attempt in a hybrid hot air/helium balloon from 11 to 23 July 2016 for a round-the world time of 268 h 20 min.

Construction
A hot air balloon for manned flight uses a single-layered, fabric gas bag (lifting "envelope"), with an opening at the bottom called the mouth or throat. Attached to the envelope is a basket, or gondola, for carrying the passengers. Mounted above the basket and centered in the mouth is the "burner", which injects a flame into the envelope, heating the air within. The heater or burner is fueled by propane, a liquefied gas stored in pressure vessels, similar to high-pressure forklift cylinders.

Envelope
Modern hot air balloons are usually made of materials such as ripstop nylon or dacron (a polyester).

During the manufacturing process, the material is cut into panels and sewn together, along with structural load tapes that carry the weight of the gondola or basket. The individual sections, which extend from the throat to the crown (top) of the envelope, are known as gores or gore sections. Envelopes can have as few as 4 gores or as many as 24 or more.

Envelopes often have a crown ring at their very top. This is a hoop of smooth metal, usually aluminium, and approximately 1 ft in diameter. Vertical load tapes from the envelope are attached to the crown ring.

At the bottom of the envelope the vertical load tapes are sewn into loops that are connected to cables (one cable per load tape). These cables, often referred to as flying wires, are connected to the basket by carabiners.

Seams
The most common technique for sewing panels together is called the French felled, French fell, or double lap seam. The two pieces of fabric are folded over on each other at their common edge, possibly with a load tape as well, and sewn together with two rows of parallel stitching. Other methods include a flat lap seam, in which the two pieces of fabric are held together simply with two rows of parallel stitching, and a zigzag, where parallel zigzag stitching holds a double lap of fabric.

Coatings
The fabric (or at least part of it, the top 1/3, for example) may be coated with a sealer, such as silicone or polyurethane, to make it impermeable to air. It is often the degradation of this coating and the corresponding loss of impermeability that ends the effective life of an envelope, not weakening of the fabric itself. Heat, moisture, and mechanical wear-and-tear during set-up and pack-up are the primary causes of degradation. Once an envelope becomes too porous to fly, it may be retired and discarded or perhaps used as a "rag bag": cold-inflated and opened for children to run through. Products for recoating the fabric are becoming available commercially.

Sizes and capacity
A range of envelope sizes is available. The smallest, one-person, basket-less balloons (called "Hoppers" or "Cloudhoppers") have as little as 600 m3 of envelope volume; for a perfect sphere the radius would be around 5 m. At the other end of the scale, balloons used by commercial sightseeing operations may be able to carry well over two dozen people, with envelope volumes of up to 17000 m3. The most-used size is about 2800 m3, allowing to carry 3 to 5 people.

Vents

The top of the balloon usually has a vent of some sort, enabling the pilot to release hot air to slow an ascent, start a descent, or increase the rate of descent, usually for landing. Some hot air balloons have turning vents, which are side vents that, when opened, cause the balloon to rotate. Such vents are particularly useful for balloons with rectangular baskets, to facilitate aligning the wider side of the basket for landing.

The most common type of top vent is a disk-shaped flap of fabric called a parachute vent, invented by Tracy Barnes. The fabric is connected around its edge to a set of "vent lines" that converge in the center. (The arrangement of fabric and lines roughly resembles a parachute—thus the name.) These "vent lines" are themselves connected to a control line that runs to the basket. A parachute vent is opened by pulling on the control line. Once the control line is released, the pressure of the remaining hot air pushes the vent fabric back into place. A parachute vent can be opened briefly while in flight to initiate a rapid descent. (Slower descents are initiated by allowing the air in the balloon to cool naturally.) The vent is pulled open completely to collapse the balloon after landing.

An older, and presently less commonly used, style of top vent is called a "Velcro-style" vent. This too is a disk of fabric at the top of the balloon. However, rather than having a set of "vent lines" that can repeatedly open and close the vent, the vent is secured by "hook and loop" fasteners (such as Velcro) and is only opened at the end of the flight. Balloons equipped with a Velcro-style vent typically have a second "maneuvering vent" built into the side (as opposed to the top) of the balloon. Another common type of top design is the "smart vent", which, rather than lowering a fabric disc into the envelope as in the "parachute" type, gathers the fabric together in the center of the opening. This system can theoretically be used for in-flight maneuvering, but is more commonly used only as a rapid-deflation device for use after landing, of particular value in high winds. Other designs, such as the "pop top" and "MultiVent" systems, have also attempted to address the need for rapid deflation on landing, but the parachute top remains popular as an all-around maneuvering and deflation system.

Shape
Besides special shapes, possibly for marketing purposes, there are several variations on the traditional "inverted tear drop" shape. The simplest, often used by home builders, is a hemisphere on top of a truncated cone. More sophisticated designs attempt to minimize the circumferential stress on the fabric, with different degrees of success depending on whether they take fabric weight and varying air density into account. This shape may be referred to as "natural". Finally, some specialized balloons are designed to minimize aerodynamic drag (in the vertical direction) to improve flight performance in competitions.

Basket

Hot air balloon baskets are commonly made of woven wicker or rattan. These materials have proven to be sufficiently light, strong, and durable for balloon flight. Such baskets are usually rectangular or triangular in shape. They vary in size from just big enough for two people to large enough to carry thirty. Larger baskets often have internal partitions for structural bracing and to compartmentalize the passengers. Small holes may be woven into the side of the basket to act as foot holds for passengers climbing in or out.

Baskets may also be made of aluminium, especially a collapsible aluminium frame with a fabric skin, to reduce weight or increase portability. These may be used by pilots without a ground crew or who are attempting to set altitude, duration, or distance records. Other specialty baskets include the fully enclosed gondolas used for around-the-world attempts and baskets that consist of little more than a seat for the pilot and perhaps one passenger.

Burner

The burner unit gasifies liquid propane, mixes it with air, ignites the mixture, and directs the flame and exhaust into the mouth of the envelope. Burners vary in power output; each will generally produce 2 to 3 MW of heat (7 to 10 million BTUs per hour), with double, triple, or quadruple burner configurations installed where more power is needed. The pilot actuates a burner by opening a propane valve, known as a blast valve. The valve may be spring-loaded, so that it closes automatically, or it may stay open until closed by the pilot. The burner has a pilot light to ignite the propane and air mixture. The pilot light may be lit by the pilot with an external device, such as a flint striker or a lighter, or with a built-in piezoelectric spark.

Where more than one burner is present, the pilot can use one or more at a time, depending on the desired heat output. Each burner has a metal coil of propane tubing the flame shoots through to preheat the incoming liquid propane. The burner unit may be suspended from the mouth of the envelope or supported rigidly over the basket. The burner unit may be mounted on a gimbal to enable the pilot to aim the flame and avoid overheating the envelope fabric. A burner may have a secondary propane valve that releases propane more slowly and thereby generates a different sound. This is called a whisper burner and is used for flight over livestock to lessen the chance of spooking them. It also generates a more yellow flame and is used for night glows because it lights up the inside of the envelope better than the primary valve.

Fuel tanks
Propane fuel tanks are usually cylindrical pressure vessels made from aluminium, stainless steel, or titanium with a valve at one end to feed the burner and to refuel. They may have a fuel gauge and a pressure gauge. Common tank sizes are 10 ,. They may be intended for upright or horizontal use and may be mounted inside or outside the basket.

The pressure necessary to force the fuel through the line to the burner may be supplied by the vapor pressure of the propane itself, if warm enough, or by the introduction of an inert gas such as nitrogen. Tanks may be preheated with electrical heat tapes to produce sufficient vapor pressure for cold-weather flying. Warmed tanks are usually also wrapped in an insulating blanket to preserve heat during the setup and flight.

Instrumentation
A balloon may be outfitted with a variety of instruments to aid the pilot. These commonly include an altimeter, a rate-of-climb (vertical-speed) indicator known as a variometer, envelope (air) temperature, and ambient (air) temperature. A GPS receiver can be useful to indicate ground speed (traditional aircraft air-speed indicators would be useless) and direction.

Combined mass
The combined mass of an average system can be calculated as follows:
 * {| class="wikitable"

! Component ! Pounds ! Kilograms ! Mass fraction
 * 100000 cuft envelope
 * align="right" |250
 * align="right" |113.4
 * 5-passenger basket
 * align="right" |140
 * align="right" |63.5
 * Double burner
 * align="right" |50
 * align="right" |22.7
 * 3 20 USgal fuel tanks full of propane
 * align="right" |3 × 135 = 405
 * align="right" |183.7
 * 5 passengers
 * align="right" |5 × 150 = 750
 * align="right" |340.2
 * Subtotal
 * align="right" |1595
 * align="right" |723.5
 * 100000 cuft of heated air*
 * align="right" |5922
 * align="right" |2686.2
 * Total
 * align="right" |(3.76 tons) 7517
 * align="right" |3409.7
 * }
 * * Using a density of 0.9486 kg/m3 for dry air heated to 210 F.
 * Subtotal
 * align="right" |1595
 * align="right" |723.5
 * 100000 cuft of heated air*
 * align="right" |5922
 * align="right" |2686.2
 * Total
 * align="right" |(3.76 tons) 7517
 * align="right" |3409.7
 * }
 * * Using a density of 0.9486 kg/m3 for dry air heated to 210 F.
 * align="right" |(3.76 tons) 7517
 * align="right" |3409.7
 * }
 * * Using a density of 0.9486 kg/m3 for dry air heated to 210 F.
 * * Using a density of 0.9486 kg/m3 for dry air heated to 210 F.

Generating lift
Increasing the air temperature inside the envelope makes it less dense than the surrounding (ambient) air. The balloon floats because of the buoyant force exerted on it. This force is the same force that acts on objects when they are in water and is described by Archimedes' principle. The amount of lift (or buoyancy) provided by a hot air balloon depends primarily upon the difference between the temperature of the air inside the envelope and the temperature of the air outside the envelope. For most envelopes made of nylon fabric, the maximal internal temperature is limited to approximately 120 °C (250 °F).

The melting point of nylon is significantly greater than this maximal operating temperature — about 230 °C (450 °F) — but higher temperatures cause the strength of the nylon fabric to degrade more quickly over time. With a maximal operating temperature of 120 °C (250 °F), balloon envelopes can generally be flown for between 400 and 500 hours before the fabric needs to be replaced. Many balloon pilots operate their envelopes at temperatures significantly less than the maximum to extend envelope-fabric life.

The lift generated by 100000 cuft of dry air heated to various temperatures may be calculated as follows:
 * {| class="wikitable"

! Air temperature ! Air density ! Air mass ! Lift generated
 * 20 C
 * 1.2041 kg/m3
 * 3409.7 kg
 * 0 lb, 0 kg
 * 99 C
 * 0.9486 kg/m3
 * 2686.2 kg
 * 723.5 kg
 * 120 C
 * 0.8978 kg/m3
 * 2542.4 kg
 * 867.3 kg
 * }
 * 2542.4 kg
 * 867.3 kg
 * }

The density of air at 20 C is about 1.2 kg/m3. The total lift for a balloon of 100000 cuft heated to 99 C would be 723.5 kg. This is just enough to generate neutral buoyancy for the total system mass (not including the heated air trapped in the envelope, of course) stated in the previous section. Liftoff would require a slightly greater temperature, depending on the desired rate of climb. In reality, the air contained in the envelope is not all at the same temperature, as the accompanying thermal image shows, and so these calculations are based on averages.

For typical atmospheric conditions (20 C), a hot air balloon heated to 99 C requires about 3.91 m3 of envelope volume to lift 1 kilogram (equivalently, 62.5 cu ft/lb). The precise amount of lift provided depends not only upon the internal temperature mentioned above, but the external temperature, altitude above sea level, and humidity of the air surrounding. On a warm day, a balloon cannot lift as much as on a cool day, because the temperature required for launch will exceed the maximum sustainable for nylon envelope fabric. Also, in the lower atmosphere, the lift provided by a hot air balloon decreases about 3% per 1,000 m (1% per 1,000 ft) of altitude gained.

Types of Hot Air Balloons
There are several different types of hot air balloons, all with different means of taking and sustaining flight.

Montgolfier
Standard hot air balloons are known as Montgolfier balloons and rely solely on the buoyancy of hot air provided by the burner and contained by the envelope. This style of balloon was developed by the Montgolfier brothers and had its first public demonstration on 4 June 1783 with an unmanned flight lasting 10 minutes, followed later that year with manned flights.

Gas
Instead of using regular air it is also possible to use lighter than air gasses such as Helium or Hydrogen to lift the balloon, though this means it is technically not a hot air balloon, though they did influence the design of hybrid balloons.

Hybrid
The 1785 Rozière balloon, is the main type of hybrid balloon, named after its creator, Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier. It has a separate cell for a lighter-than-air gas (typically helium), as well as a cone below for hot air (as is used in a hot air balloon) to heat the helium at night. Hydrogen gas was used in the very early stages of development but was quickly abandoned due to the danger of introducing an open flame near the gas, for example when Rozier attempted to cross the English Channel with his prototype, the fire used to heat the air ignited the Hydrogen and killed both him and his copilot thirty minutes after takeoff. As such, all modern hybrid balloons now use helium as a lifting gas. These balloons are commonly used for high performance records for hot air balloons.

Solar
Solar balloons are hot air balloons that use just solar energy captured by a envelope, these envelopes are more specialized than for other hot air balloons, trying to maximize the amount of solar energy they collect. This ranges from rotating the envelope during flight or having the envelope colored black or another dark color. They were pioneered in the 1970s in Europe by Tracy Barnes, Dominic Michaelis, and in the USA by Frederick Espoo and Paul Woessher.

Thermal Airship A Thermal airship, or blimp, became a reality in the 1960s. Thermal airships were the first steerable air boyount vehicles. They utilized tail fins and a rudder and contained strictly hot air rather than a mix with hydrogen or helium.

Observation Balloon

Observation balloons were deployed as early as the American Civil War and used as reconnaissance towers. The first military funded balloon in America was designed by Thaddeus Lowe on August 2, 1861 for the Union. His design utilized gas from municipal lines to inflate the balloon as he did not have access to a portable generator. Observation balloons during this time were all made using multicolored-silk, wicker baskets, and were vertically oriented and tear shaped. Hydrogen, or illumination gas became the most used inflation fuel by the 20th Century, as it was lighter than air. Observation balloon usage skyrocketed in Britain by the Royal Engineers at the end of the 19th Century, deploying to Sudan in 1885 and to South Africa during the Second Boer War from 1899 to 1902.

Steering
Due to the overall design of hot air balloons, controlled and precise steering of hot air balloons is not possible; it is possible for pilots to try to achieve basic directional control by changing altitude and catching different wind streams. Wind in the northern hemisphere tends to turn east due to coriolis effect as the altitude increases.

Landing
The most effective way of landing a hot air balloon is to reduce the energy in the envelope, either by turning down the flame in Montgolfier and Hybrid balloons, or more directly by opening a flap in the envelope that will release the air/gas inside.

Safety equipment
To help ensure the safety of pilot and passengers, a hot air balloon may carry several pieces of safety equipment.

Basket
To relight the burner if the pilot light goes out and the optional piezo ignition fails, the pilot should have ready access to a means of backup ignition, such as a flint spark lighter. Many systems, especially those that carry passengers, have completely duplicate fuel and burner systems: two fuel tanks, connected to two separate hoses, which feed two distinct burners. This enables a safe landing in the case of a blockage somewhere in one system or if a system must be disabled because of a fuel leak.

A fire extinguisher suitable for extinguishing propane fires is useful. Most balloons carry a 1 or 2 kg AB:E type fire extinguisher.

A handling or drop line is mandatory safety equipment in many countries. This is a rope or webbing of 20–30 meters in length attached to the balloon basket with a quick-release connection at one end. In very calm winds the balloon pilot can throw the handling line from the balloon so that the ground crew can guide the balloon safely away from obstructions on the ground.

For commercial passenger balloons, a pilot restraint harness is mandatory in some countries. This consists of a hip belt and a webbing line that together allow for some movement while preventing the pilot from being ejected from the basket during a hard landing.

Further safety equipment may include a first-aid kit, a fire blanket and a strong rescue knife.

Occupants
At a minimum, the pilot should wear leather or flame-retardant fiber (such as nomex) gloves, so that they may shut off a gas valve in the case of a leak, even if there is a flame present; quick action in this regard can turn a potential catastrophe into a mere inconvenience. The pilot should additionally wear flame-resistant clothing covering their arms and legs; either natural fiber, such as cotton, linen, hemp, or wool, or engineered flame-retardant fiber, such as nomex, is acceptable in this capacity. Most engineered fibers (with the exception of rayon, which is also safe to wear) are thermoplastic; many are also hydrocarbons. This makes such fabrics very much unsuitable to wear near high temperatures, since non-flame-retardant thermoplastics will melt onto the wearer, and most hydrocarbons, whether fibrous or not, are suitable to use as fuels. Natural fiber will singe rather than melt or burn readily, and flame-retardant fiber generally has a very high melting point and is intrinsically non-flammable. Many pilots also advise their passengers to wear similar protective clothing that covers their arms and legs, as well as strong shoes or boots that offer good ankle support. Finally, some balloon systems, especially those that hang the burner from the envelope instead of supporting it rigidly from the basket, require the use of helmets by the pilot and passengers.

Ground crew
The ground crew should wear gloves whenever there is a possibility of handling ropes or lines. The mass and exposed surface to air movement of a medium-sized balloon is sufficient to cause rope friction burns to the hands of anyone trying to stop or prevent movement. The ground crew should also wear sturdy shoes and at least long pants in case of the need to access a landing or landed balloon in rough or overgrown terrain.

Maintenance and repair

As with aircraft, hot air balloons require regular maintenance to remain airworthy. As aircraft made of fabric and that lack direct horizontal control, hot air balloons may occasionally require repairs to rips or snags. While some operations, such as cleaning and drying, may be performed by the owner or pilot, other operations, such as sewing, must be performed by a qualified repair technician and recorded in the balloon's maintenance log book.

Maintenance
To ensure long life and safe operation, the envelope should be kept clean and dry. This prevents mold and mildew from forming on the fabric and abrasion from occurring during packing, transport, and unpacking due to contact with foreign particles. In the event of a landing in a wet (because of precipitation or early morning or late evening dew) or muddy location (farmer's field), the envelope should be cleaned and laid out or hung to dry.

The burner and fuel system must also be kept clean to ensure safe operation on demand. Damaged fuel hoses need to be replaced. Stuck or leaky valves must be repaired or replaced. The wicker basket may require occasional refinishing or repair. The skids on its bottom may require occasional replacement.

Balloons in most parts of the world are maintained in accordance with a fixed manufacturer's maintenance schedule that includes regular (100 flight hours or 12 month) inspections, in addition to maintenance work to correct any damage. In Australia, balloons used for carrying commercial passengers must be inspected and maintained by approved workshops.

Repair
In the case of a snag, burn, or rip in the envelope fabric, a patch may be applied or the affected panel completely replaced. Patches may be held in place with glue, tape, stitching, or a combination of these techniques. Replacing an entire panel requires the stitching around the old panel to be removed, and a new panel to be sewn in with the appropriate technique, thread, and stitch pattern.

Licensing
Depending on the size of the balloon, location, and intended use, hot air balloons and their pilots need to comply with a variety of regulations.

Balloons

As with other aircraft in the US, balloons must be registered (have an N-number), have an airworthiness certificate, and pass annual inspections. Balloons below a certain size (empty weight of less than 155 pounds or 70 kg including envelope, basket, burners and empty fuel tanks) can be used as an ultralight aircraft.

In Australia
In Australia, private balloon pilots are managed by the Australian Ballooning Federation and typically become members of regional hot air ballooning clubs. Commercial operations carrying fare paying passengers or charging for promotional flights must operate under an Air Operators Certificate from the Australian Civil Aviation and Safety Authority (CASA) with a nominated Chief Pilot. Pilots must have different degrees of experience before they are allowed to progress to larger balloons. Hot air balloons must be registered aircraft with CASA and are subject to regular airworthiness checks by authorised personnel.

In the UK
In the UK, the person in command must hold a valid Private Pilot's Licence issued by the Civil Aviation Authority specifically for ballooning; this is known as the PPL(B). There are two types of commercial balloon licences: CPL(B) Restricted and CPL(B) (Full). The CPL(B) Restricted is required if the pilot is undertaking work for a sponsor or being paid by an external agent to operate a balloon. The pilot can fly a sponsored balloon with everything paid for with a PPL unless asked to attend any event. Then a CPL(B) Restricted is required. The CPL(B) is required if the pilot is flying passengers for money. The balloon then needs a transport category C of A (certificate of air worthiness). If the pilot is only flying sponsor's guests and not charging money for flying other passengers, then the pilot is exempted from holding an AOC (air operator's certificate) though a copy of it is required. For passenger flying the balloon also requires a maintenance log.

In the United States
In the United States, a pilot of a hot air balloon must have a pilot certificate from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), carrying the rating of "Lighter-than-air free balloon", and unless the pilot is also qualified to fly gas balloons, will also carry this limitation: "Limited to hot-air balloons with airborne heater". A pilot does not need a license to fly an ultralight aircraft, but training is highly advised, and some hot-air balloons meet the criteria.

To carry paying passengers for hire (and attend some balloon festivals), a pilot must have a commercial pilot certificate. Commercial hot air balloon pilots may also act as hot air balloon flight instructors. While most balloon pilots fly for the pure joy of floating through the air, many are able to make a living as a professional balloon pilot. Some professional pilots fly commercial passenger sightseeing flights, while others fly corporate advertising balloons.

Accidents and incidents

 * 1989 Alice Springs hot air balloon crash: On 13 August 1989, two hot air balloons collided at Alice Springs, Northern Territory, Australia, causing one to fall, killing all 13 people on board.
 * 2011 Somerset hot air balloon crash: On 1 January 2011, a hot air balloon attempting a high-altitude flight crashed at Pratten's Bowls Club in Westfield, Somerset, near Bath, England, killing both people on board.
 * 2012 Carterton hot air balloon crash: On 7 January 2012, a hot air balloon collided with a power line, caught fire and crashed at Carterton, North Island, New Zealand, killing all 11 people on board.
 * 2012 Ljubljana Marshes hot air balloon crash: On 23 August 2012, a storm blew a hot air balloon to the ground, causing it to catch fire on impact near Ljubljana, Slovenia. The crash killed 6 of the 32 people on board, and injured the other 26.
 * 2013 Luxor hot air balloon crash: On 26 February 2013, a hot air balloon carrying foreign tourists ignited and crashed near the ancient city of Luxor, Egypt, killing 19 of the 21 people on board, making it the deadliest balloon accident in history.
 * 2016 Lockhart hot air balloon crash: On 30 July 2016, a hot air balloon carrying 16 people caught fire and crashed near Lockhart, Texas. There were no survivors.
 * 2021 Albuquerque hot air balloon crash: On 26 June 2021, a hot air balloon carrying five people made contact with a power line and crashed in Albuquerque, New Mexico. All five people on board died as a result of the accident.
 * On 14 January 2024, a hot air balloon crashed outside Eloy, Arizona, killing the three passengers and pilot. Eight skydivers had exited the balloon immediately prior to the incident.

Manufacturers

The largest manufacturer of hot air balloons is Cameron Balloons of Bristol, England, which also owns Lindstrand Balloons of Oswestry, England. Cameron Balloons, Lindstrand Balloons and another English balloon manufacturing company Thunder and Colt (since acquired by Cameron) have been innovators and developers of special shaped balloons. These hot-air balloons use the same principle of lift as conventional inverted teardrop-shaped balloons, but often sections of the special balloon envelope shape do not contribute to the balloon's ability to stay aloft.

The second largest manufacturer of hot air balloons is Ultramagic company, based in Spain, which produces from 80 to 120 balloons per year. Ultramagic can produce very large balloons, such as the N-500 that accommodates as many as 27 persons in the basket, and has also produced many balloons with special shapes, as well as cold-air inflatables.

One of the three largest companies in the world is Kubicek Balloons. From its factory in Brno, Czechia the company ships its products worldwide. Produces from 100 to 115 balloons per year. Kubicek company also focus on special shape balloons, FAA/EASA type certified and are delivered with a Standard Airworthiness Certificate.

In the USA Aerostar International, Inc. of Sioux Falls, South Dakota was North America's largest balloon manufacturer and a close second in world manufacturing before ceasing to build balloons in January 2007. The oldest U.S. certified manufacturer is now Adams Balloons out of Albuquerque, New Mexico. Firefly Balloons, formerly The Balloon Works, is a manufacturer of hot air balloons in Statesville, North Carolina. Another manufacturer is Head Balloons, Inc. of Helen, Georgia.

The major manufacturers in Canada are Sundance Balloons and Fantasy Sky Promotions. Other manufacturers include Kavanagh Balloons of Australia, Schroeder Fire Balloons of Germany, Kubicek Balloons of the Czech Republic, and LLopis Balloons of France.

General ballooning sites

 * Hot Air Ballooning – How balloons fly, list of balloon clubs, free classified ads for balloonists
 * Hot Air Balloon Web Links

Ballōn (lyftcræft)

title: Hot air balloon


text:
Avignon Papacy

The Avignon Papacy (French: Papauté d'Avignon) was the period from 1309 to 1376 during which seven successive popes resided in Avignon (at the time within the Kingdom of Arles, part of the Holy Roman Empire; now part of France) rather than in Rome. The situation arose from the conflict between the papacy and the French crown, culminating in the death of Pope Boniface VIII after his arrest and maltreatment by Philip IV of France. Following the subsequent death of Pope Benedict XI, Philip forced a deadlocked conclave to elect the French Clement V as pope in 1305. Clement refused to move to Rome, and in 1309 he moved his court to the papal enclave at Avignon, where it remained for the next 67 years. This absence from Rome is sometimes referred to as the "Babylonian captivity” of the Papacy.

A total of seven popes reigned at Avignon, all French, and all under the influence of the French Crown. In 1376, Gregory XI abandoned Avignon and moved his court to Rome, arriving in January 1377. After Gregory's death in 1378, deteriorating relations between his successor Urban VI and a faction of cardinals gave rise to the Western Schism. This started a second line of Avignon popes, subsequently regarded as illegitimate. The last Avignon antipope, Benedict XIII, lost most of his support in 1398, including that of France. After five years besieged by the French, he fled to Perpignan in 1403. The schism ended in 1417 at the Council of Constance.

Avignon popes
Among the popes who resided in Avignon, subsequent Catholic historiography grants legitimacy to these:
 * Pope Clement V: 1305–1314 (curia moved to Avignon, 9 March 1309)
 * Pope John XXII: 1316–1334
 * Pope Benedict XII: 1334–1342
 * Pope Clement VI: 1342–1352
 * Pope Innocent VI: 1352–1362
 * Pope Urban V: 1362–1370 (in Rome 1367–1370; returned to Avignon 1370)
 * Pope Gregory XI: 1370–1378 (left Avignon to return to Rome on 13 September 1376)

The two Avignon-based antipopes were: Benedict XIII was succeeded by three antipopes, who had little or no public following, and were not resident at Avignon:
 * Clement VII: 1378–1394
 * Benedict XIII: 1394–1423 (expelled from Avignon in 1403)
 * Clement VIII: 1423–1429 (recognized in the Crown of Aragon; abdicated)
 * Benedict XIV (Bernard Garnier): 1424–1429 or 1430
 * Benedict XIV (Jean Carrier): 1430?–1437

The period from 1378 to 1417, when there were rival claimants to the title of pope, is referred to as the "Western Schism" or "the great controversy of the antipopes" by some Catholic scholars and "the second great schism" by many secular and Protestant historians. Parties within the Catholic Church were divided in their allegiance among the various claimants to the office of pope. The Council of Constance finally resolved the controversy in 1417 when the election of Pope Martin V was accepted by all.

Avignon and the small enclave to the east (Comtat Venaissin) remained part of the Papal States until 1791 when, under pressure from French Revolutionaries, they were absorbed by the short-lived revolutionary Kingdom of France (1791–92), which, in turn, was abolished in favor of the French First Republic the following year.

Temporal role of the Roman Church
The papacy in the Late Middle Ages played a major temporal role in addition to its spiritual role. The conflict between the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor was fundamentally a dispute over which of them was the leader of Christendom in secular matters. In the early 14th century, the papacy was well past the prime of its secular rule – its importance had peaked in the 12th and 13th centuries. The success of the early Crusades added greatly to the prestige of the Popes as secular leaders of Christendom, with monarchs like those of England, France, and even the Holy Roman Emperor merely acting as marshals for the popes and leading "their" armies. One exception was Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, who was twice excommunicated by the Pope during a Crusade. Frederick II ignored this and was moderately successful in the Holy Land.

King Philip IV of France wanted to use the finances of the Church to pay for his war with the English. Pope Boniface VIII protested, leading to a feud.

This state of affairs culminated in the unbridled declaration of papal supremacy, Unam sanctam, in November 1302. In that papal bull, Pope Boniface VIII decreed that "it is necessary to salvation that every human creature be subject to the Roman pontiff." This was directed primarily to King Philip IV of France who responded by saying, "Your venerable conceitedness may know that we are nobody's vassal in temporal matters."

In 1303 AD, Pope Boniface VIII followed up with a bull that would excommunicate the king of France and put an interdict over all France. Before this was finalized, Italian allies of the King of France broke into the papal residence and beat Pope Boniface VIII. He died shortly thereafter. Nicholas Boccasini was elected as his successor and took the name Pope Benedict XI. He absolved King Philip IV and his subjects of their actions against Pope Boniface VIII, though the culprits who assaulted Boniface were excommunicated and ordered to appear before a pontifical tribunal. Benedict XI died within eight months of being elected to the papacy. After eleven months, Bertrand de Got, a Frenchman and a personal friend of King Philip IV, was elected as pope and took the name Pope Clement V.

Beginning with Clement V, elected 1305, all popes during the Avignon papacy were French. However, this makes French influence seem greater than it was. Southern France (Occitania) at that time had a culture quite independent from Northern France, where most of the advisers to the King of France were based. The Kingdom of Arles was not yet part of France at that time, formally a part of the Holy Roman Empire. The literature produced by the troubadours in the Languedoc is unique and strongly distinct from that of Royal circles in the north. Even in terms of religion, the South produced its own variety of Christianity, Catharism, which was ultimately declared heretical. The movement was fueled in no small part by the strong sense of independence in the South even though the region had been severely weakened during the Albigensian Crusade a hundred years before. By the time of the Avignon Papacy, the power of the French King in this region was uncontested, although still not legally binding.

A stronger impact was made by the move of the Roman Curia from Rome to Poitiers in France in 1305, and then to Avignon in 1309. Following the impasse during the previous conclave, and to escape from the infighting of the powerful Roman families that had produced earlier Popes, such as the Colonna and Orsini families, the Catholic Church looked for a safer place and found it in Avignon, which was surrounded by the lands of the papal fief of Comtat Venaissin. Formally it was part of Arles, but in reality it was under the influence of the French king.

During its time in Avignon, the papacy adopted many features of the Royal court: the life-style of its cardinals was more reminiscent of princes than clerics; more and more French cardinals, often relatives of the ruling pope, took key positions; and the proximity of French troops was a constant reminder of where secular power lay, with the memory of Pope Boniface VIII still fresh.

Centralization of Church administration
The temporal role of the Catholic Church increased the pressure upon the papal court to emulate the governmental practices and procedures of secular courts. The Catholic Church successfully reorganised and centralized its administration under Clement V and John XXII. The papacy now directly controlled the appointments of benefices, abandoning the customary election process that traditionally allotted this considerable income.

Many other forms of payment brought riches to the Holy See and its cardinals: tithes, a ten-percent tax on church property; annates, the income of the first year after filling a position such as a bishopric; special taxes for crusades that never took place; and many forms of dispensation, from the entering of benefices without basic qualifications like literacy for newly appointed priests to the request of a converted Jew to visit his unconverted parents. Popes such as John XXII, Benedict XII, and Clement VI reportedly spent fortunes on expensive wardrobes, and silver and gold plates were used at banquets.

Overall the public life of leading church members began to resemble the lives of princes rather than members of the clergy. This splendor and corruption at the head of the Church found its way to the lower ranks: when a bishop had to pay up to a year's income for gaining a benefice, he sought ways of raising this money from his new office. This was taken to extremes by the pardoners who sold absolutions for all kinds of sins. While pardoners were hated but popularly regarded as helpful to redeem one's soul, the friars who were commonly regarded as failing to follow the Church's moral commandments by ignoring their vows of chastity and poverty and were despised. This sentiment strengthened movements calling for a return to absolute poverty, relinquishment of all personal and ecclesiastical belongings, and preaching as the Lord and his disciples had.

A political Church
For the Catholic Church, an institution embedded in the secular structure and its focus on property, this was a dangerous development, and beginning in the early 14th century most of these movements were declared heretical. These included the Fraticelli and Waldensian movements in Italy and the Hussites in Bohemia (inspired by John Wycliffe in England). Furthermore, the display of wealth by the upper ranks of the church, which contrasted with the common expectation of poverty and strict adherence to principles, was used by enemies of the papacy to raise charges against the popes; King Philip of France employed this strategy, as did Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor. In his conflict with the latter, Pope John XXII excommunicated two leading philosophers, Marsilius of Padua and William of Ockham, who were outspoken critics of the papacy, and who had found refuge with Louis IV in Munich. In response, William charged the pope with seventy errors and seven heresies.

The proceedings against the Knights Templar in the Council of Vienne are representative of this time, reflecting the various powers and their relationships. In 1314 the collegium at Vienne convened to make a ruling concerning the Templars. The council, overall unconvinced about the guilt of the order as a whole, was unlikely to condemn the entire order based on the scarce evidence brought forward. Exerting massive pressure in order to gain part of the substantial funds of the Order, the King managed to get the ruling he wanted, and Pope Clement V ordered by decree the suppression of the order.

In the cathedral of Saint Maurice in Vienne, the King of France and his son, the King of Navarre, were sitting next to him when he issued the decree. Under pain of excommunication, no one was allowed to speak at that occasion except when asked by the Pope. The Templars who appeared in Vienne to defend their order were not allowed to present their case—the cardinals of the collegium originally ruled that they should be allowed to raise a defense, but the arrival of the King of France in Vienne put pressure on the collegium, and that decision was revoked.

Curia
After the arrest of the Bishop of Pamiers by Philip IV of France in 1301, Pope Boniface VIII issued the bull Salvator Mundi, retracting all privileges granted to the French king by previous popes, and a few weeks later Ausculta fili with charges against the king, summoning him before a council to Rome. In a bold assertion of papal sovereignty, Boniface declared that "God has placed us over the Kings and Kingdoms."

In response, Philip wrote "Your venerable conceitedness may know, that we are nobody's vassal in temporal matters," and called for a meeting of the Estates General, a council of the lords of France, who had supported his position. The King of France issued charges of sodomy, simony, sorcery, and heresy against the pope and summoned him before the council. The pope's response was the strongest affirmation to date of papal sovereignty. In Unam sanctam (18 November 1302), he decreed that "it is necessary to salvation that every human creature be subject to the Roman pontiff."

He was preparing a bull that would excommunicate the King of France and put the interdict over France when in September 1303, William Nogaret, the strongest critic of the papacy in the French inner circle, led a delegation to Rome, with intentionally loose orders by the king to bring the pope, if necessary by force, before a council to rule on the charges brought against him. Nogaret coordinated with the cardinals of the Colonna family, long-standing rivals against whom the pope had even preached a crusade earlier in his papacy. In 1303 French and Italian troops attacked the pope in Anagni, his home town, and arrested him. He was freed three days later by the population of Anagni. Boniface VIII, then 68 years of age, was deeply shattered by this attack on his own person and died a few weeks later.

Cooperation
In reaction to the intransigence of Popes like Boniface VIII, the French tightened their influence under the papacy, eventually reducing the Popes to puppets and stacking the Papal court with French clerics.

The death of Pope Boniface VIII deprived the papacy of its most able politician who could stand against the secular power of the king of France. After the conciliatory papacy of Benedict XI (1303–04), Pope Clement V (1305–1314) became the next pontiff. He was born in Gascony, in southern France, but was not directly connected to the French court. He owed his election to the French clerics. He decided against moving to Rome and established his court in Avignon. In this situation of dependency on powerful neighbours in France, three principles characterized the politics of Clement V: the suppression of heretic movements (such as the Cathars in southern France); the reorganization of the internal administration of the church; and the preservation of an untainted image of the church as the sole instrument of God's will on earth.

The latter was directly challenged by Philip IV when he demanded a posthumous trial of his former adversary, the late Boniface VIII, for alleged heresy. Phillip exerted strong influence on the cardinals of the collegium, and compliance with his demand could mean a severe blow to the church's authority. Much of Clement's politics was designed to avoid such a blow, which he finally did (persuading Phillip to leave the trial to the Council of Vienne, where it lapsed). However, the price won concessions on various fronts; despite strong personal doubts, Clement supported Phillipe's proceedings against the Templars, and he personally ruled to suppress the order.

One important issue during the papacy of Pope John XXII (born Jacques Duèze in Cahors, and previously archbishop in Avignon) was his conflict with Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor, who denied the sole authority of the Pope to crown the Emperor. Louis followed the example of Philippe IV, and summoned the nobles of Germany to back his position. Marsilius of Padua justified secular supremacy in the territory of the Holy Roman Empire. This conflict with the Emperor, often fought out in expensive wars, drove the papacy even more into the arms of the French king.

Pope Benedict XII (1334–1342), born Jacques Fournier in Pamiers, was previously active in the inquisition against the Cathar movement. In contrast to the rather bloody picture of the Inquisition in general, he was reported to be very careful about the souls of the examined, taking a lot of time in the proceedings. His interest in pacifying southern France was also motivation for mediating between the King of France and the King of England, before the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War.

Submission
Under Pope Clement VI (1342–1352) the French interests started dominating the papacy. Clement VI had been Archbishop of Rouen and adviser to Philippe IV before, so his links to the French court were much stronger than those of his predecessors. At some point he even financed French war efforts out of his own pockets. He reportedly loved luxurious wardrobe and under his rule the extravagant life style in Avignon reached new heights.

Clement VI was also pope during the Black Death, the epidemic that swept through Europe between 1347 and 1350 and is believed to have killed about one-third of Europe's population. Also during his reign, in 1348, the Avignon papacy bought the city of Avignon from the Angevins.

Pope Innocent VI (1352–1362), born Etienne Aubert, was less partisan than Clement VI. He was keen on establishing peace between France and England, having worked to this end in papal delegations in 1345 and 1348. His gaunt appearance and austere manners commanded higher respect in the eyes of nobles at both sides of the conflict. However, he was also indecisive and impressionable, already an old man when being elected Pope. In this situation, the King of France managed to influence the papacy, although papal legates played key roles in various attempts to stop the conflict.

Most notably in 1353 the Bishop of Porto, Guy de Boulogne, tried to set up a conference. After initial successful talks the effort failed, largely due to the mistrust from the English side over Guy's strong ties with the French court. In a letter Innocent VI himself wrote to the Duke of Lancaster: "Although we were born in France and although for that and other reasons we hold the realm of France in special affection, yet in working for peace we have put aside our private prejudices and tried to serve the interests of everyone."

With Pope Urban V (1362–1370), the control by Charles V of France of the papacy became more direct. Urban V himself is described as the most austere of the Avignon popes after Benedict XII and probably the most spiritual of all. However, he was not a strategist and made substantial concessions to the French crown especially in finances, a crucial issue during the war with England. In 1369 Pope Urban V supported the marriage of Philip the Bold of the Duchy of Burgundy and Margaret III, Countess of Flanders, rather than giving dispensation to one of Edward III of England's sons to marry Margaret. This clearly showed the partisanship of the papacy; correspondingly, the respect for the church dropped.

Schism
The most influential decision in the reign of Pope Gregory XI (1370–1378) was the return to Rome, beginning on 13 September 1376 and ending with his arrival on 17 January 1377. Although the Pope was French born and still under strong influence by the French King, the increasing conflict between factions friendly and hostile to the Pope posed a threat to the papal lands and to the allegiance of Rome itself. When the papacy established an embargo against grain exports during a food scarcity 1374 and 1375, Florence organized several cities into a league against the papacy: Milan, Bologna, Perugia, Pisa, Lucca and Genoa.

The papal legate, Robert of Geneva, a relative of the House of Savoy, pursued a particularly ruthless policy against the league to re-establish control over these cities. He convinced Pope Gregory to hire Breton mercenaries. To quell an uprising of the inhabitants of Cesena he hired John Hawkwood and had the majority of the people massacred (between 2,500 and 3,500 people were reported dead). Following such events opposition against the papacy strengthened.

Florence came in open conflict with the Pope, a conflict called "the war of the eight saints" in reference to the eight Florentine councilors who were chosen to orchestrate the conflict. The entire city of Florence was excommunicated and as reply the forwarding of clerical taxes was stopped. Trade was seriously hampered and both sides had to find a solution. In his decision about returning to Rome, the Pope was also under the influence of Catherine of Siena, later canonized, who preached for a return to Rome.

This resolution was short-lived when, having returned the papal court to Rome, Pope Gregory XI died. A conclave met and elected an Italian pope, Urban VI. Pope Urban alienated the French cardinals, who held a second conclave electing one of their own, Robert of Geneva, who took the name Clement VII, to succeed Gregory XI, thus beginning a second line of Avignon popes. Clement VII and his successors are not regarded as legitimate, and are referred to as antipopes by the Catholic Church. This situation, known as the Western Schism, persisted from 1378 until the ecumenical Council of Constance (1414–1418) settled the question of papal succession and declared the French conclave of 1378 to be invalid. A new Pope, Pope Martin V, was elected in 1417; other claimants to succeed to Avignon line (though not resident at Avignon) continued until c. 1437.

Legacy
The period has been called the "Babylonian captivity" of the popes. When and where this term originated is uncertain although it may have sprung from Petrarch, who in a letter to a friend (1340–1353) written during his stay at Avignon, described Avignon of that time as the "Babylon of the west", referring to the worldly practices of the church hierarchy. The nickname is polemical, in referring to the claim by critics that the prosperity of the church at that time was accompanied by a profound compromise of the papacy's spiritual integrity, especially in the alleged subordination of the powers of the Church to the ambitions of the French kings. As noted, the "captivity" of the popes at Avignon lasted about the same amount of time as the exile of the Jews in Babylon, making the analogy convenient and rhetorically potent. The Avignon papacy has been and is often today depicted as being totally dependent on the French kings, and sometimes as even being treacherous to its spiritual role and its heritage in Rome.

Almost a century and a half later, Protestant reformer Martin Luther wrote his treatise On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1520), but he claimed it had nothing to do with the Western Schism or papacy in Avignon.

Effects on the papacy
The relationship between the papacy and France changed drastically over the course of the 14th century. Starting with open conflict between Pope Boniface VIII and King Philip IV of France, it turned to cooperation from 1305 to 1342, and finally to a papacy under strong influence by the French throne up to 1378. Such partisanship of the papacy was one of the reasons for the dropping esteem for the institution, which in turn was one of the reasons for the schism from 1378 to 1417.

In the period of the Schism, the power struggle in the papacy became a battlefield of the major powers, with France supporting the antipopes in Avignon and England supporting the popes in Rome. At the end of the century, still in the state of schism, the papacy had lost most of its direct political power, and the nation states of France and England were established as two of the main powers in Europe.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Avignon Papacy


text:
Twyla Tharp

Twyla Tharp (born July 1, 1941) is an American dancer, choreographer, and author who lives and works in New York City. In 1965 she formed the company Twyla Tharp Dance, which merged with American Ballet Theatre in 1988. She regrouped the company in 1991. Her work often uses classical music, jazz, and contemporary pop music.

From 1971 to 1988, Twyla Tharp Dance toured extensively around the world, performing original works. In 1973 Tharp choreographed Deuce Coupe to the music of The Beach Boys for the Joffrey Ballet. Deuce Coupe is considered the first "crossover ballet", a mix of ballet and modern dance. Later she choreographed Push Comes to Shove (1976), which featured Mikhail Baryshnikov and is now thought to be the best example of crossover ballet.

On May 24, 2018, Tharp was awarded an honorary Doctor of Arts degree by Harvard University.

Early life and education
Tharp was born in 1941 on a farm in Portland, Indiana, the daughter of Lecile Tharp, née Confer, and William Tharp. She was named for Twila Thornburg, the "Pig Princess" of the 89th Annual Muncie Fair.

As a child, Tharp spent a few months each year living with her Quaker grandparents on their farm in Indiana. She would attend Quaker services three times a week.

Tharp's mother insisted she take lessons in dance, various musical instruments, shorthand, German and French. In 1950, Tharp's family—younger sister Twanette, twin brothers Stanley and Stanford, and her parents—moved to Rialto, California. William and Lecile operated Tharp Motors and Tharp Autos in Rialto. They opened a drive-in movie theater, where Tharp worked. The drive-in was on the corner of Acacia and Foothill, Rialto's major east–west artery and the path of Route 66. She attended Pacific High School in San Bernardino, studied at the Vera Lynn School of Dance, and studied ballet with Beatrice Collenette. A "devoted bookworm", Tharp has said her schedule left little time for a social life. She attended Pomona College but transferred to Barnard College, where she graduated with a degree in art history in 1963. In New York City, she studied with Richard Thomas, Martha Graham and Merce Cunningham. In 1963, Tharp joined the Paul Taylor Dance Company.

Dances and ballets
In 1965, Tharp choreographed her first dance, Tank Dive, and formed her own company, Twyla Tharp Dance. Her work often utilizes classical music, jazz, and contemporary pop music. From 1971 to 1988, Twyla Tharp Dance toured extensively around the world, performing original works.

In 1973, Tharp choreographed Deuce Coupe to the music of The Beach Boys for the Joffrey Ballet. Deuce Coupe is considered the first crossover ballet. Later she choreographed Push Comes to Shove (1976), which featured Mikhail Baryshnikov and is now thought to be the best example of crossover ballet.

In 1988, Twyla Tharp Dance merged with American Ballet Theatre, since which time ABT has premiered 16 of Tharp's works. In 2010 it had 20 of her works in its repertory. Tharp has since choreographed dances for Paris Opera Ballet, The Royal Ballet, New York City Ballet, Boston Ballet, Joffrey Ballet, Pacific Northwest Ballet, Miami City Ballet, American Ballet Theatre, Hubbard Street Dance and Martha Graham Dance Company. She also created the dance roadshow Cutting Up (1992) with Baryshnikov, which went on to tour and appeared in 28 cities over two months.

In 2000, Twyla Tharp Dance regrouped with entirely new dancers. This company also performed around the world, and with it Tharp developed the material that became Movin' Out, an award-winning Broadway musical featuring the songs of Billy Joel and starring many of the dancers in the company.

In 2012, Tharp created the full-length ballet The Princess and the Goblin, based on George MacDonald's story The Princess and the Goblin. It is her first ballet to include children, and was co-commissioned by Atlanta Ballet and Royal Winnipeg Ballet and performed by both companies.

Tharp was the first Artist in Residency (A.I.R.) at Pacific Northwest Ballet in Seattle. During this time she created and premiered Waiting At The Station, a work with music by R&B artist Allen Toussaint and sets and costumes by longtime collaborator Santo Loquasto.

A number of prominent fashion designers have designed costumes for Tharp, including Oscar de la Renta, Calvin Klein, and Norma Kamali.

Broadway

In 1980, Tharp's work first appeared on Broadway with Twyla Tharp Dance performing When We Were Very Young, followed in 1981 by The Catherine Wheel, her collaboration with David Byrne at the Winter Garden. Wheel was broadcast on PBS and its soundtrack released on LP. Her dance piece Fait Accompli was set to music by David Van Tieghem as released on the These Things Happen LP (1984).

In 1985, her staging of Singin' in the Rain played at the Gershwin for 367 performances.

Tharp premiered her dance musical Movin' Out, set to the music and lyrics of Billy Joel, in Chicago in 2001. The show opened on Broadway in 2002. Movin' Out ran for 1,331 performances on Broadway. A national tour opened in January 2004. It received 10 Tony nominations and Tharp won Best Choreographer.

Tharp opened a new show, The Times They Are a-Changin', to the music of Bob Dylan in 2005 at The Old Globe Theatre in San Diego. The Times They are A-Changin' set the records for the highest-grossing show and highest ticket sales as of the date of closing (March 2006). It was also the first show to receive a second extension before the first preview. After its run in California, the New York show ran for 35 previews and 28 performances.

In 2009, Tharp worked with the songs of Frank Sinatra to mount Come Fly with Me, which ran at the Alliance Theater in Atlanta and was the best-selling four-week run as of the date of closing in 2009. Renamed Come Fly Away, the show opened on Broadway in 2010 at the Marquis Theatre and ran for 26 previews and 188 performances. Come Fly Away, was retooled and opened under the title Sinatra: Dance with Me at The Wynn Las Vegas in 2011. Come Fly Away National Tour opened in Atlanta in August 2011.

Film and television
Tharp collaborated with film directors Miloš Forman on Hair (1978), Ragtime (1980) and Amadeus (1983); Taylor Hackford on White Nights (1985); and James Brooks on I'll Do Anything (1994).

Television credits include choreographing Sue's Leg (1976) for the inaugural episode of the PBS program Dance in America; co-producing and directing Making Television Dance (1977), which won the Chicago International Film Festival Award; and directing The Catherine Wheel (1983) for BBC Television. Tharp co-directed the award-winning television special "Baryshnikov by Tharp" in 1984.

Author
Tharp has written four books: an early autobiography, Push Comes to Shove (1992; Bantam Books); The Creative Habit: Learn It and Use It for Life (2003, Simon & Schuster), translated into Spanish, Chinese, Russian, Korean, Thai and Japanese; The Collaborative Habit (2009, Simon & Schuster), translated into Thai, Chinese and Korean; and Keep It Moving (2019). She has said that The Creative Habit is about cybernetics, especially in the several Greek-themed creative exercises, such as the Coin Drop; the Coin Drop, as an exercise in extracting ordered meaning from chaos, is derived from the astrological muse Urania, in that random coins falling onto a flat surface can be used to develop pattern analysis skills. The astrological theme is an etymological underpinning of cybernetics' tradition of "guiding a boat" by sighting stellar references according to ancient Greek navigation.

Dances/ballets/theatre

 * Tank Dive	4/29/65
 * Stage Show	7/7/65
 * Stride	8/9/65
 * Cede Blue Lake	12/1/65
 * Unprocessed	12/1/65
 * Re-Moves	10/18/66
 * Twelve Foot Change	10/18/66
 * One, Two, Three	2/2/67
 * Jam	  2/4/67
 * Disperse	  4/27/67
 * Yancey Dance 7/1/67
 * Three Page Sonata	7/6/67
 * Forevermore	2/9/68
 * Generation	2/9/68
 * One Way	  2/9/68
 * Excess, Idle, Surplus	4/25/68
 * Group Activities	1/13/69
 * After Suite	2/2/69
 * Medley	7/19/69
 * Dancing In The Streets	11/11/69
 * Sowing Of Seeds 6/7/70
 * The Willie Smith Series	7/10/70
 * Rose's Cross Country	8/1/70
 * Fugue, The	8/1/70
 * The One Hundreds	8/1/70
 * 11-Minute Abstract, Repertory 1965-70 11/16/70
 * The History of Up and Down, I and II	1/22/71
 * Sunrise, Noon, Sundown 5/28/71
 * Mozart Sonata K.545	8/1/71
 * Eight Jelly Rolls	9/16/71
 * Torelli	11/2/71
 * Piano Rolls 11/7/71
 * The Bix Pieces	   4/14/71
 * The Raggedy Dances	10/26/72
 * Deuce Coupe (ballet)   2/8/73
 * As Time Goes By	10/10/73
 * In the Beginnings	1/26/74
 * All About Eggs	2/1/74
 * The Fugue on London Weekend Television 4/22/74
 * Twyla Tharp and Eight Jelly Rolls	5/12/74
 * Bach Duet	9/5/74
 * Deuce Coupe II	2/1/75
 * Sue's Leg 2/21/75
 * The Double Cross	2/21/75
 * Ocean's Motion	6/22/75
 * Rags Suite Duet	9/10/75
 * Push Comes To Shove	1/9/76
 * Sue's Leg, Remembering the Thirties	3/24/76
 * Give and Take	  3/25/76
 * Once More Frank	7/12/76
 * Country Dances	9/4/76
 * Happily Ever After	11/3/76
 * After All	11/15/76
 * Cacklin' Hen	2/14/77
 * Fifty Ways To Leave Your Lover 5/12/77
 * Mud	5/12/77
 * Simon Medley	5/12/77
 * The Hodge Podge 5/12/77
 * 1903	2/2/79
 * Chapters and Verses	2/2/79
 * Baker's Dozen	   2/15/79
 * Three Dances From The Film "Hair"   2/15/79
 * Three Fanfares	3/14/79
 * Brahms Paganini	2/8/80
 * Deuce Coupe III 2/8/80
 * Assorted Quartets	7/29/80
 * Third Suite	8/26/80
 * Short Stories	8/27/80
 * Uncle Edgar Dyed His Hair Red	2/28/81
 * The Catherine Wheel 9/22/81 (music by David Byrne)
 * Nine Sinatra Songs	10/15/82
 * Bad Smells	10/15/82
 * The Little Ballet	4/1/84
 * Telemann	11/4/83
 * Fait Accompli	11/8/83 (music by David Van Tieghem)
 * "The Golden Section"	11/8/83 (music by David Byrne) (also filmed for PBS)
 * Sinatra Suite	12/6/83
 * Bach Partita	12/9/83
 * Brahms/Handel (ballet), choreography by Tharp and Jerome Robbins 6/7/84
 * Sorrow Floats	 7/5/84
 * Singin' in the Rain - Broadway	   7/2/85
 * In The Upper Room   8/28/86 (music by Philip Glass)
 * Ballare	8/30/86
 * The Catherine Wheel III 2/2/87
 * Quartet	2/4/89
 * Bum's Rush	2/8/89
 * Rules of the Game	 2/17/89
 * Everlast	 2/21/89
 * Brief Fling	2/28/90
 * Grand Pas: Rhythm of the Saints	10/1/91 (music by Paul Simon)
 * Men's Piece	10/4/91
 * Octet	10/4/91
 * Sextet	1/30/92
 * Cutting Up: A Dance Roadshow	11/27/93
 * Bare Bones 11/27/93
 * Pergolesi	   6/4/93
 * Demeter & Persephone	10/5/93
 * Waterbaby Bagatelles	 4/30/94
 * "New Works" Twyla Tharp in Washington: Red, White & Blues"	9/13/94
 * How Near Heaven	3/3/95
 * Americans We	  5/1/95
 * Jump Start	5/1/95
 * I Remember Clifford	8/9/95
 * Mr. Worldly Wise	12/9/95
 * The Elements	5/3/96
 * Sweet Fields	9/20/96
 * "66"	9/20/96
 * Heroes	9/20/96
 * Roy's Joys	8/18/97
 * Story Teller, The	10/29/97
 * Noir 1/30/98
 * Yemaya	3/13/98
 * Known By Heart Duet	8/6/98
 * Diabelli	10/22/98
 * Known By Heart	11/3/98
 * The Junk Duet 11/3/98
 * Grosse Sonate	  7/1/98
 * Beethoven Seventh	1/22/00
 * The Brahms/Haydn Variations aka: Variations on a Theme by Haydn	3/21/00
 * Mozart Clarinet Quintet K. 581	7/6/00
 * Surfer At The River Styx	7/6/00
 * Westerly Round	6/23/01
 * Movin' Out - Chicago	6/25/02
 * Movin' Out - New York	   10/24/02
 * Even The King	  1/11/03
 * Movin' Out - US Tour	1/27/04
 * The Times They Are A-Changin' - California	2/9/06
 * Catherine Wheel Suite	5/11/06
 * The Times They Are A-Changin' - New York 10/26/06
 * NIGHTSPOT	3/28/08
 * Rabbit and Rogue	6/3/08 (music by Danny Elfman)
 * Opus 111	9/25/08
 * Afternoon Ball 9/25/08
 * Come Fly With Me	9/23/09
 * Come Fly Away	3/25/10
 * Sinatra: Dance With Me -	12/11/10
 * Armenia 4/23/11
 * Come Fly Away Tour 8/3/11
 * Scarlatti 10/13/11
 * The Princess and The Goblin - Atlanta 2/10/12
 * The Princess and the Goblin - Winnipeg 10/17/12
 * Treefrog in Stonehenge 07/26/13
 * Waiting at the Station 09/27/13
 * Come Fly Away (Ballet)   09/28/13
 * Beethoven Opus 130 2016
 * Brel 2/13/2024
 * The Ballet Master 2/13/2024

Collaborative work

 * Brahms/Handel with Jerome Robbins 6/7/84

Filmography

 * Hair	3/12/78
 * Ragtime 	1980
 * Amadeus 	9/19/84
 * White Nights 12/6/85
 * I'll Do Anything	1994

Video

 * Scrapbook Tape 10/25/82
 * The Catherine Wheel	3/1/83
 * Baryshnikov by Tharp / Push Comes to Shove	10/5/84
 * Twyla Tharp: Oppositions   4/24/96

Television

 * The Bix Pieces (series of productions)	1973
 * Making Television Dance	10/4/77
 * Dance Is A Man's Sport Too 1980
 * Confessions of a Cornermaker 	10/13/81
 * Catherine Wheel, PBS 3/1/83
 * "The Golden Section" from Dance in America: Miami City Ballet 10/28/11

Books

 * Tharp, Twyla (December 1992), Push Comes to Shove, Bantam Books, ISBN 0553073060
 * Tharp, Twyla (September 29, 2003), The Creative Habit: Learn It and Use It for Life, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 9780743235266
 * Tharp, Twyla (November 24, 2009), The Collaborative Habit: Learn It and Use It for Life, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 9781416576518
 * Tharp, Twyla (October 29, 2019), Keep It Moving: Lessons for the Rest of Your Life, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 9781982101305

Honors and awards
Tharp has received two Emmy Awards, 19 honorary doctorates, the Vietnam Veterans of America President's Award, the 2004 National Medal of the Arts, and numerous grants, including a MacArthur Fellowship. She is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, and an Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters.

At the 1982 Barnard College commencement ceremonies, Tharp's alma mater awarded her its highest honor, the Barnard Medal of Distinction.

She received the Tony Award for Best Choreography and the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Choreography for Movin' Out. She received a Drama Desk nomination for Outstanding Choreography for Singin' in the Rain.

Tharp was named a Kennedy Center Honoree for 2008. She was inducted into the Academy of Achievement in 1993.

From 2013 to 2014, the Smithsonian National Portrait Gallery featured Tharp in the critically acclaimed "Dancing the Dream" exhibition as a pioneer of American modern dance.

On May 24, 2018, she was awarded the Doctor of Arts degree by Harvard University.

Awards by year
1965
 * Walter Gutman

1969
 * George Irwin
 * The Lepercq Foundation

1970
 * Foundation for the Contemporary Performing Arts, 1970
 * Guggenheim Foundation Fellowship, John S. Guggenheim Memorial Foundation
 * The Emma A. Sheafer Trust, 1970–1981, 1985

1971
 * John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, 1971, 1974
 * National Endowment for the Arts Choreographers Fellowship, 1971, 1973
 * New York State Council on the Arts Annual Support, 1971–1986

1972
 * Brandeis University, Creative Arts Citation

1973
 * National Endowment for the Arts Annual Support, 1973–1986

1974
 * Creative Artists Public Service Program
 * Edward John Nobel Foundation
 * New York Public Library Dance Collection
 * The Place Trust, London
 * The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, 1974–1978, 1982, 1983, 1986

1975
 * Eight Jelly Rolls, 1st in Festival in Video and Modern Dance Video Certificate of Honor
 * Making Television Dance, Modern Dance Video Certificate of Merit

1976
 * Mademoiselle Magazine, Mademoiselle Magazine Award
 * Exxon Corporation, 1976, 1980, 1982–1984, 1986

1977
 * The Green Fund, 1977, 1980, 1981
 * National Endowment for the Arts Challenge Grant, 1977, 1985
 * The Shubert Foundation, 1977, 1978, 1980–1986

1978
 * Dance Film Association, 7th Annual Dance Video and Film Festival
 * Honorary Degree, California Institute of the Arts
 * Silver Satellite Award for Making Television Dance, American Women in Radio & Television
 * The Ford Foundation, 1978, 1980
 * The Ford Motor Company, 1978–1985
 * The Surdna Foundation, 1978, 1980, 1985

1979
 * Soho Arts Second Annual Awards, The SoHo Weekly News
 * Honorary Degree, Bucknell University
 * The Scherman Foundation, 1979, 1980, 1982–1985
 * United Artists
 * The David Merrick Arts Foundation
 * Mobil Foundation, Inc., 1979, 1981–1986

1980
 * Honorary Degree, Bates College
 * Dance Educators of America Award for Making Television Dance
 * Screening and Red Ribbon Award for Making Television Dance
 * The Booth Ferris Foundation
 * Chase Manhattan Bank, 1980–1982
 * Con Ed, 1980–1985
 * Morgan Guarantee Trust, 1980–1981, 1983–1984, 1986
 * The Jerome Robbins Foundation, 1980, 1983

1981
 * Film Library Association American Film Festival
 * Honorary Degree, Bard College
 * Honorary Degree, Brown University
 * Dance Magazine Award, Dance Magazine
 * Dance Film Award for Making Television Dance, Chicago International Film Festival
 * Indiana Arts Award, Indiana Arts Commission
 * Citibank, 1981–1986
 * Doll Foundation, 1981–1986
 * Weil Foundation
 * Norman and Rosita Winston Foundation
 * Rockefeller Foundation

1982
 * Medal of Distinction, Barnard College
 * Chemical Bank, 1982–1986
 * National Corporate Fund for Dance, 1982–1985
 * Robert Sterling Clark Foundation
 * Ida and William Rosenthal Foundation, 1982, 1986
 * New York Telephone, 1982–1985

1983
 * Spirit of Achievement Award, Albert Einstein College of Medicine
 * Honorary Degree, Williams College
 * Indiana Arts Award, Indiana Arts Commission
 * The Thorne Foundation
 * Lila Wallace-Reader's Digest Fund, 1983–1984, 1986
 * C.L. Glazer Trust
 * The Klingenstein Fund
 * Warner Communications

1984
 * Mayor's Award of Honor for Arts and Culture, Edward I. Koch, New York City
 * Dance Masters of America 1984 Choreographer's Award
 * Arthur Andersen and Company, 1984–1986
 * Japan-U.S. Friendship Commission
 * Booth Ferris Foundation
 * Brooklyn Union and Gas
 * Merrill Lynch, 1984, 1986
 * New York Times Company Foundation, 1984–1986

1985
 * Emmy Awards for Baryshnikov by Tharp choreography and co-direction, Academy of Television Arts and Sciences
 * Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement for Baryshnikov by Tharp
 * Indiana Arts Award, Indiana Arts Commission
 * APA Trucking
 * The Charles Engelhard Foundation
 * Corporate Property Investors
 * Hausman Belding Foundation
 * Gerald D. Hines Interests
 * GFI/Knoll International
 * NBC, 1985–1986
 * Samuel I. Newhouse Foundation, 1985, 1986
 * Zayre Corporation

1986
 * University Medal of Excellence, Columbia University
 * Bankers Trust
 * Cadillac Fairview
 * MCA
 * Manufacturers Hanover Trust Company
 * Ridgewood Energy Corporation

1987
 * Honorary Degree, Indiana University
 * Honorary Degree, Pomona College

1988
 * Honorary Degree, Hamilton College
 * Honorary Degree, Skidmore College

1989
 * Honorary Degree, Marymount Manhattan College
 * Lions of the Performing Arts Award, New York Public Library

1990
 * Samuel M. Scripps Award, American Dance Festival

1991
 * Laurence Olivier Award for In the Upper Room, Laurence Olivier Foundation
 * Wexner Foundation Award, The Ohio State University Wexner Center for the Arts

1992
 * MacArthur Fellowship, John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation
 * Ruth Page Visiting Arts, Harvard University, 1992–1993

1993
 * Golden Plate Award, American Academy of Achievement
 * Woman of Achievement, Barnard College
 * Inducted, American Academy of Arts and Sciences

1996
 * Arts Award, Dickinson College
 * Honorary Degree, Ball State University
 * Distinguished Artist Award, International Society For The Performing Arts

1997
 * American Honorary Member, American Academy of Arts and Letters

1998
 * Trust for Mutual Understanding

1999
 * MOCA Award to Distinguished Women In The Arts, Museum Of Contemporary Art

2000
 * The Doris Duke Awards for New Work

2001
 * Women's Project & Productions Exceptional Achievement Award

2002
 * New York Awards Lifetime Achievement

2003
 * Drama Desk Award Outstanding Choreography: Movin' Out
 * Tony Award Best Choreography: Movin' Out
 * Drama League Outstanding Achievement Award for Musical Theatre
 * TDF/Astaire Award Best Choreographer: Movin' Out
 * Indiana Living Legend, Indiana Historical Society
 * Glamour Woman of the Year Award
 * Outstanding Contribution to the Arts Award North Carolina School of the Arts
 * Honorary Doctorate, North Carolina School of the Arts

2004
 * National Medal of Arts
 * Vietnam Veterans of America President's Award for Excellence in the Arts
 * Independent Reviewers of New England Award Best Choreography: Movin' Out. Broadway in Boston
 * Goddard Space Flight Center's Center Director's Colloquium Citation for Enlightening, Creative and Thought-Provoking Presentation

2005
 * Best Choreography: Movin' Out. Touring Broadway Awards
 * Jane Addams Medal for Distinguished Service presented by Rockford College

2006
 * Princess Grace Award – Outstanding Artistry
 * Critics Circle Dance Award Outstanding Choreography: Movin' Out. London

2007
 * Honorary Degree, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
 * Honorary Degree, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ
 * Touring Broadway Award: Best Choreography for a touring show for Movin' Out

2008
 * The Jerome Robbins Prize
 * The Kennedy Center Honors
 * Woman of the Year Award, presented by Nevada State Ballet

2009
 * U.S. News & World Report: listed on "America's Best Leaders"
 * Leadership at Harvard University's Kennedy School of Government

2010
 * The IAL Diamond Award for Achievement in the Arts, presented by Columbia University's The Varsity Show
 * The Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Choreographer: Come Fly Away
 * Lifetime Achievement Award, presented by The American Academy of Hospitality Sciences
 * Suzi Bass Award for Best Choreography: "Come Fly With Me"
 * Rolex Dance Award

2011
 * The Vasterling Award, Presented by Nashville Ballet
 * Honorary Degree, The Juilliard School, New York, NY
 * TITAS Award for Contributions to the Arts
 * Woman of Achievement Award, Meredith College
 * Spotlight Award, Presented by Hubbard Street Dance Chicago

2013
 * Lifetime Achievement Award, presented by Tribeca Film Festival

2014
 * 62nd Capezio Dance Award
 * Honorary Degree, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA

Personal life
Until 1972 Tharp was married to painter Robert Huot, by whom she has a son, Jesse Huot, who acts as her business manager. She also has a grandson.

title: Twyla Tharp


text:
Balthasar Behem Codex

The Balthasar Behem Codex, also known as Codex Picturatus, is a collection of the charters, privileges and statutes of the burghers of the city of Kraków. Compiled in 1505, the codex was named for the chancellor at the time, Balthasar Behem. The book's text is in German, Latin and Polish. It is now held at the library of the Jagiellonian University of Kraków.

The bylaws of the guilds are featured in twenty-seven illustrations in the codex and depict both biblical subjects and the daily activities of the Kraków burgher guild members, for example that of bakers, titled in Latin: Pistores, with a subtitle in German: Das ist der briff und geseccze der becker von Krakow. ("This is the letter and law of the bakers in Cracow", example in color), and the text calligraphed in Latin.

This kind of illustration - showing the practice of trades - was a tradition with an iconographical history going back to late Roman astronomical texts showing the "Labours of the Months", pairing a characteristic activity of rural life with the astrological sign for that month. Historians of culture and art have shown that these illustrations sometimes reflect their iconographical traditions rather than actually depicting contemporary life with accuracy.

title: Balthasar Behem Codex