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Horoscope

A horoscope (or other commonly used names for the horoscope in English include natal chart, astrological chart, astro-chart, celestial map, sky-map, star-chart, cosmogram, vitasphere, radical chart, radix, chart wheel or simply chart) is an astrological chart or diagram representing the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets, astrological aspects and sensitive angles at the time of an event, such as the moment of a person's birth. The word horoscope is derived from the Greek words ōra and scopos meaning "time" and "observer" (horoskopos, pl. horoskopoi, or "marker(s) of the hour"). It is claimed by proponents of astrology that a horoscope can be used as a method of divination regarding events relating to the point in time it represents, and it forms the basis of the horoscopic traditions of astrology, although practices surrounding astrology have been recognized as pseudoscientific since the 18th century. Horoscope columns are often featured in print and online newspapers.

In common usage, horoscope often refers to an astrologer's interpretation, usually based on a system of solar Sun sign astrology; based strictly on the position of the Sun at the time of birth, or on the calendar significance of an event, as in Chinese astrology. In particular, many newspapers and magazines carry predictive columns, written in prose that may be written more for increasing readership than tied directly to the Sun or other aspects of the Solar System, allegedly based on celestial influences in relation to the zodiacal placement of the Sun on the month of birth, cusp (two days before or after any particular sign, an overlap), or decant (the month divided into three ten-day periods) of the person's month of birth, identifying the individual's Sun sign or "star sign" based on the tropical zodiac.

In Hindu astrology, birth charts are called kundali which are claimed to be based on movement of stars and Moon. Auspicious events and rituals are started after checking the kundali of a person including the marriage in which the birth charts of the boy and girl are matched.

There are no scientific studies that have shown support for the accuracy of horoscopes, and the methods used to make interpretations are considered to be examples of pseudoscience. In modern scientific framework no known interaction exists that could be responsible for the transmission of the alleged influence between a person and the position of stars in the sky at the moment of birth. In all tests completed, keeping strict methods to include a control group and proper blinding between experimenters and subjects, horoscopes have shown no effect beyond pure chance. Furthermore, some psychological tests have shown that it is possible to construct personality descriptions and foretelling generic enough to satisfy most members of a large audience simultaneously, referred to as the Forer or Barnum effect.

Introduction
The horoscope serves as a stylized map of the heavens over a specific location at a particular moment in time. In most applications the perspective is geocentric (heliocentric astrology being one exception). The positions of the actual planets (including Sun and Moon) are placed in the chart, along with those of purely calculated factors such as the lunar nodes, the house cusps including the midheaven and the ascendant, zodiac signs, fixed stars and the lots. Angular relationships between the planets themselves and other points, called aspects, are typically determined. The emphasis and interpretation of these factors vary with tradition. This means however the stars were placed at the time of birth for a person shows their characteristics and personality, including weakness.

Etymology
The Latin word horoscopus, ultimately from Greek ὡρόσκοπος "nativity, horoscope", "observer of the hour [of birth]", from ὥρα "time, hour" and σκόπος "observer, watcher". In Middle English texts from the 11th century, the word appears in the Latin form and is anglicized to horoscope in Early Modern English. The noun horoscopy for "casting of horoscopes" has been in use since the 17th century (OED). In Greek, ὡρόσκοπος in the sense of "ascendant" – not only of the time of someone's birth, but more generally of any significant event – and ὡροσκοπία "observation of the ascendant" has been in use since Ptolemy.

Concepts in Western astrology

 * The native is the subject of the event (a birth, for example) being charted at a particular time and place, and is considered to be at the centre of the celestial sphere.
 * The celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere onto which the zodiac, constellations and planets are projected, loosely based on the view of the sky above from Earth.
 * The plane of the equator is the plane of the Earth's equator projected into space.
 * The plane of the ecliptic is defined by the orbits of the Earth and the Sun. For practical purposes, the plane of the equator and the plane of the ecliptic maintain a constant inclination to each other of approximately 23.5°.
 * The plane of the horizon is centred on the native, and is tangential to the Earth at that point. In a sphere whose radius is infinitely large, this plane may be treated as nearly equivalent to the parallel plane, with its centre at the Earth's centre. This greatly simplifies the geometry of the horoscope, but does not take into account that the native is in motion. Some writers on astrology have thus considered the effects of parallax, but most would agree that (apart from that of the Moon) they are relatively minor.

Angles
There are four primary angles in the horoscope which are thought to influence key areas and moments in a native's lifetime, or within a given day or time. These are, in order of power:

 * First House (Ascendant, East Angle, rising sign, or ASC/AC)
 * Tenth House (Midheaven, Medi Coeli (midheaven), North Angle, MC)
 * Seventh House (Descendant, West Angle, setting sign, DSC/DC)
 * Fourth House (Imum Coeli – South Angle, lower-heaven, IC)

The ascendant is the easternmost (or sunrise point) where the ecliptic and horizon intersect; the ascendant and the midheaven are considered the most important angles in the horoscope by the vast majority of astrologers. In most systems of house division, the ASC is the cusp of the 1st house and the MC is the cusp of the 10th house.

Generally, on an astrological chart, each of these four angles are roughly 90° from the next, forming a cross shape (two oppositions, 180° each, forming a 360° sphere). This cross formation is made up of the points of east-west, north-south, or 1st house-7th house, 10th house-4th house (give or take, based on speed of orbit and degree). A simplistic comparison would be a clock face, with the 1st house and 7th house being placed at 9 and 3 o'clock, and the 10th and 4th houses placed at 12 and 6 o'clock, respectively. The placement of the planetary ruler of the ascendant, called the Chart Ruler, is also considered to be significant; The point in the west diametrically opposing the ascendant is called the descendant, normally the cusp of the 7th house; and the point opposing the MC is the cusp of the 4th house, the northernmost point of the chart, called the Imum Coeli or IC.

In creating a horoscope, the ascendant is traditionally placed at the "nine o'clock" position on the left-hand side of the chart wheel (though traditional rectangular chart formats need not follow this convention). During the course of a day, because of the Earth's rotation, the entire circle of the ecliptic will pass through the ascendant and will be advanced by about 1°. In an astrological chart, the ascendant progresses and changes zodiac signs roughly every two hours (give or take), advancing about one degree every five minutes. This movement provides us with the term "rising" sign, which is the sign of the zodiac "rising" over the eastern horizon at the moment of birth. This point is thought to affect how we are perceived by others, based on the zodiac sign on the ascendant at the time of birth. The point on the ecliptic that is 90° above the plane of the horizon at the time is called the Midheaven, or Medium Coeli (MC), placed at the "twelve o'clock position" effectively where the Sun would be if the birth time was midday. This area is thought to have greatest significance on one's career and public image.

The Zodiac

The Zodiac, or "circle of animals" is a zone or belt in space projected onto the celestial sphere through which, from our viewpoint, the planets move. A symbolic geometric construction around 16 degrees wide, it is divided into 12 signs, each of 30 degrees longitude (making 360 degrees, a full circle), with the ecliptic, the apparent path of the Sun, as its middle line. The tropical zodiac used by most Western astrologers has its beginning at the exact moment that the Sun crosses the celestial equator and enters the zodiacal sign of Aries. Some Western astrologers use the sidereal zodiac favored by Indian ("Jyotish") astrologers, which is based more closely on actual positions of constellations in the heavens, as opposed to the tropical zodiac, which is a moveable format based on the seasons.

The tropical zodiac defines the vernal point (the first day of spring in the northern hemisphere) as the first degree of Aries, but the sidereal zodiac allows it to precess. Many people are confused regarding the difference between the sidereal zodiac and the tropical zodiac signs. Because of a "wobble" in the Earth's axis of rotation over a period of about 26,000 years (often called a "great year"), the rate at which the vernal equinox precesses in the heavens is approximately 0 deg, 0 min, 50.23 seconds a year, drifting by one degree every 72 years. Precession of the equinoxes thus occurs at a rate of roughly 5 arc minutes of a degree every 6 years. The tropical signs relate to the seasons and not the stars. Here is an example: a person born on, say August 28, 2002, would come to understand that their Sun sign was in Virgo according to Western astrology (conventional Sun sign dates August 23, to September 22, of every year), but Sun on that same calendar date of the year 2002 was in the constellation Leo (where it had been since August 10, 2002, and would remain until September 15, when it would then finally cross into Virgo).

The sidereal signs and the tropical signs are both geometrical conventions of 30° each, whereas the zodiacal constellations are pictorial representations of mythological figures projected onto the celestial sphere based on patterns of visible star groupings, none of which occupy precisely 30° of the ecliptic. So constellations and signs are not the same, although for historical reasons they might have the same names.

Some astrologers do not use the signs of the zodiac at all, focusing more instead on the astrological aspects and other features of the horoscope. The sun sign is the sign of the zodiac in which the Sun is located for the native. This is the single astrological fact familiar to most people. If an event occurs at sunrise the ascendant and sun sign will be the same; other rising signs can then be estimated at two-hour intervals from there. A cusp is the boundary between two signs or houses. For some, the cusp includes a small portion of the two signs or houses under consideration.

Construction of a horoscope in Western astrology
To create a horoscope, an astrologer first has to ascertain the exact time and place of the subject's birth, or the initiation of an event. The local standard time (adjusting for any daylight saving time or war time) is then converted into Greenwich Mean Time or Universal Time at that same instant. The astrologer then has to convert this into the local sidereal time at birth in order to be able to calculate the ascendant and midheaven. The astrologer will next consult a set of tables called an ephemeris, which lists the location of the Sun, Moon and planets for a particular year, date and sidereal time, with respect to the northern hemisphere vernal equinox or the fixed stars (depending on which astrological system is being used). The astrologer then adds or subtracts the difference between the longitude of Greenwich and the longitude of the place in question to determine the true local mean time (LMT) at the place of birth to show where planets would be visible above the horizon at the precise time and place in question. Planets hidden from view beneath the Earth are also shown in the horoscope.

Using the above process, practitioners of astrology commonly construct a composite chart when two people meet and form a relationship. According to astrologers, the composite chart will give clues as to the nature and function of the relationship.

The horoscope features 12 sectors around the circle of the ecliptic, starting from the eastern horizon with the ascendant or rising sign. These 12 sectors are called the houses and numerous systems for calculating these divisions exist. Tables of houses have been published since the 19th Century to make this otherwise demanding task easier.

Houses

The chart thus begins with a framework of 12 houses. Upon this the signs of the zodiac are superimposed. In the equal house system the cusp between any two houses will fall at the same degree for each of them: at 12° of Leo, the second house will begin at 12° of Virgo, the third at 12° Libra, and so on. In house systems that take into consideration the effects of the angle of intersection between the planes of the horizon and the ecliptic, the calculations are more complicated. For these calculations it is essential to know the latitude of the event. Tables are available for these calculations, but they are now commonly calculated by computer. Most astrology computer programs allow the user to choose from a variety of house systems.

Placements of the planets
Having established the relative positions of the signs in the houses, the astrologer positions the Sun, Moon, and planets at their proper celestial longitudes. Some astrologers also take note of minor planetary bodies, fixed stars, asteroids (for example, Chiron) and other mathematically calculated points and angles such as the vertex, equatorial ascendant, etc. Many astrologers also use what are commonly referred to as Arabic parts (or Greek Lots), the most common of which is the Part of Fortune (Pars Fortunae).

Aspects
To complete the horoscope the astrologer will consider the aspects or relative angles between pairs of planets. More exact aspects are considered more important. The difference between the exact aspect and the actual aspect is called the orb. Those generally recognized by the astrological community are Conjunction (0°), Opposition (180°), Square (90°), Trine (120°), Sextile (60°), Semi-Square (45°), Sesquisquare (135°), and Quincunx (150°). Understandably these aspects are more significant when they are exact, but they are considered to function within an orb of influence, the size of which varies according to the importance of each aspect. Thus conjunctions are believed to operate with a larger orb than sextiles. Most modern astrologers use an orb of 8° or less for aspects involving the Sun, Moon, and Jupiter and smaller orbs for the other points. Some astrologers, such as practitioners of Cosmobiology, and Uranian astrology, use minor aspects (15°, 22.5°, 67.5°, 72°, 75°, 105°, 112.5°, 157.5°, 165°) with much narrower orbs.

The major astrological system regarded universally is Vedic Hindu Astrology. As per this, all planets see just opposite i.e. 180 degree aspect. But Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn have special aspects. Mars sees the houses 4th and 8 too from its place in the horoscope, Saturn sees the houses 3 and 10 too from its place, and Jupiter sees 5 and 9 from its place in the horoscope i.e. the house in which they are posited in the lagna chart.

Ascendant
The ascendant (ASC) is a point on the ecliptic that rises on the eastern horizon at sunrise and changes as the earth rotates on its axis. The ascendant is very important in astrological chart interpretation. It exerts more power than the Sun, Moon and planets because it infiltrates everything in the natal chart. The ascendant is the first point of energy in the natal chart and it represents the way we view life. The sign on the ascendant characterises our expression of "who we are" when dealing with others, and our initial action when dealing with day-to-day concerns. Longitude is necessary in order to determine the position of the Ascendant because horoscopes use local time. Having constructed the horoscope, the astrologer can begin the task of interpreting the chart. This interpretation depends upon which branch of horoscopic astrology is being used.

Chinese horoscopes

In Chinese astrology, horoscopes are based on the symbolism of the Chinese zodiac, a system of elements and animals associated with each year according to a Sexagenary cycle. Chinese horoscopes often appear in horoscope sections in newspapers and magazine alongside Western horoscopes.

Criticism
Interest in horoscopes and the zodiac sign have been very popular throughout history and today. There are many faithful followers, from celebrities to the general public. With so many believers, and perhaps a personal connection to the horoscope or the zodiac, it can be difficult to accept that astrology is not grounded in scientific evidence and is a pseudoscience.

Psychological criticism
Natal birth charts, or zodiac signs, are often used to predict a person's personality traits. However, the use of natal birth charts to predict personality is not valid or reliable. In a double-blind study that tested the zodiac's reliability to predict personality, an astrologer had to match a person's zodiac sign to their CPI (California Psychological Inventory) result. The CPI is a reliable method to determine an individual's personality. It was found that the astrologers were not able to correctly match the zodiac sign to the CPI result beyond random assignment. This means that astrology is no more than a test of chance and it is not a reliable way to predict personality.

Similarly, the zodiac sign can be used to create horoscopes that predict the events that will happen in an individual's life. However, like using the zodiac sign for personality traits, using it for horoscopes is also unreliable. One astrologer's prediction for a horoscope is typically completely unrelated to the prediction of another astrologer. However, many people still believe their horoscope perfectly aligns with the events in their lives. There are some possible explanations for this. Horoscopes have vague wording and are based on typical everyday activities. Due to this, it is easier for people to relate to these claims and increase their belief that it is a real science. Also, a person's expectations typically lead them to bias the way they perceive information, so their expectations are confirmed. In a study, participant's horoscopes were paired with the events of their previous day. When the horoscopes were presented with the participant's zodiac sign, other participants were more likely to report that the horoscope matched the previous day's events compared to when their zodiac sign was not present. This shows how individuals will bias their perceptions based on the expectations. This makes horoscopes seem reliable, when they are not valid.

Scientific criticism
Although it has its proponents, astrology has been rejected by the scientific community. Some horoscopes base their predictions on the "movement" of stars. However, this is inaccurate as stars actually do not move but appear to because the Earth rotates on its axis and orbits around the Sun. Furthermore, none of the answers given by astrology are actually based on science. According to American astronomer, the reason why people rely on horoscopes is explained by a psychological phenomenon known as "self-selection bias", which is the tendency of humans to look for interpretations or confirmations for what they already hope to be true. Hence, the reason why astrology may seem like it works is because human brains are wired to look for patterns, even when none exists. Many practitioners of astrology claim that astrology is indeed a science however, despite many trial and experiments, the effectiveness and scientific evidence of astrology is still yet to be demonstrated. In conclusion, astrology has no verifiable mechanism behind it and astrologers follow no sort of scientific method in their process hence it cannot be classified as science.

Christian criticism
In Christianity, many say that people should not use horoscopes or practice astrology in general, citing Deuteronomy 4:19, Deuteronomy 18:10-12, and Isaiah 47:13-14 from the Bible. Evangelist and minister Billy Graham has said, "God did make the stars (as well as everything else in the universe), but he intended them to be a witness to his power and glory, not as a means to guide us or foretell the future."

title: Horoscope


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Talk:Exoplanet

Doesn’t meet the definitions.
These bodies cannot be “planets outside the solar system”. We can call them exoplanets, but to refer to them as “planets outside the solar system” makes as much sense as referring to cats as “quadrupedal carnivorous humans that meow and purr”.

It’s just a lain fact that there are no planets outside of the solar system. There cannot be by definition.

Taking this in reverse order:
 * We do not know if any of these bodies have “cleared their neighbourhoods”. We just don’t. We can’t even begin to see their neighbourhoods. In some cases, though, it’s actually unlikely. Regardless, if we can’t show they have, then they haven’t.

 * We don’t actually know what shape they are. I mean sure, it’s very likely that they’re within the boundaries of the IAU’s oh so scientific definition of “pretty round, eh”. But we don’t KNOW. We cannot prove it. One of these exoplanets might be a big cube like Htrae, the Bizarro World. Is it likely? Certainly not. Is it physically possible? We don’t know. So yeah, they probably mostly fit this description, but we don’t know. But even guessing, some of them orbit so close to their stars that they’re probably more egg-shaped.

 * Finally, the stopper that covers all other exceptions: Nothing outside the solar system orbits the sun. Else it would be IN the solar system.

Therefore not a one of these things is a planet. 71.236.206.225 (talk) 14:28, 7 January 2023 (UTC)

 * The IAU itself defines exoplanets as planets beyond the solar system, see here. The definition you saw is only for objects within the solar system. It is meant to distinguish planets from smaller things, not things in and out the solar system. Cambalachero (talk) 15:12, 7 January 2023 (UTC)

Life prefers CHZ exoplanets around low metallicity stars?
Life prefers CHZ exoplanets around low metallicity stars?

Added cited Text - Reverted by ip.

QUESTION: - Is the following cited Text a worthy addition to the Exoplanet article - or Not? - Comments Welcome.

In April 2023, astronomers reported studies which concluded that, "... planets in the habitable zones of stars with low metallicity are the best targets to search for complex life on land."

in any case - Stay Safe and Healthy !! - Drbogdan (talk) 12:15, 4 May 2023 (UTC)

 * I've readded it to the article but I've edited it, moved it to the HZ section and added an explanation about UV rays as to why low metallicity stars are better.Fdfexoex (talk) 13:56, 4 May 2023 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Exoplanet


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Scholasticism

Scholasticism was a medieval school of philosophy that employed a critical organic method of philosophical analysis predicated upon the Aristotelian 10 Categories. Christian scholasticism emerged within the monastic schools that translated scholastic Judeo-Islamic philosophies, and "rediscovered" the collected works of Aristotle. Endeavoring to harmonize his metaphysics and its account of a prime mover with the Latin Catholic dogmatic trinitarian theology, these monastic schools became the basis of the earliest European medieval universities, and thus became the bedrock for the development of modern science and philosophy in the Western world. Scholasticism dominated education in Europe from about 1100 to 1700. The rise of scholasticism was closely associated with these schools that flourished in Italy, France, Portugal, Spain and England.

Scholasticism is a method of learning more than a philosophy or a theology, since it places a strong emphasis on dialectical reasoning to extend knowledge by inference and to resolve contradictions. Scholastic thought is also known for rigorous conceptual analysis and the careful drawing of distinctions. In the classroom and in writing, it often takes the form of explicit disputation; a topic drawn from the tradition is broached in the form of a question, oppositional responses are given, a counterproposal is argued and oppositional arguments rebutted. Because of its emphasis on rigorous dialectical method, scholasticism was eventually applied to many other fields of study.

Scholasticism was initially a program conducted by medieval Christian thinkers attempting to harmonize the various authorities of their own tradition, and to reconcile Christian theology with classical and late antiquity philosophy, especially that of Aristotle but also of Neoplatonism. The Scholastics, also known as Schoolmen, included as its main figures Anselm of Canterbury ("the father of scholasticism" ), Peter Abelard, Alexander of Hales, Albertus Magnus, Duns Scotus, William of Ockham, Bonaventure, and Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas's masterwork Summa Theologica (1265–1274) is considered to be the pinnacle of scholastic, medieval, and Christian philosophy; it began while Aquinas was regent master at the studium provinciale of Santa Sabina in Rome, the forerunner of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum. Important work in the scholastic tradition has been carried on well past Aquinas's time, such as English scholastics Robert Grosseteste and his student Roger Bacon, and for instance by Francisco Suárez and Luis de Molina, and also among Lutheran and Reformed thinkers.

Etymology
The terms "scholastic" and "scholasticism" derive from the Latin word scholasticus, the Latinized form of the Greek σχολαστικός (scholastikos), an adjective derived from σχολή (scholē), "school". Scholasticus means "of or pertaining to schools". The "scholastics" were, roughly, "schoolmen".

History
The foundations of Christian scholasticism were laid by Boethius through his logical and theological essays, and later forerunners (and then companions) to scholasticism were Islamic Ilm al-Kalām, meaning "science of discourse", and Jewish philosophy, especially Jewish Kalam.

Early Scholasticism
The first significant renewal of learning in the West came with the Carolingian Renaissance of the Early Middle Ages. Charlemagne, advised by Peter of Pisa and Alcuin of York, attracted the scholars of England and Ireland, where some Greek works continued to survive in the original. By a 787 decree, he established schools at every abbey in his empire. These schools, from which the name scholasticism derived, became centers of medieval learning.

During this period, knowledge of Ancient Greek had vanished in the West except in Ireland, where its teaching and use was fairly common in its monastic schools. Irish scholars had a considerable presence in the Frankish court, where they were renowned for their learning. Among them was Johannes Scotus Eriugena (815–877), one of the founders of scholasticism. Eriugena was the most significant Irish intellectual of the early monastic period and an outstanding philosopher in terms of originality. He had considerable familiarity with the Greek language and translated many works into Latin, affording access to the Cappadocian Fathers and the Greek theological tradition. Three other primary founders of scholasticism were the 11th-century archbishops Lanfranc and Anselm of Canterbury in England and Peter Abelard in France.

This period saw the beginning of the "rediscovery" of many Greek works which had been lost to the Latin West. As early as the latter half of the 10th century, the Toledo School of Translators in Muslim Spain had begun translating Arabic texts into Latin. After a successful burst of Reconquista in the 12th century, Spain opened even further for Christian scholars and, as these Europeans encountered Judeo-Islamic philosophies, they opened a wealth of Arab and Judaic knowledge of mathematics and astronomy. The Latin translations of the 12th century also included figures like Constantine the African in Italy and James of Venice in Constantinople. Scholars such as Adelard of Bath traveled to Spain and Sicily, translating works on astronomy and mathematics, including the first complete translation of Euclid's Elements into Latin.

At the same time, the School of Chartres produced Bernard of Chartres's commentaries on Plato's Timaeus and a range of works by William of Conches that attempted to reconcile the use of classical pagan and philosophical sources in a medieval Christian concept using the kludge of integumentum, treating the obviously heretical surface meanings as coverings disguising a deeper (and more orthodox) truth. Abelard himself was condemned by Bernard of Clairvaux at the 1141 Council of Sens and William avoided a similar fate through systematic self-bowdlerization of his early work, but his commentaries and encyclopedic De Philosophia Mundi and Dragmaticon were miscredited to earlier scholars like Bede and widely disseminated. Anselm of Laon systematized the production of the gloss on Scripture, followed by the rise to prominence of dialectic (the middle subject of the medieval trivium) in the work of Abelard. Peter Lombard produced a collection of Sentences, or opinions of the Church Fathers and other authorities.

More recently, Leinsle, Novikoff, and others have argued against the idea that scholasticism primarily derived from philosophical contact, emphasizing its continuity with earlier Patristic Christianity. This remains, however, a minority viewpoint.

High Scholasticism
The 13th and early 14th centuries are generally seen as the high period of scholasticism. The early 13th century witnessed the culmination of the recovery of Greek philosophy. Schools of translation grew up in Italy and Sicily, and eventually in the rest of Europe. Powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige. William of Moerbeke's translations and editions of Greek philosophical texts in the middle half of the thirteenth century helped form a clearer picture of Greek philosophy, particularly of Aristotle, than was given by the Arabic versions on which they had previously relied. Edward Grant writes "Not only was the structure of the Arabic language radically different from that of Latin, but some Arabic versions had been derived from earlier Syriac translations and were thus twice removed from the original Greek text. Word-for-word translations of such Arabic texts could produce tortured readings. By contrast, the structural closeness of Latin to Greek, permitted literal, but intelligible, word-for-word translations."

Universities developed in the large cities of Europe during this period, and rival clerical orders within the church began to battle for political and intellectual control over these centers of educational life. The two main orders founded in this period were the Franciscans and the Dominicans. The Franciscans were founded by Francis of Assisi in 1209. Their leader in the middle of the century was Bonaventure, a traditionalist who defended the theology of Augustine and the philosophy of Plato, incorporating only a little of Aristotle in with the more neoplatonist elements. Following Anselm, Bonaventure supposed that reason can only discover truth when philosophy is illuminated by religious faith. Other important Franciscan scholastics were Duns Scotus, Peter Auriol and William of Ockham.

By contrast, the Dominican order, a teaching order founded by St Dominic in 1215, to propagate and defend Christian doctrine, placed more emphasis on the use of reason and made extensive use of the new Aristotelian sources derived from the East and Moorish Spain. The great representatives of Dominican thinking in this period were Albertus Magnus and (especially) Thomas Aquinas, whose artful synthesis of Greek rationalism and Christian doctrine eventually came to define Catholic philosophy. Aquinas placed more emphasis on reason and argumentation, and was one of the first to use the new translation of Aristotle's metaphysical and epistemological writing. This was a significant departure from the Neoplatonic and Augustinian thinking that had dominated much of early scholasticism. Aquinas showed how it was possible to incorporate much of the philosophy of Aristotle without falling into the "errors" of the Commentator, Averroes.

Reformed Scholasticism
Following the Reformation, Calvinists largely adopted the scholastic method of theology, while differing regarding sources of authority and content of theology.

Neo-Scholasticism
The revival and development from the second half of the 19th century of medieval scholastic philosophy is sometimes called neo-Thomism.

Thomistic Scholasticism
As J. A. Weisheipl O.P. emphasizes, within the Dominican Order Thomistic scholasticism has been continuous since the time of Aquinas: "Thomism was always alive in the Dominican Order, small as it was after the ravages of the Reformation, the French Revolution, and the Napoleonic occupation. Repeated legislation of the General Chapters, beginning after the death of St. Thomas, as well as the Constitutions of the Order, required all Dominicans to teach the doctrine of St. Thomas both in philosophy and in theology."

Thomistic scholasticism or scholastic Thomism identifies with the philosophical and theological tradition stretching back to the time of St. Thomas. It focuses not only on exegesis of the historical Aquinas but also on the articulation of a rigorous system of orthodox Thomism to be used as an instrument of critique of contemporary thought. Due to its suspicion of attempts to harmonize Aquinas with non-Thomistic categories and assumptions, Scholastic Thomism has sometimes been called, according to philosophers like Edward Feser, "Strict Observance Thomism". A discussion of recent and current Thomistic scholasticism can be found in La Metafisica di san Tommaso d'Aquino e i suoi interpreti (2002) by Battista Mondin, which includes such figures as Sofia Vanni Rovighi (1908–1990), Cornelio Fabro (1911–1995), Carlo Giacon (1900–1984), Tomas Tyn O.P. (1950–1990), Abelardo Lobato O.P. (1925–2012), Leo Elders (1926– ) and Giovanni Ventimiglia (1964– ) among others. Fabro in particular emphasizes Aquinas' originality, especially with respect to the actus essendi or act of existence of finite beings by participating in being itself. Other scholars such as those involved with the "Progetto Tommaso" seek to establish an objective and universal reading of Aquinas' texts.

Thomistic scholasticism in the English speaking world went into decline in the 1970s when the Thomistic revival that had been spearheaded by Jacques Maritain, Étienne Gilson, and others, diminished in influence. Partly, this was because this branch of Thomism had become a quest to understand the historical Aquinas after the Second Vatican Council.

Analytical Scholasticism
A renewed interest in the "scholastic" way of doing philosophy has recently awoken in the confines of the analytic philosophy. Attempts emerged to combine elements of scholastic and analytic methodology in pursuit of a contemporary philosophical synthesis. Proponents of various incarnations of this approach include Anthony Kenny, Peter King, Thomas Williams or David Oderberg. Analytical Thomism can be seen as a pioneer part of this movement.

Scholastic method
Cornelius O'Boyle explained that Scholasticism focuses on how to acquire knowledge and how to communicate effectively so that it may be acquired by others. It was thought that the best way to achieve this was by replicating the discovery process (modus inveniendi).

The scholasticists would choose a book by a renowned scholar, auctor (author), as a subject for investigation. By reading it thoroughly and critically, the disciples learned to appreciate the theories of the author. Other documents related to the book would be referenced, such as Church councils, papal letters and anything else written on the subject, be it ancient or contemporary. The points of disagreement and contention between multiple sources would be written down in individual sentences or snippets of text, known as sententiae. Once the sources and points of disagreement had been laid out through a series of dialectics, the two sides of an argument would be made whole so that they would be found to be in agreement and not contradictory. (Of course, sometimes opinions would be totally rejected, or new positions proposed.) This was done in two ways. The first was through philological analysis. Words were examined and argued to have multiple meanings. It was also considered that the auctor might have intended a certain word to mean something different. Ambiguity could be used to find common ground between two otherwise contradictory statements. The second was through logical analysis, which relied on the rules of formal logic – as they were known at the time – to show that contradictions did not exist but were subjective to the reader.

Scholastic instruction
Scholastic instruction consisted of several elements. The first was the lectio: a teacher would read an authoritative text followed by a commentary, but no questions were permitted. This was followed by the meditatio (meditation or reflection) in which students reflected on and appropriated the text. Finally, in the quaestio students could ask questions (quaestiones) that might have occurred to them during meditatio. Eventually the discussion of questiones became a method of inquiry apart from the lectio and independent of authoritative texts. Disputationes were arranged to resolve controversial quaestiones.

Questions to be disputed were ordinarily announced beforehand, but students could propose a question to the teacher unannounced – disputationes de quodlibet. In this case, the teacher responded and the students rebutted; on the following day the teacher, having used notes taken during the disputation, summarised all arguments and presented his final position, riposting all rebuttals.

The quaestio method of reasoning was initially used especially when two authoritative texts seemed to contradict one another. Two contradictory propositions would be considered in the form of an either/or question, and each part of the question would have to be approved (sic) or denied (non). Arguments for the position taken would be presented in turn, followed by arguments against the position, and finally the arguments against would be refuted. This method forced scholars to consider opposing viewpoints and defend their own arguments against them.

title: Scholasticism


text: Talk:Thames (disambiguation)

title: Talk:Thames (disambiguation)


text:
Talk:London Post Office Railway

2003 posts
There should perhaps be a way of telling the difference between a Post Office and The Post Office Group, the now-defunct name of Consignia, a public limited company in Britain that deals with, well, post. -- Robert Brook

Since the last comment was posted (no pun intended!), the name Consignia is now itself defunct, and The Post Office is resurrected... -- Arwel 23:13 3 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * No, it's "Royal Mail Group plc" now. "Post Office" remains a brand name owned by the group. --rbrwr

Crossrail
The article had this:

 * The route of the proposed Crossrail link across London is similar to that of the Post Office railway, and therefore it could make sense for the Post Office railway tunnels to be expanded and used as a basis. However, the tunnels are much smaller, and it is unlikely that both the alignment and the depth will be suitable.

I feel that this shouldn't really be there, or at least not without a citation as to who said it. At the moment it reads like an editor's personal speculation or comment. After all, it sets up the idea then demolishes it, so it does not really get anywhere. I would be happy to see this, rewritten, back in the article as long as a credible external source was cited. 82.45.248.177 17:46, 21 December 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree, this should be taken out until an independent source is available. Gwernol 17:48, 21 December 2006 (UTC)

The crossrail alignment is carefully set to come into such stations as Tottenham Court Road and Bond St, avoiding the already busy subsurface network of tunnels. While The Post Office Railway is close to this alignment, it would be at the wrong level to successfully connect to the stations. Also, if you look at the post office tunnel, the Mount Pleasant Sorting Office has an unrealistic nearly right angle turn which would not work for a larger rail system such as Crossrail.

Photos
I've found some post closure photos but they are under Creative Commons BY-NC (so not free enough for us). It might be worth contacting the uploader though. flickr Secretlondon 19:46, 15 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the link! The photographer did agree to release one of those images as BY-SA, and I have added it to this page. Tim Pierce (talk) 02:36, 15 April 2009 (UTC)

GLA Report
Removed the link to:

 * GLA report on the closure in PDF format.

As the GLA have updated their website. Can only find reference in the list of publications at http://pss.london.gov.uk/PSS/DownloadPublicationListReport.do but this just lists the dead link   Truthmonkey (talk) 11:16, 15 September 2010 (UTC)

 * Reveretd and updated link. Google is Your Friend. Nick Cooper (talk) 12:42, 15 September 2010 (UTC)

Merger
Should these articles (the different rolling stock used over the years)

 * 1927 Stock — Original stock
 * 1930 & 1936 Stock — Replacement stock for 1927 Stock
 * 1962 Stock — Prototype stock
 * 1980 Stock — Replacement stock

be merged into this article? Gordo (talk) 11:45, 20 July 2011 (UTC)

I think they should be merged into one article. we can start a reciprocal discussion in the above mentioned articles to kick this offV1v3k31 (talk) 18:18, 28 July 2013 (UTC)

New Route Map and Infobox
Please ignore the West Coast Main Line Diagram showing in the article, I am in the process of creating a routemap for the Post Office Railway, and using the one based on the West Coast Main Line as a templateV1v3k31 (talk) 17:43, 28 July 2013 (UTC)

I have now finished my revisions. I have replaced the existing infobox template, which was earmaked for deletion, with the standard rail-line infobox template and have added information from the article to the infobox. I have also created a new route map template for the railway. Hope you like my new additions.V1v3k31 (talk) 18:14, 28 July 2013 (UTC)

External links modified
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Rename?
Recent undiscussed rename from London Post Office Railway to Mail Rail. I'm against this, and would support reverting it. Per Commonname, also because the explicit mention of London is clearer. Mail Rail was only used for the last few years of this otherwise long-lived system, Post Office Railway is still far better known. Andy Dingley (talk) 09:15, 26 August 2017 (UTC)

 * Revert and the lede should start "London Post Office Railway, now known as Mail Rail in its redeveloped form …" with Mail Rail being a redirect. ww2censor (talk) 15:45, 26 August 2017 (UTC)
 * It's been known as Mail Rail since 1987, per written publication by the Postal Museum, and its internal exhibits. best, Sunil060902 (talk) 21:50, 10 September 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:London Post Office Railway


text:
User talk:Szopen

Ze'ev Tzahor Auschwitz lie
[] Potrzebuje poparcia Cautious (talk) 21:12, 5 February 2010 (UTC)

 * Why are you lying nowhere in the world of Riga, no one else offered anything to the Poles, this is a complete lie, they could not even restore the borders of 1772 37.54.230.242 (talk) 13:58, 22 July 2023 (UTC)

Re:
Please don't feel validated by the admin who inappropriately stepped in, it seems to have gone to your head. I have given my honest assessment of your sources (which you seem to have taken personally), I have co-operated with you on inserting the information you felt needed. I am not quite sure what else you would like from me. PS: Two pieces of advice: 1) stop killing the indentation in discussions, it gets difficult to follow 2) archive your talk, my net is slowed because I exceeded my cap and this page is murder. +Hexagon1 (t) 02:57, 18 November 2008 (UTC)

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Sejmiki in Royal Polish Prussia
Hello Szopen, English WP tells,that 10 of the 167 regional sejmiki of the Rzeczposoplita existed in Royal Polish Prussia, but it only tells the names of 8 ones. Which were the two other ones? Furthermore in that Prussia, people won't have called them Sejmik, allone. Do you know the German term? German sources are quite silent about that matter, as they tend to deny the existence of historical sejmiks in Prussia at all. Yours' sincerely,  Ulamm (talk) 22:56, 7 February 2009 (UTC)

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Your user page
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For the Milhist co-ordinators. Regards, AustralianRupert (talk) & MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 07:23, 26 February 2017 (UTC)

2017 Military history WikiProject Coordinator election
Greetings from the Military history WikiProject! Elections for the Military history WikiProject Coordinators are currently underway. As a member of the WikiProject you are cordially invited to take part by casting your vote(s) for the candidates on the election page. This year's election will conclude at 23:59 UTC 29 September. Thank you for your time. For the current tranche of Coordinators, AustralianRupert (talk) 10:39, 21 September 2017 (UTC)

2017 Military Historian of the Year and Newcomer of the Year nominations and voting
As we approach the end of the year, the Military History project is looking to recognise editors who have made a real difference. Each year we do this by bestowing two awards: the Military Historian of the Year and the Military History Newcomer of the Year. The co-ordinators invite all project members to get involved by nominating any editor they feel merits recognition for their contributions to the project. Nominations for both awards are open between 00:01 on 2 December 2017 and 23:59 on 15 December 2017. After this, a 14-day voting period will follow commencing at 00:01 on 16 December 2017. Nominations and voting will take place on the main project talkpage: here and here. Thank you for your time. For the co-ordinators, MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 08:35, 8 December 2017 (UTC)

User group for Military Historians
Greetings,

"Military history" is one of the most important subjects when speak of sum of all human knowledge. To support contributors interested in the area over various language Wikipedias, we intend to form a user group. It also provides a platform to share the best practices between military historians, and various military related projects on Wikipedias. An initial discussion was has been done between the coordinators and members of WikiProject Military History on English Wikipedia. Now this discussion has been taken to Meta-Wiki. Contributors intrested in the area of military history are requested to share their feedback and give suggestions at Talk:Discussion to incubate a user group for Wikipedia Military Historians.

MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 11:30, 21 December 2017 (UTC)

Nomination of Failure for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article Failure is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/Failure& until a consensus is reached, and anyone, including you, is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. Chris Cunningham (user:thumperward) (talk) 17:57, 19 July 2020 (UTC)

Good article reassessment for Solaris (1972 film)
Solaris (1972 film) has been nominated for a good article reassessment. If you are interested in the discussion, please participate by adding your comments to the reassessment page. If concerns are not addressed during the review period, the good article status may be removed from the article. Spinixster  (trout me!)  02:10, 31 March 2024 (UTC)

Nomination of Antonina Liedtke for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article Antonina Liedtke is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/Antonina Liedtke until a consensus is reached, and anyone, including you, is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article until the discussion has finished. Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus| reply here 21:49, 19 July 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:Szopen


text:
DNS (disambiguation)

DNS is the Domain Name System, a network system used to translate names into IP addresses.

DNS may also refer to:

Science and technology

 * Deviated nasal septum, a displaced part of the nose
 * 3,5-Dinitrosalicylic acid, an aromatic compound
 * Dinalbuphine sebacate, an analgesic
 * Direct numerical simulation, a simulation method in computational fluid dynamics
 * Dragon NaturallySpeaking, speech recognition software
 * "Do not stuff", the omitting of a component on a printed circuit board

Other uses

 * Doctor of Nursing Science, an academic research degree
 * Det Nødvendige Seminarium, a teacher training college in Denmark
 * Demokratski narodni savez (Democratic People's Alliance), a political party in Bosnia and Herzegovina
 * Dinas Powys railway station (station code), Wales
 * Distressed non-swimmer, a swimming victim type
 * Did not start, in the glossary of motorsport terms
 * DNS (retail company), an electronics retailer in Russia

title: DNS (disambiguation)