text:
Italian East Africa

Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana, AOI) was an Italian colony in the Horn of Africa. It was formed in 1936 after the Second Italo-Ethiopian War through the merger of Italian Somaliland, Italian Eritrea, and the newly occupied Ethiopian Empire.

Italian East Africa was divided into six governorates. Eritrea and Somalia, Italian possessions since the 1880s, were enlarged with captured Ethiopian territory and became the Eritrea and Somalia Governorates. The remainder of "Italian Ethiopia" comprised the Harar, Galla-Sidamo, Amhara, and Scioa Governorates. Fascist colonial policy had a divide and conquer characteristic, and favoured the Oromos, the Somalis and other Muslims in an attempt to weaken their ties to the Amharas who had been the ruling ethnic group in the Ethiopian Empire.

During the Second World War, Italian East Africa was occupied by a British-led force including colonial units and Ethiopian guerrillas in November 1941. After the war, Italian Somalia and Eritrea came under British administration, while Ethiopia regained its independence. In 1950, occupied Somalia became the United Nations Trust Territory of Somaliland, administered by Italy from 1950 until its independence in 1960. Occupied Eritrea became an autonomous part of Ethiopia in 1952, and was later annexed by the Ethiopian Empire in 1962. It would remain annexed by Ethiopia until it gained independence as Eritrea.

Conquest of Ethiopia

Historians are still divided about the reasons for the Italian attack on Ethiopia in 1935. Some Italian historians such as Franco Catalano and Giorgio Rochat argue that the invasion was an act of social imperialism, contending that the Great Depression had badly damaged dictator Benito Mussolini's prestige, and that he needed a foreign war to distract public opinion. Other historians such as Pietro Pastorelli have argued that the invasion was launched as part of an expansionist program to make Italy the main power in the Red Sea area and the Middle East. A middle way interpretation was offered by the American historian MacGregor Knox, who argued that the war was started for both foreign and domestic reasons, being both a part of Mussolini's long-range expansionist plans and intended to give Mussolini a foreign policy triumph that would allow him to push the Fascist system in a more radical direction at home.

Unlike forty years earlier, Italy's forces were far superior to the Ethiopian forces, especially in air power, and they were victorious. Emperor Haile Selassie was forced to flee the country, with Italian forces entering the capital city, Addis Ababa, to proclaim an "Italian Empire of Ethiopia" by 5 May 1936. Some Ethiopians welcomed the Italians and collaborated with them in the government of the newly created Italian Empire, like Ras Seyoum Mengesha, Ras Getachew Abate and Ras Kebbede Guebret. In 1937 the friendship of Seyoum Mengesha with the Italian Viceroy Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta enabled this Ras to play an influential role in securing the release of 3,000 Ethiopian POWs being held in Italian Somaliland.

Mussolini's international popularity decreased as he endorsed the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany, beginning a political tilt toward Germany that eventually led to the downfall of Mussolini and the Fascist regime in Italy in World War II. Italian East Africa was formed on 1 June 1936, shortly after the conquest, by merging the pre-existing colonies of Italian Somaliland and Italian Eritrea with the newly conquered territory. The maintenance and creation of Ethiopian colonies was very costly.

Second World War and dissolution

On 10 June 1940, Italy declared war on Britain and France, which made Italian military forces in Libya a threat to Egypt and those in the Italian East Africa a danger to the British and French territories in the Horn of Africa. Italian belligerence also closed the Mediterranean to Allied merchant ships and endangered British supply routes along the coast of East Africa, the Gulf of Aden, Red Sea and the Suez Canal. (The Kingdom of Egypt remained neutral during World War II, but the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 allowed the British to occupy Egypt and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.) Egypt, the Suez Canal, French Somaliland and British Somaliland were also vulnerable to invasion, but the Comando Supremo (Italian General Staff) had planned for a war after 1942. In the summer of 1940, Italy was far from ready for a long war or for the occupation of large areas of Africa.

Hostilities began on 13 June 1940, with an Italian air raid on the base of 1 Squadron Southern Rhodesian Air Force (237 (Rhodesia) Squadron RAF) at Wajir in the East Africa Protectorate (Kenya). In August 1940, the protectorate of British Somaliland was occupied by Italian forces and absorbed into Italian East Africa. This occupation lasted around six months.

By early 1941, Italian forces had been largely pushed back from Kenya and Sudan. On 6 April 1941, Addis Ababa was occupied by the 11th (African) Division, which received the surrender of the city. The remnants of the Italian forces in the AOI surrendered after the Battle of Gondar in November 1941, except for groups that fought an Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia against the British until the Armistice of Cassibile (3 September 1943) ended hostilities between Italy and the Allies.

In January 1942, with the final official surrender of the Italians, the British signed an interim Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement with Selassie, acknowledging Ethiopian sovereignty. Makonnen Endelkachew was named as Prime Minister and on 19 December 1944, the final Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement was signed.

In the peace treaty of February 1947, Italy officially renounced sovereignty over its African colonies. Eritrea was placed under British military administration for the duration, and in 1950, it became part of Ethiopia. After 1945, Britain controlled both Somalilands, as protectorates. In November 1949, the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland under close supervision, on condition that Somalia achieve independence within ten years. British Somaliland became independent on 26 June 1960 as the State of Somaliland, the Trust Territory of Somalia (ex-Italian Somaliland) became independent on 1 July 1960 and the territories united as the Somali Republic.

Colonial administration

The colony was administered by a Viceroy of Ethiopia and Governor General of Italian East Africa, appointed by the Italian king. The dominion was further divided for administrative purposes into six governorates, further divided into forty commissariati.

Territory
When established in 1936, Italian East Africa consisted of the old Italian possessions in the Horn of Africa: Italian Eritrea and Italian Somaliland, combined with the recently conquered Empire of Ethiopia. Victor Emmanuel III of Italy consequently adopted the title of "Emperor of Ethiopia", although this was not recognized by any country other than Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan. The territory was divided into the six governorates: Eritrea and Somalia, consisting of the respective former colonies, enlarged with territory from Ethiopia. The remainder of "Italian Ethiopia" consisted of the Harar, Galla-Sidamo, Amhara, and Addis Abeba Governorates. The Addis Abeba Governorate was enlarged into the Scioa Governorate with territory from neighboring Harar, Galla-Sidamo and Amhara in November 1938.

Italian East Africa was briefly enlarged in 1940, as Italian forces invaded British Somaliland, thereby bringing all Somali territories, aside from the small colony of French Somaliland, under Italian administration. However, the enlarged colony was dismembered only a year later, when in the course of the East African campaign the colony was occupied by British forces.

Economic development
Fascist colonial policy in Italian East Africa had a divide and conquer characteristic. To weaken the Orthodox Christian Amhara people who had run Ethiopia in the past, territory claimed by Eritrean Tigray-Tigrinyas and Somalis was given to the Eritrea Governorate and Somalia Governorate. Reconstruction efforts after the war in 1936 were partially focused on benefiting the Muslim peoples in the colony at the expense of the Amhara to strengthen support by Muslims for the Italian colony.

Italy's Fascist regime encouraged Italian peasants to colonize Ethiopia by setting up farms and small manufacturing businesses. However, few Italians came to the Ethiopian colony, with most going to Eritrea and Somalia. While Italian Eritrea enjoyed some degree of development, supported by nearly 80,000 Italian colonists, by 1940 only 3,200 farmers had arrived in Ethiopia, less than ten percent of the Fascist regime's goal. Continued insurgency by native Ethiopians, lack of natural resources, rough terrain, and uncertainty of political and military conditions discouraged development and settlement in the countryside.

The Italians invested substantively in Ethiopian infrastructure development. They created the "imperial road" between Addis Ababa and Massaua, Addis Ababa and Mogadishu and Addis Ababa - Assab. 900 km of railways were reconstructed or initiated (like the railway between Addis Ababa and Assab), dams and hydroelectric plants were built, and many public and private companies were established in the underdeveloped country. The most important were: "Compagnie per il cotone d'Etiopia" (Cotton industry); "Cementerie d'Etiopia" (Cement industry); "Compagnia etiopica mineraria" (Minerals industry); "Imprese elettriche d'Etiopia" (Electricity industry); "Compagnia etiopica degli esplosivi" (Armament industry); "Trasporti automobilistici (Citao)" (Mechanic & Transport industry).

Italians even created new airports and in 1936 started the Linea dell'Impero, a flight connecting Addis Ababa to Rome. The line was opened after the Italian conquest of Ethiopia and was followed by the first air links with the Italian colonies in Africa Orientale Italiana (Italian East Africa), which began in a pioneering way since 1934. The route was enlarged to 6,379 km and initially joined Rome with Addis Ababa via Syracuse, Benghazi, Cairo, Wadi Halfa, Khartoum, Kassala, Asmara, Dire Dawa. There was a change of aircraft in Benghazi (or sometimes in Tripoli). The route was carried out in three and a half days of daytime flight and the frequency was four flights per week in both directions. Later from Addis Ababa there were three flights a week that continued to Mogadishu, capital of Italian Somalia.

The most important railway line in the African colonies of the Kingdom of Italy, the 784 km long Djibouti-Addis Ababa, was acquired following the conquest of the Ethiopian Empire by the Italians in 1936. The route was served until 1935 by steam trains that took about 36 hours to do the total trip between the capital of Ethiopia and the port of Djibouti. In 1938 following the Italian conquest, train speed was increased with the introduction of four high capacity railcars "type 038" derived from the model Fiat ALn56.

These diesel trains were able to reach 70 km/h and so the time travel was cut in half to just 18 hours: they were used until the mid 1960s. At the main stations there were some bus connections to the other cities of Italian Ethiopia not served by the railway. Additionally, near the Addis Ababa station was created a special unit against fire, that was the only one in all Africa.

However Ethiopia and Africa Orientale Italiana (AOI) proved to be extremely expensive to maintain, as the budget for the fiscal year 1936-37 had been set at 19.136 billion lira to create the necessary infrastructure for the colony. At the time, Italy's entire yearly revenue was only 18.581 billion lira.

The architects of the Fascist regime had drafted grandiose urbanistic projects for the enlargement of Addis Ababa, in order to build a state-of-the-art capital of the Africa Orientale Italiana, but these architectural plans -like all the other developments- were stopped by World War II.

Education
Prior to Fascism, education in Italian East Africa had primarily been the responsibility of both Roman Catholic and Protestant missionaries. With Mussolini's rise to power, government schools were created which eventually incorporated the Catholic missionaries' educational programmes while those of the Protestant missionaries became marginalised and circumscribed. Andrea Festa, who was made director of the central office governing primary education in Eritrea in November 1932, declared in 1934 that Fascist efforts in education needed to ensure that native Africans were "acquainted with a little of our civilisation" and that they needed to "know Italy, its glories, and ancient history, in order to, become a conscious militia man in the shade of our flag." Such education initiatives were designed to train Africans in a variety of practical tasks useful to the Fascist regime as well as to indoctrinate them with the tenets and lifestyle of Fascist ideology with the aim of creating citizens obedient and subservient to the state. Their propagandistic nature was especially apparent in history textbooks issued to African children, which entirely omitted any discussion of events such as Italian disunity, Giuseppe Mazzini's "Young Italy" movement, the revolutions of 1848, or Giuseppe Garibaldi's Expedition of the Thousand and instead stressed the "glories" of the Roman Empire and those of the Italian state that claimed to be its successor. Glorification and lionisation of Mussolini and his "great work" likewise pervaded them, while periods during which Libya and other then-Italian possessions had been controlled by older, non-Italian empires, such as the Ottoman Empire, were portrayed through an unflattering lens. Use of the Fascist salute was mandatory in schools for African children, who were constantly encouraged to become "little soldiers of the Duce", and every day there was morning ceremony at which the Italian flag was hoisted and patriotic songs were sung. Italian children, whose education the Fascist government prioritised over that of Africans, received education similar to that in Fascist Italy's metropole, though with some aspects of it tailored to the local situation in East Africa. Fascist Italy sought to neutralise any educational institutions which provided instruction to Africans beyond the level expected by Fascist ideology, in particular the secondary education network that prior to the Italian invasion had prepared and enabled a relatively small but significant amount of Ethiopians to study abroad at universities in Europe.

In February 1937, following an attempt on the life of Rodolfo Graziani, educated Ethiopians, already having been distrusted by colonial government authorities and many having already been placed in concentration camps, became victims of state-sponsored mass murder, with much of the intelligentsia of Ethiopia being executed and the remainder exiled to penal colonies on Italian-controlled islands in the Mediterranean Sea. Fascist education in the colony proved to be a failure in the end, with only one twentieth of Italian colonial soldiers possessing any literacy. During World War II, which saw the liberation of Italian East Africa from Fascism, few Africans displayed any loyalty to the Fascist state that the state's schools had so fervently tried to instill, and Ethiopia post-World War II found itself impoverished of skilled workers due to the very limited and propagandistic education provided to its non-Italian inhabitants under Mussolini's rule.

Demographics

In 1939, there were 165,267 Italian citizens in the Italian East Africa, the majority of them concentrated around the main urban centres of Asmara, Addis Ababa and Mogadishu. The total population was estimated around 12.1 million, with a density of just over 18 PD/sqmi. The distribution of population was, however, very uneven. Eritrea, with an area of 90,000 sqmi, had a population estimated in about 1.5 million, with a population density of 16.7 PD/sqmi; Ethiopia with an area of 305,000 sqmi and a population of some 9.5 million, had a resulting density of 31 PD/sqmi; sparsely populated Italian Somaliland finally, with an area of 271,000 sqmi and a population of just 1.1 million, had a very low density of 4 PD/sqmi.

Italian atrocities
In February 1937, following many murders of Italian and Eritrean soldiers and an assassination attempt on Italian East Africa's Viceroy, Marshal Rodolfo Graziani, Italian soldiers raided the famous Ethiopian monastery Debre Libanos, where the assassins were believed to have taken refuge, and executed the monks and nuns. Afterwards, Italian soldiers destroyed native settlements in Addis Ababa, which resulted -according to Ethiopian estimates- in nearly 30,000 Ethiopians being killed and their homes left burned to the ground. The massacre has come to be known as Yekatit 12.

After the massacres, Graziani became known as "the Butcher of Ethiopia". He was subsequently removed by Mussolini and replaced by Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta, who followed a more conciliatory policy towards the natives, obtaining a huge success in pacifying Ethiopia.

By the eve of the Italian entry into the Second World War (January/February 1940) the Ethiopian guerrillas were still in control of some areas of Harar and the Galla-Sidamo Governorate. Amedeo's conciliatory efforts obtained that Abebe Aregai, then the last leader of the "Arbegnoch" (as the guerrilla fighters were called in Ethiopia) made a surrender proposal to the Italians in the spring of 1940 (after the 1939 surrender of Ethiopian leaders Zaudiè Asfau and Olonà Dinkel). The Italian declaration of war on 10 June 1940 and British influence blocked the surrender proposal.

title: Italian East Africa


text:
Talk:Uracil

Untitled
Quick question, under the Reactions sections... when an olefin reacts with elemental Bromine it forms an anti-addition product with the pi bond. i think that first picture is incorrect. but i don't have the means to correct it. the alkene should be trans-brominated under those conditions. right?

Reason for Uracil and not Thymine in RNA
I added this section after reading this: http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/dec97/879354206.Bc.r.html It's not exactly a peer review journal, but it makes sense. Nonetheless, if anyone has any references pertaining to this, they should really be added. Oh, I also corrected someone's contribution that stated that uracil degraded into cytosine, rather than the other way around. Fish-Face 23:40, 21 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Great stuff, Fish-Face, I was asking myself that very question and sure enough, you contributed it about 24 hours prior!!  Thanks for the info. Nhandler 05:42, 22 January 2006 (UTC)
 * No problem; glad to be helpful :) My Biology teacher found this out after I and another student asked her. Incidentally, I found two pages that have a more official appearance. Firstly: http://www-saps.plantsci.cam.ac.uk/records/rec284.htm and secondly: http://normlife.com/documents/original/the_use_of_thymine_instead_of_uracil_in_dna.htm The latter appears to have several typos and other mistakes, however. I'm not going to add these references as the latter could be unreliable due to its other mistakes, and the former, although professional looking, somehow doesn't have as much credence as I think a source should. Altogether, it seems a reasonable body of evidence, though. If anyone knows better, they should add citations as they see fit; I've not really had much involvement in edits necessitating such.
 * Fish-Face 15:19, 22 January 2006 (UTC)

 * This section needs some work and is not entirely correct. For example, "Uracil can be produced by the degradation of cytosine, so if it were present in DNA, the genetic code may be corrupted undetectably", doesn't make sense, especially since there are enzyme, which specifically look for uracil in DNA to fix it.  Now if the question were "Why not Uracil in DNA?" then it makes some sense.  I'll try to clean it up a bit, but there is not really a clear cut answer to this question, however there are many possible reasons. Hichris 17:53, 22 February 2006 (UTC)

 * I've cleaned up the section a bit and clarified a few things. I removed the methylation info, since people are easily confuesd between methylating DNA and methylating a base. One non methylated base in a stand of DNA is not likely to cause a great deal of nuclease susceptability anyway.  Hichris 20:28, 22 February 2006 (UTC)

This table looks interesting, but it does need some annotation before it goes back into article. maveric149

ACD/Labs0216022041

8 8  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  1 V2000 0.2863  -2.2800   -0.0000 C   0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0 0.2863  -3.6100   -0.0000 C   0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0 1.4381  -1.6150   -0.0000 C   0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0 1.4381  -4.2750   -0.0000 N   0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0 2.5899  -2.2800   -0.0000 N   0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0 2.5899  -3.6100   -0.0000 C   0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0 1.4382  -0.2850   -0.0000 O   0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0 3.7417  -4.2750   -0.0000 O   0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0 1 2  2  0  0  0  0  1  3  1  0  0  0  0  2  4  1  0  0  0  0  3  5  1  0  0  0  0  4  6  1  0  0  0  0  5  6  1  0  0  0  0  7  3  2  0  0  0  0  8  6  2  0  0  0  0 M  END

This table looks like a dump of a MOL file containing the atomic coordinates of the Uracil molecule. This would be perfect content for my wiki, the Computational Chemistry Wiki, if someone would give the details of how the geometry calculation was carried out, and perhaps include the hydrogen atoms as well. Ed Sanville 21:38, 7 November 2005 (UTC)

Also, I have recieved the following question, which I do not have the answer to. If somebody else can help this man out, I believe it would be a good gesture for a good cause:

Respected sir I am indian farmer Igrow mango fruit and exporting UK i see our nearest grap farm they use uracil as growth regulators can i use uracil PGR. please inform me by mail my mail adress gittu99@yahoo.com thank you girish patel

Ed Sanville 21:38, 7 November 2005 (UTC)

Recent Updates
Glad to see this article is getting worked on quite a bit, a couple of issues I'd like to mention. I believe the synthesis section should be moved later in the article. Uracil is a biomolecule and while synthesis is of interest, the biochemistry is much more important and more likely to be why people look up the article.

The references are nice, but they should be in order. Right now it goes 1 then 10 then 8, it may be preferable to just make each footnote citation a link to the citation on the bottom instead of numbers (that way they don't have to be constantly changed!)Hichris 03:06, 9 May 2006 (UTC)

I think the synthesis should be moved up back, too. It should be in order of depth: first what a curious middle schooler needs, then enough for a high school student cramming for their chemistry finals, and then finally what a graduate student might need for there primary thesis. Kr5t 02:46, 21 May 2006 (UTC)

 * the recent changes in my mind are not an improvement. The current article seriously lacks internal links and therefore impossible to follow for a general reader. Also the table should be trimmed down because most of it does not have actual information. V8rik 16:58, 31 May 2006 (UTC)

The other neucleotide, neucleoside, etc should be like this!
We should at least explain a little about tautomers and such! In fact, the adenine page has two pictures of tautomers of adenine, a sure source of confusion. I'll add a link to this page, with the observation that it explains alot of tautomers and such, in addition to being a related substance. Kr5t 02:46, 21 May 2006 (UTC)

Suppliers links
The place and format of supplier links has been disputed, please see User Talk:213.188.227.119 and RfC on Commercial Suppliers. --Dirk Beetstra 07:49, 30 May 2006 (UTC)

Old references, cleanup
Because there was a dispute about the link to a commercial supplier in this text, I have gone through the text, tried to find where this ref (ref. 2) was. Since I could not find it, I started to replace the refs with ref-tags, and clean up the section in that way. Three references are gone, in case I missed some, the old ones are down here:
 * 1 Garrett, Reginald H.; Grisham, Charles M. Principles of Biochemistry with a Human Focus. United States: Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning, 1997.
 * 2 [www.sigmaaldrich.com Sigma Aldrich]
 * 3 National Institute of Standards and Technology http://webbook.nist.gov
 * 4 Lee,J.K.; Kurinovich, Ma. J Am Soc Mass Spectrom.13(8), 2005, 985-95.
 * 5 Goto, et al. "Fungal and bacterial regioselective hydroxylation of pyrimidine heterocycles." Tetrahedron, 53(18), 6421-6432; 1997.
 * 6 Chittenden, G.J.F.; Schwartz, Alan W. Nature.263,(5575), 350-1.
 * 7 www.madsci.org
 * 8 Horton, Robert H.; et al.Principles of Biochemistry. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002.
 * 9 Zorbach, W.W. Synthetic Procedures in Nucleic Acid Chemistry: Physical and Physicochemical Aids in Determination of Structure. Vol 2. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1973.
 * 10 Brown, D.J. Heterocyclic COmpounds: Thy Pyrimidines. Vol 52. New York: Interscience, 1994.
 * 11 Hildalgo, A; et al.'J Agric Food Chem.53'''(2),2005, 349-55.
 * 12 Mashiyama, S.T; et al.'Anal Biochem. 330'''(1),2004, 58-69.
 * 13 Brown, E.G. Ring Nitrogen and Key Biomolecules: The Biochemistry of N-Heterocycles. Boston: Lluwer Academic Publishers, 1998.
 * 14 Pozharskii, A.F.; et al.Heterocycles in Life and Society: An Introduction to Heterocyclic Chemistry and Biochemistry and the Role of Heterocycles in Science, Technology, Medicine, adn Agriculture. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1997.
 * 15 Kochetkov, N.K. and Budovskii, E.I. Organic Chemistry of Nucleic Acids Part B. New York: Plenum Press, 1972.

Hope all is OK now. --Dirk Beetstra 19:42, 31 May 2006 (UTC)

Fuming Sulfuric Acid??
I don't think so. 1) There's no sulfur in uracil. 2) Sulfur trioxide is highly dangerous. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.178.59.216 (talk) 15:27, 12 November 2008 (UTC)

Chemical formula
There are several errors with the first chemical formula. This is what the article says:

Degradation of uracil produces substrates, aspartate, carbon dioxide, and ammonia:
 * C4H4N2O2 → H3NCH2CH2COO- + NH4 + CO2

 * The text says ammonia and the formula says NH4.
 * There is no such thing as NH4. It should either say NH3 or NH4+.
 * It is not balanced. There are, for instance, two oxygen atoms on the left side, and four on the right side.

Nirmos (talk) 07:47, 9 January 2010 (UTC)
 * There is no aspartate, but beta-alanine missing it's positive charge. You can't get aspartate out of uracile without adding a carboxylic group to the C3-chain. Nor can you get maleic acid by oxidation without doing the same. Please consider malonic acid in this case. The stoichiometry of the above equation is impossible. --FK1954 (talk) 21:32, 22 September 2013 (UTC)

Strange assertion
"Originally discovered in 1900, it was isolated by hydrolysis of yeast  nuclein that was found in bovine thymus and spleen, herring  sperm, and wheat  germ"

Why would yeast nuclein be found in bovine thymus and spleen ? This makes no sense. Is it a joke ? Perhaps this sentence should be rewritten.Eregli bob (talk) 19:31, 18 March 2010 (UTC)

Confused Statement
"Found in RNA, it base-pairs with adenine and replaces thymine during DNA transcription. Methylation of uracil produces thymine.[5] It turns into thymine to protect the DNA and to improve the efficiency of DNA replication. Uracil can base-pair with any of the bases, depending on how the molecule arranges itself on the helix, but readily pairs with adenine because the methyl group is repelled into a fixed position"

This doesn't make any sense to me, neiher uracil or adenine have a methyl group to repel. Is this alluding to the A-T interaction in DNA, and if so should the final "Uracial" be "Thymine", and does the last sentence even belong in this article?

Merging into "Uracil"
Hello,

It has been suggested to merge the article "Uracil in DNA" into "Uracil". I completely agree and would like to perform the merging. What do the others think? MultiOlga (talk) 08:29, 24 July 2013 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 09:42, 30 April 2016 (UTC)

It could be Maleic Acid, not Malic acid
Although the page cited in the synthesis of Uracil does mention Malic acid, it is possible that the name was often used interchangeably with maleic acid. Additionally, the formula mentioned says "C4H4O4", which is the formula for maleic acid, not malic acid (which is C4H6O5).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Uracil


text:
Blum Blum Shub

Blum Blum Shub (B.B.S.) is a pseudorandom number generator proposed in 1986 by Lenore Blum, Manuel Blum and Michael Shub that is derived from Michael O. Rabin's one-way function.

Blum Blum Shub takes the form

 * $$x_{n+1} = x_n^2 \bmod M$$,

where M = pq is the product of two large primes p and q. At each step of the algorithm, some output is derived from xn+1; the output is commonly either the bit parity of xn+1 or one or more of the least significant bits of xn+1.

The seed x0 should be an integer that is co-prime to M (i.e. p and q are not factors of x0) and not 1 or 0.

The two primes, p and q, should both be congruent to 3 (mod 4) (this guarantees that each quadratic residue has one square root which is also a quadratic residue), and should be safe primes with a small gcd((p-3)/2, (q-3)/2) (this makes the cycle length large).

An interesting characteristic of the Blum Blum Shub generator is the possibility to calculate any xi value directly (via Euler's theorem):

 * $$x_i = \left( x_0^{2^i \bmod \lambda(M)} \right) \bmod M$$,

where $$\lambda$$ is the Carmichael function. (Here we have $$\lambda(M) = \lambda(p\cdot q) = \operatorname{lcm}(p-1, q-1)$$).

Security
There is a proof reducing its security to the computational difficulty of factoring. When the primes are chosen appropriately, and O(log log M) lower-order bits of each xn are output, then in the limit as M grows large, distinguishing the output bits from random should be at least as difficult as solving the quadratic residuosity problem modulo M.

The performance of the BBS random-number generator depends on the size of the modulus M and the number of bits per iteration j. While lowering M or increasing j makes the algorithm faster, doing so also reduces the security. A 2005 paper gives concrete, as opposed to asymptotic, security proof of BBS, for a given M and j. The result can also be used to guide choices of the two numbers by balancing expected security against computational cost.

Example
Let $$p=11$$, $$q=23$$ and $$s=3$$ (where $$s$$ is the seed). We can expect to get a large cycle length for those small numbers, because $${\rm gcd}((p-3)/2, (q-3)/2)=2$$. The generator starts to evaluate $$x_0$$ by using $$x_{-1}=s$$ and creates the sequence $$x_0$$, $$x_1$$, $$x_2$$, $$\ldots$$ $$x_5$$ = 9, 81, 236, 36, 31, 202. The following table shows the output (in bits) for the different bit selection methods used to determine the output.

The following is a Python implementation that does check for primality.

The following Common Lisp implementation provides a simple demonstration of the generator, in particular regarding the three bit selection methods. It is important to note that the requirements imposed upon the parameters p, q and s (seed) are not checked.

title: Blum Blum Shub


text:
Roma

Roma or ROMA may refer to:

People, characters, figures, names

 * Roma or Romani people, an ethnic group living mostly in Europe and the Americas.
 * Roma called Roy, ancient Egyptian High Priest of Amun
 * Roma (footballer, born 1979), born Paulo Marcel Pereira Merabet, Brazilian football forward
 * Roma (footballer, born 1985), born Juliano Laurentino dos Santos, Brazilian football winger
 * Sister Roma or Michael Williams (born 1962), American drag performer and director

 * Roma (personification), goddess in ancient Rome

Names

 * Roma (given name), a female given name
 * Roma (surname), a surname (and list of people with the name)
 * Roman (given name), or Roma, a male given name
 * Roman (surname), a surname (and list of people with the name)

Places

 * 472 Roma, the asteroid "Roma", the 472nd asteroid registered, a main belt asteroid

Australia

 * Roma, Queensland, a town
 * Roma Airport
 * Roma Courthouse
 * Electoral district of Roma, defunct
 * Town of Roma, defunct town, now part of the Maranoa Regional Council
 * Roma Street, Brisbane, a street in Queensland
 * Roma Street busway station
 * Roma Street Parkland, park in Brisbane, Queensland
 * Roma Street railway station, a station in Brisbane, Queensland

Brazil

 * Mata Roma, a municipality in the state of Maranhão
 * Roma Negra, a nickname of the city of Salvador, Bahia

Italy

 * Rome or Roma, the capital of Italy
 * A.S. Roma, one of the football clubs of Rome
 * Roma Tre University (founded in 1992)
 * Esposizione Universale Roma or EUR, a residential and business district
 * Ancient Rome or Roma

Lesotho

 * Roma, Lesotho, in the Maseru District

Mexico

 * Colonia Roma, a neighbourhood in Mexico City

Peru

 * Roma, Peru, a town in La Libertad Region

Portugal

 * Roma (Lisbon Metro), a Green Line station on Avenida de Roma

Romania

 * Roma, Botoșani, a commune

Spain

 * La Roma, a fossil site in Aragon
 * Roma (Requena), a village in Valencia

Sweden

 * Roma, Gotland, a town

United States

 * Roma, Texas, a town
 * Roma Independent School District

Film and television

 * Roma (1972 film), an Italian film by Federico Fellini
 * Roma (2004 film), an Argentinian film by Adolfo Aristarain
 * Roma (2018 film), a Mexican film by Alfonso Cuarón
 * Roma (Don character), a fictional character in the Don film series

Literature

 * Roma (novel), a 2007 novel by Steven Saylor about Ancient Rome
 * Roma (comics), a Marvel comics character

Music

 * Roma (band), an American glam rock band

 * Roma Symphony (Bizet), a 19th-century symphony by Georges Bizet
 * Roma (opera), a 1912 opera by Jules Massenet
 * Roma, a 1991 album by Terry Ronald
 * "Roma" (Cameron Cartio song), 2005
 * "Roma" (Luis Fonsi and Laura Pausini song), 2024

Companies

 * Roma Revolving Restaurant, in Durban, South Africa
 * ROMA Design Group, a San Francisco-based interdisciplinary design firm
 * Tony Roma's, an American chain restaurant

Political organizations

 * Party of the Roma, a political party in Romania
 * Roma Democratic Social Party, a political party in the Czech Republic
 * Roma Party, a political party in Serbia

Transportation

 * Roma (airship), a US army airship (Italian ex-T34) which crashed on February 21, 1922
 * Italian ironclad Roma, an armoured steam frigate commissioned in 1865
 * Italian battleship Roma (1907), a predreadnought battleship of the Regina Elena class
 * Italian battleship Roma (1940), a battleship of the Vittorio Veneto class
 * SS Roma (1926)
 * MV Doulos or SS Roma
 * Ferrari Roma, grand touring sports car manufactured by Italian automobile manufacturer Ferrari

Sports teams

 * A.S. Roma, a football team in Rome, Italy
 * A.S. Roma (Superleague Formula team), auto racing team associated with above
 * A.S. Roma Futsal, futsal team associated with above
 * AS Roma (women), women's division of the team
 * Dallas Roma F.C., a soccer team in Dallas, Texas, United States
 * M. Roma Volley, a volleyball team in Rome, Italy
 * Roma Esporte Apucarana, a football team in Apucarana, Paraná, Brazil
 * Roma S.C., a defunct soccer team in Paterson, New Jersey, United States
 * Roma United, a football club in the Cayman Islands
 * Rugby Roma Olimpic, a rugby team in Rome, Italy

Sporting events

 * Premio Roma, a horse race in Rome, Italy
 * Roma Cup, a horse race in Perth, Western Australia, Australia
 * Roma Golf Open, a golf tournament in Rome, Italy
 * Roma Masters, a defunct golf tournament in Rome, Italy
 * Roma Open, a tennis tournament in Rome, Italy

Other uses

 * ROMA or Representational Oligonucleotide Microarray Analysis, a genomics technology
 * Roma rice, an Italian cultivated variety of rice particularly suitable for risotto
 * Roma tomato, a plum tomato commonly found in supermarkets

title: Roma


text:
Talk:Cytochrome

''I have been seeing these by other (simular) names as well so do not hesitate to change them. Should they be subpages, separate, or just short descriptions after each one in the list?''

Untitled

 * Much can be written about each of the cytochromes -- each will need its own article. However, the main cytochrome entry should have short descriptions and links to each of the specific cytochrome articles. maveric149

CYP3A4
I'm really thinking about adding something about Cytochrome P450-3A4 (CYP3A4) to this page because of the pain I have gone through. CYP3A4 is a liver enzyme that the body uses to breakdown (metabolize) a large number of chemicals. It is also secreted by the gastrointestinal tract in an effort to breakdown chemicals before they even enter the bloodstream. I take a medication that is a potent inhibitor of CYP3A4 deliberately because it enhances another medication I take since that medication is inhibited by CYP3A4. Unfortuately, there is a long list of other medications that are inadvertently affected by the CYP3A4 I take. When a doctor tells me to start a new medication I always bring this issue up. Does it help? Most times no, because doctors are by-and-large exteremly ignorant about exceptional cases like myself and I have been repeatedly poisoned by being given contra-indicated medications. I swear that the next time a doctor tells me to take a contra-indicated medication and won't listen to me I will insist that he/she put it in writing that they know (s)he is giving me contra-indicated medications and I will sue his or her sorry ass for malpractice. If you have felt some of the pain that I have been put through you'd understand completely.

Plagiarism
The majority of this entry is verbatim from the 2006 dental decks for the national dental board exam, part 1. Any plagiarism going on (in the article or the decks)?

Definition of Cytohrome/References needed
Cytochrome as fas as I know is not an enzyme. I think the article needs some refernces. Some IP address user on November 7th added that it is an oxidase/reductase. I am going to change it since I thing it is completelt wrong. Cytochrome oxidases/reducatses are the enzymes. --Kupirijo 20:59, 7 October 2006 (UTC)

Cytochromes in viruses
It has been shown that Mimivirus does also encode for a Cytochrome. Therefore the overview passage should be changed accordingly. Source: http://jvi.asm.org/cgi/content/abstract/JVI.00289-09v1?etoc Interferon-lambda (talk) 09:22, 17 June 2009 (UTC)

Redox
And: "which interconverts between Fe2+ (oxidized) and Fe3+ (reduced) states (electron-transfer processes) or between Fe2+ (oxidized) and Fe3+ (formal, reduced)"... Fe2+ oxidized and becoming more negative and vice versa... —Preceding unsigned comment added by Rgek (talk • contribs) 22:07, 21 October 2009 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Cytochrome


text:
Talk:Biblioholic

This talk text was copied from the biblioholist talk page to show why the redirect was reversed to make this page, biblioholic, the main page.

This page looks incorrect. biblioholic is redirected here, but I can find no references to the term biblioholist on the Internet. I suspect the word has been invented, in which case it should be deleted and the text of the article moved to biblioholic. Graham Chapman I disagree. The word "biblioholism" has numerous references (when using Google or Altavista) Ted Longstaffe

I think you miss my point. There are plenty of references to biblioholism, but not to biblioholist. Consider alcoholism - a sufferer is called an alcoholic, not an alcoholist. Similarly with biblioholism, shouldn't it be biblioholic? Graham Chapman

And of course we would have specialic instead of specialist. However the preponderance of web hits come down on the side of biblioholic so I guess you win this round.

--- So then how do you distinguish between a biblioholist and a bibliomaniac? Eclecticology

I thought a bibliomaniac was someone who goes crazy in a library (probably some poor homeless guy looking for some warmth). Sort of like a postalmaniac  Ted Longstaffe

But should this be an entry in an encylopedia at all? It looks like a simple dictionary definition to me, and I can't think of anything more to add to it myself. Bryan Derksen

 * Yes, I quess you could have an article about notable biblioholics, confessed biblioholics and suspected ones. Might even be able to throw in the history of the term and maybe how its use has changed through time. However I've never heard the term used before so would have a hard time adding to it either. Google found about 300 hits so I'm confident that the term nominally exists -- just isn't widely used. --maveric149, Thursday, May 30, 2002

title: Talk:Biblioholic


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Peckforton Castle

Peckforton Castle is a Victorian country house built in the style of a medieval castle. It stands in woodland at the north end of Peckforton Hills 1 mi northwest of the village of Peckforton, Cheshire, England. It is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building. The house was built in the middle of the 19th century as a family home for John Tollemache, a wealthy Cheshire landowner, estate manager, and member of parliament. It was designed by Anthony Salvin in the Gothic style. During the Second World War it was used as a hostel for physically disabled children.

The Tollemache family used the castle for occasional gatherings, but otherwise it was unused until 1969. From 1969 to 1980 the castle was leased by the 4th Lord Tollemache to George W. Barrett, and it again became a private residence and closed to the public. The right wing and tower and the castle gardens were restored by Barrett, an American employed by the U.S. Government. His daughter Pascale's wedding was the first to be held in the chapel and a special decree had to be obtained by the Archbishop of Canterbury to legally hold Catholic weddings in the grounds of the castle.

During the 1970s and 1980s it was used as a location for shooting films and television programmes. The castle was bought in 1988 by Evelyn Graybill, who converted it into a hotel. In 2006 it was purchased by the Naylor family, who expanded its use to include hosting weddings, conferences and other functions.

Early history
Peckforton Castle was built between 1844 and 1850 for John Tollemache, the largest landowner in Cheshire at the time, who was described by William Ewart Gladstone as "the greatest estate manager of his day". Tollemache's first choice of architect was George Latham of Nantwich, but he was not appointed, and was paid £2,000 in compensation. Instead Tollemache appointed Anthony Salvin, who had a greater reputation and more experience, and who had already carried out work on the Tollemache manor house, Helmingham Hall in Suffolk. The castle was built by Dean and Son of Leftwich, with Joseph Cookson of Tarporley acting as clerk of works. Stone was obtained from a quarry about 1 mi to the west of the site, and a railway was built to carry the stone. The castle cost £60,000.

Although it was built as a family home its design was that of a medieval castle. It has a gatehouse, a portcullis, a dry moat, external windows that are little more than arrow slots, and large towers. In 1851 The Illustrated London News said that it "seems to exhibit the peculiar beauties of Carnarvon Castle without its inconveniences" and in 1858 Sir George Gilbert Scott called it "the largest and most carefully and learnedly executed Gothic mansion of the present" and that it was "the very height of masquerading". It is regarded as "the last serious fortified home built in England" and "it was executed to the highest standards and is one of the great buildings of its age".

There has been debate about the motives for building a more-or-less complete medieval-style castle in the 19th century. Although he was a great estate manager, Tollemache was also perceived as "a man of considerable eccentricity". Dr Jill Allibone is of the opinion that he might have been protecting himself and his family from the political troubles of the time. In a defensive building he would be able to protect himself against any revolution by the masses from nearby Manchester or Liverpool. A possible practical reason for building such a solid residence rather than an Italianate-style villa was to provide shelter from the adverse weather conditions which could affect the Cheshire plain. However Durdey comes to the conclusion that the decisive factors were to use his "vast inheritance" to provide himself with a house that was "impressive, dominant and suitable for Cheshire's greatest landowner".

Location
Peckforton Castle stands in a wooded area near the northern extremity of Peckforton Hills at an elevation of 469.2 ft. The land falls steeply downwards to the north and the west of the castle, and the Sandstone Trail, a long-distance footpath, runs along the base of these slopes. The ruins of Beeston Castle stand on a separate steeply sloping hill 0.75 mi to the north. The village of Beeston is 0.75 mi to the northeast and the village of Peckforton is 1 mi to the southeast. Access is via the road between Beeston and Peckforton.

External
The castle is faced with red sandstone, and has lead, asphalt and tile roofs. It is mainly in three storeys with a five-storey tower. The buildings are arranged around a ward with the principal accommodation on the north side. It is surrounded by a dry moat which is bridged at the gatehouse. To the west of the inner ward are the stables, the coach house, a rectangular bell tower and the kitchens and service area. To the north is the great hall range which consists of 18 bays. Behind the entrance to the hall is the circular main tower. At the east end of the gallery wing is the octagonal library tower. The outer walls of the castle have full-height slender turrets at the changes in direction. Corbel tables support part of the battlements. The walls contain arrow slots, and in the gatehouse is a garderobe. The flat roof has a crenellated parapet.

Internal
The porch leads into the great hall which has a Minton tile floor and a large stone chimney piece. In the east wing is the long gallery which has oak panelling, a chimney-piece and a panelled ceiling. Behind the long gallery is an irregularly-shaped billiard room and the drawing room. To the south of these is the library. Behind the great hall is the main staircase. The circular tower at the north-west corner contains the octagonal dining room with a Minton tile floor, two fireplaces, and a vault of eight radial ribs running to a central boss. The room contains an oak sideboard with a carved Green Man. Below the dining room is a wine cellar. On the fifth floor of the circular tower is a room designed for playing rackets, which is approached by a stone spiral staircase.

Garden
The castle had no formal garden, but at the bottom of the drive were kitchen gardens which included vegetable gardens, an orchard, extensive glass houses and a large orangery. At one time, 17 gardeners were employed.

Chapel
On the east side of the ward is the family's private chapel, a Grade II* listed building. It was also designed by Salvin and is constructed of rock-faced sandstone with a tile roof. Its plan consists of a two-bay nave, a south aisle, a vestry, and a narrower and lower single-bay chancel. On the gable ends of the nave and chancel are stone cross finials. Over the chancel arch is a cruciform stone bellcote. Inside the chapel an arcade of three Gothic arches separates the south aisle from the nave. The reredos is made of oak and is inscribed with the Lord's Prayer and the Ten Commandments. The choirstalls and the benches in the nave are carved with poppyheads. The baptistry at the west end contains a carved stone font with a carved oak cover. Although it is described as a modest building, the chapel is considered to "complete the ensemble" of the castle.

Entrance lodge
The entrance lodge to the southeast of the castle is also listed at Grade II*. It was designed by Salvin and is constructed in red brick and stone with a tile roof. It consists of an archway with a round turret behind and a two-storey lodge to the left.

Later history and present use
Before moving into the castle in the 1890s, Wilbraham Tollemache, 2nd Baron Tollemache added central heating and electric light. In 1922 a large scheme of afforestation was started on the Peckforton Hills, and the resulting woodland has been granted the status of a Site of Special Scientific Interest. Bentley Tollemache, 3rd Baron Tollemache, grandson of Wilbraham Tollemache, and his family left Peckforton at the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939.

During the war the castle was used as a hostel for physically handicapped children who had been evacuated from the London area. Bentley Tollemache died in 1955 and, as he had no sons, the estate passed to his cousin, John Tollemache.

During the 1970s, 1980s and early 1990s, the castle was used as a location for shooting films and television programmes. These include the Doctor Who serial The Time Warrior, broadcast in 1973–74, and a 1991 movie of Robin Hood starring Patrick Bergin and Uma Thurman. From 1982 to 1986, Treasure Trap, one of the world's first live action role-playing games, took place on the site. In 1988 the castle was purchased by an American, Evelyn Graybill, for £1 million. She renovated most of the building and secured planning permission to convert it into a hotel.

In 2006 a member of the Naylor family was married in the castle, and the family subsequently bought it. Peckforton is now used as a hotel and for corporate events and weddings. The building was severely damaged by fire in June 2011 during a wedding, the cost of the damage being in the region of £6 million. In December 2011 the bridegroom admitted to a charge of arson.

title: Peckforton Castle


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Talk:Possesive case

Shouldn't this article be merged with the correctly worded "Posses s ive case" article?

Yes, definitely. Don't be shy about doing that, either--that's exactly the sort of thing we should feel bold about doing. --Larry_Sanger

title: Talk:Possesive case


text:
Walter Winterbottom

Sir Walter Winterbottom (31 March 1913 – 16 February 2002) was an English football player and coach. He was the first manager of the England national team (1946–1962) and Director of Coaching for The Football Association (the FA). He resigned from the FA in 1962 to become General Secretary of the Central Council of Physical Recreation (CCPR) and was appointed as the first Director of the Sports Council in 1965. He was knighted for his services to sport in 1978 when he retired. The Football Association marked the 100th anniversary of Winterbottom's birth by commissioning a bust which was unveiled by Roy Hodgson at St George's Park on 23 April 2013 in recognition of his outstanding contribution to the development of English football.

Early years
Born in Oldham, Lancashire, Walter Winterbottom was the only son of James Winterbottom, a ring frame fitter in a textile machine works. At the age of 12 he was awarded a scholarship to Oldham High School where he excelled. He won a bursary to Chester Diocesan Teachers Training College, graduating as the top student in 1933 and took a teaching post at the Alexandra Road School, Oldham. Whilst teaching he played football for Royton Amateurs and then Mossley where he was spotted by Manchester United. He signed for United as a part-time professional in 1936 but continued teaching. In his first season (1936/37) at Manchester United he showed great promise, playing 21 first team League games and two FA cup games, appearing as wing half and centre half. But in the following two seasons he made only four first team appearances. and 41 Central League appearances, his playing career effectively ended by a spinal disease, later diagnosed as ankylosing spondylitis. Whilst still playing for Manchester United he left his teaching position to study at Carnegie College of Physical Education, Leeds. On graduating he was appointed as a lecturer.

During World War II Winterbottom served as an officer in the Royal Air Force, reaching the rank of wing commander and working at the Air Ministry with overall responsibility for training PE instructors at home and overseas. He was also a guest player with Chelsea and ran coaching courses for the FA at grammar schools in London. In 1946 Stanley Rous, who was the secretary of The Football Association, persuaded the FA council to appoint Winterbottom as The FA's first Director of Coaching and suggested he take on the additional responsibility of being the first England team manager.

England team manager
Walter Winterbottom has the distinction of being England's first, youngest and longest serving England team manager; he is also the only England manager to have had no previous professional managerial experience. In all matches in which he was in charge, England played 139, won 78, drew 33, and lost 28, scoring 383 and conceding 196. At home England lost six matches in sixteen years. England won the British Home Championship in thirteen out of his sixteen seasons (seven times outright and six times sharing top place). In the World Cup tournament England qualified on all four occasions, reaching the quarter-finals twice, playing 28 matches, winning 15, drawing 7 and losing 6; goals for 75 against 35 (including World Cup qualifying matches).

Although he had coaching and managerial responsibilities, Winterbottom never had the power to pick his own team and it was instead chosen by a selection committee. Over time his technical knowledge increasingly influenced selectors. Finally, prior to Alf Ramsey's arrival in 1962, he convinced the FA that the team manager must have sole control of selection. During his time Winterbottom repeatedly warned the English football establishment that countries in Continental Europe and South America were overtaking England and that English football had to change. His sixteen years as England team manager helped greatly in creating a modern and competitive national team and four years after his departure in 1966 England won the World Cup. His innovations included the introduction of England B, Under 23, youth and schoolboy teams providing players with continuity and experience in international football before being selected for the full England team.

Notable victories during his tenure were 10—0 away to Portugal in 1947, 4—0 away to Italy in 1948, 3—1 at home to recently crowned World Champions West Germany in 1954, 4—2 at home to Brazil in 1956 and 9—3 at home to Scotland in 1961. Notable defeats were losing 2–0 to the Republic of Ireland at Goodison Park, losing 1—0 to the USA in the 1950 World Cup and 6—3 at home to Hungary in 1953, when England lost their unbeaten home record to a foreign team at Wembley, followed by a 7—1 away defeat to the same team in 1954.

Also while he was manager, England visited Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Denmark, Mexico, Peru, Portugal, the Soviet Union, United States and Uruguay for the first time.

FIFA World Cup record
Winterbottom led England to four consecutive World Cup finals, a record subsequently equalled only by Helmut Schön of West Germany. England entered the World Cup for the first time in 1950, qualifying for the tournament in Brazil by winning the British Home Championship. England had never before played in South America. They beat Chile by 2–0 but lost 1—0 to the USA and 1—0 to Spain to be eliminated in the first round. Winterbottom again led England to qualification in Switzerland in 1954 by winning the British Home championship. A 4—4 draw against Belgium and a 2—0 victory against Switzerland took them to the quarter-finals where they were beaten 4—2 by the defending champions, Uruguay.

England qualified for the 1958 FIFA World Cup in Sweden with wins over the Republic of Ireland and Denmark, with a team that had lost only once in 17 games. Three months before the tournament began the Munich air disaster robbed the team of key players from Manchester United: Roger Byrne, Tommy Taylor and Duncan Edwards died. England drew against the USSR, Brazil and Austria but lost to the Soviet Union in a playoff for a quarter-final place.

Winterbottom again led his team to qualification for the 1962 World Cup in Chile with wins over Portugal and Luxembourg. After progressing from their group on goal average, England reached the quarter-finals but were beaten 3—1 by the eventual winners, Brazil.

FA Director of Coaching
Although Winterbottom is best known as the England team manager, it is in coaching that he made important contributions to the development of English football. He made no secret of his belief that his job as Director of Coaching was the more important of his two roles at the FA.

When he joined the FA in 1946, club directors, managers and players were cynical about the need for coaching but Winterbottom had a passion for coaching and a vision of how it should develop. He soon created a national coaching scheme with summer residential courses at Lilleshall, Shropshire, and persuaded some of his international players to take the courses that led to exams for the FA preliminary and full coaching badges. This gave the scheme credibility. They developed their teaching skills by coaching in schools and then moved into part-time coaching positions in junior clubs. He gathered around him a cadre of young FA staff coaches: men like Bill Nicholson, Don Howe, Alan Brown, Ron Greenwood, Dave Sexton, Malcolm Allison, Joe Mercer, Vic Buckingham, Jimmy Hill and Bobby Robson. Over time a new breed of managers emerged in the League clubs and began to change attitudes to coaching.

Winterbottom's courses were expanded to include professional players, referees, schoolmasters, club trainers, schoolboys and youth leaders. In addition to Lilleshall they were held at Loughborough College, Carnegie College, Bisham Abbey and Birmingham University. In 1947 three hundred had taken the full coaching award and the numbers of qualified coaches grew each year.

The courses attracted international participation and praise. Winterbottom was regarded by many as a leading technical thinker and exponent of association football, of his generation, in the world and lectured internationally.

He inspired a new generation of managers, most notably Ron Greenwood and Bobby Robson, who graduated through every level of coaching, both eventually becoming England team manager.

Criticism
In assessing Winterbottom's tenure as England manager, Goldblatt writes that "[Winterbottom] introduced a measure of tactical thinking and discussion to the England squad, though his inability to anticipate or learn significantly from the Hungarian debacle suggests that his grasp of tactics and communication with the players was limited." William Baker writes that Winterbottom, because of his "upper-class origins [sic]", could not "effectively instruct, much less inspire, working-class footballers." Football journalist Brian Glanville said in an interview: "I got on very well with Walter Winterbottom, but he was a rotten manager."

Publishing
Winterbottom was also responsible for the publishing at the FA. The first coaching bulletin was launched in 1946 and this became the FA Bulletin and then the FA News. The FA Year Book was introduced in 1948, along with the FA Book for Boys annual. The first coaching films and film strips followed in 1950.

An important landmark was the publication of Winterbottom's book, Soccer Coaching, the first modern soccer coaching manual. This was followed by three more books, Skilful Soccer, Modern Soccer and Training for Soccer.

Sports administrator
In 1962 Winterbottom resigned from the FA and took up an appointment as General Secretary of the Central Council of Physical Recreation and two years later became the Director of the newly formed Sports Council. He stepped onto the wider stage of sport and emerged to have a profound effect on sport in Britain during the second half of the twentieth century.

Central Council of Physical Recreation
At the Central Council of Physical Education (CCPR) Winterbottom worked to provide coaches and better facilities for sports governing bodies. He soon became involved in the ongoing political debate about the recommendations of the 1960 Report of the Wolfenden Committee on Sport, which had recommended the establishment of a Sports Council responsible for distributing government money to sport. He was in favour but the CCPR was divided on the issue. In 1965 the Government under set up a Sports Council and Winterbottom was seconded to become the first Director of the Sports Council with Denis Howell as his chairman.

Sports Council
Winterbottom believed that participation in a sport played a much more important role in society that was generally accepted. For 16 years he battled to win significantly more investment in sport from national and local government to support a Sport for All campaign. Despite a harsh economic climate great progress was made in providing new facilities. In ten years 499 sports centres were built and 524 new swimming pools. Under his leadership sports governing bodies were helped to develop more professional organisations and provide more coaches. He conceived the idea of the Sports Aid Foundation, raising money from industry to back young elite sportsmen and women with Olympic medal winning chances.

He was a member of the Council of Europe and Chairman of the Committee for the Development of Sport and was influential in the acceptance of the Sport For All concept by Canada and UNESCO.

Later life
In 1978, after reaching the age of 65, Winterbottom retired from the Sports Council and was knighted for his services to sport. He became an advisor to the British government on ways in which British manufacturers of sports equipment could work with foreign firms. In 1979, he visited Australia and New Zealand to help their governments to support sport in the community.

He was head of the FIFA Technical Studies Group for the World Cup in 1966, 1970, 1974, 1978 and a member in 1982. In 1985 The Winterbottom Report, an FA enquiry into artificial playing surfaces was published and in 1987–89 he was a member of the Football League enquiry into artificial pitches.

He died in the Royal Surrey Hospital after an operation for cancer on 16 February 2002. He was 88 years old. A memorial service was held at St. Nicolas Church, Cranleigh, Surrey on 1 March 2002.

Honours

 * British Home Championship
 * Champions: 1947, 1948, 1950, 1952 (shared), 1953 (shared), 1954, 1955, 1956 (shared), 1957, 1958 (shared), 1959 (shared), 1960 (shared), 1961
 * Runners-up: 1949, 1951

Literature

 * Graham Morse: Sir Walter Winterbottom - The Father of Modern English Football, Kings Road Publishing, 2013.

title: Walter Winterbottom


text:
Talk:David Beckham

Ukraine
He supporting Ukrainian hospitals, what about it? Gjqpvsnz (talk) 07:24, 26 February 2023 (UTC)

Description
Despite being an extremely famous and recognizable name I don't think most people consider David Beckham to be one of the greatest midfielders of all time. Many don't even regard him as a greater player than the likes of Ryan Giggs or Luis Figo, who barely make it to anyone's top 10 list. Ultimately it depends on how many players in history does one think he has to be "greater" to be called "one of the greatest, but claiming so right away can mislead people into thinking that he was a better player than he actually was. Perhaps "being hailed as one of the best midfielders in his time" would make a better and more neutral description of him. Mottepchanh (talk) 15:57, 11 May 2023 (UTC)
 * yes i reverted that addition but User:Scientelensia forced it back into the article: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David_Beckham&diff=prev&oldid=1154185687 --FMSky (talk) 16:19, 11 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Yes I agree with you @Mottepchanh but there are sources to prove it, feel free to change the wording as you say though! Scientelensia (talk) 20:24, 11 May 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 6 September 2023
Could you add this to external links ? and his ID is: 331 102.45.8.130 (talk) 17:21, 6 September 2023 (UTC)
 * ✅  ULPS ( talk •  contribs ) 18:52, 6 September 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 17 October 2023
Suggested addition to 2007 contract and arrival at wLA Galaxy:

Change this: The speculation about his new contract in Madrid was thus put to an end and the following day Beckham's official press conference was held in conjunction with the 2007 MLS SuperDraft.[109] The announcement made global headlines and elevated the league's profile. Though many worldwide media outlets reported the deal to be worth US$250 million,[110] the astronomical figure was soon revealed to be something of a PR stunt engineered by Beckham's media handlers (British representative agency 19 Entertainment).[111]

To this:

The speculation about his new contract in Madrid was thus put to an end and the following day Beckham's official press conference was held in conjunction with the 2007 MLS SuperDraft.[109] The announcement made global headlines and elevated the league's profile. Several years later, in a CNN interview, Beckham revealed that his agent Simon Fuller had inserted a clause into the Galaxy contract to allow him to buy an MLS Club at a discounted rate: "“When I signed my contract six, seven years ago, my manager Simon Fuller actually got a clause in the contract that enabled me to have a franchise at the end of my playing career and obviously now I’ve stopped playing,” Beckham said in 2013. Many worldwide media outlets reported the deal to be worth US$250 million[110] the figure presented by Beckham's media handlers (British representative agency 19 Entertainment).[111] 146.199.88.181 (talk) 16:56, 17 October 2023 (UTC)

 * Not done: Please create a Wikipedia account and message my talk page if you have any questions. Please clarify how your edit improves the page. Unfortunately, your request is not granted. Awhellnawr123214 (talk) 06:01, 1 November 2023 (UTC)

Error in article
the article says Beckham returned to Preston with Matty James when Darren Ferguson was sacked.

Darren Ferguson was not there at the time but 10+ years later. Matty James was 4 years old.

One of your editors done goofed 2404:E801:200E:EC1:79EF:222C:D733:E34E (talk) 09:50, 12 November 2023 (UTC)

I just noticed the same thing. Completely different time periods, needs to be removed ASAP. 38.242.161.164 (talk) 10:08, 12 November 2023 (UTC)

Yep
Like it is soooo important to write that Pogba is muslim, it should also be as sooo important to write that Beckham is a jew. Or maybe it's not that important when someone is jew, christian, as it is writing that a person is muslim for you?188.113.95.213 (talk) 17:13, 11 December 2023 (UTC)
 * Beckham is not a Jew, he describes himself as part of the Jewish community. Thanks. – PeeJay 11:27, 13 December 2023 (UTC)
 * Then he is a jew. 149.7.162.57 (talk) 10:43, 2 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Under the traditional sense he isn't Jewish, but under Reform he can be, Some what of a grey area, he is listed in List of select Jewish footballers which is in see also on the article. But I personally don't think he should be listed. Regards. Govvy (talk) 11:09, 29 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:David Beckham


text:
George Hamilton-Gordon

George Hamilton-Gordon may refer to:

 * George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen (1784–1860), Peelite politician and British prime minister
 * George Hamilton-Gordon, 5th Earl of Aberdeen (1816–1864), Liberal politician
 * George Hamilton-Gordon, 6th Earl of Aberdeen (1841–1870), Scottish peer
 * George Hamilton-Gordon, 2nd Baron Stanmore (1871–1957), Liberal politician

title: George Hamilton-Gordon


text:
CBE (disambiguation)

CBE may refer to:

Travel

 * CBE, IATA code for Greater Cumberland Regional Airport.
 * CBE, ICAO code for Aerocaribe, airline based in Cancun, Mexico.
 * CBE, National Rail station code for Canterbury East railway station
 * CBE, Railway code for Coimbatore Junction
 * Cross Bronx Expressway, a major freeway in the New York City borough of the Bronx.
 * Cranbourne railway station, Melbourne

Communications

 * CBE, the former callsign of the CBC Radio One AM station in Windsor, Ontario.
 * CBE-FM, callsign of the CBC Radio Two FM station in Windsor, Ontario.

Banking

 * The Central Bank of Egypt, the central (or reserve) bank in Egypt.
 * Commercial Bank of Ethiopia, an Ethiopian bank founded in 1963.

Education

 * CBE, Competency-based education, another term for Competency-based learning
 * Calgary Board of Education, public school board for the city of Calgary, Alberta.

Science

 * Cannabielsoin, a component of cannabis
 * Carbon Balance Error, the error in accounting for Carbon in a mass balance
 * Cat-back exhaust, a type of automotive exhaust.
 * Cell Broadband Engine, a multi-core general purpose CPU developed jointly by Sony, Toshiba and IBM.
 * Center for the Built Environment, a research institution at UC, Berkeley.
 * Chemical beam epitaxy, a thin film growth method using beams of molecules.
 * Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, a branch of engineering dealing with the physical and life sciences.
 * College of Built Environments, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.
 * CBE, International Meteor Organization designation for meteor shower Coma Berenicids.
 * Collisionless Boltzmann equation in plasma physics and gravitational dynamics.
 * Common Base Event, a computing term referring to IBM's implementation of the Web Services Distributed Management (WSDM) Event Format standard.
 * Council of Biology Editors, a former name of the Council of Science Editors, who publish the CBE style guide.
 * Current Best Estimate, a common expression of related to the highest fidelity value known at the time.

Honours

 * Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire, a grade within the British order of chivalry.
 * Conqueror of the British Empire, a self-awarded title of the Ugandan dictator, Idi Amin.

Sports

 * Brazilian Fencing Confederation, or Confederação Brasileira de Esgrima
 * College Basketball Experience Classic (CBE Classic), pre-season college basketball tournament.
 * Civilization: Beyond Earth, a 2014 video game

Religion

 * Christians for Biblical Equality, a Christian organization primarily focused on advocating gender equality.
 * Congregation Beth Elohim, a Reform synagogue in Brooklyn, New York founded in 1861

title: CBE (disambiguation)