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UEFA Champions League

The UEFA Champions League (abbreviated as UCL) is an annual club association football competition organised by the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) and contested by top-division European clubs, deciding the competition winners through a round robin group stage to qualify for a double-legged knockout format, and a single leg final. It is the most-watched club competition in the world and the third most-watched football competition overall, behind only the UEFA European Championship and the FIFA World Cup. It is one of the most prestigious football tournaments in the world and the most prestigious club competition in European football, played by the national league champions (and, for some nations, one or more runners-up) of their national associations.

Introduced in 1955 as the Coupe des Clubs Champions Européens (French for European Champion Clubs' Cup), and commonly known as the European Cup, it was initially a straight knockout tournament open only to the champions of Europe's domestic leagues, with its winner reckoned as the European club champion. The competition took on its current name in 1992, adding a round-robin group stage in 1991 and allowing multiple entrants from certain countries since the 1997–98 season. It has since been expanded further and, while most of Europe's national leagues can still only enter their champion, the strongest leagues now provide up to four teams. Clubs that finish next-in-line in their national league, having not qualified for the Champions League, are eligible for the second-tier UEFA Europa League competition, and since 2021, for the third-tier UEFA Conference League.

In its present format, the Champions League begins in early July with three qualifying rounds and a play-off round, all played over two legs. The seven surviving teams enter the league stage, joining 29 teams qualified in advance. The 36 teams each play eight opponents, four home and four away. The 24 highest-ranked teams proceed to the knockout phase that culminates with the final match in late May or early June. The winner of the Champions League automatically qualifies for the following year's Champions League, the UEFA Super Cup, and the FIFA Club World Cup.

Spanish clubs have the highest number of victories (20 wins), followed by England (15 wins) and Italy (12 wins). England has the largest number of winning teams, with six clubs having won the title. The competition has been won by 23 clubs, 13 of which have won it more than once, and eight successfully defended their title. Real Madrid is the most successful club in the tournament's history, having won it 15 times, and the only club to have won it five times in a row (the first five editions) and also five of the last ten. Only one club has won all of their matches in a single tournament en route to the tournament victory: Bayern Munich in the 2019–20 season. Real Madrid are the current European champions, having beaten Borussia Dortmund 2–0 in the 2024 final for their fifteenth title.

History
The first time the champions of two European leagues met was in what was nicknamed the 1895 World Championship, when English champions Sunderland beat Scottish champions Hearts 5–3. The first pan-European tournament was the Challenge Cup, a competition between clubs in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Three years later, in 1900, the champions of Belgium, Netherlands and Switzerland, which were the only existing leagues in continental Europe at the time, participated in the Coupe Van der Straeten Ponthoz, thus being dubbed as the "club championship of the continent" by the local newspapers.

The Mitropa Cup, a competition modelled after the Challenge Cup, was created in 1927, an idea of Austrian Hugo Meisl, and played between Central European clubs. In 1930, the Coupe des Nations (Nations Cup), the first attempt to create a cup for national champion clubs of Europe, was played and organised by Swiss club Servette. Held in Geneva, it brought together ten champions from across the continent. The tournament was won by Újpest of Hungary. Latin European nations came together to form the Latin Cup in 1949.

After receiving reports from his journalists over the highly successful South American Championship of Champions of 1948, Gabriel Hanot, editor of L'Équipe, began proposing the creation of a continent-wide tournament. In interviews, Jacques Ferran (one of the founders of the European Champions Cup, together with Gabriel Hanot), said that the South American Championship of Champions was the inspiration for the European Champions Cup. After Stan Cullis declared Wolverhampton Wanderers "Champions of the World" following a successful run of friendlies in the 1950s, in particular a 3–2 friendly victory against Budapest Honvéd, Hanot finally managed to convince UEFA to put into practice such a tournament. It was conceived in Paris in 1955 as the European Champion Clubs' Cup.

1955–1967: Beginnings
The first European Cup took place during the 1955–56 season. Sixteen teams participated (some by invitation): AC Milan (Italy), AGF Aarhus (Denmark), Anderlecht (Belgium), Djurgården (Sweden), Gwardia Warszawa (Poland), Hibernian (Scotland), Partizan (Yugoslavia), PSV Eindhoven (Netherlands), Rapid Wien (Austria), Real Madrid (Spain), Rot-Weiss Essen (West Germany), Saarbrücken (Saar), Servette (Switzerland), Sporting CP (Portugal), Reims (France) and Vörös Lobogó (Hungary).

The first European Cup match took place on 4 September 1955, and ended in a 3–3 draw between Sporting CP and Partizan. The first goal in European Cup history was scored by João Baptista Martins of Sporting CP. The inaugural final took place at the Parc des Princes between Stade de Reims and Real Madrid on 13 June 1956. The Spanish squad came back from behind to win 4–3 thanks to goals from Alfredo Di Stéfano and Marquitos, as well as two goals from Héctor Rial. Real Madrid successfully defended the trophy next season in their home stadium, the Santiago Bernabéu, against Fiorentina. After a scoreless first half, Real Madrid scored twice in six minutes to defeat the Italians. In 1958, Milan failed to capitalise after going ahead on the scoreline twice, only for Real Madrid to equalise. The final, held in Heysel Stadium, went to extra time where Francisco Gento scored the game-winning goal to allow Real Madrid to retain the title for the third consecutive season.

In a rematch of the first final, Real Madrid faced Stade Reims at the Neckarstadion for the 1959 final, and won 2–0. West German side Eintracht Frankfurt became the first team not to compete in the Latin cup to reach the European Cup final. The 1960 final holds the record for the most goals scored, with Real Madrid beating Eintracht Frankfurt 7–3 at Hampden Park, courtesy of four goals by Ferenc Puskás and a hat-trick by Alfredo Di Stéfano. This was Real Madrid's fifth consecutive title, a record that still stands today.

Real Madrid's reign ended in the 1960–61 season when bitter rivals Barcelona dethroned them in the first round. Barcelona were defeated in the final by Portuguese side Benfica 3–2 at the Wankdorf Stadium. Reinforced by Eusébio, Benfica defeated Real Madrid 5–3 at the Olympic Stadium in Amsterdam and kept the title for a second consecutive season. Benfica wanted to repeat Real Madrid's successful run of the 1950s after reaching the showpiece event of the 1962–63 European Cup, but a brace from Brazilian-Italian José Altafini at Wembley gave the spoils to Milan, making the trophy leave the Iberian Peninsula for the first time ever.

Inter Milan beat an ageing Real Madrid 3–1 at the Ernst-Happel-Stadion to win the 1963–64 season and replicate their local-rival's success. The title stayed in Milan for the third year in a row after Inter beat Benfica 1–0 at their home ground, the San Siro. Under the leadership of Jock Stein, Scottish club Celtic beat Inter Milan 2–1 in the 1967 final to become the first British club to win the European Cup. The Celtic players that day, all of whom were born within 30 mi of Glasgow, subsequently became known as the "Lisbon Lions".

1968–1982
The 1967–68 season saw Manchester United become the first English team to win the European Cup, beating two-times winners Benfica 4–1 in the final. This final came ten years after the Munich air disaster, which had claimed the lives of eight United players and left their manager, Matt Busby, fighting for his life. In the 1968–69 season, Ajax became the first Dutch team to reach the European Cup final, but they were beaten 4–1 by Milan, who claimed their second European Cup, with Pierino Prati scoring a hat-trick.

The 1969–70 season saw the first Dutch winners of the competition. Feyenoord knocked out the defending champions, Milan in the second round, before beating Celtic in the final. In the 1970–71 season, Ajax won the title, beating Greek side Panathinaikos in the final. the season saw a number of changes, with penalty shoot-outs being introduced, and the away goals rule being changed so that it would be used in all rounds except the final. It was also the first time a Greek team reached the final, as well as the first season that Real Madrid failed to qualify, having finished sixth in La Liga the previous season. Ajax went on to win the competition three years in row (1971 to 1973), which Bayern Munich emulated from 1974 to 1976, before Liverpool won their first two titles in 1977 and 1978.

The following seasons saw victories in 1978–79 and 1979–80 for Brian Clough's Nottingham Forest. The following year Liverpool won their third title before Aston Villa continued the sense of English dominance in 1982.

1982–1992: English dominance is broken
In 1982–83, Hamburger SV broke the English dominance. Liverpool regained it in 1983–84 before losing to Juventus (1984–85); Steaua București then won in 1985–86, Porto in 1986–87, PSV Eindhoven in 1987–88; Milan (2), Red Star Belgrade and Barcelona became champions before the competition was re-formulated as the UEFA Champions League. All English clubs were banned for five years (Liverpool for six years) following the 1985 European Cup final due to the Heysel Stadium disaster.

Anthem

The UEFA Champions League anthem, officially titled simply as "Champions League", was written by Tony Britten, and is an adaptation of George Frideric Handel's 1727 anthem Zadok the Priest (one of his Coronation Anthems). UEFA commissioned Britten in 1992 to arrange an anthem, and the piece was performed by London's Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and sung by the Academy of St. Martin in the Fields. Stating that "the anthem is now almost as iconic as the trophy", UEFA's official website adds it is "known to set the hearts of many of the world's top footballers aflutter".

The chorus contains the three official languages used by UEFA: English, German, and French. The climactic moment is set to the exclamations 'Die Meister! Die Besten! Les Grandes Équipes! The Champions!'. The anthem's chorus is played before each UEFA Champions League game as the two teams are lined up, as well as at the beginning and end of television broadcasts of the matches. In addition to the anthem, there is also entrance music, which contains parts of the anthem itself, which is played as teams enter the field. The complete anthem is about three minutes long, and has two short verses and the chorus.

Special vocal versions have been performed live at the Champions League final with lyrics in other languages, changing over to the host nation's language for the chorus. These versions were performed by Andrea Bocelli (Italian; Rome 2009, Milan 2016 and Cardiff 2017), Juan Diego Flores (Spanish; Madrid 2010), All Angels (Wembley 2011), Jonas Kaufmann and David Garrett (Munich 2012) and Mariza (Lisbon 2014). In the 2013 final at Wembley, the chorus was played twice. In the 2018 and 2019 finals, held in Kyiv and Madrid respectively, the instrumental version of the chorus was played, by 2Cellos (2018) and Asturia Girls (2019). In the 2023 final, held in Istanbul, Hungarian pianist Ádám György performed the piano version of the anthem. The anthem has been released commercially in its original version on iTunes and Spotify with the title of Champions League Theme. In 2018, composer Hans Zimmer remixed the anthem with rapper Vince Staples for EA Sports' video game FIFA 19, with it also featuring in the game's reveal trailer.

Branding

In 1991, UEFA asked its commercial partner, Television Event and Media Marketing (TEAM), to help brand the Champions League. This resulted in the anthem, "house colours" of black and white or silver and a logo, and the "starball". The starball was created by Design Bridge, a London-based firm selected by TEAM after a competition. TEAM gives particular attention to detail in how the colours and starball are depicted at matches. According to TEAM, "Irrespective of whether you are a spectator in Moscow or Milan, you will always see the same stadium dressing materials, the same opening ceremony featuring the 'starball' centre circle ceremony, and hear the same UEFA Champions League Anthem". Based on research it conducted, TEAM concluded that by 1999, "the starball logo had achieved a recognition rate of 94 percent among fans".

Qualification

The UEFA Champions League begins with a double round-robin group stage of 32 teams, which since the 2009–10 season is preceded by two qualification 'streams' for teams that do not receive direct entry to the tournament proper. The two streams are divided between teams qualified by virtue of being league champions, and those qualified by virtue of finishing second or third in their national championship.

The number of teams that each association enters into the UEFA Champions League is based upon the UEFA coefficients of the member associations. These coefficients are generated by the results of clubs representing each association during the previous five Champions League, UEFA Cup/Europa League and UEFA Europa Conference League seasons. The higher an association's coefficient, the more teams represent the association in the Champions League, and the fewer qualification rounds the association's teams must compete in.

Four of the remaining six qualifying places are granted to the winners of a six-round qualifying tournament between the remaining 43 or 44 national champions, within which those champions from associations with higher coefficients receive byes to later rounds. The other two are granted to the winners of a three-round qualifying tournament between ten and eleven clubs from the associations ranked 5–6 through 15, which have qualified based upon finishing second or third in their respective national league.

In addition to sporting criteria, any club must be licensed by its national association to participate in the Champions League. To obtain a license, the club must meet certain stadium, infrastructure and finance requirements.

In 2005–06, Liverpool and Artmedia Bratislava became the first teams to reach the Champions League group stage after playing in all three qualifying rounds. Real Madrid and Barcelona hold the record for the most appearances in the group stage, having qualified 25 times, followed by Porto and Bayern Munich on 24.

Between 1999 and 2008, no differentiation was made between champions and non-champions in qualification. The 16 top-ranked teams spread across the biggest domestic leagues qualified directly for the tournament group stage. Prior to this, three preliminary knockout qualifying rounds whittled down the remaining teams, with teams starting in different rounds.

An exception to the usual European qualification system happened in 2005, after Liverpool won the Champions League the year before, but did not finish in a Champions League qualification place in the Premier League that season. UEFA gave special dispensation for Liverpool to enter the Champions League, giving England five qualifiers. UEFA subsequently ruled that the defending champions qualify for the competition the following year regardless of their domestic league placing. However, for those leagues with four entrants in the Champions League, this meant that, if the Champions League winner fell outside of its domestic league's top four, it would qualify at the expense of the fourth-placed team in the league. Until 2015–16, no association could have more than four entrants in the Champions League. In May 2012, Tottenham Hotspur finished fourth in the 2011–12 Premier League, two places ahead of Chelsea, but failed to qualify for the 2012–13 Champions League, after Chelsea won the 2012 final. Tottenham were demoted to the 2012–13 UEFA Europa League.

In May 2013, it was decided that, starting from the 2015–16 season (and continuing at least for the three-year cycle until the 2017–18 season), the winners of the previous season's UEFA Europa League would qualify for the UEFA Champions League, entering at least the play-off round, and entering the group stage if the berth reserved for the Champions League title holders was not used. The previous limit of a maximum of four teams per association was increased to five, meaning that a fourth-placed team from one of the top three ranked associations would only have to be moved to the Europa League if both the Champions League and Europa League winners came from that association and both finished outside the top four of their domestic league.

In 2007, Michel Platini, the UEFA president, had proposed taking one place from the three leagues with four entrants and allocating it to that nation's cup winners. This proposal was rejected in a vote at a UEFA Strategy Council meeting. In the same meeting, however, it was agreed that the third-placed team in the top three leagues would receive automatic qualification for the group stage, rather than entry into the third qualifying round, while the fourth-placed team would enter the play-off round for non-champions, guaranteeing an opponent from one of the top 15 leagues in Europe. This was part of Platini's plan to increase the number of teams qualifying directly into the group stage, while simultaneously increasing the number of teams from lower-ranked nations in the group stage.

In 2012, Arsène Wenger referred to qualifying for the Champions League by finishing in the top four places in the English Premier League as the "4th Place Trophy". The phrase was coined after a pre-match conference when he was questioned about Arsenal's lack of a trophy after exiting the FA Cup. He said "The first trophy is to finish in the top four". At Arsenal's 2012 AGM, Wenger was also quoted as saying: "For me there are five trophies every season: Premier League, Champions League, the third is to qualify for the Champions League..."

Group stage and knockout phase
The tournament proper begins with a group stage of 32 teams, divided into eight groups of four. The draw to determine which teams go into each group is seeded based on teams' performance in UEFA competitions, and no group may contain more than one club from each nation. Each team plays six group stage games, meeting the other three teams in its group home and away in a round-robin format. The winning team and the runners-up from each group then progress to the next round. The third-placed team enters the UEFA Europa League.

For the next stage – the last 16 – the winning team from one group plays against the runners-up from another group, and teams from the same association may not be drawn against each other (see random two-sided matching). From the quarter-finals onwards, the draw is entirely random, without association protection.

The group stage is played from September to December, whilst the knock-out stage starts in February, with matches usually played on Tuesday and Wednesday nights. The knock-out ties are played in a two-legged format, with the exception of the final. The final is typically held in the last two weeks of May, or in the early days of June, which has happened in three consecutive odd-numbered years since 2015. In the 2019–20 season, due to the COVID-19 pandemic the tournament was suspended for five months. The format of the remainder of the tournament was temporarily amended as a result, with the quarter-finals and semi-finals being played as single match knockout ties at neutral venues in Lisbon, Portugal in the summer with the final taking place on 23 August.

Distribution
The following is the default access list.

Changes will be made to the access list above if the Champions League or Europa League title holders qualify for the tournament via their domestic leagues.
 * If the Champions League title holders qualify for the group stage via their domestic league, the champions of association ranked 11 enters the group stage, and champions of the highest-ranked associations in earlier rounds are also promoted accordingly.
 * If the Europa League title holders qualify for the group stage via their domestic league, the third-placed team of association ranked 5 enter the group stage, and runners-up of the highest-ranked associations in the second qualifying round are also promoted accordingly.
 * If the Champions League or Europa League title holders qualify for the qualifying rounds via their domestic league, their spot in the qualifying rounds is vacated, and teams of the highest-ranked associations in earlier rounds are promoted accordingly.
 * An association may have a maximum of five teams in the Champions League. Therefore, if both the Champions League and Europa League title holders come from the same top-four association and finish outside of the top four of their domestic league, the fourth-placed team of the league will not compete in the Champions League and will instead compete in the Europa League.

Changes will be made to the access list above if the Champions League or Europa League title holders qualify for the tournament via their domestic leagues.
 * If the Champions League title holders qualify for the group stage via their domestic league, the best champions in qualifying rounds enter the group stage, and champions of the highest-ranked associations in earlier rounds are also promoted accordingly.
 * If the Europa League title holders qualify for the group stage via their domestic league, the best club in qualifying rounds enters the group stage, except for the runners-up of associations 11–15, as they have higher-ranked domestic team in the qualifiers, and teams of the highest-ranked associations in earlier rounds are also promoted accordingly.
 * If the Champions League or Europa League title holders qualify for the qualifying rounds via their domestic league, their spot in the qualifying rounds is vacated, and teams of the highest-ranked associations in earlier rounds are promoted accordingly.

Trophy and medals
Each year, the winning team is presented with the European Champion Clubs' Cup, the current version of which has been awarded since 1967. From the 1968–69 season and prior to the 2008–09 season any team that won the Champions League three years in a row or five times overall was awarded the official trophy permanently. Each time a club achieved this, a new official trophy had to be forged for the following season. Five clubs own a version of the official trophy: Real Madrid, Ajax, Bayern Munich, Milan and Liverpool. Since 2008, the official trophy has remained with UEFA and the clubs are awarded a replica.

The current trophy is 74 cm tall and made of silver, weighing 11 kg. It was designed by Jürg Stadelmann, a jeweller from Bern, Switzerland, after the original was given to Real Madrid in 1966 in recognition of their six titles to date, and cost 10,000 Swiss francs.

As of the 2012–13 season, 40 gold medals are presented to the Champions League winners, and 40 silver medals to the runners-up.

Prize money
As of 2021–22, the fixed amount of prize money paid to participating clubs is as follows.
 * Play-off round: €5,000,000
 * Base fee for group stage: €15,640,000
 * Group match victory: €2,800,000
 * Group match draw: €900,000
 * Round of 16: €9,600,000
 * Quarter-finals: €10,600,000
 * Semi-finals: €12,500,000
 * Runners-up: €15,500,000
 * Champions: €20,000,000

This means that, at best, a club can earn €85,140,000 of prize money under this structure, not counting shares of the qualifying rounds, play-off round or the market pool.

A large part of the distributed revenue from the UEFA Champions League is linked to the "market pool", the distribution of which is determined by the value of the television market in each nation. For the 2019–20 season, Paris Saint-Germain, who were the runners-up, earned nearly €126.8 million in total, of which €101.3 million was prize money, compared with the €125.46 million earned by Bayern Munich, who won the tournament and were awarded €112.96 million in prize money.

Starting with the 2024–25 season, the distribution of the prize money is as follows.
 * Play-off round: €4,290,000
 * Base fee for league phase: €18,620,000
 * League phase victory: €2,100,000
 * League phase draw: €700,000
 * League phase top 8: €2,000,000
 * League phase ranked 9 through 16: €1,000,000
 * Knockout round play-offs: €1,000,000
 * Round of 16: €11,000,000
 * Quarter-finals: €12,500,000
 * Semi-finals: €15,000,000
 * Runners-up: €18,500,000
 * Champions: €25,000,000

Sponsorship
Like the FIFA World Cup, the UEFA Champions League is sponsored by a group of multinational corporations, in contrast to the single main sponsor typically found in national top-flight leagues. When the Champions League was created in 1992, it was decided that a maximum of eight companies should be allowed to sponsor the event, with each corporation being allocated four advertising boards around the perimeter of the pitch, as well as logo placement at pre- and post-match interviews and a certain number of tickets to each match. This, combined with a deal to ensure tournament sponsors were given priority on television advertisements during matches, ensured that each of the tournament's main sponsors was given maximum exposure.

From the 2012–13 knockout phase, UEFA used LED advertising hoardings installed in knock-out participant stadiums, including the final stage. From the 2015–16 season onwards, UEFA has used such hoardings from the play-off round until the final. Since 2021, the UEFA also used Virtual Board Replacement (VBR) technology to offer region-based advertising; regional sponsors are inserted into the hoardings as shown on the broadcast feed in specific regions along with the global sponsors.

Individual clubs may wear jerseys with advertising. However, only two sponsorships are permitted per jersey in addition to that of the kit manufacturer, at the chest and the left sleeve. Exceptions are made for non-profit organisations, which can feature on the front of the shirt, incorporated with the main sponsor or in place of it; or on the back, either below the squad number or on the collar area.

If a club plays a match in a nation where the relevant sponsorship category is restricted (such as France's alcohol advertising restriction), then they must remove that logo from their jerseys. For example, when Rangers played French side Auxerre in the 1996–97 Champions League, they wore the logo of the holiday chain Center Parcs instead of their primary sponsor, McEwan's Lager (both companies at the time were subsidiaries of Scottish & Newcastle).

Media coverage
The competition attracts an extensive television audience, not just in Europe, but throughout the world. The final of the tournament has been, in recent years, the most-watched annual sporting event in the world. The final of the 2012–13 tournament had the competition's highest TV ratings to date, drawing approximately 360 million television viewers.

Performances by nation
Notes

Player of the Season
Starting from the 2021–22 edition, UEFA introduced the UEFA Champions League Player of the Season award.

The jury is composed of the coaches of the clubs that participated in the group stage of the competition, as well as 55 journalists selected by the European Sports Media (ESM) group, one from each UEFA member association.

Young Player of the Season
In the same season, UEFA also introduced the UEFA Champions League Young Player of the Season award.

title: UEFA Champions League


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Xerox Network Systems

Xerox Network Systems (XNS) is a computer networking protocol suite developed by Xerox within the Xerox Network Systems Architecture. It provided general purpose network communications, internetwork routing and packet delivery, and higher level functions such as a reliable stream, and remote procedure calls. XNS predated and influenced the development of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) networking model, and was very influential in local area networking designs during the 1980s.

XNS was developed by the Xerox Systems Development Department in the early 1980s, who were charged with bringing Xerox PARC's research to market. XNS was based on the earlier (and equally influential) PARC Universal Packet (PUP) suite from the late 1970s. Some of the protocols in the XNS suite were lightly modified versions of the ones in the Pup suite. XNS added the concept of a network number, allowing larger networks to be constructed from multiple smaller ones, with routers controlling the flow of information between the networks.

The protocol suite specifications for XNS were placed in the public domain in 1977. This helped XNS become the canonical local area networking protocol, copied to various degrees by practically all networking systems in use into the 1990s. XNS was used unchanged by 3Com's 3+Share and Ungermann-Bass's Net/One. It was also used, with modifications, as the basis for Novell NetWare, and Banyan VINES. XNS was used as the basis for the AppleNet system, but this was never commercialized; a number of XNS's solutions to common problems were used in AppleNet's replacement, AppleTalk.

Overall design
In comparison to the OSI model's 7 layers, XNS is a five-layer system, like the later Internet protocol suite.

The Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI model correspond to the Physical layer (layer 0) in XNS, which was designed to use the transport mechanism of the underlying hardware and did not separate the data link. Specifically, XNS's Physical layer is really the Ethernet local area network system, also being developed by Xerox at the same time, and a number of its design decisions reflect that fact. The system was designed to allow Ethernet to be replaced by some other system, but that was not defined by the protocol (nor had to be).

The primary part of XNS is its definition of the Internal Transport layer (layer 1), which corresponds to OSI's Network layer, and it is here that the primary internetworking protocol, IDP, is defined. XNS combined the OSI's Session and Transport layers into the single Interprocess Communications layer (layer 2). Layer 3 was Resource Control, similar to the OSI's Presentation.

Finally, on top of both models, is the Application layer, although these layers were not defined in the XNS standard.

Basic internetwork protocol
The main internetwork layer protocol is the Internet Datagram Protocol (IDP). IDP is a close descendant of Pup's internetwork protocol, and roughly corresponds to the Internet Protocol (IP) layer in the Internet protocol suite.

IDP uses Ethernet's 48-bit address as the basis for its own network addressing, generally using the machine's MAC address as the primary unique identifier. To this is added another 48-bit address section provided by the networking equipment; 32 bits are provided by routers to identify the network number in the internetwork, and another 16 bits define a socket number for service selection within a single host. The network number portion of the address also includes a special value which meant "this network", for use by hosts which did not (yet) know their network number.

Unlike TCP/IP, socket numbers are part of the full network address in the IDP header, so that upper-layer protocols do not need to implement demultiplexing; IDP also supplies packet types (again, unlike IP). IDP also contains a checksum covering the entire packet, but it is optional, not mandatory. This reflects the fact that LANs generally have low-error rates, so XNS removed error correction from the lower-level protocols in order to improve performance. Error correction could be optionally added at higher levels in the protocol stack, for instance, in XNS's own SPP protocol. XNS was widely regarded as faster than IP due to this design note.

In keeping with the low-latency LAN connections it runs on, XNS uses a short packet size, which improves performance in the case of low error rates and short turnaround times. IDP packets are up to 576 bytes long, including the 30 byte IDP header. In comparison, IP requires all hosts to support at least 576, but supports packets of up to 65K bytes. Individual XNS host pairs on a particular network might use larger packets, but no XNS router is required to handle them, and no mechanism is defined to discover if the intervening routers support larger packets. Also, packets can not be fragmented, as they can in IP.

The Routing Information Protocol (RIP), a descendant of Pup's Gateway Information Protocol, is used as the router information-exchange system, and (slightly modified to match the syntax of addresses of other protocol suites), remains in use today in other protocol suites, such as the Internet protocol suite.

XNS also implements a simple echo protocol at the internetwork layer, similar to IP's ping, but operating at a lower level in the networking stack. Instead of adding the ICMP data as payload in an IP packet, as in ping, XNS's echo placed the command directly within the underlying IDP packet. The same might be achieved in IP by expanding the ICMP Protocol field of the IP header.

Transport layer protocols
There are two primary transport layer protocols, both very different from their Pup predecessor:

 * Sequenced Packet Protocol (SPP) is an acknowledgment transport protocol, with a 3-way handshake analogous to TCP; one chief technical difference is that the sequence numbers count  packets, and not the bytes as in TCP and PUP's BSP; it is the direct antecedent to Novell's IPX/SPX.
 * Packet Exchange Protocol (PEP) is a connectionless non-reliable protocol similar in nature to UDP and the antecedent to Novell's PXP.

XNS, like Pup, also uses EP, the Error Protocol, as a reporting system for problems such as dropped packets. This provided a unique set of packets which can be filtered to look for problems.

Courier RPC
In the original Xerox concept, application protocols such as remote printing, filing, and mailing, etc., employed a remote procedure call protocol named Courier. Courier contained primitives to implement most of the features of Xerox's Mesa programming language function calls. Applications had to manually serialize and de-serialize function calls in Courier; there was no automatic facility to translate a function activation frame into an RPC (i.e. no "RPC compiler" was available). Because Courier was used by all applications, the XNS application protocol documents specified only courier function-call interfaces, and module+function binding tuples. There was a special facility in Courier to allow a function call to send or receive bulk data.

Initially, XNS service location was performed via broadcasting remote procedure-calls using a series of expanding ring broadcasts (in consultation with the local router, to get networks at increasing distances.) Later, the Clearinghouse Protocol 3-level directory service was created to perform service location, and the expanding-ring broadcasts were used only to locate an initial Clearinghouse.

Due to its tight integration with Mesa as an underlying technology, many of the traditional higher-level protocols were not part of the XNS system itself. This meant that vendors using the XNS protocols all created their own solutions for file sharing and printer support. While many of these 3rd party products theoretically could talk to each other at a packet level, there was little or no capability to call each other's application services. This led to complete fragmentation of the XNS market, and has been cited as one of the reasons that IP easily displaced it.

Authentication
The XNS protocols also included an Authentication Protocol and an Authentication Service to support it. Its "Strong credentials" were based on the same Needham–Schroeder protocol that was later used by Kerberos. After contacting the authentication service for credentials, this protocol provided a lightweight way to digitally sign Courier procedure calls, so that receivers could verify the signature and authenticate senders over the XNS internet, without having to contact the Authentication service again for the length of the protocol communication session.

Printing
Xerox's printing language, Interpress, was a binary-formatted standard for controlling laser printers. The designers of this language, John Warnock and Chuck Geschke, later left Xerox PARC to start Adobe Systems. Before leaving, they realized the difficulty of specifying a binary print language, where functions to serialize the print job were cumbersome and which made it difficult to debug errant printing jobs. To realize the value of specifying both a programmable and easily debug-able print job in ASCII, Warnock and Geschke created the Postscript language as one of their first products at Adobe.

Remote Debug Protocols
Because all 8000+ machines in the Xerox corporate Intranet ran the Wildflower architecture (designed by Butler Lampson), there was a remote-debug protocol for microcode. Basically, a peek and poke function could halt and manipulate the microcode state of a C-series or D-series machine, anywhere on earth, and then restart the machine.

Also, there was a remote debug protocol for the world-swap debugger. This protocol could, via the debugger "nub", freeze a workstation and then peek and poke various parts of memory, change variables, and continue execution. If debugging symbols were available, a crashed machine could be remote debugged from anywhere on earth.

Origins in Ethernet and PUP
In his final year at Harvard University, Bob Metcalfe began interviewing at a number of companies and was given a warm welcome by Jerry Elkind and Bob Taylor at Xerox PARC, who were beginning to work on the networked computer workstations that would become the Xerox Alto. He agreed to join PARC in July, after defending his thesis. In 1970, while couch surfing at Steve Crocker's home while attending a conference, Metcalfe picked up a copy Proceedings of the Fall Joint Computer Conference off the table with the aim of falling asleep while reading it. Instead, he became fascinated by an article on ALOHAnet, an earlier wide-area networking system. By June he had developed his own theories on networking and presented them to his professors, who rejected it and he was "thrown out on my ass."

Metcalfe was welcomed at PARC in spite of his unsuccessful thesis, and soon started development of what was then referred to as "ALOHAnet in a wire". He teamed up with David Boggs to help with the electronic implementation, and by the end of 1973 they were building working hardware at 3 Mbit/s. The pair then began working on a simple protocol that would run on the system. This led to the development of the PARC Universal Packet (Pup) system, and by late 1974 the two had Pup successfully running on Ethernet. They filed a patent on the concepts, with Metcalfe adding several other names because he believed they deserved mention, and then submitted a paper on the concept to Communications of the ACM on "Ethernet: Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks", published in July 1976.

PUP to XNS
By 1975, long before PUP was complete, Metcalfe was already chafing under the stiff Xerox management. He believed the company should immediately put Ethernet into production, but found little interest among upper management. A seminal event took place when professors from MIT's famed Artificial Intelligence Laboratory approached Xerox in 1974 with the intention of buying Ethernet for use in their lab. Xerox management declined, believing Ethernet was better used to help sell their own equipment. The AI Lab would then go on to make their own version of Ethernet, Chaosnet.

Metcalfe eventually left Xerox November 1975 for Transaction Technology, a division of Citibank tasked with advanced product development. However, he was lured back to Xerox seven months later by David Liddle, who had recently organized the Systems Development Division within Xerox specifically to bring PARCs concepts to market. Metcalfe immediately began re-designing Ethernet to work at 20 Mbit/s and started an effort to re-write Pup in a production quality version. Looking for help on Pup, Metcalfe approached Yogen Dalal, who was at that time completing his PhD thesis under Vint Cerf at Stanford University. Dalal was also being heavily recruited by Bob Kahn's ARPANET team (working on TCP/IP), but when Cerf left to join DARPA, Dalal agreed to move to PARC and started there in 1977.

Dalal built a team including William Crowther and Hal Murray, and started with a complete review of Pup. Dalal also attempted to remain involved in the TCP efforts underway at DARPA, but eventually gave up and focussed fully on Pup. Dalal combined his experience with ARPANET with the concepts from Pup and by the end of 1977 they had published the first draft of the Xerox Network System specification. This was essentially a version of Pup with absolute 48-bit host IDs, and TCP's 3-Way handshake in the Sequenced Packet Protocol.

By early 1978 the new system was working, but management was still not making any move to commercialize it. As Metcalfe put it:

"When I came back to Xerox in 1976, we were about two and a half years from product shipment and in 1978 we were about two and a half years from product shipment."

When no further action was forthcoming, Metcalfe left the company at the end of 1978.

Impact
Last used by Xerox for communication with the DocuTech 135 Publishing System, XNS is no longer in use, due to the ubiquity of IP. However, it played an important role in the development of networking technology in the 1980s, by influencing software and hardware vendors to seriously consider the need for computing platforms to support more than one network protocol stack simultaneously.

A wide variety of proprietary networking systems were directly based on XNS or offered minor variations on the theme. Among these were Net/One, 3+, Banyan VINES and Novell's IPX/SPX. These systems added their own concepts on top of the XNS addressing and routing system; VINES added a directory service among other services, while Novell NetWare added a number of user-facing services like printing and file sharing. AppleTalk used XNS-like routing, but had incompatible addresses using shorter numbers.

XNS also helped to validate the design of the 4.2BSD network subsystem by providing a second protocol suite, one which was significantly different from the Internet protocols; by implementing both stacks in the same kernel, Berkeley researchers demonstrated that the design was suitable for more than just IP. Additional BSD modifications were eventually necessary to support the full range of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) protocols.

Literature
Xerox Network Systems Architecture Introduction to Xerox Network Systems (XNSG 058504) is "a general discussion meant for those who want to know how office people can become more effective and productive by using the Xerox Network Systems."

The components of Xerox Network Systems Architecture are briefly described in Xerox Network Systems Architecture General Information Manual (XNSG 068504).

A series of sixteen individual protocol descriptions are listed in the Xerox Systems Institute Literature Catalog. Possibly more recent versions of these standards are:
 * Authentication Protocol (XSIS 098404)
 * Bulk Data Transfer (Appendix f to Courier), April 1984 (XNSS 038112/XSIS 038112)
 * Character Code Standard, May 1986 (XNSS 058605)
 * Clearinghouse Protocol, April 1984 (XNSS 078404/XSIS 078404)
 * Clearinghouse Entry Formats, April 1984 (XNSS 168404/XSIS 168404)
 * Courier: The Remote Procedure Call Protocol, December 1981 (XNSS 038112/XSIS 038112)
 * The Ethernet. A Local Area Network: Data Link Layer and Physical Layer Specifications (Blue Book, Version 2.0), November 1982 (XNSS 018211/XSIS 018211)
 * Filing Protocol, May 1986 (XNSS 108605)
 * Font Interchange Standard, December 1985 (XNSS 238512)
 * Internet Transport Protocols, December 1981 (XNSS 028112/XSIS 028112)
 * Interpress Electronic Printing Standard, Version 3.0, January 1986 (XNSS 048601)
 * Print Service Integration Standard, June 1985 (XNSS 198506)
 * Printing Protocol, April 1984 (XNSS 118404/XSIS 118404)
 * Raster Encoding Standard, June 1985 (XNSS 178506)
 * Synchronous Point-to-Point Protocol, December 1984 (XNSS 158412)
 * Time Protocol, April 1984 (XNSS 088404/XSIS 088404)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Xerox Network Systems


text:
Talk:UEFA Champions League

2024/25 Format
Shouldn't the Format section be updated to reflect the 2024/25 format? For example, there will be 36 teams in the league phase, not the 32 as in previous years. https://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/news/028a-1a386150ed4b-322dff667686-1000--2024-25-uefa-champions-league-who-is-in-the-european-perfo/

Can we have club logo instead of countries flag?
Can we have club logo instead of countries flag when mentioning Current Champions and Most successful club? Ashokkumar047 (talk) 17:06, 14 December 2023 (UTC)

 * No, club logos are copyrighted and therefore not free for us to use on Wikipedia. We can use them in a limited capacity on club articles, but not on pages like this as that would be considered a decorative use. The flag is informative as it adds extra context to the information. – PeeJay 21:18, 14 December 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 8 May 2024
Add more information about the most successful Champions League player of modern history- Cristiano Ronaldo, who has the most goals, assists in the league. 122.172.84.234 (talk) 19:07, 8 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. Jamedeus (talk) 19:37, 8 May 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 31 May 2024
A player's nationality is wrong. Under the section of "Most goals", Alfredo Di Stefano has a flag of Spain. However, he was from Argentina as Messi. Please correct that. Thank you! 190.124.147.189 (talk) 23:03, 31 May 2024 (UTC)
 * ✅   [[User:CanonNi ]]  (talk • contribs) 06:40, 1 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:UEFA Champions League


text:
User talk:AstroNomer

Thanks -- it's lovely to be on board here. --User:Riatsala.

-

Important note for all sysops: There is a bug in the administrative move feature that truncates the moved history and changes the edit times. Please do not use this feature until this bug is fixed. More information can be found in the talk of Brion VIBBER and maveric149. Thank you. --maveric149

Please do not delete entries that have only been listed on the Votes for deletion page for a few hours. Rather, if you concur, say so on the page. Wait at least a few days (a few weeks is perfectly fine) to delete pages. --The Cunctator

I'll check on the Golb thing -- it may take a day or so, though. Still, he's at the Oriental Institute at Chicago -- nothing to sniff at. JHK

Thanks for the clarification at talk:single lens reflex camera. :-) --KQ

Re Santa Anna; no problem, AN. I only remember it because I grew up one town over from Santa Ana, California and had to be able to tell which was which. ;) --Brion

Thanks for the tip on the wikipedia: namespace page. --KQ

Re Patrick Adams: Twould be better if someone just edits it down to a non-copyright infringing form.

Heyya, Astro. I ran across Mass transfer, and noted that the astronomical usage wasn't covered there. However, I couldn't think how to phrase it properly for the purposes of the article. Could you check out talk:Mass transfer and make suggestions, improvements, or wholesale changes? -- April

Thanks!

Yves

I'll see if I can't garner a few opinions on the Astronomy and astrophysics opener! -- April

I think the sep11.wikipedia.org is just about right. There need to be clean redirects from the wikipedia.org urls for it to be good, but yes, the In Memoriam page isn't appropriate content permanently. --The Cunctator

Hi. I'm glad to see I wasn't the only one who objected to deleting posts and replacing them with a "user has plagiarized" message. I'm kind of new, so I'm not quite sure how things are done. I do know that a very large percentage of the stuff in an encyclopedia is not copyrightable (factual), and Jazz77's articles were no exception. I certainly don't have any objections to band members writing about their band. They should maybe keep the facts and their experiences/observations separate, but isn't there a place for first-hand articles, opinions, essays, that sort of thing? -- Stephen

Reply to your comment on User talk:Khendon, copied from there in case

you don't see it:

 * I know - but the redirect for Military technology and equipment was

 * already to Weapon, so I was trying to retain consistency. Weapon

 * has a list that includes things that aren't strictly speaking weapons,

 * anyway. - Khendon 13:49 Sep 26, 2002 (UTC)

Thanks for the birthday wishes! Arno

Somebody mentioned that you are fluent in Spanish. If this is true, I wonder if you might be interested in being the English Wikipedia Ambassador to Encyclopedia Libre? They seem to want to upgrade to Phase III and to get interlanguage links working but we do need a point of contact with that project. I would do this myself but my Spanish skills are not good enough to reasonably prevent yet another misunderstanding with that project. --mav

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This is what my source (http://www.pantheon.org) says on the kachina article:

But in the mythic sense and ritual significance they are better conceived as spirits of the dead or departed. After the end of a good life, they go to the West, where the sun sets, and become kachinas, but there is no clear identity with the deceased and a specific kachina.

It's a reliable source, but I wouldn't trust it to be one-hundred percent accurate.

-

Happy Birthday! ( Did I inspire that Oct 1 entry??) User:Arno

¡Feliz Cumpleaños! --mav

An, thank you for commenting about my contributions and reading them. I have to admit that I didnt know how to write some of my first articles. But also, here is the problem: At first, I took this as a magazine and so, I wrote my articles like a magazine writer probably would. Take Carlos Monzon's page, for example, which you mentioned to Zoe. I thought I was being partial by publishing he was a great boxer, which, in fact, 90 percent of boxing fans would say he was because he had an excellent record, but also pointing out the fact that he had a history of violence, which is a fact because he was even accused and jailed for the murder of his wife.

But Ive realized my mistake and I know what you meant by saying that I was expressing an opinion with adjectives like great and excellent. As a matter of fact, in my latest entries, Im trying to stay clear of those.

Out of the 3 people who have critizized me, youre the one I like the most, because you did it in a constructive way.

The fact you have told me how to do my articles so that I can do a better job in the future, gives me a lot of respect towards you.

AntonioMartin

Dear An:

Hey! Thank you for praising my job about the Ernie Gonzalez page! I had no idea anyone had looked at it until I checked it today, (one month after you posted your messegae in it) and so I was glad to find out you liked my job there.

Dont you feel sometimes like an educator when you're working these pages? I do..I think if anyone can be benefitted from what I write and research about daily, (which is, mainly about boxing, air transportation and entertainment, cause I am not doctor material, LOL! ), well if anyon can be beneffited out of what I have to give, Im very, very happy. Dont you feel that way too?

Well, once again, thanks! Hope to hear from you again soon!!

Sincerely yours,

your friend

User:AntonioMartin

--

Dear An:

Hi! How are you? I have a problem with that photo I uploaded, apart that I need to put courtesy of Phillipe Bleus near it cause he requested me to, I meant to upload it into the Aeroflot page, but I have no idea how to do that. On the other hand, I was told I need some equipment to make it in JPeg. The fact it is on a page by itself is an accident, since I meant to send it to the Aeroflot article and I dont know what happened. But anyways, Ill have to see either if anyone here knows how to do that or if I can find out by myself.

Anyways it was as always, great to hear from you. Id say Pleasing but I like using happier words than that, LOL. So it was great to hear from you again! Im glad to be working in a website where people like you and me put our stone to make this a great world thru educating.

Thanks for everything, and God Bless!! Hope to hear from you soon!!

Sincerely yours,

User:AntonioMartin

An: Please take a look at my response to Roadrunner's regarding typical solids as degenerate matter. Initially I shared your gut feeling, but a couple of minutes thought persuaded me that the explanation that I have added to the talk page is a worthwhile explanation of a legitimate misunderstanding and therefore potentially worth transfering to the main page. Maybe in the long run we need a mutually cross linked pair of articles Bose-Einstein condensate (already exists) and Degenerate Fermi gas. Alan Peakall 12:45 Nov 7, 2002 (UTC)

Actually, I just stepped away from any TourBus duties. I'll drop a note to "BusManagement", though. -- Stephen Gilbert 00:22 Nov 23, 2002 (UTC)

Hi, thanks for your note. I long ago gave up on Lir -- around the time Ed Poor suggested I treat her as I would my daughter. It was actualy about a week before I realized she had been banned. I do think there should be plenty of work and development done on the Wealth of Nations article, it is a shame that she created a roadblock... Slrubenstein

I got rid of the 'Optimism.jpg', looks like another fix I did may have introduced a bug with the image deletion code. I'll look into that. --Brion 19:11 Dec 19, 2002 (UTC)

Just a note to thank you for your help with Durham. regards, Nevilley 09:22 Dec 24, 2002 (UTC)

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Perhaps you could take a look:

 * The True Disbelievers by

Richard Kamann and Marcello Truzzi is a detailed account of internal events at

CSICOP over the course of the Gauquelin 'Mars Effect' fiasco.

I put this in External links Astrology. have suggested that the entry be refactored to show Psuedoscience hiddenpipe

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Hi, here is another article in Spanish: Dulce Patria, recibe los votos. Please leave me a note as soon as I can delete it. -- JeLuF

If I deleted anything that you wrote, it was by accident and I apologize. If you look at the talk page for the article in question prior to my deletion, you will see that a HUGE section of the discussion was repeted. All I wanted to do was delete that repeated section -- and I thought that was all I had deleted. PLEASE go back to that section and restore your comment, and again, I am sorry, Slrubenstein

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I left you an e-mail. Please, would you accept my apologies if I offended you ? Anthere

Interesting site, thanks. Unfortunately, I probably don't read enough to add much there. :-( Koyaanis Qatsi

Thanks for acting on General relativity, I will be bolder in future :-). Was the guess that I expressed about the relation of GR to mass energy conservation correct or a case of over-generalising? -- Alan Peakall 18:25 Feb 20, 2003 (UTC)

Hi Astro. I hope you don't mind but I have removed your redirect from the 'Republic of Japan' page and proposed the page for deletion. I know we don't normally delete redirect but in this case the name of the page is so misleading in claiming Japan is a republic that it may confuse students using Wiki into thinking Japan is a republic. (I know if they read the Japan page they would know it is a constitutional monarchy, but as all ex-students know, sometimes pages aren't read through fully. I'd hate some kid to lose marks because some vandal had originally created a site with a misleading name. Is that OK with you? JTD 20:33 Feb 20, 2003 (UTC)

excellent. BTW how do you delete pages or is that something that only the 'higher powers' can do?  JTD 21:25 Feb 20, 2003 (UTC)

---

I'm sorry to see that you are leaving us AN - but I understand. My Wikipedia habit is difficlut to control too - hopefully it isn't consuming too much of my time. You will be missed. --mav

--- Dear An: Glad to see you back! Yeah ive been doing a little bit in the Espanol wikipedia. I love Espanol and Ingles the same, but I write here more cause of the demographics, of course.

I dont know if Ill go to Espanol much, except for a nick here and there. But who knows LOL

Anyways thanks for your message and God bless you.

Sincerely yours, Antonio El Fuego del Amor Martin

Re. Pinochet: you're quite right. I will find a more suitable location for that material. -- Viajero 20:42, 6 Feb 2004 (UTC)

You may want to take a look at what I've done over at Silesia. Pakaran. 06:00, 10 Feb 2004 (UTC)

With all your work on astronomy-related pages, I thought you might be interested in contributing to WikiProject Telescopes. It's mostly one-sided currently (me), and I'd like feedback if you've the time and inclination. If not, no worries. :) --zandperl 02:15, 18 Feb 2004 (UTC) -- Dear Astrojet: Hi! Thanks for your message. As for Astrojet, I couldnt resist myself: Dont worry, the Astrojet were very famous airplanes used by American Airlines during the 1960s and 1970s, to counteract Eastern Airlines' Whisperliners. The Astrojet was so famous and fad, that some American airplanes were repainted as Astrojets recently.

About Dr. Wilfredo Santa. I dont claim to know every Puerto Rican who is famous, and who can? Angelo Cruz was super famous for the shot he hit in a 1983 BSN game that gave his team the championship, but I doubt anyone in the new generations there know him at all. Anyways, ironically, me being originally from the island, I never heard anything from this Dr. Santa. I do know a Dr Iris LA Santa, my mother's personal doctor back in the day, but I dont think she's worthy of an article...lol

So, well if he was famous then the article could be legit, kept and all the other whatevers. Unfortunately, I dont know much about this person. I receive El Vocero daily, and Ive never even read news about him there. On the other hands, from what I read here, he's written books, so time will tell, maybe soon he will be worthy of an article. I guess when I call my family back there Ill ask them if hes on tv or something.

Thanks for your message, and God bless you!

Sincerely yours, your friend, Antonio High Flier Martin

Dubai pic
The owner of the website where the Dubai pic came from granted us permission to use it. WhisperToMe 04:16, 22 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Dictators, elections and revolution

 * Hi Ed. about Pinochet again. The article insist that he was dictator of Chile. Ok...i went to Fidel Castro and found "ruler". Changed to dictator, for consistency, but was reverted by a user claiming he was "elected"... what do you think of it? If "election" is the rule, Pinochet was elected for the 1981-1989 term by the mayority of voters that approved the constitution in which the transitory articles gave him that term.

There's been a long-running controversy (I mean, in the real world outside of Wikipedia) about whether any people have ever "voted for" Communism or any other form of dictatorship. Advocates of democracy and admirers of the US version of it, insists that no one ever would vote to give up their rights to a dictator. Advocates of socialism, opponents of democracy and enemies of the US provide what they claim are counterexamples: Castro, Hitler, Allende, Aristide.

I don't know enough history to evaluate these claims, but my dialogue with other Wikipedians has stimulated me to start doing some research. It looks like, at best, some of these leaders DID win an election somehow, but on false pretenses. They said one thing and did another. Which is why people generally wanted to overthrow them, as soon as they found out.

Opponents of democracy use the tricky argument that to overthrow "a democratically elected leader" is anti-democratic and hypocritical. Supporters of democracy should shut up and leave Haiti and Chile alone. But they forget one thing: "governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, and to institute new government" (US Declaration of Independence). --Uncle Ed 14:00, 29 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Augusto Pinochet
I have create a poll at talk:Augusto Pinochet on how to describe the CIA's role in the coup against Allende. Please vote and/or comment. --Uncle Ed 14:20, 16 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Licences
Thanks for the advice re - I've always been vague about that, but I'll try to get it right in future. seglea 01:50, 21 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Centripetal force
Hi, I'd appreciate some input on my comments on Talk:Centripetal force, wouldn't want to edit away because I'm sure I'd raise the Wikipedia physicists gang against me. :-) --Gutza 22:09, 14 May 2004 (UTC)

Pinochet
Sure, I understand that whether or not I'm happy with the intro isn't the main issue. I just thought that since we were having some disagreement about how it should be worded earlier, I should make it clear that I was fine with how it is now. Cadr

de:Brauner Zwerg
Thanks, nice to hear you like it. But there are still some parts missing like the interior and the distribution and abundance of Black Dwarfs - I'm trying to add them the next days. It's not easy to get good information on this topic.

Maybe there's someone else who can translate it, I sometimes translated articles or parts of articles from en, it would be nice to give something in return. If you need help in unterstanding phrases just ask, I'd be glad to help you. -- srb 10:02, 19. Mai 2004 (CEST)

Pinochet
In case you're around, you should know 172 is scheming like crazy on the Augusto Pinochet page. He's putting notes on all his buddies' pages trying to pull them into the fray and smearing those who oppose him. It's a mess, and we need all the voices of sanity we can get. VV 12:15, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the note on my Talk page pointing out that issue with the new text. (My rewrite was intended to just make it more concise.)  Perhaps you'd like to make proposed edits to the sandbox, which is somewhat more stable, if you want to avoid getting reverted by 172.  Anyway, the page was unprotected by Ed Poor, not me; I don't know why he did it, since I didn't talk to him about it, but since he did it's an opportunity to get back to work. VV 21:05, 21 May 2004 (UTC)

Actually, it didn't get protected in "the wrong version". 172 reverted it after it was protected. He may not have done it deliberately, as it was before Raul put up the protection notice. Still, weeks of haggling and 172 won't budge at all. VV 01:46, 22 May 2004 (UTC)

Answer of Baloo_rch
Gracias por tu comentarios. En cuanto a Carrera, alucinar con el sistema federal fue precisamente el cargo que se imputó. Así, tal cual aparece en los datos del centro estudios históricos jm carrera, uno de los lugares en los que me basé para obtener datos precisos al momento de realizar la biografía. Baloo rch 00:50, 3 Jun 2004 (UTC)

¿qué otros articulos relacionado con chile has encontrado? (una de las tareas que trato de hacer es tratar de vincularlos y revisarlos, mira que alguien ya habia matado a Lucho Gatica) Baloo rch 01:23, 3 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Bot
Well, I regret that setting the bot status is too late, but the request was made less than 24 hours ago on the request for permission on meta (precisely one hour and a half before I set the status). I think we could not make it be more speedy than this. In any case, I do not think we could have made it a week ago without knowing it was requested :-) Cheer up, maybe he will come back know that he has a bot... ant

Is it you who left a word on my talk page on meta ? Yes, the page exists, and I trust Jorge; I put the comment on es, to ensure everyone would be aware of the new status, and could complain if needed... ant

Talk:Bombing of Dresden in World War II
If you are interested please vote in the straw poll

The Humungous Image Tagging Project
Hi. You've helped with the WikiProject Wiki Syntax, so I thought it worth alerting you to the latest and greatest of Wikipedia fixing project, User:Yann/Untagged Images, which is seeking to put copyright tags on all of the untagged images. There are probably, oh, thirty thousand or so to do (he said, reaching into the air for a large figure). But hey: they're images ... you'll get to see lots of random pretty pictures. That must be better than looking for at at and the the, non? You know you'll love it. best wishes --Tagishsimon (talk)

RFC pages on VfD
Should RFC pages be placed on VfD to be deleted? I'm considering removing Requests for comment/Slrubenstein, Requests for comment/Jwrosenzweig and Requests for comment/John Kenney from WP:VFD. Each of them was listed by CheeseDreams. Your comments on whether I should do this would be appreciated. - Ta bu shi da yu 03:20, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Article Licensing
Hi, I've started a drive to get users to multi-license all of their contributions that they've made to either (1) all U.S. state, county, and city articles or (2) all articles, using the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike (CC-by-sa) v1.0 and v2.0 Licenses or into the public domain if they prefer. The CC-by-sa license is a true free documentation license that is similar to Wikipedia's license, the GFDL, but it allows other projects, such as WikiTravel, to use our articles. Since you are among the top 1000 Wikipedians by edits, I was wondering if you would be willing to multi-license all of your contributions or at minimum those on the geographic articles. Over 90% of people asked have agreed. For More Information:
 * Multi-Licensing FAQ - Lots of questions answered
 * Multi-Licensing Guide
 * Free the Rambot Articles Project

To allow us to track those users who muli-license their contributions, many users copy and paste the " " template into their user page, but there are other options at Template messages/User namespace. The following examples could also copied and pasted into your user page:

 * Option 1
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions, with the exception of my user pages, as described below:

OR
 * Option 2
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions to any U.S. state, county, or city article as described below:

Or if you wanted to place your work into the public domain, you could replace " " with "  ". If you only prefer using the GFDL, I would like to know that too. Please let me know what you think at my talk page. It's important to know either way so no one keeps asking. -- Ram-Man (comment| talk)

Talk:Bombing of Dresden in World War II
There is a straw poll taking place about the introduction to Bombing of Dresden in World War II if you are interested please vote. PBS 23:37, 15 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Image:Coyote_Arizona.jpg
I was going through some images, on the image tagging project and came across this one. Its already been tagged, but still an amazing picture! How did you manage to take that! Good work. --MaxPower 19:09, 2004 Dec 17 (UTC)

Hiya

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia%3AVillage_pump_%28miscellaneous%29#Retrospective

Anthere 05:56, 21 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Catalan Wikipedia
Hello. I am searching the first editions on Catalan Wikipedia. In a old copy of the history of the Home Page appears the user AstroNomer. It seems to be the first registered user. Could you explain me something about the creation of the new wikipedia? How do you knew it? --Vriullop 11:07, 2 September 2006 (UTC)

 * I'm likewise curious how you first came across the early wikipedia, and what made you decide to be involved with the editing here? Mathmo Talk 12:48, 22 March 2007 (UTC)

--AN Anonymous or AstroNomer?
I moved 'AN' to 'AN (disambiguation)' and thus had to update some links to avoid double redirecting. To my surprise I often encountered on talk pages: --AN while on one page I also finally found who this genuine pain in the *** might have been, since that page also contained --AN. If you have nothing to do with the first AN who often occurs on talk pages for articles about astronomy, my hubble apologies. Else, would you mind to lookup --AN and (now) --AN that had to replace a few --AN and replace your signature with --AN, please. So far, users ended up and after my changes continue to end up on this instead of your user page. — SomeHuman 17 Sep2006 12:46 (UTC)

Astronomy
Xizes 19:03, 2 November 2006 (UTC)Hey. D'ya like astronomy?19:03, 2 November 2006 (UTC)19:03, 2 November 2006 (UTC)19:03, 2 November 2006 (UTC)19:03, 2 November 2006 (UTC)19:03, 2 November 2006 (UTC)Xizes

Survey Q
Have you ever been to the southern hemisphere? Respond here Deadline for entries is December 15th, PST. AstroBoy 03:27, 12 November 2006 (UTC)

Chilean edits
Hello,, since you have made several edits to articles about Chile, you may be interested in looking at the Chile-related regional notice board to pick up on other topics that need attention, or to express needs which you perceive pertaining to Chile. J A X HERE | T a l k 01:24, 26 January 2007 (UTC)

Classification of admins
Hi AstroNomer. Please consider adding your admin username to the growing list at Classification of admins. Best! -- Jreferee    t / c  23:05, 28 November 2007 (UTC)

hi and a question
Hi, nice to meet you. I saw that you created Ultimate (sport). If you had any interest, I was thinking about starting an ultimate Frisbee wikiproject. Thanks. Me  what do u want?  Your Hancock Please  20:22, 5 April 2008 (UTC)

Articles for deletion nomination of White elephant
I have nominated White elephant, an article that you created, for deletion. I do not think that this article satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and have explained why at Articles for deletion/White elephant. Your opinions on the matter are welcome at that same discussion page; also, you are welcome to edit the article to address these concerns. Thank you for your time.Please contact me if you're unsure why you received this message. Ten Pound Hammer, his otters and a clue-bat • (Many otters • One bat • One hammer) 18:33, 24 May 2009 (UTC)

My edit to your talk page
Hi AstroNomer,

I just stumbled upon your talk page while checking through some old edits, and I felt compelled to partially undo this edit by Cydebot] to fix a cross-namespace redirect. The edit also changed "votes for deletion" to "articles for deletion", and that is historically inaccurate because the talk page message with the offending cross-namespace redirect was written in August 2002, and VFD wasn't renamed until 2005. Hope you don't mind. Graham 87 15:30, 11 October 2009 (UTC)

Nomination of Schrödinger's cat for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article Schrödinger's cat is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/Schrödinger's cat until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on good quality evidence, and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion template from the top of the article.  Dennis The Tiger  (Rawr and stuff) 01:32, 1 April 2012 (UTC)

Just to let you know
You have been mentioned at Missing Wikipedians Ottawahitech (talk) 16:07, 3 January 2013 (UTC)

Your user page
Hello, I found your user page while doing some wikiarcheology. . I have restored all of its earliest surviving revisions from old copies of the Wikipedia database, so they are available to everyone now. Hope you don't mind. Graham 87 12:57, 23 June 2013 (UTC)

Notification of pending suspension of administrative permissions due to inactivity
Following a community discussion in June 2011, consensus was reached to provisionally suspend the administrative permissions of users who have been inactive for one year (i.e. administrators who have not made any edits or logged actions in over one year). As a result of this discussion, your administrative permissions will be removed pending your return if you do not return to activity within the next month. If you wish to have these permissions reinstated should this occur, please post to the Bureaucrats' noticeboard and the userright will be restored per the re-sysopping process (i.e. as long as the attending bureaucrats are reasonably satisfied that your account has not been compromised, that your inactivity did not have the effect of evading scrutiny of any actions which might have led to sanctions, and that you have not been inactive for a three year period of time). If you remain inactive for a three year period of time, including the present year you have been inactive, you will need to request reinstatement at WP:RFA. This removal of access is procedural only, and not intended to reflect negatively upon you in any way. We wish you the best in future endeavors, and thank you for your past administrative efforts. Regards, — Moe   Epsilon  06:38, 1 January 2014 (UTC)

Notification of imminent suspension of administrative permissions due to inactivity
Following a community discussion in June 2011, consensus was reached to provisionally suspend the administrative permissions of users who have been inactive for one year (i.e. administrators who have not made any edits or logged actions in over one year). As a result of this discussion, your administrative permissions will be removed pending your return if you do not return to activity within the next several days. If you wish to have these permissions reinstated should this occur, please post to the Bureaucrats' noticeboard and the userright will be restored per the re-sysopping process (i.e. as long as the attending bureaucrats are reasonably satisfied that your account has not been compromised, that your inactivity did not have the effect of evading scrutiny of any actions which might have led to sanctions, and that you have not been inactive for a three year period of time). If you remain inactive for a three year period of time, including the present year you have been inactive, you will need to request reinstatement at WP:RFA. This removal of access is procedural only, and not intended to reflect negatively upon you in any way. We wish you the best in future endeavors, and thank you for your past administrative efforts. MadmanBot (talk) 03:50, 25 January 2014 (UTC)

Suspension of administrative permissions due to inactivity
Following a community discussion in June 2011, consensus was reached to provisionally suspend the administrative permissions of users who have been inactive for one year (i.e. administrators who have not made any edits or logged actions in over one year). As a result of this discussion, your administrative permissions have been removed pending your return. If you wish to have these permissions reinstated, please post to the Bureaucrats' noticeboard and the userright will be restored per the re-sysopping process (i.e. as long as the attending bureaucrats are reasonably satisfied that your account has not been compromised, that your inactivity did not have the effect of evading scrutiny of any actions which might have led to sanctions, and that you have not been inactive for a three year period of time). If you remain inactive for a three year period of time, including the present year you have been inactive, you will need to request reinstatement at WP:RFA. This removal of access is procedural only, and not intended to reflect negatively upon you in any way. We wish you the best in future endeavors, and thank you for your past administrative efforts. Acalamari 22:22, 1 February 2014 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called AstroNomer. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name AstroNomer~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 22:19, 19 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 10:45, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

 * This isn't right at all, and I've asked that something be done about it. I've also created redirects from your correct user name to here. If you ever read this message, could you please indicate your consent? Thank you. —  Scott  •  talk  14:55, 18 October 2015 (UTC)
 * Done! —  Scott  •  talk  12:23, 15 January 2016 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 08:51, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

Invitation to join the Fifteen Year Society
Dear ,

I'd like to extend a cordial invitation to you to join the Fifteen Year Society, an informal group for editors who've been participating in the Wikipedia project for fifteen years or more.

Best regards, Urhixidur (talk) 16:36, 6 June 2019 (UTC)

Hello
LOL you have 19 years in wikipedia, you are Really big!

Interview Request
Hi AstroNomer, I hope it's okay to contact you in this way. I'm a podcast producer working on an episode about open source and knowledge sharing. I found you on a list of early Wikipedia users and wondered if you'd share your motivation and some experiences on our show. Happy to share more details privately, if interested. Tomtjes (talk) 17:41, 27 April 2023 (UTC)

A kitten for you!
good job :)

- qwert (talk) 08:36, 11 July 2023 (UTC)

title: User talk:AstroNomer


text:
Hungarian notation

Hungarian notation is an identifier naming convention in computer programming in which the name of a variable or function indicates its intention or kind, or in some dialects, its type. The original Hungarian notation uses only intention or kind in its naming convention and is sometimes called Apps Hungarian as it became popular in the Microsoft Apps division in the development of Microsoft Office applications. When the Microsoft Windows division adopted the naming convention, they based it on the actual data type, and this convention became widely spread through the Windows API; this is sometimes called Systems Hungarian notation.

Hungarian notation was designed to be language-independent, and found its first major use with the BCPL programming language. Because BCPL has no data types other than the machine word, nothing in the language itself helps a programmer remember variables' types. Hungarian notation aims to remedy this by providing the programmer with explicit knowledge of each variable's data type.

In Hungarian notation, a variable name starts with a group of lower-case letters which are mnemonics for the type or purpose of that variable, followed by whatever name the programmer has chosen; this last part is sometimes distinguished as the given name. The first character of the given name can be capitalized to separate it from the type indicators (see also CamelCase). Otherwise the case of this character denotes scope.

History
The original Hungarian notation was invented by Charles Simonyi, a programmer who worked at Xerox PARC circa 1972–1981, and who later became Chief Architect at Microsoft. The name of the notation is a reference to Simonyi's nation of origin, and also, according to Andy Hertzfeld, because it made programs "look like they were written in some inscrutable foreign language". Hungarian people's names are "reversed" compared to most other European names; the family name precedes the given name. For example, the anglicized name "Charles Simonyi" in Hungarian was originally "Simonyi Károly". In the same way, the type name precedes the "given name" in Hungarian notation. The similar Smalltalk "type last" naming style (e.g. aPoint and lastPoint) was common at Xerox PARC during Simonyi's tenure there.

Simonyi's paper on the notation referred to prefixes used to indicate the "type" of information being stored. His proposal was largely concerned with decorating identifier names based upon the semantic information of what they store (in other words, the variable's purpose). Simonyi's notation came to be called Apps Hungarian, since the convention was used in the applications division of Microsoft. Systems Hungarian developed later in the Microsoft Windows development team. Apps Hungarian is not entirely distinct from what became known as Systems Hungarian, as some of Simonyi's suggested prefixes contain little or no semantic information (see below for examples).

Systems Hungarian vs. Apps Hungarian
Where Systems notation and Apps notation differ is in the purpose of the prefixes.

In Systems Hungarian notation, the prefix encodes the actual data type of the variable. For example:

 * : variable is a long integer ;
 * : variable is an array of unsigned 8-bit integers ;
 * : function with a byte-value return code.
 * : Variable represents a string containing the name, but does not specify how that string is implemented.

Apps Hungarian notation strives to encode the logical data type rather than the physical data type; in this way, it gives a hint as to what the variable's purpose is, or what it represents.
 * : variable represents a row ;
 * : variable represents an unsafe string, which needs to be "sanitized" before it is used (e.g. see code injection and cross-site scripting for examples of attacks that can be caused by using raw user input)
 * : variable is a zero-terminated string ; this was one of Simonyi's original suggested prefixes.

Most, but not all, of the prefixes Simonyi suggested are semantic in nature. To modern eyes, some prefixes seem to represent physical data types, such as  for strings. However, such prefixes were still semantic, as Simonyi intended Hungarian notation for languages whose type systems could not distinguish some data types that modern languages take for granted.

The following are examples from the original paper:
 * is a pointer to another type X; this contains very little semantic information.
 * is a prefix meaning difference between two values; for instance, dY might represent a distance along the Y-axis of a graph, while a variable just called y might be an absolute position. This is entirely semantic in nature.
 * is a null- or zero-terminated string. In C, this contains some semantic information because it is not clear whether a variable of type char* is a pointer to a single character, an array of characters or a zero-terminated string.
 * marks a variable that is a word. This contains essentially no semantic information at all, and would probably be considered Systems Hungarian.
 * marks a byte, which in contrast to w might have semantic information, because in C the only byte-sized data type is the char, so these are sometimes used to hold numeric values. This prefix might clear ambiguity between whether the variable is holding a value that should be treated as a character or a number.

While the notation always uses initial lower-case letters as mnemonics, it does not prescribe the mnemonics themselves. There are several widely used conventions (see examples below), but any set of letters can be used, as long as they are consistent within a given body of code.

It is possible for code using Apps Hungarian notation to sometimes contain Systems Hungarian when describing variables that are defined solely in terms of their type.

Relation to sigils
In some programming languages, a similar notation now called sigils is built into the language and enforced by the compiler. For example, in some forms of BASIC,  names a string and   names an integer. The major difference between Hungarian notation and sigils is that sigils declare the type of the variable in the language, whereas Hungarian notation is purely a naming scheme with no effect on the machine interpretation of the program text.

Examples

 * : boolean
 * : char
 * : count of items
 * : double word (Systems)
 * : flag (or float)
 * : integer (Systems) or count (Apps)
 * : integer (Systems) or index (Apps)
 * : floating-point
 * : decimal
 * : double (Systems)
 * : pointer
 * : array, or range
 * : zero-terminated string
 * : unsigned 16-bit integer (Systems)
 * : unsigned 32-bit integer (Systems)
 * : clock time structure
 * : function name

The mnemonics for pointers and arrays, which are not actual data types, are usually followed by the type of the data element itself:

 * : pointer to zero-terminated string
 * : array of floating-point values
 * : array of unsigned long (Systems)

While Hungarian notation can be applied to any programming language and environment, it was widely adopted by Microsoft for use with the C language, in particular for Microsoft Windows, and its use remains largely confined to that area. In particular, use of Hungarian notation was widely evangelized by Charles Petzold's "Programming Windows", the original (and for many readers, the definitive) book on Windows API programming. Thus, many commonly seen constructs of Hungarian notation are specific to Windows:

 * For programmers who learned Windows programming in C, probably the most memorable examples are the  (word-size parameter) and   (long-integer parameter) for the WindowProc function.
 * : handle to a window
 * : long pointer to a zero-terminated string

The notation is sometimes extended in C++ to include the scope of a variable, optionally separated by an underscore. This extension is often also used without the Hungarian type-specification:

 * : member of a global namespace, integer
 * : member of a structure/class, integer
 * ,  : member of a structure/class
 * : static member of a class
 * : static member of a function

In JavaScript code using jQuery, a  prefix is often used to indicate that a variable holds a jQuery object (versus a plain DOM object or some other value).

Advantages
(Some of these apply to Systems Hungarian only.)

Supporters argue that the benefits of Hungarian Notation include:
 * The symbol type can be seen from its name. This is useful when looking at the code outside an integrated development environment — like on a code review or printout — or when the symbol declaration is in another file from the point of use, such as a function.
 * In a language that uses dynamic typing or that is untyped, the decorations that refer to types cease to be redundant. In such languages variables are typically not declared as holding a particular type of data, so the only clue as to what operations can be done on it are hints given by the programmer, such as a variable naming scheme, documentation and comments. As mentioned above, Hungarian Notation expanded in such a language (BCPL).
 * The formatting of variable names may simplify some aspects of code refactoring (while making other aspects more error-prone).
 * Multiple variables with similar semantics can be used in a block of code: dwWidth, iWidth, fWidth, dWidth.
 * Variable names can be easy to remember from knowing just their types.
 * It leads to more consistent variable names.
 * Inappropriate type casting and operations using incompatible types can be detected easily while reading code.
 * In complex programs with many global objects (VB/Delphi Forms), having a basic prefix notation can ease the work of finding the component inside of the editor. For example, searching for the string  might find all the Button objects.
 * Applying Hungarian notation in a narrower way, such as applying only for member variables, helps avoid naming collision.
 * Printed code is more clear to the reader in case of datatypes, type conversions, assignments, truncations, etc.

Disadvantages
Most arguments against Hungarian notation are against Systems Hungarian notation, not Apps Hungarian notation. Some potential issues are:
 * The Hungarian notation is redundant when type-checking is done by the compiler. Compilers for languages providing strict type-checking, such as Pascal, ensure the usage of a variable is consistent with its type automatically; checks by eye are redundant and subject to human error.
 * Most modern integrated development environments display variable types on demand, and automatically flag operations which use incompatible types, making the notation largely obsolete.
 * Hungarian Notation becomes confusing when it is used to represent several properties, as in  : a constant reference argument, holding the contents of a database column   of type varchar(30) which is part of the table's primary key.
 * It may lead to inconsistency when code is modified or ported. If a variable's type is changed, either the decoration on the name of the variable will be inconsistent with the new type, or the variable's name must be changed. A particularly well known example is the standard WPARAM type, and the accompanying wParam formal parameter in many Windows system function declarations. The 'w' stands for 'word', where 'word' is the native word size of the platform's hardware architecture. It was originally a 16 bit type on 16-bit word architectures, but was changed to a 32-bit on 32-bit word architectures, or 64-bit type on 64-bit word architectures in later versions of the operating system while retaining its original name (its true underlying type is UINT_PTR, that is, an unsigned integer large enough to hold a pointer). The semantic impedance, and hence programmer confusion and inconsistency from platform-to-platform, is on the assumption that 'w' stands for a two byte, 16-bit word in those different environments.
 * Most of the time, knowing the use of a variable implies knowing its type. Furthermore, if the usage of a variable is not known, it cannot be deduced from its type.
 * Hungarian notation reduces the benefits of using code editors that support completion on variable names, for the programmer has to input the type specifier first, which is more likely to collide with other variables than when using other naming schemes.
 * It makes code less readable, by obfuscating the purpose of the variable with type and scoping prefixes.
 * The additional type information can insufficiently replace more descriptive names. E.g. sDatabase does not tell the reader what it is. databaseName might be a more descriptive name.
 * When names are sufficiently descriptive, the additional type information can be redundant. E.g. firstName is most likely a string. So naming it sFirstName only adds clutter to the code.
 * It's harder to remember the names.
 * Multiple variables with different semantics can be used in a block of code with similar names: dwTmp, iTmp, fTmp, dTmp.
 * Placing data type or intent character identifiers as a prefix to the field or variable's Given name subverts the ability, in some programming environments, to jump to a field or variable name, alphabetically, when the user begins typing the name. FileMaker, for example, is one such programming environment. It may be preferable when using one of these programming environments to instead suffix Given names with such identifying characters.

Notable opinions

 * Robert Cecil Martin (against Hungarian notation and all other forms of encoding): ... nowadays HN and other forms of type encoding are simply impediments. They make it harder to change the name or type of a variable, function, member or class.  They make it harder to read the code. And they create the possibility that the encoding system will mislead the reader.
 * Linus Torvalds (against Systems Hungarian): Encoding the type of a function into the name (so-called Hungarian notation) is brain damaged—the compiler knows the types anyway and can check those, and it only confuses the programmer.
 * Steve McConnell (for Apps Hungarian): Although the Hungarian naming convention is no longer in widespread use, the basic idea of standardizing on terse, precise abbreviations continues to have value. Standardized prefixes allow you to check types accurately when you're using abstract data types that your compiler can't necessarily check.
 * Bjarne Stroustrup (against Systems Hungarian for C++): No I don't recommend 'Hungarian'. I regard 'Hungarian' (embedding an abbreviated version of a type in a variable name) as a technique that can be useful in untyped languages, but is completely unsuitable for a language that supports generic programming and object-oriented programming — both of which emphasize selection of operations based on the type and arguments (known to the language or to the run-time support). In this case, 'building the type of an object into names' simply complicates and minimizes abstraction.
 * Joel Spolsky (for Apps Hungarian): If you read Simonyi's paper closely, what he was getting at was the same kind of naming convention as I used in my example above where we decided that  meant unsafe string and   meant safe string. They're both of type  . The compiler won't help you if you assign one to the other and Intellisense [an intelligent code completion system] won't tell you bupkis. But they are semantically different. They need to be interpreted differently and treated differently and some kind of conversion function will need to be called if you assign one to the other or you will have a runtime bug. If you're lucky. There's still a tremendous amount of value to Apps Hungarian, in that it increases collocation in code, which makes the code easier to read, write, debug and maintain, and, most importantly, it makes wrong code look wrong.... (Systems Hungarian) was a subtle but complete misunderstanding of Simonyi’s intention and practice.
 * Microsoft's Design Guidelines discourage developers from using Systems Hungarian notation when they choose names for the elements in .NET class libraries, although it was common on prior Microsoft development platforms like Visual Basic 6 and earlier. These Design Guidelines are silent on the naming conventions for local variables inside functions.

title: Hungarian notation


text:
Gelimer

Gelimer (original form possibly Geilamir, 480–553), King of the Vandals and Alans (530–534), was the last Germanic ruler of the North African Kingdom of the Vandals. He became ruler on 15 June 530 after deposing his first cousin twice removed, Hilderic, who had angered the Vandal nobility by converting to Chalcedonian Christianity, as most of the Vandals at this time were fiercely devoted to Arian Christianity.

The Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I, who had supported Hilderic, soon declared war on the Vandals, ostensibly to restore Hilderic. In June 533, Justinian sent an expeditionary force commanded by Belisarius which finally reached Africa in the beginning of September. Meanwhile, in Sardinia, which formed part of the Vandal domain, the governor Godas, a Goth, revolted against Gelimer and began to treat with Justinian as an independent sovereign. Gelimer, ignorant or contemptuous of Justinian's plans, sent a large army consisting of most of the available army in Africa under his brother Tzazo to crush the rebellion, meaning that the landing of Belisarius was entirely unopposed.

On landing, Belisarius immediately marched for Carthage, finally meeting resistance on 13 September when he was confronted by Gelimer at Ad Decimum, 10 miles from Carthage. Although outnumbered 11,000 to 17,000 the battle was evenly fought by the Vandals until Gelimer's brother Ammatus was killed, at which time Gelimer lost heart and fled. On 14 September 533, Belisarius entered Carthage and ate the feast prepared for Gelimer in his palace. However, Belisarius was too late to save the life of Hilderic, who had been slain at Gelimer's orders as soon as the news of the landing of the imperial army came.

However, Gelimer had escaped the Roman pursuit, and on the return of Tzazo from Sardinia the combined Vandal army met Belisarius in battle, this time at a place called Tricamarum about 20 miles from Carthage (December 533). This battle was far more stubbornly contested than that of Ad Decimum, but it ended in the utter rout of the Vandals and, once more, the flight of Gelimer. He retreated to Mons Pappua (maybe in the Mount Edough, near Annaba) on the border of Numidia, where he soon found himself besieged by Byzantine forces under Pharas. According to Procopius, when summoned to surrender Gelimer instead asked Pharas to send him a loaf of bread, a sponge, and a lyre, to make the winter months on Pappua more bearable.

Finally, in March 534, with his followers and their children starving and realizing he had no chance of regaining his kingdom, Gelimer surrendered to Belisarius and accepted the Romans' offer of vast estates in Galatia where he lived to be an old man. According to Procopius, on his abdication he achieved some degree of anecdotal fame by crying out the verse from Ecclesiastes1:2, 'Vanity of vanities, all is vanity' during Belisarius's triumph in Constantinople.

title: Gelimer