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Fat acceptance movement

The fat acceptance movement (also known by various other names, such as fat pride, fat empowerment, fat liberation, and fat activism) is a social movement which seeks to eliminate the social stigma of obesity. Areas of contention include the aesthetic, legal, and medical approaches to fat people.

The modern fat acceptance movement began in the late 1960s. Besides its political role, the fat acceptance movement also constitutes a subculture which acts as a social group for its members. The fat acceptance movement has been criticized for not adding value to the debate over human health, with some critics accusing the movement of "promoting a lifestyle that can have dire health consequences".

History
The history of the fat acceptance movement can be dated back to 1967 when 500 people met in New York's Central Park to protest against anti-fat bias. Sociologist Charlotte Cooper has argued that the history of the fat activist movement is best understood in waves, similar to the feminist movement, with which she believes it is closely tied. Cooper believes that fat activists have suffered similar waves of activism followed by burnout, with activists in the following wave often unaware of the history of the movement, resulting in a lack of continuity.

First wave
First wave activities consisted of isolated activists drawing attention to the dominant model of obesity and challenging it as only one of several possible models. During the early part of the 20th century, obesity was seen as detrimental to the community, via decreasing human efficiency, and that obese people interfere with labor productivity in the coastal areas of the United States. This kind of political climate was the background of the fat acceptance movement, which originated in the late 1960s. Like other social movements from this period, the fat acceptance movement, initially known as "Fat Pride", "Fat Power", or "Fat Liberation", often consisted of people acting in an impromptu fashion. A "fat-in" was staged in New York's Central Park in 1967. Called by radio personality Steve Post, the "Fat-in" consisted of a group of 500 people eating, carrying signs and photographs of Twiggy (a model famous for her thin figure), and burning diet books.

In 1967, Lew Louderback wrote an article in the Saturday Evening Post called "More People Should be FAT" in response to discrimination against his wife. The article led to a meeting between Louderback and William Fabrey, who went on to found the first organization for fat people and their supporters, originally named the 'National Association to Aid Fat Americans' and currently called the National Association to Advance Fat Acceptance (NAAFA). NAAFA was founded in America, in 1969, by Bill Fabrey in response to discrimination against his wife. He primarily intended it to campaign for fat rights, however, a reporter attending the 2001 NAAFA conference notes that few attendees were active in fat rights politics and that most women came to shop for fashion, wear it on the conference catwalk or to meet a potential partner. Since 1991, Fabrey has worked as a director with the Council on Size and Weight Discrimination, specializing in the history of the size acceptance movement.

In 1972, the feminist group The Fat Underground was formed. It began as a radical chapter of NAAFA and spun off to become independent when NAAFA expressed concerns about its promotion of a stronger activist philosophy. The FU were inspired by and, in some cases, members of the Radical Therapy Collective, a feminist group that believed that many psychological problems were caused by oppressive social institutions and practices. Founded by Sara Fishman (then Sara Aldebaran) and Judy Freespirit, the Fat Underground took issue with what they saw as a growing bias against obesity in the scientific community. They coined the saying, "a diet is a cure that doesn't work, for a disease that doesn't exist". Shortly afterward, Fishman moved to Connecticut, where, along with Karen Scott-Jones, she founded the New Haven Fat Liberation Front, an organization similar to the Fat Underground in its scope and focus. In 1983, the two groups collaborated to publish a seminal book in the field of fat activism, Shadow on a Tightrope, which collected several fat activist position papers initially distributed by the Fat Underground, as well as poems and essays from other writers.

In 1979, Carole Shaw coined the term Big Beautiful Woman (BBW) and launched a fashion and lifestyle magazine of the same name aimed at plus-sized women. The original print magazine ceased publication in May 2003, but continued in various online formats. The term "BBW" has become widely used to refer to any fat woman (sometimes in a derogatory way). Several other periodicals focusing on fashion and lifestyle for "fuller-figured" women were published in print from the early 1980s to the mid 2010s. From 1984 to 2000, Radiance: The Magazine for Large Women was published in print to "support women 'all sizes of large in living proud, full, active lives, at whatever weight, with self-love and self-respect."

In the UK, the London Fat Women's Group was formed, the first British fat activist group, and was active between approximately 1985 and 1989. Other first wave activities included the productions of zines such as Figure 8 and Fat!So? by Marilyn Wann. The latter went on to become a book of the same name.

Second wave
In the second wave, the fat acceptance movement became more widespread in the US and started to spread to other countries. Ideas from the movement began to appear in the mainstream. Publishers became more willing to publish fat acceptance themed literature. The 1980s witnessed an increase in activist organizations, publications, and conferences.

In 1989, a group of people including actress Anne Zamberlan formed the first French organization for fat acceptance, Allegro fortissimo. Organizations began holding conferences and conventions, including NAAFA. By the 1990s, input from the fat acceptance movement began to be incorporated into research papers by some members of the medical professions such as new anti-dieting programs and models of obesity management.

Third wave
The fat acceptance movement has seen a diversification of projects during the third wave. Activities have addressed issues of both fat and race, class, sexuality, and other issues. Size discrimination has been increasingly addressed in the arts, as well.

Campaigning themes
The fat acceptance movement argues that fat people are targets of hatred and discrimination. In particular, advocates suggest obese women are subjected to more social pressure than obese men. The movement argues that these attitudes comprise a fat phobic entrenched societal norm, evident in many social institutions, including the mass media, where fat people are often ridiculed, or held up as objects of pity. Discrimination includes a lack of equal access to transportation and employment. Members of the fat acceptance movement perceive negative societal attitudes as persistent, and as being based on the presumption that fatness reflects negatively on a person's character. Fat activists push for change in societal, personal, and medical attitudes toward fat people. Fat acceptance organizations engage in public education about what they describe as myths concerning fat people.

Discrimination
Fat people experience many different kinds of discrimination because of their weight. This discrimination appears in healthcare, employment, education, personal relationships, and the media. Fat individuals also argue clothing stores discriminate against them. For example, some women have complained that "one size fits all" stores, which offer a single size for each item, do not cater to those above a certain weight. Public transport has also been subject to criticism due to lack of inclusivity to fat people as seats and walkways are often too small to accommodate them.

Health
Fat activists argue that anti-fat stigma and aggressive diet promotion have led to an increase in psychological and physiological problems among fat people. For instance, individuals who experience weight discrimination have reported facing more psychological distress, more loneliness, and lower well-being. Along with this, weight discrimination can heighten risk for obesity, chronic inflammation, and disease burden. People can indulge in health-risk behaviors, such as avoiding physical activity. Experiencing and internalizing weight stigma are identified as critical risk factors leading to eating pathology. Concerns are also raised that modern culture's focus on weight loss does not have a foundation in scientific research, but instead is an example of using science as a means to control deviance, as a part of society's attempt to deal with something that it finds disturbing. Diet critics cite the high failure rate of permanent weight-loss attempts, and the dangers of "yo-yo" weight fluctuations and weight-loss surgeries. Fat activists argue that the health issues of obesity and being overweight have been exaggerated or misrepresented, and that health issues are used as a cover for cultural and aesthetic prejudices against fat.

Proponents of fat acceptance maintain that people of all shapes and sizes can strive for fitness and physical health. They believe health to be independent of body weight. Informed by this approach, psychologists who were unhappy with the treatment of fat people in the medical world initiated the Health at Every Size movement. It has five basic tenets: (1) enhancing health, (2) size and self-acceptance (3) the pleasure of eating well, (4) the joy of movement, and (5) an end to weight bias. Some medical studies have challenged the "healthy obesity" concept,   although the definitions of metabolically healthy obesity are not standardized across studies.

Fat women

The issues faced by fat women in society have been a central theme of the fat acceptance movement since its inception. Although the first organization, National Association to Advance Fat Acceptance, and the first book, Fat Power (1970), were both created by men, in each case they were responses to weight discrimination experienced by their wives. Women soon started campaigning on their behalf with the first feminist group, 'The Fat Underground', being formed in 1973. Issues addressed regarding women have included body image, and in particular the thin ideal and its effect on women. Critics say NAAFA, which opposes dieting and weight-loss surgery, is an apologist for an unhealthy lifestyle. But NAAFA says it does no such thing, that some people are just bigger and no less deserving of the same rights as everyone else.

Fat men
The fat acceptance movement has primarily focused on a feminist model of patriarchal oppression of fat women, most clearly represented by the encouragement of women to diet. However, Sander L. Gilman argues that, until the 20th century, dieting has historically been a man's activity. He continues, "Obesity eats away at the idealized image of the masculine just as surely as it does the idealized image of the feminine." William Banting was the author of an 1863 booklet called Letter On Corpulence, which modern diets have used as a model. Men respond to being overweight differently, (i.e., having a Body Mass Index of 25 or more), being half as likely as women to diet, a quarter as likely to undergo weightloss surgery and only a fifth as likely to report feeling shame about their weight. Irmgard Tischner identifies this behavior as rooted in notions of masculinity that require disregard for healthcare: "Men do not have to care about their size or health, as they have women to care about those things for them".

Some gay men have moved beyond disregard for size to fat acceptance and fat activism with movements like chub culture, which started as Girth & Mirth clubs in San Francisco in 1976 and the bear culture which fetishizes big, hairy men. Ganapati Durgadas argues that fat bisexual and gay men "are reminders of the feminine stigma with which heterosexism still tars queer men". In a comparison of queer fat positive zines, the lesbian-produced Fat Girl was found to have political debate content absent from gay male orientated zines such as Bulk Male and Big Ad. Joel Barraquiel Tan comments: "If fat is a feminist issue, then fat or heft is a fetishized one for gay men. Gay men tend to sexualize difference, where lesbians have historically politicized it."

A fat heterosexual man is known as a "Big Handsome Man" (BHM), in counterpart to a Big Beautiful Woman. Like some fat and gay men, BHMs have sexualized their difference and receive validation of this identity from BBWs or straight women known as "Female Fat Admirers".

Legislation
In the 1970s, fat people in the United States began seeking legal redress for discrimination based on weight, primarily in the workplace but also for being denied access to, or treated differently in regards to, services or entertainment. The results of these cases have varied considerably, although in some instances the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) has been successfully used to argue cases of discrimination against fat people. Roth and Solovay argue that, as with transgender people, a major cause for the variation in success is the extent to which litigants are apologetic for their size (with more apologetic plaintiffs finding more success): What is the difference between a million-dollar weight case award and a losing case? Like the difference between many winning and losing transgender cases, it's all about the attitude. Does the claimant's attitude and experience about weight/gender reinforce or challenge dominant stereotypes? Winning cases generally adopt a legal posture that reinforces social prejudices. Cases that challenge societal prejudices generally lose.

The Americans with Disabilities Act continues to be used as there is no USA federal law against weight discrimination; however, the state of Michigan passed a law against weight discrimination in 1976. The cities of Washington, D.C., San Francisco (2000), Santa Cruz, Binghamton, Urbana (1990s), New York (2023),  and Madison (1970s) have also passed laws prohibiting weight discrimination. In the cities that have a weight discrimination law, it is rare for more than one case a year to be brought, except for San Francisco which may have as many as six. Opinions amongst city enforcement workers vary as to why the prosecution numbers are so low, although they all suggested that both overweight people and employers were unaware of the protective legislation and it was also noted that the cities with anti-weight discrimination laws tended to be liberal college towns.

Not all legal changes have protected the rights of fat people. Despite recommendations from the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to the contrary, in 2009 the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit decided that fat people will only qualify as disabled if it can be proved that their weight is caused by an underlying condition, supporting the concept that being obese is not inherently a disability. The Supreme Court of Texas came to a similar conclusion in 2023. But in 2018, the Washington Supreme Court provided weight-related disability bias protection without evidence of a related medical condition. Other countries besides the United States have considered legislation to protect the rights of fat people. In the UK an All-Party Parliamentary Group published a report in 2012 called Reflections on Body Image that found that one in five British people had been victimized because of their weight. The report recommended that Members of Parliament investigated putting "appearance-based discrimination" under the same legal basis as sexual or racial discrimination via the Equality Act 2010 which makes it illegal to harass, victimize or discriminate against anyone in the workplace based on several named categories, including size or weight. The Equality Act came into force on 1 October 2010, it brings together over 116 separate pieces of legislation into one single Act. The Act provides a legal framework to protect the rights of individuals and advance equality of opportunity for all.

Fat studies
There has also been an emerging body of academic studies called Fat Studies. Marilyn Wann argues that fat studies moved beyond being an individual endeavor to being a field of study with the 2004 conference Fat Attitudes: An Examination of an American Subculture and the Representation of the Female Body. The American Popular Culture Association regularly includes panels on the subject. In many colleges, student groups with a fat activist agenda have emerged, including Hampshire, Smith, and Antioch. Fat studies are now available as an interdisciplinary course of study at some colleges, taking a similar approach to other identity studies such as women's studies, queer studies, and African American studies. As of 2011, there were two Australian courses and ten American courses that were primarily focussed on fat studies or Health at Every Size, and numerous other courses that had some fat acceptance content. Taylor & Francis publish an online Fat Studies journal. The first national Fat Studies seminar was held at York in May 2008, leading to the 2009 publication Fat Studies in the UK, edited by Corinna Tomrley and Ann Kalosky Naylor.

Division within the movement
The fat acceptance movement has been divided in its response to proposed legislation defining morbidly obese people as disabled. NAAFA board member Peggy Howell says: "There's a lot of conflict in the size acceptance community over this. I don't consider myself disabled, and some people don't like 'fat' being considered a disability." An example of the positive perspective of obesity being classified as a disability in wider society is noted by a person interviewed by Amy Erdman in her book Fat Shame: "[Deborah Harper] makes a point to tell me how impressed she is with the way many do make quiet and polite accommodations for her." Women are particularly active within the fat acceptance movement and membership of fat acceptance organizations is dominated by middle-class women in the heaviest 1–2% of the population. Members have criticized the lack of representation in the movement from men, people of color, and people of lower socioeconomic status.

Criticism
The fat acceptance movement has been criticized from several perspectives. The primary criticism is that fat acceptance ignores studies that have shown health issues to be linked to obesity and hence encourages an unhealthy lifestyle. In 2008, Lily-Rygh Glen, a writer, musician, and former fat acceptance activist, interviewed multiple women who claimed to be rejected by their peers within the movement and labeled "traitors" when they changed their diets.

Medical criticism
There is a considerable amount of evidence that being obese is connected to increased all-cause mortality and diseases, and significant weight loss (>10%), using a variety of diets, improves or reverses metabolic syndromes and other health outcomes associated with obesity. Barry Franklin, director of a cardio rehab facility, stated: "I don't want to take on any specific organization but... A social movement that would suggest health at any size in many respects can be misleading." Franklin also agrees that fit people who are obese have cardiovascular mortality rates that are lower than thin, unfit people, and proponents of the fat acceptance movement argue that people of all shapes and sizes can choose behaviors that support their fitness and physical health. The fat acceptance movement has been criticized for not adding value to the debate over human health, with some critics accusing the movement of "promoting a lifestyle that can have dire health consequences".

title: Fat acceptance movement


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Folkways

Folkways can refer to:

 * Folkways or mores, in sociology, are norms for routine or casual interaction
 * Folkways Records, a record label founded by Moe Asch of the Smithsonian Institution in 1948
 * Verve Folkways, an offshoot of Folkways Records formed in 1964
 * Smithsonian Folkways, the record label of the Smithsonian Institution, which incorporated Folkways Records in 1987
 * Folkways: The Original Vision, a 1989 album produced by Smithsonian Folkways documenting the origins of Folkways Records
 * Folkways: The Original Vision (Woody and LeadBelly), a 2005 expanded version of the 1989 album
 * Folkways: a study of the sociological importance of usages, manners, customs, mores, and morals, a 1906 book by William Graham Sumner
 * Folkways: A Vision Shared, a 1988 album produced by CBS paying tribute to American musicians Woody Guthrie and Lead Belly

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Folkways


text:
User:Rmhermen

Please leave messages on my talk page Thanks.

Admin
I am a administrator since July 5, 2004. I first contributed to Wikipedia in April of 2001 (oldest edits lost in early software upgrades). My first edit with my username appears to be on April 26. I have been active on a number of online projects - active and passive (SETI@Home, Distributed Proofreaders, Mars crater labeling, Stardust@Home, Folding@Home on the Wikipedia team: Team page, etc.)

I am at about 70,000 edits aross all Wiki projects.

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"Do you want to take a survey?"
On Feb. 12, 2005, I did a random pages survey. Out of 100 random pages, only 1 was a U.S. town. That's progress. Three towns in the UK, 1 in Spain and 1 in Portugal also turned up. Overall biographies were the largest category at 22%, followed by geography with 15% total. Then Lists at 7%, Disambiguation pages at 6%.

On Feb. 24, 2006, I repeated the 100 random page survey, this time getting 5 U.S. towns. Overall, geography had 26%, biography 21%, fiction 9%, music 4%, colleges 4%, lists 3% and disambigs 4%. Clearly geography and biography are our largest areas. Music, science and business scored less than I expected. Non-individual History was hardly discernable.

Even by Feb. 2005, 100 out of almost 500,000 was not statistically significant but was as much as I had patience for.

Wikiprojects I am a member of:

 * WikiProject Protected areas
 * WikiProject Rivers
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 * WikiProject Michigan

Short To Do list

 * add maps to cities in Chad
 * have done ten largest plus A-Biltine (plus Doba, Faya-Largeau, Goz Beïda, Guéréda, Mao, Ouara) from List of cities in Chad
 * left to do: Moussoro, Massaguet, Massakory, Massenya, Linia, Laï, Gaoui, Fada, Bousso, Bol, Bokoro
 * on list but no article yet: Bébidjia, Beinamar, Bénoy, Béré, Bitkine, Dourbali, Fianga, Goundi, Gounou Gaya, Guélengdeng, Kyabé, Léré, Moïssala, Ngama, Oum Hadjer
 * sources for Hook and Cod wars
 * History of camping
 * User:Rmhermen/sandbox
 * reduce repetition between Chemical Weapons Convention, Chemical weapon proliferation, Destruction of chemical weapons, Chemical weapon and Chemical warfare
 * Pueblo Chemical Depot - full destruction in Sept 2016
 * Joan Walsh Anglund

Early Anon work, no need to bug the developers
Up to Dec 16, 2003, all the edits at these anonymous id's were mine (59 edits):
 * User:64.152.154.140
 * User:64.152.153.104
 * User:166.90.233.102
 * User:65.25.234.xxx
 * User:64.7.163.180
 * User:64.152.153.139
 * User:63.212.148.98
 * User:64.152.159.57
 * User:64.152.154.147

More recently 1,250 or so edits on 75.41.110.200 are apparently all mine. Apparently my new ID is 75.41.109.190. There are undoubtedly many others as the earliest history of many articles was not preserved by the software.

List of most of my original pictures and some maps
For copyright declaration purposes The following photographs and diagrams on Wikipedia were taken by and uploaded by me and released under GNU-FDL:
 * Update March 21, 2006 by searching with Interiot's Tool (no longer updated - does edit counts though)

Maps

 * Image:Michigan map.png
 * Image:Toledo Strip.png
 * Image:Les Cheneaux Islands.PNG
 * Image:Blackfeet Indian Reservation map.PNG
 * Image:1999_west_nile_map.png, and the others in article
 * Image:US execution methods.png
 * Image:Lake of Egypt.PNG - an unimproved map
 * Image:Upper Peninsula of Michigan.png

Numerous locator maps for U.S. national parks like Image:LocMap Big Bend National Park.png and Image:LocMap Tongariro National Park.png - most now replaced by dynamic map system

title: User:Rmhermen


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Talk:Dominus Iesus

[Untitled]
Well so what is being done with this page? Koyaanis Qatsi

Nothing by me lately - it was a decent chunk of content that didn't belong where it was and concerned this topic -- you want to work on it -- go ahead ClaudeMuncey

Responses to some questions regarding certain aspects of the doctrine on the church
The document "Responses to some questions regarding certain aspects of the doctrine on the church", issued June 29, 2007, has been getting a fair bit of press, for example Vatican Reaffirms Catholic Primary Washington Post (via Reuters), July 10, 2007. Per Recentism, I'm trying not to jump to the conclusion that the Responses are more notable than the Dominus Iesus itself or the other earlier documents. At least for now, I just added the Responses as an external link without comment. It is far from clear to me how to organize this material, whether in the Dominus Iesus article or very general articles like Sectarianism or something in between ("Catholic attitudes towards non-Catholic Christians" or some such). Kingdon 18:12, 13 July 2007 (UTC)

 * You might consider subsuming the recent statement, including summary and reactions, under the article Catholic Church and ecumenism, New Tensions or Main Documents subsection. There is a flurry of news about it now, but not as much as there was in response to Dominus Iesus, if I recall. The.helping.people.tick 20:40, 13 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Thanks. I'm not sure I have the knowledge or inclination to do major work on any of these articles, but I have added "see also" sections so that editors and readers can at least know the related articles exist. Kingdon 23:12, 13 July 2007 (UTC)

Huh?
The article says
 * The lack of this filioque clause may have been due to limit of space, focus of theme, restrictions of time, or even due to merciful disinclusion from subject matter, although it was still universally recognised. Regardless, there is no basis for the idea that a cardinal would stay the Nicene Creed in part or totality, while it is more likely that even a future Pope would kindly refuse mention of existing contention while writing words of peace. Hence, no filioque clause was restated because it was already existent and required no further presence in the document of Dominus Iesus.

Could someone please translate that into English? Jhobson1 (talk) 13:07, 22 April 2008 (UTC)

Problematic "Response to Criticisms" material
The following was in the "Response to Criticisms" section:

Other controversies were unanswered by John Paul II, however the text of declaration "Dominus Iesus" was not withdrawed, though even many catholics consider it to be very archaic and retarding and that it should be interpreted nonverbatim.

Catholic paper "W drodze" wrote that many catholics will withdraw their support for declaration's teachings or even attack it.

One of catholic Superior General commented the declaration in following words: ""We shouldn't argue, whose way is better, but go. And we shouldn't deny right of others to their own way, and we shouldn't deny a possibility that this other way can be successful.''"

To these criticisms it can be answered that faithfuls are obliged to accept the teachings of the Magisterium and it is also defined as a dogmatic truth that doctrinal or moral teachings of popes are

""of themselves, and not by the consent of the Church, irreformable""

This strikes me as problematic on a few grounds. The tone is contentious, and seems (to me) to go against [{WP:NPOV]]. In addition, there's only one source, and that's in Polish--I can't really check it, but it seems to me that on an English-language Wikipedia, there needs to be an English language source for us to check it against. (Am I out of line on that?)

There are also weasel-word issues. (e.g "many catholics" consider DI archaic--well, there are a billion Catholics, so "many catholics" believe just about anything, right?) I don't think this material is essential to the article, so I'm removing it. -- Narsil (talk) 09:59, 14 February 2010 (UTC)

Why is there a "response to criticisms" heading without a "Criticisms" heading or even a decent description of what the criticisms are? POV, but more importantly downright confusing. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 147.106.161.153 (talk) 12:56, 12 May 2011 (UTC)

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 * Joseph Ratzinger.jpg

title: Talk:Dominus Iesus


text:
Sébastien Le Prestre, Marquis of Vauban

Sébastien Le Prestre, seigneur de Vauban, later styling himself as the marquis de Vauban (baptised 15 May 1633 – 30 March 1707), commonly referred to as Vauban, was a French military engineer and Marshal of France who worked under Louis XIV. He is generally considered the greatest engineer of his time, and one of the most important in European military history.

His principles for fortifications were widely used for nearly 100 years, while aspects of his offensive tactics remained in use until the mid-twentieth century. He viewed civilian infrastructure as closely connected to military effectiveness and worked on many of France's major ports, as well as projects like the Canal de la Bruche, which remains in use today. He founded the Corps royal des ingénieurs militaires, whose curriculum was based on his publications on engineering design, strategy and training.

His economic tract, La Dîme royale, used statistics in support of his arguments, making it a precursor of modern economics. Later destroyed by royal decree, it contained radical proposals for a more even distribution of the tax burden. His application of rational and scientific methods to problem-solving, whether engineering or social, anticipated an approach common in the Age of Enlightenment.

Perhaps the most enduring aspect of Vauban's legacy was his view of France as a geographical entity. His advocacy of giving up territory for a more coherent and defensible border was unusual for the period; the boundaries of the French state he proposed in the north and east have changed very little in the three centuries since.

Early life and education

Sébastien le Prestre de Vauban was born in May 1633, in Saint-Léger-de-Foucheret, renamed Saint-Léger-Vauban by Napoleon III in 1867, in the Yonne, now part of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. His parents, Urbain Le Prestre (c. 1602–1652) and Edmée de Cormignolle (died c. 1651), were members of the minor nobility, from Vauban in Bazoches.

In 1570, his grandfather Jacques Le Prestre acquired Château de Bazoches, when he married Françoise de la Perrière, an illegitimate daughter of the Comte de Bazoches, who died intestate. The 30-year legal battle by the Le Prestre family to retain the property proved financially ruinous, forcing Urbain to become a forestry worker. He also designed gardens for the local gentry, including the owners of the Château de Ruère, where Vauban spent his early years.

His only sister, Charlotte (1638–1645?), died young, but he had many relatives; his cousin, Paul le Prestre (c. 1630 – 1703), was an army officer who supervised construction of Les Invalides. Three of Paul's sons served in the army, two of whom were killed in action in 1676 and 1677. The third, Antoine (1654–1731), became Vauban's assistant and later a lieutenant-general; in 1710, he was appointed Governor of Béthune for life, while he inherited Vauban's titles and the bulk of his lands.

Vauban's family was impacted by the domestic conflict and foreign wars, including the Huguenot rebellions of the 1620s, the 1635–1659 Franco-Spanish War, and 1648 to 1653 Fronde; his Catholic grandfather married a Protestant from La Rochelle, and served Huguenot leader Admiral Coligny, while two of his uncles died in the war with Spain.

Career

In 1643, at the age of ten, Vauban was sent to the Carmelite college in Semur-en-Auxois, where he was taught the basics of mathematics, science and geometry. His father's work was also relevant; the design of neo-classical gardens and fortifications were closely linked, since they both concerned managing space. It was common to combine these skills; John Armstrong (1674–1742), Marlborough's chief military engineer, laid out the lake and gardens at Blenheim Palace.

In 1650, Vauban joined the household of his local magnate, the Prince de Condé, where he met de Montal; a close neighbour from Nièvre, the two were colleagues for many years, and often worked together. During the 1650–1653 Fronde des nobles, Condé was arrested by the Regency Council, led by Louis XIV's mother Anne of Austria and Cardinal Mazarin. After being released in 1652, he and his supporters, among them Vauban and de Montal, went into exile in the Spanish Netherlands and allied with the Spanish.

In early 1653, when Vauban worked on the defences of Sainte-Menehould, one of Condé's principal possessions, he was captured by a Royalist patrol and switched sides, serving in the force led by Louis Nicolas de Clerville that took Sainte-Menehould in November 1653. Clerville, later appointed Commissaire général des fortifications, employed him on siege operations and building fortifications. In 1655, Vauban was appointed Ingénieur du Roi or Royal Engineer, and by the time the war with Spain ended in 1659, he was known as a talented engineer of energy and courage. Under the terms of the Treaty of the Pyrenees, Spain ceded much of French Flanders, and Vauban was put in charge of fortifying newly acquired towns such as Dunkirk. This pattern of French territorial gains, followed by fortification of new strongpoints, was followed in the 1667–1668 War of Devolution, 1672–1678 Franco-Dutch War and 1683–1684 War of the Reunions.

The first fortification Vauban designed was the 1673 siege of Maastricht, although he was subordinate to Louis, who ranked as the senior officer present, and thus took credit for its capture. Vauban was rewarded with a large sum of money, which he used to purchase the Château de Bazouches from his cousin in 1675.

Post-1673, French strategy in Flanders was based on a memorandum from Vauban to Louvois, Minister of War, setting out a proposed line of fortresses known as the Ceinture de fer, or iron belt (see Map). He was made Maréchal de camp in 1676, and succeeded Clerville as Commissaire general des fortifications in 1677.

During the Nine Years' War, he supervised the capture of Namur in 1692, the major French achievement of the war, while the 1697 siege of Ath is often considered his offensive masterpiece. He was rewarded with money, and made Comte de Vauban, a member of the Order of the Holy Spirit and Order of Saint Louis, and an Honorary Member of the French Academy of Sciences.

The numbers needed to conduct a siege, and prevent interference from opponents meant armies of the Nine Years' War often exceeded 100,000 men, sizes unsustainable for pre-industrial societies. It prompted a change in tactics, Marlborough arguing winning one battle was more beneficial than taking 12 fortresses. The armies of the War of the Spanish Succession averaged around 35,000, and siege warfare superseded by a greater emphasis on mobility.

In 1703, Vauban was promoted Maréchal de France, marking the end of his military career, although the Ceinture de fer proved its worth after the French defeat at Ramillies in 1706. Under pressure from superior forces on multiple fronts, France's northern border remained largely intact despite repeated efforts to break it. Capturing Lille cost the Allies 12,000 casualties and most of the 1708 campaigning season; the lack of progress between 1706 and 1712 enabled Louis to reach an acceptable deal at Utrecht in 1713, as opposed to the humiliating terms presented in 1707.

With more leisure time, Vauban developed a broader view of his role. His fortifications were designed for mutual support, so they required connecting roads, bridges and canals; garrisons needed to be fed, so he prepared maps showing the location of forges, forests and farms. Since these had to be paid for, he developed an interest in tax policy, and in 1707 published La Dîme royale, documenting the economic misery of the lower classes. His solution was a flat 10% tax on all agricultural and industrial output, and eliminating the exemptions which meant most of the nobility and clergy paid nothing. Although confiscated and destroyed by royal decree, the use of statistics to support his arguments "... establishes him as a founder of modern economics, and precursor of the Enlightenment's socially concerned intellectuals."

In the course of his career, Vauban supervised or designed the building of more than 300 separate fortifications, and by his own estimate, supervised more than 40 sieges from 1653 to 1697.

Personal life and death
In 1660, Vauban married Jeanne d'Aunay d'Epiry (ca 1640–1705); they had two daughters, Charlotte (1661–1709) and Jeanne Françoise (1678–1713), as well as a short-lived infant son. He also had a long-term relationship with Marie-Antoinette de Puy-Montbrun, daughter of an exiled Huguenot officer, usually referred to as 'Mademoiselle de Villefranche.'

Vauban died in Paris on 30 March 1707; buried near his home in Bazoches, his grave was destroyed during the French Revolution. In 1808, Napoleon I ordered his heart reburied in Les Invalides, resting place for many of France's most famous soldiers.

Offensive doctrines; siege warfare
While his modern fame rests on the fortifications he built, Vauban's greatest innovations were in offensive operations, an approach he summarised as 'More powder, less blood.' Initially reliant on existing concepts, he later adapted these on lines set out in his memorandum of March 1672, Mémoire pour servir à l'instruction dans la conduite des sièges.

In this period, sieges became the dominant form of warfare; during the 1672–1678 Franco-Dutch War, three battles were fought in the Spanish Netherlands, of which only Seneffe was unrelated to a siege. Their importance was heightened by Louis XIV, who viewed them as low-risk opportunities for demonstrating his military skill and increasing his prestige; he was present at 20 of those conducted by Vauban.

The 'siege parallel' had been in development since the mid-16th century but Vauban brought the idea to practical fulfilment at Maastricht in 1673. Three parallel trenches were dug in front of the walls, the earth thus excavated being used to create embankments screening the attackers from defensive fire, while bringing them as close to the assault point as possible (see diagram). Artillery was moved into the trenches, allowing them to target the base of the walls at close range, with the defenders unable to depress their own guns enough to counter this; once a breach had been made, it was then stormed. This approach was used in offensive operations well into the 20th century.

However, Vauban adapted his approach to the situation, and did not use the siege parallel again until Valenciennes in 1677. Always willing to challenge accepted norms, at Valenciennes, he proposed assaulting the breach during the day, rather than at night as was normal practice. He argued this would reduce casualties by surprising the defenders, and allow better co-ordination among the assault force; he was supported by Louis, and the attack proved successful.

Vauban made several innovations in the use of siege artillery, including ricochet firing, and concentrating on specific parts of the fortifications, rather than targeting multiple targets. His Dutch rival Menno van Coehoorn employed a similar approach. While the 'Van Coehoorn method' sought to overwhelm defences with massive firepower, such as the Grand Battery of 200 guns at Namur in 1695, Vauban preferred a more gradual approach. Both had their supporters; Vauban argued his was less costly in terms of casualties, but it took more time, an important consideration in an age when far more soldiers died from disease than in combat.

Defensive doctrines; fortifications

It was accepted even the strongest fortifications would fall, given time; the process was so well understood by the 1690s, betting on the length of a siege became a popular craze. As few states could afford large standing armies, defenders needed time to mobilise; to provide this, fortresses were designed to absorb the attackers' energies, similar to the use of crumple zones in modern cars. The French defence of Namur in 1695 showed "how one could effectively win a campaign, by losing a fortress, but exhausting the besiegers."

As with the siege parallel, the strength of Vauban's defensive designs was his ability to synthesise and adapt the work of others to create a more powerful whole. His first works used the 'star-shape' or bastion fort design, also known as the trace Italienne, based on the designs of Antoine de Ville (1596–1656) and Blaise Pagan (1603–1665). His subsequent 'systems' strengthened their internal works with the addition of casemated shoulders and flanks.

The principles of Vauban's 'second system' were set out in the 1683 work Le Directeur-Général des fortifications, and used at Landau and Mont-Royal, near Traben-Trarbach; both were advanced positions, intended as stepping-off points for French offensives into the Rhineland. Located 200 m above the Moselle, Mont-Royal had main walls 30 m high, 3 km long and space for 12,000 troops; this enormously expensive work was demolished when the French withdrew after the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick, and only the foundations remain today. Fort-Louis was another new construction, built on an island in the middle of the Rhine; this allowed Vauban to combine his defensive principles with town planning, although like Mont-Royal, little of it remains. The French retreat from the Rhine after 1697 required new fortresses; Neuf-Brisach was the most significant, designed on Vauban's 'third system', and completed after his death by Louis de Cormontaigne. Using ideas from Fort-Louis, this incorporated a regular square grid street pattern inside an octagonal fortification; tenement blocks were built inside each curtain wall, strengthening the defensive walls and shielding more expensive houses from cannon fire.

To create a more coherent border, Vauban advocated destroying poor fortifications, and relinquishing territory that was hard to defend. In December 1672, he wrote to Louvois: "I am not for the greater number of places, we already have too many, and please God we had half of that, but all in good condition!"

Many of the fortifications designed by Vauban are still standing; in 2008, twelve groups of Vauban fortifications were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List for their exceptional engineering and influence on military fortifications from the 17th through the 20th centuries.

Infrastructure and engineering
While often overlooked, Vauban worked on many civilian infrastructure projects, including rebuilding the ports of Brest, Dunkerque and Toulon. Since his fortifications were designed for mutual support, roads and waterways were an essential part of their design, such as the Canal de la Bruche, a 20 km canal built in 1682 to transport materials for the fortification of Strasbourg. As early as 1684, Vauban published design tables for retaining walls with heights between 3 and 25 metres. Three years later, Vauban, in his role as newly appointed Commissary General of all French fortifications, sent his engineers in the Corps du Génie Militaire his Profil général pour les murs de soutènement in which he presented his retaining wall profiles that were later adopted by engineering offers such as Bélidor (1729), Poncelet (1840) and Wheeler (1870). He also provided advice on the repair and enlargement of the Canal du Midi in 1686.

His holistic approach to urban planning, which integrated city defences with layout and infrastructure, is most obvious at Neuf-Brisach. His legacy is recognised in the Vauban district in Freiburg, developed as a model for sustainable neighbourhoods post-1998.

Vauban's 'scientific approach' and focus on large infrastructure projects strongly influenced American military and civil engineering and inspired the creation of the US Corps of Engineers in 1824. Until 1866, West Point's curriculum was modelled on that of the French Ecole Polytechnique and designed to produce officers with skills in engineering and mathematics.

To ensure a steady supply of skilled engineers, in 1690 Vauban established the Corps royal des ingénieurs militaires; until his death, candidates had to pass an examination administered by Vauban himself. Young French Huguenots made up a disproportionately high number of successful engineers due to the social and educational characteristics of French Protestantism. After the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, a significant number of these engineers joined the English and Dutch armies to fight in Ireland, Flanders and Spain. Many of his publications, including Traité de l'attaque des places and Traité des mines, were written at the end of his career to provide a training curriculum for his successors.

Assessment
Vauban's offensive tactics remained relevant for centuries; his principles were clearly identifiable in those used by the Việt Minh at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. His defensive fortifications dated far more quickly, partly due to the enormous investment required; Vauban himself estimated that in 1678, 1694 and 1705, between 40 and 45% of the French army was assigned to garrison duty.

Vauban's reputation meant his designs remained in use long after developments in artillery made them obsolete, for example the Dutch fort of Bourtange, built in 1742. The Corps des ingénieurs militaires was based on his teachings; between 1699 and 1743, only 631 new candidates were accepted, the vast majority relatives of existing or former members. As a result, French military engineering became ultra-conservative, while many 'new' works used his designs, or professed to do so, such as those built by Louis de Cortmontaigne at Metz in 1728–1733. This persisted into the late 19th century; Fort de Queuleu, built in 1867 near Metz, is recognisably a Vauban-style design.

Some French engineers continued to be innovators, notably the Marquis de Montalembert, who published La Fortification perpendiculaire in 1776. A rejection of the principles advocated by Vauban and his successors; his ideas became the prevailing orthodoxy in much of Europe but were dismissed in France.

title: Sébastien Le Prestre, Marquis of Vauban


text:
Santalales

The Santalales are an order of flowering plants with a cosmopolitan distribution, but heavily concentrated in tropical and subtropical regions. It derives its name from its type genus Santalum (sandalwood). Mistletoe is the common name for a number of parasitic plants within the order.

Overview
Many of the members of the order are parasitic plants, mostly hemiparasites, able to produce sugars through photosynthesis, but tapping the stems or roots of other plants to obtain water and minerals; some (e.g. Arceuthobium) are obligate parasites, have low concentrations of chlorophyll within their shoots (1/5 to 1/10 of that found in their host's foliage), and derive the majority of their sustenance from their hosts' vascular tissues (water, micro- and macronutrients, and sucrose).

Most have seeds without testae (seed coats), which is unusual for flowering plants.

Classification
The APG IV system of 2016 includes seven families. As in the earlier APG III system, it was accepted that Olacaceae sensu lato was paraphyletic but new family limits were not proposed as relationships were considered uncertain. , this seven-family division of the Santalales was explicitly accepted by the World Flora Online, and implicitly by Plants of the World Online, in that it accepted none of the extra families recognized by other sources. The seven families are:
 * Balanophoraceae
 * Loranthaceae
 * Misodendraceae
 * Olacaceae
 * Opiliaceae
 * Santalaceae
 * Schoepfiaceae

When only these families are recognized, one possible phylogenetic relationship among them is shown below. Support for some of the nodes is weak, and at least two families, Olacaceae s.l. and Balanophoraceae s.l., are not monophyletic:

A summary of the circumscription and phylogeny of the Santalales published in 2020 used 20 rather than seven families. Olacaceae s.l. was divided into seven families, Balanophoraceae s.l. was divided into two, and Santalaceae s.l. into seven. , the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website accepted the families resulting from the division of Olacaceae s.l. and Balanophoraceae s.l. but not those from the division of Santalaceae s.l.

Earlier systems
In the classification system of Dahlgren, the Santalales were in the superorder Santaliflorae (also called Santalanae). The Cronquist system (1981) used this circumscription:
 * order Santalales
 * family Medusandraceae – sole genus Medusandra now in family Peridiscaceae, order Saxifragales
 * family Dipentodontaceae – now in order Huerteales in APG IV
 * family Olacaceae
 * family Opiliaceae
 * family Santalaceae
 * family Misodendraceae
 * family Loranthaceae
 * family Viscaceae - sunk into Santalaceae s.l. in the seven-family system
 * family Eremolepidaceae - sunk into Santalaceae s.l. in the seven-family system
 * family Balanophoraceae

title: Santalales


text:
Arales

Arales is an order of flowering plants. The name was used in the Cronquist system for an order placed in subclass Arecidae, circumscribed as (1981):

 * order Arales
 * family Acoraceae
 * family Araceae
 * family Lemnaceae

In the classification system of Dahlgren the Arales were in the superorder Ariflorae (also called Aranae), but did not include Acoraceae as a separate family. Instead, Acorus, its only genus, was included in the Araceae. Arales was the only order included in the Ariflorae.

The APG II system elevates the first of these three families to become an order Acorales of its own (consisting of the single genus, Acorus) and unites the last two of these families into the one family Araceae assigning this to the order Alismatales.

title: Arales


text:
Araceae

The Araceae are a family of monocotyledonous flowering plants in which flowers are borne on a type of inflorescence called a spadix. The spadix is usually accompanied by, and sometimes partially enclosed in, a spathe (or leaf-like bract). Also known as the arum family, members are often colloquially known as aroids. This family of 114 genera and about 3,750 known species is most diverse in the New World tropics, although also distributed in the Old World tropics and northern temperate regions.

Description
Within the Araceae, species are often rhizomatous or tuberous; many are epiphytic, creeping lianas or vining plants, and the leaves and tissues of the entire plant nearly always contains irritating calcium oxalate crystals or raphides, in varying degrees. The foliage can vary considerably from species to species. The majority of species produce an inflorescence consisting of a spadix (which some compare to a corn cob, in appearance), which is nearly always surrounded by a modified leaf bract called a spathe. In monoecious aroids, possessing separate male and female flowers (but with both flowers present on one plant), the spadix is usually organized with female flowers towards the bottom and male flowers at the top. In aroids with perfect flowers, the stigma is no longer receptive when the pollen is released, thus preventing self-fertilization. Some species are dioecious.

Many plants in this family are thermogenic (heat-producing). Their flowers can reach up to 45 °C, even if the surrounding air temperature is much lower. One reason for this unusually high temperature is to attract insects (usually beetles) to pollinate the plant, rewarding the beetles with heat energy, in addition to preventing tissue damage in colder regions. Some examples of thermogenic aroids are Symplocarpus foetidus (eastern skunk-cabbage), Amorphophallus titanum (titan arum), Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (elephant-foot yam), Helicodiceros muscivorus (dead-horse arum lily), and Sauromatum venosum (voodoo lily). Some species, such as A. titanum and H. muscivorus, give off a very pungent smell akin to rotten meat, which serves to attract flies for pollination. The heat produced by the plant helps to convey the scent further.

Toxicity
Within the Araceae family, the majority of species produce calcium oxalate crystals in the form of raphides. While it is possible to consume the cooked foliage of certain genera, such as Alocasia, Colocasia, and Xanthosoma, as well as the ripened fruits of Monstera deliciosa, these raphide compounds are irritating (and even dangerous) for many animals, including humans. Consumption of raw aroid vegetation may cause edema, vesicle formation or dysphagia, accompanied by a painful stinging and burning in the mouth and throat, with symptoms occurring for up to two weeks, depending on amount consumed. In smaller amounts, patients report feeling a mild to extreme sensation of sand or glass in the esophagus and mouth, lasting up to 48 hours. Additionally, in heavier instances of ingestion, anaphylactic shock could cause swelling of the throat, restricting breathing. The genus Dieffenbachia is famously known as "dumb-cane" for this reason; however, given the presence of irritating compounds across the family, this nickname may be applied to virtually any genera within the Araceae.

Phylogeny
Phylogeny based on the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website.

Classification
One of the earliest observations of species in the Araceae was conducted by Theophrastus in his work Enquiry into Plants. The Araceae were not recognized as a distinct group of plants until the 16th century. In 1789, Antoine Laurent de Jussieu classified all climbing aroids as Pothos and all terrestrial aroids as either Arum or Dracontium in his book Familles des Plantes.

The first major system of classification for the family was produced by Heinrich Wilhelm Schott, who published Genera Aroidearum in 1858 and Prodromus Systematis Aroidearum in 1860. Schott's system was based on floral characteristics, and used a narrow conception of a genus. Adolf Engler produced a classification in 1876, which was steadily refined up to 1920. His system is significantly different from Schott's, being based more on vegetative characters and anatomy. The two systems were to some extent rivals, with Engler's having more adherents before the advent of molecular phylogenetics brought new approaches.

A comprehensive taxonomy of Araceae was published by Mayo et al. in 1997.

Modern studies based on gene sequences show the Araceae (including the Lemnoideae, duckweeds) to be monophyletic, and the first diverging group within the Alismatales. The APG III system of 2009 recognizes the family, including the genera formerly segregated in the Lemnaceae. The sinking of the Lemnaceae into the Araceae was not immediately universally accepted. For example, the 2010 New Flora of the British Isles used a paraphyletic Araceae and a separate Lemnaceae. However Lemna and its allies were incorporated in Araceae in the 2019 edition. A comprehensive genomic study of Spirodela polyrhiza was published in February 2014.

Genera

143 genera are accepted within the Araceae. Anthurium, Epipremnum, Monstera, Philodendron and Zantedeschia are some of the most well-known genera of the family, as are the Colocasia (taro, arbi) and Xanthosoma ('elephant-ear', ‘ape), which are both cultivated for human consumption. The largest unbranched inflorescence in the world is that of the arum Amorphophallus titanum (titan arum).

The Araceae includes many ornamental genera of global economic importance: Aglaonema, Alocasia, Anthurium, Caladium, Dieffenbachia, Epipremnum, Homalomena, Monstera, Nephthytis, Rhaphidophora, Scindapsus, Spathiphyllum, Syngonium, and Zamioculcas, to name but a few. The aquatic genera Anubias, Bucephalandra and Cryptocoryne are highly prized and cultivated aquarium plants; other, recently-described genera, such as the Lagenandra of India, are gradually becoming more known in the aquascaping world. Philodendron is an important genus in the ecosystems of neotropical rainforests, and is widely used in home and interior decorating. Symplocarpus foetidus (skunk cabbage) is a common eastern North American species. An interesting peculiarity is that this family includes the largest unbranched inflorescence, that of the titan arum, often erroneously called the "largest flower", and the smallest flowering plant and smallest fruit, in the duckweed, Wolffia.

Fossil record
The family Araceae has one of the oldest fossil record among angiosperms, with fossil forms first appearing during the Early Cretaceous epoch. Notable fossils from the Early Cretaceous include: Spixiarum kipea, an aroid from the late Aptian of Brazil; Orontiophyllum ferreri, an aroid leaf from the late Albian of Spain; and Turolospadix bogneri, an aroid spadix from the late Albian of Spain.

Food plants
Food plants in the family Araceae include Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (elephant foot yam), Colocasia esculenta (kochu, taro, dasheen), Xanthosoma (cocoyam, tannia), Typhonium trilobatum and Monstera deliciosa (Mexican breadfruit). While the aroids are little traded, and overlooked by plant breeders to the extent that the Crop Trust calls them "orphan crops", they are widely grown and are important in subsistence agriculture and in local markets. The main food product is the corm, which is high in starch; leaves and flowers also find culinary use.

title: Araceae


text:
File Transfer Protocol

The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard communication protocol used for the transfer of computer files from a server to a client on a computer network. FTP is built on a client–server model architecture using separate control and data connections between the client and the server. FTP users may authenticate themselves with a plain-text sign-in protocol, normally in the form of a username and password, but can connect anonymously if the server is configured to allow it. For secure transmission that protects the username and password, and encrypts the content, FTP is often secured with SSL/TLS (FTPS) or replaced with SSH File Transfer Protocol (SFTP).

The first FTP client applications were command-line programs developed before operating systems had graphical user interfaces, and are still shipped with most Windows, Unix, and Linux operating systems. Many dedicated FTP clients and automation utilities have since been developed for desktops, servers, mobile devices, and hardware, and FTP has been incorporated into productivity applications such as HTML editors and file managers.

An FTP client used to be commonly integrated in web browsers, where file servers are browsed with the URI prefix " ". In 2021, FTP support was dropped by Google Chrome and Firefox,  two major web browser vendors, due to it being superseded by the more secure SFTP and FTPS; although neither of them have implemented the newer protocols.

History of FTP servers
The original specification for the File Transfer Protocol was written by Abhay Bhushan and published as on 16 April 1971. Until 1980, FTP ran on NCP, the predecessor of TCP/IP. The protocol was later replaced by a TCP/IP version, (June 1980) and  (October 1985), the current specification. Several proposed standards amend, for example (February 1994) enables Firewall-Friendly FTP (passive mode),  (June 1997) proposes security extensions,  (September 1998) adds support for IPv6 and defines a new type of passive mode.

Communication and data transfer
FTP may run in active or passive mode, which determines how the data connection is established. (This sense of "mode" is different from that of the MODE command in the FTP protocol.) Both modes were updated in September 1998 to support IPv6. Further changes were introduced to the passive mode at that time, updating it to extended passive mode.
 * In active mode, the client starts listening for incoming data connections from the server on port M. It sends the FTP command PORT M to inform the server on which port it is listening. The server then initiates a data channel to the client from its port 20, the FTP server data port.
 * In situations where the client is behind a firewall and unable to accept incoming TCP connections, passive mode may be used. In this mode, the client uses the control connection to send a PASV command to the server and then receives a server IP address and server port number from the server, which the client then uses to open a data connection from an arbitrary client port to the server IP address and server port number received.

The server responds over the control connection with three-digit status codes in ASCII with an optional text message. For example, "200" (or "200 OK") means that the last command was successful. The numbers represent the code for the response and the optional text represents a human-readable explanation or request (e.g. <Need account for storing file>). An ongoing transfer of file data over the data connection can be aborted using an interrupt message sent over the control connection.

FTP needs two ports (one for sending and one for receiving) because it was originally designed to operate on top of Network Control Protocol (NCP), which was a simplex protocol that utilized two port addresses, establishing two connections, for two-way communications. An odd and an even port were reserved for each application layer application or protocol. The standardization of TCP and UDP reduced the need for the use of two simplex ports for each application down to one duplex port, but the FTP protocol was never altered to only use one port, and continued using two for backwards compatibility.

NAT and firewall traversal
FTP normally transfers data by having the server connect back to the client, after the PORT command is sent by the client. This is problematic for both NATs and firewalls, which do not allow connections from the Internet towards internal hosts. For NATs, an additional complication is that the representation of the IP addresses and port number in the PORT command refer to the internal host's IP address and port, rather than the public IP address and port of the NAT.

There are two approaches to solve this problem. One is that the FTP client and FTP server use the PASV command, which causes the data connection to be established from the FTP client to the server. This is widely used by modern FTP clients. Another approach is for the NAT to alter the values of the PORT command, using an application-level gateway for this purpose.

Data types
While transferring data over the network, five data types are defined:
 * ASCII (TYPE A): Used for text. Data is converted, if needed, from the sending host's character representation to "8-bit ASCII" before transmission, and (again, if necessary) to the receiving host's character representation, including newlines. As a consequence, this mode is inappropriate for files that contain data other than ASCII.
 * Image (TYPE I, commonly called Binary mode): The sending machine sends each file byte by byte, and the recipient stores the bytestream as it receives it. (Image mode support has been recommended for all implementations of FTP).
 * EBCDIC (TYPE E): Used for plain text between hosts using the EBCDIC character set.
 * Local (TYPE L n): Designed to support file transfer between machines which do not use 8-bit bytes, e.g. 36-bit systems such as DEC PDP-10s. For example, "TYPE L 9" would be used to transfer data in 9-bit bytes, or "TYPE L 36" to transfer 36-bit words. Most contemporary FTP clients/servers only support L 8, which is equivalent to I.
 * Unicode text files using UTF-8 (TYPE U): defined in an expired Internet Draft which never became an RFC, though it has been implemented by several FTP clients/servers.

Note these data types are commonly called "modes", although ambiguously that word is also used to refer to active-vs-passive communication mode (see above), and the modes set by the FTP protocol MODE command (see below).

For text files (TYPE A and TYPE E), three different format control options are provided, to control how the file would be printed: These formats were mainly relevant to line printers; most contemporary FTP clients/servers only support the default format control of N.
 * Non-print (TYPE A N and TYPE E N) – the file does not contain any carriage control characters intended for a printer
 * Telnet (TYPE A T and TYPE E T) – the file contains Telnet (or in other words, ASCII C0) carriage control characters (CR, LF, etc)
 * ASA (TYPE A A and TYPE E A) – the file contains ASA carriage control characters

File structures
File organization is specified using the STRU command. The following file structures are defined in section 3.1.1 of RFC959:
 * F or FILE structure (stream-oriented). Files are viewed as an arbitrary sequence of bytes, characters or words. This is the usual file structure on Unix systems and other systems such as CP/M, MS-DOS and Microsoft Windows. (Section 3.1.1.1)
 * R or RECORD structure (record-oriented). Files are viewed as divided into records, which may be fixed or variable length. This file organization is common on mainframe and midrange systems, such as MVS, VM/CMS, OS/400 and VMS, which support record-oriented filesystems.
 * P or PAGE structure (page-oriented). Files are divided into pages, which may either contain data or metadata; each page may also have a header giving various attributes. This file structure was specifically designed for TENEX systems, and is generally not supported on other platforms. RFC1123 section 4.1.2.3 recommends that this structure not be implemented.

Most contemporary FTP clients and servers only support STRU F. STRU R is still in use in mainframe and minicomputer file transfer applications.

Data transfer modes
Data transfer can be done in any of three modes:
 * Stream mode (MODE S): Data is sent as a continuous stream, relieving FTP from doing any processing. Rather, all processing is left up to TCP. No End-of-file indicator is needed, unless the data is divided into records.
 * Block mode (MODE B): Designed primarily for transferring record-oriented files (STRU R), although can also be used to transfer stream-oriented (STRU F) text files. FTP puts each record (or line) of data into several blocks (block header, byte count, and data field) and then passes it on to TCP.
 * Compressed mode (MODE C): Extends MODE B with data compression using run-length encoding.

Most contemporary FTP clients and servers do not implement MODE B or MODE C; FTP clients and servers for mainframe and minicomputer operating systems are the exception to that.

Some FTP software also implements a DEFLATE-based compressed mode, sometimes called "Mode Z" after the command that enables it. This mode was described in an Internet Draft, but not standardized.

GridFTP defines additional modes, MODE E and MODE X, as extensions of MODE B.

Additional commands
More recent implementations of FTP support the Modify Fact: Modification Time (MFMT) command, which allows a client to adjust that file attribute remotely, enabling the preservation of that attribute when uploading files.

To retrieve a remote file timestamp, there's MDTM command. Some servers (and clients) support nonstandard syntax of the MDTM command with two arguments, that works the same way as MFMT

Login
FTP login uses normal username and password scheme for granting access. The username is sent to the server using the USER command, and the password is sent using the PASS command. This sequence is unencrypted "on the wire", so may be vulnerable to a network sniffing attack. If the information provided by the client is accepted by the server, the server will send a greeting to the client and the session will commence. If the server supports it, users may log in without providing login credentials, but the same server may authorize only limited access for such sessions.

Anonymous FTP
A host that provides an FTP service may provide anonymous FTP access. Users typically log into the service with an 'anonymous' (lower-case and case-sensitive in some FTP servers) account when prompted for user name. Although users are commonly asked to send their email address instead of a password, no verification is actually performed on the supplied data. Many FTP hosts whose purpose is to provide software updates will allow anonymous logins.

Differences from HTTP
HTTP essentially fixes the bugs in FTP that made it inconvenient to use for many small ephemeral transfers as are typical in web pages.

FTP has a stateful control connection which maintains a current working directory and other flags, and each transfer requires a secondary connection through which the data are transferred. In "passive" mode this secondary connection is from client to server, whereas in the default "active" mode this connection is from server to client. This apparent role reversal when in active mode, and random port numbers for all transfers, is why firewalls and NAT gateways have such a hard time with FTP. HTTP is stateless and multiplexes control and data over a single connection from client to server on well-known port numbers, which trivially passes through NAT gateways and is simple for firewalls to manage.

Setting up an FTP control connection is quite slow due to the round-trip delays of sending all of the required commands and awaiting responses, so it is customary to bring up a control connection and hold it open for multiple file transfers rather than drop and re-establish the session afresh each time. In contrast, HTTP originally dropped the connection after each transfer because doing so was so cheap. While HTTP has subsequently gained the ability to reuse the TCP connection for multiple transfers, the conceptual model is still of independent requests rather than a session.

When FTP is transferring over the data connection, the control connection is idle. If the transfer takes too long, the firewall or NAT may decide that the control connection is dead and stop tracking it, effectively breaking the connection and confusing the download. The single HTTP connection is only idle between requests and it is normal and expected for such connections to be dropped after a time-out.

File managers
Many file managers tend to have FTP access implemented, such as File Explorer (formerly Windows Explorer) on Microsoft Windows. This client is only recommended for small file transfers from a server, due to limitations compared to dedicated client software. It does not support SFTP.

Both the native file managers for KDE on Linux (Dolphin and Konqueror) support FTP as well as SFTP. On Android, the My Files file manager on Samsung Galaxy has a built-in FTP and SFTP client.

Web browser
For a long time, most common web browsers were able to retrieve files hosted on FTP servers, although not all of them had support for protocol extensions such as FTPS. When an FTP—rather than an HTTP—URL is supplied, the accessible contents on the remote server are presented in a manner that is similar to that used for other web content.

Google Chrome removed FTP support entirely in Chrome 88, also affecting other Chromium-based browsers such as Microsoft Edge. Firefox 88 disabled FTP support by default, with Firefox 90 dropping support entirely.

FireFTP is a discontinued browser extension that was designed as a full-featured FTP client to be run within Firefox, but when Firefox dropped support for FTP the extension developer recommended using Waterfox. Some browsers, such as the text-based Lynx, still support FTP.

Syntax
FTP URL syntax is described in, taking the form:  (the bracketed parts are optional).

For example, the URL ftp://public.ftp-servers.example.com/mydirectory/myfile.txt represents the file myfile.txt from the directory mydirectory on the server public.ftp-servers.example.com as an FTP resource. The URL ftp://user001:secretpassword@private.ftp-servers.example.com/mydirectory/myfile.txt adds a specification of the username and password that must be used to access this resource.

More details on specifying a username and password may be found in the browsers' documentation (e.g., Firefox and Internet Explorer ). By default, most web browsers use passive (PASV) mode, which more easily traverses end-user firewalls.

Some variation has existed in how different browsers treat path resolution in cases where there is a non-root home directory for a user.

Download manager
Most common download managers can receive files hosted on FTP servers, while some of them also give the interface to retrieve the files hosted on FTP servers. DownloadStudio allows not only download a file from FTP server but also view the list of files on a FTP server.

Other
LibreOffice declared its FTP support deprecated from 7.4 release, this was later removed in 24.2 release.

Security
FTP was not designed to be a secure protocol, and has many security weaknesses. In May 1999, the authors of listed a vulnerability to the following problems:
 * Brute-force attack
 * FTP bounce attack
 * Packet capture
 * Port stealing (guessing the next open port and usurping a legitimate connection)
 * Spoofing attack
 * Username enumeration
 * DoS or DDoS

FTP does not encrypt its traffic; all transmissions are in clear text, and usernames, passwords, commands and data can be read by anyone able to perform packet capture (sniffing) on the network. This problem is common to many of the Internet Protocol specifications (such as SMTP, Telnet, POP and IMAP) that were designed prior to the creation of encryption mechanisms such as TLS or SSL.

Common solutions to this problem include:
 * 1) Using the secure versions of the insecure protocols, e.g., FTPS instead of FTP and TelnetS instead of Telnet.
 * 2) Using a different, more secure protocol that can handle the job, e.g. SSH File Transfer Protocol or Secure Copy Protocol.
 * 3) Using a secure tunnel such as Secure Shell (SSH) or virtual private network (VPN).

FTP over SSH
FTP over SSH is the practice of tunneling a normal FTP session over a Secure Shell connection. Because FTP uses multiple TCP connections (unusual for a TCP/IP protocol that is still in use), it is particularly difficult to tunnel over SSH. With many SSH clients, attempting to set up a tunnel for the control channel (the initial client-to-server connection on port 21) will protect only that channel; when data is transferred, the FTP software at either end sets up new TCP connections (data channels) and thus have no confidentiality or integrity protection.

Otherwise, it is necessary for the SSH client software to have specific knowledge of the FTP protocol, to monitor and rewrite FTP control channel messages and autonomously open new packet forwardings for FTP data channels. Software packages that support this mode include:
 * Tectia ConnectSecure (Win/Linux/Unix) of SSH Communications Security's software suite

FTP over SSH should not be confused with SSH File Transfer Protocol (SFTP).

FTPS
Explicit FTPS is an extension to the FTP standard that allows clients to request FTP sessions to be encrypted. This is done by sending the "AUTH TLS" command. The server has the option of allowing or denying connections that do not request TLS. This protocol extension is defined in. Implicit FTPS is an outdated standard for FTP that required the use of a SSL or TLS connection. It was specified to use different ports than plain FTP.

SSH File Transfer Protocol
The SSH file transfer protocol (chronologically the second of the two protocols abbreviated SFTP) transfers files and has a similar command set for users, but uses the Secure Shell protocol (SSH) to transfer files. Unlike FTP, it encrypts both commands and data, preventing passwords and sensitive information from being transmitted openly over the network. It cannot interoperate with FTP software, though some FTP client software offers support for the SSH file transfer protocol as well.

Trivial File Transfer Protocol
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is a simple, lock-step FTP that allows a client to get a file from or put a file onto a remote host. One of its primary uses is in the early stages of booting from a local area network, because TFTP is very simple to implement. TFTP lacks security and most of the advanced features offered by more robust file transfer protocols such as File Transfer Protocol. TFTP was first standardized in 1981 and the current specification for the protocol can be found in.

Simple File Transfer Protocol
Simple File Transfer Protocol (the first protocol abbreviated SFTP), as defined by, was proposed as an (unsecured) file transfer protocol with a level of complexity intermediate between TFTP and FTP. It was never widely accepted on the Internet, and is now assigned Historic status by the IETF. It runs through port 115, and often receives the initialism of SFTP. It has a command set of 11 commands and support three types of data transmission: ASCII, binary and continuous. For systems with a word size that is a multiple of 8 bits, the implementation of binary and continuous is the same. The protocol also supports login with user ID and password, hierarchical folders and file management (including rename, delete, upload, download, download with overwrite, and download with append).

FTP reply codes
Below is a summary of FTP reply codes that may be returned by an FTP server. These codes have been standardized in by the IETF. The reply code is a three-digit value. The first digit is used to indicate one of three possible outcomes — success, failure, or to indicate an error or incomplete reply:
 * 2yz – Success reply
 * 4yz or 5yz – Failure reply
 * 1yz or 3yz – Error or Incomplete reply

The second digit defines the kind of error:
 * x0z – Syntax. These replies refer to syntax errors.
 * x1z – Information. Replies to requests for information.
 * x2z – Connections. Replies referring to the control and data connections.
 * x3z – Authentication and accounting. Replies for the login process and accounting procedures.
 * x4z – Not defined.
 * x5z – File system. These replies relay status codes from the server file system.

The third digit of the reply code is used to provide additional detail for each of the categories defined by the second digit.

title: File Transfer Protocol


text:
RFC

RFC may refer to:

Computing

 * Request for Comments, a memorandum on Internet standards
 * Request for change, change management
 * Remote Function Call, in SAP computer systems
 * Rhye's and Fall of Civilization, a modification for Sid Meier's Civilization IV

Science and technology

 * Regenerative fuel cell
 * Replication factor C, a protein complex
 * Radio frequency choke, a type of choke

Governmental

 * Reconstruction Finance Corporation of the US government, 1932-1957
 * Royal Flying Corps, precursor to the UK Royal Air Force
 * River Forecast Center of the US National Weather Service

Non-profit

 * Rosenberg Fund for Children, a charity

Sports

 * sports club for rugby football, a rugby football club (R.F.C.)
 * Randers FC, a Danish professional football club
 * Rangers F.C., a Scottish professional football club
 * Ratchaburi F.C., a Thai association football club
 * Reading F.C., an English professional football club
 * Richmond F.C., an English rugby union club
 * Richmond Football Club, a team in the AFL, the top-level Australian rules football league
 * Romulus F.C., an English semi-professional football club

Other uses

 * Federal Taxpayer Registry (Spanish: Registro Federal de Contribuyentes), Mexican tax identification number

title: RFC