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Porsche 914

The Porsche 914 or VW-Porsche 914 is a mid-engined sports car designed, manufactured and marketed collaboratively by Volkswagen and Porsche from 1969 until 1976. It was only available as a targa-topped two-seat roadster powered by either a flat-4 or flat-six engine.

Pre-development
By the late 1960s, both Volkswagen and Porsche were in need of new models; Porsche was looking for a replacement for their entry-level 912, and Volkswagen wanted a new range-topping sports coupé to replace the Volkswagen Type 34 Karmann Ghia coupé. At the time the majority of Volkswagen's development work was handled by Porsche as part of an agreement that dated back to Porsche's founding. Volkswagen needed to contract out one last project to Porsche to fulfill the contract, and decided to make the 914 that project. Ferdinand Piëch, who was in charge of research and development at Porsche, was put in charge of the 914 project.

In 1966 and 1967, German company Gugelot Design GmbH began showing a proposed design for a sports coupe built with technology developed in partnership with Bayer to several major car builders, including Volkswagen and Porsche. Some sources have suggested that the Gugelot proposal, suitably adapted, was the origin of the design of the 914. The rationale is that an outside design would be able to please both Volkswagen and Porsche without appearing too similar to either of the partners' existing products. Later sources have rejected this idea. While acknowledging that Porsche was aware of the Gugelot design, they assert that the 914 design was done in-house at Porsche, and is primarily the work of body engineer Heinrich Klie.

Joint venture
Originally intending to sell the vehicle with a flat four-cylinder engine as a Volkswagen and with a flat six-cylinder engine as a Porsche, Porsche decided during development that having Volkswagen and Porsche models sharing the same body would be risky for business in the American market, and convinced Volkswagen to allow them to sell both versions as Porsches in North America. On March 1, 1968, the first 914 prototype was presented. However, development became complicated after the death of Volkswagen's chairman, Heinrich Nordhoff, on April 12, 1968. His successor, Kurt Lotz, was not connected with the Porsche dynasty and the verbal agreement between Volkswagen and Porsche fell apart.

In Lotz's opinion, Volkswagen had all rights to the model, and no incentive to share it with Porsche if they would not share in tooling expenses. With this decision, the price and marketing concept for the 914 had failed before series production had begun. As a result, the price of the chassis went up considerably, and the 914/6 ended up costing only a bit less than the 911T, Porsche's next lowest priced car.

The 914 was Motor Trend's Import Car of the Year for 1970.

Slow sales and rising costs prompted Porsche to discontinue the 914/6 variant in 1972 after producing 3,351 of them.

Production of the 914 ended in 1976. The 2.0 L flat-4 engine continued to be used in the 912E, introduced that year as an entry-level model until the front-engined four-cylinder 924 was introduced the following model year.

The 914/4 became Porsche's top seller during its model run, outselling the Porsche 911 by a wide margin with over 118,000 units sold worldwide.

Features
Volkswagen versions originally featured the fuel-injected 1.7 L VW Type 4 flat-four engine producing 80 bhp.

Porsche's 914/6 variant featured the 2.0 L air-cooled Type 901/3 flat-six engine from the 1967–1969 911T model. This was the least powerful flat-six in Porsche's lineup. This engine had revised pistons that reduced the compression ratio to 8.6:1. The cylinder barrels were entirely made of iron, in contrast to the iron and aluminum "Biral" barrels in the engines in the 911S and 911L. New camshafts had less lift, and relaxed timing characteristics. The venturis in the Weber 40IDT3C carburetors were 27 mm, smaller than the other 911 engines, and the exhaust pipe diameter was also reduced in size. Power output was 110 bhp. When the 911T got a 2.2 L engine in 1970, the engine in the 914/6 remained at 2.0 L.

All engines were placed amidships in front of a version of the 1969 911's "901" gearbox configured for a mid-engined sports car. Karmann manufactured the rolling chassis at their plant, completing Volkswagen production in-house or delivering versions to Porsche for their final assembly.

The 914/6 models came with lower gear ratios and larger brakes to compensate for the greater weight and higher power output of the six-cylinder model. They also featured five-lug wheels and an ignition on the left side of the steering wheel. Suspension and handling were otherwise mostly the same. A Volkswagen-Porsche joint venture, Volkswagen of America, handled export to the U.S., where both versions were badged and sold as Porsches. The four-cylinder cars were sold as Volkswagen-Porsches at European Volkswagen dealerships.

For 1973 the discontinued 914/6 was replaced in the lineup by a variant powered by a new 100 bhp 2.0 L, fuel-injected version of Volkswagen's Type 4 engine.

For 1974, the 1.7 L engine was replaced by an 85 bhp 1.8 L, and the new Bosch L-Jetronic fuel injection system was added to American units to help with emissions control.

Model year changes

Over the seven model years, Porsche made a number of changes to the 914. Some of these changes were cosmetic and others were in response to changing crash protection standards. From 1970 to 1972, the 914 was offered with chrome or painted bumpers. In early 1970, rear bumpers were produced with a straight crease on either side of the license plate indent. Between 1970 and 1972, both front and rear bumpers were smooth without bumper guards. In 1973, bumper guards were added to the front of the car. In 1974, guards were also added to the rear bumper. In 1975 and 1976, the chrome or painted bumpers were replaced with heavy, rubber-covered units which actually made the cars more stable at high speeds.

The headlight surrounds were white from the first 914s to mid-production of 1973 and subsequently black. Cars produced up to early 1972 had a fixed passenger seat and a removable passenger footrest. Later cars featured a movable passenger seat. Other interior differences included changing vinyl designs, gauge appearance, and air vent configurations in the dash.

The most significant performance upgrade during the vehicle's lifespan was the introduction of anti-roll bars, significantly improving the handling, and a change from the "tail shifter" to the "side shifter" gearbox for 1973 to 1976, improving the otherwise vague long linkage.

Technical specifications of the standard versions
The Porsche 914 was produced from 1969 to 1976 in the following models:

Porsche 914/6 GT, 914/6 R
On 1 March 1970 the 914/6 was homologated by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) for Group 4, Special Grand Touring cars. That same month two cars were sent to the Targa Florio for testing, not as competitors. These were the first two 914/6 GT cars built. Externally the cars were distinguished by squared fender flares that were the full 2 in depth permitted by FIA rules. The chassis was reinforced with three welded plates on each side. For rally applications a stone guard protected the power-train and a stone shield did the same for the front of the car.

The GT cars received stronger lower front A-arms, and anti-roll bars were fitted front and rear. Ground clearance was reduced to 4 in. Brakes front and rear were upgraded to the same components used on the racing 911S model.

Fiberglass panels for the front and rear bumpers, front and rear deck lids, and left and right rocker panels replaced the original steel parts. The rear air intake grille was doubled in size. An inlet in the front bumper admitted air to a new supplementary oil cooler in the nose. The car's nose compartment was nearly filled by a 100 L fuel tank. The car weighed 1980 lb ready to race. The engine remained at 2.0 litres displacement with Weber Carburetor induction, but was extensively upgraded otherwise. New cylinder heads with larger valves topped aluminum cylinder barrels with chrome-plated bores. A dual-ignition system fired two spark plugs per cylinder. High compression pistons and forged steel piston rods were borrowed from the 911S. A special crankshaft was added. Camshafts and rocker arms came from the 901/20 in the Carrera 6. Power output was up to 210 PS at 8000 rpm.

Although the factory campaigned the car in rallying, it was more successful in road racing.

In the United States the Porsche+Audi distributor called the car the 914/6R.

M471, kits
To qualify for SCCA homologation, 500 copies of a car had to be built. It is estimated that Porsche built fewer than 40 GTs with the full race engine. To add to the total, an additional 11 cars were equipped with the Competition Option Group M471 package that included the GT's steel fender flares, rocker panels and nose piece as well as wheel spacers, a set of 6-inch wide Fuchs wheels, and 185/70VR15 tires, but did not include the enhanced engine from the GT. Similar appearance-only kits were also supplied to dealers, totaling about 400 units.

Porsche's application for homologation was successful, but instead of being added to the C Production class, the SCCA put the 914/6 GT into the more competitive B Production class.

914/8
Two prototype 914s, dubbed 914/8 generally and called 914/S by Porsche, were built during 1969. An orange 914/8 was the first constructed, at the instigation of Ferdinand Piëch (then head of the racing department), to prove the concept. Powered by a 350 hp Type 908 flat-eight racing engine, it was built using a surplus handbuilt 914 development prototype bodyshell, chassis No. 914111, and included many differences from the standard vehicle, such as quad headlamps. The second 914/8, a silver, road-registered car powered by a carburetted and detuned 908 race engine making 300 hp, was prepared as a gift to Ferry Porsche on his 60th birthday. Also based on a spare prototype shell (chassis No. 914006), it was much closer to the standard car in detail. By all accounts Ferry didn't like the car very much and it is now in the Porsche Museum. Neither car saw a racetrack except for the purposes of testing. The 914/8 was not considered for production as a regular model.

Porsche Tapiro
The Porsche Tapiro was a concept car designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro's Italdesign studio and built on a 914/6 platform. The car had gullwing doors and two centrally-hinged covers over the rear engine and storage compartments. The Tapiro debuted at the 1970 Turin Auto Show. Sold to Argentine composer Waldo de los Ríos, the car was extensively damaged in a fire. It was later bought by Italdesign.

Goertz/Eurostyle 914/6R
This car was a custom-bodied 914/6R that was first shown at the 1970 Turin Auto Show. The design was done by Count Albrecht von Goertz, and was built by the Turinese carrozzeria Eurostyle. Goertz, who had also done the design for the BMW 507 roadster, produced a body with a tapered nose and a roofline that extended straight back, ending with sloping sail panels that gave the car the appearance of a shooting-brake.

Gerber/Sbarro rotary 914
In 1970 Swiss Industrialist Dr. Alfred Gerber contracted compatriot car designer Franco Sbarro to build a customized 914. Sbarro installed the 2-rotor Wankel engine and semi-automatic transaxle from Gerber's NSU Ro80 in the mid-engined Porsche. The transaxle's inboard disc brakes were retained, and special halfshafts and shift-linkage were fabricated. A radiator was installed in the nose of the car, with fans sourced from a Renault R16. The engine produced 115 hp, and in the 914 returned 21 mpgus while allowing the car to reach a top speed of 190 kph.

Heuliez Murène
In 1969 designer Jacques Cooper drew an interpretation of the 914 that he presented to his employer, Brissonneau and Lotz. The French company, a supplier of auto bodies and railcars, approved the project and obtained one of the first 914/6 models built, chassis 1300005, to serve as a basis for the redesigned car. Shortly after this Brissonneau encountered financial difficulties. Cooper, hoping to get the car into production, arranged, with Brissonneau's approval, for the Heuliez company to take on responsibility for development. A running prototype was completed in just two and one half months. The car was displayed at the 1970 Paris Auto Show on the Heuliez stand as the Heuliez Murène. It did not reach production. Heuliez bought the Murène from Brissonneau in 1971 for ₣24,250. In 2012 the car was sold at auction for €42,889.

Hispano Alemán Vizcaya
Businessman Werner Bernhard Heiderich was the importer of Porsche for Spain. He established a company named Hispano Alemán to build and sell customized cars. Heiderich contracted with Pietro Frua to produce a new body on a Porsche 914 platform. The car, named the Vizcaya, was first shown at the 1971 Geneva Motor Show. Swiss authorities seized the car owing to a dispute over it between Heiderich and Frua. Heiderich eventually prevailed, and the car next appeared at the 1972 Barcelona Motor Show. The Vizcaya did not go into production.

Porsche 916
Planned for the 1972 model year, the Porsche 916 program was cancelled after eleven prototypes were built. The car came with aerodynamic front and rear bumpers and either the 2.4 L engine from the 911S, or the 2.7 L from the Carrera. It was also to have a fixed steel roof, wider wheels, double grilled engine lid, and flared fenders as styled from the 914-6 GT cars. Ventilated disc brakes were fitted to all four wheels. The 916 also used a "mid-engined" version of the then-new 915 transmission, giving a conventional shift pattern with one to four in an H and fifth out on a limb. One 916 was built to US specs and on delivery to the US was fitted with air conditioning by the dealer (Brumos) and has been housed at the Automobile Atlanta 914 museum since 1990.

Nordstadt Carrera Käfer (Nordstadt Carrera Beetle)
Günter Artz was director of the Hannover Volkswagen dealer Autohaus Nordstadt. In 1973 Artz and Nordstadt unveiled a custom car called the Carrera Käfer that mounted a modified Volkswagen Beetle 1303 body on a Porsche 914/6 chassis. The engine was upgraded to a 2.7 L flat-six from a Porsche 911 Carrera that produced 210 PS.

GM XP-897GT
First shown in 1973, General Motors (GM) built the Corvette XP-897GT concept car to showcase their rotary engine technology. Lacking a suitable mid-engined platform, GM bought a 914/6 and shortened the wheelbase by 6.5 in. The body was designed in-house by GM and built by Pininfarina in Italy. A GM two-rotor Wankel engine powered the car through a new transaxle. The engine displaced 266 cuin and produced 180 hp. When the rotary engine project was cancelled, GM stored the car at the Vauxhall Design Centre in England. The car was rescued from the crusher by an English enthusiast, who also managed to obtain an original GM rotary engine. The car was scheduled to appear at Amelia Island in 2019.

914 Limited Edition
In 1974, Porsche produced a series of Limited Edition cars for the North American market to commemorate Porsche's victories in the Can Am racing series. They were equipped with individual color schemes and came standard with otherwise optional equipment. The factory is said to have produced about 1,000 of these vehicles, about 50% Bumblebee and 50% Creamsicle. Variants of this series were manufactured and distributed in very limited numbers to European markets and Japan. Along with the regular Appearance Group option (fog lamps and center console with clock and additional gauges) at $300, the LE package set buyers back another $320. All Limited Editions models came with the 2.0 L (1,971 cc) flat four engine, which was otherwise optional in the standard 914, that produced 91 hp in U.S. trim.

The Creamsicle: With a cream color exterior (paint code U2V9), these cars sported Phoenix red trim, including color matched lower valences and bumpers. This light ivory color scheme concept carried over from the 1973 911 Carrera RS series.

The Bumblebee: Featuring a black exterior (paint code L041), these cars sported a Sunflower yellow trim (paint code L13K). Black body paint color was always an additional cost special option on standard 914 Porsche cars, but was included as a standard component on the black 914 LE cars. Like the Creamsicle All but one photo of the 914 Porsche Can Am prototype cars are Bumblebee cars. The black-based 914 LE color scheme is specific to the 914 LE cars and has no precedent with the Can Am race cars or the 1973 911 Carrera RS series cars. The majority of 914 Limited Editions seem to be Bumblebees.

All 914 LE cars featured a specially designed front spoiler and negative side stripes. Additionally, all Limited Editions were equipped with front and rear anti-roll bars, dual horns, leather covered steering wheel, driving lights, painted rear roll bar trim (as opposed to vinyl clad), Mahle cast aluminum wheels and a center console with an oil temperature gauge, clock, and voltmeter.

Other
A factory prototype 914/6, (chassis no. 914114), surfaced in the US in 2001. Together with a surviving prototype Sportomatic 914/6 (chassis No. 914120), reputedly in Southern Germany, they are a special part of Porsche history.

Motorsport
A 914/6 GT driven by Frenchmen Claude Ballot-Léna and Guy Chasseuil won the GTS class and finished sixth overall at the 1970 24 Hours of Le Mans.

Brian Redman used a 914/6 to scout the course in practice runs for the 1970 Targa Florio.

F1 Safety Car
The Porsche 914 is renowned for having been Formula One's first Safety Car following its deployment at the 1973 Canadian Grand Prix to help manage the race, which had seen various incidents due to treacherous weather conditions.

title: Porsche 914


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East Malaysia

East Malaysia (Malaysia Timur), or the Borneo States, also known as Malaysian Borneo, is the part of Malaysia on and near the island of Borneo, the world's third-largest island. East Malaysia comprises the states of Sabah, Sarawak, and the Federal Territory of Labuan. The small independent nation of Brunei comprises two enclaves in Sarawak. To the south and southeast is the Indonesian portion of Borneo, Kalimantan. East Malaysia lies to the east of Peninsular Malaysia (also known as the States of Malaya), the part of the country on the Malay Peninsula. The two are separated by the South China Sea.

East Malaysia is less populated and has fewer developed settlements than West Malaysia. While West Malaysia contains the country's major cities (Kuala Lumpur, Johor Bahru, and Georgetown), East Malaysia is larger and much more abundant in natural resources, particularly oil and gas reserves. In the pan-regional style, city status is reserved for only a few settlements, including Kuching, Kota Kinabalu and Miri. Various other significant settlements are classified as towns, including many with over 100,000 residents. East Malaysia includes a significant portion of the biodiverse Borneo lowland rain forests and Borneo montane rain forests.

States and territories
East Malaysia or the Borneo States comprise 2 of the 13 states, and one out of the three federal territories of Malaysia.

 * The State of Sabah
 * The State of Sarawak
 * The Federal Territory of Labuan

History
Some parts of present-day East Malaysia, especially the coastal regions, were once part of the thalassocracy of the Sultanate of Brunei. However, most parts of the interior region consisted of independent tribal societies.

In 1658, the northern and eastern coasts of Sabah were ceded to the Sultanate of Sulu while the west coast of Sabah and most of Sarawak remained part of Brunei. In 1888, Sabah and Sarawak together with Brunei became British protectorates. In 1946, they became separate British colonies.

Federation
Sabah (formerly British North Borneo) and Sarawak were separate British colonies from Malaya, and did not become part of the Federation of Malaya in 1957. Later on however, the then Federation merged with the self-governing State of Singapore and the British Colonies of North Borneo (now known as Sabah) and Sarawak under the Malaysia Agreement as the States of Malaya, the Borneo States of Sabah and Sarawak, and the State of Singapore of the new Federation called Malaysia on 16 September 1963, now known as Malaysia Day. Singapore left the Federation two years later in 1965 after being expelled by then the Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tunku Abdul Rahman. Previously, there were efforts to unite Brunei, Sabah, and Sarawak under the North Borneo Federation but that failed after the Brunei Revolt occurred.

The Borneo States retained a higher degree of local government and legislative autonomy than the States of Malaya. For example, both states have their own immigration controls, requiring Malaysian citizens from West Malaysia to carry passports or identity cards when visiting East Malaysia.

The islands of Labuan were once part of North Borneo in 1946 before becoming a Federal Territory in Malaysia on 16 April 1984. It was used to establish a centre for offshore finance in 1990.

Since 2010, there has been some speculation and discussion, at least on the ground level, about the possibility of secession from the Federation of Malaysia because of allegations of resource mishandling, illegal processing of immigrants, etc.

Administration
The Borneo States of Sabah and Sarawak joined the Federation of Malaysia as equal partners with Malaya and Singapore. Sabah and Sarawak retained their rights covered under the Malaysia Agreement of 1963 and their degree of autonomy compared to the other states in Peninsular Malaysia. For example, the Malaysian Borneo States have separate laws regulating the entry of citizens from other states in Malaysia (including the other East Malaysian state), whereas, in Peninsular Malaysia, there are no restrictions on interstate travel or migration, including visitors from East Malaysia. There are also separate land laws governing Sabah and Sarawak, as opposed to the National Land Code, which governs Peninsular Malaysia.

In December 2021, constitutional amendments were passed to restore the status of Sabah and Sarawak as equal partners to Malaya, with 199 members of Parliament backing the amendment bill without opposition. Apart from restoring Article 1(2) to its pre-1976 wording, the bill defines Malaysia Day for the first time and redefines the federation with the inclusion of Malaysia Agreement (MA63). Previously, only Merdeka Day (independence day of the Federation of Malaya) was defined, and the federation was defined merely by the Malaya Agreement 1957. The Constitution (Amendment) Act 2022 received royal assent on 19 January 2022 and came into force on 11 February 2022.

With regard to the administration of justice, the courts in East Malaysia are part of the federal court system in Malaysia. The Constitution of Malaysia provides that there shall be two High Courts of co-ordinate jurisdiction. The High Court in Malaya and the High Court in Sabah and Sarawak (formerly the High Court in Borneo). The current Chief Judge of Sabah and Sarawak is Abang Iskandar Abang Hashim from Sarawak. His office is the fourth highest in the Malaysian judicial system (behind the Chief Judge of Malaya, President of the Court of Appeal, and Chief Justice of Malaysia).

Politics
Compared to West Malaysia, political parties in Sarawak and Sabah started relatively late. This first political party in Sarawak emerged in 1959 while the first political party in Sabah emerged in August 1961. Sarawak held its first local authorities election in 1959 and did not have any directly elected legislature until 1970. Sabah only held its first district council election in December 1962 and first direct election in April 1967. Both the states were new and had little experience in organised, competitive politics. Therefore, there had been the appearance and rapid disappearance of political parties in Sarawak and Sabah within a short period of time, with some parties took opportunistic moves to form alliances without a definite loyalty to a certain political alignment. The ethnic composition of East Malaysia is also different from West Malaysia. The indigenous people in both Sarawak and Sabah do not form an absolute majority, while the non-native population in East Malaysia mainly consisting of entirely Chinese. Political parties in Sarawak and Sabah were formed largely based on communal lines and can be categorised roughly into native non-Muslim, native Muslim, and non-native parties. With the support of the Malaysia federal government, native Muslim parties in Sabah and Sarawak were strengthened. In Sabah, the native Muslim party United Sabah National Organisation (USNO) first clinged on the chief minister post in 1965 and later consolidated its power in 1967. In Sarawak, native Muslim party named Parti Bumiputera (which later regrouped into Parti Pesaka Bumiputera Bersatu (PBB) held the chief minister post since 1970.

In 1976, all the Sabah and Sarawak MPs (except 4 absentees) supported the Malaysian parliament bill which downgraded both the states from being equal partners to Malaya as a whole, to one of the 13 states in the federation.

Since 2008, East Malaysia played a more significant role in the national political landscape. The loss of two-thirds majority of Barisan Nasional (BN) government in the West Malaysia caused the BN to rely on East Malaysian politicians to cling on power. After the conclusion of 2013 Malaysian general election, there was an increase in ministers and deputy ministers allocation for East Malaysia in the Malaysian Cabinet from 11 out of 57 portfolios in 2008 election to 20 out of 61 portfolios. There had been no prime minister or deputy prime minister coming from East Malaysia until 2022, when Fadillah Yusof became the first deputy prime minister from East Malaysia. On several occasions, the federal government chaired its weekly cabinet meetings in Kuching instead of Putrajaya.

As of 2012, Sarawak, Sabah and Labuan held a total of 57 out 222 seats (25.68%) in the Malaysian parliament. Since 2014, Sarawak have been actively seeking for devolution of powers from the Malaysian federal government. In October 2018, both Sabah and Sarawak chief ministers met to discuss common goals in demanding from the Malaysian federal government regarding the rights stipulated inside the Malaysia Agreement. In December 2021, constitutional amendments were passed to restore the status of Sabah and Sarawak as equal partners to Malaya, with 199 members of Parliament backing the amendment bill without opposition. Apart from restoring Article 1(2) to its pre-1976 wording, the bill defines Malaysia Day for the first time and redefines the federation with the inclusion of Malaysia Agreement (MA63). Previously, only Merdeka Day (independence day of the Federation of Malaya) was defined, and the federation was defined merely by the Malaya Agreement 1957. The Constitution (Amendment) Act 2022 received royal assent on 19 January 2022 and came into force on 11 February 2022.

Physical geography
The landscape of East Malaysia is mostly lowland rain forests with areas of mountain rain forest towards the hinterland.

The total area of East Malaysia is 198,447 km2, representing approximately 60% of the total land area of Malaysia and 26.4% of the total area of Borneo, which is 50% bigger than Peninsular Malaysia at 132490 km2, comparable with South Dakota or Great Britain.

East Malaysia contains the five highest mountains in Malaysia, the highest being Mount Kinabalu at 4095 m, which is also the highest mountain in Borneo and the 10th highest mountain peak in Southeast Asia. It also contains the two longest rivers in Malaysia – Rajang River and Kinabatangan River.

Banggi Island in Sabah and Bruit Island in Sarawak are the two largest islands that are located entirely within Malaysia. The largest island is Borneo, which is shared with Indonesia and Brunei. The second largest island is Sebatik Island, in Sabah, which is shared with Indonesia.

Sarawak contains the Mulu Caves within Gunung Mulu National Park. Its Sarawak Chamber is the largest (by area) known cave chamber in the world. The Gunung Mulu National Park was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in November 2000.

Sabah's attractions include World Heritage Site Kinabalu Park (which includes Mount Kinabalu), and Sipadan Island (a diving and bio-diversity hot-spot).

Geology
Several oil and gas fields have been discovered offshore, including the Samarang oil field (1972) offshore Sabah, the Baronia oil field (1967) offshore Sarawak, and the Central Luconia natural gas fields (1968), also offshore Sarawak. The Baronia Field is a domal structural trap between two east–west growth faults, which produces from late Miocene sandstones interbedded with siltstones and clays at 2 km depth in 75 m of water. The Samarang Field produces from late Miocene sandtones in an alternating sequence of sandstones, siltstones and clays in an anticline at a depth of about 3 km in water 9–45 m.  The Central Luconia Gas Fields produce from middle to late Miocene carbonate platform and pinnacle reefs from 1.25 to 3.76 km deep and water depths 60-100m.

Population
The total population of East Malaysia in 2010 was 5.77 million (3.21 million in Sabah, 2.47 million in Sarawak, and 0.09 million in Labuan), which represented 20.4% of the population of Malaysia. A significant part of the population of East Malaysia today reside in towns and cities. The largest city and urban centre is Kuching, which is also the capital of Sarawak and has a population of over 600,000 people. Kota Kinabalu is the second largest, and one of the most important cities in East Malaysia. Kuching, Kota Kinabalu, and Miri are the only three places with city status in East Malaysia. Other important towns include Sandakan and Tawau in Sabah, Sibu and Bintulu in Sarawak, and Victoria in Labuan. The 2020 estimated population is 6 million (3,418,785 in Sabah, 2,453,677 in Sarawak and 95,120 in Labuan).

The earliest inhabitants of East Malaysia were the Dayak people and other related ethnic groups such as the Kadazan-Dusun people. These indigenous people form a significant portion, but not the majority, of the population. For hundreds of years, there has been significant migration into East Malaysia and Borneo from many parts of the Malay Archipelago, including Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands, Sulawesi, and Sulu. More recently, there has been immigration from India and China.

The indigenous inhabitants were originally animists. Islamic influence began as early as the 15th century, while Christian influence started in the 19th century.

The indigenous inhabitants are generally partisan and maintain culturally distinct dialects of the Malay language, in addition to their own ethnic languages. Approximately 13% of the population of Sabah, and 26% of the population of Sarawak, is composed of ethnic Chinese Malaysians.

However, the demography of Sabah has been altered dramatically with the alleged implementation of Project IC in the 1990s. Citizenships are alleged to be granted to immigrants from Indonesia and Philippines in order to keep the UMNO ruling party in power. Royal Commission of Inquiry (RCI) has been conducted from 11 August 2012 to 20 September 2013. The outcome of the investigation was submitted to the prime minister on 19 May 2014. The report was released on 3 December 2014 after 6 months delay. It stated that Project IC might have existed, which was responsible for a sudden spike in the state population. However, the report did not pinpoint any responsibility except for "corrupt officials" who took advantage of the system.

Education
East Malaysia currently has two public universities, namely Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) and Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS). Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM) also has branch campuses in both states. Labuan's own institution of higher education is Universiti Malaysia Sabah Labuan International Campus, which has a branch in Sepanggar Bay, Kota Kinabalu. All prospective university entrants from Sabah, Sarawak, and Labuan must sit the examinations of one matriculation college, Kolej Matrikulasi Labuan.

UCSI University, Sarawak Campus, University College of Technology Sarawak (UCTS) Tunku Abdul Rahman University College (Sabah campus), International University College of Technology Twintech (Sabah campus), and Open University Malaysia (Sabah campus) have local private university branch campuses in East Malaysia. Curtin University, Malaysia and Swinburne University of Technology Sarawak Campus are foreign university branch campuses in Sarawak.

There are 4 teacher training colleges (Malay: Maktab Perguruan) in Sarawak, and 4 teacher training colleges in Sabah.

Transport
The Pan Borneo Highway connects Sabah, Sarawak, and Brunei. The road has been poorly maintained since it was built. The narrow road is dark at night without any street lights and there are many danger spots, sharp bends, blind spots, potholes, and erosion. However, federal government funds have been allocated for the upgrade of the highway, which will be carried out in stages until completion in 2025.

The major airports in East Malaysia are Kuching International Airport, Labuan Airport and Kota Kinabalu International Airport. Kota Kinabalu International Airport has also become the second largest airport in Malaysia, with an annual capacity of 12 million passengers – 9 million for Terminal 1 and 3 million for Terminal 2. There are frequent air flights by including Malaysia Airlines (MAS) and AirAsia between East Malaysia and Peninsular Malaysia. Other ports of entry to East Malaysia include Sibu Airport, Bintulu Airport, and Miri Airport in Sarawak, Sandakan Airport and Tawau Airport in Sabah. MAS also operates international flights to major cities in East Malaysia.

The rural areas in Borneo can only be accessed by air or river boat. River transport is especially prevalent in Sarawak because there are many large and long rivers, with Rajang River being the most used. Rivers are used by boats and ferries for communications (i.e. mail) and passenger transport between inland areas and coastal towns. Timber is also transported via vessels and log carriers down the rivers of Sarawak.

The Labuan Ferry operates boat express and vehicle ferries from Labuan Island to Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei. Ferries have overtaken air travel as the chief transportation mode on and off the island.

Economy
Shipyards in Sabah and Sarawak build steel vessels for offshore supply, tug, barge and river ferries when compared to shipyards in Peninsular Malaysia that focus on building steel and aluminium vessels for the government as well as oil and gas companies. This makes the shipyards in Sabah and Sarawak more competitive and innovative in design, process and material, compared to the shipyards in peninsular Malaysia, where the big projects are dependent on government funding.

Security
The state of Sabah has been subjected to attacks by Moro pirates and militants since the 1960s and intensification in 1985, 2000, 2013. The Eastern Sabah Security Zone (ESSZONE) and Eastern Sabah Security Command (ESSCOM) were established on 25 March 2013 to tighten security in the region. Since 2014, a 12-hour dusk-to-dawn curfew has been imposed on six Sabah east coast districts.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: East Malaysia


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Bowline

The bowline ( or ) is an ancient and simple knot used to form a fixed loop at the end of a rope. It has the virtues of being both easy to tie and untie; most notably, it is easy to untie after being subjected to a load. The bowline is sometimes referred to as king of the knots because of its importance. Along with the sheet bend and the clove hitch, the bowline is often considered one of the most essential knots.

The common bowline shares some structural similarity with the sheet bend. Virtually all end-to-end joining knots (i.e., bends) have a corresponding loop knot.

Although the bowline is generally considered a reliable knot, its main deficiencies are a tendency to work loose when not under load (or under cyclic loading), to slip when pulled sideways, and the bight portion of the knot to capsize in certain circumstances. To address these shortcomings, a number of more secure variations of the bowline have been developed for use in safety-critical applications, or by securing the knot with an overhand knot backup.

History
The bowline's name has an earlier meaning, dating to the age of sail. On a square-rigged ship, a bowline (sometimes spelled as two words, bow line) is a rope that holds the edge of a square sail towards the bow of the ship and into the wind, preventing it from being taken aback. A ship is said to be on a "taut bowline" when these lines are made as taut as possible in order to sail close-hauled to the wind.

The bowline knot is thought to have been first mentioned in John Smith's 1627 work A Sea Grammar under the name Boling knot. Smith considered the knot to be strong and secure, saying, "The Boling knot is also so firmly made and fastened by the bridles into the cringles of the sails, they will break, or the sail split before it will slip."

Another possible finding was discovered on the rigging of the Ancient Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu's solar ship during an excavation in 1954.

Usage
The bowline is used to make a loop at one end of a line. It is tied with the rope's working end also known as the "tail" or "end". The loop may pass around or through an object during the making of the knot. The knot tightens when loaded at (pulled by) the standing part of the line.

The bowline is commonly used in sailing small craft, for example to fasten a halyard to the head of a sail or to tie a jib sheet to a clew of a jib. The bowline is well known as a rescue knot for such purposes as rescuing people who might have fallen down a hole, or off a cliff onto a ledge. This knot is particularly useful in such a situation because it is possible to tie with one hand. As such, a person needing rescue could hold onto the rope with one hand and use the other to tie the knot around their waist before being pulled to safety by rescuers. The Federal Aviation Administration recommends the bowline knot for tying down light aircraft.

A rope with a bowline retains approximately 2/3 of its strength, with variances depending upon the nature of the rope, as in practice the exact strength depends on a variety of factors.

In the United Kingdom, the knot is listed as part of the training objectives for the Qualified Firefighter Assessment.

Tying

A mnemonic used to teach the tying of the bowline is to imagine the working end of the rope as a rabbit.

 * 1,2 – a loop is made into the standing part which will act as the rabbit's hole
 * 3 – the "rabbit" comes up the hole,
 * 4 – goes round the tree (standing part) right to left
 * 5 – and back down the hole

This can be taught to children with the rhyme: "Up through the rabbit hole, round the big tree; down through the rabbit hole and off goes he."

A single handed method can also be used; see this animation.

There is a potential with beginners to wrongly tie the bowline. This faulty knot stems from an incorrect first step while tying the rabbit hole. If the loop is made backwards so that the working end of the rope is on the bottom, the resulting knot will be the Eskimo bowline, looking like a sideways bowline, which is also a stable knot.

Security
As noted above, the simplicity of the bowline makes it a good knot for a general purpose end-of-line loop. However, in situations that require additional security, several variants have been developed:

Round turn bowline
The round turn bowline is made by the addition of an extra turn in the formation of the "rabbit hole" before the working end is threaded through.

Water bowline
Similar to the double bowline, the water bowline is made by forming a clove hitch before the working end is threaded through. It is said to be stronger and also more resistant to jamming than the other variations, especially when wet.

Yosemite bowline
In this variation the knot's working end is taken round the loop in the direction of the original round turn, then threaded back up through the original round turn before the knot is drawn tight. The Yosemite bowline is often used in climbing.

Other variants
The cowboy bowline (also called Dutch bowline), French bowline, and Portuguese bowline are variations of the bowline, each of which makes one loop. (Names of knots are mostly traditional and may not reflect their origins.) A running bowline can be used to make a noose which draws tighter as tension is placed on the standing part of the rope. The Birmingham bowline has two loops; the working part is passed twice around the standing part (the "rabbit" makes two trips out of the hole and around the tree). Other two-loop bowline knots include the Spanish bowline and the bowline on the bight; these can be tied in the middle of a rope without access to the ends. A triple bowline is used to make three loops. A Cossack knot is a bowline where the running end goes around the loop-start rather than the main part and has a more symmetric triangular shaped knot. A slipped version of the Cossack knot is called Kalmyk loop.

title: Bowline


text:
Loop

Loop or LOOP may refer to:

Brands and enterprises

 * Loop (mobile), a Bulgarian virtual network operator and co-founder of Loop Live
 * Loop, clothing, a company founded by Carlos Vasquez in the 1990s and worn by Digable Planets
 * Loop Mobile, an Indian mobile phone operator
 * Loop, a reusable container program announced in 2019 by TerraCycle

Geography

 * Loop, Germany, a municipality in Schleswig-Holstein
 * Loop (Texarkana), a roadway loop around Texarkana, Arkansas, United States
 * Loop, Blair County, Pennsylvania, United States
 * Loop, Indiana County, Pennsylvania, United States
 * Loop, West Virginia, United States
 * Loop 101, a semi-beltway of the Phoenix Metropolitan Area
 * Loop 202, a semi-beltway of the Phoenix Metropolitan Area
 * Loop 303, a semi-beltway of the Phoenix Metropolitan Area
 * Chicago Loop, the downtown neighborhood of Chicago bounded by the elevated railway The Loop
 * Loop Retail Historic District, a shopping district in the Chicago Loop
 * Delmar Loop, an entertainment district in St. Louis, Missouri
 * London Outer Orbital Path (LOOP), a signed walk around the edge of Outer London, England
 * Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (LOOP), a deep-water port in the Gulf of Mexico off the coast of Louisiana

People

 * Call Me Loop (born 1991), English singer and songwriter
 * Liza Loop (active from 1975), American technology pioneer
 * Uno Loop (1930–2021), Estonian singer, musician, athlete, actor, and educator
 * Victoria Loop, brass and guitar player with English band Half Man Half Biscuit

Film

 * Loop (1991 film), a British romantic comedy
 * Loop (1999 film), a Venezuelan film
 * Loop (2020 film), an American animated short
 * Film loop, the slack portion of the film around the projector lens in a movie projector
 * Porn loop, an 8 or 16 mm video "short" of a pornographic nature that could be purchased from men's magazines starting in the 1950s

Groups

 * Loop (band), a London rock band

Other uses in music

 * Loop (album), a 2002 album by Keller Williams
 * Loop (music), a finite element of sound which is repeated by technical means
 * "Loop" (Maaya Sakamoto song), 2005
 * "Loop" (Sarah Bonnici song), the entry for Malta in the Eurovision Song Contest 2024
 * Loop, a 2020 mini-album by Peakboy

Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media

 * Loop (novel), a novel in the Ring series by Koji Suzuki
 * LOOP Barcelona, an annual meeting point for video art in Barcelona, Spain
 * Loop Mania, a mobile arcade video game

Computing and technology

 * Loop (computing), a method of control flow in computer science
 * LOOP (programming language), the pedagogical primitive recursive programming language with bounded loops
 * Loop (telecommunication), sending a signal on a channel and receiving it back at the sending terminal
 * Audio induction loop, an aid for the hard of hearing
 * Local loop, the physical link in telephony that links the customer premises to the telephone company (telco)
 * Loop device, a Unix device node that allows a file to be mounted as if it were a device
 * LOOPS, the object system for Interlisp-D

Mathematics

 * Loop (algebra), a quasigroup with an identity element
 * Loop (graph theory), an edge that begins and ends on the same vertex
 * Loop (topology), a path that starts and ends at the same point, possibly reduced to a single point

Sports

 * Loop, a type of playboating maneuver
 * Aerobatic loop, a type of aircraft aerobatic maneuver
 * Ground loop (aviation), a rapid horizontal (yawing) rotation of a fixed-wing aircraft used in emergencies to bleed of energy while landing
 * Loop (cricket), an aspect of bowling in cricket
 * Loop jump, a figure skating jump
 * Loop, a type of offensive shot in table tennis

Roller coasters

 * Loop (roller coaster), a basic roller coaster inversion
 * Pretzel loop, a roller coaster element

Transportation

 * Loop (Amtrak train), a discontinued Amtrak train
 * The Loop (CTA), a rapid transit section bounding Chicago's Loop neighborhood
 * Loop, underground public transportation system of The Boring Company in Tesla cars, including a proposed DC-to-Baltimore system
 * Balloon loop, a section of track that allows reversal of direction without stopping
 * Circle route, a public transport route that travels around and connecting the peripheral zones of an area.
 * Loop line (railway), a branch line that deviates from a direct route and rejoins it at another location
 * Loop route, a main route or highway that forms a closed loop
 * Passing loop, a short section of track that allows trains to pass on a single track route
 * Ring road or loop, a main route or highway that encircles a town or city
 * Spiral (railway), a section of track that allows a train to climb a steep hill

Other uses

 * Compulsion loop, a habitual chain of activities that will be repeated by the user to cause them to continue the activity
 * Loop (biochemistry), a flexible region in a protein's secondary structure
 * Loop (education), the process of advancing an elementary school teacher with his or her class
 * Loop (knot), one of the fundamental structures used to tie knots
 * Loop, a cul de sac
 * Loop, a type of fingerprint pattern

title: Loop


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Bend

Bend may refer to:

Science, technology and engineering

 * Bending, the deformation of an object due to an applied load
 * Bend, a curvature in a pipe, tube, sheet, cable or hose; see Bend radius
 * Bend (knot), a type of knot used to tie two ropes together
 * Bend, a meander in a river

Techniques

 * Bend (guitar), a guitar technique
 * Note bending, a glide from one pitch to another

Albums and songs

 * Bend (8stops7 album), 2006
 * Bend (The Origin album), 1992
 * "Bend" (song), a 2015 song by Chet Faker

Places

 * Bend, British Columbia, a railway point in Canada

United States

 * Bend, California
 * Bend, Missouri
 * Bend, Oregon
 * Bend, South Dakota
 * Bend, Texas

People

 * Lin Bend (1922–1978), Canadian ice hockey centre
 * Robert Bend (1914–1999), Manitoba politician

Other uses

 * Bend (heraldry), a diagonal band used as a heraldic charge
 * Curl (association football), a playing technique also called "bend"

title: Bend


text:
Colorimeter

For articles on Colorimeter see:

 * Colorimeter (chemistry)
 * Tristimulus colorimeter

title: Colorimeter


text:
Equilibrium

Equilibrium may refer to:

Film and television

 * Equilibrium (film), a 2002 science fiction film
 * The Story of Three Loves, also known as Equilibrium, a 1953 romantic anthology film
 * "Equilibrium" (seaQuest 2032)
 * Equilibrium, short film by Steven Soderbergh, a segment of Eros
 * "Equilibrium" (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine), Star Trek DS9 Episode 4, Season 3

Music

 * Equilibrium (band), a folk metal band from Germany
 * Equilibrium (Crowbar album), 2000
 * Equilibrium (Erik Mongrain album), 2008
 * Equilibrium (God Forbid album), 2012
 * Equilibrium (Whitecross album), 1995
 * Equilibrium (Matthew Shipp album), 2003
 * IX Equilibrium, a 1999 album by Emperor
 * Equilibrium, an album by Fergie Frederiksen

Psychology

 * Cognitive equilibration, see

Other

 * Equilibrium (mechanics)
 * Equilibrium chemistry
 * Chemical equilibrium
 * Economic equilibrium

title: Equilibrium


text:
Squeak

Squeak is an object-oriented, class-based, and reflective programming language. It was derived from Smalltalk-80 by a group that included some of Smalltalk-80's original developers, initially at Apple Computer, then at Walt Disney Imagineering, where it was intended for use in internal Disney projects. The group would later go on to be supported by HP Labs, SAP, and most recently, Y Combinator.

Squeak runs on a virtual machine (VM), allowing for a high degree of portability. The Squeak system includes code for generating a new version of the VM on which it runs, along with a VM simulator written in Squeak.

Developers
Dan Ingalls, an important contributor to the Squeak project, wrote the paper upon which Squeak is built, and constructed the architecture for five generations of the Smalltalk language.

Alan Kay is an important contributor to the Squeak project, and Squeak incorporates many elements of his proposed Dynabook concept.

User interface frameworks
Squeak includes four user interface frameworks:
 * An implementation of Morphic, Self's graphical direct manipulation interface framework. This is Squeak's main interface.
 * Tile-based, limited visual programming scripting in Etoys, based on Morphic.
 * A novel, experimental interface called Tweak. In 2001 it became clear that the Etoy architecture in Squeak had reached its limits in what the Morphic interface infrastructure could do. Hewlett-Packard researcher Andreas Raab proposed defining a "script process" and providing a default scheduling-mechanism that avoids several more general problems. This resulted in a new user interface, proposed to replace the Squeak Morphic user interface in the future. Tweak added mechanisms of islands, asynchronous messaging, players and costumes, language extensions, projects, and tile scripting. Its underlying object system is class-based, but to users, during programming (scripting), it acts like it is prototype-based. Tweak objects are created and run in Tweak project windows.
 * A model–view–controller (MVC) interface was the primary UI in Squeak versions 3.8 and earlier. It derived from the original Smalltalk-80 user interface framework which first introduced and popularized the MVC architectural pattern. MVC takes its name from the three core classes of the framework. Thus, the term "MVC" in the context of Squeak refers to both one of the available user interface frameworks and the pattern the framework follows. MVC is still provided for those wishing to use this older type of interface.

Uses
Many Squeak contributors collaborate on Open Cobalt, a free and open source virtual world browser and construction toolkit built on Squeak.

The first version of Scratch was implemented in Squeak.

OpenQwaq, a virtual conferencing and collaboration system, is based on Squeak.

Squeak is also used in the Nintendo ES operating system.

License
Squeak 4.0 and later may be downloaded at no cost, including source code, as a prebuilt virtual machine image licensed under the MIT License, with the exception of some of the original Apple code, which is governed by the Apache License.

Squeak was originally released by Apple under its own Squeak License. While source code was available and modification permitted, the Squeak License contained an indemnity clause that prevented it from qualifying as true free and open-source software.

In 2006, Apple relicensed Squeak twice. First, in May, Apple used its own Apple Public Source License, which satisfies the Free Software Foundation's concept of a Free Software License and has attained official approval from the Open Source Initiative as an Open Source License. However, The Apple Public Source License fails to conform to the Debian Free Software Guidelines. To enable inclusion of Etoys in the One Laptop Per Child project, a second relicensing was undertaken using the Apache License. At this point, an effort was also made to address the issue of code contributed by members of the Squeak community, which it was not in Apple's power to unilaterally relicense.

For each contribution made under the Squeak License since 1996, a relicensing statement was obtained authorizing distribution under the MIT license, and finally in March 2010, the result was released as Squeak 4.0, now under combined MIT and Apache licenses.

title: Squeak


text:
Le Chatelier's principle

Le Chatelier's principle (pronounced or ), also called Chatelier's principle (or the Equilibrium Law),  is a principle of chemistry used to predict the effect of a change in conditions on chemical equilibrium. The principle is named after French chemist Henry Louis Le Chatelier, and sometimes also credited to Karl Ferdinand Braun, who discovered it independently. It can be defined as:

"If the equilibrium of a system is disturbed by a change in one or more of the determining factors (as temperature, pressure, or concentration) the system tends to adjust itself to a new equilibrium by counteracting as far as possible the effect of the change"

In scenarios outside thermodynamic equilibrium, there can arise phenomena in contradiction to an over-general statement of Le Chatelier's principle.

Le Chatelier's principle is sometimes alluded to in discussions of topics other than thermodynamics.

Thermodynamic statement
General scenario The Le Chatelier–Braun principle analyzes the qualitative behaviour of a thermodynamic system when a particular one of its externally controlled state variables, say $$L,$$ changes by an amount $$\Delta L,$$ the 'driving change', causing a change $$\delta_{\mathrm i} M,$$ the 'response of prime interest', in its conjugate state variable $$M,$$ all other externally controlled state variables remaining constant. The response illustrates 'moderation' in ways evident in two related thermodynamic equilibria. Obviously, one of $$L,$$ $$M$$ has to be intensive, the other extensive. Also as a necessary part of the scenario, there is some particular auxiliary 'moderating' state variable $$X$$, with its conjugate state variable $$Y.$$ For this to be of interest, the 'moderating' variable $$X$$ must undergo a change $$\Delta X \ne 0$$ or $$\delta X \ne 0$$ in some part of the experimental protocol; this can be either by imposition of a change $$\Delta Y$$, or with the holding of $$Y$$ constant, written $$\delta Y = 0.$$ For the principle to hold with full generality, $$X$$ must be extensive or intensive accordingly as $$M$$ is so. Obviously, to give this scenario physical meaning, the 'driving' variable and the 'moderating' variable must be subject to separate independent experimental controls and measurements.

Explicit statement
The principle can be stated in two ways, formally different, but substantially equivalent, and, in a sense, mutually 'reciprocal'. The two ways illustrate the Maxwell relations, and the stability of thermodynamic equilibrium according to the second law of thermodynamics, evident as the spread of energy amongst the state variables of the system in response to an imposed change.

The two ways of statement share an 'index' experimental protocol (denoted $$\mathcal {P}_{\mathrm i}),$$ that may be described as 'changed driver, moderation permitted'. Along with the driver change $$\Delta L,$$ it imposes a constant $$Y,$$ with $$\delta _{\mathrm i} Y = 0,$$ and allows the uncontrolled 'moderating' variable response $$\delta _{\mathrm i} X,$$ along with the 'index' response of interest $$\delta _{\mathrm i} M.$$

The two ways of statement differ in their respective compared protocols. One way posits a 'changed driver, no moderation' protocol (denoted $$\mathcal {P}_{\mathrm n}).$$ The other way posits a 'fixed driver, imposed moderation' protocol (denoted $$\mathcal {P}_{\mathrm f}.$$)

'Driving' variable forced to change, 'moderating' variable allowed to respond; compared with 'driving' variable forced to change, 'moderating' variable forced not to change
This way compares $$\mathcal {P}_{\mathrm i}$$ with $$\mathcal {P}_{\mathrm n},$$ to compare the effects of the imposed the change $$\Delta L$$ with and without moderation. The protocol $$\mathcal {P}_{\mathrm n}$$ prevents 'moderation' by enforcing that $$\Delta X = 0$$ through an adjustment $$\Delta Y,$$ and it observes the 'no-moderation' response $$\Delta M.$$ Provided that the observed response is indeed that $$\delta_{\mathrm i} X \ne 0,$$ then the principle states that $$|\delta _{\mathrm i} M| < |\Delta M|$$.

In other words, change in the 'moderating' state variable $$X$$ moderates the effect of the driving change in $$L$$ on the responding conjugate variable $$M.$$

'Driving' variable forced to change, 'moderating' variable allowed to respond; compared with 'driving' variable forced not to change, 'moderating' variable forced to change
This way also uses two experimental protocols, $$\mathcal{P}_{\mathrm i}$$ and $$\mathcal{P}_{\mathrm f}$$, to compare the index effect $$\delta _{\mathrm i} M$$ with the effect $$\delta _{\mathrm f} M$$ of 'moderation' alone. The 'index' protocol $$\mathcal{P}_{\mathrm i}$$ is executed first; the response of prime interest, $$\delta _{\mathrm i} M,$$ is observed, and the response $$\Delta X$$ of the 'moderating' variable is also measured. With that knowledge, then the 'fixed driver, moderation imposed' protocol $$\mathcal{P}_{\mathrm f}$$ enforces that $$\Delta L = 0,$$ with the driving variable $$L$$ held fixed; the protocol also, through an adjustment $$\Delta _{\mathrm f} Y,$$ imposes a change $$\Delta X$$ (learnt from the just previous measurement) in the 'moderating' variable, and measures the change $$\delta _{\mathrm f} M.$$ Provided that the 'moderated' response is indeed that $$\Delta X \ne 0,$$ then the principle states that the signs of $$\delta _{\mathrm i} M$$ and $$\delta _{\mathrm f} M$$ are opposite.

Again, in other words, change in the 'moderating' state variable $$X$$ opposes the effect of the driving change in $$L$$ on the responding conjugate variable $$M.$$

Other statements
The duration of adjustment depends on the strength of the negative feedback to the initial shock. The principle is typically used to describe closed negative-feedback systems, but applies, in general, to thermodynamically closed and isolated systems in nature, since the second law of thermodynamics ensures that the disequilibrium caused by an instantaneous shock is eventually followed by a new equilibrium.

While well rooted in chemical equilibrium, Le Chatelier's principle can also be used in describing mechanical systems in that a system put under stress will respond in such a way as to reduce or minimize that stress. Moreover, the response will generally be via the mechanism that most easily relieves that stress. Shear pins and other such sacrificial devices are design elements that protect systems against stress applied in undesired manners to relieve it so as to prevent more extensive damage to the entire system, a practical engineering application of Le Chatelier's principle.

Effect of change in concentration
Changing the concentration of a chemical will shift the equilibrium to the side that would counter that change in concentration. The chemical system will attempt to partly oppose the change affected to the original state of equilibrium. In turn, the rate of reaction, extent, and yield of products will be altered corresponding to the impact on the system.

This can be illustrated by the equilibrium of carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas, reacting to form methanol.

 * CO + 2 H2 ⇌ CH3OH

Suppose we were to increase the concentration of CO in the system. Using Le Chatelier's principle, we can predict that the concentration of methanol will increase, decreasing the total change in CO. If we are to add a species to the overall reaction, the reaction will favor the side opposing the addition of the species. Likewise, the subtraction of a species would cause the reaction to "fill the gap" and favor the side where the species was reduced. This observation is supported by the collision theory. As the concentration of CO is increased, the frequency of successful collisions of that reactant would increase also, allowing for an increase in forward reaction, and generation of the product. Even if the desired product is not thermodynamically favored, the end-product can be obtained if it is continuously removed from the solution.

The effect of a change in concentration is often exploited synthetically for condensation reactions (i.e., reactions that extrude water) that are equilibrium processes (e.g., formation of an ester from carboxylic acid and alcohol or an imine from an amine and aldehyde). This can be achieved by physically sequestering water, by adding desiccants like anhydrous magnesium sulfate or molecular sieves, or by continuous removal of water by distillation, often facilitated by a Dean-Stark apparatus.

Effect of change in temperature
The effect of changing the temperature in the equilibrium can be made clear by 1) incorporating heat as either a reactant or a product, and 2) assuming that an increase in temperature increases the heat content of a system. When the reaction is exothermic (ΔH is negative and energy is released), heat is included as a product, and when the reaction is endothermic (ΔH is positive and energy is consumed), heat is included as a reactant. Hence, whether increasing or decreasing the temperature would favor the forward or the reverse reaction can be determined by applying the same principle as with concentration changes.

Take, for example, the reversible reaction of nitrogen gas with hydrogen gas to form ammonia:

 * N2(g) + 3 H2(g) ⇌ 2 NH3(g)   ΔH = −92 kJ mol−1

Because this reaction is exothermic, it produces heat:

 * N2(g) + 3 H2(g) ⇌ 2 NH3(g) + heat

If the temperature were increased, the heat content of the system would increase, so the system would consume some of that heat by shifting the equilibrium to the left, thereby producing less ammonia. More ammonia would be produced if the reaction were run at a lower temperature, but a lower temperature also lowers the rate of the process, so, in practice (the Haber process) the temperature is set at a compromise value that allows ammonia to be made at a reasonable rate with an equilibrium concentration that is not too unfavorable.

In exothermic reactions, an increase in temperature decreases the equilibrium constant, K, whereas in endothermic reactions, an increase in temperature increases K.

Le Chatelier's principle applied to changes in concentration or pressure can be understood by giving K a constant value. The effect of temperature on equilibria, however, involves a change in the equilibrium constant. The dependence of K on temperature is determined by the sign of ΔH. The theoretical basis of this dependence is given by the Van 't Hoff equation.

Effect of change in pressure
The equilibrium concentrations of the products and reactants do not directly depend on the total pressure of the system. They may depend on the partial pressure of the products and reactants, but if the number of moles of gaseous reactants is equal to the number of moles of gaseous products, pressure has no effect on equilibrium.

Changing total pressure by adding an inert gas at constant volume does not affect the equilibrium concentrations (see Effect of adding an inert gas below).

Changing total pressure by changing the volume of the system changes the partial pressures of the products and reactants and can affect the equilibrium concentrations (see §Effect of change in volume below).

Effect of change in volume
Changing the volume of the system changes the partial pressures of the products and reactants and can affect the equilibrium concentrations. With a pressure increase due to a decrease in volume, the side of the equilibrium with fewer moles is more favorable and with a pressure decrease due to an increase in volume, the side with more moles is more favorable. There is no effect on a reaction where the number of moles of gas is the same on each side of the chemical equation.

Considering the reaction of nitrogen gas with hydrogen gas to form ammonia:

 * $N_{2} + 3 H_{2} 4 moles$ ⇌ $2 NH_{3} 2 moles$   ΔH = −92kJ mol−1

Note the number of moles of gas on the left-hand side and the number of moles of gas on the right-hand side. When the volume of the system is changed, the partial pressures of the gases change. If we were to decrease pressure by increasing volume, the equilibrium of the above reaction will shift to the left, because the reactant side has a greater number of moles than does the product side. The system tries to counteract the decrease in partial pressure of gas molecules by shifting to the side that exerts greater pressure. Similarly, if we were to increase pressure by decreasing volume, the equilibrium shifts to the right, counteracting the pressure increase by shifting to the side with fewer moles of gas that exert less pressure. If the volume is increased because there are more moles of gas on the reactant side, this change is more significant in the denominator of the equilibrium constant expression, causing a shift in equilibrium.

Effect of adding an inert gas
An inert gas (or noble gas), such as helium, is one that does not react with other elements or compounds. Adding an inert gas into a gas-phase equilibrium at constant volume does not result in a shift. This is because the addition of a non-reactive gas does not change the equilibrium equation, as the inert gas appears on both sides of the chemical reaction equation. For example, if A and B react to form C and D, but X does not participate in the reaction:. While it is true that the total pressure of the system increases, the total pressure does not have any effect on the equilibrium constant; rather, it is a change in partial pressures that will cause a shift in the equilibrium. If, however, the volume is allowed to increase in the process, the partial pressures of all gases would be decreased resulting in a shift towards the side with the greater number of moles of gas. The shift will never occur on the side with fewer moles of gas. It is also known as Le Chatelier's postulate.

Effect of a catalyst
A catalyst increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed in the reaction. The use of a catalyst does not affect the position and composition of the equilibrium of a reaction, because both the forward and backward reactions are sped up by the same factor.

For example, consider the Haber process for the synthesis of ammonia (NH3):

 * N2 + 3 H2 ⇌ 2 NH3

In the above reaction, iron (Fe) and molybdenum (Mo) will function as catalysts if present. They will accelerate any reactions, but they do not affect the state of the equilibrium.

Thermodynamic equilibrium processes
Le Chatelier's principle refers to states of thermodynamic equilibrium. The latter are stable against perturbations that satisfy certain criteria; this is essential to the definition of thermodynamic equilibrium.

OR

It states that changes in the temperature, pressure, volume, or concentration of a system will result in predictable and opposing changes in the system in order to achieve a new equilibrium state.

For this, a state of thermodynamic equilibrium is most conveniently described through a fundamental relation that specifies a cardinal function of state, of the energy kind, or of the entropy kind, as a function of state variables chosen to fit the thermodynamic operations through which a perturbation is to be applied.

In theory and, nearly, in some practical scenarios, a body can be in a stationary state with zero macroscopic flows and rates of chemical reaction (for example, when no suitable catalyst is present), yet not in thermodynamic equilibrium, because it is metastable or unstable; then Le Chatelier's principle does not necessarily apply.

Non-equilibrium processes
A simple body or a complex thermodynamic system can also be in a stationary state with non-zero rates of flow and chemical reaction; sometimes the word "equilibrium" is used in reference to such a state, though by definition it is not a thermodynamic equilibrium state. Sometimes, it is proposed to consider Le Chatelier's principle for such states. For this exercise, rates of flow and of chemical reaction must be considered. Such rates are not supplied by equilibrium thermodynamics. For such states, there are no simple statements that echo Le Chatelier's principle. Prigogine and Defay demonstrate that such a scenario may exhibit moderation, or may exhibit a measured amount of anti-moderation, though not a run-away anti-moderation that goes to completion. The example analysed by Prigogine and Defay is the Haber process.

This situation is clarified by considering two basic methods of analysis of a process. One is the classical approach of Gibbs, the other uses the near- or local- equilibrium approach of De Donder. The Gibbs approach requires thermodynamic equilibrium. The Gibbs approach is reliable within its proper scope, thermodynamic equilibrium, though of course it does not cover non-equilibrium scenarios. The De Donder approach can cover equilibrium scenarios, but also covers non-equilibrium scenarios in which there is only local thermodynamic equilibrium, and not thermodynamic equilibrium proper. The De Donder approach allows state variables called extents of reaction to be independent variables, though in the Gibbs approach, such variables are not independent. Thermodynamic non-equilibrium scenarios can contradict an over-general statement of Le Chatelier's Principle.

Related system concepts
It is common to treat the principle as a more general observation of systems, such as

"When a settled system is disturbed, it will adjust to diminish the change that has been made to it"

or, "roughly stated":

"Any change in status quo prompts an opposing reaction in the responding system."

The concept of systemic maintenance of a stable steady state despite perturbations has a variety of names, and has been studied in a variety of contexts, chiefly in the natural sciences. In chemistry, the principle is used to manipulate the outcomes of reversible reactions, often to increase their yield. In pharmacology, the binding of ligands to receptors may shift the equilibrium according to Le Chatelier's principle, thereby explaining the diverse phenomena of receptor activation and desensitization. In biology, the concept of homeostasis is different from Le Chatelier's principle, in that homoeostasis is generally maintained by processes of active character, as distinct from the passive or dissipative character of the processes described by Le Chatelier's principle in thermodynamics. In economics, even further from thermodynamics, allusion to the principle is sometimes regarded as helping explain the price equilibrium of efficient economic systems. In some dynamic systems, the end-state cannot be determined from the shock or perturbation.

Economics
In economics, a similar concept also named after Le Chatelier was introduced by American economist Paul Samuelson in 1947. There the generalized Le Chatelier principle is for a maximum condition of economic equilibrium: Where all unknowns of a function are independently variable, auxiliary constraints—"just-binding" in leaving initial equilibrium unchanged—reduce the response to a parameter change. Thus, factor-demand and commodity-supply elasticities are hypothesized to be lower in the short run than in the long run because of the fixed-cost constraint in the short run.

Since the change of the value of an objective function in a neighbourhood of the maximum position is described by the envelope theorem, Le Chatelier's principle can be shown to be a corollary thereof.

Bibliography of cited sources

 * Bailyn, M. (1994). A Survey of Thermodynamics, American Institute of Physics Press, New York, ISBN 0-88318-797-3.
 * Callen, H.B. (1960/1985). Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics, (1st edition 1960) 2nd edition 1985, Wiley, New York, ISBN 0-471-86256-8.
 * Münster, A. (1970), Classical Thermodynamics, translated by E.S. Halberstadt, Wiley–Interscience, London, ISBN 0-471-62430-6.
 * Prigogine, I., Defay, R. (1950/1954). Chemical Thermodynamics, translated by D.H. Everett, Longmans, Green & Co, London.
 * Prigogine, I., Defay, R. (1950/1954). Chemical Thermodynamics, translated by D.H. Everett, Longmans, Green & Co, London.

title: Le Chatelier's principle