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Ski jumping

Ski jumping is a winter sport in which competitors aim to achieve the farthest jump after sliding down on their skis from a specially designed curved ramp. Along with jump length, competitor's aerial style and other factors also affect the final score. Ski jumping was first contested in Norway in the late 19th century, and later spread through Europe and North America in the early 20th century. Along with cross-country skiing, it constitutes the traditional group of Nordic skiing disciplines.

The ski jumping venue, commonly referred to as a hill, consists of the jumping ramp (in-run), take-off table, and a landing hill. Each jump is evaluated according to the distance covered and the style performed. The distance score is related to the construction point (also known as the K-point), which is a line drawn in the landing area and serves as a "target" for the competitors to reach.

The score of each judge evaluating the style can reach a maximum of 20 points. The jumping technique has evolved over the years, from jumps with the skis parallel and both arms extended forward, to the "V-style", which is widely used today.

Ski jumping has been included at the Winter Olympics since 1924 and at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships since 1925. Women's participation in the sport began in the 1990s, while the first women's event at the Olympics has been held in 2014. All major ski jumping competitions are organised by the International Ski Federation. Stefan Kraft holds the official record for the world's longest ski jump with 253.5 m, set on the ski flying hill in Vikersund in 2017. Ski jumping can also be performed in the summer on an in-run where the tracks are made from porcelain and the grass on the slope is covered with water-soaked plastic. The highest level summer competition is the FIS Ski Jumping Grand Prix, contested since 1994.

History
Like most of the Nordic skiing disciplines, the first ski jumping competitions were held in Norway in the 19th century, although there is evidence of ski jumping in the late 18th century. The recorded origins of the first ski jump trace back to 1808, when Olaf Rye reached 9.5 m. Sondre Norheim, who is regarded as the "father" of the modern ski jumping, won the first-ever ski jumping competition with prizes, which was held in Høydalsmo in 1866.

The first larger ski jumping competition was held on Husebyrennet hill in Oslo, Norway, in 1875. Due to its poor infrastructure and the weather conditions, in 1892 the event was moved to Holmenkollen, which is today still one of the main ski jumping events in the season.

In the late 19th century, Sondre Norheim and Nordic skier Karl Hovelsen immigrated to the United States and started developing the sport in that country. In 1924, ski jumping was featured at the 1924 Winter Olympics in Chamonix, France. The sport has been featured at every Olympics since.

Ski jumping was brought to Canada by Norwegian immigrant Nels Nelsen. Starting with his example in 1915 until late 1959, annual ski jumping competitions were held on Mount Revelstoke — the ski hill Nelsen designed — the longest period of any Canadian ski jumping venue. Revelstoke's was the biggest natural ski jump hill in Canada and internationally recognized as one of the best in North America. The length and natural grade of its 600 m hill made possible jumps of over 60 m—the longest in Canada. It was also the only hill in Canada where world ski jumping records were set, in 1916, 1921, 1925, 1932, and 1933.

In 1935, the origins of ski flying began in Planica, Slovenia, where Josef Bradl became the first competitor in history to jump over 100 m. At the same venue, the first official jump over 200 m was achieved in 1994, when Toni Nieminen landed at 203 meters.

In 1964 in Zakopane, Poland, the large hill event was introduced at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships. In the same year, the normal hill event was included on the Olympic programme at the 1964 Winter Olympics. The team event was added later, at the 1988 Winter Olympics.

Hills
A ski jumping hill is typically built on a steep natural slope. It consists of the jumping ramp (in-run), take-off table, and a landing hill. Competitors glide down from a common point at the top of the in-run, achieving considerable speeds at the take-off table, where they take off, carried by their own momentum. While airborne, they maintain an aerodynamic position with their bodies and skis, which allows them to maximise the length of their jump. The landing slope is constructed so that the jumper's trajectory is near-parallel with it, and the athlete's relative height to the ground is gradually lost, allowing for a gentle and safe landing. The landing space is followed by an out-run, a substantial flat or counter-inclined area that permits the skier to safely slow down. The out-run area is fenced and surrounded by a public auditorium.

The slopes are classified according to the distance that the competitors travel in the air, between the end of the table and the landing. Each hill has a construction point (K-point), which serves as a "target" that the competitors should reach. The classification of the hills are as follows:

Scoring system
Competitors are ranked according to a numerical score obtained by adding up components based on distance, style, inrun length (gate factor) and wind conditions. In the individual event, the scores from each skier's two competition jumps are combined to determine the winner.

Distance score depends on the hill's K-point. For K-90 and K-120 competitions, the K-point is set at 90 meters and 120 meters, respectively. Competitors are awarded 60 points (normal and large hills) and 120 points (flying hills) if they land on the K-point. For every meter beyond or below the K-point, extra points are awarded or deducted; the typical value is 2 points per meter in small hills, 1.8 points in large hills and 1.2 points in ski flying hills. A competitor's distance is measured between the takeoff and the point where the feet came in full contact with the landing slope (for abnormal landings, touchpoint of one foot, or another body part is considered). Jumps are measured with accuracy of 0.5 meters for all competitions.

During the competition, five judges are based in a tower to the side of the expected landing point. They can award up to 20 points each for jumping style, based on keeping the skis steady during flight, balance, optimal body position, and landing. The highest and lowest style scores are disregarded, with the remaining three scores added to the distance score.

Gate and wind factors were introduced by the 2009 rules, to allow fairer comparison of results for a scoring compensation for variable outdoor conditions. Aerodynamics and take-off speed are important variables that affect the jump length, and if weather conditions change during a competition, the conditions will not be the same for all competitors. Gate factor is an adjustment made when the inrun (or start gate) length is adjusted from the initial position in order to provide optimal take-off speed. Since higher gates result in higher take-off speeds, and therefore present an advantage to competitors, points are subtracted when the starting gate is moved up, and added when the gate is lowered. An advanced calculation also determines compensation points for the actual unequal wind conditions at the time of the jump; when there is back wind, points are added, and when there is front wind, points are subtracted. Wind speed and direction are measured at five different points based on average value, which is determined before every competition.

If two or more competitors finish the competition with the same number of points, they are given the same placing and receive same prizes. Ski jumpers below the minimum safe body mass index are penalised with a shorter maximum ski length, reducing the aerodynamic lift they can achieve. These rules have been credited with stopping the most severe cases of underweight athletes, but some competitors still lose weight to maximise the distance they can achieve. In order to prevent an unfair advantage due to a "sailing" effect of the ski jumping suit, material, thickness and relative size of the suit are regulated.

Techniques
Each jump is divided into four parts: in-run, take-off (jump), flight, and landing.

By using the V-style, firstly pioneered by Swedish ski jumper Jan Boklöv in the mid-1980s, modern skiers are able to exceed the distance of the take-off hill by about 10% compared to the previous technique with parallel skis. Previous techniques included the Kongsberger technique, the Däescher technique and the Windisch technique. Until the mid-1960s, the ski jumper came down the in-run of the hill with both arms pointing forwards. This changed when the Däscher technique was pioneered by Andreas Däscher in the 1950s, as a modification of the Kongsberger and Windisch techniques. A lesser-used technique as of 2017 is the H-style which is essentially a combination of the parallel and V-styles, in which the skis are spread very wide apart and held parallel in an "H" shape. It is prominently used by Domen Prevc.

Skiers are required to touch the ground in the Telemark landing style (telemarksnedslag), named after the Norwegian county of Telemark. This involves the landing with one foot in front of the other with knees slightly bent, mimicking the style of Telemark skiing. Failure to execute a Telemark landing leads to the deduction of style points, issued by the judges.

Major competitions
All major ski jumping competitions are organised by the International Ski Federation.

The large hill ski jumping event was included at the Winter Olympic Games for the first time in 1924, and has been contested at every Winter Olympics since then. The normal hill event was added in 1964. Since 1992, the normal hill event is contested at the K-90 size hill; previously, it was contested at the K-60 hill. Women's debuted at the Winter Olympics in 2014.

The FIS Ski Jumping World Cup has been contested since the 1979–80 season. It runs between November and March every season, and consists of 25–30 competitions at most prestigious hills across Europe, United States and Japan. Competitors are awarded a fixed number of points in each event according to their ranking, and the overall winner is the one with most accumulated points. FIS Ski Flying World Cup is contested as a sub-event of the World Cup, and competitors collect only the points scored at ski flying hills from the calendar.

The ski jumping at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships was first contested in 1925. The team event was introduced in 1982, while the women's event was first held in 2009.

The FIS Ski Flying World Championships was first contested in 1972 in Planica.

The Four Hills Tournament has been contested since the 1952–53 season. It is contested around the New Year's Day at four venues – two in Germany (Oberstdorf and Garmisch-Partenkirchen) and two in Austria (Innsbruck and Bischofshofen), which are also scored for the World Cup. Those events are traditionally held in a slightly different format than other World Cup events (first round is held as a knockout event between 25 pairs of jumpers), and the overall winner is determined by adding up individual scores from every jump.

Other competitions organised by the International Ski Federation include the FIS Ski Jumping Grand Prix (held in summer), Continental Cup, FIS Cup, FIS Race, and Alpen Cup.

Women's participation
In January 1863 in Trysil, Norway, at that time 16 years old Norwegian Ingrid Olsdatter Vestby, became the first-ever known female ski jumper, who participated in the competition. Her distance is not recorded.

Women began competing at the high level since the 2004–05 Continental Cup season. International Ski Federation organised three women's team events in this competition and so far the only team events in history of women's ski jumping.

Women's made a premiere FIS Nordic World Ski Championships performance in 2009 in Liberec. American ski jumper Lindsey Van became the first world champion.

In the 2011–12 season, women competed for the first time in the World Cup. The first event was held on 3 December 2011 at Lysgårdsbakken at normal hill in Lillehammer, Norway. The first-ever female World Cup winner was Sarah Hendrickson, who also became the inaugural women's World Cup overall champion. Previously, women had only competed in Continental Cup seasons.

In the 2022-23 season, women competed for the first time ever in ski flying. The historic event was held in Vikersundbakken in Vikersund the 19th March 2023. It was won by Slovenian jumper Ema Klinec

Olympic Games
In 2006, the International Ski Federation proposed that women could compete at the 2010 Winter Olympics, but the proposal was rejected by the IOC because of the low number of athletes and participating countries at the time.

A group of fifteen competitive female ski jumpers later filed a suit against the Vancouver Organizing Committee for the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games on the grounds that it violated the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms since men were competing. The suit failed, with the judge ruling that the situation was not governed by the charter.

A further milestone was reached when women's ski jumping was included as part of the 2014 Winter Olympics at normal hill event. The first Olympic champion was Carina Vogt.

Record jumps

Since 1936, when the first jump beyond 100 m was made, all world records in the sport have been made in the discipline of ski flying. As of July 2024, the official world record for the longest ski jump is 253.5 m, set by Stefan Kraft at Vikersundbakken in Vikersund, Norway. In a non-official event near Akureyri on Iceland, in April 2024 Ryōyū Kobayashi achieved a distance of 291 m after 10 seconds in the air and landing smoothly. It was an unofficial world record which is not being counted as a ski flying world record by the FIS. In 2015 in Vikersund, Dimitry Vassiliev reached 254 m but fell upon landing; his jump is another unofficial record.

Silje Opseth holds the women's world record at 230,5 metres (756 feet) which was set on 17th March 2024 in Vikersundbakken.

The lists below show the progression of world records through history at 50-meter milestones. Only official results are listed, invalid jumps are not included.

Perfect-score jumps
Those who have managed to show a perfect jump, which means that all five judges attributed the maximum style score of 20 points for their jumps. Kazuyoshi Funaki, Sven Hannawald and Wolfgang Loitzl were attributed 4x20 (plus another 19.5) style score points for their second jump, thus receiving nine times the maximum score of 20 points within one competition. Kazuyoshi Funaki is the only one in history who achieved this more than once. So far only seven jumpers are recorded to have achieved this score in total of ten times:

title: Ski jumping


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Freestyle skiing

Freestyle skiing is a skiing discipline comprising aerials, moguls, cross, half-pipe, slopestyle and big air as part of the Winter Olympics. It can consist of a skier performing aerial flips and spins and can include skiers sliding rails and boxes on their skis. Known as "hot-dogging" in the early 1970s, it is also commonly referred to as freeskiing, jibbing, as well as many other names, around the world.

History
Ski acrobatics have been exhibited since 1906. Aerial skiing was popularized by John Rudd at the 1908 National Championship Ski Jumping Tournament in Duluth, Minnesota, and again in the 1950s by Olympic gold medalist Stein Eriksen. Early US competitions were held in the mid-1960s.

In 1969, Waterville Valley Ski Area in New Hampshire, formed the first freestyle instruction program, making the resort the birthplace of freestyle skiing. The following year, Corcoran and Doug Pfeiffer, organized the first National Open Championships of Freestyle Skiing on the Sunnyside trails. In 1971, Waterville Valley Hosted the first Professional Freestyle Skiing Competition, which attracted freestyle skiing legends to Waterville Valley. Some of these competitors, such as Wayne Wong, Floyd Wilkie, and George Askevold, stayed at Waterville Valley as coaches of the first Freestyle Ski Team.

International Ski Federation (FIS) recognized freestyle skiing as a sport in 1979 and brought in new regulations regarding certification of athletes and jump techniques in an effort to curb the dangerous elements of the competitions. The first FIS Freestyle Skiing World Cup was staged in 1980 and the first FIS Freestyle World Ski Championships took place in 1986 in Tignes, France. Freestyle skiing was a demonstration event at the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary. Mogul skiing was added as an official medal event at the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville, and the aerials event was added for the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer. In 2011, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) approved both halfpipe and slopestyle freeskiing events to be added to the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia.

Aerial skiing
Aerialists ski off 2-4 meter jumps, that propel them up to 6 meters in the air (which can be up to 20 meters above the landing height, given the landing slope). Once in the air, aerialists perform multiple flips and twists before landing on a 34 to 39-degree inclined landing hill about 30 meters in length. The top male aerialists can currently perform triple back flips with up to four or five twists.

Aerial skiing is a judged sport, and competitors receive a score based on jump takeoff (20%), jump form (50%) and landing (30%). A degree of difficulty (DOD) is then factored in for a total score. Skiers are judged on a cumulative score of LIMA two jumps. These scores do not generally carry over to the next round.

Aerialists train for their jumping maneuvers during the summer months by skiing on specially constructed water ramps and landing in a large swimming pool. An example of this is the Utah Olympic Park training facility. A water ramp consists of a wooden ramp covered with a special plastic mat that when lubricated with sprinklers allows an athlete to ski down the ramp towards a jump. The skier then skis off the wooden jump and lands safely in a large swimming pool. A burst of air is sent up from the bottom of the pool just before landing to break up the surface tension of the water, thus softening the impact of the landing. Skiers sometimes reinforce the skis that they use for water-ramping with 6mm of fiberglass or cut holes in the front and back in order to soften the impact when landing properly on their skis.

Summer training also includes training on trampolines, diving boards, and other acrobatic or gymnastic training apparatus.

Mogul skiing
Moguls are a series of bumps on a trail formed when skiers push the snow into mounds or piles as they execute short-radius turns. Moguls can also be formed deliberately, by piling mounds of snow. In competitions, athletes are judged on their technique as well as on their speed by mastering the bumps in a calm yet aggressive way. Usually there are two jumps. In the early days the location was chosen by the competitors. Since the mid-1980s those jumps have become part of the official slope. While at the beginning only upright jumps were allowed, from the mid-1990s onward flips were added as an option. Moguls has become part of the Olympics since 1992. Canadian athlete Alexandre Bilodeau has won the Gold Medal twice: 2010 and 2014.

Ski ballet (Acroski)
Ski ballet, later renamed acroski (or "acro"), was a competitive discipline in the formative years of freestyle skiing. Competitors devised routines lasting 3 to 5 minutes and executed to music. The routines consisted of spins, jumps, and flips on a prepared flat course. For a short period of time (in the 1980s) there was also pair ballet competitions, a variation of ballet, where two people performed tricks that not only included spins, jumps and leg crossing but also lifts and sychronic movements and was similar to ice dancing. The routines were scored by judges who assessed the choreography, technical difficulty, and mastery of skills demonstrated by the competitors. Early innovators in the sport were American Jan Bucher, Park Smalley, Swiss Conny Kissling and German Hermann Reitberger. The first skier who performed a one handed pole flip in a world cup competition was German Richard Schabl in the early 1980s. Acro ski was part of the demonstration at the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary. The International Ski Federation ceased all formal competition of this event after 2000 because they focused on both aerials (1990) and moguls (1992) for making it an Olympic discipline.

Ski cross
Ski cross is based on the snowboarding boardercross. Despite it being a timed racing event, it is often considered part of freestyle skiing because it incorporates terrain features traditionally found in freestyle.

Halfpipe skiing
Halfpipe skiing is the sport of riding snow skis on a half-pipe. Competitors gradually ski to the end of the pipe by doing flips and tricks. It became an Olympic event for the first time at the 2014 Olympic Games in Sochi, Russia.

Slopestyle
In slopestyle, athletes ski or snowboard down a course including a variety of obstacles including rails, jumps, and other terrain park features. Points are scored for amplitude, originality and quality of tricks. Twin-tip skis are used and are particularly useful if the skier lands backwards. Slopestyle tricks fall mainly into four categories: spins, grinds, grabs and flips. Slopestyle became an Olympic event, in both skiing and snowboarding forms, at the 2014 Winter Games in Sochi, Russia.

Equipment
Twin-tip skis are used in events such as slopestyle and halfpipe. Mogul skis are used in moguls and sometimes in aerials. Specially designed racing skis are used in ski cross. Ski bindings took a major design change to include plate bindings mounted to the bottom of the skiers boot to allow for multi-directional release. Ski poles are a staple in the all aspects of freestyle skiing, however, slopestyle athletes have more recently opted to ski without them in order to free their hands for grabs and other personal preferences in their riding.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Freestyle skiing


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Short-track speed skating

Short-track speed skating is a form of competitive ice speed skating. In competitions, multiple skaters (typically between four and six) skate on an oval ice track with a length of 111.111 m. The rink itself is 60 m long by 30 m wide, which is the same size as an Olympic-sized figure skating rink and an international-sized ice hockey rink. Related sports include long-track speed skating and inline speed skating.

History
Short-track skating developed from speed skating events that were held with mass starts. This form of speed skating was mainly practised in the United States and Canada, as opposed to the international form (derived from Europe), where athletes skated in pairs. At the 1932 Winter Olympics, speed skating events were conducted in the mass start form. Competitions in North America tended to be held indoors, for example in Madison Square Garden, New York, and therefore on shorter tracks than was usual for outdoor skating.

In 1967, the International Skating Union (ISU) adopted short-track speed skating, although it did not organize international competitions until 1976. World Championships in short-track speed skating have been officially held since 1981, although events held in 1976–1980 under different names have since received the status of World Championships retrospectively. The name of the competition was changed several times before it was eventually titled the "World Short Track Speed Skating Championships" in 1989; the championships are now held annually.

Short-track speed skating was introduced as a demonstration sport at the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, Canada. It was upgraded to a full Olympic sport in 1992 and has been part of the Winter Olympics ever since. There were only four short-track events in the 1992 Winter Games, but the program was expanded to include six events in 1994 and 1998, and finally eight events in the 2002 Winter Games. The events are the same for both men and women: 500 meters, 1000 meters, 1500 meters, plus the relay event (5000 meters for men, 3000 meters for women). Since the 2018–19 World Cup season, a 2000-meter mixed-team relay was added, and debuted in the 2022 Winter Olympics. A 3,000-meter super-final event is included in the European Championships, but this is not currently part of the Olympic short-track program.

Rules
Skaters who commit one of the following offenses risk immediate disqualification from a race and having their times rendered invalid and being suspended from playing for a short time.
 * Impeding: Intentionally pushing, blocking, tripping or otherwise causing an impediment for another skater
 * Off track: Skating outside the designated track
 * Assistance: Giving physical assistance to another skater. For example: pushing a teammate from behind for an extra boost, or allowing a teammate to lean on another for stability in corners.
 * Shooting the line or Kicking out: Driving the foot in lead ahead to reach the finish faster, resulting in the lead foot lifting off the ice and creating a dangerous situation for others
 * Unsportsmanlike conduct: Acting in a manner not befitting an athlete or a role model. Including cursing at a competitor, kicking your feet, striking other skaters or officials, etc.
 * Equipment: Not wearing the proper safety equipment, losing equipment during the race, or exposure of skin not on face or neck.
 * False Start: Leaving before firing of the starter's pistol. The updated 2023 ISU regulations state that after the first false start, the offender would have to leave.
 * Did not finish: Usually due to a fall, the skater did not finish the race.
 * Did not skate: The skater did not go to the starting line.

In relay races, each team has four skaters, who can take turns freely by tagging. A skater may be relayed at any time except during the last two laps. Usually, the outgoing skater pushes the incoming skater to help the teammate to gain speed. If a team member falls, the next person needs to be tagged. A relay team would be penalized if they committed the following:

 * Not abiding by previous rules that applied to individual skaters
 * Not receiving a tag from a teammate
 * Exchanging after the center red line when there are three laps to go

Notable skaters
The following is the list of athletes who are Individual gold medalist at the Olympic Winter Games or Overall World Champion and have won Olympic Winter Games or Overall World Championships at least three times.

title: Short-track speed skating


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1197

Year 1197 (MCXCVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * Spring – Emperor Henry VI travels to Italy to persuade Pope Celestine III to crown his infant son Frederick II, who has been elected "King of the Romans" at Frankfurt.
 * King Richard I (the Lionheart) has Château Gaillard (Normandy) built on the Seine River as he fights to restore Angevin power in northern France (approximate date).
 * Summer – Henry VI takes cruel measures to put down an insurrection in Sicily and southern Italy, which has been provoked by the oppression of his German officials.
 * September 28 – Henry VI dies of malaria at Messina (also possibly poisoned), while preparing an expedition against the Byzantine usurper Alexios III (Angelos).
 * Autumn – A German civil war begins upon the sudden death of Henry VI. Henry's brother, Philip of Swabia, takes over the family lands and claims his inheritance.
 * Autumn – A dynastic feud breaks out between Emeric, King of Hungary and his younger brother Duke Andrew. After a brief skirmish, Emeric is forced to cede Croatia and Dalmatia to Andrew, who begins to administer the provinces as a de facto sovereign monarch.
 * Winter – Duke Ottokar I forces his brother, Vladislaus III, to abandon Bohemia. Ottokar restores power and Vladislaus accepts the margravial title of Moravia.
 * Saracen pirates, from the Balearic Islands, raid the city of Toulon in Provence, and the Benedictine monastery of Saint Honorat, on the Lérins Islands.
 * Northern Crusades: Danish forces led by King Canute VI raid the area of present-day Estonia.

Wales

 * April 28 – Rhys ap Gruffydd, a Welsh prince, dies and is succeeded by his eldest son Gruffydd ap Rhys II. With the help of Gwenwynwyn, his brother Maelgwn ap Rhys invades southern Wales.
 * Summer – Gruffydd ap Rhys II is captured and handed over to Gwenwynwyn, who transfers him to the English. Gruffydd is imprisoned at Corfe Castle and Maelgwn ap Rhys claims the throne.

Levant

 * September 10 – Henry I (or Henry II), king of Jerusalem, dies from falling out a first-floor window at his palace in Acre. His widow, Isabella I, becomes regent while the kingdom is thrown into consternation.
 * September 22 – About 16,000 German crusaders reach Acre, starting the crusade of 1197. Emperor Henry VI, who planned to join the forces later on, was forced to stay behind in Sicily due to illness. On September 28 he dies at Messina. Meanwhile the crusaders manage to reconquer Sidon and Beirut but return to Germany after receiving the news of the emperor's death.

Asia

 * Genghis Khan (or Temüjin), with help from the Keraites, defeats the Jurchens of the Jin Dynasty. The Jin bestowed Genghis' blood brother Toghrul with the honorable title of Ong Khan, and Genghis receives the lesser title of j'aut quri. During the winter, Toghrul returns and re-establishes himself as leader of the Keraites.

Religion

 * Arbroath Abbey located in the Scottish town of Arbroath, is consecrated and dedicated to St. Thomas Becket.

Births

 * October 22 – Juntoku, emperor of Japan (d. 1242)
 * Amadeus IV, count of Savoy (House of Savoy) (d. 1253)
 * Dharmasvamin, Tibetan monk and pilgrim (d. 1264)
 * Ibn al-Baitar, Moorish botanist and pharmacist (d. 1248)
 * John de Braose (Tadody), English nobleman (or 1198)
 * Naratheinga Uzana, Burmese prince and regent (d. 1235)
 * Nicola Paglia, Italian priest and preacher (d. 1256)
 * Nikephoros Blemmydes, Byzantine theologian (d. 1272)
 * Oberto Pallavicino, Italian nobleman (signore) (d. 1269)
 * Raymond VII, French nobleman and knight (d. 1249)
 * Richard of Chichester, bishop of Chichester (d. 1253)
 * William de Braose, English nobleman (d. 1230)

Deaths

 * April 23 – Davyd Rostislavich, Kievan Grand Prince (b. 1140)
 * April 28 – Rhys ap Gruffydd, Welsh prince of Deheubarth
 * June 1 – Gertrude of Bavaria, queen consort of Denmark
 * July 9 – Rudolf of Wied (or Rudolph), archbishop of Trier
 * September 10 – Henry I (or Henry II), king of Jerusalem (b. 1166)
 * September 18 – Margaret of France, daughter of Louis VII
 * September 28 – Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1165)
 * November 13 – Homobonus of Cremona, Italian merchant
 * December 12 – Wu (or Xiansheng), Chinese empress (b. 1115)
 * Alix of France, French countess consort and regent (b. 1150)
 * Bretislav III, bishop of Prague (House of Přemyslid) (b. 1137)
 * Burhan al-Din al-Marghinani, Arab Hanafi jurist (b. 1135)
 * Jamal al-Din al-Ghaznawi, Arab scholar and theologian
 * Jón Loftsson, Icelandic chieftain and politician (b. 1124)
 * Jordan Lupin, Italo-Norman nobleman and rebel leader
 * Margaritus of Brindisi, Sicilian Grand Admiral (b. 1149)
 * Owain ap Gruffydd (or Cyfeiliog), Welsh prince (b. 1130)
 * Peter II (or Theodor-Peter), ruler (tsar) of the Bulgaria
 * Peter Cantor (the Chanter), French theologian and writer
 * Ruadhri Ua Flaithbertaigh, Irish king of Iar Connacht
 * Tughtakin ibn Ayyub, Ayyubid emir (prince) of Arabia
 * Walter Devereux, Norman nobleman and knight (b. 1173)
 * William de Longchamp, Norman nobleman and bishop

title: 1197


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1198

Year 1198 (MCXCVIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * March 8 – Philip of Swabia, son of the late Emperor Frederick I, is elected "King of Germany" by his supporters at Mühlhausen in Thuringia. Archbishop Adolf of Cologne elects Otto of Brunswick, son of Henry the Lion, as Philip's rival. Otto IV is crowned as King of the Romans in Aachen by supporters of the House of Welf. Philip's coronation does not take place until September 8, at Mainz.
 * May 17 – Frederick II, infant son of the late Emperor Henry VI, is crowned King of Sicily. His mother, Queen Constance I becomes regent, while she surrounds herself with local advisors. On November 27, Constance dies in the royal palace at Palermo. She is succeeded by the new pope, Innocent III, who becomes Frederick's guardian and mentor.

England

 * John of England captures a party of 18 French knights and many men-at-arms, in the ongoing conflict against France. His brother, King Richard I (the Lionheart) introduces a new Great Seal – in an attempt to keep the war against France funded. The government proclaims that charters previously struck with the old seal are no longer valid and must be renewed with a fresh payment. The office of Lord Warden of the Stannaries is also introduced, to tax the produce of tin mines in Cornwall and Devon.
 * September 27 – Battle of Gisors: Richard I defeats the French forces led by Philip II (Augustus) at Courcelles-lès-Gisors, in Picardy. Richard captures three castles on the border of the Vexin. The French troops, many of them mounted, crowd the bridge leading into Gisors Castle but it collapses beneath them. The French king is among those who plunge into the water in his armor. Many French knights drown, but Philip is pulled to safety.

Levant

 * Spring – Amalric I, ruler of Cyprus, marries Princess Isabella I, daughter of the late King Amalric I. A few days later they are crowned as King and Queen of Jerusalem at Acre. On July 1, Amalric signs a truce with Al-Adil I, sultan of Egypt and Syria, securing the Crusader possessions from Acre to as far as Antioch.

Japan

 * February 18 – Emperor Go-Toba (or Toba the Second) abdicates the throne in favor of his two-year-old son Tsuchimikado, after a 14-year reign.

Literature

 * December 11 – Averroes (or Ibn Rushd), Arab polymath and physician, dies. He is the author of more than 100 books, for which he is known in the western world as The Commentator and Father of Rationalism.

Religion

 * January 8 – Pope Celestine III dies at Rome, after a pontificate of nearly 7 years. He is succeeded by Innocent III, as the 176th pope of the Catholic Church. Shortly after he lays an interdict on Laon, in an attempt to create independent beliefs there. This will be followed by interdicts against France in 1199, and Normandy in 1203.
 * Innocent III excommunicates Philip II for repudiating his marriage to Ingeborg of Denmark (see 1193), to whom he took an almost instant dislike, but public opinion forces Philip to effect a reconciliation with the pope.

Births

 * May 4 – Kyaswa, ruler of the Pagan Empire (d. 1251)
 * July 11 – Hōjō Shigetoki, Japanese samurai (d. 1261)
 * August 24 – Alexander II, king of Scotland (d. 1249)
 * September 25 – Ai Zong, Chinese emperor (d. 1234)
 * Baldwin III, Flemish nobleman and knight (d. 1244)
 * Beatrice of Savoy, countess of Provence (d. 1266)
 * Beatrice of Swabia, Holy Roman Empress (d. 1212)
 * Hugh I of Châtillon, French nobleman and knight (d. 1248)
 * Branca of Portugal, Portuguese princess (d. 1240)
 * Fujiwara no Tameie, Japanese waka poet (d. 1275)
 * Humbert V de Beaujeu, French constable (d. 1250)
 * Jalaluddin Surkh-Posh Bukhari, Arab missionary (d. 1292)
 * John de Braose (Tadody), English nobleman (d. 1232)
 * Konrad the Curly, Polish nobleman (approximate date)
 * Koun Ejō, Japanese Sōtō Zen monk and priest (d. 1280)
 * Marie of France, French princess and duchess (d. 1224)
 * Minamoto no Ichiman, Japanese nobleman (d. 1203)
 * Ordoño Álvarez, Spanish abbot and cardinal (d. 1285)
 * Ramon Berenguer IV, Spanish nobleman (d. 1245)
 * Siraj al-Din Urmavi, Ayyubid philosopher (d. 1283)
 * Sybilla of Lusignan, queen of Lesser Armenia (d. 1230)

Deaths

 * January 8 – Celestine III, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 1106)
 * February 1 – Walram I (of Laurenburg), German nobleman
 * March 11 – Marie of France, French princess and countess (b. 1145)
 * April 16 – Frederick I (the Catholic), duke of Austria (b. 1175)
 * July 7 – George II (Xiphilinos), patriarch of Constantinople
 * July 24 – Berthold of Hanover, German apostle and bishop
 * August 13 – Hellicha of Wittelsbach, duchess of Bohemia
 * September 10 – Richard FitzNeal, bishop of London (b. 1130)
 * November 27
 * Abraham ben David, French rabbi (b. 1125)
 * Constance I, queen regent of Sicily (b. 1154)
 * November 29 – Al-Aziz Uthman, sultan of Egypt (b. 1171)
 * December 2 – Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, High King of Ireland
 * December 11 – Averroes, Arab judge and physician (b. 1126)
 * Abu Madyan, Andalusian mystic and Sufi master (b. 1126)
 * Alix of France, French princess and countess (approximate date)
 * Constantine II (de Martis), ruler of the Judicate of Logudoro
 * Donatus of Ripacandida, Italian monk and saint (b. 1179)
 * Dulce of Aragon (or Barcelona), queen of Portugal (b. 1160)
 * Nerses of Lambron, Armenian archbishop and writer (b. 1153)
 * Walter Fitz Robert, English nobleman and knight (b. 1124)
 * William of Newburgh, English historian and writer (b. 1136)
 * Yaroslav II Vsevolodovich, Kievan Grand Prince (b. 1139)

title: 1198


text:
1199

Year 1199 (MCXCIX) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * January 13 – A short-lived truce is declared, between the Kings Richard I (the Lionheart) and Philip II (Augustus). Two of Europe's most powerful rulers meet on the banks of the Seine River, while shouting terms to one another. With a peace secured, Richard is able to refocus on bringing internal order to the south of the Angevin Empire.
 * March 26 – Richard I besieges the unarmed castle of Châlus-Chabrol, and is shot in the left shoulder with a crossbow, by the French boy Pierre Basile. The war between the kingdoms of England and France has become so brutal, that Hugh of Lincoln is warned that "nothing now is safe, neither the city to dwell in nor the highway for travel".
 * April 6 – Richard I dies from gangrene, caused by his crossbow wound. His younger brother, John (Lackland), becomes King of England. Richard's jewels are left to his nephew, Otto IV, King of the Romans. Mercadier, a mercenary captain and Richard's second in command, has Pierre Basile flayed alive and hanged.
 * Roman Mstislavich (the Great), Grand Prince of Vladimir-Volhynia, unites his realm with its westerly neighbor Galicia (after the death of Vladimir II). He makes the Kingdom of Galicia-Volhynia more powerful than Kiev.
 * Summer – Philip II renews his war against England, supporting the rival claim to the English throne of John's 12-year-old nephew Arthur I, duke of Brittany.
 * Summer – After uncovering a plot against him, Emeric, King of Hungary defeats his brother Duke Andrew in a battle, forcing him into exile in Austria. Thereafter, border clashes occurs between Hungary and Austria.

Britain

 * May 26 – John returns to London and chooses people to help him to rule the kingdom. He appoints Archbishop Hubert Walter as his advisor and chancellor. Geoffrey Fitz Peter is chosen as Chief Justiciar and William (the Marshal) becomes Marshal of John's household. On May 27, John is crowned as king of England at Westminster Abbey.
 * Summer – King William the Lion of Scotland supports John's claim to the English throne, in exchange for ownership of the northern territories (including Northumberland and Cumberland).

Africa

 * January 23 – Caliph Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur dies at Marrakesh after a 15-year reign in which he has defeated the Castilian forces of King Alfonso VIII (the noble) (see 1195) and other Christian enemies in Al-Andalus. He is succeeded by his son Muhammad al-Nasir as ruler of the Almohad Caliphate (until 1213).

Japan

 * February 9 – Minamoto no Yoritomo, Japanese shogun, dies at Kamakura after a 7-year reign in which he has established the Kamakura Shogunate (see 1192). He is succeeded by his 16-year-old son Minamoto no Yoriie, his grandfather Hōjō Tokimasa proclaims himself regent for Yoriie (until 1202).

Religion

 * Summer – Pope Innocent III calls for a fourth Crusade at Rome. Due to the preaching of Fulk of Neuilly, an army is organized at a tournament held at Ecry-sur-Aisne by Theobald III, count of Champagne, on November 28.
 * St. Laurence's Church, Ludlow, in England is rebuilt.

Births

 * April 17 – Marie of Ponthieu, French noblewoman (d. 1250)
 * Aisha Al-Manoubya, Almohad female Sufi mystic (d. 1267)
 * Al-Mansur al-Hasan, Yemeni imam and politician (d. 1271)
 * Bohemond V, prince of Antioch (House of Poitiers) (d. 1252)
 * Ferdinand III (the Saint), king of Castile and León (d. 1252)
 * Guttorm of Norway (Sigurdsson), king of Norway (d. 1204)
 * Ibn al-Abbar, Andalusian biographer and historian (d. 1260)
 * Isobel of Huntingdon, daughter of David of Scotland (d. 1252)
 * Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu, Khwarezmid ruler (shah) (d. 1231)
 * Joan of Constantinople, Flemish noblewoman (d. 1244)
 * Sturla Sighvatsson, Icelandic chieftain (or goði) (d. 1238)
 * Thomas II, Flemish nobleman (House of Savoy) (d. 1259)

Deaths

 * January 23 – Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur, Almohad caliph (b. 1160)
 * February 9 – Minamoto no Yoritomo, Japanese shogun (b. 1147)
 * February 13 – Stefan Nemanja, Serbian Grand Prince (b. 1113)
 * March 17 – Jocelin of Glasgow (or Jocelyn), Scottish bishop
 * April 5 – Ashikaga Yoshikane, Japanese samurai and monk
 * April 6
 * Pierre Basile (or Bertran de Gurdun), French knight
 * Richard I (the Lionheart), king of England (b. 1157)
 * July 10 – Hugh de Roxburgh (or Hugo), Scottish bishop
 * August 20 – Matthew, Scottish churchman and bishop
 * September 4 – Joan of England, queen of Sicily (b. 1165)
 * October 9 – Bobo of San Teodoro, Italian cardinal-deacon
 * November 6 – Hatim ibn Ibrahim, Yemeni religious leader
 * November 25 – Albert III (the Rich), count of Habsburg
 * December 25 – Helena of Hungary, duchess of Austria
 * Alexios Komnenos, son of Andronikos I (Komnenos)
 * Azalais of Toulouse (or Adelaide), French noblewoman
 * Benedicta Ebbesdotter of Hvide, queen of Sweden (or 1200)
 * Date Tomomune, Japanese nobleman and samurai (b. 1129)
 * Michael the Syrian (the Great), Syriac patriarch (b. 1126)
 * Raymond IV (or Raimund), count and regent of Tripoli
 * Vladimir II Yaroslavich, Kievan prince (House of Rurik)

title: 1199


text:
1231

Year 1231 (MCCXXXI) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * Emperor Frederick II promulgates the Constitutions of Melfi (Liber Augustalis), a collection of laws for Sicily, as well as the Edict of Salerno, regulating the exercise of medicine and separating the professions of physician and apothecary, and requiring medical schools to practice dissection.
 * Reconquista:
 * Castillian forces under King Ferdinand III ("the Saint") re-conquer the city of Quesada.
 * Battle of Jerez: Ferdinand III defeats Emir Ibn Hud of the Taifa of Murcia.
 * Peter des Roches, Bishop of Winchester, negotiates a 3-year truce between England and France.

Britain

 * Spring – Hubert de Burgh becomes a powerful lord in the Welsh Marches, controlling the castles at Cardigan and Carmarthen. He begins to threaten the local Welsh leaders, Llywelyn the Great launches a campaign against Norman lordship in Wales.
 * August 13 – King Henry III orders the sheriffs of Hampshire, Dorsetshire and Wiltshire to give Simon de Montfort the possession of the lands of his father, Simon de Montfort the elder.
 * December – Henry III ends his Welsh campaign and makes peace with Llywelyn the Great.
 * The University of Cambridge is recognised by a writ of authority over its townspeople from Henry III.

Levant

 * Autumn – Frederick II appoints Marshal Richard Filangieri as his imperial legate, and sends an expeditionary army of mostly Lombards for the defense of Jerusalem. He gathers some 600 knights, 100 "sergeants-at-arms", 700 armed infantrymen, and 3,000 marines. The army is supported by 32 war-galleys.
 * War of the Lombards: Richard Filangieri sails for Beirut, where the town is handed over to him. He occupies Sidon and Tyre – while other Lombard forces appear before Acre. At Acre, Filangieri summons a meeting of the High Court and shows letters from Frederick II appointing him as ambassador (baili).

China

 * April 9 – A huge fire breaks out at night in the southeast of Hangzhou during the Song dynasty. Fighting the flames is difficult due to limited visibility. When the fires are extinguished, it is discovered that an entire district of the city (some 10,000 houses) has been consumed by the flames.

Mongol Empire

 * August – Ögedei Khan orders the invasion of Korea. A Mongol army crosses the Yalu River and quickly secures the surrender of the border town of Uiju. The Mongols are joined by Hong Pok-wŏn, a Goryeo general, who takes their side with his subordinates numbering some 1500 families.
 * Siege of Kuju: Mongol forces besiege the city of Kuju. They deploy assault teams who man siege towers and scale ladders. Despite the fact the Goryeo army is heavily outnumbered, the garrison refuses to surrender.

Religion

 * April 13 – Pope Gregory IX issues Parens scientiarum. The bull assures the independence and self-governance of the University of Paris.

Births

 * March 17 – Shijō (Mitsuhito), emperor of Japan (d. 1242)
 * Guo Shoujing, Chinese astronomer and engineer (d. 1316)
 * James Salomoni, Italian Dominican priest and prior (d. 1314)
 * John de Warenne, English nobleman and knight (d. 1304)
 * John of Burgundy, French nobleman and knight (d. 1268)
 * Philip of Castile, Spanish prince and archbishop (d. 1274)
 * Roger Mortimer, English nobleman and knight (d. 1282)
 * Tommaso degli Stefani, Italian painter and artist (d. 1310)
 * Yolanda of Vianden, Luxembourgian prioress (d. 1283)

Deaths

 * April 6 – William Marshal, English nobleman (b. 1190)
 * May 7 – Beatrice II, French countess palatine (b. 1193)
 * June 13 – Anthony of Padua, Portuguese priest (b. 1195)
 * July 2 – Henry I, German nobleman (House of Zähringen)
 * August 3 – Richard le Grant, archbishop of Canterbury
 * August 28 – Eleanor of Portugal, queen consort of Denmark
 * September – Ibn Muti al-Zawawi, Almohad jurist, philologian and writer
 * September 3 – William II, French nobleman (b. 1196)
 * September 15 – Louis I, German nobleman (b. 1173)
 * November 3 – Władysław III, Polish nobleman (b. 1167)
 * November 6 – Tsuchimikado, emperor of Japan (b. 1196)
 * November 9 – Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi, Abbasid physician (b. 1162)
 * November 17 – Elizabeth, Hungarian princess (b. 1207)
 * November 28 – Valdemar the Young, king of Denmark
 * December 7 – Richardis, German noblewoman (b. 1173)
 * December 11 – Ida of Nivelles, Flemish nun and mystic
 * December 25 – Folquet de Marselha, French bishop
 * Abu Said al-Baji, Almohad leader and scholar (b. 1156)
 * Aurembiaix, Spanish countess (House of Urgell) (b. 1196)
 * Dúinnín Ó Maolconaire, Irish historian, poet and writer
 * Elisabeth of Brandenburg, Landgravine of Thuringia, German noblewoman (b. 1206)
 * Gonzalo Rodríguez Girón, Spanish nobleman (b. 1160)
 * Ibn al-Qattan, Almohad imam, scholar and intellectual
 * Jalal al-Din Mangburni, ruler of the Khwarazmian Empire
 * Matthew FitzHerbert, English nobleman and high sheriff
 * Meinhard II, Count of Gorizia ("the Elder"), German nobleman and knight
 * William of Auxerre, French archdeacon and theologian
 * Zhao Rukuo, Chinese historian and politician (b. 1170)

title: 1231


text:
1230

Year 1230 (MCCXXX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Byzantine Empire

 * March 9 – Battle of Klokotnitsa: Byzantine forces under Theodore Komnenos (Doukas) invade Bulgaria, breaking the peace treaty with Tsar Ivan Asen II. Theodore gathers a large army, including western mercenaries. The two armies meet near the village of Klokotnitsa. Ivan applies clever tactics and manages to surround the Byzantines. They are completely defeated, only a small force under Theodore's brother Manuel Doukas manages to escape the battlefield. Theodore is taken prisoner and is blinded. In the aftermath, Ivan quickly extends its control over most of Theodore's domains in Thrace, Macedonia and Albania. The Latin Duchy of Philippopolis and the independent principality of Alexius Slav are also captured and annexed into Bulgaria.

Europe

 * King Alfonso IX defeats Ibn Hud al-Yamani (known as Almogàver by the Christians). This success opens the road to Badajoz to the Leonese troops. The Portuguese king Sancho II continues his offensive southward and takes Beja, Juromenha, Serpa and Moura.
 * August – Treaty of Ceprano: Emperor Frederick II returns from the Sixth Crusade and signs a peace agreement with Pope Gregory IX at Ceprano. He agrees not to violate any territories held by the Papal States in return for Frederick's concessions in Sicily.
 * Frederick II bestows on the Teutonic Order a special privilege for the conquest of Prussia, including Chełmno Land, with papal sovereignty. He allows the Teutonic Knights to forcibly convert the Prussians to Christianity.
 * September 24 – Alfonso IX dies after a 42-year reign and is succeeded by his son Ferdinand III. He receives the Kingdom of León, in return for compensation in cash and lands for his half-sisters Sancha and Dulce.
 * Siege of Galway: Norman forces under Richard Mór de Burgh invade Connacht and desolate a large portion of the country. He besieges Galway, but is forced to retreat after a week-long inconclusive battle.

England

 * April 30 – King Henry III embarks from Portsmouth with a large expeditionary force. On May 2, he arrives at Guernsey, and the next day the English army lands at Saint-Malo, where Peter I (or de Dreux), duke of Brittany, meets Henry to pay him homage. During the months, the English forces march through the County of Anjou, taking the castle of Mirebeau in late July.
 * October 27 – Henry III signs a truce with King Louis IX (the Saint) and returns to Portsmouth. He leaves a small force under Peter I and Ranulf de Blondeville, to act against the French in Brittany and Normandy.

Middle East

 * Battle of Yassıçemen: A Seljuk-Ayyubid coalition (some 40,000 men) defeats the Khwarazmians under Sultan Jalal al-Din Mangburni at Erzincan on the Upper-Euphrates.

Literature

 * The Carmina Burana poetry and song collection is created (approximate date).

Births

 * Anna of Hohenstaufen, empress of Nicaea (d. 1307)
 * Adelaide of Holland, Dutch countess and regent (d. 1284)
 * Bentivenga da Bentivengi, Italian cardinal (d. 1289)
 * Boniface VIII, pope of the Catholic Church (d. 1303)
 * Edmund de Lacy, English nobleman and knight (d. 1258)
 * Elisabeth of Brunswick, German queen consort (d. 1266)
 * Gottfried Hagen, German cleric and writer (d. 1299)
 * Guillaume de Beaujeu, French Grand Master (d. 1291)
 * Guillaume Durand, French bishop and writer (d. 1296)
 * Henry of Castile (the Senator), Spanish prince (d. 1303)
 * Hermann of Buxhoeveden, German bishop (d. 1285)
 * Hugh Aycelin, French cardinal and theologian (d. 1297)
 * Hu Sanxing (or Shenzhi), Chinese historian (d. 1302)
 * Jacobus de Voragine, Italian archbishop (d. 1298)
 * Leonardo Patrasso, Italian cardinal-bishop (d. 1311)
 * Margaret Sambiria, Danish queen consort (d. 1282)
 * Masuccio Primo, Italian architect and sculptor (d. 1306)
 * Maud de Lacy, Norman-Irish noblewoman (d. 1304)
 * Odo (or Eudes), French nobleman and knight (d. 1266)
 * Peter Quinel, English archdeacon and bishop (d. 1291)
 * Squarcino Borri, Italian mercenary leader (d. 1277)
 * Yaroslav III of Tver, Kievan Grand Prince (d. 1271)

Deaths

 * January 30 – Pelagio Galvani, Leonese cardinal (b. 1165)
 * February 1 – Matsudono Motofusa, Japanese nobleman
 * May 2 – William de Braose, English nobleman and knight
 * May 13 – Casimir I of Opole, Polish nobleman and knight
 * July 12 – Margaret of Blois, French noblewoman (b. 1170)
 * July 19 –Theobald le Botiller, Norman nobleman (b. 1200)
 * July 25 – Rudolph van Coevorden, Dutch nobleman (b. 1192)
 * July 28 – Leopold VI, German nobleman and knight (b. 1176)
 * July 29 – Hōjō Tokiuji, Japanese nobleman and spy (b. 1203)
 * August 24 – Geoffrey de Saye, English nobleman (b. 1155)
 * September 9 – Siegfried II, archbishop of Mainz (b. 1165)
 * September 24 – Alfonso IX, king of León and Galicia (b. 1171)
 * October 25 – Gilbert de Clare, English nobleman (b. 1180)
 * November 20 – Nicola de la Haye, English noblewoman
 * November 24 – Matthew II, French nobleman and knight
 * December 15 – Ottokar I of Bohemia, German nobleman
 * December 23 – Berengaria of Navarre, queen of England
 * Al-Dakhwar, Ayyubid physician and medical officer (b. 1170)
 * Alfonso Téllez de Meneses (the Old), Spanish nobleman
 * Beatrice of Viennois, French noblewoman (b. 1160)
 * Demetrius of Montferrat, king of Thessalonica (b. 1205)
 * Guérin de Montaigu, French nobleman and Grand Master
 * Hugues IV de Châteauneuf, French nobleman (b. 1185)
 * Ibn Hammad, Hammadid historian and writer (b. 1153)
 * Robert de Gresle, English landowner and knight (b. 1174)
 * Samuel ibn Tibbon, French rabbi, doctor and philosopher
 * Urraca López de Haro, queen of León (approximate date)

title: 1230


text:
1233

Year 1233 (MCCXXXIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * War of the Lombards: Lombard forces at Kyrenia surrender to John of Beirut, after a 10-month siege. The defenders, with their personal belongings, are allowed to retire to Tyre. Captured prisoners are exchanged for those held by Richard Filangieri, commander of the Lombards, at Tyre. Cyprus is wholly restored under the rule of the 16-year-old King Henry I ("the Fat"). His vassals are rewarded, and loans that they have made are repaid.
 * August 20 – Oath of Bereg: King Andrew II of Hungary vows to the Holy See that he will not employ Jews and Muslims to administer royal revenues, which causes diplomatic complaints and ecclesiastical censures.
 * Winter – Reconquista: King Ferdinand III of Castile ("the Saint") conquers the cities of Trujillo and Úbeda. The Castilian army besieges the city of Peniscola. Ferdinand forces Ibn Hud, ruler of the Taifa of Zaragoza, to sign a truce.

England

 * August – Richard Marshal, 3rd Earl of Pembroke, signs an alliance with Llywelyn the Great, to join forces to revolt against King Henry III. Richard is faced by demands from royal bailiffs in September – where the garrison of Usk Castle is forced to surrender.
 * November – Henry III's army camped at Grosmont Castle is attacked in the night, by a force of Welsh and English rebels. Several of Henry's supporters are captured, and the castle is returned to Hubert de Burgh, one of the rebels.

Mongol Empire

 * May 29 – Mongol–Jin War: The Mongol army led by Ögedei Khan captures Kaifeng, capital of the Jin dynasty ('Great Jin'), after the 13-month Mongol siege of Kaifeng. The Mongols plunder the city, while Emperor Aizong of Jin flees for the town of Caizhou. Meanwhile, Ögedei departs and leaves the final conquest to his favoured general, Subutai.
 * December – Siege of Caizhou: The Mongols under Ögedei Khan besiege Caizhou and ally themselves with the Chinese Song dynasty to eliminate the Jin Dynasty.

Cities and Towns

 * Gendt receives its city rights from Otto II ("the Lame"), count of Guelders (modern Netherlands).

Religion

 * Pope Gregory IX establishes the Papal Inquisition, to regularize the persecution of heresy.

Births

 * June/July – Ibn Manzur, Arab lexicographer and writer (d. 1312)
 * August 15 – Philip Benizi de Damiani, Italian religious leader (d. 1285)
 * October – Al-Nawawi, Syrian scholar, jurist and writer (d. 1277)
 * Adelaide of Burgundy, duchess of Brabant (d. 1273)
 * Choe Ui, Korean military leader and dictator (d. 1258)
 * Ibn al-Quff, Ayyubid physician and surgeon (d. 1286)
 * Sancho of Castile, archbishop of Toledo (d. 1261)

Deaths

 * January 6 – Matilda of Chester, Countess of Huntingdon (or Maud), English noblewoman (b. 1171)
 * January 18 – Yang (or Gongsheng), Chinese empress (b. 1162)
 * February 12 – Ermengarde de Beaumont, queen of Scotland
 * March 1 – Thomas I (or Tommaso), count of Savoy (b. 1178)
 * May – Simon of Joinville, French nobleman and knight (b. 1175)
 * June – Yolanda de Courtenay, queen consort of Hungary
 * July 8 – Konoe Motomichi, Japanese nobleman (b. 1160)
 * July 26 – Wilbrand of Oldenburg, prince-bishop of Utrecht
 * July 27 – Ferdinand (or Ferrand), count of Flanders (b. 1188)
 * July 29 – Savari de Mauléon, French nobleman (b. 1181)
 * July 30 – Konrad von Marburg, German priest (b. 1180)
 * October 8 – Ugo Canefri, Italian health worker (b. 1148)
 * October 22 – Fujiwara no Shunshi, Japanese empress consort (b. 1209)
 * November 22 – Helena, duchess of Brunswick-Lüneburg
 * November 27 – Shi Miyuan, Chinese politician (b. 1164)
 * Ibn al-Athir, Seljuk historian and biographer (b. 1160)
 * Bertran de Born lo Filhs, French troubadour (b. 1179)
 * Bohemond IV ("the One-Eyed"), prince of Antioch (b. 1175)
 * Gökböri ("Blue-Wolf"), Ayyubid general and ruler (b. 1154)
 * Guillén Pérez de Guzmán, Spanish nobleman (b. 1180)
 * John Apokaukos, Byzantine bishop and theologian
 * Mathilde of Angoulême, French noblewoman (b. 1181)
 * Sayf al-Din al-Amidi, Ayyubid scholar and jurist (b. 1156)
 * William Comyn, Scoto-Norman nobleman (b. 1163)

title: 1233


text:
1235

Year 1235 (MCCXXXV) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Events

 * Connacht in Ireland is finally conquered by the Hiberno-Norman Richard Mór de Burgh; Felim Ua Conchobair is expelled.
 * A general inquisition begins in France.
 * Siege of Constantinople: The Byzantine emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes and the Bulgarian tsar Ivan Asen II besiege Constantinople in an attempt to take it from its Latin rulers, John of Brienne and Baldwin II. Angelo Sanudo successfully negotiates a two-year truce.
 * Elizabeth of Hungary (d. 1231) is canonized by Pope Gregory IX.
 * A Chinese text of this year records that Hangzhou City, the capital of the Song dynasty, has various social clubs that include a West Lake Poetry Club, the Buddhist Tea Society, the Physical Fitness Club, the Anglers' Club, the Occult Club, the Young Girls' Chorus, the Exotic Foods Club, the Plants and Fruits Club, the Antique Collectors' Club, the Horse-Lovers' Club, and the Refined Music Society.
 * Probable date – Lancaster Royal Grammar School is founded in the north of England.
 * Approximate date – Battle of Kirina: Mandinka prince Sundiata Keita defeats Sosso king Soumaoro Kanté, beginning the Mali Empire. By tradition, the Manden Charter, a constitution, is proclaimed in Kouroukan Fouga.

Births

 * November 2 – Henry of Almain, King of the Romans (d. 1271)
 * probable
 * Pope Boniface VIII (approximate date; d. 1303)
 * Ramon Llull, Catalan writer and philosopher (d. 1315)
 * Arnold of Villanova, Spanish alchemist and physician (d. 1311)
 * Qian Xuan, Chinese painter (d. 1305)

Deaths

 * September 5 – Henry I, Duke of Brabant (b. 1165)
 * September 21 – King Andrew II of Hungary (b. 1175)
 * November 5 – Elisabeth of Swabia, queen consort of Castile and León (b. 1205)
 * date unknown
 * Andronikos I Gidos, Emperor of Trebizond
 * Ibn al-Qabisi, Iraqi linguist (b. 1163)
 * Rabbi David Kimhi, French Biblical commentator (b. 1160)

title: 1235


text:
1236

Year 1236 (MCCXXXVI) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Byzantine Empire

 * Spring – A fleet consisting of ships from the republics of Venice, Genoa and Pisa arrive at Constantinople. It is headed by Geoffrey II of Villehardouin, ruler of Achaea, who brings 100 of his own knights, 300 cross-bowman, and 500 archers. Geoffrey, formally a vassal of Emperor John I of Constantinople, breaks the blockade of the city, sinks 15 Byzantine ships and enters the Golden Horn. A treaty is signed for two years after the intervention of Angelo Sanudo, duke of Archipelago.

Europe

 * June 20 – Treaty of Kremmen: Duke Wartislaw III recognizes the seignory of Henry Borwin III, lord of Rostock, after his successful expedition against Wartislaw, in which he has conquered Circipania, including the cities of Gnoien and Kalen. Meanwhile, Swietopelk II, Duke of Pomerania ("the Great") conquers Schlawe and Stolp, the eastern part of Pomerania. To ease the tensions with Brandenburg, Wartislaw signs the Kremmen agreement.
 * June – The 16-year-old Alexander Nevsky is elected by the Novgorodians as prince (knyaz) of Novgorod, beseeching the young Kievan noble to take charge of the city's military affairs.
 * June 29 – Siege of Córdoba: Castilian forces under King Ferdinand III ("the Saint") capture Muslim Córdoba from Emir Ibn Hud, as part of the Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula.
 * July – At a diet (princely convention) in Piacenza, Emperor Frederick II proclaims his wish to recover all Italy for the Holy Roman Empire.
 * September 22 – Battle of Saule: The Lithuanians and Semigallians defeat the Livonian Brothers of the Sword, at Šiauliai in Lithuania.

England

 * January 14 – King Henry III marries the 14-year-old Eleanor of Provence, one of the four daughters of Raimond Berenguer, count of Provence. The ceremony takes place at Canterbury Cathedral, while Simon de Montfort, as Lord High Steward, takes care of the banquet and kitchen arrangements. Eleanor is crowned queen at Westminster Abbey shortly afterward.
 * A tournament at Tickhill turns into a battle between northerners and southerners, but peace is restored by papal legate Otto of Tonengo.

Mongol Empire

 * The Mongols under Batu Khan, eldest of Jochi, sweep across Central Asia. They settle in the Russian steppe, curtailing the power of the Kievan Rus', extracting tribute from their neighbors, and disrupting their relationship with the Byzantine Empire.
 * Autumn – Siege of Bilär: The Mongols under Batu Khan capture the capital city of Bilär after a siege that lasts for 45 days. The Volga Bulgars are defeated within the year, as are the Kipchaks and Alans.
 * Mongol–Song War: The Mongols under Ögedei Khan penetrate deep into the Southern Song. The important city of Xiangyang, gateway to the Yangtze plain, capitulates to the Mongols.

Asia

 * October 10 – Razia Sultana, daughter of Mamluk Sultan Shamsuddin Iltutmish, becomes the first female Muslim ruler of the Indian subcontinent, deposing her half-brother, Ruknuddin Firuz, as sultan of the Delhi Sultanate.
 * King Kalinga Magha ("the Tyrant") is expelled from Polonnaruwa to Jaffna, capital of the Jaffna Kingdom (located in modern Sri Lanka).

Africa

 * Kouroukan Fouga, the constitution of the Mali Empire, is created by an assembly of nobles of the Mandinka clan.

Literature

 * The Goryeo court in Korea orders the preparation of another set of woodblocks for printing the Buddhist Tripiṭaka ("Triple Basket") – which is intended both to gain protection against the Mongol invaders and to replace the earlier 11th century set that has been destroyed by the Mongols (see 1232).

Religion

 * Pope Gregory IX condemns the links that both the Knights Templer and Knights Hospitaller have with the Assassin fighters in the Middle East. He issues a bull (a formal papal proclamation) preventing further contact with the Assassins.
 * May 6 – Roger of Wendover, English Benedictine monk and chronicler, dies at St Albans Abbey. His chronicle is continued by Matthew Paris.

Births

 * January 1 – Baldwin de Redvers, English nobleman (d. 1262)
 * June 6 – Wen Tianxiang, Chinese poet and politician (d. 1283)
 * June 8 – Violant of Aragon, queen consort of Castile (d. 1301)
 * October – Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, Persian polymath and poet (d. 1311)
 * after October – Alice de Lusignan (or Angoulême), French-born English countess (d. 1290)
 * November 8 – Lu Xiufu, Chinese general and politician (d. 1279)
 * Albert I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg ("the Great"), German nobleman and regent (d. 1279)
 * Bayan of the Baarin (or Boyan), Mongol general (d. 1295)
 * Elizabeth of Hungary, duchess consort of Bavaria (d. 1271)
 * Henry II of Rodez, French nobleman and troubadour (d. 1304)
 * Olivier II de Clisson, Breton nobleman and knight (d. 1307)
 * Stephen the Posthumous, Hungarian pretender (d. 1271)

Deaths

 * January 14 – Sava ("the Enlightener"), Serbian archbishop
 * March 15 – Mu'in al-Din Chishti, Persian preacher (b. 1143)
 * March 28 – Conon of Naso, Italian priest and abbot (b. 1139)
 * April 11 – Walter II de Beauchamp, English sheriff (b. 1192)
 * May 1 – William d'Aubigny (or d'Albini), English nobleman
 * May 6 – Roger of Wendover, English monk and chronicler
 * May 7 – Agnellus of Pisa, Italian Franciscan friar (b. 1195)
 * June 10 – Diana degli Andalò, Italian nun and saint (b. 1201)
 * July 18 – Valdemar of Denmark, Danish bishop and statesman (b. 1158)
 * July 29 – Ingeborg of Denmark, queen consort of France (b. 1174)
 * August 16 – Thomas Blunville, English priest and bishop
 * August 17 – William de Blois, English bishop and sheriff
 * September 12 – Thomas of Marlborough, English abbot
 * September 22 – Volkwin von Naumburg, German knight
 * November 15 – Lope Díaz II, Castilian nobleman (b. 1170)
 * November 26 – Al-Aziz Muhammad, Ayyubid ruler (b. 1213)
 * Barisone III of Torres, Sardinian judge of Logudoro (b. 1221)
 * Dirk I van Brederode, Dutch nobleman and knight (b. 1180)
 * Fakhr-i Mudabbir, Ghaznavid historian and writer (b. 1157)
 * Gautier de Coincy, French abbot and troubadour (b. 1177)
 * John of Ibelin, constable and regent of Jerusalem (b. 1179)
 * Philip d'Aubigny, French nobleman and chancellor (b. 1166)
 * Saifuddin Aibak, Mamluk Sultanate governor and politician

title: 1236


text:
1237

Year 1237 (MCCXXXVII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * Summer – Emperor Frederick II assembles an expeditionary force (some 15,000 men) to crush the rebellious Lombard League. He crosses the Alps to Verona – where he is joined by Lord Ezzelino III da Romano, including troops from Brescia, Vicenza, Padua and Treviso. Frederick relies on his allies for support and in doing so, he provokes the opposition of earlier supporters, such as the House of Este, which now sides with the Lombards.
 * August 15 – Battle of the Puig: Aragonese forces under Bernat Guillem de Montpeller defeat the Muslim army (some 12,000 men) of the Taifa of Valencia at El Puig. The Almohad forces are routed, and many of the soldiers are slain in the action. Zayyan ibn Mardanish, Almohad ruler and governor of Valencia, is forced to go into exile to Tunisia, while offering the surrender of all castles from the Turia River to Tortosa and Teruel.
 * November 27 – Battle of Cortenuova: Frederick II defeats the forces of the Lombard League; about 5,000 Lombards are captured. Frederick makes a triumphal entry into the allied city of Cremona in the manner of an ancient Roman emperor, with the captured carroccio (later sent to the commune of Rome), and an elephant. During the winter campaign, Frederick captures the Piedmontese cities of Lodi, Novara, Vercelli, Chieri, and Savona.
 * At the urging of King Louis IX of France, Thomas II marries Joanna, widow of Ferdinand of Flanders, and daughter of the late Latin Emperor Baldwin I. Thomas becomes count of Flanders (or Jure uxoris).
 * Livonian Crusade: The Livonian Brothers of the Sword are absorbed into the Teutonic Order, as the autonomous Livonian Order. An Estonian rebellion begins on Saaremaa Island (located in the Baltic Sea).

England

 * September 25 – Treaty of York: King Henry III signs an agreement with Alexander II of Scotland at York. Alexander subjects to Henry's sovereignty and renounces the Scottish claims to Northumberland, Westmorland and Cumberland. This establishes the Anglo-Scottish border in a form with the future status of several feudal properties and marks the end of Scotland's attempts to extend its frontier southward.

Mongol Empire

 * Autumn – Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus': The Mongol army commanded by Batu Khan and Subutai, invades the Principality of Ryazan (with representatives of all four khanates leading some 100,000 Mongol, Turks and Persian forces into Europe). In December, Batu Khan sends envoys to the Rus' court of Grand Prince Yuri Igorevich and demands the submission of the capital Ryazan.
 * Battle of Voronezh River: Grand Prince Yuri II of Vladimir supported by border princes of Ryazan, Murom, and Pronsk gathers his forces and make a stand on the Voronezh River, waiting for reinforcements from Vladimir. The Mongols under Batu Khan overrun the Rus' forces, who are scattered. Yuri retreats to Ryazan, while some troops withdraw to Kolomna and join the army of Vladimir-Suzdal.
 * December 16–21 – Siege of Ryazan: The Mongols under Batu Khan lay siege to Ryazan. The townspeople repel the first Mongol attacks but after 5 days the city walls are breached by Chinese catapults. On December 21, the Mongols storm the walls and plunder the capital, killing Yuri Igorevich and all inhabitants. Yuri II of Vladimir stands by and does nothing to intervene while Ryazan burns.
 * December – Siege of Kolomna: Rus' forces under Yuri II of Vladimir are besieged and annihilated at Kolomna by the Mongols. Yuri barely escapes to Yaroslavl. The defenceless capital of Vladimir is taken after just 2 days. Yuri's wife Agatha (sister of Michael of Chernigov) and all his family die in Vladimir when a church where they have sought refuge from the fire collapses.

Levant

 * Spring – Al-Ashraf Musa, Ayyubid ruler of Damascus, assembles his allies and secures his active support of Kayqubad I, Sejuk ruler of the Sultanate of Rum. A civil war seems inevitable when Kayqubad is poisoned during a feast at Kayseri, on May 31. Meanwhile, the Seljuks strengthen the fortresses in the eastern provinces against the Mongols.
 * August 27 – Al-Ashraf becomes dangerously ill and dies after an 8-year reign. He is succeeded by his brother As-Salih Ismail – who defends Damascus against his elder brother Al-Kamil, Ayyubid ruler of Egypt. In October, Ismail has the suburbs burnt to prevent the Egyptian forces from shelter.

Cities and Towns
In England the central tower of Lincoln Cathedral collapses.
 * Cölln, twin city of the later built Alt-Berlin, is founded on the Fischerinsel. The town becomes a trade center, which is linked with Magdeburg and Frankfurt an der Oder.
 * Elbląg is founded by the Teutonic Order under Grand Master Hermann von Balk. He constructs a fortified stronghold on the banks of the Elbląg River (modern Poland).

Births

 * July 7 – Ibn Abd al-Malik, Almohad historian (d. 1303)
 * Agnes of Dampierre, French noblewoman (d. 1288)
 * Bohemond VI (the Fair), prince of Antioch (d. 1275)
 * Isabel de Redvers, English noblewoman (d. 1293)
 * John II, margrave of Brandenburg-Stendal (d. 1281)
 * Ladislaus of Salzburg, German archbishop (d. 1270)
 * Munio of Zamora, Spanish friar and bishop (d. 1300)

Deaths

 * February 2 – Joan (Lady of Wales), English princess
 * March 14 – Guigues VI of Viennois, count of Albon (b. 1184)
 * March 16 – Guðmundur Arason, Icelandic bishop (b. 1161)
 * March 27 – John of Brienne (or John I), king of Jerusalem
 * April 12
 * Berengaria of León, Latin empress consort (b. 1204)
 * Philip II (de Méréville), French priest and bishop
 * April 15 – Richard Poore, English prelate and bishop
 * May 5 – Fujiwara no Ietaka, Japanese waka poet (b. 1158)
 * May 31 – Kayqubad I, Seljuk ruler of the Sultanate of Rum
 * June 6 – John of Scotland, Scottish nobleman (b. 1207)
 * July 29 – Ingeborg of Denmark, queen of France (b. 1174)
 * August 27 – Al-Ashraf Musa, Ayyubid ruler of Damascus
 * August 31 – Huijong, Korean ruler of Goryeo (b. 1181)
 * December 21 – Yuri Igorevich, Grand Prince of Ryazan
 * Anna Maria, empress of the Bulgarian Empire (b. 1204)
 * Emo of Friesland, Dutch scholar, abbot and writer (b. 1175)
 * John Halgren of Abbeville, French philosopher and writer
 * Jordan of Saxony, German preacher and religious leader
 * Julius I (the Elder), Hungarian nobleman and landowner
 * Kamal al-Din Isfahani, Persian poet and writer (b. 1173)
 * Shunten (or Shunten-Ō), ruler of Okinawa Island (b. 1166)
 * Wei Liaoweng, Chinese politician and philosopher (b. 1178)

title: 1237


text:
1239

Year 1239 (MCCXXXIX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * Summer – A German expeditionary force under Emperor Frederick II invades the Romagna and Tuscany, hoping to capture Rome. He appoints his 21-year-old son, Enzo of Sardinia, as imperial vicar general for Northern Italy. Frederick also threatens with war against Venice, who has sent ships to blockade the harbors on Sicily. In order to finance his growing need for arms, he institutes an administrative reorganization of the Holy Roman Empire (among others, the formation of 10 vice regencies in Italy).
 * Autumn – King Béla IV allows some 40,000 Cumans, pagan nomads fleeing the Mongols, to settle in Hungary between the rivers Danube and Theiss, after their leader, Köten, has promised to convert to Christianity.
 * November – Pope Gregory IX grants the status of Crusade to King Ferdinand III (the Saint), who leads a successful campaign against the Almohads in Murcia.
 * King Louis IX (the Saint) holds a parlement (or "court of law") at Paris, for the first time recorded in Ancien Régime France.

England

 * June 17 or June 18 – Edward I (Longshanks), first son born to King Henry III and Queen Eleanor of Provence, is born at the Palace of Westminster. Henry names him after Edward the Confessor and chooses Simon de Montfort as his godfather.

Levant

 * September 1 – Barons' Crusade: A Crusader force (some 1,500 knights) under King Theobald I of Navarre arrives at Acre. At a council of local barons – most prominently: Walter of Brienne, Odo of Montbéliard, Balian of Beirut, John of Arsuf, and Balian of Sidon, plans are made to prepare an expedition against the Ayyubids in Egypt. Later, Theobald is also joined by some Crusaders from Cyprus.
 * November 2 – A expeditionary force (some 4,000 knights) under Theobald I sets out from Acre for the Egyptian frontier, detachments from the military orders and several local barons accompany the Crusaders. While marching to Jaffa, a Crusader column led by Peter of Brittany and his lieutenant Raoul de Soissons with two hundred knights, lays an ambush and attacks a rich Muslim caravan.
 * November 12 – Sultan as-Salih Ayyub sends an Ayyubid army to Gaza to protect the Egyptian border. At nightfall, Henry of Bar, jealous of the successful ambush of Peter of Brittany, decides to march out towards Gaza with a Crusader force (some 500 knights and 1,000 soldiers). Although warned by Theobald I, Henry orders to set up camp in a flat terrain surrounded by sand dunes near Gaza.
 * November 13 – Battle of Gaza: The Crusader army led by Henry of Bar is defeated by the Egyptians near Gaza. More than a thousand men are slaughtered, including Henry himself. Six hundred more are captured and carried off to Egypt. Among them are Amaury VI de Montfort and Philippe de Nanteuil – who, in the dungeons of Cairo, writes a Crusade song about the failure of the expedition.
 * December 7 – Ayyubid forces under An-Nasir Dawud march on Jerusalem, which is largely undefended. The garrison of the city surrenders to Dawud, after accepting his offer for a safe-conduct to Acre. Dawud destroys Jerusalem's fortifications, including the Tower of David. Meanwhile, Theobald I (losing many men underway) moves with the remnants of the Crusader army northward to Acre.

Mongol Empire

 * The Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus': The Mongols under Batu Khan continue their campaign across the Pontic Steppe. After devastating the Crimea and campaigning against the Circassians in the Caucasus, they turn towards the Kievan Rus'. In March, Pereyaslavl, capital of the Principality of Pereyaslavl, is sacked by the Mongols.
 * October 18 – Sack of Chernigov: The Mongols led by Batu Khan attack Chernigov, the garrison rallied outside the walls to face the Mongols in a pitched battle. Prince Mstislav III Glebovich comes to help with his troops, they are slaughtered by Mongol catapults. The city is pillaged as are the towns in the surrounding countryside.

Religion

 * March 20 – Gregory IX renews the excommunication of Frederick II, while he is at his court in Padua. Frederick responds by expelling the Franciscans and Dominicans from Lombardy.

Births

 * June 17 or June 18 – Edward I (Longshanks), king of England (d. 1307)
 * December 17 – Kujō Yoritsugu, Japanese ruler (shogun) (d. 1256)
 * Álvaro (the Castilian), Spanish nobleman and knight (d. 1268)
 * Balian of Arsuf, Cypriot nobleman (House of Ibelin) (d. 1277)
 * Constance of Aragon, Spanish princess (infanta) (d. 1269)
 * John II of Brittany, French nobleman and knight (d. 1305)
 * Robert de Ferrers, English nobleman and knight (d. 1279)
 * Stephen V, king of Hungary (House of Árpád) (d. 1272)
 * Thomas I of Saluzzo, Italian nobleman and knight (d. 1296)

Deaths

 * February 3 – Kujō Ninshi, Japanese empress consort (b. 1173)
 * March 3 – Vladimir IV (Rurikovich), Kievan Grand Prince (b. 1187)
 * March 20 – Hermann von Salza, German Grand Master (b. 1165)
 * March 28 – Go-Toba (or Toba II), emperor of Japan (b. 1180)
 * April 7 – William I de Cantilupe, Norman nobleman (b. 1159)
 * June 5 – Władysław Odonic (the Spitter), Polish nobleman
 * September 21 – Simon of Dammartin, French nobleman
 * November 13 – Henry II of Bar, French nobleman (b. 1190)
 * December 13 – Albert IV (the Wise), German nobleman
 * December 21
 * Henry de Turberville, English nobleman and knight
 * Richard Wilton, English scholastic philosopher
 * Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, Andalusian pharmacist (b. 1166)
 * Aimery III of Narbonne (or Aimeric), French nobleman
 * Ibn al-Khabbaza, Moroccan historian, poet and writer
 * Ibn al-Mustawfi, Ayyubid governor and historian (b. 1169)
 * Muhammad bin Hasan al-Baghdadi, Arab cuisine writer
 * Robert of Courtenay, French nobleman and knight (b. 1168)
 * Thomas of Capua, Italian prelate, cardinal and diplomat

title: 1239


text:
1131

Year 1131 (MCXXXI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Levant

 * August 21 – King Baldwin II falls seriously ill, after his return from Antioch. He is moved to the patriarch's residence near the Holy Sepulchre, where he bequeaths the kingdom to his daughter Melisende, her husband Fulk and their infant son, Baldwin. He takes monastic vows, and dies soon after. Baldwin is buried in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, at Jerusalem.
 * September 14 – Melisende succeeds her father Baldwin II to the throne, and reigns jointly with Fulk, as King and Queen of Jerusalem. Their coronation, in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, is celebrated with festivities.

Europe

 * Ramon Berenguer III (the Great), count of Barcelona, dies after a 34-year reign. He leaves most of his Catalonian territories to his elder son Ramon Berenguer IV, who continues the fight against the Almoravid Muslims. His younger son Berenguer Ramon inherits Provence (Southern France) and will reign as Ramon I (until 1144).
 * The Knights Templars appear in the North-East of Spain and are receiving privileges from King Alfonso I (the Battler). The Templars support him to regain land from the Almoravids. Alfonso grants them exemption of tax on a fifth of the wealth taken from the Muslims. The Templars found their first stronghold in Aragon.
 * October 13 – The 15-year-old Philip, eldest son of King Louis VI (the Fat) of France, dies when his horse trips over a black pig that darts out of a dung heap unexpectedly at a market in Paris.

Religion

 * May 9 – Tintern Abbey is founded in Wales by Cistercian monks in the Wye Valley.
 * Construction begins on the Beisi Pagoda in Jiangsu Province (approximate date).
 * The Council of Rheims is held by several French bishops and many clergy.

Births

 * January 14 – Valdemar I (the Great), king of Denmark (d. 1182)
 * November 8 – Myeongjong, Korean king of Goryeo (d. 1202)
 * Eudoxia of Kiev, high duchess of Poland (approximate date)
 * Henry of Sandomierz, Polish nobleman (approximate date)
 * Fujiwara no Teishi, Japanese noblewoman (d. 1176)
 * Ladislaus II, king of Hungary and Croatia (d. 1163)
 * Nakayama Tadachika, Japanese nobleman (d. 1195)

Deaths

 * January 7 – Canute Lavard, duke of Schleswig (b. 1096)
 * April 30 – Adjutor, French knight and saint
 * August 21 – Baldwin II, king of Jerusalem
 * August 30 – Hervey le Breton, English bishop
 * October 5 – Frederick I, German archbishop
 * October 13 – Philip, co-king of France (b. 1116)
 * October 24 – Gerard II, count of Guelders
 * November 16 – Dobrodeia of Kiev, Byzantine princess
 * December 4 – Omar Khayyám, Persian astronomer (b. 1048)
 * Abu Ali Ahmed ibn al-Afdal, Fatimid vizier
 * Alger of Liège, French monk and writer (b. 1055)
 * Andronikos Komnenos, Byzantine prince (or 1130)
 * Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani, Persian philosopher (b. 1098)
 * Elizabeth of Vermandois, English countess
 * Feardana Ua Cárthaigh, Irish chief poet
 * Gaston IV of Béarn, French nobleman
 * Harald Haakonsson, Norse Earl of Orkney
 * Joscelin I (Courtenay), count of Edessa
 * Mahmud II, sultan of the Seljuk Empire
 * Maud (or Matilda), queen of Scotland
 * Meng, Chinese empress and regent (b. 1073)
 * Ramon Berenguer III, count of Barcelona (b. 1082)
 * Stephen II, king of Hungary and Croatia (b. 1101)
 * Zheng (or Xiansu), Chinese empress (b. 1079)

title: 1131


text:
1132

Year 1132 (MCXXXII) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Levant

 * Summer – Imad al-Din Zengi, Seljuk governor (atabeg) of Aleppo and Mosul, marches on Baghdad (the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate), to add it to his dominions. He is defeated by the forces of Caliph Al-Mustarshid, near Tikrit (modern Iraq). Zengi flees and escapes, with the help of Tikrit's governor Najm ad-Din Ayyub (the father of Saladin), who conveys him across the River Tigris.

Europe

 * July 24 – Battle of Nocera: Rebel Normans under Count Ranulf II defeat the Sicilian forces, led by King Roger II. Seven hundred knights are captured, and Roger is forced to retreat to Salerno.

England

 * Barnwell Castle is erected in Northamptonshire.

Asia

 * June – A fire breaks out in the Chinese capital of Hangzhou, destroying 13,000 houses and forcing many to flee to the nearby hills. Due to large fires as this, the government installs an effective fire fighting force for the city. Items such as bamboo, planks, and rush-matting are temporarily exempted from taxation, 120 tons of rice are distributed among the poor. The government suspends the housing rent requirement of the city's residents.
 * The Southern Song court establishes the first permanent standing navy, with the headquarters of the Chinese admiralty based at Dinghai.

Religion

 * Diarmait Mac Murchada has the abbey of Kildare in Ireland burned, and the abbess raped. He becomes king of the province of Leinster.
 * Malachy is appointed archbishop of Armagh in Ireland, to impose the Roman liturgy on the independent Irish Church.
 * March 5 – Rievaulx Abbey is founded by the Cistercian order, near Helmsley in Yorkshire.
 * December 27 – Fountains Abbey soon to join the Cistercian order, is founded near Ripon in Yorkshire.
 * Basingwerk Abbey originally Benedictine, and later Cistercian, is founded near Holywell in Wales.

Births

 * February 2 – William of Norwich, English martyr (d. 1144)
 * April 21 – Sancho VI (the Wise), king of Navarre (d. 1194)
 * Andronikos Kontostephanos, Byzantine aristocrat (or 1133)
 * Ephraim of Bonn, German Jewish rabbi and writer (d. 1196)
 * Maurice II de Craon, Norman nobleman and knight (d. 1196)
 * Philip of France, French prince and archdeacon (d. 1160)
 * Rhys ap Gruffydd, Welsh prince of Deheubarth (d. 1197)
 * Vladimir III Mstislavich, Kievan Grand Prince (d. 1171)

Deaths

 * February 9 – Maredudd ap Bleddyn, king of Powys (b. 1047)
 * March 26 – Geoffrey of Vendôme, French abbot (b. 1070)
 * April 1 – Hugh of Châteauneuf, bishop of Grenoble (b. 1053)
 * April 14 – Mstislav I (the Great), Kievan Grand Prince (b. 1076)
 * June 6 – Taj al-Muluk Buri, Seljuk governor and regent
 * October 26 – Floris the Black, Dutch count of Holland
 * Conrad von Plötzkau, margrave of the Northern March
 * Hugh III of Le Puiset, French nobleman and crusader
 * William of Zardana (or Saône), French nobleman (or 1133)

title: 1132


text:
1133

Year 1133 (MCXXXIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * Spring – A German expeditionary force, led by King Lothair III, marches into northern Italy, and arrives at Rome, after a 6-month journey across the Alps. Accompanied by Bernard of Clairvaux, French abbot and Doctor of the Church, Lothair is crowned by Pope Innocent II as Holy Roman Emperor at the Church of the Lateran, on June 4. He receives as papal fiefs the vast estates of Matilda, former margravine of Tuscany, which he secures for his daughter Gertrude of Süpplingenburg and her husband, Duke Henry X (the Proud) of Bavaria.
 * July 17 – Battle of Fraga: The Castellan troops led by King Alfonso I (the Battler) defeat the Almoravid army, thanks to a timely intervention of a Norman Crusader army from Tarragona, led by Robert Bordet.
 * Ramon Berenguer IV, count of Barcelona, launches a raid against Almoravid-held territories in Al-Andalus (modern Spain), and pillages the country all the way to Cadiz.

Religion

 * The first convent on Iceland, the Þingeyraklaustur, is inaugurated at a monastery of the Order of Saint Benedict (located in Þingeyrar).
 * Antipope Anacletus II forces Innocent II out of Rome following the departure of Lothair III. Innocent flees and takes a ship to Pisa.
 * Geoffrey of Monmouth, an English cleric, writes the chronicle Historia Regum Britanniae.
 * Rijnsburg Abbey is founded by Petronilla of Lorraine, countess and regent of Holland.
 * Construction of the chapter house at Durham Cathedral which is completed in 1140.

Births

 * February 23 – Al-Zafir, Fatimid caliph (d. 1154)
 * March 5 – Henry II (Curtmantle), king of England (d. 1189)
 * May 13 – Hōnen, Japanese religious reformer (d. 1212)
 * Abu al-Abbas al-Jarawi, Moroccan poet (d. 1212)
 * Andronikos Doukas Angelos, Byzantine aristocrat
 * Andronikos Kontostephanos, Byzantine aristocrat
 * Blanche of Navarre, Queen of Castile (d.1156)
 * Faidiva of Toulouse, countess of Savoy (d. 1154)
 * Jean de Gisors, Norman nobleman (d. 1220)
 * Ralph de Sudeley, English nobleman (d. 1192)
 * Sigurd II (or Sigurd Munn), king of Norway (d. 1155)
 * Stephen IV, king of Hungary and Croatia (d. 1165)
 * Thorlak Thorhallsson, Icelandic bishop (d. 1193)
 * Urraca of Castile, queen of Navarre (d. 1179)
 * Zhang Shi, Chinese Confucian scholar (d. 1181)

Deaths

 * February 19 – Irene Doukaina, Byzantine empress (b. 1066)
 * May 1 – Manegold von Mammern, German abbot
 * December 4 – Bernard degli Uberti, Italian bishop
 * December 18 – Hildebert, French hagiographer (b. 1055)
 * December 21 – Guigues III (the Old), French nobleman
 * Dirmicius of Regensburg, Irish monk and abbot
 * Gregory of Catino, Italian monk and historian (b. 1060)
 * þorlákur Runólfsson, Icelandic bishop (b. 1086)
 * William of Zardana (or Saône), French nobleman

title: 1133


text:
1134

Year 1134 (MCXXXIV) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Asia

 * Count Hugh II (du Puiset), in alliance with the Egyptian city of Ascalon, revolts against King Fulk V of Jerusalem, attempting to take Jaffa. Hugh submits to Fulk and is exiled for three years. While awaiting for a boat to Italy he is attacked by a Breton knight, but survives the attempted murder. Hugh retires to the Sicilian court of his cousin, King Roger II, who appoints him to the lordship of Gargano, where he dies soon afterwards.
 * Mas'ud becomes sultan of the Seljuk dynasty in Hamadan.
 * Yelü Dashi captures Balasagun from the Kara-Khanid Khanate, marking the start of the Qara Khitai empire (and its Kangguo era) in Central Asia.
 * Wu Ge, Chinese Song Dynasty Deputy Transport Commissioner of Zhejiang, has paddle wheel warships constructed with a total of nine wheels, and others with thirteen wheels.

Eastern Europe

 * Vsevolod Mstislavich of Novgorod defeats the Chuds and captures Tartu.
 * Yuri Dolgoruki founds the town of Skniatino.
 * Iziaslav II of Kiev becomes Prince of Vladimir and Volyn.
 * Viacheslav of Kiev becomes Prince of Turov.

Mediterranean

 * Ermengarde becomes Viscountess of Narbonne.
 * Narbonne is seized by Alphonse I of Toulouse.
 * Battle of Fraga: Castillan forces are defeated by Muslim troops. King Alfonso I (the Battler) is killed and succeeded by his brother Ramiro II as ruler of Aragon. In Navarre the nobility elects Garcia VI as Alfonso's successor.
 * Roger II of Sicily defeats a revolt in Naples.
 * Called by Olegarius, the bishop of Tarragona, the Knights Templar establish their first stronghold in Catalonia.

Scandinavia

 * Battle of Färlev: Magnus IV of Norway defeats Harald IV Gille of Norway.
 * Battle of Fotevik: Harald Kesja and Magnus the Strong are defeated by the forces of Erik Emune.
 * Eric II becomes King of Denmark.
 * The House of Brandenburg is founded, when Albrecht the Bear is made head of the Nordmark.

Western Europe

 * Aed mac Domnaill becomes King of Ui Failghe.
 * Much of Chartres, France, is destroyed by fire.
 * Henry of Lausanne is sentenced to imprisonment by Pope Innocent II.
 * The Zeeland archipelago is created by a massive storm in the North Sea.
 * Herman III (the Great), margrave of Baden, marries Bertha of Lorraine.

Culture

 * May 13 – The Saint-Denis basilica, near Paris, is damaged by a fire. This will give the opportunity to the French abbot Suger to rebuild it in a new style, which will open the Gothic period of architecture.
 * The University of Salamanca is established, in the Kingdom of León.
 * Abdul Qadir Jilani becomes principal of the Hanbali school in Baghdad.
 * The Japanese classic text Uchigikishu is written.
 * Robert of Ketton and Herman of Carinthia travel throughout France, the Byzantine Empire, and the Crusader States.

Religion

 * Cormac's Chapel is consecrated.
 * Malachy becomes archbishop of Armagh.
 * The Church of St. James is dedicated in Glasgow.
 * The Augustinian Runcorn Priory is transferred to Norton Priory.
 * Buckfastleigh Abbey is refounded.
 * Aelred of Hexham enters the monastery at Rievaulx Abbey.
 * Stephen Harding becomes abbot of Cîteaux Abbey.
 * Hugh of Grenoble is canonized by Innocent II.
 * The Cathedral of St. Petri in Schleswig is completed.
 * The Abbey of St. Jacob is founded in Würzburg.
 * Evermode of Ratzeburg becomes abbot of Gottesgnaden.
 * The Humiliati retreat to a monastery in Milan.
 * Leo Styppes becomes Patriarch of Constantinople.

Births

 * June 1 – Geoffrey VI, count of Nantes (d. 1158)
 * September 9 – Abdul Razzaq Gilani, Persian jurist (d. 1207)
 * Bernhard III, German nobleman (approximate date)
 * Fujiwara no Kinshi, Japanese empress (d. 1209)
 * Gerardo dei Tintori, Italian mystic and founder (d. 1207)
 * Neophytos of Cyprus, Cypriot Orthodox priest (d. 1214)
 * Oda of Brabant (or Anderlues), Belgian prioress (d. 1158)
 * Oldřich (or Oldericus), duke of Olomouc (d. 1177)
 * Ralph I, French nobleman (approximate date)
 * Raymond V, count of Toulouse (approximate date)
 * Sancho III (the Desired), king of Castile (d. 1158)
 * Sverker I (the Elder), king of Sweden (d. 1156)
 * Yesugei (Baghatur), Mongol chieftain (d. 1171)

Deaths

 * March 28 – Stephen Harding, English abbot
 * June 4 – Magnus I (Nilsson), king of Sweden
 * June 6 – Norbert of Xanten, German archbishop
 * June 25 – Niels (or Nicholas), king of Denmark
 * July 17
 * Beltrán de Risnel, Aragonese diplomat
 * Centule VI (or Centulle), French nobleman
 * August 9 – Gilbert Universalis, English bishop
 * August 13 – Irene of Hungary, Byzantine empress (b. 1088)
 * September 7 – Alfonso I (the Battler), king of Aragon
 * October 23 – Abu al-Salt, Andalusian astronomer
 * Alexander of Jülich, prince-bishop of Liège
 * Al-Fath ibn Khaqan, Andalusian anthologist
 * Allucio of Campugliano, Italian diplomat (b. 1070)
 * Bjørn Haraldsen (Ironside), Danish prince
 * Hugh II (du Puiset), French nobleman
 * John IX (Agapetos), Byzantine patriarch
 * Mary and Eliza Chulkhurst, English conjoined twins (b. 1100)
 * Minamoto no Yoshitsuna, Japanese samurai
 * Robert II (Curthose), duke of Normandy (b. 1051)
 * Urban (or Gwrgan), bishop of Llandaff (b. 1076)

title: 1134


text:
1136

Year 1136 (MCXXXVI) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Levant

 * Spring – Raymond of Poitiers, son of the late Duke William IX of Aquitaine, arrives at Antioch. Patriarch Ralph of Domfront (against the wishes of Princess Alice) arranges a marriage in secret with her 8-year-old daughter Constance. She is kidnapped and taken to the cathedral in Antioch, where Ralph hastily marries her to Raymond. Alice leaves the city, now under the control of Raymond and Ralph, and retires to Latakia, Syria.
 * August 17 – Al-Rashid is deposed after a 1-year reign and flees to Isfahan (modern Iran). He is succeeded by his uncle Al-Muqtafi who becomes the new caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad (until 1160).

Europe

 * May 28 – In Russia, the people of Novgorod depose and imprison Prince Vsevolod of Pskov. Novgorod asserts its independence from Kiev, but accepts protection from neighboring Kievan princes. In July, Vsevolod along with his wife and family are released (they are exiled to an uncle in Kiev).
 * Summer – Emperor Lothair III invades southern Italy in response to the appeal of Emperor John II Komnenos (see 1135) and conquers Apulia from King Roger II of Sicily. Duke Grimoald of Bari, supported by Lothair III, rebels against Roger.
 * December 14 – King Harald IV of Norway is murdered by Sigurd Slembe, an illegitimate son of the late King Magnus Barefoot. He is succeeded by his sons Inge I ("the Hunchback) and his 3-year-old half-brother Sigurd II.

Britain

 * Spring – King David I of Scotland invades northern England and captures many of the major towns including Carlisle and Newcastle. In response, King Stephen raises an army (with Flemish mercenaries), and marches to Durham. David agrees to negotiate a peace between the two countries.
 * February 5 – Treaty of Durham: A peace treaty is signed by Stephen and David I. The Scots are allowed to keep Carlisle and a part of Cumberland in return for stopping their advance. David refuses an oath of allegiance, as his loyalties rest with Matilda (daughter of the late King Henry I).
 * October – Battle of Crug Mawr (Great Barrow): King Owain Gwynedd (styled "Prince of Wales") defeats the Norman and Flemish forces under Robert Fitz Martin, securing the control of Ceredigion (West Wales).

Africa

 * The city of Béjaïa (modern Algeria) repeals a Genoan naval assault.

Asia

 * Sultan Mudzaffar Shah I establishes the Kedah Sultanate at Qodah Darul Aman (modern-day Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia).

Arts and Culture

 * The Basilica of Saint-Denis is completed to designs by Abbot Suger in Paris, France.
 * Peter Abelard writes the Historia Calamitatum, detailing his relationship with Heloise.

Religion

 * Hildegard of Bingen becomes abbess of the Benedictine monastery of Disibodenberg, upon the death of Jutta von Sponheim.
 * Worship at the original Glasgow Cathedral in Scotland begins.
 * Melrose Abbey (located in the Scottish Borders) is founded by Cistercian monks at the request of David.

Births

 * July 22 – William of Anjou, viscount of Dieppe (d. 1164)
 * Amalric I (or Amalricus), king of Jerusalem (d. 1174)
 * Humbert III (the Blessed), count of Savoy (d. 1189)
 * Ismail al-Jazari, Artuqid polymath and inventor (d. 1206)
 * Marie I (or Mary), countess consort of Boulogne (d. 1182)
 * William of Newburgh, English historian and writer (d. 1198)
 * Xia (Shenfu), Chinese empress consort (d. 1167)

Deaths

 * April 15 – Richard Fitz Gilbert de Clare, Norman nobleman
 * May 24 – Hugues de Payens, French nobleman and knight
 * November 15 – Leopold III, margrave of Austria (b. 1073)
 * November 21 – William de Corbeil, archbishop of Canterbury
 * December 14 – Harald IV (Servant of Christ), king of Norway
 * Abraham bar Hiyya, Spanish mathematician and astronomer
 * Jutta von Sponheim, German noblewoman and abbes (b. 1091)
 * Gwenllian ferch Gruffydd, Welsh princess of Deheubarth
 * Mael Isa Mac Mael Coluim, Irish monk and chronologist
 * Wanyan Zonghan, Chinese nobleman and general (b. 1080)
 * William VI, count of Auvergne and Velay (b. 1096)
 * Zayn al-Din Gorgani, Persian physician (b. 1041)

title: 1136