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Berengar of Tours

Berengar of Tours (died 6 January 1088), in Latin Berengarius Turonensis, was an 11th-century French Christian theologian and archdeacon of Angers, a scholar whose leadership of the cathedral school at Chartres set an example of intellectual inquiry through the revived tools of dialectic that was soon followed at cathedral schools of Laon and Paris. Berengar of Tours was distinguished from mainline Catholic theology by two views: his assertion of the supremacy of Scripture and his denial of transubstantiation.

Biography
Berengar of Tours was born perhaps at Tours, probably in the early years of the 11th century. His education began in the school of Bishop Fulbert of Chartres, who represented the traditional theology of the early Middle Ages, but did not succeed in imparting it to his pupil. Berengar was less attracted by pure theology than by secular learning, and brought away a knowledge of Latin literature, dialectic, and general knowledge and freedom of thought. Later he paid more attention to the Bible and early Christian writers, especially Gregory of Tours and Augustine of Hippo; and thus he came to formal theology.

After the death of Fulbert in 1028, Berengar returned to Tours, where he became a canon of the cathedral. In about 1040 he became head of its school, improving its efficiency and attracting students from far and near. He acquired his fame as much from his blameless and ascetic life as from the success of his teaching. His reputation was such that a number of monks requested him to write a book to kindle their zeal; and his letter to Joscelin, later archbishop of Bordeaux, who had asked him to decide a dispute between Bishop Isembert of Poitiers and his chapter, is evidence of the authority attributed to his judgment. He became archdeacon of Angers, but remained in Tours to direct the school. He enjoyed the confidence of not a few bishops and of the powerful Count Geoffrey of Anjou.

Amid this chorus of praise, a discordant voice began to be heard; it was asserted that Berengar held heretical views on the Eucharist. The first controversies on the nature of the Eucharistic Presence date from the earlier Middle Ages. In the ninth century Paschasius Radbertus claimed that Christ's Eucharistic body was identical with his body in heaven, but he won practically no support. His doctrine was sharply attacked by Ratramnus and Rabanus Maurus, who opposed his emphatic realism, which was sometimes marred by unfortunate comparisons and illustrations, and proposed a more spiritual conception of the Divine Presence. As for Berengar, by one account, "Considerably greater stir was provoked ... by the teaching of Berengar, who opposed the doctrine of the Real Presence." But in reality, there are diverse opinions among theologians and historians on this point, and it is not clear that Berengar actually denies the Real Presence, though he does deny transubstantiation. The first to take formal notice of this was his former fellow student Adelmann, who begged him to abandon his opposition to the Church's teaching.

Probably in the early part of 1050, Berengar addressed a letter to Lanfranc, then prior of Bec Abbey in Normandy, in which he expressed his regret that Lanfranc adhered to the Eucharistic teaching of Paschasius and considered the treatise of Ratramnus on the subject (which Berengar supposed to have been written by Johannes Scotus Eriugena) to be heretical. He declared his own agreement with Eriugena, and believed himself to be supported by Saint Ambrose, Saint Jerome, Augustine, and other authorities. This letter was received by Lanfranc in Rome, where it was read before a council and Berengar's view was condemned. Berengar was summoned to appear at another council to be held at Vercelli in September. Berengar sought permission to go to the council from King Henry I of France, in his capacity as nominal abbot of St. Martin at Tours. Instead, for unclear reasons, the king imprisoned him. The council at Vercelli examined Berengar's doctrine and again condemned it and he was excommunicated.

On his release from prison, probably affected by the influence of Geoffrey of Anjou, the king still pursued him, and called a synod to meet in Paris in October 1051. Berengar, fearing its purpose, avoided appearing, and the king's threats after its session had no effect, since Berengar was sheltered by Geoffrey and by his former student, Eusebius, now Bishop of Angers. He also found numerous partisans among less prominent people.

In 1054, a Council was held at Tours presided over by Cardinal Hildebrand as papal legate. Berengar wrote a profession of faith wherein he confessed that after the consecration the bread and wine were truly the body and blood of Christ. The French bishops indicated that they wished a speedy settlement of the controversy and the synod declared itself satisfied by Berengar's written declaration.

In 1059, Berengar went to Rome, fortified by a letter of commendation from Count Geoffrey to Hildebrand. At a council held in the Lateran, he could get no hearing, and a formula representing what seemed to him the most carnal view of the sacrament was offered for his acceptance. Overwhelmed by the forces against him, he took this document in his hand and threw himself on the ground in the silence of apparent submission.

Berengar returned to France full of remorse for this desertion of his faith and of bitterness against the pope and his opponents; his friends were growing fewer—Geoffrey was dead and his successor hostile. Eusebius Bruno was gradually withdrawing from him. Rome, however, was disposed to give him a chance; Pope Alexander II wrote him an encouraging letter, at the same time warning him to give no further offence.

He was still firm in his convictions, and in about 1069 he published a treatise in which he gave vent to his resentment against Pope Nicholas II and his antagonists in the Roman council. Lanfranc answered it, and Berengar rejoined. Bishop Hugo of Langres also wrote a treatise, De corpore et sanguine Christi, against Berengar. Even his namesake Berengar, Bishop of Venosa, was drawn into the quarrel and wrote against him at Rome in the years of his second summons there.

But the feeling against him in France was growing so hostile that it almost came to open violence at the Synod of Poitiers in 1076. Hildebrand, now Pope Gregory VII, tried yet to save him; he summoned him once more to Rome (1078), and undertook to silence his enemies by getting him to assent to a vague formula, something like the one which he had signed at Tours. But Berengar's enemies were not satisfied, and three months later at another synod they forced on him a formula which could mean nothing but what was later called transubstantiation, except by utterly indefensible sophistry. He was indiscreet enough to claim the sympathy of Gregory VII, who commanded him to acknowledge his errors and pursue them no further. Berengar confessed that he had erred, and was sent home.

Once back in France, he published his own account of the proceedings in Rome, retracting his recantation. The consequence was another trial before a synod at Bordeaux (1080), and another recantation.

After this he kept silence, retiring to the island of Saint-Cosme near Tours to live in ascetic solitude. It was there that he died, in union with the Roman Catholic Church.

Selection from his 1059 confession
"...the bread and wine which are placed on the altar are after consecration not only a sacrament but also the true body and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ, and with the senses not only sacramentally but in truth are taken and broken by the hands of the priests and crushed by the teeth of the faithful."

Text of his 1079 confession
"I, Berengarius, believe in my heart and openly profess that the bread and wine that are placed on the altar are through the mystery of the sacred prayer and the words of our Redeemer substantially changed into the true and proper life-giving flesh and blood of Jesus Christ our Lord; and that after the consecration is the true body of Christ, which was born of the Virgin, as an offering for the salvation of the world hung on the cross, and sits at the right hand of the Father; and (is) the true blood of Christ which flowed from his side; not only through the sign and power of the sacrament but in his proper nature and true substance; as it is set down in this summary and as I read it and you understand it. Thus I believe, and I will not teach any more against this faith. So help me God and this holy Gospel of God."

Berengar's theory of the Eucharist
Berengar's theory of the Eucharist had four points:

 * 1) The elements remain in substance as well as in appearance, after the consecration, although they acquire a new significance.
 * 2) However the wine and bread are not mere symbols, but in some sense, they still are the body and blood of Jesus which they represent.
 * 3) Christ is spiritually present and is spiritually received by faith.
 * 4) The communion in the Eucharist is a communion with the whole undivided person of Jesus Christ, and not the blood and body of Jesus as separate elements. As the whole body of Christ was sacrificed in death, it is received in a spiritual manner as the whole body; and as Christ’s body is now glorified in heaven, we must spiritually ascend to heaven.

The views of Berengar on the Eucharist had very much in common with the views of John Calvin.

Significance
Berengar of Tours can be seen as a forerunner of Christian rationalism, as he criticized Church authority.

Berengar's position was never diametrically opposed to that of his critics. But the controversy that he aroused forced people to reconsider the ninth-century discussion of the Eucharist, as Paschasius Radbertus had left it, and to clarify the doctrine of transubstantiation. Further, when both Berengar and his critics used the secular disciplines of logic and grammar to express a matter of Christian doctrine, the way was open to the scholasticism of the twelfth century.

Berengar of Tours was a forerunner of the Reformers, especially of Zwingli and John Calvin.

title: Berengar of Tours


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Planetary nebula

A planetary nebula is a type of emission nebula consisting of an expanding, glowing shell of ionized gas ejected from red giant stars late in their lives.

The term "planetary nebula" is a misnomer because they are unrelated to planets. The term originates from the planet-like round shape of these nebulae observed by astronomers through early telescopes. The first usage may have occurred during the 1780s with the English astronomer William Herschel who described these nebulae as resembling planets; however, as early as January 1779, the French astronomer Antoine Darquier de Pellepoix described in his observations of the Ring Nebula, "very dim but perfectly outlined; it is as large as Jupiter and resembles a fading planet". Though the modern interpretation is different, the old term is still used.

All planetary nebulae form at the end of the life of a star of intermediate mass, about 1-8 solar masses. It is expected that the Sun will form a planetary nebula at the end of its life cycle. They are relatively short-lived phenomena, lasting perhaps a few tens of millennia, compared to considerably longer phases of stellar evolution. Once all of the red giant's atmosphere has been dissipated, energetic ultraviolet radiation from the exposed hot luminous core, called a planetary nebula nucleus (P.N.N.), ionizes the ejected material. Absorbed ultraviolet light then energizes the shell of nebulous gas around the central star, causing it to appear as a brightly coloured planetary nebula.

Planetary nebulae probably play a crucial role in the chemical evolution of the Milky Way by expelling elements into the interstellar medium from stars where those elements were created. Planetary nebulae are observed in more distant galaxies, yielding useful information about their chemical abundances.

Starting from the 1990s, Hubble Space Telescope images revealed that many planetary nebulae have extremely complex and varied morphologies. About one-fifth are roughly spherical, but the majority are not spherically symmetric. The mechanisms that produce such a wide variety of shapes and features are not yet well understood, but binary central stars, stellar winds and magnetic fields may play a role.

Discovery
The first planetary nebula discovered (though not yet termed as such) was the Dumbbell Nebula in the constellation of Vulpecula. It was observed by Charles Messier on July 12, 1764 and listed as M27 in his catalogue of nebulous objects. To early observers with low-resolution telescopes, M27 and subsequently discovered planetary nebulae resembled the giant planets like Uranus. As early as January 1779, the French astronomer Antoine Darquier de Pellepoix described in his observations of the Ring Nebula, "a very dull nebula, but perfectly outlined; as large as Jupiter and looks like a fading planet".

The nature of these objects remained unclear. In 1782, William Herschel, discoverer of Uranus, found the Saturn Nebula (NGC 7009) and described it as "A curious nebula, or what else to call it I do not know". He later described these objects as seeming to be planets "of the starry kind". As noted by Darquier before him, Herschel found that the disk resembled a planet but it was too faint to be one. In 1785, Herschel wrote to Jérôme Lalande:

"These are celestial bodies of which as yet we have no clear idea and which are perhaps of a type quite different from those that we are familiar with in the heavens. I have already found four that have a visible diameter of between 15 and 30 seconds. These bodies appear to have a disk that is rather like a planet, that is to say, of equal brightness all over, round or somewhat oval, and about as well defined in outline as the disk of the planets, of a light strong enough to be visible with an ordinary telescope of only one foot, yet they have only the appearance of a star of about ninth magnitude."

He assigned these to Class IV of his catalogue of "nebulae", eventually listing 78 "planetary nebulae", most of which are in fact galaxies.

Herschel used the term "planetary nebulae" for these objects. The origin of this term not known. The label "planetary nebula" became ingrained in the terminology used by astronomers to categorize these types of nebulae, and is still in use by astronomers today.

Spectra
The nature of planetary nebulae remained unknown until the first spectroscopic observations were made in the mid-19th century. Using a prism to disperse their light, William Huggins was one of the earliest astronomers to study the optical spectra of astronomical objects.

On August 29, 1864, Huggins was the first to analyze the spectrum of a planetary nebula when he observed Cat's Eye Nebula. His observations of stars had shown that their spectra consisted of a continuum of radiation with many dark lines superimposed. He found that many nebulous objects such as the Andromeda Nebula (as it was then known) had spectra that were quite similar. However, when Huggins looked at the Cat's Eye Nebula, he found a very different spectrum. Rather than a strong continuum with absorption lines superimposed, the Cat's Eye Nebula and other similar objects showed a number of emission lines. Brightest of these was at a wavelength of 500.7 nanometres, which did not correspond with a line of any known element.

At first, it was hypothesized that the line might be due to an unknown element, which was named nebulium. A similar idea had led to the discovery of helium through analysis of the Sun's spectrum in 1868. While helium was isolated on Earth soon after its discovery in the spectrum of the Sun, "nebulium" was not. In the early 20th century, Henry Norris Russell proposed that, rather than being a new element, the line at 500.7 nm was due to a familiar element in unfamiliar conditions.

Physicists showed in the 1920s that in gas at extremely low densities, electrons can occupy excited metastable energy levels in atoms and ions that would otherwise be de-excited by collisions that would occur at higher densities. Electron transitions from these levels in nitrogen and oxygen ions (O+, O2+ (a.k.a. O ), and N+) give rise to the 500.7 nm emission line and others. These spectral lines, which can only be seen in very low-density gases, are called forbidden lines. Spectroscopic observations thus showed that nebulae were made of extremely rarefied gas.

Central stars
The central stars of planetary nebulae are very hot. Only when a star has exhausted most of its nuclear fuel can it collapse to a small size. Planetary nebulae are understood as a final stage of stellar evolution. Spectroscopic observations show that all planetary nebulae are expanding. This led to the idea that planetary nebulae were caused by a star's outer layers being thrown into space at the end of its life.

Modern observations
Towards the end of the 20th century, technological improvements helped to further the study of planetary nebulae. Space telescopes allowed astronomers to study light wavelengths outside those that the Earth's atmosphere transmits. Infrared and ultraviolet studies of planetary nebulae allowed much more accurate determinations of nebular temperatures, densities and elemental abundances. Charge-coupled device technology allowed much fainter spectral lines to be measured accurately than had previously been possible. The Hubble Space Telescope also showed that while many nebulae appear to have simple and regular structures when observed from the ground, the very high optical resolution achievable by telescopes above the Earth's atmosphere reveals extremely complex structures.

Under the Morgan-Keenan spectral classification scheme, planetary nebulae are classified as Type-P, although this notation is seldom used in practice.

Origins

Stars greater than 8 solar masses (M⊙) will probably end their lives in dramatic supernovae explosions, while planetary nebulae seemingly only occur at the end of the lives of intermediate and low mass stars between 0.8 M⊙ to 8.0 M⊙. Progenitor stars that form planetary nebulae will spend most of their lifetimes converting their hydrogen into helium in the star's core by nuclear fusion at about 15 million K. This generates energy in the core, which creates outward pressure that balances the crushing inward pressures of gravity. This state of equilibrium is known as the main sequence, which can last for tens of millions to billions of years, depending on the mass.

When the hydrogen in the core starts to run out, nuclear fusion generates less energy and gravity starts compressing the core, causing a rise in temperature to about 100 million K. Such high core temperatures then make the star's cooler outer layers expand to create much larger red giant stars. This end phase causes a dramatic rise in stellar luminosity, where the released energy is distributed over a much larger surface area, which in fact causes the average surface temperature to be lower. In stellar evolution terms, stars undergoing such increases in luminosity are known as asymptotic giant branch stars (AGB). During this phase, the star can lose 50–70% of its total mass from its stellar wind.

For the more massive asymptotic giant branch stars that form planetary nebulae, whose progenitors exceed about 0.6M⊙, their cores will continue to contract. When temperatures reach about 100 million K, the available helium nuclei fuse into carbon and oxygen, so that the star again resumes radiating energy, temporarily stopping the core's contraction. This new helium burning phase (fusion of helium nuclei) forms a growing inner core of inert carbon and oxygen. Above it is a thin helium-burning shell, surrounded in turn by a hydrogen-burning shell. However, this new phase lasts only 20,000 years or so, a very short period compared to the entire lifetime of the star.

The venting of atmosphere continues unabated into interstellar space, but when the outer surface of the exposed core reaches temperatures exceeding about 30,000 K, there are enough emitted ultraviolet photons to ionize the ejected atmosphere, causing the gas to shine as a planetary nebula.

Lifetime

After a star passes through the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) phase, the short planetary nebula phase of stellar evolution begins as gases blow away from the central star at speeds of a few kilometers per second. The central star is the remnant of its AGB progenitor, an electron-degenerate carbon-oxygen core that has lost most of its hydrogen envelope due to mass loss on the AGB. As the gases expand, the central star undergoes a two-stage evolution, first growing hotter as it continues to contract and hydrogen fusion reactions occur in the shell around the core and then slowly cooling when the hydrogen shell is exhausted through fusion and mass loss. In the second phase, it radiates away its energy and fusion reactions cease, as the central star is not heavy enough to generate the core temperatures required for carbon and oxygen to fuse. During the first phase, the central star maintains constant luminosity, while at the same time it grows ever hotter, eventually reaching temperatures around 100,000 K. In the second phase, it cools so much that it does not give off enough ultraviolet radiation to ionize the increasingly distant gas cloud. The star becomes a white dwarf, and the expanding gas cloud becomes invisible to us, ending the planetary nebula phase of evolution. For a typical planetary nebula, about 10,000 years passes between its formation and recombination of the resulting plasma.

Role in galactic enrichment

Planetary nebulae may play a very important role in galactic evolution. Newly born stars consist almost entirely of hydrogen and helium, but as stars evolve through the asymptotic giant branch phase, they create heavier elements via nuclear fusion which are eventually expelled by strong stellar winds. Planetary nebulae usually contain larger proportions of elements such as carbon, nitrogen and oxygen, and these are recycled into the interstellar medium via these powerful winds. In this way, planetary nebulae greatly enrich the Milky Way and their nebulae with these heavier elements – collectively known by astronomers as metals and specifically referred to by the metallicity parameter Z.

Subsequent generations of stars formed from such nebulae also tend to have higher metallicities. Although these metals are present in stars in relatively tiny amounts, they have marked effects on stellar evolution and fusion reactions. When stars formed earlier in the universe they theoretically contained smaller quantities of heavier elements. Known examples are the metal poor Population II stars. (See Stellar population.) Identification of stellar metallicity content is found by spectroscopy.

Physical characteristics

A typical planetary nebula is roughly one light year across, and consists of extremely rarefied gas, with a density generally from 100 to 10,000 particles per cm3. (The Earth's atmosphere, by comparison, contains 2.5 particles per cm3.) Young planetary nebulae have the highest densities, sometimes as high as 106 particles per cm3. As nebulae age, their expansion causes their density to decrease. The masses of planetary nebulae range from 0.1 to 1 solar masses.

Radiation from the central star heats the gases to temperatures of about 10,000 K. The gas temperature in central regions is usually much higher than at the periphery reaching 16,000–25,000 K. The volume in the vicinity of the central star is often filled with a very hot (coronal) gas having the temperature of about 1,000,000 K. This gas originates from the surface of the central star in the form of the fast stellar wind.

Nebulae may be described as matter bounded or radiation bounded. In the former case, there is not enough matter in the nebula to absorb all the UV photons emitted by the star, and the visible nebula is fully ionized. In the latter case, there are not enough UV photons being emitted by the central star to ionize all the surrounding gas, and an ionization front propagates outward into the circumstellar envelope of neutral atoms.

Numbers and distribution
About 3000 planetary nebulae are now known to exist in our galaxy, out of 200 billion stars. Their very short lifetime compared to total stellar lifetime accounts for their rarity. They are found mostly near the plane of the Milky Way, with the greatest concentration near the Galactic Center.

Morphology

Only about 20% of planetary nebulae are spherically symmetric (for example, see Abell 39). A wide variety of shapes exist with some very complex forms seen. Planetary nebulae are classified by different authors into: stellar, disk, ring, irregular, helical, bipolar, quadrupolar, and other types, although the majority of them belong to just three types: spherical, elliptical and bipolar. Bipolar nebulae are concentrated in the galactic plane, probably produced by relatively young massive progenitor stars; and bipolars in the galactic bulge appear to prefer orienting their orbital axes parallel to the galactic plane. On the other hand, spherical nebulae are probably produced by old stars similar to the Sun.

The huge variety of the shapes is partially the projection effect—the same nebula when viewed under different angles will appear different. Nevertheless, the reason for the huge variety of physical shapes is not fully understood. Gravitational interactions with companion stars if the central stars are binary stars may be one cause. Another possibility is that planets disrupt the flow of material away from the star as the nebula forms. It has been determined that the more massive stars produce more irregularly shaped nebulae. In January 2005, astronomers announced the first detection of magnetic fields around the central stars of two planetary nebulae, and hypothesized that the fields might be partly or wholly responsible for their remarkable shapes.

Membership in clusters

Planetary nebulae have been detected as members in four Galactic globular clusters: Messier 15, Messier 22, NGC 6441 and Palomar 6. Evidence also points to the potential discovery of planetary nebulae in globular clusters in the galaxy M31. However, there is currently only one case of a planetary nebula discovered in an open cluster that is agreed upon by independent researchers. That case pertains to the planetary nebula PHR 1315-6555 and the open cluster Andrews-Lindsay 1. Indeed, through cluster membership, PHR 1315-6555 possesses among the most precise distances established for a planetary nebula (i.e., a 4% distance solution). The cases of NGC 2818 and NGC 2348 in Messier 46, exhibit mismatched velocities between the planetary nebulae and the clusters, which indicates they are line-of-sight coincidences. A subsample of tentative cases that may potentially be cluster/PN pairs includes Abell 8 and Bica 6, and He 2-86 and NGC 4463.

Theoretical models predict that planetary nebulae can form from main-sequence stars of between one and eight solar masses, which puts the progenitor star's age at greater than 40 million years. Although there are a few hundred known open clusters within that age range, a variety of reasons limit the chances of finding a planetary nebula within. For one reason, the planetary nebula phase for more massive stars is on the order of millennia, which is a blink of the eye in astronomic terms. Also, partly because of their small total mass, open clusters have relatively poor gravitational cohesion and tend to disperse after a relatively short time, typically from 100 to 600 million years.

Current issues in planetary nebula studies
The distances to planetary nebulae are generally poorly determined, but the Gaia mission is now measuring direct parallactic distances between their central stars and neighboring stars. It is also possible to determine distances to nearby planetary nebula by measuring their expansion rates. High resolution observations taken several years apart will show the expansion of the nebula perpendicular to the line of sight, while spectroscopic observations of the Doppler shift will reveal the velocity of expansion in the line of sight. Comparing the angular expansion with the derived velocity of expansion will reveal the distance to the nebula.

The issue of how such a diverse range of nebular shapes can be produced is a debatable topic. It is theorised that interactions between material moving away from the star at different speeds gives rise to most observed shapes. However, some astronomers postulate that close binary central stars might be responsible for the more complex and extreme planetary nebulae. Several have been shown to exhibit strong magnetic fields, and their interactions with ionized gas could explain some planetary nebulae shapes.

There are two main methods of determining metal abundances in nebulae. These rely on recombination lines and collisionally excited lines. Large discrepancies are sometimes seen between the results derived from the two methods. This may be explained by the presence of small temperature fluctuations within planetary nebulae. The discrepancies may be too large to be caused by temperature effects, and some hypothesize the existence of cold knots containing very little hydrogen to explain the observations. However, such knots have yet to be observed.

Cited sources

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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Planetary nebula


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DeCSS

DeCSS is one of the first free computer programs capable of decrypting content on a commercially produced DVD video disc. Before the release of DeCSS, free and open source operating systems (such as BSD and Linux) could not play encrypted video DVDs.

DeCSS's development was done without a license from the DVD Copy Control Association (CCA), the organization responsible for DVD copy protection—namely, the Content Scramble System (CSS) used by commercial DVD publishers. The release of DeCSS resulted in a Norwegian criminal trial and subsequent acquittal of one of the authors of DeCSS. The DVD CCA launched numerous lawsuits in the United States in an effort to stop the distribution of the software.

Origins and history
DeCSS was devised by three people, two of whom remain anonymous. It was on the Internet mailing list LiViD in October 1999. The one known author of the trio is Norwegian programmer Jon Lech Johansen, whose home was raided in 2000 by Norwegian police. Still a teenager at the time, he was put on trial in a Norwegian court for violating Norwegian Criminal Code section 145, and faced a possible jail sentence of two years and large fines, but was acquitted of all charges in early 2003. On 5 March 2003, a Norwegian appeals court ruled that Johansen would have to be retried. The court said that arguments filed by the prosecutor and additional evidence merited another trial. On 22 December 2003, the appeals court agreed with the acquittal, and on 5 January 2004, Norway's Økokrim (Economic Crime Unit) decided not to pursue the case further.

The program was first released on 6 October 1999 when Johansen posted an announcement of DeCSS 1.1b, a closed source Windows-only application for DVD ripping, on the livid-dev mailing list. The source code was leaked before the end of the month. The first release of DeCSS was preceded by a few weeks by a program called DoD DVD Speed Ripper from a group called DrinkOrDie, which didn't include source code and which apparently did not work with all DVDs. Drink or Die reportedly disassembled the object code of the Xing DVD player to obtain a player key. The group that wrote DeCSS, including Johansen, came to call themselves Masters of Reverse Engineering and may have obtained information from Drink or Die.

The CSS decryption source code used in DeCSS was mailed to Derek Fawcus before DeCSS was released. When the DeCSS source code was leaked, Fawcus noticed that DeCSS included his css-auth code in violation of the GNU GPL. When Johansen was made aware of this, he contacted Fawcus to solve the issue and was granted a license to use the code in DeCSS under non-GPL terms.

On 22 January 2004, the DVD CCA dropped the case against Jon Johansen.

Jon Lech Johansen's involvement
The DeCSS program was a collaborative project, in which Johansen wrote the graphical user interface. The transcripts from the Borgarting Court of Appeal, published in the Norwegian newspaper Verdens Gang, contain the following description of the process which led to the release of DeCSS:

Through Internet Relay Chat (henceforth IRC), [Jon Lech Johansen] made contact with like-minded [people seeking to develop a DVD-player under the Linux operating system]. 11 September 1999, he had a conversation with "mdx" about how the encryption algorithm in CSS could be found, by using a poorly secured software-based DVD-player. In a conversation [between Jon Lech Johansen and "mdx"] 22 September, "mdx" informs that "the nomad" had found the code for CSS decryption, and that "mdx" now would send this [code] to Jon Lech Johansen. "The nomad" allegedly found this decryption algorithm through so-called reverse engineering of a Xing DVD-player, where the [decryption] keys were more or less openly accessible. Through this, information that made it possible [for "mdx"] to create the code CSS_scramble.cpp was retrieved. From chat logs dated 4 November 1999 and 25 November 1999, it appears that "the nomad" carried through the reverse engineering process on a Xing player, which he characterized as illegal. As the case is presented for the High Court, this was not known by Jon Lech Johansen before 4 November [1999].

Regarding the authentication code, the High Court takes for its basis that "the nomad" obtained this code through the electronic mailing list LiVid (Linux Video) on the Internet, and that it was created by Derek Fawcus. It appears through a LiVid posting dated 6 October 1999 that Derek Fawcus on this date read through the DeCSS source code and compared it with his own. Further, it appears that "the creators [of DeCSS] have taken [Derek Fawcus' code] almost verbatim - the only alteration was the removal of [Derek Fawcus'] copyright header and a paragraph containing commentaries, and a change of the function names." The name [of the code] was CSS_auth.cpp.

The High Court takes for its basis that the program Jon Lech Johansen later programmed, the graphical user interface, consisted of "the nomad's" decryption algorithm and Derek Fawcus' authentication package. The creation of a graphical user interface made the program accessible, also for users without special knowledge in programming. The program was published on the Internet for the first time 6 October 1999, after Jon Lech Johansen had tested it on the movie "The Matrix." In this, he downloaded approximately 2.5%. 200 megabytes, of the movie to the hard drive on his computer. This file is the only film fragment Jon Lech Johansen has saved on his computer.

Technology and derived works
When the release of the DeCSS source code made the CSS algorithm available for public scrutiny, it was soon found to be susceptible to a brute-force attack quite different from DeCSS. The encryption is only 40-bit, and does not use all keys; a high-end home computer in 1999 running optimized code could brute-force it within 24 hours, and modern computers can brute-force it in a few seconds or less.

Programmers around the world created hundreds of programs equivalent to DeCSS, some merely to demonstrate the trivial ease with which the system could be bypassed, and others to add DVD support to open source movie players. The licensing restrictions on CSS make it impossible to create an open source implementation through official channels, and closed source drivers are unavailable for some operating systems, so some users need DeCSS to watch even legally obtained movies.

Legal response
The first legal threats against sites hosting DeCSS, and the beginning of the DeCSS mirroring campaign, began in early November 1999 (Universal v. Reimerdes). The preliminary injunction in DVD Copy Control Association, Inc. v. Bunner followed soon after, in January 2000. As a response to these threats a program also called DeCSS but with an unrelated function was developed. This program can be used to strip Cascading Style Sheets tags from HTML pages. In one case, a school removed a student's webpage that included a copy of this program, mistaking it for the original DeCSS program, and received a great deal of negative media attention. The CSS stripping program had been specifically created to bait the MPAA in this manner.

In protest against legislation that prohibits publication of copy protection circumvention code in countries that implement the WIPO Copyright Treaty (such as the United States' Digital Millennium Copyright Act), some have devised clever ways of distributing descriptions of the DeCSS algorithm, such as through steganography, through various Internet protocols, on T-shirts and in dramatic readings, as MIDI files, as a haiku poem (DeCSS haiku), and even as a so-called illegal prime number.

title: DeCSS


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Talk:Planetary nebula

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Audrey.vee, Gmusto11.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 06:44, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Origin of name
There is a request to discuss the origin of the name planetary referring to this type of nebula. Herschel referred to '...the nebulae I have called Planetary...' in ''Phil. Trans'', vol 79, p 225 (1789). The whole work can be read here: http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/79/212.full.pdf+html.Robin Scagell (talk) 23:46, 20 April 2018 (UTC)

It is dubious because Antoine Darquier of Toulouse (1718-1802) used the term in January 1779 when he described the ring nebula in his notes "...a very dim but perfectly outlined; it is as large as Jupiter and resembles a fading planet." The usage is likely English bias against the French. Arianewiki1 (talk) 00:14, 8 June 2018 (UTC)
 * At 23:07 hours on the 28th of January your edit summary was: "Who really first coined the term 'planetary nebula still remains a matter of contention. What about Antoine Darquier de Pellepoix of Toulouse? Herschel only found they were gaseous. Origin is certainly French. Talkpage please". This is what about Antoine Darquier de Pellepoix of Toulouse: He has usually been credited with the discovery of the Ring Nebula in 1779. That is enough credit for him.  He never claimed to have coined the phrase, planetary nebula, and no editor has given a quotation of him using the phrase.  If the addition to the article were made claiming that Antoine Darquier de Pellepoix of Toulouse coined the phrase without a quote in support, that addition would need to be removed as original research.  If there is no such quote of dear Antoine using the phrase, there is no point in further discussion, but that does not stop me from discussing.  The English are notorious for stealing words from any language with which they come into contact.  Far from being biased against the French, English speaking Americans are more prone to use innovations that are given Frenchy sounding names like french fries, french bread and champaign.  So unless there is a quote to support that that astronomer from Toulouse used the phrase, planetary nebula or planetary nebulae in the plural, the current text in the article in this regard should be maintained the same.  - Fartherred (talk) 01:13, 10 June 2018 (UTC)

 * "Herschel only found they were gaseous." Incorrect. He thought they were unresolved stars, actually. (Only NGC 1514 may have suggested otherwise.) As for "no editor has given a quotation of him using the phrase." There are many sources for this quote (three given). The problem is there is known to be some correspondence between Herschel and Darquier, with the discovered quote coming after Herschel, even though it was written before Herschel. The point is the round shapes of these nebulae looked similar in size to the planets, hence the name. It is far from WP:NOR. Also Messier found the Ring Nebula first not Darquier. Arianewiki1 (talk) 01:30, 12 June 2018 (UTC)

 * A citation supporting giving credit for coining the phrase is Hoskin, M. (2014) "William Herschel and the Planetary Nebulae". Journal for the History of Astronomy 45(2), pp. 209–225. which I do not know how to access and likely lack permission to access. This text from the article: "Herschel assigned these to Class IV of his catalogue of 'nebulae', eventually listing 78 'planetary nebulae'" is supported by  p. 16 in Mullaney, James (2007). The Herschel Objects and How to Observe Them. Astronomers' Observing.  It quotes Herschel using the phrase and applying the phrase to any thing that looked to him like a dim nebulous planet, including many galaxies.  Herschel coined the term and later the use of it was refined to today's understanding of planetary nebulae.
 * Antoine Darquier de Pellepoix of Toulouse found the Ring Nebula independently after Messier found it and Antoine Darquier de Pellepoix of Toulouseand has usually been credited with the discovery of the Ring Nebula (exactly as I wrote above) in spite of his not finding it first. - Fartherred (talk) 02:19, 12 June 2018 (UTC)

 * In 1785, Herschel said of the Ring nebula: "a nebula that has a concentric dark spot in the middle and is probably a ring of stars."
 * As for this Darquier quote, a Google search confirms this as true. Jones "Messier's Nebulae and Star Clusters" pg.25, says this here. "...so it seems that Herschel might merely have adopted this description for the whole class." Evidence enough to support this claim.
 * Messier found M57 on 31st January 1779, while Darquier said January 1779 (deduced as earlier). He found it while both he and Messier was both looking at (the same) passing comet. Arianewiki1 (talk) 02:49, 12 June 2018 (UTC)

Well, the Ring Nebula and who found which Messier object first is a side point. I hope you agree with the quote of Herschel using the phrase "planetary nebulae". - Fartherred (talk) 03:10, 12 June 2018 (UTC)

Herschel's invention and explanation of the term
In the opening section of the article, the mention of Darquier is interesting but not relevant. The prominence given to Darquier is misleading and the passage should be removed, or shortened and moved. Three sources are cited for the Darquier quotation; it is actually found in Messier's "Catalogue des Nébuleuses & des amas d'Étoiles" in the Connoissance des Temps (https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-NnBsQU7QdgC&pg=PA259). Messier remarks on his entry number 57:

M. Messier a rapporté cet amas de lumiere sur la carte de la comète de 1779. M. Darquier, a Toulouse, découvrit cette nébuleuse, en observant la même comète, et il rapporte: “Nébuleuse entre gamma & beta de la Lyre; elle est fort terne, mais parfaitement terminée; elle est grosse comme Jupiter et ressemble à une planète qui s’éteindroit.”

There is no evidence that Darquier's remark (or Messier 57 itself) influenced the subsequent introduction of the term "planetary nebula" by William Herschel who explained the name in his paper, “On the Construction of the Heavens” [Phil. Trans., vol. lxxv., 1785, pp. 213-266.] At the time he believed that all nebulae consisted of unresolved stars, glowing in the manner of the Milky Way. He did not consider Messier 57 planetary; his prototypes for the class were NGC 7009 (the very first DSO he discovered, nicknamed the Saturn Nebula by Rosse in the 1840s) and NGC 7662 (nicknamed the “Blue Snowball” in the 1960s). Here are extracts from Herschel’s paper: A Perforated Nebula, or Ring of Stars. Among the curiosities of the heavens should be placed a nebula, that has a regular, concentric, dark spot in the middle, and is probably a Ring of stars. It is of an oval shape... The light is of the resolvable kind, and in the northern side three very faint stars may be seen, as also one or two in the southern part... It is the 57th of the Connoissance des Temps. Fig. 5 is a representation of it.

Planetary Nebulae. I shall conclude this paper with an account of a few heavenly bodies, that from their singular appearance leave me almost in doubt where to class them. The first [NGC 7009, which Herschel discovered in 1782]... I have examined... with the powers of 71, 227, 278, 460, and 932; and it follows the laws of magnifying, so that its body is no illusion of light. It is a little oval, and in the 7-feet reflector pretty well defined, but not sharp on the edges. In the 20-feet, of 18.7 inch aperture, it is much better defined, and has much of a planetary appearance, being all over of an uniform brightness, in which it differs from nebulae: its light seems however to be of the starry nature, which suffers not nearly so much as the planetary disks are known to do, when much magnified. The second of these bodies [NGC 7662]... has a round, bright, pretty well defined planetary disk of about 12" diameter, and is a little elliptical... [Herschel then describes NGC 6369, NGC 6905, NGC 6984]. The planetary appearance of the two first [NGC 7009, NGC 7662] is so remarkable, that we can hardly suppose them to be nebulae; their light is so uniform, as well as vivid, the diameters so small and well defined, as to make it almost improbable they should belong to that species of bodies. On the other hand, the effect of different powers seems to be much against their light's being of a planetary nature, since it preserves its brightness nearly in the same manner as the stars do in similar trials. If we would suppose them to be single stars with large diameters we shall find it difficult to account for their not being brighter; unless we should admit that the intrinsic light of some stars may be very much inferior to that of the generality, which however can hardly be imagined to extend to such a degree. We might suspect them to be comets about their aphelion, if the brightness as well as magnitude of the diameters did not oppose this idea ; so that after all, we can hardly find any hypothesis so probable as that of their being Nebulae; but then they must consist of stars that are compressed and accumulated in the highest degree. If it were not perhaps too hazardous to pursue a former surmise of a renewal in what I figuratively called the Laboratories of the universe, the stars forming these extraordinary nebulae, by some decay or waste of nature, being no longer fit for their former purposes, and having their projectile forces, if any such they had, retarded in each others' atmosphere, may rush at last together, and either in succession, or by one general tremendous shock, unite into a new body. Perhaps the extraordinary and sudden blaze of a new star in Cassiopea's chair, in 1572, might possibly be of such a nature. But lest I should be led too far from the path of observation, to which I am resolved to limit myself, I shall only point out a considerable use that may be made of these curious bodies. If a little attention to them should prove that, having no annual parallax, they belong most probably to the class of nebulae, they may then be expected to keep their situation better than any one of the stars belonging to our system, on account of their being probably at a very great distance. Now to have a fixed point somewhere in the heavens, to which the motions of the rest may be referred, is certainly of considerable consequence in Astronomy; and both these bodies are bright and small enough to answer that end.

In 1790 he discovered NGC 1514 (a planetary nebula in the modern sense) and saw it as a "star with atmosphere". He then revised his theory, believing that some nebulae consisted of luminous fluid (possibly of planet-forming kind) rather than unresolved starlight. Many of the objects he classed as "planetary nebulae" (his Class IV) are really galaxies. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Andrew Crumey (talk • contribs)

 * Nope: Not true. Darquier, A. (1777) comments appear in his notebook, being Reference 3 in the article. This has been discussed several times on this Talkpage. It is evidence of perpetuated bias that has historically been mostly made by English writers. Sure Herschel tried to explain the phenomena of planetary nebulae, but the usage of the term predates this. Arianewiki1 (talk) 01:14, 20 March 2019 (UTC)

I have rewritten the discovery and terminology sections to bring out the facts. Duplication was removed and these sections were merged. Two new quotes and one new citation was added. We do not who coined the name 'planetary nebulae' but is expressed something that had been mentioned by more than one person. The text mentions both Darquier and Herschel in this context. ABZebra (talk) 14:24, 24 May 2021 (UTC)

Odd nomenclature
The planetary nebula known as PK 358-1.1, located at two degrees south of the galactic center, is also known as "BID" (so it is mentioned in THE DEEP SKY FIELD GUIDE TO URANOMETRIA 2000.0, chart 377). What is the meaning of "BID"? According to SIMBAD the BI must be Blanco, but... what is the "D"? Is it perhaps the fourth object (the D-object) in a catalogue from Blanco? DannyCaes (talk) 09:58, 22 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Planetary nebula


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User talk:IanLewis~enwiki

Welcome to the 'pedia! --maveric149

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Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called IanLewis. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name IanLewis~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

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title: User talk:IanLewis~enwiki


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Black's Law Dictionary

Black's Law Dictionary [BLD] is the most frequently used legal dictionary in the United States. Henry Campbell Black (1860–1927) was the author of the first two editions of the dictionary.

History
The first edition was published in 1891 by West Publishing, with the full title A Dictionary of Law: containing definitions of the terms and phrases of American and English jurisprudence, ancient and modern, including the principal terms of international constitutional and commercial law, with a collection of legal maxims and numerous select titles from the civil law and other foreign systems. A second edition was published in 1910 as A Law Dictionary. Black died in 1927 and future editions were titled Black's Law Dictionary.

The sixth and earlier editions of the book additionally provided case citations for the term cited, which was viewed by lawyers as its most useful feature, providing a useful starting point with leading cases. The invention of the Internet made legal research easier therefore many state- or circuit-specific case citations and outdated or overruled case citations were omitted from the seventh edition in 1999. The eighth edition introduced a unique system of perpetually updated case citations and cross-references to legal encyclopedias. The current edition is the twelfth, published in 2024.

As many legal terms are derived from a Latin root word, the dictionary provides a pronunciation guide for such terms. In addition, the applicable entries provide pronunciation transcriptions pursuant to those found among North American practitioners of law or medicine.

Availability
An online version of the tenth edition can be accessed through the paid Westlaw legal information service, and is available as an application for iOS devices.

The second edition of Black's Law Dictionary, published in 1910, is now in the public domain and is widely reproduced online. References to case law are out-of-date, and that edition of the dictionary omits legal terms that have since come into use and does not reflect contemporary changes in how legal terms are used.

Pocket editions

 * Black's Law Dictionary 6th pocket ed. (West Group, 2021), Bryan A. Garner, editor, ISBN 9781731931610
 * Black's Law Dictionary 5th pocket ed. (West Group, 2016), Bryan A. Garner, editor, ISBN 0-314-84489-9
 * Black's Law Dictionary 4th pocket ed. (West Group, 2011), Bryan A. Garner, editor, ISBN 0-314-27544-4
 * Black's Law Dictionary 3rd pocket ed. (West Group, 2006), Bryan A. Garner, editor, ISBN 0-314-15862-6
 * Black's Law Dictionary 2nd pocket ed. (West Group, 2001), Bryan A. Garner, editor, ISBN 0-314-25791-8
 * Black's Law Dictionary 1st pocket ed. (West Group, 1996), Bryan A. Garner, editor, ISBN 0-314-06690-X

Non-English editions

 * Blackův právnický slovník. Complete translation of 6th edition into Czech. Victoria Publishing, Prague, 1993. ISBN 80-85605-23-6.
 * Āqāʼī, Bahman. Farhang-i ḥuqūqī-i Bahman: Ingilīsī-Fārsī: bar asās-i Black's law dictionary (1999) (in Fārsī)
 * Muqtadirah-yi Qaumī Zabān. Qānūnī, Angrezī-Urdu lug̲h̲at: Blaiks lāʼ dikshanarī se māk̲h̲ūz (Based on Black's law dictionary) / nigrān, Fatiḥ Muḥammad Malik (2002) ISBN 969-474-084-3.

title: Black's Law Dictionary


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User:Amillar/Pictures

I have been submitting pictures for articles.

The list is now in user:amillar/contributions

Uploading

Wow, this is so cool! Have you been sending the pictures to Jason for uploading, or is there some more efficient way to do it?

I started sending them to Jason, then he gave me another method which is better. I don't think I'm supposed to give it out, so email me or Jason directly for more details.

Credit the source

I think it would be a good idea to give source and copyright information on these. See http://www.nupedia.com/policy.shtml for info on how Nupedia has handled this. --User:LMS

 * Legally, PD images don't need to be credited, but I always think it's nice to do so anyway. -- Stephen Gilbert

I'm crediting them as "Public domain picture from source " so that their public domain status could be readily verified if needed. --User:Alan Millar

Dude, you rock. And yes, it makes a lot of sense to credit the source. If nothing else, it lets newcomers know that we don't just stick pictures in from the web all willy-nilly. :-) It looks nicer this way. --User:Jimbo Wales

Size and Format

I am wondering if there is a standard size of the pictures that we should agree on. International Space Station seems to fit nicely in the article at its current size. Top of the page as the image location. Another example would be Osama bin Laden where the picture fits in perfectly. --- User:Jagged

I'd like to see Wikipedia adopt a standard size for a thumnail image to be included in the article. When the thumnail is clicked, another window opens with a larger view and a short caption. -- Stephen Gilbert

The policy we developed for Nupedia is that a highest-quality "source code" image should be uploaded somewhere, from which an appropriate-for-the-medium version will be made, and possibly a thumbnail as well at author's discretion. The source code might be input to a rendering program for chemical formulas or something, VRML, EPS or SVG for drawings, or high-resolution PNG for photographic images. This information should be preserved for later use, but sending a print-quality image over a phone line is not doing anyone any favors. Wikipedia needs a facility for uploading and saving this source data. Authors (or any stray editor) can make the smaller versions. --User:Lee Daniel Crocker

I really like that idea. The current facilities are somewhat limited but are workable. Essentially, all pictures right now are going into /images/uploads. We could do something like name.jpg for full size, name-thumbnail.jpg for small, and name-original.ext if the original is not JPEG or PNG. The namespace will fill up, but hopefully not too soon before we have some other way to manage it. Also, there is no index of the directory, so we have the potential to "lose" pictures if the link in the main article gets deleted. Any votes on what size the standard thumbnail should be? Remember the height/width ratio will be all different, so perhaps it should be something like "height or width not to exceed x " or something like that. I'm doing 240 pixels. --User:Alan Millar

Alan, the pictures are a wonderful addition, but are you sure they should be at the top of the page? Were I someone with a slow connection, I would want them at the bottom, so the text isn't affected by them, and there doesn't seem to be any obvious benefit to having them at the front.

 * Putting them at the top seems more traditional in an encyclopedia way. Of course we don't have to be traditional.  I like being able to see the photo then read about it.  I have noticed that both with IE 5.x and Netscape 4.7x on fast connections that the text gets displayed before the picture is downloaded. --- User:Jagged

If we stick with the thumbnail method, I think we should be fine with pictures at the top. All of the thumbnails I have submitted have been 10Kb to 20Kb at the biggest, which should load quickly enough. And as long as the picture is not in an HTML table, recent browsers (Netscape and IE 3.0 and up) will show the text instantly and then go back for the picture. -- User:Alan Millar

-  Thumbnails

I've been uploading some pics and for the most part, I've included small pics with a link to the full-sized image. See 2001 U.S. Attack on Afghanistan - there is a C-17 pic in the middle of the page. A small pic along with a link to the large pic is nice because a) it gives people an option of downloading the large pic, without requiring them to do so, and b) it can be placed anywhere within the article without disrupting the flow of the text, because it will not dominate the page.

So, should we try to make thumbs of all these images as a matter of course? This could probably be done semi-automatically. - Tim

Actually, the whole image process needs some restructuring. One of the good thinks about the Wiki system for text is that the links are relative reference within the wiki system. What I mean is that if I link to bear I could pick up these pages and drop them down on another domain name and it would still work. But if I link to http://www.wikipedia/wiki/Bear, I am stuck with a specific reference to this domain name and directory path structure. We need an analogous relative reference system for the images, kind of like subpages or something similar. Also, text can be edited and changed, but images cannot be removed, rename, or overwritten (and as of this moment there isn't even a real-time index of the image files). When we have some sort of better image file management, then something like auto-thumbnails would make sense. --User:Alan Millar

title: User:Amillar/Pictures


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Muckleshoot

The Muckleshoot Indian Tribe, also known as the Muckleshoot Tribe, is a federally-recognized tribe located in Auburn, Washington. The tribe governs the Muckleshoot Reservation and is composed of descendants of the Duwamish, Stkamish, Smulkamish, Skopamish, Yilalkoamish, and Upper Puyallup peoples. The Muckleshoot Indian Tribe was formally established in 1936, after the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, but its origins lie in the creation of the Muckleshoot Reservation in 1874 and the treaties of Medicine Creek (1854) and Point Elliott (1855).

Name
The name "Muckleshoot" is an anglicization of the Lushootseed word.

originally referred only to a prairie, located between the White and Green rivers, and never as a word to refer to the peoples living in this area. Prior to the establishment of the Muckleshoot reservation, the Indigenous peoples of the Green-White river systems were variously called "Green River Indians", "White River Indians", or by their native village terms (such as Skopamish). The name "Muckleshoot" was first recorded in a survey conducted by George Gibbs from 1853-1856, where he recorded "Mukl-shootl", as being a "prairie between the White and Green [rivers]. U.S. Military Station".

The term evolved from referring to a prairie, to referring to a military outpost on the prairie. After the reservation was established at the fort, it took the name of the prairie, and later, was applied to the Indians living at the reservation. The earliest recorded use of "Muckleshoot" to refer to a people was in 1864, by one John Montgomery, who described his wife as "an Indian woman of the Muckleshute Band of the Klikitat Tribe." Montgomery, like other settlers at the time, evidently referred to peoples east of the Cascade mountains indiscriminately as "Klikitats," and likely thought that the "Muckleshutes" of the Muckleshoot Reservation were a sub-group of the "Klikitats", due to close ties between the peoples of the Green and White rivers and the interior peoples. In 1868 and 1870, reports from the Commissioner of Indian Affairs described the "Muckleshoots" and the "Muckleshoot Tribe" living at the Muckleshoot reservation.

History
The Muckleshoot Indian Tribe is the successor of various groups which lived along the Duwamish River's watershed, and parts of the upper Puyallup River's watershed. These include the:

 * Duwamish
 * Stkamish
 * Smulkamish
 * Skopamish, the name for all peoples living along the Green River. This term covered eight to ten independent villages along the river, such as the Yilalkoamish.
 * Upper Puyallup peoples
 * Tkwakwamish

The Muckleshoot reservation
The origins of the Muckleshoot Indian Tribe lie in the 1854 Treaty of Medicine Creek and the 1855 Treaty of Point Elliott. Although the Stkamish, Skopamish, and Smulkamish bands are mentioned in the preamble to the Treaty of Point Elliott, they did not sign the treaty directly. Along with the Sammamish, they were assumed by the territorial governor of Washington Territory, Isaac Stevens, to be under the control of the Duwamish and Seattle. It was Stevens' desire to alter the traditional political organization of the Indigenous peoples in the area by appointing single "chiefs" as leaders of entire groups, noting the "difficulties in trying to control an indigenous population without strong chiefs and centralized authority." The decision of creating these political officices was not based on the indigenous social organization, and as such, Seattle was appointed as a "head chief" of a Duwamish Tribe that included all the peoples living along the Duwamish watershed, including the Green and White rivers' population. For this reason, the Muckleshoot Tribe has variously claimed that they have both a treaty and non-treaty status. Furthermore, the Muckleshoot Reservation exists on territory ceded by the Treaty of Point Elliott, but was dictated by the Treaty of Medicine Creek (and only the Medicine Creek treaty was ratified at the time), further contributing to the confusion.

The treaties were unpopular with many, and due to the continuing hostility, the Puget Sound War began shortly after, in 1855. The ancestral bands of the Muckleshoot joined the war against the American government. At the war's conclusion, during the Fox Island Council, governor Stevens agreed to the estalishment of a new reservation for groups who had not received a reservation under the prior treaties. At Fox Island, Stevens agreed that a reservation would be created in all the lands between the White and Green rivers, including Muckleshoot Prairie.

The Muckleshoot Reservation was eventually established on January 20, 1857 by an executive order from U.S. president Franklin Pierce. However, the reservation did not include all the land previously promised at the Fox Island Council, including traditional fishing and village sites. The reservation would be later expanded in 1874 by president Ulysses S. Grant.

Establishment of the Muckleshoot Indian Tribe
In 1934, the Indian Reorganization Act allowed Native Americans living on reservations to establish their own governments. The peoples of the Muckleshoot Reservation voted to establish the Muckleshoot Indian Tribe. In 1936, they established a constitution and bylaws. Around this time, in 1937, the Muckleshoot Tribe had 194 enrolled members.

Fights for treaty rights
The Muckleshoot Tribe were denied their land claims in Duwamish Indians v. United States, on the basis that there was no treaty with the "Muckleshoot". Later, however, in 1959, the Indian Claims Commission found that the ancestors of the Muckleshoot had possessed 101,620 acres of land, valued at $86,377. On March 8, 1959, the Commission ordered that the Muckleshoot Tribe be paid that amount by the United States. A large Army quartermaster depot was established in the Green River Valley at the south end of Auburn to take advantage of railways. It served the ports along Puget Sound, supporting the US war effort in the Pacific. In the post-World War II era, Auburn began to be more industrialized. Together with rapid population growth in the region, which developed many suburbs, these changes put pressure on the Muckleshoot and their reservation holdings. Many private land owners tried to prevent them from fishing and hunting in traditional territories.

In the 1960s and 1970s, the Muckleshoot engaged in a series of protests, intended at protecting their fragile ecosystem. Known as the Fish Wars, these protests attempted to preserve Muckleshoot fishing rights in nearby rivers that were not within the official reservation. County and state authorities had tried to regulate their fishing off-reservation. Similarly, the state tried to regulate other tribes in their fishing along the coastal waters.

In the Boldt Decision, the federal district court upheld the right of the Muckleshoot and other Treaty peoples to fish from the rivers of the region and hunt in these territories. It ruled that the Native Americans had rights to half the catch in their traditional areas. It designated the Muckleshoot as co-managers of the King County watershed, with control over fishing and hunting in their "Usual and Accustomed" historical fishing and hunting grounds.

While this improved the tribe's economic standing, the Muckleshoot were soon forced to contend with a sharp decline in the salmon population, due to the adverse effects on the environment, especially river water quality, of urbanization and industrialization. Dams on rivers had decreased the fish populations that could get upstream to spawn, and water quality in the rivers had declined. While they continue to fight for the preservation of the ancient salmon runs, the Muckleshoot also found other venues to improve their economy.

Government and politics
The Muckleshoot Tribe is beholden to their constitution, which was approved on May 13, 1936 and was ratified later that year, on October 21,1936. The primary governing body is the Muckleshoot Tribal Council, a nine-member elected body. The Tribal Council is subject to the General Council, which is composed of all citizens of the Muckleshoot Tribe.

The Muckleshoot Tribe is a member of an intertribal court system, which was formed in 1978.

Police
The reservation falls under Public Law 280 jurisdiction, with police services supplied by both King County and Auburn. The Muckleshoot Indian Tribe contracts with the King County Sheriff's Office for police services. As an unincorporated jurisdiction, the Tribe already receives base-level police services from the King County Sheriff's Office. Deputies assigned to the Muckleshoot reservation include six patrol officers, one school resource officer, a storefront deputy, a Muckleshoot Housing Authority deputy and one police chief assigned full-time to the reservation.

Muckleshoot Reservation
Most Muckleshoot citizens live on or near the 15.871 km2 Muckleshoot Reservation. The reservation is located between the White and Green rivers on Muckleshoot Prairie (47.26194°N, -122.14583°W), southeast of Auburn, Washington. The reservation is situated in parts of King and Pierce counties. Approximately 1,201 acres of the land on the reservation was in trust in 1975. On November 6, 2013, the Muckleshoot Tribe bought 150 mi2 of forest in Washington state to add to its landholdings.

Demographics
The Muckleshoot Tribe has an approximate population of more than 3,000, making the Muckleshoot one of the largest Native American tribes in Washington State. The 2000 census reported a resident population of 3,606 on reservation land, with 28.65 percent reported solely Native American heritage.

Culture
The Muckleshoot speak the southern dialect of Lushootseed, called Whulshootseed. The specific variety of Southern Lushootseed spoken at Muckleshoot is called. Use of the language has declined, and English is now the majority language. However, the tribe has been engaging in revitalizing the language. Muckleshoot citizens Earnie Barr, Eva Jerry, Bertha McJoe, Bernice Tanewasha, and Ellen Williams were involved in creating a written form for Lushootseed.

The Muckleshoot Tribe holds Skopabsh Days each August, which is a three-day festival that features traditional arts, crafts, cooking, and clothing. Additionally, each July, the Muckleshoot Tribe hosts the Muckleshoot Sobriety Powwow.

In the First Salmon Ceremony, the entire community shares the flesh of a Spring Chinook. They return its remains to the river where it was caught. This is so the salmon can inform the other fish of how well it was received. The other ceremony for the first salmon is to roast it until it becomes ashes. The Muckleshoot toss the bones and ashes back into the water or stream where they took the salmon, believing that the fish would come alive again (be part of a round of new propagation).

Economy and services
Most Muckleshoot citizens are employed by industries in the nearby city of Auburn, as well as by the tribal government. Others engage in fishing, logging, or agriculture on the reservation. The tribe manages fisheries and hatcheries, as well as a community center, community housing, a library, a medical and dental clinic, an educational training program, and a youth group program. In total, the tribe employs 1,200, and is the second-largest employer in southern King County.

Economic developments
The tribe won settlements from Puget Sound Power & Light for the long-term effects of dam construction and the state government for imposing sales taxes on the reservation. It used proceeds from the settlements, as well as revenue from a bingo hall, to purchase more than 800 acre of land on the reservation by 1995.

In 2006, the tribe made a $42 million agreement with the Seattle City Council for the conservation and protection of the Cedar River.

The Muckleshoot Tribe acquired the Salish Lodge at Snoqualmie Falls for $62.5 million in 2007. It sold the site to the Snoqualmie Tribe for $125 million in 2019.

Since 2019, the tribe has signed sponsorship agreements with the Seattle Seahawks and Seattle Mariners that include naming rights and jersey sponsorships. The Seattle Kraken began wearing a sponsorship patch with the Muckleshoot Tribe's logo during the 2023–24 NHL season. It is believed to be the first sponsorship of a tribe—rather than an Indian casino—in major professional American sports.

Muckleshoot Casino
The Muckleshoot Tribe opened the Muckleshoot Casino in April 1995, following changes to Native American gaming laws. The casino and bingo parlor, built with a tropical theme, included an off-track horse racing betting area. Since then, the facility has been expanded four times. The White River Amphitheatre was developed by the tribe on land adjacent to the casino and opened in June 2003. Revenue from these ventures funded the construction of a new tribal medical facility, tribal administrative offices, and a new Indian Shaker church in the early 2000s. Twenty percent of all revenue from tribal gaming is spent on education.

The Muckleshoot Casino was expanded in January 2024 with the opening of an 18-story hotel with 401 rooms. The casino itself was expanded to 300,000 sqft; a parking garage at the site opened in 2021.

Transportation
Since 2017, Muckleshoot Tribal Transit has offered free bus service on the reservation. The transit is funded by grants from the Federal Transit Administration and the Bureau of Indian Affairs.

Education
Education for the tribe is conducted by Muckleshoot Child Care, Muckleshoot Tribal Schools, and the Muckleshoot Tribal College. Muckleshoot Tribal Schools started in 1984, and provides education which emphasizes Indigenous history, art, dance, and culture, as well as language. In 1997, MTS began offering all high-school grades. A modern, K-12 school opened in 2009, providing access to academic and cultural learning as well as 21st century technology. Students can earn an associates degree at Muckleshoot Tribal College.

title: Muckleshoot