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Louis VII of France

Louis VII (1120 – 18 September 1180), called the Younger or the Young (le Jeune) to differentiate him from his father Louis VI, was King of France from 1137 to 1180. His first marriage was to Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine, one of the wealthiest and most powerful women in western Europe. The marriage temporarily extended the Capetian lands to the Pyrenees.

Louis was the second son of Louis VI of France and Adelaide of Maurienne, and was initially prepared for a career in the Church. Following the death of his older brother, Philip, in 1131, Louis became heir apparent to the French throne and was crowned as his father's co-ruler. In 1137, he married Eleanor and shortly thereafter became sole king following his father's death. During his march, as part of the Second Crusade in 1147, Louis stayed at the court of King Géza II of Hungary on the way to Jerusalem. During his stay in the Holy Land, disagreements with Eleanor led to a deterioration in their marriage. She persuaded him to stay in Antioch but Louis instead wanted to fulfil his vows of pilgrimage to Jerusalem. He was later involved in the failed siege of Damascus and eventually returned to France in 1149. Louis' reign saw the founding of the University of Paris. He and his counsellor, Abbot Suger, pushed for greater centralisation of the state and favoured the development of French Gothic architecture, notably the construction of Notre-Dame de Paris.

Louis' marriage to Eleanor was annulled in 1152 after the couple had produced two daughters, but no male heir. Immediately after their annulment, Eleanor married Henry, Duke of Normandy and Count of Anjou, to whom she conveyed Aquitaine. Following Henry's accession as King Henry II of England, these territories formed the Angevin Empire. Later, Louis supported Henry and Eleanor's sons in their rebellion against their father to foment further disunity in the Angevin realms. His second marriage to Constance of Castile also produced two daughters, but his third wife, Adela of Champagne, gave birth to a son, Philip Augustus. Louis died in 1180 and was succeeded by his son, Philip II.

Early life and education
Louis was born in 1120, the second son of Louis VI of France and Adelaide of Maurienne. The early education of the young Louis anticipated an ecclesiastical career. As a result, he became well learned and exceptionally devout, but his life course changed decisively after the accidental death of his older brother Philip in 1131, when Louis unexpectedly became the heir to the throne of France. In October 1131, his father had him anointed and crowned by Pope Innocent II in Reims Cathedral. He spent much of his youth in Saint-Denis, where he built a friendship with the abbot Suger, an advisor to his father who also served Louis during his early years as king.

Early reign

Following the death of Duke William X of Aquitaine, Louis VI moved quickly to have his son married to Eleanor of Aquitaine (who had inherited William's territory) on 25 July 1137. In this way, Louis VI sought to add the large, sprawling territory of the duchy of Aquitaine to his family's holdings in France. On 1 August 1137, shortly after the marriage, Louis VI died, and Louis became king. The pairing of the monkish Louis and the high-spirited Eleanor was doomed to failure; she reportedly once declared that she had thought to marry a king, only to find she had married a monk. There was a marked difference between the frosty, reserved culture of the northern court in the Île-de-France, where Louis had been raised, and the rich, free-wheeling court life of the Aquitaine with which Eleanor was familiar. Louis and Eleanor had two daughters, Marie and Alix.

In the first part of his reign, Louis was vigorous and zealous in the exercise of his prerogatives. His accession was marked by no disturbances other than uprisings by the burgesses of Orléans and Poitiers, who wished to organise communes. He soon came into violent conflict with Pope Innocent II, however, when the archbishopric of Bourges became vacant. The king supported the chancellor Cadurc as a candidate to fill the vacancy against the pope's nominee Pierre de la Chatre, swearing upon relics that so long as he lived, Pierre should never enter Bourges. The pope thus imposed an interdict upon the king.

Louis then became involved in a war with Theobald II of Champagne by permitting Raoul I of Vermandois, the seneschal of France, to repudiate his wife, Theobald II's sister, and to marry Petronilla of Aquitaine, sister of the queen of France. As a result, Champagne decided to side with the pope in the dispute over Bourges. The war lasted two years (1142–44) and ended with the occupation of Champagne by the royal army. Louis was personally involved in the assault and burning of the town of Vitry-en-Perthois. At least 1,500 people who had sought refuge in the church died in the flames. Condemned by the ecclesiastical authorities, Louis removed his armies from Champagne and returned them to Theobald. He accepted Pierre de la Chatre as archbishop of Bourges and shunned Raoul and Petronilla. Desiring to atone for his sins, he declared his intention of mounting a crusade on Christmas Day 1145 at Bourges. Bernard of Clairvaux assured its popularity by his preaching at Vezelay on Easter 1146.

In the meantime, Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou, completed his conquest of Normandy in 1144. In exchange for being recognised as Duke of Normandy by Louis, Geoffrey surrendered half of the county of Vexin—a region vital to Norman security—to Louis. Considered a clever move by Louis at the time, it would later prove yet another step towards Angevin rule.

In June 1147, in fulfillment of his vow to mount the Second Crusade, Louis and his queen set out from the Basilica of Saint-Denis, first stopping in Metz on the overland route to Syria. Soon they arrived in the Kingdom of Hungary, where they were welcomed by the king Géza II of Hungary, who was already waiting with King Conrad III of Germany. Due to his good relationships with Louis, Géza II asked the French king to be his son Stephen's godfather. Relations between the kingdoms of France and Hungary remained cordial long after this time: decades later, Louis's daughter Margaret was taken as wife by Géza's son Béla III of Hungary. After receiving provisions from Géza, the armies continued the march to the East. Just beyond Laodicea at Honaz, the French army was ambushed by Turks. In the resulting battle of Mount Cadmus, the Turks first bombarded the French with arrows and heavy stones, then swarmed down from the mountains and massacred them. The historian Odo of Deuil gives this account: During the fighting the King Louis lost his small and famous royal guard, but he remained in good heart and nimbly and courageously scaled the side of the mountain by gripping the tree roots [...] The enemy climbed after him, hoping to capture him, and the enemy in the distance continued to fire arrows at him. But God willed that his cuirass should protect him from the arrows, and to prevent himself from being captured he defended the crag with his bloody sword, cutting off many heads and hands.

Louis and his army finally reached the Holy Land in 1148. His queen Eleanor supported her uncle, Raymond of Poitiers, and prevailed upon Louis to help Antioch against Aleppo. But Louis's interest lay in Jerusalem, and so he slipped out of Antioch in secret. He united with King Conrad III of Germany and King Baldwin III of Jerusalem to lay siege to Damascus; this ended in disaster and the project was abandoned. Louis decided to leave the Holy Land, despite the protests of Eleanor, who still wanted to help her doomed uncle Raymond. Louis and the French army returned home in 1149.

A shift in the status quo
The expedition to the Holy Land came at a great cost to the royal treasury and military. It also precipitated a conflict with Eleanor that led to the annulment of their marriage. Perhaps the marriage to Eleanor might have continued if the royal couple had produced a male heir, but this had not occurred. The Council of Beaugency found an exit clause, declaring that Louis and Eleanor were too closely related for their marriage to be legal, thus the marriage was annulled on 21 March 1152. The pretext of kinship was the basis for annulment, but in fact, it owed more to the state of hostility between Louis and Eleanor, with a decreasing likelihood that their marriage would produce a male heir to the throne of France. On 18 May 1152, Eleanor married the Count of Anjou, the future King Henry II of England. She gave him the duchy of Aquitaine and bore him three daughters and five sons. Louis led an ineffective war against Henry for having married without the authorisation of his suzerain. The result was a humiliation for the enemies of Henry and Eleanor, who saw their troops routed, their lands ravaged, and their property stolen. Louis reacted by coming down with a fever and returned to the Île-de-France.

In 1154, Louis married Constance of Castile, daughter of King Alfonso VII of Castile. She also failed to supply him with a son and heir, bearing only two daughters, Margaret and Alys. By 1157, Henry II of England began to believe that Louis might never produce a male heir, and that the succession of France would consequently be left in question. Determined to secure a claim for his family, he sent his chancellor, Thomas Becket, to press for a marriage between Margaret and Henry's heir, Henry the Young King. Louis agreed to this proposal, and by the Treaty of Gisors (1158) betrothed the young pair, giving as a dowry the Norman city of Gisors and the surrounding county of Vexin.

Louis was devastated when Constance died in childbirth on 4 October 1160. As he was desperate for a son, he married Adela of Champagne just 5 weeks later. To counterbalance the advantage this would give the king of France, Henry II had the marriage of their children (Henry "the Young King" and Margaret) celebrated at once. Louis understood the danger of the growing Angevin power; however, through indecision and a lack of fiscal and military resources in comparison to Henry II, he failed to oppose Angevin hegemony effectively. One of his few successes was a trip to Toulouse in 1159 to aid Raymond V, Count of Toulouse, who had been attacked by Henry II: Louis entered into the city with a small escort, claiming to be visiting his sister, the countess. Henry declared that he could not attack the city while his liege lord was inside, and went home. In 1169, Louis was petitioned by the bishop of Le Puy to stop the Viscount of Polignac from attacking travelers through Auvergne. The viscount was besieged by Louis at Nonette and the county was turned into a prévôt.

Diplomacy
Louis' reign saw Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I press his claims to Arles, in southeastern France. When a papal schism broke out in 1159, Louis took the side of Pope Alexander III, the enemy of Frederick I, and after two comical failures of Frederick I to meet Louis at Saint-Jean-de-Losne (on 29 August and 22 September 1162), Louis definitely gave himself up to the cause of Alexander III, who lived at Sens from 1163 to 1165. In return for his loyal support, the pope bestowed upon Louis the Golden Rose.

More important for English history would be Louis's support for Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, whom he tried to reconcile with Henry II. Louis sided with Becket as much to damage Henry as out of piety—yet even he grew irritated with the stubbornness of the archbishop, asking when Becket refused Henry's conciliations, "Do you wish to be more than a Saint?"

Louis also tried to weaken Henry by supporting his rebellious sons, and encouraged Plantagenet disunity by making Henry's sons, rather than Henry himself, the feudal overlords of the Angevin territories in France. But the rivalry among Henry's sons and Louis's own indecisiveness broke up the coalition (1173–1174) between them. Finally, in 1177, the pope intervened to bring the two kings to terms at Vitry-en-Perthois.

In 1165, Louis's third wife bore him a son and heir, Philip. Louis had him crowned at Reims in 1179, in the Capetian tradition (Philip would in fact be the last king so crowned). Already stricken with paralysis, Louis himself could not be present at the ceremony. He died on 18 September 1180 in Paris and was buried the next day at Barbeau Abbey, which he had founded. His remains were moved to the Basilica of Saint-Denis in 1817.

Marriages and children
Louis' children by his three marriages:

With Eleanor of Aquitaine:
 * Marie (1145 – 11 March 1198), married Henry I of Champagne
 * Alix (1151–1197/1198), married Theobald V of Blois

With Constance of Castile:
 * Margaret (1158 – August/September 1197), married (1) Henry the Young King; (2) King Béla III of Hungary
 * Alys (4 October 1160 – c. 1220), engaged to Richard I of England; she married William IV, Count of Ponthieu

With Adela of Champagne:
 * Philip II Augustus (22 August 1165 – 1223)
 * Agnes (1171 – after 1204), married 1) Alexius II Comnenus (1180–1183), 2) Andronicus I Comnenus (1183–1185), then 3) Theodore Branas (1204)

Fictional portrayals
Louis is a character in Jean Anouilh's 1959 play Becket. In the 1964 film adaptation, he was portrayed by John Gielgud, who was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. He was also portrayed by Charles Kay in the 1978 BBC TV drama series The Devil's Crown. He has a role in Sharon Kay Penman's novels When Christ and His Saints Slept and Devil's Brood. The early part of Norah Lofts' biography of Eleanor of Aquitaine deals considerably with Louis, seen through Eleanor's eyes and giving her side in their problematic relationship. Louis is one of the main characters in Elizabeth Chadwick's novel The Summer Queen.

title: Louis VII of France


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343

Year 343 (CCCXLIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Memmius and Romulus (or, less frequently, year 1096 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 343 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * The Western Roman Emperor Constans I is in Britain, possibly in a military campaign against the Picts and Scots. The last visit to Britain by a legitimate emperor.
 * The Eastern Roman Emperor Constantius II campaigns in Adiabene, a vassal kingdom of Armenia (Persian Empire).

Religion

 * Pope Julius I tries to unite the Western bishops against Arianism by convoking the Council of Serdica (later Sofia), which acknowledges the pope's supreme authority and grants him the right to judge cases involving the legal possession of episcopal sees, but only Western and Egyptian bishops attend, and Arianism remains strong.

Births

 * Fu Deng, Chinese emperor of the Di state Former Qin (d. 394)
 * Jin Mudi, Chinese emperor of the Eastern Jin Dynasty (d. 361)
 * Xiao Wenshou (or Xiaoyi), Chinese empress dowager (d. 423)
 * Xie Xuan, Chinese general of the Jin Dynasty (d. 388)

Deaths

 * December 6 – Saint Nicholas (or Santa Claus) (b. 270)
 * Li Shou (or Wukao), Chinese emperor of Cheng Han (b. 300)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Talk:Abstraction in object-oriented programming

There is a vast array of obsolete crap out there regarding programming languages and especially how the so-called "abstraction" in OOP is supposed to relate to the real world's relationships. 99.999% of this is garbage, and bears no relation to prototype theory in perceptual and cognitive psychology as it is understood today, e.g. most descriptions of "finding the objects", e.g. most descriptions of "domain analysis", make bizarre ontological assumptions.

Whatever is said in this encyclopedia about OOP, and I hope it's not much, ought to respect the Governing Operational distinctions made at run time by all computer programs in execution... we should make no claim for an abstraction to actually represent more than the operation distinctions that it includes. See essay "Class Names Considered Dangerous" by I forget who... or "The Cruelty of Really Teaching Computer Science" by Dykstra. Someone who doesn't understand why Governing Operational distinctions (as made by the pigs, cows, commodity markets and computer processor) are not the same as the Governing Ontological distinctions (as made by the farmer, programmer, and consumer) hasn't understood "doing" versus "seeing" yet, and should be kept away from all computers. This article wsa on the edge of that madness, but it was pulled back slightly, and I think we should make this as good as we can before creating a vast array of crap files laying out some Java-specific terminology from someone who hasn't been doing this for 15 years in 6 languages in all types of work environments..

Clearly LDC is one of those people, once again buggering things he does not understand. Polymorphism and inheritance are ways of increasing abstraction, of substitution and structure respectively. They have to be mentioned here.

It appears that most Java programmers do not comprehend that abstraction is more than encapsulation or type renaming. That's fair, as Java is not really OO in the sense of CLOS or Trellis or Eiffel or even Smalltalk.

As it stands, the article is misleading, although somewhat more generalized. An attempt to define "abstraction" as encapsulation, as this article does, is simply going to fail - there is no point differentiating type abstraction (encapsulation) from operational abstraction (polymorphism) from the structural abstraction required to achieve it (inheritance) in the damaged terms LDC has left us here.

I've been programming for over 20 years, in about 10 languages. I know what I'm talking about and I know how to explain it well. I will not allow articles on Wikipedia to become useless. -- Lee Daniel Crocker

 * Well, I believe you, since you can see that the fix to object-oriented programming is in the right direction. Look, this is one of the most confusing subjects in the world as it overlaps with all other ways of making Governing Operational distinctions, i.e. choosing actions.  Patience is required.  Neither of us learned this overnight, and I suspect we've both taught it a fair bit.  My OOP is somewhat older, 1985-98, but broad:  Smalltalk, LISP, Eiffel, Trellis, CLOS, Objective-C, C++, C++, more C++, Java (which turned me off the subject permanently).  I suspect my experience is deeper and yours more recent.   I'm happy to leave detailed description of the concepts to you if the ideas of problem domain analysis, solution domain or legacy analysis, and the overall feature breakdown of OOP languages is right.  But trying to tell me I'm "confused" is really laughable, I think 24
 * I am immensely glad to hear that you "will not allow articles on Wikipedia to become useless" but that does somewhat beg the question of "for whom"? If not the three billionth user, who?  Your explanation is adequate for a Java programmer, but "abstraction" is really the root concept that motivates encapsulation (abstracting data structure), polymorphism (deep abstraction across types), and inheritance (facilitating the above with an encapsulated delegation structure).  There should be at least that much said here. 24

The likely audience for this article is someone who might understand basic programming concepts, maybe he's done some BASIC or shell scripting, but he's heard everyone use the "OO" buzzwords and wonders what the big deal is. Or maybe he's a college freshman wanting to know if he should take an OO class. Or maybe he's a Perl 4 programmer who wants to understand the concepts behind Perl 5's objects. I want these explanations to be simple and general, with a few specific examples in specific languages. If we can also lead the reader to other author's more detailed ideas, specifically to those of prominent authors like Booch and Meyer, that's OK too. I don't want to bog down an article about what is really a fairly simple design metaphor for programming with stuff about real-world philosophy and ontology. And I never called you confused, I called you confusing. If I can't understand half your stuff, then nobody can. --LDC
 * fine, I agree, but that "fairly simple design metaphor" becomes impossible to reconcile with "real-world philosophy and ontology" i.e. real problem solving, if one is not very careful with all terms from the very beginning. I agree with your priorities, though, and since it is confusing to hear so many explanations of so many languages, a little "editorializing" to warn them of the overlapping use of terms, e.g. polymorphism as means to abstract operations facilitated by many means, vs. polymorphism as one consequence of inheritance.  Anyway, it reads fine now, and the more general stuff re domain analysis and legacy analysis is not specific to OOP but applies to all forms of DB and program design.  So you're right, mention of it sould be in a more general article.  Hard to know also where to link it to ontology.  24


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342

Year 342 (CCCXLII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Constantius and Claudius (or, less frequently, year 1095 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 342 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Constans I campaigns in Britain against the Picts.
 * Constans campaigns victoriously against the Franks.
 * The Senate abolishes gay marriage.

Asia

 * A large earthquake strikes Cyprus.
 * Goguryeo is invaded by Murong Huang of the Xianbei.
 * Jin Kangdi succeeds his brother Jin Chengdi as emperor of China.

Religion

 * Paul I, Patriarch of Constantinople, is deposed and replaced by Macedonius I.
 * February 15 – The original Hagia Sophia is dedicated in Constantinople.

Births

 * Fei of Jin (or Sima Yi), Chinese emperor (d. 386)

Deaths

 * July 26 – Chen of Jin (or Sima Yan), Chinese emperor (b. 321)
 * Barsabias, Christian abbot, missionary and martyr
 * Paul of Thebes, Christian hermit (approximate date)
 * Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis VI, Roman client king

title: 342


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341

Year 341 (CCCXLI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Marcellinus and Probinus (or, less frequently, year 1094 ab Urbe condita). The denomination 341 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years or dates.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Constans I bans pagan sacrifices and magic rituals, under penalty of death.
 * Constans I begins a successful campaign against the Franks.

India

 * Samudragupta of the Gupta Empire, during a decade, extends his kingdom and his influence. A pillar found at Allahabad sings his praises.

Religion

 * The Council of Encaenia is held in Antioch.
 * Paul I is restored as Patriarch of Constantinople.
 * Thousands of Christians are executed at Seleucia in Mesopotamia.
 * Coptic Christianity is introduced into Ethiopia by the Syrian apostle Frumentius. He and his colleague Aedesius ware captured by Ethiopians a year or two ago, and have become civil servants at the Aksumite court of King Ezana. Ezana is impressed with Frumentius' teachings and converts to Christianity. Frumentius becomes the first Bishop of Axum and encourages the Christian merchants present in the country to practise their faith openly.

Births

 * Ai of Jin (or Qianling), Chinese emperor (d. 365)

Deaths

 * Asterius of Cappadocia, Christian theologian and writer
 * Du Lingyang (or Du Ling), Chinese empress (b. 321)
 * Eusebius of Nicomedia, archbishop of Constantinople
 * Ge Hong (or Ko Hung), Chinese taoist (approximate date)
 * Paul of Thebes, Christian hermit (approximate date)
 * Potamon of Heraclea, Christian bishop and martyr

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Mitsubishi

The Mitsubishi Group (三菱グループ) is a group of autonomous Japanese multinational companies in a variety of industries.

Founded by Yatarō Iwasaki in 1870, the Mitsubishi Group traces its origins to the Mitsubishi zaibatsu, a unified company that existed from 1870 to 1946. The company, along with other major zaibatsu, was disbanded during the occupation of Japan following World War II by the order of the Allies. Despite the dissolution, the former constituent companies continue to share the Mitsubishi brand and trademark.

While the group of companies engages in limited business cooperation, most notably through monthly “Friday Conference” executive meetings, they remain formally independent and are not under common control. The three main entities (gosanke) are Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group (the largest bank in Japan), Mitsubishi Corporation (a general trading company), and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (diversified manufacturing companies). A 2020 estimate concluded that all the Mitsubishi companies combined generate 7.7% of the total revenue of all publicly traded companies in Japan, and the group’s assets amount to 433 trillion yen.

History
The Mitsubishi company was established as a shipping firm by Iwasaki Yatarō (1834–1885) in 1870 under the name "Tsukumo Shokai" (九十九商会). In 1873, its name was changed to Mitsubishi Shokai; consists of two parts: "mitsu" (三) meaning "three" (as in the three oak leaves from the crest of the Yamauchi or Tosa family that ruled over Yatarō's birthplace and employed him) and "hishi" (菱, which becomes "bishi" under rendaku) meaning "water caltrop", and hence "rhombus", which is reflected in the company's logo. It is also translated as "three diamonds".

Mitsubishi was established in 1870, two years after the Meiji Restoration, with shipping as its core business. Its diversification was mostly into related fields. It entered into coal-mining to gain the coal needed for ships, bought a shipbuilding yard from the government to repair the ships it used, founded an iron mill to supply iron to the shipbuilding yard, started a marine insurance business to cater for its shipping business, and so forth. Later, the managerial resources and technological capabilities acquired through the operation of shipbuilding were used to expand the business further into the manufacture of aircraft and equipment. The experience of overseas shipping led the firm to enter into a trading business. In 1881, the company bought into coal mining by acquiring the Takashima Mine, followed by Hashima Island in 1890, using the production to fuel their extensive steamship fleet. They also diversified into shipbuilding, banking, insurance, warehousing, and trade. Later diversification carried the organization into such sectors as paper, steel, glass, electrical equipment, aircraft, oil, and real estate. As Mitsubishi built a broadly based conglomerate, it played a central role in the modernization of Japanese industry. In 1894, Hisaya Iwasaki succeeded his uncle Yanosuke as president. During his tenure until 1916, he modernised the Nagasaki Shipyard and developed Marunouchi as a business district.

Hisaya was succeded by his cousin Koyata in 1916, and during his time as president the group saw a significant expansion. In 1917, he funded the establishment of an optics company and became the majority shareholder, which later became Nikon. During this era, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries was at the forefront of Japan’s aircraft development. He reorganised the group into a form similar to what it is now, and he spun off each department into a subsidiary. Most of them later went public, as he thought that for the sake of the expansion of business, more core capital was needed.

The group was organised as follows:
 * Mitsubishi Bank (now a part of the Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group) was founded in 1919. After its mergers with the Bank of Tokyo in 1996, and UFJ Holdings in 2004, this became Japan's largest bank.
 * Mitsubishi Corporation, founded in 1950, Japan's largest general trading company
 * Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, which includes these industrial companies:
 * Mitsubishi Motors, the sixth-largest Japan-based car manufacturer.
 * Mitsubishi Atomic Industry, a nuclear power company.
 * Mitsubishi Chemical, the largest Japan-based chemicals company
 * Mitsubishi Power, the energy systems division
 * Nikon Corporation, specializing in optics and imaging.

The firm's prime real estate holdings in the Marunouchi district of Tokyo, acquired in 1890, were spun off in 1937 to form Mitsubishi Estate, now one of the largest real estate development companies in Japan.

World War II
During the Second World War, which was often advertised in government propaganda as a total war, Mitsubishi was a key player in the nation’s wartime economy. Educated in England and having many business firends and partners in the Anglosphere, Koyata was opposed to fighting a war against the Allies. However, he famously stated in his speech on 10 December 1941 that once the country had decided to wage a war with the United States and the British Empire, each member of the company ought to serve the country in fulfilling its only goal, but the company should not forget what it owed to people in these countries.

Arguably, one of the most tangible ways in which Mitsubishi was involved in the war was through its supply of ships, aircraft and other arms by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries. The Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighter, designed by Dr. Jiro Horikoshi was the primary fighter of the Imperial Navy. Production of these equipments made Mistubishi factories one of the main targets for allies attack, and in one factory the death toll among its workers amounted to 494 in just a week. Mitsubishi Mining was involved in the forced labour of Allied prisoners of war and people from Japan's colonies and occupied territories such as Korea and parts of China. The company's Iizuka mine counted 19 deaths of Chinese labourers during the war. In 2015, Mitsubishi Materials (formerly Mitsubishi Mining) compensated 3,765 Chinese labourers who were conscripted to the company during the war and apologised to ex-American prisoners of war. Mitsubishi was involved in the opium trade in China during this period.

Dissolusion and reorganisation of the unified Mitsubishi
After the Second World War, under the Allied Occupation's policy to dissolve zaibatsu, the Mitsubishi conglomerate underwent significant restructuring. Until the Cold War made the Eastern Bloc more menacing than the possible revival of a strong Japan and Germany, the occupation forces’ initial aim, just like in Germany, was to weaken the Japanese economy so that the country could never wage war against them. Under this policy, Mitsubishi as a group was dissolved. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and Mitsubishi Chemical were split into three separate entities. On his deathbed, Koyata Iwasaki staunchly defended his actions, asserting that he had done his utmost for his country and had nothing to be ashamed of. Despite his resistance, he could not defy the tide of the times. His cousin, Hisaya Iwasaki, president of Mitsubishi Partnership Company at the time, expressed his frustration with the situation, noting that the company had been stripped bare, leaving only his ancestral land in Tosa and a mausoleum in Tokyo. His main residence in Shitaya was requisitioned by the American military, and Hisaya had to temporarily rent rooms in his former house.

Due to the zaibatsu dissolution, Mitsubishi Estate was split into two companies, Kanto Real Estate and Yowa Real Estate. Yowa Real Estate owned a significant portion of the land between the Imperial Palace and Tokyo Station, including the Marunouchi Building. In 1952, an incident occurred where two men, Kuniichiro Fujiami and Shomitsu Tajima, who were closely linked to infamous yakuza, attempted to take over Yowa Real Estate by becoming majority shareholders, as the market capitalisation of the company was significantly less than its real estate holdings. They greenmailed, and other Mitsubishi companies had to buy the shares from them at an unjustly high price. This incident accelerated Mitsubishi’s reintegration. In 1954, Mitsubishi Corporation was reformed, and the Mitsubishi Friday Club was established to foster camaraderie and information exchange among the chairpersons and presidents of major Mitsubishi companies. By 1964, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries also remerged. The Friday Club symbolised the formation of an equal group of companies, rather than the revival of the pre-war Mitsubishi zaibatsu with Mitsubishi Headquarters at the apex.

Contemporary Mitsubishi Group
In 1970, Mitsubishi companies established the Mitsubishi Foundation to commemorate the centennial anniversary of the founding of the first Mitsubishi company. The companies also individually maintain charitable foundations. Mitsubishi pavilions have been highlights of expositions in Japan since EXPO'70 in Osaka in the 1970s to 1980s.

Business form
The Mitsubishi Group is made up of about 40 individual companies without a controlling parent company. Each of the Mitsubishi companies owns substantial (but usually not controlling) portions of the shares of the others.

Twenty-nine of the group companies participate in the Friday Conference (金曜会), a luncheon meeting of their most senior executives held on the second Friday of each month. The group began its tradition of monthly executive meetings in 1952, and over time the meetings became a venue for coordinating policy between the group companies. By the 1990s, this practice was criticized (particularly by non-Japanese investors) as a possible violation of antitrust law. Since 1993, the Friday Conference has officially been held as a social function, and not for the purpose of discussing or coordinating business strategy. Despite this, the Friday Conference has been a venue for informal cooperation and coordination between the group companies, most notably in bailing out Mitsubishi Motors during the mid 2000s.

In addition to the Friday Conference, the group companies' heads of general affairs hold a meeting on the third Monday of each month, and the group companies' legal and IP departments hold a trademark policy coordination meeting on the first Friday of each month.

The company briefly dabbled in television during the early 1990s, when it inked a deal with Westinghouse Broadcasting International to become the Japanese distribution representative.

Core members
Three of the group companies are informally known as the "Three Great Houses" (御三家) and hold a separate coordinating meeting prior to each Friday Conference:
 * Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group
 * Mitsubishi Corporation
 * Mitsubishi Heavy Industries

Ten other "major" group companies participate in the coordinating meeting on a rotating basis (with six of the ten companies participating in any given month):

 * AGC Inc.
 * Kirin Company
 * Meiji Yasuda Life
 * Mitsubishi Chemical Holdings
 * Mitsubishi Electric
 * Mitsubishi Estate
 * Mitsubishi Materials
 * Mitsubishi UFJ Trust and Banking Corporation
 * NYK Line (Nippon Yusen Kabushiki Kaisha)
 * Tokio Marine Nichido

Other members

 * ENEOS Holdings
 * Mitsubishi Fuso Truck and Bus Corporation
 * Mitsubishi Logistics
 * Mitsubishi Motors
 * Mitsubishi Paper Mills
 * Mitsubishi Plastics
 * Mitsubishi Rayon
 * Mitsubishi Research Institute
 * Mitsubishi Shindoh
 * Mitsubishi Steel Manufacturing
 * MSSC

 * Mitsubishi UFJ Securities
 * Nikon
 * P.S. Mitsubishi Construction

Related organizations

 * Atami Yowado
 * Chitose Kosan
 * Dai Nippon Toryo
 * The Dia Foundation for Research on Ageing Societies
 * Diamond Family Club
 * Kaitokaku
 * Koiwai Noboku Kaisha
 * LEOC Japan
 * Marunouchi Yorozu
 * Meiwa Corp.
 * Mitsubishi Agricultural Machinery
 * Mitsubishi C&C Research Association
 * Mitsubishi Club
 * Mitsubishi Corporate Name and Trademark Committee
 * Mitsubishi Economic Research Institute
 * Mitsubishi Electric Automation
 * Mitsubishi Foundation
 * Mitsubishi Kinyokai
 * Mitsubishi Marketing Association
 * Mitsubishi Motors North America
 * Mitsubishi Public Affairs Committee
 * The Mitsubishi Yowakai Foundation
 * MT Insurance Service
 * Nippon TCS Solution Center
 * Seikadō Bunko Art Museum
 * Shonan Country Club
 * Sotsu Corporation
 * Tōyō Bunko
 * Seikei University
 * All Mitsubishi Lions

title: Mitsubishi


text:
CMM

CMM may refer to

Science and technology

 * Capability Maturity Model, a tool for assessing processes in organizations during software development
 * Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis, plant pathogen subspecies
 * Cluster management module, part of a Motorola Canopy system
 * Color management module, a term in color management
 * Conditional Markov model or maximum-entropy Markov model
 * Coordinate-measuring machine, a device for dimensional measuring
 * Coordinated management of meaning, a communications theory
 * Cybersecurity maturity model, a type of maturity model
 * C--, also pronounced Cmm, a programming language

Mathematics

 * The wallpaper group cmm (2*22)

Organisations

 * Canadian Methodist Mission
 * Center for Mathematical Modeling, a research institute in Chile
 * Centre de Morphologie Mathématique (Center of Mathematical Morphology), a research center of the École des Mines de Paris in France
 * Chhattisgarh Mukti Morcha, a political party in India
 * Congregation of the Missionaries of Mariannhill

Other uses

 * Commander of the Order of Military Merit, a Canadian decoration
 * Communauté métropolitaine de Montréal (CMM), French name of the Montreal Metropolitan Community (MMC), part of Greater Montreal
 * Corpus mensurabilis musicae, a collection of polyphonic vocal music of the Renaissance

title: CMM


text:
Talk:Circuit Paul Ricard

Removal of irrelevant material
Removed this stuff from the article... couldn't see what it has to do with Paul Ricard! Enchanter —Preceding undated comment added 15:31, 9 April 2002 (UTC).

"Marathon Background:

Specially designed cars are designed for extremely low fuel consumption. These cars give a very high number of miles per gallon. The challenge is to provide the driver with information on how to operate the car in such a way that it produces the most number of miles per gallon. Even though a considerable amount of success is due to the manufacturer, the critical success is usually based on the drivers.

The Cars: The cars are produced with a single gear operational engine. The engine is operated or turned off during the circuit. The switching of the engine allows the drive to maintain an optimum speed. As the weight of the car is of such importance the drivers are usually young children who are light and small. Simple instructions have to be provided to them on how to operate the cars. The car structures are usually use a monocoque, for aerodynamic advantage, and low to the ground and lightweight.

The Kings' car The car has three wheels, weighs 38 Kg and it is powered by a purpose built 28-cc 4-stroke engine. The engine accelerates the car up to 20 mph in about 8 seconds and the car then coasts for up to 2 minutes. The driver for such car is required to wait 25 Kg, that corresponds to a eleven-year-old.

For more information you can visit us at: http://eddy.mech.kcl.ac.uk/usr/users/group4/website/index2.html"

Expand using official site
I added a link to the official site, which has much more information than is contained here about the track and its history. I'm too lazy to update the entry myself, but I think it should be done :) Mactenchi 18:43, 25 April 2006 (UTC)

redirect
Please stop redirecting Paul Ricard here.Zigzig20s 08:04, 10 May 2007 (UTC)

Incorrect title
The correct name of this venue is Circuit Paul Ricard. This page should be moved to that title and this one made to a redirect. Twirly Pen ( Speak up ) 12:57, 20 February 2016 (UTC)

 * Resolved. Twirly Pen  ( Speak up ) 21:20, 20 February 2016 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. Community Tech bot (talk) 11:36, 24 June 2018 (UTC)
 * Circut Paul Ricard 2018 layout map.png
 * Note: Only two editors have weighed in on this nomination. Perhaps other editors here can do the same? -- Scjessey (talk) 12:07, 30 June 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Circuit Paul Ricard


text:
Talk:Ungulate

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 17 February 2021 and 28 May 2021. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): McKenzieKay.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 11:58, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Cetaceans and Hyracoids and Xenarthrans, oh my!
I am confused by the following statement, and am unsure exactly what it means: "Suggestions that Cetaceans and Hyracoids are not closest to at least some other ungulates are out of favour, and so is the suggestion that the aardvark is related to South American Xenarthrans." The author seems to be trying to cram too many bits of information into the same sentence, resulting in double-negatives and other confusing constructions. I'm unclear as to whether this is saying that it's currently favored (believed) that cetaceans/hyracoids are related to other ungulates, or that it's currently favored that they're not. I'm also unclear as to whether it's implying that the aardvark's standing is in some way related to the cetacean/hyracoid question. Also, in what way does the aardvark/xenarthrans question specifically apply to ungulates (is it being implied that if aardvarks are related to xenarthrans then they are ungulates? or is it that if they are related then they're not ungulates? or is this just a tangential issue?). Could somebody clarify a bit, as I'm lost here?

The whole "Relationships" section seems to be really confusing and could use some rework, in my opinion. I'd tackle this myself but I'm not sure what it's actually supposed to be saying in some bits, so... -- Foogod 22:39, 29 December 2005 (UTC)

Everything in that sentence is stated somewhere else in the realtionships section more clearly, so I'm deleting it. It means that whales(Cetacea) are considered related to the even toed ungulates(Artiodactyla), and hyraxes(Hyracoidea) are considered related to the elephants(Proboscidea) and sea cows(Sirenia). Aardvarks(Tubulidentata) are no longer considered to be closely related to the anteaters, armadillos, and sloths(Xenarthra). anonymous 17:30, 3 August 2006 (UTC)

Pandas are bears
I can only assume from the definition of ungulate here, and the definition of bear and panda, that the entry of pandas as a type of ungulate is vandalism that has been ignored for ages. Bears are not ungulates. There have been a few questions as to the exact genetics of the panda, but nobody suggests any relation between pandas and ungulates. Thank you. 131.212.62.99 00:16, 1 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Agreed that pandas are not ungulates, but what is this list doing at the start of the article in the first place? It seems to have been added just today, and looks misplaced.
 * Cephal-odd 01:48, 1 October 2006 (UTC)

Actually not even horses are ungulates, as it seems after all. Due to most other articles related to mammal orders Perittodactyla (horses, rhinos, tapirs) are more closely related to Carnivora (cats, dogs, bears, badgers, seals etc), Chiroptera (bats) and Pholidota (pangolins)... —Preceding unsigned comment added by 92.118.191.48 (talk) 14:52, 30 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Wrong: The term "ungulate" refers to any mammal with hooves. As such, all perissodactyls are ungulates.  The only problem is that the taxon "Ungulata" is a polyphyletic taxon.--Mr Fink (talk) 15:31, 30 April 2008 (UTC)

List of common names of ungulates
I think this article would be much more useful if it gave the common names of animals that are considered ungulates, instead of just the Latin names. For example, deer, camel, antelope, rhino (?), etc. The vast majority of people are not going to have any idea what the Latin names mean, and would appreciate a more accessible layperson's explanation. Amber Kerr 21:32, 15 January 2007 (UTC)Amber Kerr

Elephants are or aren't ungulates?
This is aways confusing me, why some say an elephant an ungulate while others say it's not. ERRRRRRRRRRGHH! Why cant they just make there minds UP!!!!!!!!!!!!! From 4444hhhh
 * Some experts regard only Perissodactyla and Artiodactyla as the only "true" ungulates, other experts regard Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, Dinocerata, Embrithopoda, the South American "ungulates," elephants, and hyraxes as being ungulates.--Mr Fink 03:42, 28 February 2007 (UTC)

Oh, well, thank you! From 4444hhhh

Taxon
When I read this article I have no trust that is isn't a confused mess of several different views of ungulates (evidence and taxonomy). I find it difficult to have confidence in any of it. The "Orders & Clades" box has orders within orders within orders. Someone who knows about these matters should base the article on some specific modern classification (named and sourced) and discuss evidence and older classifications on that basis. 88888 15:02, 10 March 2007 (UTC)

Template and Project
Hi, if everyone sees my template that I made, well, I want some of you guys to suggest ideas about the template either on my page, or on this talk page, along with putting this on every page. Second, I think we should need a Wikiproject Ungulate as well, so we could make all the hoof mammal pages right. But, like I said, give me ideas. While thinking about it, I'm putting the template on each family page. From User:4444hhhh
 * I'm sorry, but the template is too large and it just has too many unnecessary links. We should make it into a portal, instead.--Mr Fink 03:30, 7 April 2007 (UTC)

 * It also was not a template. If you want to build a template it needs to actually be a template page.  If somebody wanted to update this template, it would have taken dozens of edits -- one to each page including the template. Second (I left these comments at Talk:Even-toed ungulate as well), it's just not accurate to call cetaceans ungulates.  Ungulate actually means "hoofed animal" which whales/dolphins simply are not.  They share that common ancestry, yes, but ungulate is not a purely (or even principally) taxonomic term.  But, moving forward, I'd be happy to help out with an ungulate wikiproject, as long as it wouldn't conflict with an existing wikiproject? --JayHenry 19:22, 7 April 2007 (UTC)

Yeah, it was my first time making one, so, I'm sorry about that, but I would love to make a wikiproject on ungulates! So, when do we start, now or later? From User:4444hhhh
 * Should we make a wikiPortal or a wikiProject? --Mr Fink 02:50, 8 April 2007 (UTC)

I think we should make a portal. From User:4444hhhh

You know what, I may start the portal. From User:4444hhhh

Merger proposal
I think we should merge unguligrade into this article. It is a stub that basically compares how ungulates walk with how other animals walk. George D. Watson  (Dendodge). Talk Help 11:18, 29 March 2008 (UTC)

 * I'm not really sure whether it'd be best to merge here or to Terrestrial locomotion. It seems that different people researching the term might be looking for two very different topics.  Perhaps it's best to leave as a stub that serves as a mini-disambiguation page?  I don't feel very strongly about it though... --JayHenry (talk) 03:42, 14 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Maybe a 'see also' at the bottom of that page? ...... Dendodge . Talk Help 11:47, 19 April 2008 (UTC)

 * As of July 2011 there is not a single part of this article that mentions this type of animal foot structure. This article at this time is clearly deficient in portraying or maintaining the concept.  Furthermore, there are other parts of the link space that clearly show real gaps because of a redirect to an article that clearly does not maintain the concept.  Terrestrial locomotion seems to expect that unguligrade exists, and the template at the bottom of the page looks deficient when it mentions ungulate, which now comes to this article, that now at this time doesn't say a thing about it.  Probably the most serious deficiency of this article can be seen with the 'See also' link in en pointe.  I motion that unguligrade be pulled out of redirect hell and be given its own article again, much like digitigrade.  The neglect in this article is producing noticeable fork death. 67.206.183.192 (talk) 14:10, 24 July 2011 (UTC)

Ungulates are no longer a taxonomic group
First of all, I am no expert in biology, so pardon me if I get some details wrong. However, it is definitely correct that "ungulate" carries no taxonomic significance.

This page, and thus other taxonomy pages, are woefully out of date. "Ungulate" is now considered a polyphyletic term, as it's been realized that the true ungulates (Perissodactyla and Artiodactyla) are not from the same order as paenungulates (Hyracoidea, Sirenia, and Proboscidea).

The original meaning of the word "ungulate" was a "hooved animal," but then it was realized that some of these hooved orders were closely related to some non-hooved orders, and so these were all placed under the infraorder "ungulata," stretching the definition of ungulate beyond hooved species. However, when it was discovered that Ungulata is not a true infraorder, the term has reverted back to its simple descriptive meaning.--129.2.165.42 (talk) 13:24, 24 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Well, phenetics actually are a type of taxonomy, but I think everything you're saying is correct. Aside from the presence of ungulata in the box at the top of the page, is there any information in this article to which you object?  It looks to me like the article already says all the things you just said.  I looked at a number of other articles and don't see any instances where they cite Ungulata as part of their taxonomy.  If there are articles that do claim Ungulata as a superorder, we should fix this, so please point such examples out! --JayHenry (talk) 04:01, 25 April 2008 (UTC)

Problems with the inter-wiki links
Some of the inter-wiki links of this article are wrong, e.g. zh, ja and ko. I fixed the zh link but not every languages, someone who know this topic well please help to fix it. Thanks.--Lokionly (talk) 03:47, 25 February 2013 (UTC)

 * Talk to whoever runs User:Addbot -- they are migrating all interwiki links to some central repository across all wikimedia projects, and apparently the error is at that end. I'm clueless about how this all works, but they seem to be doing this to every single article in wikipedia, as far as I can tell.   Montanabw (talk) 19:44, 25 February 2013 (UTC)

Number of toes

 * "While the two orders of ungulates colloquial names are based on the number of toes of their members (“odd-toed” for the perissodactyls and “even-toed” for the terrestrial artiodactyls), it is not an accurate reason they are grouped."

I've been reading all of the relevant articles to try to understand the significance of whether an ungulate has an even or odd number of toes. But besides being just a way to divide a larger group of animals into two smaller groups, I'm not sure whether having an odd or even number of toes affects animal behavior, anatomy, really, any factors beyond just the numbers of toes on each foot. So far, this is the only sentence I've found and it basically implies, it's a dump reason to group animals but we're stuck with it.

If there is more to this, it would be a great addition to the article. Liz Read! Talk! 17:10, 7 September 2013 (UTC)

 * You're right in that it has no major significance, that's actually why it's useful. If there were an advantage to one or the other (either generally or in particular habitats), you'd expect rampant convergent evolution, muddying the issue.  Because "even vs. odd" is entirely an artifact of ancestry, with no functional difference, it winds up accurately reflecting ancestry.  Of course, now they're grouped together based on DNA sequences, but it turns out the "even vs odd" thing still works, and is a lot easier to see than their DNA. HCA (talk) 21:48, 8 September 2013 (UTC)

Cattle?
The domesticated bovinae are surely the most common ungulates known but are unmentioned in the taxonomy or anywhere else. It seems they should be sub-listed under the Ruminants but, being a non-science type, I hesitate to edit the list myself. Orthotox (talk) 19:28, 20 February 2014 (UTC)

 * Cattle are part of Bovidae in the taxonomy. We probably shouldn't harp on too much about the domestication of just a few species, but you could add something to the intro like "Several ungulate species have been domesticated by humans for food and/or transportation purposes." HCA (talk) 15:07, 21 February 2014 (UTC)

Why is 2/3s of the lead about, for lack of a better term, a fringe theory?
The info about Cetartiodactyla is fine, but should really be moved out of the lead. I'm not sure where it should go, so I'm tagging this up for now. -- Kendrick7talk 02:59, 21 June 2014 (UTC)

 * "Fringe" is a blatant mis-characterization. While the issue is hardly resolved, and there is much discussion to be had about long-branch attraction, taxon sampling, mixed morphology/molecular trees, convergence, etc., the Cetartiodactyla hypothesis is one that not only has evidence, but has been tested and confirmed repeatedly (though not unanimously).  "Fringe" is crap like Aquatic Ape, birds not being dinosaurs, or Bigfoot.  This is an unresolved area with substantial evidence for various hypotheses and crucial methodological issues (not all of which are as simple as "good/bad methodology").

 * That said, it *does* receive way too much emphasis in the lead, especially considering that even aside from this, the group "ungulates" is probably paraphyletic at best, possibly outright polyphyletic. The lead should definitely be re-worked to be more "general biology" and less taxonomy. HCA (talk) 18:21, 21 June 2014 (UTC)

 * Heh, OK, I only said "fringe" for lack of a better term! I didn't just fall off the ungulate-pulled cart yesterday. But the term ungulate has long ago entered popular culture (q.v. kosher animals -- I leave it up to the Rabbinate to determine for their flock how many toes a dolphin has and whether Zero is an odd or even number). But besides all that, I agree that the lead puts undo weight on the latest thing per WP:RECENT. I am looking to you, HCA, to fix it, given that you are an expert in your field! -- Kendrick7talk 03:41, 24 June 2014 (UTC)

Sheep and goats
Though I applaud the evolutionary perspective and the resultant revelatory contrary-to-common-sense inclusion of whales and dolphins, it does feel a little odd to have dolphins mentioned at least ten times and whales nearly thirty in an article about hoofed animals, but sheep only in the phrase "sheep-sized" and never explicitly stated as ungulates by their common name, and goats only once. It seems as if sheep and goats ought to be mentioned in the lead section as examples of common, globally recognizable ungulates. Cynwolfe (talk) 15:48, 24 October 2015 (UTC)

should there be notes on the Orders and Clades in the Infobox?
What are the † and ? representing in the infobox? Should there be a footnote? - Paul2520 (talk) 03:38, 20 January 2016 (UTC)
 * "†" represents a wholly extinct taxon, while "?" means the taxon's placement is questioned.--Mr Fink (talk) 03:41, 20 January 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
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Watch out for strong plurals
One hippopotamus, two hippopotami. Compare syllabus/syllabi.

Like most nouns borrowed from Latin, it forms the plural in English the same way it forms the plural in Latin. Thus, it is called a "strong plural" (or "strong noun").

Other strong plural paradigms include internal vowel changes, as in mouse/mice, goose/geese, etc.; the -en suffix, as in ox/oxen; and the -(e)ren double-suffix, as in child/children.

On the humorous side of things, one could say that "hippopotamuses" would be the offspring of a hippopotamus and one or more the Nine Muses. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 73.162.218.153 (talk) 07:05, 21 March 2016 (UTC)

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Pronunciation
I'm pretty sure "ung-yuh-lut" is a more common pronunciation than "ung-yuh-lait", and dictionaries I've looked at suggest that as well. I'd actually never heard the pronunciation in this article before. Is there a reason we're presenting the less common one as "the way" to pronounce it? TricksterWolf (talk) 02:10, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

Regarding the status of Ungulata
God, this is going to be a mess for people to address. Ungulata, similar to Insectivora, is now considered a polyphyletic group based on multiple sources from the 21st century, even if we consider that Paenungulata was already filtered out in the 1990s. In reality, Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla are confirmed to be part of the clade "Euungulata" which is part of the greater clade Laurasiatheria. The article "Testing the inhibitory cascade model in Mesozoic and Cenozoic mammaliaforms" for instance says that the group "Ungulata" is an abandoned term. According to sources like "Convergence of Afrotherian and Laurasiatherian Ungulate-Like Mammals: First Morphological Evidence from the Paleocene of Morocco", "First report and genomic characterization of a bovine-like coronavirus causing enteric infection in an odd-toed non ruminant species (Indonesian tapir, Acrocodia indica) during an outbreak of winter dysentery in a zoo," and "Placental glycotype of the caviomorph rodent Lagostomus maximus and its evolution within Eutheria," the valid clade name for Perissodactyla and Artiodactyla is "Euungulata." Not completely sure if this constitutes a new article and having this article be "abandoned" similar to Insectivora, just something I find worth considering. PrimalMustelid (talk) 18:45, 14 August 2023 (UTC)

 * Basically, "Ungulata" is the polyphyletic, invalid clade consisting of Artiodactyla, Perissodactyla, and the clade Paenungulata while "Euungulata" reduces it to just the former two. PrimalMustelid (talk) 18:47, 14 August 2023 (UTC)
 * I would consider the topic of this article to be Euungulata, or more broadly, any mammal more closely related to Euungulata that to other extant groups of Laurasiatheria. The vast majority of the use of the term "ungulate" refers to euungulates, so I don't think the term is as problematic as Pachydermata for instance. Hemiauchenia (talk) 18:56, 14 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Yeah, I would support the name "Ungulate" staying as long as the clade in the taxobox is renamed to "Euungulata." Also, that would require someone to write an article on the polyphyletic and now invalid "Ungulata," since the misconceptions seem to stem from people confusing it as still being valid instead of the newer clade name. For anyone wondering, this is the original source with the naming authority of "Euungulata." That said, I can make the "Euungulata" taxobox myself if that's okay with everyone. PrimalMustelid (talk) 19:09, 14 August 2023 (UTC)
 * I think the term "ungulate" in common parlance is equivalent enough to "Euungulata", that there is no need for a separate article, though obviously mentioning that the term historically included elephants and hyraxes is obviously warranted. Hemiauchenia (talk) 19:38, 14 August 2023 (UTC)

cetacean
Why are cetaceans like belugas or white whales or orcas considered even toed ungulates if they don't have hooves? My buddy and I had a convo about it, he said 0 is an even number, which is fair. But when my buddy did it, he told me it got reverted shortly after. So if it's not because of how 0 is even, then what's the real reason? Why are cetaceans even ungulates? 36.93.37.154 (talk) 04:45, 8 September 2023 (UTC)

 * because they're nested within the "Even-toed ungulates" as relatives of hippos. Theres currently a move req at the even toed ungulate article to move the title to "Artiodactyl" in order to avoid this confusion. Hemiauchenia (talk) 14:00, 8 September 2023 (UTC)
 * I understand now. Cheers! 36.93.37.154 (talk) 02:53, 14 September 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ungulate