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Noun

In grammar, a noun is a word that represents a concrete or abstract thing, such as living creatures, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, and ideas. A noun may serve as an object or subject within a phrase, clause, or sentence.

In linguistics, nouns constitute a lexical category (part of speech) defined according to how its members combine with members of other lexical categories. The syntactic occurrence of nouns differs among languages.

In English, prototypical nouns are common nouns or proper nouns that can occur with determiners, articles and attributive adjectives, and can function as the head of a noun phrase. According to traditional and popular classification, pronouns are distinct from nouns, but in much modern theory they are considered a subclass of nouns. Every language has various linguistic and grammatical distinctions between nouns and verbs.

History
Word classes (parts of speech) were described by Sanskrit grammarians from at least the 5th century BC. In Yāska's Nirukta, the noun (nāma) is one of the four main categories of words defined.

The Ancient Greek equivalent was ónoma (ὄνομα), referred to by Plato in the Cratylus dialog, and later listed as one of the eight parts of speech in The Art of Grammar, attributed to Dionysius Thrax (2nd century BC). The term used in Latin grammar was nōmen. All of these terms for "noun" were also words meaning "name". The English word noun is derived from the Latin term, through the Anglo-Norman nom (other forms include nomme, and noun itself).

The word classes were defined partly by the grammatical forms that they take. In Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, for example, nouns are categorized by gender and inflected for case and number. Because adjectives share these three grammatical categories, adjectives typically were placed in the same class as nouns.

Similarly, the Latin term nōmen includes both nouns (substantives) and adjectives, as originally did the English word noun, the two types being distinguished as nouns substantive and nouns adjective (or substantive nouns and adjective nouns, or simply substantives and adjectives). (The word nominal is now sometimes used to denote a class that includes both nouns and adjectives.)

Many European languages use a cognate of the word substantive as the basic term for noun (for example, Spanish sustantivo, "noun"). Nouns in the dictionaries of such languages are demarked by the abbreviation s. or sb. instead of n., which may be used for proper nouns or neuter nouns instead. In English, some modern authors use the word substantive to refer to a class that includes both nouns (single words) and noun phrases (multiword units that are sometimes called noun equivalents). It can also be used as a counterpart to attributive when distinguishing between a noun being used as the head (main word) of a noun phrase and a noun being used as a noun adjunct. For example, the noun knee can be said to be used substantively in my knee hurts, but attributively in the patient needed knee replacement.

Examples

 * The cat sat on the chair.
 * Please hand in your assignments by the end of the week.
 * Cleanliness is next to godliness.
 * Plato was an influential philosopher in ancient Greece.
 * Revel the night, rob, murder, and commit / The oldest sins the newest kind of ways? Henry IV Part 2, act 4 scene 5.

A noun can co-occur with an article or an attributive adjective. Verbs and adjectives cannot. In the following, an asterisk (*) in front of an example means that this example is ungrammatical.

 * the name (name is a noun: can co-occur with a definite article the)
 * *the baptise (baptise is a verb: cannot co-occur with a definite article)
 * constant circulation (circulation is a noun: can co-occur with the attributive adjective constant)
 * *constant circulate (circulate is a verb: cannot co-occur with the attributive adjective constant)
 * a fright (fright is a noun: can co-occur with the indefinite article a)
 * *an afraid (afraid is an adjective: cannot co-occur with the article a)
 * terrible fright (the noun fright can co-occur with the adjective terrible)
 * *terrible afraid (the adjective afraid cannot co-occur with the adjective terrible)

Characterization and definition
Nouns have sometimes been characterized in terms of the grammatical categories by which they may be varied (for example gender, case, and number). Such definitions tend to be language-specific, since different languages may apply different categories.

Nouns are frequently defined, particularly in informal contexts, in terms of their semantic properties (their meanings). Nouns are described as words that refer to a person, place, thing, event, substance, quality, quantity, etc., but this manner of definition has been criticized as uninformative.

Several English nouns lack an intrinsic referent of their own: behalf (as in on behalf of), dint (by dint of), and sake (for the sake of). Moreover, other parts of speech may have reference-like properties: the verbs to rain or to mother, or adjectives like red; and there is little difference between the adverb gleefully and the prepositional phrase with glee.

A functional approach defines a noun as a word that can be the head of a nominal phrase, i.e., a phrase with referential function, without needing to go through morphological transformation.

Classification
Nouns can have a number of different properties and are often sub-categorized based on various of these criteria, depending on their occurrence in a language. Nouns may be classified according to morphological properties such as which prefixes or suffixes they take, and also their relations in syntax – how they combine with other words and expressions of various types.

Many such classifications are language-specific, given the obvious differences in syntax and morphology. In English for example, it might be noted that nouns are words that can co-occur with definite articles (as stated at the start of this article), but this could not apply in Russian, which has no definite articles.

Gender
In some languages common and proper nouns have grammatical gender, typically masculine, feminine, and neuter. The gender of a noun (as well as its number and case, where applicable) will often require agreement in words that modify or are used along with it. In French for example, the singular form of the definite article is le for masculine nouns and la for feminine; adjectives and certain verb forms also change (sometimes with the simple addition of -e for feminine). Grammatical gender often correlates with the form of the noun and the inflection pattern it follows; for example, in both Italian and Romanian most nouns ending in -a are feminine. Gender can also correlate with the sex or social gender of the noun's referent, particularly in the case of nouns denoting people (and sometimes animals), though with exceptions (the feminine French noun personne can refer to a male or a female person).

In Modern English, even common nouns like hen and princess and proper nouns like Alicia do not have grammatical gender (their femininity has no relevance in syntax), though they denote persons or animals of a specific sex. The gender of a pronoun must be appropriate for the item referred to: "The girl said the ring was from her new boyfriend, but he denied it was from him" (three nouns; and three gendered pronouns: or four, if this her is counted as a possessive pronoun).

Proper and common nouns
A proper noun (sometimes called a proper name, though the two terms normally have different meanings) is a noun that represents a unique entity (India, Pegasus, Jupiter, Confucius, Pequod) – as distinguished from common nouns (or appellative nouns), which describe a class of entities (country, animal, planet, person, ship). In Modern English, most proper nouns – unlike most common nouns – are capitalized regardless of context (Albania, Newton, Pasteur, America), as are many of the forms that are derived from them (the common noun in "he's an Albanian"; the adjectival forms in "he's of Albanian heritage" and "Newtonian physics", but not in "pasteurized milk"; the second verb in "they sought to Americanize us").

Countable nouns and mass nouns
Count nouns or countable nouns are common nouns that can take a plural, can combine with numerals or counting quantifiers (e.g., one, two, several, every, most), and can take an indefinite article such as a or an (in languages that have such articles). Examples of count nouns are chair, nose, and occasion.

Mass nouns or uncountable (non-count) nouns differ from count nouns in precisely that respect: they cannot take plurals or combine with number words or the above type of quantifiers. For example, the forms a furniture and three furnitures are not used – even though pieces of furniture can be counted. The distinction between mass and count nouns does not primarily concern their corresponding referents but more how the nouns present those entities.

Many nouns have both countable and uncountable uses; for example, soda is countable in "give me three sodas", but uncountable in "he likes soda".

Collective nouns
Collective nouns are nouns that – even when they are treated in their morphology and syntax as singular – refer to groups consisting of more than one individual or entity. Examples include committee, government, and police. In English these nouns may be followed by a singular or a plural verb and referred to by a singular or plural pronoun, the singular being generally preferred when referring to the body as a unit and the plural often being preferred, especially in British English, when emphasizing the individual members. Examples of acceptable and unacceptable use given by Gowers in Plain Words include:

Concrete nouns and abstract nouns
Concrete nouns refer to physical entities that can, in principle at least, be observed by at least one of the senses (chair, apple, Janet, atom), as items supposed to exist in the physical world. Abstract nouns, on the other hand, refer to abstract objects: ideas or concepts (justice, anger, solubility, duration).

Some nouns have both concrete and abstract meanings: art usually refers to something abstract ("Art is important in human culture"), but it can also refer to a concrete item ("I put my daughter's art up on the fridge"). A noun might have a literal (concrete) and also a figurative (abstract) meaning: "a brass key" and "the key to success"; "a block in the pipe" and "a mental block". Similarly, some abstract nouns have developed etymologically by figurative extension from literal roots (drawback, fraction, holdout, uptake).

Many abstract nouns in English are formed by adding a suffix (-ness, -ity, -ion) to adjectives or verbs (happiness and serenity from the adjectives happy and serene; circulation from the verb circulate).

Alienable vs. inalienable nouns
Illustrating the wide range of possible classifying principles for nouns, the Awa language of Papua New Guinea regiments nouns according to how ownership is assigned: as alienable possession or inalienable possession. An alienably possessed item (a tree, for example) can exist even without a possessor. But inalienably possessed items are necessarily associated with their possessor and are referred to differently, for example with nouns that function as kin terms (meaning "father", etc.), body-part nouns (meaning "shadow", "hair", etc.), or part–whole nouns (meaning "top", "bottom", etc.).

Noun phrases
A noun phrase (or NP) is a phrase usually headed by a common noun, a proper noun, or a pronoun. The head may be the only constituent, or it may be modified by determiners and adjectives. For example, "The dog sat near Ms Curtis and wagged its tail" contains three NPs: the dog (subject of the verbs sat and wagged); Ms Curtis (complement of the preposition near); and its tail (object of wagged). "You became their teacher" contains two NPs: you (subject of became); and their teacher.

Pronouns
Nouns and noun phrases can typically be replaced by pronouns, such as he, it, she, they, which, these, and those, to avoid repetition or explicit identification, or for other reasons (but as noted earlier, current theory often classifies pronouns as a subclass of nouns parallel to prototypical nouns). For example, in the sentence "Gareth thought she was weird", the word she is a pronoun that refers to a person just as the noun Gareth does. The word one can replace parts of noun phrases, and it sometimes stands in for a noun. An example is given below:

But one can also stand in for larger parts of a noun phrase. For example, in the following example, one can stand in for new car.

Nominalization
Nominalization is a process whereby a word that belongs to another part of speech comes to be used as a noun. This can be a way to create new nouns, or to use other words in ways that resemble nouns. In French and Spanish, for example, adjectives frequently act as nouns referring to people who have the characteristics denoted by the adjective. This sometimes happens in English as well, as in the following examples:

title: Noun


text:
Fisherman's knot

The fisherman's knot is a bend (a knot for joining two lines) with a symmetrical structure consisting of two overhand knots, each tied around the standing part of the other. Other names for the fisherman's knot include: angler's knot, English knot, halibut knot, waterman's knot, and true lovers' knot.

Though the fisherman's knot is associated with fishing, it can slip when tied in nylon monofilament and other slippery lines; however, if more holding strength is required, the overhand knots can be made with more turns, as in the double fisherman's knot, and so on. It is compact, jamming when tightened and the working ends can be cropped very close to the knot. It can also be easily tied with cold, wet hands. Though these properties are well suited to fishing, there are other knots that may provide superior performance, such as the blood knot.

In knitting, the knot is used to join two strands of yarn. In this context, it is commonly known as "the magic knot".

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Fisherman's knot


text:
Talk:Kannada

Phonology table
Hi, I am not a native Kannada speaker. I am just interested in many languages, Kannada being one of them. One thing I have noticed about this page is that it lacks a phonological table listing the vowels and the consonants in Kannada. I would like to suggest that two phonological tables be added, one for vowels and another for consonants. I found this one on the Gujarati language: Gujarati letters, diacritics, and digits. I think a similar one can be done for the Kannada language, showing all the sounds (with distinctions for aspiration and voicing), romanisation as well as the letters. I think it would be helpful to those who want to learn more about the Kannada language Also, it would not hurt to place the traditional Kannada numbers here on this page (prominently, outside of the Unicode table) as well. Please do share your thoughts on this subject Razr99 (talk) 04:46, 3 December 2015 (UTC)

Regarding Kannada native speakers distribution map :
Hi Crystallizedcarbon, and All, I have uploaded native Kannada speakers map KannadaNaduWikiMap.png.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:KannadaNaduWikiMap.png

Please update it to this Kannada language wiki-article once agreed. If any one has any concern, please let me know here. Regards, NitinBhargava2016 (talk) 15:02, 1 March 2016 (UTC)

 * Hello, and thank you for your contributions, if there are no objections I will make the change myself on Thursday.--Crystallizedcarbon (talk) 16:13, 1 March 2016 (UTC)

 * ✅ --Crystallizedcarbon (talk) 18:30, 3 March 2016 (UTC)

--

@ 117.206.82.9 : The map is based on facts - Justice Mahajan committee report, Reorganisation of Indian states on linguistic basis, Bombay and Madras Gazetteers of British period, study of ground realities having visited these border areas. https://msblc.maharashtra.gov.in/pdf/newpdf/next20/MAHARASHTRA%20IN%20MAPS.pdf - maps and linguistic details on page numbers - 172 to 175. http://dsal.uchicago.edu/bibliographic/bmcatalogs/Z7049.I31T3B8.pdf - the districts and their sizes represented here are those of the article's period (19th century) and not the present district sizes or location or position - page numbers 3 to 4. https://archive.org/stream/rosettaproject_tam_detail-2 - Tamil http://dsal.uchicago.edu/books/lsi/lsi.php?volume=4&pages=701#page/412/mode/1up - pages - 362 to 405. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Volume 4 The Madras Journal of Literature and Science, Volume 7 The Journal [afterw.] The Madras journal of literature and science It is clearly mentioned that Kannada extends from Sadashivgad [to the North of Kali river of Karwar], to the West of Belagavi, Kagal and almost near Kolhapur city itself. It includes Solapur city, Bidar, Raichur, Mantralayam, West Anantapur district, Hindupur, etc., leaving only a very narrow strip of North East corner of undivided Kolar district (Mysore Kingdom) to Telugu.

Kannada is the sole official language of Karnataka. However, arrangements are there to learn Tulu, Kodava and Konkani and literary academies have been established for the same. Historically, Konkanis are not native to Karnataka. Except for Karwar town and to its North, they are not in a majority anywhere in Karnataka. Konkanis fleeing Bijapur Adil Shahi capture of Goa were again settled in Karnataka. Konkani people fleeing Portuguese Christian inquisition and persecution were given refuge by Vijayanagara Empire to settle in Kannada lands. It is said that 50% of Goa had taken refuge in Karwar during that period. Many of them didn't return back. Others settled throughout Kanara coast and in Kozhikode, Kochi and Thiruvanantapuram in Kerala. Hence, demography of Karwar was changed forever. Even to this day, thousands of native Goan Kannadiga community called 'Komarpant' live in Goa and neighbouring areas.

Tulu is spoken from the Kallianpuri river near Udupi to the Chandragiri river of Kasaragod, called Tulunadu. Here too, Kannadigas form 15-20% of the population. Konkanis-15%, Tulu-50% and rest, Beary, Koraga, etc., In Udupi taluk, Kannada speakers form 40%, Tulu-45%, rest - Beary, Konkani, etc. Kundagannada, Havyagannada, Arebhashe and other Kannada dialects are spoken in Tulu Nadu and in the coastal and MaleNadu (hilly) regions of Karnataka.

Kodava Takk - spoken by 29% of population of Kodagu. Also, Surlabbi and Kigatt dialects of Kodava are very close to Kannada. Kodava speakers are not in a majority in Kodagu. Although Kannada speakers form 60% of Kodagu, they are conversant in Kodava too. Rest of Kodagu consists of Malayalam and Dakhini speaking migrants.

Ballari Telugu population are not natives, but economic migrants from British Madras presidency's Telugu districts, Madras regiment at Ballari and the armies of Vijayanagara empire of Aravidu dynasty after Sri Krishnadevaraya's reign.

Similarly, Marathis of Belagavi are not the natives, but the recent economic migrants of British Bombay province, as also the 'Maratha' regiment stationed there by the British. Shahji Bhonsle and his son, Shivaji Maharaj's 'Maval' and guerrilla warfare techniques (which involved building forts on hills, protecting them and attacking enemies from them, finally desert the forts if defeated) opposing Bijapur Adil Shahis, Ahmednagar's Nizam Shahis, Mughals and Siddhis of Janjira continued by his descendants and Peshwas against Mysore Wodeyars and then Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, continued unabated from 1630s-1818 CE, brought a lot of Marathi soldiers to Karnataka's Sahyadris or Western Ghats, MaleNadu and even plains who settled there. This made the Kannada areas slowly turn in to Marathi areas as Marathi was imposed by the administration forcefully and Kannada was not encouraged. Later, under British Bombay province, Marathis were given preference in all jobs and Marathi was imposed on Kannadigas from 1818-1956 CE. Thus Khanapur (near Belagavi), is now Marathi majority. Also, Kannada lost Kolhapur to Marathi. Even to this day Solapur is surrounded by Kannada speaking villages to its North and West too for 8kms as propounded by Smt. Jayadevi Tayi Ligade of Solapur in her works, but is given to Maharashtra wrongly. Thanks,NitinBhargava2016 (talk) 13:27, 6 March 2016 (UTC)

On which basis you are speaking this? Konkanis are native to north Canara along with other part of konkan(Read kadamba history properly),also read history about foreign trading post and connection of konkanis with that. The fleeing group settled in Tulunadu .when coming to marathi keep in mind about their empire and up to where they ruled. Tulu is native to coastal also it is called tulunadu. kadava takk is language of kodagu. Truth trumps (talk) 20:09, 14 March 2016 (UTC)

All these are facts and citations with valid references. Komarpant are native Goan Kannadigas. Kannada speakers form more than 7% of Goan population. Refer Kannada history by Kasaragod's Govinda Pai, Kannada's 1st Rashtra Kavi, a Konkani himself. Kadambas of Banavasi (Uttara Kannada) were Kannada rulers who ruled over Konkan, Goa, Karnataka, South Maharashtra and adjacent areas. Konkanis are the natives of Goa or Gomantak Prant and Konkan all the way up to Daman and Surat. They are in a majority in Goa, Sindhudurg (Malvani) and South Ratnagiri (Chitpavani, Daldi, Bardeskari, etc.,). Kadodi, Katkari, Varli, Phugadi, etc., are Konkani dialects spoken throughout Konkan. They were not native to Uttara Kannada. They have been assimilated by the native Kannadigas like their own kin. As per R. Narasimhacharya, Tulu, Kodava, Toda, Kota, Badaga and Irula are all Kannada dialects due to their closeness to Kannada.

Other references : http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V09_307.gif, http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/text.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V09_307.gif, https://books.google.co.in/books?id=zXBB1nZYoLIC&pg=PA100&lpg=PA100&dq=wilks+skirts+anantapur&source=bl&ots=0F_ZCO4jxB&sig=rloA621hjPyjNtI9LU3wNerS_iA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjQoMXb0t7LAhUNCo4KHceFAh0Q6AEIIzAC#v=snippet&q=Kannada&f=false, https://books.google.co.in/books?id=_RG2x2xDQ5UC&pg=PA183&lpg=PA183&dq=wilks+skirts+anantapur&source=bl&ots=gfsIRp7X-J&sig=-EyfphbGNkOBL07uIdZGm3Cryb4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjQoMXb0t7LAhUNCo4KHceFAh0Q6AEIIDAB#v=onepage&q=wilks%20skirts%20anantapur&f=false, http://indpaedia.com/ind/index.php/Carnatic, https://archive.org/stream/cu31924071131605#page/n459/mode/2up, http://krishikosh.egranth.ac.in/bitstream/1/2046073/1/34324.pdf, https://books.google.com/books?id=owHmI3qi_BIC&pg=PR25&lpg=PR25&dq=deglur+canarese&source=bl&ots=Qz4n7e1A1Y&sig=eGCZt_K-1pprldxDtdWFItR1MsY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwixkOjwzo7QAhVCqY8KHZVDApcQ6AEIKDAB#v=onepage&q=canarese&f=false. NitinBhargava2016 (talk) 08:34, 4 November 2016 (UTC) NitinBhargava2016 (talk) 15:25, 26 March 2016 (UTC)

Dubious:History
I find that the entire history section appears to be a irredentist view on Kannada's history.

First dubious claim: "Aristophanes and Euripides (5th-4th century BCE): The great Greek dramatists of the 5th-4th century BCE, particularly Euripides and Aristophanes, appear to have been familiar with the Kannada country and the Kannada language, and had actually used Kannada phrases and expressions in the dialogues of their characters along with Persian and Punic. This shows a far more intimate contact of the Greeks with Kannada culture than with Indian culture elsewhere."

The website and webpage promoting this is extremely sketchy, riddled with errors, filled with uncitable and unprovable claims, and is written by people with an obvious COI

Second dubious claim: "Alexandria (Egypt) (4th century BCE): Doddarange Gowda has claimed to have stumbled upon a piece of evidence in the Egyptian city of Alexandria that proves the existence of Kannada in 4th century BCE. He said that he had personally seen the Kannada word 'Ooralli' (lit in a village) written on a huge wall constructed in Alexandria by ancient Greek ruler Alexander the Great in 4th century BCE. The Kannada word ‘Ooralli’ is part of the remnants of 36,000 palm manuscripts that had been burnt in an accidental fire during Alexander’s time. When the accidental fire destroyed much of the palm manuscripts, Alexander ordered his commanders to erect a huge wall so that the remnants can be magnified and reproduced on it. The palm manuscripts contained texts written not only in Greek, Latin and Hebrew, but also Sanskrit and Kannada."

The person making the claim is not an expert in Kannada history. In addition, I find it extremely unlikely that he would be able to make out text written in Brahmi or Ancient Greek, as it wouldn't be written in the Modern Kannada script. Also, he is making a speech to an Kannada audience. It's extremely likely that he himself is biased, as I cannot find any other source that suggests the same.

Up until the farce, ironically enough, the section remains a farce. The entire section up to there is a copy paste of reference 40. Reference 41 doesn't actually support the assertion made in that paragraph. If anything it may prove the opposite, seeing as how /ai/ and /aj/ are regularly changed to /e:/ in Prakit languages. This is the marker of ridiculity. Either get better sources or delete the unsupported assertions. Qwed117 (talk) 02:12, 13 April 2016 (UTC)

 * Regarding Kannada history, source is by K. Appadurai, linguistic scholar, website URL being archived (which is still accessible on Internet) is not a reason for removal. Its not a website, it is a book on Kannada and Tamil in Indian nationalism, published by INTAMM, 1997. The writer is a Tamil scholar and can be least of all, biased. Request Qwed117 to do some home work before commenting like 'website and webpage promoting this is extremely sketchy, riddled with errors, filled with uncitable and unprovable claims, and is written by people with an obvious COI', 'entire history section appears to be a irredentist view on Kannada's history.', 'The person making the claim is not an expert in Kannada history. In addition, I find it extremely unlikely that he would be able to make out text written in Brahmi or Ancient Greek, as it wouldn't be written in the Modern Kannada script. Also, he is making a speech to an Kannada audience. It's extremely likely that he himself is biased' and 'Up until the farce, ironically enough, the section remains a farce.'! Hope user knows difference between the two 'farces'. Doddarange Gowda is a noted Kannada poet, professor, anthologist, writer, scholar of many languages. Please stop such biased comments. Check the facts thoroughly before commenting.
 * Hi Ergative rlt,
 * All of the above prove that obviously fringe biased claims are Qwed117's, and not otherwise. Sources do not fail WP:RS, WP:UNDUE, WP:COPYVIO or any other Wiki rules. They are made by linguistic experts Annadurai and Doddarange Gowda. Hence, reverting your edits. Please let me know if you feel otherwise.
 * Thanks,
 * NitinBhargava2016 (talk) 20:32, 15 April 2016 (UTC)
 * Unfortunately, I do not believe that the section has been adequately addressed by your remarks. I do agree with some of the statements in your paragraph, namely that he is a scholar on Tamil, Kannada and several other Indian languages. Nonetheless, that doesn't change the fact that this is a word for word reprint of http://storyofkannada.blogspot.in/2009/04/greece-and-kannada-in-classical-era.html#.V0JZk5ErJhF . While the article has been sourced, the unfortunate fact is that the article itself has no sources for its unproven thoughts. Encyclopedia Britannica suggests that the earliest known Kannada writing is from 450 AD. In addition http://languages.iloveindia.com/kannada.html states that "The early (pre 800AD) bits and pieces of Kannada literature are insufficient to lay claims to the literature's origins". Gowda is not able to make the claim as he is not, repeat not, a linguist. He is a professor of Kannada, yes, as well as a poet and writer, but he, quite notable is not an anthropologist, cryptologist, linguist nor is he versed outside of Kannada. Even so, I would still need more evidence (preferably not circling back to him) to verify his claims. In conclusion, the decision to delete, and the decision to revert the deletion were both premature. It is preferable if the current sources were augmented with ones more trustworthy. They violate WP:COPYVIO and WP:UNDUE, but should be edited so that they do not violate. There is no reason to erupt in argument. In addition, suggests that at 500 BC ~ 300 BC, Tamil and Kannada were differentiating dialects of one langauge, meaning that data from that era should mainly refer to Tamil-Kannada, or Tamil, seeing as how Kannada is slightly more divergent. The COI still exists in the original source. I would again, prefer if namecalling here is kept to a minimum. Irredentism is still present, and lastly, farce is both a term for a type of play and a discussion meant to produce a one-sided result. Toodles, Qwed117 (talk) 01:59, 23 May 2016 (UTC)

Contradictory figures for speakers.
Sources http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Indiaspeak-English-is-our-2nd-language/articleshow/5680962.cms and http://www.ethnologue.com/19/language/kan/, used by the infobox and lead respectively, give different numbers for total speakers: 50.8 vs 46.7, yet they both claim to be based on the 2001 census. It's not a huge difference, but still. If there is a more recent survey, it would probably be a good idea to use that instead. — Gamall Wednesday Ida (t · c) 13:28, 12 August 2017 (UTC)

Inaccurate/inflammatory statements
I don't know enough about the topic to correct it, but it seems like the phrase "StopKannadaImposition" and the numerous references to "Telugannada" are not related to this article in any way. Not sure what to do in regards to this, so please discuss what should be done. MunchieM (talk) 01:59, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

Earliest history
The article's History section (permalink) starts out like this:

In principle, if a statement in a Wikipedia article is armoured by a long string of references, this almost always indicates that the statement is utter nonsense. Sadly, that appears to be the case here as well. In a large part, that's because of an IP edit from 2016 that changed the years from 2,000 to 2,500 (strange that this didn't get noticed in all the subsequent editing and expansion of the section). But there are further issues, so let's look at the refs cited.

The cryptic ref #4 appears to refer to a 2001 reprint of A concise history of Karnataka : from pre-historic times to the present by Suryanath U. Kamath, a source that I don't have access to. Neither can I get hold of ref #1, so if anyone has these two and is willing to fact-check, please let that be known. Ref #5 is the 1897 Mysore Gazetteer, so it's too old and unreliable. Ref #6, judging from the Google Books link, doesn't have any relevant content on the page cited (but the following page does have a mention of the 5th-century epigraphy); it's also published by Lulu, so it's almost certainly not a reliable source (see WP:RSP). Both #3 and #8 are easily accessible on Google Books. What can be seen is that #3 says nothing at all about the language (the cited page only enumerates the ruling dynasties of the time), while the only relevant thing on the cited page of ref #8 is the statement that the 6th-century Chalukyas were Kannada speakers.

That leaves only #2 and #7 with any coverage that's relevant here. Ref #7 is Thirumaleshwara Bhat's 1993 Govinda Pai (ISBN 978-81-7201-540-4), which is a biographical study of the writer Govinda Pai. I'm not sure how useful that can be for our purposes, but it does contain the statement on the whole [Pai's] view that Kannada must have been as old as the Christian era has been accepted, but also a lengthy commentary on how this is not the case for his identification with Kannada of the various Dravidian words in Prakrit or Greek texts from before the 5th century. Ref #2 is a very detailed study of early Tamil epigraphy. The author lists (on pp. 108-9) a number of words or grammatical features found in some of the inscriptions in the period 2nd century BC to 4th century AD that he identifies as being due to the influence of Old Kannada. This is significant and definitely deserves mention in the Wikipedia article, but per WP:PRIMARY, we also need to see how that's been received in the secondary sources. In particular, I can see how this can be subjected to the same criticism that Bhat reports having been levied on Pai: how do we know this is Kannada and not another related language? (from a quick glance, I don't see anything to suggest that Mahadevan's "Kannada" isn't a shorthand for "coming from a Dravidian source that's closer to Kannada than to Tamil".

From all I've seen so far, there's agreement about only one thing: that the earliest Kannada inscriptions are from the middle of the 5th century AD. The possible earlier attestations of the language, on the other hand, appear to be subject to debate. – Uanfala (talk) 19:17, 26 November 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Kannada


text:
Rutger Hauer

Rutger Oelsen Hauer (born ; 23 January 1944 – 19 July 2019) was a Dutch actor. In 1999, he was named by the Dutch public as the Best Dutch Actor of the Century.

Hauer's career began in 1969 with the title role in the Dutch television series Floris and surged with his leading role in Turkish Delight (1973), which in 1999 was named the Best Dutch Film of the Century. After gaining international recognition with Soldier of Orange (1977) and Spetters (1980), he moved into American films such as Nighthawks (1981) and Blade Runner (1982), starring in the latter as self-aware replicant Roy Batty. His performance in Blade Runner led to roles in The Osterman Weekend (1983), Ladyhawke (1985), The Hitcher (1986), The Legend of the Holy Drinker (1988), and Blind Fury (1989), among other films.

From the 1990s on, Hauer moved into low-budget films, and supporting roles in major films like Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1992), Confessions of a Dangerous Mind (2002), Batman Begins (2005), Sin City (2005), and The Rite (2011). Hauer also became well known for his work in commercials. Towards the end of his career, he made a return to Dutch cinema, and won the 2012 Rembrandt Award for Best Actor in recognition of his lead role in The Heineken Kidnapping (2011).

Hauer supported environmentalist causes and was a member of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society. He also founded the Rutger Hauer Starfish Association, an AIDS awareness organization. He was made a knight in the Order of the Netherlands Lion in 2013.

Early life
Hauer was born in Breukelen, in the Province of Utrecht, on 23 January 1944, while the Netherlands was under German occupation during World War II. He stated in a 1981 interview, "I was born in the middle of the war, and I think for that reason I have deep roots in pacifism. Violence frightens me." His parents were Teunke (née Mellema) and Arend Hauer, both actors who operated an acting school in nearby Amsterdam. He had three sisters. According to Hauer, his parents were more interested in their art than their children. He did not have a close relationship with his father, and writer Erik Hazelhoff Roelfzema later became a father figure to Hauer after they met during the filming of Soldier of Orange.

Hauer attended a Rudolf Steiner school, as his parents wanted him to develop his creativity. At the age of 15, he left school to join the Dutch merchant navy. He spent a year travelling the world aboard a freighter, but was unable to become a captain due to his colourblindness. Returning home, he worked odd jobs while finishing his high school diploma at night. He then entered the Academy for Theater and Dance in Amsterdam for acting classes, but soon dropped out to join the Royal Netherlands Army. He received training as a combat medic, but left the service after a few months as he opposed the use of deadly weapons. He subsequently returned to acting school and graduated in 1967.

Early works

Hauer had his first acting role at the age of 11, as Eurysakes in the play Ajax. After graduating from the Academy for Theater and Dance, he became a stage actor with the Toneelgroep Noorder Compagnie. Hauer made his screen debut in 1969 when Paul Verhoeven cast him in the lead role of the television series Floris, a Dutch medieval action drama. The role made him famous in his native country, and Hauer reprised his role for the 1975 German remake Floris von Rosemund.

Hauer's career changed course when Verhoeven cast him in Turkish Delight (1973), which received an Oscar nomination for best foreign-language film. The film found box office favour abroad and at home, and Hauer looked to appear in more international films. Within two years, Hauer made his English-language debut in the British film The Wilby Conspiracy (1975). Set in South Africa, the film was an action-drama with a focus on apartheid. Hauer's supporting role, however, was barely noticed in Hollywood, and he returned to Dutch films for several years. During this period, he made Katie Tippel (1975) and worked again with Verhoeven on Soldier of Orange (1977), and Spetters (1980). These two films paired Hauer with fellow Dutch actor Jeroen Krabbé. At the 1981 Netherlands Film Festival, Hauer received the Golden Calf for Best Actor for his overall body of work.

American breakthrough
Hauer made his American debut in the Sylvester Stallone film Nighthawks (1981) as a psychopathic and cold-blooded terrorist named Wulfgar. With his sights set on a long-term career in Hollywood, Hauer worked with an accent coach in the early 1980s to develop a convincing American accent. Unafraid of controversial roles, he portrayed Albert Speer in the 1982 American Broadcasting Company production Inside the Third Reich. The same year, Hauer appeared in arguably his most famous and acclaimed role as the eccentric and violent but sympathetic antihero Roy Batty in Ridley Scott's 1982 science fiction thriller Blade Runner, in which he delivered the famous tears in rain monologue. Hauer composed parts of the monologue the evening prior to filming, "cutting away swathes of the original script before adding the speech's poignant final line". He went on to play the adventurer courting Theresa Russell in Eureka (1983), investigative reporter opposite John Hurt in The Osterman Weekend (1983), hardened mercenary Martin in Flesh & Blood (1985), and knight paired with Michelle Pfeiffer in Ladyhawke (1985).

He appeared in The Hitcher (1986), in which he played a mysterious hitchhiker tormenting a lone motorist and murdering anyone in his way. He received the 1987 Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role in the television film Escape from Sobibor. At the height of Hauer's fame, he was set to be cast as RoboCop (1987), but Verhoeven, the film's director, considered his frame as too large to move comfortably in the character's suit. Also in 1987, Hauer starred as Nick Randall in Wanted: Dead or Alive as the descendant of the character played by Steve McQueen in the television series of the same name.

In 1988, he played a homeless man in Ermanno Olmi's The Legend of the Holy Drinker. This performance won Hauer the Best Actor award at the 1989 Seattle International Film Festival. Hauer was chosen to portray a blind martial artist superhero in Phillip Noyce's action film Blind Fury (1989). He initially struggled with the implausibility of the character, but learned to "unfocus my eyes, to react to smells and sounds" after meeting with blind judo practitioner Lynn Manning during his research for the role. Hauer returned to science fiction in 1989 with The Blood of Heroes, in which he played a gladiator in a post-apocalyptic world.

Commercials and later roles
By the 1990s, Hauer was well known for his humorous Guinness commercials as well as his screen roles, which had increasingly involved low-budget films, such as Split Second (1992); The Beans of Egypt, Maine (1994); Omega Doom (1996) and New World Disorder (1999). In 1992, he appeared in the horror-comedy film Buffy the Vampire Slayer as the main antagonist vampire Lothos. He also appeared in the Kylie Minogue music video "On a Night Like This" (2000). During this time, Hauer acted in several British, Canadian and American television productions, including Amelia Earhart: The Final Flight (1994) as Earhart's navigator Fred Noonan, Fatherland (1994), Hostile Waters (1997), The Call of the Wild: Dog of the Yukon (1997), Merlin (1998), The 10th Kingdom (2000), Smallville (2003), Alias (2003), and Salem's Lot (2004).

Hauer played an assassin in Confessions of a Dangerous Mind (2003), a villainous cardinal with influential power in Sin City (2005) and a devious corporate executive running Wayne Enterprises in Batman Begins (2005). Also in 2005, he played the title role in Patrick Lussier's film Dracula III: Legacy. Seven years later, he portrayed the vampire hunter Abraham Van Helsing in Dario Argento's Dracula 3D. Hauer hosted the British reality television documentary Shock Treatment in 2005, and featured in Goal II: Living the Dream (2007) as Real Madrid coach Rudi Van der Merwe. He also recorded voice-overs for the British advertising campaign for the Danish butter brand Lurpak.

In 2008, Hauer received the Golden Calf Culture Prize for his contributions to Dutch cinema. The award recognised his work as an actor as well as his efforts to aid the development of young filmmakers and actors, through initiatives such as the Rutger Hauer Film Factory. In 2009, his role in avant-garde filmmaker Cyrus Frisch's Dazzle received positive reviews; it was described in Dutch press as "the most relevant Dutch film of the year". The same year, Hauer starred in the title role of Barbarossa, an Italian film directed by Renzo Martinelli. In April 2010, he was cast in the live action adaptation of the short and fictitious Grindhouse trailer Hobo with a Shotgun (2011). Hauer played Freddie Heineken in The Heineken Kidnapping (2011), for which he received the 2012 Rembrandt Award for Best Actor. Also in 2011, Hauer appeared in the supernatural horror film The Rite as an undertaker named Istvan, the protagonist's father.

From 2013 to 2014, Hauer featured as Niall Brigant in HBO's True Blood. In 2015, he starred as Ravn in The Last Kingdom and as Kingsley in Galavant. In 2016, he joined the film jury for ShortCutz Amsterdam, an annual film festival promoting short films in Amsterdam. Hauer voiced the role of Daniel Lazarski in the 2017 video game Observer, set in post-apocalyptic Poland. Lazarski is a member of a special elite police unit that can hack into minds and interact with memories within. Hauer also provided the voice of Xehanort in the 2019 video game Kingdom Hearts III, replacing the late Leonard Nimoy and was himself replaced by Christopher Lloyd following his death.

Personal life
Hauer was married twice. Hauer and his first wife, Heidi Merz, produced Hauer's only child, Ayesha Hauer (born 1966). An actress, she gave birth to Hauer's grandson in 1987. Hauer was with his second wife, Ineke ten Cate, from 1968, and they married in a private ceremony on 22 November 1985. Cate was the daughter of Laurens ten Cate, the editor-in-chief of the Friesland-based newspaper Leeuwarder Courant. Although born in Utrecht, Hauer had strong links to Friesland. He once stated in an interview with the Algemeen Dagblad that he "needed to feel the Frisian clay under [his] feet". Hauer was an environmentalist. He supported the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society and was a member of its board of advisors. He also established an AIDS awareness organization called the Rutger Hauer Starfish Association. In April 2007, he published his autobiography, All Those Moments: Stories of Heroes, Villains, Replicants, and Blade Runners (co-written with Patrick Quinlan), in which he discussed many of his acting roles. Proceeds from the book go to the Rutger Hauer Starfish Association. Hauer died on 19 July 2019 at his residence in the Netherlands, age 75.

Discography

 * Lost in the New Real by Arjen Anthony Lucassen (2012) – Narrator/Voight Kampff, lyrics

title: Rutger Hauer


text:
User:Gorm

Male. Born 1981. Norwegian.

Gorm is an old viking-name.

See my cobweb page: http://www.gorm.cc

Or mail me: mailto:wikipedia@gorm.cc

Contributions when not logged in properly :

 * Nitrox
 * Gorm the Old

title: User:Gorm


text:
Terrarium

A terrarium (: terraria or terrariums) is usually a sealable glass container containing soil and plants that can be opened for maintenance to access the plants inside; however, terraria can also be open to the atmosphere. Terraria are often kept as ornamental items.

A closed terrarium's transparent walls allow heat and light to enter, creating a very favorable environment for plant growth. Heat entering the sealed container allows the creation of a small water cycle due to evaporating moisture from the soil and plants. The water vapor then condenses onto the walls of the container, eventually falling back onto the plants and soil below. Light passing through the transparent walls allows photosynthesis. Open terraria are not sealed and are better suited to plants requiring a more arid environment.

History

The first terrarium was developed by botanist Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward in 1842. Ward had an interest in observing insect behaviour and accidentally left one of his jars unattended. A fern spore in the jar grew and germinated into a plant, becoming the first known terrarium. The trend quickly spread in the Victorian Era amongst the English. Instead of the terrarium, it was known as the Wardian case.

Ward hired carpenters to build his Wardian cases to export native British plants to Sydney, Australia. After months of travel, the plants arrived well and thriving. Likewise, plants from Australia sent to London using the same method were received by Ward in pristine condition. His experiment indicated plants can be sealed, without ventilation, and continue thriving. Wardian cases were used for many decades by Kew Gardens to ship plants around the British Empire and were also used during European colonization of Africa to bring African goods, like spices and coffee, back to Europe.

Types
Terraria are typically classified into two categories: closed and open. Closed terraria are sealed shut with a lid, door, or cork; open terraria have access to fresh air, most commonly by leaving the container open or through a hole drilled into the container.

Closed terrarium

Tropical plant varieties, such as moss, orchids, ferns, and air plants are generally kept within closed terraria to replicate their native humid, sheltered environment in the tropics. Keeping the terrarium sealed allows for circulation of water, making the terrarium self-sufficient. The terrarium may be opened once a week, allowing evaporation of excess moisture from the air and walls of the container, to prevent growth of mold or algae, which may damage plants and discolor the sides of the terrarium. Springtails may be used to consume mold or fungi within the terrarium.

Any wilting plants or absence of condensation on the walls of the terrarium indicates the terrarium requires water; watering is primarily done using a spray bottle.

Closed terraria benefit from specific soil mixes to ensure ideal growing conditions and reduce risk of microbial damage; a common medium used is peat-lite: a mixture of peat moss, vermiculite, and perlite. The mixture should be sterile to minimize risk of introducing potentially harmful microbes to the terrarium.

Open terraria
Not all plants require or are suited to the moist environment of closed terraria; open terraria are better suited for plants preferring less humidity and soil moisture, such as temperate plants and plants adapted to dry climates. Open terraria also work well for plants requiring more (but not direct) sunlight, as closed terraria can trap excess heat, potentially killing the plants inside. While open terraria require more watering than closed terraria, they have reduced risk of disease due to their lower humidity.

An open terrarium should not be confused with a dish garden. A terrarium, even open, allows for increased humidity compared to the environment outside the structure, whereas a dish garden does not provide additional humidity. Due to the transparent walls of terraria causing magnification of the sun's rays, terraria cannot be placed in direct sunlight because the intense light will cause foliage to burn. A dish garden can tolerate direct sun, as long as it is planted with full sun-tolerant plants. Succulents and cacti are better suited for a dish garden than a terrarium because dish gardens allow succulents and cacti to be placed in the full sun they require without burning.

title: Terrarium


text:
Stock (disambiguation)

Stock is a representation of capital paid or invested into a business entity by stockholders.

Stock may also refer to:

Places

 * Stock, Essex, England, a village and civil parish
 * Stock Windmill
 * Stock, Podlaskie Voivodeship, Poland, a village
 * Stock, Wiltshire, England, a small settlement
 * Stock Farm, a northern suburb of Roseau, Dominica
 * Stock Island, an island in the lower Florida Keys
 * Stock Township, Harrison County, Ohio, United States
 * Stock Township, Noble County, Ohio, United States

People

 * Stock (surname), a surname

Arts, entertainment, and media

 * Stock (album), by Akina Nakamori
 * Stock, a fictional town in Eastfarthing, in the works of J. R. R. Tolkien
 * Raw stock, undeveloped motion picture film
 * Stock character, a stereotypical fictional character who audiences readily recognize
 * Stock footage, film or video footage that can be used in other films
 * Stock photography, the supply of photographs licensed for specific uses
 * Stock sound effect, a prerecorded sound effect created for or contained within a sound effect library
 * Summer stock theatre, American theatre concept
 * Summer Stock, American film premised on Summer stock theatre

Animals

 * Stock (cage), a stall or cage used to restrain livestock
 * Fish stock, semi-discrete subpopulations of a particular species of fish
 * Foundation stock, individual or general type of horses used as the foundation animals that create a new breed or bloodline
 * Livestock, animals kept for agricultural purposes
 * Stock fish, a type of dried fish product

People

 * Old Stock Americans, descendants of the original settlers of the Thirteen Colonies, of mostly British ancestry, who colonized America in the 17th and the 18th centuries
 * Racial stock, an obsolete term referring to racial groups

Plants

 * Stock (flower) (Matthiola), a genus of flowering plants
 * Virginia stock (Malcolmia maritima), a garden plant

Brands and enterprises

 * Stock (publishing house), a French publisher and subsidiary of Hachette Livre, which itself is part of the Lagardère Group
 * Elliot Stock, a London publisher of the works of, among others, William Blades
 * Stock Spirits, a Polish company established in 1884
 * Stock Transportation, a Canadian school bus operator

Economics

 * Stock (also capital stock) of a corporation, all of the shares into which ownership of the corporation is divided
 * Stock (variable), in economics, business, or accounting, a variable measured at one specific time
 * STOCK Act, the Stop Trading on Congressional Knowledge Act, an Act of Congress designed to combat insider trading
 * Stock in trade or inventory, a supply of goods or materials held in storage by a business or household
 * , in ancient financial accounting, the part of a split tally stick used as a receipt in a transaction

Clothing

 * Military stock, a leather collar issued to Napoleonic-era soldiers
 * Stock tie, a tie worn around the neck of a competitor riding in an equestrian event

Other uses

 * Stock (firearms), a part of a gun which interfaces with the shoulder or hand
 * Stock (food), a liquid flavoring base for soups and sauces
 * Stock (geology), an igneous rock formation
 * Stock, a type of changeling, a mythical creature
 * Card stock, a type of paper
 * Cattle catch or stocks, a move in some martial arts and wrestling
 * Infant bed, for sleeping babies, rarely called a stock
 * Label stock, a carrier for a label
 * Rolling stock, the vehicles that move on a railway
 * Stocks, a device for punishment or torture
 * Stöckli, sometimes called Stock, a traditional agricultural building in Switzerland and parts of Germany
 * Stock (dominoes), in dominoes, the tiles not picked up at the start which may be drawn later.
 * Bar stock, a common form of raw purified metal

title: Stock (disambiguation)


text:
User:Snorre

Well, been here since 2001 (Wikipedia user # 308) and as of 2022 I'm the 23'd earliest user still 'active'.

Normally call myself Antwelm.

Snorre is a Norwegian name, from the time of the Vikings. Derived from Old Norse 'snerra', meaning "attack, onslaught".

My namefather Snorri Sturluson wrote down contemporary Viking stories and thus contributed largely to what we now know of them.

1433 male Norwegians are currently named Snorre.

User:Comments: Moved here.

Nifty little things:

 * Cheatsheet
 * Redirect
 * Community_Portal/Opentask
 * Articles_for_deletion

 * Special:Statistics
 * User registration date/time finder
 * Village_pump

title: User:Snorre


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Garnet

Garnets are a group of silicate minerals that have been used since the Bronze Age as gemstones and abrasives.

All species of garnets possess similar physical properties and crystal forms, but differ in chemical composition. The different species are pyrope, almandine, spessartine, grossular (varieties of which are hessonite or cinnamon-stone and tsavorite), uvarovite and andradite. The garnets make up two solid solution series: pyrope-almandine-spessartine (pyralspite), with the composition range [Mg,Fe,Mn]3Al2(SiO4)3; and uvarovite-grossular-andradite (ugrandite), with the composition range Ca3[Cr,Al,Fe]2(SiO4)3.

Etymology
The word garnet comes from the 14th-century Middle English word gernet, meaning 'dark red'. It is borrowed from Old French grenate from Latin granatus, from granum ('grain, seed'). This is possibly a reference to mela granatum or even pomum granatum ('pomegranate', Punica granatum), a plant whose fruits contain abundant and vivid red seed covers (arils), which are similar in shape, size, and color to some garnet crystals. Hessonite garnet is also named 'gomed' in Indian literature and is one of the 9 jewels in Vedic astrology that compose the Navaratna.

Properties

Garnet species are found in every colour, with reddish shades most common. Blue garnets are the rarest and were first reported in the 1990s.

Garnet species' light transmission properties can range from the gemstone-quality transparent specimens to the opaque varieties used for industrial purposes as abrasives. The mineral's lustre is categorized as vitreous (glass-like) or resinous (amber-like).

Crystal structure
Garnets are nesosilicates having the general formula X3Y23. The X site is usually occupied by divalent cations (Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn)2+ and the Y site by trivalent cations (Al3+, Fe3+, Cr3+) in an octahedral/tetrahedral framework with [SiO4]4− occupying the tetrahedra. Garnets are most often found in the dodecahedral crystal habit, but are also commonly found in the trapezohedron habit as well as the hexoctahedral habit. They crystallize in the cubic system, having three axes that are all of equal length and perpendicular to each other, but are never actually cubic because, despite being isometric, the {100} and {111} families of planes are depleted. Garnets do not have any cleavage planes, so when they fracture under stress, sharp, irregular (conchoidal) pieces are formed.

Hardness
Because the chemical composition of garnet varies, the atomic bonds in some species are stronger than in others. As a result, this mineral group shows a range of hardness on the Mohs scale of about 6.0 to 7.5. The harder species like almandine are often used for abrasive purposes.

Magnetics used in garnet series identification
For gem identification purposes, a pick-up response to a strong neodymium magnet separates garnet from all other natural transparent gemstones commonly used in the jewelry trade. Magnetic susceptibility measurements in conjunction with refractive index can be used to distinguish garnet species and varieties, and determine the composition of garnets in terms of percentages of end-member species within an individual gem.

Pyralspite garnets – aluminium in Y site

 * Almandine: Fe3Al2(SiO4)3
 * Pyrope: Mg3Al2(SiO4)3
 * Spessartine: Mn3Al2(SiO4)3

Almandine

Almandine, sometimes incorrectly called almandite, is the modern gem known as carbuncle (though originally almost any red gemstone was known by this name). The term "carbuncle" is derived from the Latin meaning "live coal" or burning charcoal. The name Almandine is a corruption of Alabanda, a region in Asia Minor where these stones were cut in ancient times. Chemically, almandine is an iron-aluminium garnet with the formula Fe3Al2(SiO4)3; the deep red transparent stones are often called precious garnet and are used as gemstones (being the most common of the gem garnets). Almandine occurs in metamorphic rocks like mica schists, associated with minerals such as staurolite, kyanite, andalusite, and others. Almandine has nicknames of Oriental garnet, almandine ruby, and carbuncle.

Pyrope
Pyrope (from the Greek pyrōpós meaning "firelike") is red in color and chemically an aluminium silicate with the formula Mg3Al2(SiO4)3, though the magnesium can be replaced in part by calcium and ferrous iron. The color of pyrope varies from deep red to black. Pyrope and spessartine gemstones have been recovered from the Sloan diamondiferous kimberlites in Colorado, from the Bishop Conglomerate and in a Tertiary age lamprophyre at Cedar Mountain in Wyoming.

A variety of pyrope from Macon County, North Carolina is a violet-red shade and has been called rhodolite, Greek for "rose". In chemical composition it may be considered as essentially an isomorphous mixture of pyrope and almandine, in the proportion of two parts pyrope to one part almandine. Pyrope has tradenames some of which are misnomers; Cape ruby, Arizona ruby, California ruby, Rocky Mountain ruby, and Bohemian ruby from the Czech Republic.

Pyrope is an indicator mineral for high-pressure rocks. Mantle-derived rocks (peridotites and eclogites) commonly contain a pyrope variety.

Spessartine

Spessartine or spessartite is manganese aluminium garnet, Mn3Al2(SiO4)3. Its name is derived from Spessart in Bavaria. It occurs most often in skarns, granite pegmatite and allied rock types, and in certain low grade metamorphic phyllites. Spessartine of an orange-yellow is found in Madagascar. Violet-red spessartines are found in rhyolites in Colorado

Pyrope–spessartine (blue garnet or color-change garnet)
Blue pyrope–spessartine garnets were discovered in the late 1990s in Bekily, Madagascar. This type has also been found in parts of the United States, Russia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Turkey. It changes color from blue-green to purple depending on the color temperature of viewing light, as a result of the relatively high amounts of vanadium (about 1 wt.% V2O3).

Other varieties of color-changing garnets exist. In daylight, their color ranges from shades of green, beige, brown, gray, and blue, but in incandescent light, they appear a reddish or purplish/pink color.

This is the rarest type of garnet. Because of its color-changing quality, this kind of garnet resembles alexandrite.

Ugrandite group – calcium in X site

 * Andradite: Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3
 * Grossular: Ca3Al2(SiO4)3
 * Uvarovite: Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3

Andradite
Andradite is a calcium-iron garnet, Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3, is of variable composition and may be red, yellow, brown, green or black. The recognized varieties are demantoid (green), melanite (black), and topazolite (yellow or green). The red-brown translucent variety of colophonite is recognized as a partially obsolete name. Andradite is found in skarns and in deep-seated igneous rocks like syenite as well as serpentines and greenschists. Demantoid is one of the most prized of garnet varieties.

Grossular

Grossular is a calcium-aluminium garnet with the formula Ca3Al2(SiO4)3, though the calcium may in part be replaced by ferrous iron and the aluminium by ferric iron. The name grossular is derived from the botanical name for the gooseberry, grossularia, in reference to the green garnet of this composition that is found in Siberia. Other shades include cinnamon brown (cinnamon stone variety), red, and yellow. Because of its inferior hardness to zircon, which the yellow crystals resemble, they have also been called hessonite from the Greek meaning inferior. Grossular is found in skarns, contact metamorphosed limestones with vesuvianite, diopside, wollastonite and wernerite.

Grossular garnet from Kenya and Tanzania has been called tsavorite. Tsavorite was first described in the 1960s in the Tsavo area of Kenya, from which the gem takes its name.

Uvarovite
Uvarovite is a calcium chromium garnet with the formula Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3. This is a rather rare garnet, bright green in color, usually found as small crystals associated with chromite in peridotite, serpentinite, and kimberlites. It is found in crystalline marbles and schists in the Ural Mountains of Russia and Outokumpu, Finland. Uvarovite is named for Count Uvaro, a Russian imperial statesman.

Less common species

 * Calcium in X site
 * Goldmanite: Ca3(V^{3+},Al,Fe^{3+})2(SiO4)3
 * Kimzeyite: Ca3(Zr, Ti)2[(Si,Al,Fe^{3+})O4]3
 * Morimotoite: Ca3Ti^{4+}Fe^{2+}(SiO4)3
 * Schorlomite: Ca3Ti^{4+}2(SiO4)(Fe^{3+}O4)2
 * Hydroxide bearing – calcium in X site
 * Hydrogrossular: Ca3Al2(SiO4)_{3–x}(OH)_{4x}
 * Hibschite: Ca3Al2(SiO4)_{3−x}(OH)_{4x} (where x is between 0.2 and 1.5)
 * Katoite: Ca3Al2(SiO4)_{3−x}(OH)_{4x} (where x is greater than 1.5)
 * Magnesium or manganese in X site
 * Knorringite: Mg3Cr2(SiO4)3
 * Majorite: Mg3(Fe^{2+}Si)(SiO4)3
 * Calderite: Mn3Fe^{3+}2(SiO4)3

Knorringite
Knorringite is a magnesium-chromium garnet species with the formula Mg3Cr2(SiO4)3. Pure endmember knorringite never occurs in nature. Pyrope rich in the knorringite component is only formed under high pressure and is often found in kimberlites. It is used as an indicator mineral in the search for diamonds.

Garnet structural group

 * Formula: X3Z2(TO4)3 (X = Ca, Fe, etc., Z = Al, Cr, etc., T = Si, As, V, Fe, Al)
 * All are cubic or strongly pseudocubic.

 * IMA/CNMNC – Nickel-Strunz – Mineral subclass: 09.A Nesosilicate
 * Nickel-Strunz classification: 09.AD.25

 * References: Mindat.org; mineral name, chemical formula and space group (American Mineralogist Crystal Structure Database) of the IMA Database of Mineral Properties/ RRUFF Project, Univ. of Arizona, was preferred most of the time. Minor components in formulae have been left out to highlight the dominant chemical endmember that defines each species.

Synthetic garnets
Also known as rare-earth garnets.

The crystallographic structure of garnets has been expanded from the prototype to include chemicals with the general formula A3B2(CO4)3. Besides silicon, a large number of elements have been put on the C site, including germanium, gallium, aluminum, vanadium and iron.

Yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG), Y3Al2(AlO4)3, is used for synthetic gemstones. Due to its fairly high refractive index, YAG was used as a diamond simulant in the 1970s until the methods of producing the more advanced simulant cubic zirconia in commercial quantities were developed. When doped with neodymium (Nd3+), erbium or gadolinium YAG may be used as the lasing medium in YAG lasers, Er:YAG lasers and Gd:YAG lasers respectively. These doped YAG lasers are used in medical procedures including laser skin resurfacing, dentistry, and ophthalmology.

Interesting magnetic properties arise when the appropriate elements are used. In yttrium iron garnet (YIG), Y3Fe2(FeO4)3, the five iron(III) ions occupy two octahedral and three tetrahedral sites, with the yttrium(III) ions coordinated by eight oxygen ions in an irregular cube. The iron ions in the two coordination sites exhibit different spins, resulting in magnetic behavior. YIG is a ferrimagnetic material having a Curie temperature of 550 K. Yttrium iron garnet can be made into YIG spheres, which serve as magnetically tunable filters and resonators for microwave frequencies.

Lutetium aluminium garnet (LuAG), Al5Lu3O12, is an inorganic compound with a unique crystal structure primarily known for its use in high-efficiency laser devices. LuAG is also useful in the synthesis of transparent ceramics. LuAG is particularly favored over other crystals for its high density and thermal conductivity; it has a relatively small lattice constant in comparison to the other rare-earth garnets, which results in a higher density producing a crystal field with narrower linewidths and greater energy level splitting in absorption and emission.

Terbium gallium garnet (TGG), Tb3Ga5O12, is a Faraday rotator material with excellent transparency properties and is very resistant to laser damage. TGG can be used in optical isolators for laser systems, in optical circulators for fiber optic systems, in optical modulators, and in current and magnetic field sensors.

Another example is gadolinium gallium garnet (GGG), Gd3Ga2(GaO4)3 which is synthesized for use as a substrate for liquid-phase epitaxy of magnetic garnet films for bubble memory and magneto-optical applications.

Geological importance
The mineral garnet is commonly found in metamorphic and to a lesser extent, igneous rocks. Most natural garnets are compositionally zoned and contain inclusions. Its crystal lattice structure is stable at high pressures and temperatures and is thus found in green-schist facies metamorphic rocks including gneiss, hornblende schist, and mica schist. The composition that is stable at the pressure and temperature conditions of Earth's mantle is pyrope, which is often found in peridotites and kimberlites, as well as the serpentines that form from them. Garnets are unique in that they can record the pressures and temperatures of peak metamorphism and are used as geobarometers and geothermometers in the study of geothermobarometry which determines "P-T Paths", Pressure-Temperature Paths. Garnets are used as an index mineral in the delineation of isograds in metamorphic rocks. Compositional zoning and inclusions can mark the change from growth of the crystals at low temperatures to higher temperatures. Garnets that are not compositionally zoned more than likely experienced ultra high temperatures (above 700 °C) that led to diffusion of major elements within the crystal lattice, effectively homogenizing the crystal or they were never zoned. Garnets can also form metamorphic textures that can help interpret structural histories.

In addition to being used to devolve conditions of metamorphism, garnets can be used to date certain geologic events. Garnet has been developed as a U-Pb geochronometer, to date the age of crystallization as well as a thermochronometer in the (U-Th)/He system to date timing of cooling below a closure temperature.

Garnets can be chemically altered and most often alter to serpentine, talc, and chlorite.

Gemstones
Red garnets were the most commonly used gemstones in the Late Antique Roman world, and the Migration Period art of the "barbarian" peoples who took over the territory of the Western Roman Empire. They were especially used inlaid in gold cells in the cloisonné technique, a style often just called garnet cloisonné, found from Anglo-Saxon England, as at Sutton Hoo, to the Black Sea. Thousands of Tamraparniyan gold, silver and red garnet shipments were made in the old world, including to Rome, Greece, the Middle East, Serica and Anglo Saxons; recent findings such as the Staffordshire Hoard and the pendant of the Winfarthing Woman skeleton of Norfolk confirm an established gem trade route with South India and Tamraparni (ancient Sri Lanka), known from antiquity for its production of gemstones.

Pure crystals of garnet are still used as gemstones. The gemstone varieties occur in shades of green, red, yellow, and orange. In the US it is known as the birthstone for January. The garnet family is one of the most complex in the gem world. It is not a single species, but is composed of multiple species and varieties. It is the state mineral of Connecticut, New York's gemstone, and star garnet (garnet with rutile asterisms) is the state gemstone of Idaho.

Industrial uses
Garnet sand is a good abrasive, and a common replacement for silica sand in sand blasting. Alluvial garnet grains which are rounder are more suitable for such blasting treatments. Mixed with very high pressure water, garnet is used to cut steel and other materials in water jets. For water jet cutting, garnet extracted from hard rock is suitable since it is more angular in form, therefore more efficient in cutting.

Garnet paper is favored by cabinetmakers for finishing bare wood.

Garnet sand is also used for water filtration media.

As an abrasive, garnet can be broadly divided into two categories; blasting grade and water jet grade. The garnet, as it is mined and collected, is crushed to finer grains; all pieces which are larger than 60 mesh (250 micrometers) are normally used for sand blasting. The pieces between 60 mesh (250 micrometers) and 200 mesh (74 micrometers) are normally used for water jet cutting. The remaining garnet pieces that are finer than 200 mesh (74 micrometers) are used for glass polishing and lapping. Regardless of the application, the larger grain sizes are used for faster work and the smaller ones are used for finer finishes.

There are different kinds of abrasive garnets which can be divided based on their origin. The largest source of abrasive garnet today is garnet-rich beach sand which is quite abundant on Indian and Australian coasts and the main producers today are Australia and India.

This material is particularly popular due to its consistent supplies, huge quantities and clean material. The common problems with this material are the presence of ilmenite and chloride compounds. Since the material has been naturally crushed and ground on the beaches for past centuries, the material is normally available in fine sizes only. Most of the garnet at the Tuticorin beach in south India is 80 mesh, and ranges from 56 mesh to 100 mesh size.

River garnet is particularly abundant in Australia. The river sand garnet occurs as a placer deposit.

Rock garnet is perhaps the garnet type used for the longest period of time. This type of garnet is produced in America, China and western India. These crystals are crushed in mills and then purified by wind blowing, magnetic separation, sieving and, if required, washing. Being freshly crushed, this garnet has the sharpest edges and therefore performs far better than other kinds of garnet. Both the river and the beach garnet suffer from the tumbling effect of hundreds of thousands of years which rounds off the edges. Gore Mountain Garnet from Warren County, New York, USA, is a significant source of rock garnet for use as an industrial abrasive.

Cultural significance
Garnet is the birthstone of January. It is also the birthstone of Aquarius and Capricorn in tropical astrology. In Persia this birth gem was considered a talisman from nature's forces like storm and lightning. It was widely accepted that garnet could signal approaching danger by turning pale.

United States
Garnet is New York State's official gemstone, Connecticut has almandine garnet as its state gemstone, Idaho has star garnet as its state gemstone, and Vermont has grossular garnet as its state gemstone.

Since 2003 New York State has ranked first in industrial garnet-production in the United States. Since there are just a few companies that account for all U.S. industrial garnet production, published detailed production statistics for New York State are not available. However, generally speaking, Barton Mines in Warren County is the largest U.S. garnet producer.

Collections
The New York State Museum in Albany, NY houses specimens from significant sites across the state, including 93 mineral species from the Balmat-Edwards mining district in St. Lawrence, super garnets from the Barton Mine in the Adirondack Mountains, and Herkimer diamonds from Herkimer County, New York

Oldest garnet mine
The largest garnet mine in the world is located Near North Creek New York and is operated by Barton Mines Corporation who supplies about 90% of the world's garnet. Barton Mines Corporation is the first and oldest industrial garnet mining operation in the world and the second oldest continuous mining operation in the United States under the same management and mining the same product throughout its history. The Gore Mountain Mine of the Barton Mines Corporation was first mined under the direction of H. H. Barton Sr. in 1878 to produce garnet as the primary product.

Largest garnet crystal
The open-pit Barton Garnet Mine, located at Gore Mountain in the Adirondack Highlands, yields the world's largest single crystals of garnet; diameters range from 5 to 35 cm and commonly average 10–18 cm.

Gore Mountain garnets are unique in many respects, and considerable effort has been made to determine the timing of garnet growth. The first dating was that of Basu et al. (1989), who used plagioclase-hornblende-garnet to produce a Sm/Nd isochron that yielded an age of 1059 ± 19 Ma. Mezger et al. (1992) conducted their own Sm/Nd investigation using hornblende and the drilled core of a 50 cm garnet to produce an isochron age of 1051 ± 4 Ma. Connelly (2006) utilized seven different fractions of a Gore Mountain garnet to obtain a Lu-Hf isochron age of 1046.6 ± 6 Ma. It is therefore concluded with confidence that the garnets formed at 1049 ± 5 Ma, the average of the three determinations. This is also the local age of peak metamorphism in the 1090–1040 Ma Ottawan phase of the Grenvillian orogeny and serves as a critical data point in ascertaining the evolution of the megacrystic garnet deposits.

title: Garnet