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Allan Pinkerton

Allan Pinkerton (August 21, 1819 – July 1, 1884) was a Scottish-American cooper, abolitionist, detective, and spy, best known for creating the Pinkerton National Detective Agency in the United States and his claim to have foiled a plot in 1861 to assassinate president-elect Abraham Lincoln. During the Civil War, he provided the Union Army – specifically General George B. McClellan of the Army of the Potomac – with military intelligence, including extremely inaccurate enemy troop strength numbers. After the war, his agents played a significant role as strikebreakers – in particular during the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 – a role that Pinkerton men would continue to play after the death of their founder.

Early life
Allan Pinkerton was born in the Gorbals, a working-class area of Glasgow, on August 21, 1819, the second surviving son of William Pinkerton, a retired policeman, and Isobel McQueen; he was baptized on August 25, 1819, which many sources incorrectly give as his birthdate. He left school at the age of 10 after his father's death. Pinkerton read voraciously and was largely self-educated. A cooper by trade, he was active in the Scottish Chartist movement as a young man. He was not raised in a religious upbringing, and was a lifelong atheist.

Pinkerton emigrated to the United States in 1842. In 1843, he heard of Dundee Township, Illinois, fifty miles northwest of Chicago on the Fox River. He built a cabin and started a cooperage, sending for his wife in Chicago when their cabin was complete. As early as 1844, Pinkerton worked for the Chicago abolitionist leaders, and his Dundee home was a stop on the Underground Railroad.

Detective
Pinkerton first became interested in criminal detective work while wandering through the wooded groves around Dundee, looking for trees to make barrel staves, when he came across a band of counterfeiters, who may have been affiliated with the notorious Banditti of the Prairie. After observing their movements for some time he informed the local sheriff, who arrested them. This later led to Pinkerton being appointed, in 1849, as the first police detective in Chicago, Cook County, Illinois. In 1850, he partnered with Chicago attorney Edward Rucker in forming the North-Western Police Agency, which later became Pinkerton & Co, and finally Pinkerton National Detective Agency, still in existence today as Pinkerton Consulting and Investigations, a subsidiary of Securitas AB. Pinkerton's business insignia was a wide open eye with the caption "We never sleep." As the US expanded in territory, rail transport increased. Pinkerton's agency solved a series of train robberies during the 1850s, first bringing Pinkerton into contact with George B. McClellan, then Chief Engineer and Vice President of the Illinois Central Railroad, and Abraham Lincoln, a lawyer who sometimes represented the company. In 1859, he attended the secret meetings held by John Brown and Frederick Douglass in Chicago along with abolitionists John Jones and Henry O. Wagoner. At those meetings, Jones, Wagoner, and Pinkerton helped purchase clothes and supplies for Brown. Jones' wife, Mary, guessed that the supplies included the suit Brown was hanged in after the failure of John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry in November 1859.

American Civil War

When the Civil War began, Pinkerton served as head of the Union Intelligence Service during the first two years, heading off an alleged assassination plot in Baltimore, Maryland while guarding Abraham Lincoln on his way to Washington, D.C., as well as providing estimates of Confederate troop numbers to General George B. McClellan when he commanded the Army of the Potomac. His agents often worked undercover as Confederate soldiers and sympathizers to gather military intelligence. Pinkerton himself served on several undercover missions as a Confederate soldier using the alias Major E.J. Allen. He worked across the Deep South in the summer of 1861, focusing on fortifications and Confederate plans. He was found out in Memphis and barely escaped with his life. This counterintelligence work done by Pinkerton and his agents is comparable to the work done by today's U.S. Army Counterintelligence Special Agents in which Pinkerton's agency is considered an early predecessor. He was succeeded as Intelligence Service chief by Lafayette Baker; the Intelligence Service was the predecessor of the U.S. Secret Service. His work led to the establishment of the Federal secret service.

Military historians have been strongly critical of the intelligence Pinkerton provided for the Union Army, which for the most part was undigested raw data. In the view of T. Harry Williams, Pinkerton's work was "the poorest intelligence service any general ever had." Pinkerton's estimates of Rebel troop numbers, derived from his credulous interrogations of Confederate prisoners, deserters, refugees, escaped slaves ("contrabands"), and civilians unused to counting large bodies of men, badly exaggerated the size of those formations, sometimes almost doubling their actual strength. Pinkerton's numbers caused McClellan to consistently believe that he was drastically outnumbered by the Confederate forces he faced. McClellan's action in the face of what he believed were overwhelming odds were unduly cautious, causing him to avoid offensive actions almost completely in favor of siege warfare and taking a defensive posture. This led to his retreat in the Peninsula Campaign, his failure to crush Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia at the Battle of Antietam, and his unnecessary delay in carrying out his orders to pursue Lee's army as they retreated from their invasion of Maryland back into Virginia. These actions were all based on McClellan's firm trust of Pinkerton's reports, although the problem was compounded by the intelligence-gathering ineptitude of Brigadier General Alfred Pleasonton, McClellan's head cavalryman and his alternate source of enemy troop information when Pinkerton did not have agents in place.

On the other hand, Edwin C. Fishel in The Secret War for the Union and James Mackay in Allan Pinkerton: The First Private Eye argue that the troop strength figures which Pinkerton passed on to McClellan were relatively accurate, and that McClellan himself held primary responsibility for inflating those numbers to wildly unrealistic levels.

After the war
Following Pinkerton's services for the Union Army, he continued his pursuit of train robbers, including the Reno Gang. He was hired by the railroad express companies to track outlaw Jesse James, but after Pinkerton failed to capture him, the railroad withdrew their financial support and Pinkerton continued to track James at his own expense. After James allegedly captured and killed one of Pinkerton's undercover agents (who was working undercover at the farm neighboring the James family's farmstead), he abandoned the chase. Some consider this failure Pinkerton's biggest defeat. In 1872, the Spanish Government hired Pinkerton to help suppress a revolution in Cuba which intended to end slavery and give citizens the right to vote. If Pinkerton knew this, then it directly contradicts statements in his 1883 book The Spy of the Rebellion, where he professes to be an ardent abolitionist and hater of slavery. The Spanish government abolished slavery in 1880 and a Royal Decree abolished the last vestiges of it in 1886.

Personal life
Pinkerton married Joan Carfrae (1822–1887), a singer from Duddingston, in Glasgow on March 13, 1842. They remained married until his death. They had six children: Isabella, William, Joan, Robert, Mary, and Joan.

Death
Pinkerton died in Chicago on July 1, 1884. It is usually said that Pinkerton slipped on the pavement and bit his tongue, resulting in gangrene. Contemporary reports give conflicting causes, such as that he succumbed to a stroke – he had a year earlier – or to malaria, which he had contracted during a trip to the Southern United States. At the time of his death, he was working on a system to centralize all criminal identification records; such a database is now maintained by the Federal Bureau of Investigation.

Pinkerton is buried between his wife and Kate Warne in the family plot in Graceland Cemetery, Chicago. He is a member of the Military Intelligence Hall of Fame.

Legacy
After his death, the agency continued to operate and soon became a major force against the labor movement developing in the US and Canada. This effort changed the image of the Pinkertons for years. They were involved in numerous activities against labor during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including:

 * The Homestead Strike (1892), the direct impetus for the federal Anti-Pinkerton Act of 1893, prohibiting the federal government from hiring its detectives
 * The Pullman Strike (1894)
 * The Wild Bunch Gang (1896)
 * The Ludlow Massacre (1914)
 * The La Follette Committee (1933–1937)

Despite his agency's later reputation for anti-labor activities, Pinkerton himself was heavily involved in pro-labor politics as a young man. Though Pinkerton considered himself pro-labor, he opposed strikes and distrusted labor unions.

Allan Pinkerton was so famous that for decades after his death, his surname was a slang term for a private eye, whether they were agents of the Pinkerton Agency or not. The "Mr. Pinkerton" novels, by American mystery writer Zenith Jones Brown (under the pseudonym David Frome), were about Welsh-born amateur detective Evan Pinkerton and may have been inspired by the slang term.

Writings
Pinkerton produced numerous popular detective books, ostensibly based on his own exploits and those of his agents. Some were published after his death, and they are considered to have been more motivated by a desire to promote his detective agency than a literary endeavour. Most historians believe that Allan Pinkerton hired ghostwriters, but the books nonetheless bear his name and no doubt reflect his views.

 * Also available via Project Gutenberg
 * Also available via Project Gutenberg
 * Also available via Project Gutenberg
 * Also available via Project Gutenberg
 * Also available via Project Gutenberg
 * Also available via Project Gutenberg
 * Also available via Project Gutenberg
 * Also available via Project Gutenberg
 * Also available via Project Gutenberg
 * Also available via Project Gutenberg
 * Also available via Project Gutenberg
 * Also available via Project Gutenberg

In popular culture

 * In the 1951 feature film The Tall Target, a historical drama loosely based on the Baltimore Plot, Allan Pinkerton is portrayed by Scottish actor Robert Malcolm. The M-G-M production stars Dick Powell and was directed by Anthony Mann.
 * In the 1956 episode "The Pinkertons" of the ABC/Desilu western television series, The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp, set in Wichita, Kansas, Douglas Evans portrays Allan Pinkerton, who is seeking to recover $40,000 in stolen money but interferes with the attempt of Marshal Wyatt Earp (Hugh O'Brian) to catch the entire gang of Crummy Newton (Richard Alexander).
 * In the 1969 Spaghetti Western The Price of Power, Pinkerton appears as an associate of President James A. Garfield who takes part in his (highly fictionalized) assassination. He is portrayed by Spanish actor Fernando Rey.
 * Pinkerton is portrayed in an episode of The Life and Times of Grizzly Adams (1974) by Don Galloway.
 * In 1990, Turner Network Television aired the 1990 speculative historical drama The Rose and the Jackal, with Christopher Reeve as Pinkerton, recounting his (completely fictional) romance with the Confederate spy Rose O'Neal Greenhow.
 * In 1994, "Pinkertonova detektivní agentura" ('Pinkerton's Detective Agency") an episode of the Czech TV series Dobrodružství kriminalistiky ("The Adventure of Criminology") was aired.
 * Pinkerton is portrayed in the 1994 American biographical western film Frank and Jesse by William Atherton
 * Pinkerton is a major character portrayed by Timothy Dalton in the 2001 film American Outlaws.
 * Pinkerton's role in foiling the assassination plot against Abraham Lincoln was dramatized in the 2013 film Saving Lincoln, which tells President Lincoln's story through the eyes of Ward Hill Lamon, a former law partner of Lincoln who served as his primary bodyguard during the Civil War. Pinkerton is played by Marcus J. Freed.
 * Charlie Day portrayed Pinkerton in "Baltimore", a Season 2 episode of the docudrama TV series Drunk History, first broadcast on July 22, 2014.
 * Pinkerton is a recurring character played by Angus Macfadyen in the 2014 TV series The Pinkertons.
 * Pinkerton is an important character in Steven Price's 2016 novel By Gaslight.
 * The Pinkerton Detective Agency plays a large role in the plot of the 2018 western video game Red Dead Redemption 2.
 * "The Pinkerton Agency" is a podcast episode of the Dollop in 2024.

title: Allan Pinkerton


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Thomas Graham (chemist)

Thomas Graham (20 December 1805  – 11 September 1869) was a Scottish chemist known for his pioneering work in dialysis and the diffusion of gases. He is regarded as one of the founders of colloid chemistry.

Life
Graham was born in Glasgow, Scotland and was educated at the High School of Glasgow. Graham's father was a successful textile manufacturer, and wanted his son to enter into the Church of Scotland. Instead, defying his father's wishes, Graham became a student at the University of Glasgow in 1819. There he developed a strong interest in chemistry, studying under Professor Thomas Thomson, who was impressed and influenced by the young man. He left the University after receiving his MA in 1824.

He later studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh and then briefly taught chemistry at the Glasgow University Portland Street Medical School. In 1828 he was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, his proposer was Edward Turner. He won the Society's Keith Medal for the period 1831–33.

in 1830 he was appointed to be the first professor of chemistry at the Anderson's Medical School, a post later named the Freeland Chair of Chemistry. He also delivered lectures to the Glasgow Mechanics' Institution before moving to take up a professorship at the University of London, where Graham founded the Chemical Society of London in 1841. In 1866, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

His final position was the Master of the Mint, where he stayed from 1855 until his death. He was the last person to hold that position: afterwards the post was amalgamated into the Chancellor of the Exchequer while all the actual responsibilities were transferred to the Deputy Master.

He died in Gordon Square in London but his body was returned to Glasgow for burial in the family plot at Glasgow Cathedral.

Publications

 * On the Law of Diffusion of Gases (1833)

Scientific works
Thomas Graham is known for his studies on the behavior of gases, which resulted in his formulation of two relationships, both since becoming known as "Graham's Laws," the first regarding gas diffusion, and the second regarding gas effusion. In the former case, Graham deduced that when measured repeatedly under the same conditions of pressure and temperature, the rate of diffusive mixing of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its density, and given the relationship between density and molar mass, also inversely proportional to the square root of its molar mass. In the same way, in the latter case, regarding effusion of a gas through a pin hole in to a vacuum, Graham deduced that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molar mass. These two are sometimes referred to as a combined law (describing both phenomena).

In applied areas, Graham also made fundamental discoveries related to dialysis, a process used in research and industrial settings, as well as in modern health care. Graham's study of colloids resulted in his ability to separate colloids and crystalloids using a so-called "dialyzer", using technology that is a rudimentary forerunner of technology in modern kidney dialysis machines. These studies were foundational in the field known as colloid chemistry, and Graham is credited as one of its founders.

He also proposed the association theory which claimed that the substances such as cellulose or starch that we now know are polymers are composed from smaller molecules hold together by unknown forces. It remained the most popular explanation until Hermann Staudinger's macromolecular theory of 1920s.

Honours, activities, and recognition

 * Elected an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1828) receiving its Keith Medal for 1831–33
 * Fellow of the Royal Society (1836)
 * First President of the Chemical Society of London (1841)
 * Royal Medal of the Royal Society (1837 and 1863)
 * Honorary doctorate (DCL) from the University of Oxford (1853)
 * Copley Medal of the Royal Society (1862)
 * Prix Jecker of the Paris Academy of Sciences (1862)
 * A statue of Graham, sculpted by William Brodie in George Square in Glasgow was erected by the city in 1872
 * The Royal College of Science and Technology (the successor of Anderson's Institution, where Graham once worked, which ultimately became the University of Strathclyde), named its new Chemistry building the Thomas Graham Building in 1962.
 * The headquarters of the Royal Society of Chemistry in Cambridge, England is named Thomas Graham House

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Thomas Graham (chemist)


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Talk:Argument from ignorance

Definition
This edit introduced a level of abstraction that made the intro more difficult to read. The previous version was simpler and more direct, not broken, and hence not in need of repair. I have now twice returned it to status quo ante. Please discuss here instead of edit warring. Just plain Bill (talk) 23:27, 6 June 2018 (UTC)

Violation of Laws of Logic
Claiming "This represents a type of false dichotomy in that it excludes the possibility that there may have been an insufficient investigation to prove that the proposition is either true or false." is a clear violation of the Law of the Excluded Middle.

In other words, the possibilities can only be true or false. Insufficient information is not one of them.Magnetic Flux (talk) 03:39, 15 February 2019 (UTC)

 * That is exactly right. You are abosolutely correct to point that out. Thats the reason I removed it but someone just reverted my edit without understanding the concept and when I am asking them for reasons they claim there are grammatical mistakes. And that become a valid reason to remove everything I wrote, can you believe that? Man if there is grammatical error then just fix it why remove every single thing? Adityaverma8998 (talk) 06:51, 17 May 2024 (UTC)
 * This is not how Wikipedia works. See WP:BRD.
 * Also, there is nothing wrong with the text as it was. There may have been an insufficient investigation to prove that the proposition is either true or false is short for There may have been an insufficient investigation to either prove that the proposition is true or prove that the proposition is false. To assume that the meaning is There may have been an insufficient investigation to prove that the proposition is (either true or false) and that the proposition is a strictly boolean one with no fuzzy borders in the words is to assume that the writer is an idiot. Don't do that. And don't edit-war. --Hob Gadling (talk) 11:13, 17 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Actually if there are borderline cases then that is because the concepts within the propostion were not defined properly enough. Example - "The king of France has blue hair" now in this propostion what constitutes as "blue"? There are many shades of blue, so one might be tempted to think that this proposition is a case where borderlines occur and therefore propositions can be fuzzy to some degree. But the problem here is that the concept "blue" or the idea "blue" is not properly defined here. That is what is causing the problem here. A proposition can be either true or false and if there is some case where its truth value is hard to determine, then its becuase the concepts within that proposition are not well defined. But if thats the case, then it is no longer a proposition. So the point I made seems to me that it still holds.
 * And a propositions truth value being unknowable still doesnt change the fact that it either is true or its false, its merely stating that we cannot access its truth value but we "not being able to access the truth value" doesnt mean that the proposition can have any third truth value. So repeating myself its either true or false. Adityaverma8998 (talk) 14:53, 18 May 2024 (UTC)
 * You will not stop edit-warring, so I am done with you. --Hob Gadling (talk) 11:02, 20 May 2024 (UTC)

"Lack of imagination" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lack_of_imagination&redirect=no Lack of imagination] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Readers of this page are welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. Utopes (talk / cont) 04:56, 18 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Argument from ignorance


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Gas laws

The laws describing the behaviour of gases under fixed pressure, volume, amount of gas, and absolute temperature conditions are called Gas Laws. The basic gas laws were discovered by the end of the 18th century when scientists found out that relationships between pressure, volume and temperature of a sample of gas could be obtained which would hold to approximation for all gases. These macroscopic gas laws were found to be consistent with atomic and kinetic theory.

History
In 1643, the Italian physicist and mathematician, Evangelista Torricelli, who for a few months had acted as Galileo's secretary, conducted a celebrated experiment in Florence. He demonstrated that a column of mercury in an inverted tube can be supported by the pressure of air outside of the tube, with the creation of a small section of vacuum above the mercury. This experiment essentially paved the way towards the invention of the barometer, as well as drawing the attention of Robert Boyle, then a "skeptical" scientist working in England. Boyle was inspired by Torricelli's experiment to investigate how the elasticity of air responds to varying pressure, and he did this through a series of experiments with a setup reminiscent of that used by Torricelli. Boyle published his results in 1662.

Later on, in 1676, the French physicist Edme Mariotte, independently arrived at the same conclusions of Boyle, while also noting some dependency of air volume on temperature. However it took another century and a half for the development of thermometry and recognition of the absolute zero temperature scale, which eventually allowed the discovery of temperature-dependent gas laws.

Boyle's law
In 1662, Robert Boyle systematically studied the relationship between the volume and pressure of a fixed amount of gas at a constant temperature. He observed that the volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure at a constant temperature. Boyle's law, published in 1662, states that, at a constant temperature, the product of the pressure and volume of a given mass of an ideal gas in a closed system is always constant. It can be verified experimentally using a pressure gauge and a variable volume container. It can also be derived from the kinetic theory of gases: if a container, with a fixed number of molecules inside, is reduced in volume, more molecules will strike a given area of the sides of the container per unit time, causing a greater pressure.

Statement
Boyle's law states that:

The concept can be represented with these formulae: $$P_1 V_1 = P_2 V_2$$ where $P$ is the pressure, $V$ is the volume of a gas, and $k_{1}$ is the constant in this equation (and is not the same as the proportionality constants in the other equations).
 * $$V \propto \frac{1}{P}$$, meaning "Volume is inversely proportional to Pressure", or
 * $$P \propto \frac{1}{V}$$, meaning "Pressure is inversely proportional to Volume", or
 * $$P V = k_1$$, or

Charles' law
Charles' law, or the law of volumes, was founded in 1787 by Jacques Charles. It states that, for a given mass of an ideal gas at constant pressure, the volume is directly proportional to its absolute temperature, assuming in a closed system. The statement of Charles' law is as follows: the volume (V) of a given mass of a gas, at constant pressure (P), is directly proportional to its temperature (T).

Statement
Charles' law states that:

Therefore,

 * $$V \propto T\,$$, or
 * $${V \over T} = k_2$$, or
 * $${V_1 \over T_1} = {V_2 \over T_2}$$,

where "V" is the volume of a gas, "T" is the absolute temperature and k2 is a proportionality constant (which is not the same as the proportionality constants in the other equations in this article).

Gay-Lussac's law
Gay-Lussac's law, Amontons' law or the pressure law was founded by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1808.

Statement
Gay-Lussac's law states that:

Therefore,

 * $$P \propto T\,$$, or
 * $${P \over T} = k$$, or

$${P_1 \over T_1} = {P_2 \over T_2}$$,

 * where P is the pressure, T is the absolute temperature, and k is another proportionality constant.

Avogadro's law
Avogadro's law, Avogadro's hypothesis, Avogadro's principle or Avogadro-Ampère's hypothesis is an experimental gas law which was hypothesized by Amedeo Avogadro in 1811. It related the volume of a gas to the amount of substance of gas present.

Statement
Avogadro's law states that:

This statement gives rise to the molar volume of a gas, which at STP (273.15 K, 1 atm) is about 22.4 L. The relation is given by:

 * $$V \propto n\,$$, or$$\frac{V_1}{n_1}=\frac{V_2}{n_2}   \,$$where n is equal to the number of molecules of gas (or the number of moles of gas).

Combined and ideal gas laws
The Combined gas law or General Gas Equation is obtained by combining Boyle's Law, Charles's law, and Gay-Lussac's Law. It shows the relationship between the pressure, volume, and temperature for a fixed mass of gas:

 * $$PV = k_5 T $$

This can also be written as:

 * $$ \frac {P_1V_1}{T_1}= \frac {P_2V_2}{T_2} $$

With the addition of Avogadro's law, the combined gas law develops into the ideal gas law:

 * $$PV = nRT $$
 * where P is the pressure, V is volume, n is the number of moles, R is the universal gas constant and T is the absolute temperature.
 * The proportionality constant, now named R, is the universal gas constant with a value of 8.3144598 (kPa∙L)/(mol∙K).

An equivalent formulation of this law is:
 * $$PV = Nk_\text{B}T $$
 * where P is the pressure, V is the volume, N is the number of gas molecules, kB is the Boltzmann constant (1.381×10−23J·K−1 in SI units) and T is the absolute temperature.

These equations are exact only for an ideal gas, which neglects various intermolecular effects (see real gas). However, the ideal gas law is a good approximation for most gases under moderate pressure and temperature.

This law has the following important consequences:
 * 1) If temperature and pressure are kept constant, then the volume of the gas is directly proportional to the number of molecules of gas.
 * 2) If the temperature and volume remain constant, then the pressure of the gas changes is directly proportional to the number of molecules of gas present.
 * 3) If the number of gas molecules and the temperature remain constant, then the pressure is inversely proportional to the volume.
 * 4) If the temperature changes and the number of gas molecules are kept constant, then either pressure or volume (or both) will change in direct proportion to the temperature.

Other gas laws

 * Graham's law: This law states that the rate at which gas molecules diffuse is inversely proportional to the square root of the gas density at a constant temperature. Combined with Avogadro's law (i.e. since equal volumes have an equal number of molecules) this is the same as being inversely proportional to the root of the molecular weight.
 * Dalton's law of partial pressures: This law states that the pressure of a mixture of gases simply is the sum of the partial pressures of the individual components. Dalton's law is as follows:
 * $$ P_\textrm{total} = P_1 + P_2 + P_3 + \cdots + P_n \equiv \sum_{i=1}^n P_i ,$$
 * and all component gases and the mixture are at the same temperature and volume
 * where Ptotal is the total pressure of the gas mixture
 * Pi is the partial pressure or pressure of the component gas at the given volume and temperature.
 * Amagat's law of partial volumes: This law states that the volume of a mixture of gases (or the volume of the container) simply is the sum of the partial volumes of the individual components. Amagat's law is as follows:
 * $$ V_\textrm{total} = V_1 + V_2 + V_3 + \cdots + V_n \equiv \sum_{i=1}^n V_i ,$$
 * and all component gases and the mixture are at the same temperature and pressure
 * where Vtotal is the total volume of the gas mixture or the volume of the container,
 * Vi is the partial volume, or volume of the component gas at the given pressure and temperature.
 * Henry's law: This states that at constant temperature, the amount of a given gas dissolved in a given type and volume of liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas in equilibrium with that liquid. The equation is as follows:
 * $$ p = k_{\rm H}\, c$$
 * Real gas law: This was formulated by Johannes Diderik van der Waals in 1873.
 * where Vtotal is the total volume of the gas mixture or the volume of the container,
 * Vi is the partial volume, or volume of the component gas at the given pressure and temperature.
 * Henry's law: This states that at constant temperature, the amount of a given gas dissolved in a given type and volume of liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas in equilibrium with that liquid. The equation is as follows:
 * $$ p = k_{\rm H}\, c$$
 * Real gas law: This was formulated by Johannes Diderik van der Waals in 1873.
 * $$ p = k_{\rm H}\, c$$
 * Real gas law: This was formulated by Johannes Diderik van der Waals in 1873.
 * Real gas law: This was formulated by Johannes Diderik van der Waals in 1873.

title: Gas laws


text:
Golomb ruler

In mathematics, a Golomb ruler is a set of marks at integer positions along a ruler such that no two pairs of marks are the same distance apart. The number of marks on the ruler is its order, and the largest distance between two of its marks is its length. Translation and reflection of a Golomb ruler are considered trivial, so the smallest mark is customarily put at 0 and the next mark at the smaller of its two possible values. Golomb rulers can be viewed as a one-dimensional special case of Costas arrays.

The Golomb ruler was named for Solomon W. Golomb and discovered independently by and. Sophie Piccard also published early research on these sets, in 1939, stating as a theorem the claim that two Golomb rulers with the same distance set must be congruent. This turned out to be false for six-point rulers, but true otherwise.

There is no requirement that a Golomb ruler be able to measure all distances up to its length, but if it does, it is called a perfect Golomb ruler. It has been proved that no perfect Golomb ruler exists for five or more marks. A Golomb ruler is optimal if no shorter Golomb ruler of the same order exists. Creating Golomb rulers is easy, but proving the optimal Golomb ruler (or rulers) for a specified order is computationally very challenging.

Distributed.net has completed distributed massively parallel searches for optimal order-24 through order-28 Golomb rulers, each time confirming the suspected candidate ruler.

Currently, the complexity of finding optimal Golomb rulers (OGRs) of arbitrary order n (where n is given in unary) is unknown. In the past there was some speculation that it is an NP-hard problem. Problems related to the construction of Golomb rulers are provably shown to be NP-hard, where it is also noted that no known NP-complete problem has similar flavor to finding Golomb rulers.

Golomb rulers as sets
A set of integers $$A = \{a_1,a_2,...,a_m\}$$ where $$a_1 < a_2 < ... < a_m$$ is a Golomb ruler if and only if

 * $$\text{for all } i,j,k,l \in \left\{1,2,...,m\right\} \text{such that } i \neq j \text{ and } k \neq l,\ a_i - a_j = a_k - a_l \iff i=k \text{ and } j=l.$$

The order of such a Golomb ruler is $$m$$ and its length is $$a_m - a_1$$. The canonical form has $$a_1 = 0$$ and, if $$m>2$$, $$a_2 - a_1 < a_m - a_{m-1}$$. Such a form can be achieved through translation and reflection.

Golomb rulers as functions
An injective function $$f:\left\{1,2,...,m\right\} \to \left\{0,1,...,n\right\}$$ with $$f(1) = 0$$ and $$f(m) = n$$ is a Golomb ruler if and only if

 * $$\text{for all } i,j,k,l \in \left\{1,2,...,m\right\} \text{such that } i \neq j \text{ and } k \neq l, f(i)-f(j) = f(k)-f(l) \iff i=k \text{ and } j=l.$$

The order of such a Golomb ruler is $$m$$ and its length is $$n$$. The canonical form has
 * $$f(2)2$$.

Optimality
A Golomb ruler of order m with length n may be optimal in either of two respects:

 * It may be optimally dense, exhibiting maximal m for the specific value of n ,
 * It may be optimally short, exhibiting minimal n for the specific value of m.

The general term optimal Golomb ruler is used to refer to the second type of optimality.

Information theory and error correction
Golomb rulers are used within information theory related to error correcting codes.

Radio frequency selection
Golomb rulers are used in the selection of radio frequencies to reduce the effects of intermodulation interference with both terrestrial and extraterrestrial applications.

Radio antenna placement
Golomb rulers are used in the design of phased arrays of radio antennas. In radio astronomy one-dimensional synthesis arrays can have the antennas in a Golomb ruler configuration in order to obtain minimum redundancy of the Fourier component sampling.

Current transformers
Multi-ratio current transformers use Golomb rulers to place transformer tap points.

Methods of construction
A number of construction methods produce asymptotically optimal Golomb rulers.

Erdős–Turán construction
The following construction, due to Paul Erdős and Pál Turán, produces a Golomb ruler for every odd prime p.

 * $$2pk+(k^2\,\bmod\,p),k\in[0,p-1]$$

Known optimal Golomb rulers
The following table contains all known optimal Golomb rulers, excluding those with marks in the reverse order. The first four are perfect.

The optimal ruler would have been known before this date; this date represents that date when it was discovered to be optimal (because all other rulers were proved to not be smaller). For example, the ruler that turned out to be optimal for order 26 was recorded on 10 October 2007, but it was not known to be optimal until all other possibilities were exhausted on 24 February 2009.

title: Golomb ruler


text:
Ice cream

Ice cream is a frozen dessert typically made from milk or cream that has been flavoured with a sweetener, either sugar or an alternative, and a spice, such as cocoa or vanilla, or with fruit, such as strawberries or peaches. Food colouring is sometimes added in addition to stabilizers. The mixture is cooled below the freezing point of water and stirred to incorporate air spaces and prevent detectable ice crystals from forming. It can also be made by whisking a flavoured cream base and liquid nitrogen together. The result is a smooth, semi-solid foam that is solid at very low temperatures (below 35 F). It becomes more malleable as its temperature increases.

Ice cream may be served in dishes, eaten with a spoon, or licked from edible wafer ice cream cones held by the hands as finger food. Ice cream may be served with other desserts—such as cake or pie—or used as an ingredient in cold dishes—like ice cream floats, sundaes, milkshakes, and ice cream cakes—or in baked items such as Baked Alaska.

Italian ice cream is gelato. Frozen custard is a type of rich ice cream. Soft serve is softer and is often served at amusement parks and fast-food restaurants in America. Ice creams made from cow's milk alternatives, such as goat's or sheep's milk, or milk substitutes (e.g., soy, cashew, coconut, almond milk, or tofu), are available for those who are lactose intolerant, allergic to dairy protein, or vegan. Banana "nice cream" is a 100% fruit-based vegan alternative. Frozen yoghurt, or "froyo", is similar to ice cream but uses yoghurt and can be lower in fat. Fruity sorbets or sherbets are not ice creams but are often available in ice cream shops.

The meaning of the name ice cream varies from one country to another. In some countries, such as the United States, ice cream applies only to a specific variety, and most governments regulate the commercial use of the various terms according to the relative quantities of the main ingredients, notably the amount of cream. Products that do not meet the criteria to be called ice cream are sometimes labelled "frozen dairy dessert" instead. In other countries, such as Italy and Argentina, one word is used for all variants.

Early frozen desserts
The origins of frozen desserts are obscure, although several accounts exist about their history. Some sources describe frozen desserts as originating in Persia as far back as 550 BC. A Roman cookbook dating back to the 1st-century includes recipes for sweet desserts that are sprinkled with snow, and there are Persian records from the second century for sweetened drinks chilled with ice.

is a Japanese dessert made with ice and flavoured syrup. The origins of date back to the Heian period in Japanese history, when blocks of ice saved during the colder months would be shaved and served with sweet syrup to the Japanese aristocracy during the summer. 's origin is referred to in The Pillow Book, a book of observations written by Sei Shōnagon, who served the Imperial Court during the Heian period.

The earliest known written process to artificially make ice is known not from culinary texts, but the 13th-century writings of Syrian historian Ibn Abu Usaybia in his book “Kitab Uyun al-anba fi tabaqat-al-atibba“ (Book of Sources of Information on the Classes of Physicians) concerning medicine in which Ibn Abu Usaybi’a attributes the process to an even older author, Ibn Bakhtawayhi, of whom nothing is known.

Ice cream production became easier with the discovery of the endothermic effect. Prior to this, cream could be chilled easily but not frozen. It was the addition of salt that lowered the melting point of ice, which had the effect of drawing heat from the cream and allowing it to freeze.

Early modern
In the 16th century, the Mughal Empire used relays of horsemen to bring ice from the Hindu Kush to its capital, Delhi, used to create kulfi, a popular frozen dairy dessert from the Indian subcontinent often described as "traditional Indian ice cream."

Europe
The technique of "freezing" was not known from any European sources prior to the 16th century. During the 16th century, authors made reference to the refrigerant effect that happened when salt was added to ice, causing it to freeze. However, it was not until the latter part of the 17th century that sorbets and ice creams were made using this process.

Ice cream's spread throughout Europe is sometimes attributed to Moorish traders, but more often Marco Polo. Though it is not mentioned in any of his writings, Polo is often credited with introducing sorbet-style desserts to Italy after learning of them during his travels to China. According to a legend, the Italian duchess Catherine de' Medici is said to have introduced flavoured sorbet ices to France when she brought some Italian chefs with her to France upon marrying the Duke of Orléans (Henry II of France) in 1533. But in fact, no Italian chefs were present in France during the Medici period, and it is known that ice cream already existed in France before Catherine de Medici was born. One hundred years later, Charles I of England was reportedly so impressed by the "frozen snow" that he offered his own ice cream maker a lifetime pension in return for keeping the formula secret, so that ice cream could be a royal prerogative. There is no evidence to support these legends.

France
As far back as 1665, the Catalogue des Marchandises rares..., edited in Montpellier by Jean Fargeon, listed a type of frozen sorbet. While the composition of this sorbet is not provided, Fargeon specified that it was consumed frozen using a container that was plunged into a mixture of ice and saltpetre. These sorbets were transported in pots made of clay and sold for three livres per pound.

According to L'Isle des Hermaphrodites, the practice of cooling beverages with ice and snow had already emerged in Paris, particularly in the court, during the 16th century. The narrator notes that his hosts stored ice and snow, which they later added to their wine. This practice slowly progressed during the reign of Louis XIII and was likely a necessary step towards the creation of ice cream. In fact, as early as 1682, Le Nouveau confiturier françois provided a recipe for a specific type of ice cream, called "neige de fleur d'orange".

In 1686, Italian Francesco dei Coltelli opened an ice cream café in Paris, and the product became so popular that during the next 50 years, another 250 cafés opened in Paris.

The first recipe in French for flavoured ices appears in 1674, in Nicholas Lemery's Recueil de curiositéz rares et nouvelles de plus admirables effets de la nature. Recipes for sorbetti saw publication in the 1694 edition of Antonio Latini's Lo Scalco alla Moderna (The Modern Steward). Recipes for flavoured ices begin to appear in François Massialot's Nouvelle Instruction pour les Confitures, les Liqueurs, et les Fruits, starting with the 1692 edition. Massialot's recipes result in a coarse, pebbly texture. Latini claims that the results of his recipes should have the fine consistency of sugar and snow.

England
The first recorded mention of ice cream in England was in 1671. Elias Ashmole described the dishes served at the Feast of St George at Windsor in for Charles II in 1671 and included "one plate of ice cream". The only table at the banquet with ice cream on it was that of the King. The first recipe for ice cream in English was published in Mrs. Mary Eales's Receipts, a book dedicated to confectionary, in London in 1718:

"To ice cream.

Take Tin Ice-Pots, fill them with any Sort of Cream you like, either plain or sweeten'd, or Fruit in it; shut your Pots very close; to six Pots you must allow eighteen or twenty Pound of Ice, breaking the Ice very small; there will be some great Pieces, which lay at the Bottom and Top: You must have a Pail, and lay some Straw at the Bottom; then lay in your Ice, and put in amongst it a Pound of Bay-Salt; set in your Pots of Cream, and lay Ice and Salt between every Pot, that they may not touch; but the Ice must lie round them on every Side; lay a good deal of Ice on the Top, cover the Pail with Straw, set it in a Cellar where no Sun or Light comes, it will be froze in four Hours, but it may stand longer; then take it out just as you use it; hold it in your Hand and it will slip out. When you wou'd freeze any Sort of Fruit, either Cherries, Raspberries, Currants, or Strawberries, fill your Tin-Pots with the Fruit, but as hollow as you can; put to them Lemmonade, made with Spring-Water and Lemmon-Juice sweeten'd; put enough in the Pots to make the Fruit hang together, and put them in Ice as you do Cream."

The 1751 edition of The Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy by Hannah Glasse includes a recipe for ice cream: "H. GLASSE Art of Cookery (ed. 4) 333 (heading) To make Ice Cream...set it [the cream] into the larger Bason. Fill it with Ice, and a Handful of Salt."

The year 1768 saw the publication of L'Art de Bien Faire les Glaces d'Office by M. Emy, a cookbook devoted entirely to recipes for flavoured ices and ice cream.

In 1769 Domenico Negri, an Italian confectioner, founded a business in Berkeley Square London which would become famous for its ice creams. His shop was at the Sign of the Pineapple (an emblem used by confectioners) and his trade card said he sold "All Sorts of English, French and Italian wet and dry'd Sweet Meats, Cedrati and Bergamot Chips, Naples Diavoloni, All sorts of Baskets & Cakes, fine and Common Sugar plums", but most importantly, "all Sorts of Ice, Fruits and creams in the best Italian manner."

In 1789 Frederick Nutt, who served an apprenticeship at Negri's establishment, first published The Complete Confectioner. The book had 31 different recipes for ice creams, some with fresh fruit, others with jams, and some using fruit syrups. Flavours included ginger, chocolate, brown breadcrumbs and one flavoured with Parmesan cheese.

North America
An early North American reference to ice cream is from 1744: "Among the rarities[...] was some fine ice cream, which, with the strawberries and milk, eat most deliciously." It was served by the lady of Governor Bland.

Who brought ice cream to the United States first is unknown. Confectioners sold ice cream at their shops in New York and other cities during the colonial era. Ben Franklin, George Washington, and Thomas Jefferson were known to have regularly eaten and served ice cream. Records, kept by a merchant from Chatham street, New York, show George Washington spending approximately $200 on ice cream in the summer of 1790. The same records show president Thomas Jefferson having an 18-step recipe for ice cream. Although it is incorrect that Jefferson introduced ice cream to America, as is popularly believed, he did help to introduce vanilla ice cream. First Lady Dolley Madison, wife of U.S. President James Madison, served ice cream at her husband's Inaugural Ball in 1813.

Small-scale hand-cranked ice cream freezers were invented in England by Agnes Marshall and in America by Nancy Johnson in the 1840s.

Expansion in popularity
In the Mediterranean, ice cream appears to have been accessible to ordinary people by the mid-18th century. Ice cream became popular and inexpensive in England in the mid-nineteenth century, when Swiss émigré Carlo Gatti set up the first stand outside Charing Cross station in 1851. He sold scoops in shells for one penny. Prior to this, ice cream was an expensive treat confined to those with access to an ice house. Gatti built an 'ice well' to store ice that he cut from Regent's Canal under a contract with the Regent's Canal Company. By 1860, he expanded the business and began importing ice on a large scale from Norway.

In New Zealand, a newspaper advertisement for ice cream appeared in 1866, claiming to be the first time ice cream was available in Wellington. Commercial manufacturing was underway in 1875. Ice cream rapidly gained in popularity in New Zealand throughout the 20th century. By 2018, exported ice cream products included new flavors such as matcha to cater specifically to Asian markets.

Agnes Marshall, regarded as the "queen of ices" in England, did much to popularize ice cream recipes and make its consumption into a fashionable middle-class pursuit. She wrote four books: The Book of Ices (1885), Mrs. A.B. Marshall's Book of Cookery (1888), Mrs. A.B. Marshall's Larger Cookery Book of Extra Recipes (1891) and Fancy Ices (1894) and gave public lectures on cooking. She even suggested using liquid nitrogen to make ice cream.

Ice cream soda was invented in the 1870s, adding to ice cream's popularity. The invention of this cold treat is attributed to American Robert Green in 1874, although there is no conclusive evidence to prove his claim. The ice cream sundae originated in the late 19th century. Several men claimed to have created the first sundae, but there is no conclusive evidence to support any of their stories. Some sources say that the sundae was invented to circumvent blue laws, which forbade serving sodas on Sunday. Towns claiming to be the birthplace of the sundae include Buffalo, Two Rivers, Ithaca, and Evanston. Both the ice cream cone and banana split became popular in the early 20th century.

The first mention of the cone being used as an edible receptacle for the ice cream is in Mrs. A.B. Marshall's Book of Cookery of 1888. Her recipe for "Cornet with Cream" said that "the cornets were made with almonds and baked in the oven, not pressed between irons". The ice cream cone was popularized in the US at the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis, Missouri.

The history of ice cream in the 20th century is one of great change and increases in availability and popularity. In the United States in the early 20th century, the ice cream soda was a popular treat at the soda shop, the soda fountain, and the ice cream parlor. During the American Prohibition, the soda fountain to some extent replaced the outlawed alcohol establishments such as bars and saloons.

Ice cream became popular throughout the world in the second half of the 20th century after cheap refrigeration became common. There was an explosion of ice cream stores and of flavours and types. Vendors often competed on the basis of variety: Howard Johnson's restaurants advertised "a world of 28 flavors", and Baskin-Robbins made its 31 flavors ("one for every day of the month") the cornerstone of its marketing strategy (the company now boasts that it has developed over 1,000 varieties).

One important development in the 20th century was the introduction of soft ice cream, which has more air mixed in, thereby reducing costs. The soft ice cream machine fills a cone or dish from a spigot. In the United States, chains such as Dairy Queen, Carvel, and Tastee-Freez helped popularize soft-serve ice cream. Baskin-Robbins would later incorporate it into their menu.

Technological innovations such as these have introduced various food additives into ice cream, most notably the stabilizing agent gluten, to which some people have an intolerance. Recent awareness of this issue has prompted a number of manufacturers to start producing gluten-free ice cream.

The 1980s saw thicker ice creams being sold as "premium" and "super-premium" varieties under brands such as Ben & Jerry's, Chocolate Shoppe Ice Cream Company and Häagen-Dazs.

Composition
Ice cream is a colloidal emulsion made with water, ice, milk fat, milk protein, sugar and air. Water and fat have the highest proportions by weight creating an emulsion that has dispersed phase as fat globules. The emulsion is turned into foam by incorporating air cells which are frozen to form dispersed ice cells. The triacylglycerols in fat are nonpolar and will adhere to themselves by Van der Waals interactions. Water is polar, thus emulsifiers are needed for dispersion of fat. Also, ice cream has a colloidal phase of foam which helps in its light texture. Milk proteins such as casein and whey protein present in ice cream are amphiphilic, can adsorb water and form micelles which will contribute to its consistency. The proteins contribute to the emulsification, aeration and texture. Sucrose, which is a disaccharide, is usually used as a sweetening agent. Lactose, which is sugar present in milk, will cause freezing point depression. Thus, on freezing some water will remain unfrozen and will not give a hard texture. Too much lactose will result in a non ideal texture because of either excessive freezing point depression or lactose crystallization.

Production
Before the development of modern refrigeration, ice cream was a luxury reserved for special occasions. Making it was quite laborious; ice was cut from lakes and ponds during the winter and stored in holes in the ground, or in wood-frame or brick ice houses, insulated by straw. Many farmers and plantation owners, including U.S. Presidents George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, cut and stored ice in the winter for use in the summer. Frederic Tudor of Boston turned ice harvesting and shipping into a big business, cutting ice in New England and shipping it around the world.

Ice cream was made by hand in a large bowl placed inside a tub filled with ice and salt. This is called the pot-freezer method. French confectioners refined the pot-freezer method, making ice cream in a (a covered pail with a handle attached to the lid). In the pot-freezer method, the temperature of the ingredients is reduced by the mixture of crushed ice and salt. The salt water is cooled by the ice, and the action of the salt on the ice causes it to (partially) melt, absorbing latent heat and bringing the mixture below the freezing point of pure water. The immersed container can also make better thermal contact with the salty water and ice mixture than it could with ice alone.

The hand-cranked churn, which also uses ice and salt for cooling, replaced the pot-freezer method. The exact origin of the hand-cranked freezer is unknown, but the first U.S. patent for one was #3254 issued to Nancy Johnson on 9 September 1843. The hand-cranked churn produced smoother ice cream than the pot freezer and did it quicker. Many inventors patented improvements on Johnson's design.

In Europe and early America, ice cream was made and sold by small businesses, mostly confectioners and caterers. Jacob Fussell of Baltimore, Maryland was the first to manufacture ice cream on a large scale. Fussell bought fresh dairy products from farmers in York County, Pennsylvania, and sold them in Baltimore. An unstable demand for his dairy products often left him with a surplus of cream, which he made into ice cream. He built his first ice cream factory in Seven Valleys, Pennsylvania, in 1851. Two years later, he moved his factory to Baltimore. Later, he opened factories in several other cities and taught the business to others, who operated their own plants. Mass production reduced the cost of ice cream and added to its popularity.

The development of industrial refrigeration by German engineer Carl von Linde during the 1870s eliminated the need to cut and store natural ice, and, when the continuous-process freezer was perfected in 1926, commercial mass production of ice cream and the birth of the modern ice cream industry was underway.

In modern times, a common method for producing ice cream at home is to use an ice cream maker, an electrical device that churns the ice cream mixture while cooled inside a household freezer. Some more expensive models have an built-in freezing element. A newer method is to add liquid nitrogen to the mixture while stirring it using a spoon or spatula for a few seconds; a similar technique, advocated by Heston Blumenthal as ideal for home cooks, is to add dry ice to the mixture while stirring for a few minutes. Some ice cream recipes call for making a custard, folding in whipped cream, and immediately freezing the mixture. Another method is to use a pre-frozen solution of salt and water, which gradually melts as the ice cream freezes.

An unusual method of making ice cream was done during World War II by American fighter pilots based in the South Pacific. They attached pairs of 5 usgal cans to their aircraft. The cans were fitted with a small propeller, this was spun by the slipstream and drove a stirrer, which agitated the mixture while the intense cold of high altitude froze it. B-17 crews in Europe did something similar on their bombing runs as did others.

Retail sales
Ice cream can be mass-produced and thus is widely available in developed parts of the world. Ice cream can be purchased in large cartons (vats and squrounds) from supermarkets and grocery stores, in smaller quantities from ice cream shops, convenience stores, and milk bars, and in individual servings from small carts or vans at public events. In 2015, the US produced nearly 900 e6gal of ice cream.

Specialty job
Today, jobs specialize in the selling of ice cream. The title of a person who works in this speciality is often called an 'ice cream man', however women also specialize in the selling of ice cream. People in this line of work often sell ice cream on beaches. On beaches, ice cream is either sold by a person who carries a box full of ice cream and is called over by people who want to purchase ice cream, or by a person who drives up to the top of the beach and rings a bell. In the second method, people go up to the top of the beach and purchase ice cream straight from the ice cream seller, who is often in an ice cream van. In Turkey and Australia, ice cream is sometimes sold to beach-goers from small powerboats equipped with chest freezers.

Some ice cream distributors sell ice cream products from travelling refrigerated vans or carts (commonly referred to in the US as "ice cream trucks"), sometimes equipped with speakers playing children's music or folk melodies (such as "Turkey in the Straw"). The driver of an ice cream van drives throughout neighbourhoods and stops every so often, usually every block. The seller on the ice cream van sells the ice cream through a large window; this window is also where the customer asks for ice cream and pays. Ice cream vans in the United Kingdom make a music box noise rather than actual music.

Ingredients and standard quality definitions

Many countries have regulations controlling what can be described as ice cream.

In the U.S., the FDA rules state that to be described as "ice cream", a product must have the following composition:
 * greater than 10% milk fat
 * 6 to 10% milk and non-fat milk solids: this component, also known as the milk solids-not-fat or serum solids, contains the proteins (caseins and whey proteins) and carbohydrates (lactose) found in milk

It generally also has:
 * 12 to 16% sweeteners: usually a combination of sucrose and glucose-based corn syrup sweeteners
 * 0.2 to 0.5% stabilizers and emulsifiers
 * 55 to 64% water, which comes from the milk or other ingredients.

These compositions are percentage by weight. Since ice cream can contain as much as half air by volume, these numbers may be reduced by as much as half if cited by volume. In terms of dietary considerations, the percentages by weight are more relevant. Even low-fat products have high caloric content: Ben and Jerry's No-Fat Vanilla Fudge, for instance, contains 150 Cal per half-cup due to its high sugar content.

According to the Canadian Food and Drugs Act and Regulations, ice cream in Canada is divided into "Ice cream mix" and "Ice cream". Each have a different set of regulations.
 * "Ice cream" must be at least 10 percent milk fat, and must contain at least 180 g of solids per litre. When cocoa, chocolate syrup, fruit, nuts, or confections are added, the percentage of milk fat can be 8 percent.
 * "Ice cream mix" is defined as the pasteurized mix of cream, milk and other milk products that are not yet frozen. It may contain eggs, artificial or non-artificial flavours, cocoa or chocolate syrup, a food colour, an agent that adjusts the pH level in the mix, salt, a stabilizing agent that does not exceed 0.5% of the ice cream mix, a sequestering agent which preserves the food colour, edible casein that does not exceed 1% of the mix, propylene glycol mono fatty acids in an amount that will not exceed 0.35% of the ice cream mix, and sorbitan tristearate in an amount that will not exceed 0.035% of the mix. Ice cream mix may not include less than 36% solid components.

Physical properties
Ice cream is considered a colloidal system. It is composed by ice cream crystals and aggregates, air that does not mix with the ice cream by forming small bubbles in the bulk and partially coalesced fat globules. This dispersed phase made from all the small particles is surrounded by an unfrozen continuous phase composed by sugars, proteins, salts, polysaccharides and water. Their interactions determine the properties of ice cream, whether soft and whippy or hard.

Ostwald ripening
Ostwald ripening is the explanation for the growth of large crystals at the expense of small ones in the dispersion phase. This process is also called migratory recrystallization. It involves the formation of sharp crystals. Theories about Ostwald recrystallization admit that after a period of time, the recrystallization process can be described by the following equation:

$$r = r (0) + Rt \exp(1/n)$$

Where r (0) is the initial size, n the order of recrystallization, and t a time constant for recrystallization that depends on the rate R (in units of size/time).

To make ice cream smooth, recrystallization must occur as slowly as possible, because small crystals create smoothness, meaning that r must decrease.

Food safety concerns
From the perspective of food chemistry, ice cream is a colloid or foam. The dietary emulsifier plays an important role in ice cream. Soy lecithin and polysorbate are two popular emulsifiers used for ice cream production. A mouse study in 2015 shows that two commonly used dietary emulsifiers carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and polysorbate 80 (P80) can potentially cause inflammatory bowel diseases, weight gain, and other metabolic syndromes.

Around the world
Around the world, different cultures have developed unique versions of ice cream, suiting the product to local tastes and preferences.

The most traditional Argentine helado (ice cream) is very similar to Italian gelato, in large part due to the historical influence of Italian immigrants on Argentinian customs.

Per capita, Australians and New Zealanders are among the leading ice cream consumers in the world, eating 18 L and 20 L each per year respectively, behind the United States where people eat 23 L each per year.

In China, besides the popular flavours such as vanilla, chocolate, coffee, mango and strawberry, many Chinese ice-cream manufacturers have also introduced other traditional Chinese flavours such as black sesame and red bean.

In Greece, ice cream in its modern form, or (παγωτό), was introduced in the beginning of the 20th century.

India is one of the largest producers of ice cream in the world, but most of its ice cream is consumed domestically. One of its most well-known ice creams is the kulfi available in both usual and local flavours like mango, rose, badam (almond), strawberry, kesar (saffron), pistachio, chocolate and can contain nuts, rose petals, saffron stalks, and pieces of other sweets like rabdri and gulab jamun.

Golas are summer treat consisting of shaved ice packed into a popsicle form on a stick and soaked in flavoured sugar syrup, a popular choice being kala khatta, made from the sweet and sour jamun fruit.

In Indonesia, a type of traditional ice cream called es puter or "stirred ice cream" is made from coconut milk, pandanus leaves, sugar—and flavors that include avocado, jackfruit, durian, palm sugar, chocolate, red bean, and mung bean.

In Iran,  or  (Persian: پالوده) is a Persian sorbet made of thin vermicelli noodles, frozen with sugar syrup and rose water. The dessert is often served with lime juice and sometimes ground pistachios.

Italian ice cream, or gelato as it is known, is a traditional and popular dessert in Italy. Much of the production is still hand-made and flavoured by each individual shop in "produzione propria" gelaterias. Gelato is made from whole milk, sugar, sometimes eggs, and natural flavourings. Gelato typically contains 7–8% fat, less than ice cream's minimum of 10%.

Sorbetes is a Philippine version of common ice cream usually peddled from carts by peddlers who roam streets in the Philippines. Despite the similarities between the name sorbetes and sorbet, sorbetes is not a type of sorbet.

In Spain, ice cream is often in the style of Italian gelato. Spanish helado can be found in many cafés or speciality ice cream stores. While many traditional flavours are sold, cafés may also sell flavours like nata, viola, crema catalana, or tiramisu. In the 1980s, the Spanish industry was known for creating many creative and weird ice cream bars.

In Syria, there is a traditional ice cream called Booza. It is made by freezing dairy milk with mastic and sahlab (salep), giving it a distinctive stretchy and chewy texture.

Dondurma is the name given to ice cream in Turkey. Dondurma typically includes milk, sugar, salep (orchid powder), and mastic.

In the United Kingdom, 14million adults buy ice cream as a treat, in a market worth £1.3billion (according to a report produced in September 2009).

In the United States, ice cream made with just cream, sugar, and a flavouring (usually fruit) is sometimes referred to as "Philadelphia style" ice cream. Ice cream that uses eggs to make a custard is sometimes called "French ice cream". American federal labelling standards require ice cream to contain a minimum of 10% milk fat. Americans consume about 23 litres of ice cream per person per year—the most in the world. According to the NPD Group, the most popular ice cream flavours in the U.S. are vanilla and chocolate with a combined market share of 40% as of 2008.

Cones

Mrs A.B.Marshall's Cookery Book, published in 1888, endorsed serving ice cream in cones. Agnes Marshall was a celebrated cookery writer of her day and helped to popularize ice cream. She patented and manufactured an ice cream maker and was the first to suggest using liquefied gases to freeze ice cream after seeing a demonstration at the Royal Institution.

Reliable evidence proves that ice cream cones were served in the 19th century, and their popularity increased greatly during the St. Louis World's Fair in 1904. According to legend, an ice cream vendor at the fair ran out of cardboard dishes. The vendor at the Syrian waffle booth next door, unsuccessful in the intense heat, offered to make cones by rolling up his waffles. The new product sold well and was widely copied by other vendors.

Cryogenics

In 2006, some commercial ice cream makers began to use liquid nitrogen in the primary freezing of ice cream, thus eliminating the need for a conventional ice cream freezer. The preparation results in a column of white condensed water vapour cloud. The ice cream, dangerous to eat while still "steaming" with liquid nitrogen, is allowed to rest until the liquid nitrogen is completely vaporized. Sometimes ice cream is frozen to the sides of the container, and must be allowed to thaw. Good results can also be achieved with the more readily available dry ice, and authors such as Heston Blumenthal have published recipes to produce ice cream and sorbet using a simple blender.

title: Ice cream


text:
Talk:Bank for International Settlements

BIS Committees
BIS has several important committees, would it be interesting to mention them. albeit briefly?

- Basel Committee on Banking Supervision

- Committee on the Global Financial System

- Markets Committee

- Irving Fisher Committee on Central Bank Statistics

- Committee on Payment and Settlement Systems

Dean Armond (talk) 20:50, 13 March 2009 (UTC)

How to be memners SIR MUHAMMED FARIZ (talk) 14:51, 5 October 2017 (UTC)

International Settlements
Why doesn't the article mention international settlements? RobLandau (talk) 20:43, 9 June 2013 (UTC)

What you mean? [User:Re1243Re1243 (talk) 12:58, 2 January 2022 (UTC)|Re1243]] (talk)

Why were Keynes and Truman against liquidating this
If they were in on nazi looting, isn't it a no brainer? Is it similar to being too big to fail? This needs more of an explanation:

As a result of allegations that the BIS had helped the Germans loot assets from occupied countries during World War II, the Bretton Woods Conference recommended the "liquidation of the Bank for International Settlements at the earliest possible moment".[6] This resulted in the BIS being the subject of a disagreement between the non-governmental U.S. and British delegations. The liquidation of the bank was supported by other European delegates, as well as the United States (including Harry Dexter White, Secretary of the Treasury, and Henry Morgenthau),[6] but opposed by John Maynard Keynes, head of the British delegation.

Fearing that the BIS would be dissolved by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Keynes went to Morgenthau hoping to prevent the dissolution, or have it postponed, but the next day the dissolution of the BIS was approved. However, the liquidation of the bank was never actually undertaken.[7] In April 1945, the new U.S. president Harry S. Truman and the British government suspended the dissolution, and the decision to liquidate the BIS was officially reversed in 1948.[8]

Popish Plot (talk) 16:11, 29 May 2015 (UTC)

https://ies.princeton.edu/pdf/E192.pdf Page 48 ″Keynes wanted the liquidation delayed until the establishment of the Fund because of an unexplained obligation undertaken by Britain when it joined the BIS." Poundchew (talk) 13:12, 02 Janurary 2022 (UTC) corrected 11:00, 14 April 2022 (UTC)

https://www.piie.com/system/files/documents/wp17-11.pdf "In the period immediately following the conference, there were extensive discussions, largely between the United States and the United Kingdom, about whether and how to implement this recommendation. In the end, the matter was dropped because it would have required another treaty to liquidate the BIS, since it had been established by treaty, and the central banks, in particular European central banks, pressured their governments not to dissolve their club." Gagsles (talk) 11:15, 14 April 2022 (UTC)

Russia suspended or not?
"History" says the Russian central bank was suspended from BIS, but it's still listed as a member on the BIS website. Someone needs to check what actually happened... Mporter (talk) 21:21, 26 June 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bank for International Settlements


text:
Commodity

In economics, a commodity is an economic good, usually a resource, that specifically has full or substantial fungibility: that is, the market treats instances of the good as equivalent or nearly so with no regard to who produced them.

The price of a commodity good is typically determined as a function of its market as a whole: well-established physical commodities have actively traded spot and derivative markets. The wide availability of commodities typically leads to smaller profit margins and diminishes the importance of factors (such as brand name) other than price.

Most commodities are raw materials, basic resources, agricultural, or mining products, such as iron ore, sugar, or grains like rice and wheat. Commodities can also be mass-produced unspecialized products such as chemicals and computer memory. Popular commodities include crude oil, corn, and gold.

Other definitions of commodity include something useful or valued and an alternative term for an economic good or service available for purchase in the market. In such standard works as Alfred Marshall's Principles of Economics (1920) and Léon Walras's Elements of Pure Economics ([1926] 1954) 'commodity' serves as general term for an economic good or service.

Etymology
The word commodity came into use in English in the 15th century, from the French commodité, "amenity, convenience". Going further back, the French word derives from the Latin commoditas, meaning "suitability, convenience, advantage". The Latin word commodus (from which English gets other words including commodious and accommodate) meant variously "appropriate", "proper measure, time, or condition", and "advantage, benefit".

Characteristics
In economics, the term commodity is used specifically for economic goods that have full or partial but substantial fungibility; that is, the market treats their instances as equivalent or nearly so with no regard to who produced them. Karl Marx described this property as follows: "From the taste of wheat, it is not possible to tell who produced it, a Russian serf, a French peasant or an English capitalist." Petroleum and copper are examples of commodity goods: their supply and demand are a part of one universal market.

Non-commodity items such as stereo systems have many aspects of product differentiation, such as the brand, the user interface and the perceived quality. The demand for one type of stereo may be much larger than demand for another.

The price of a commodity good is typically determined as a function of its market as a whole. Well-established physical commodities have actively traded spot and derivative markets.

Hard and soft commodities
Soft commodities are goods that are grown, such as wheat, or rice.

Hard commodities are mined. Examples include gold, silver, helium, and oil.

Energy commodities include electricity, gas, coal and oil. Electricity has the particular characteristic that it is usually uneconomical to store, and must therefore be consumed as soon as it is produced.

Commoditization
Commoditization occurs as a goods or services market loses differentiation across its supply base, often by the diffusion of the intellectual capital necessary to acquire or produce it efficiently. As such, goods that formerly carried premium margins for market participants have become commodities, such as generic pharmaceuticals and DRAM chips. An article in The New York Times cites multivitamin supplements as an example of commoditization; a 50 mg tablet of calcium is of equal value to a consumer no matter what company produces and markets it, and as such, multivitamins are now sold in bulk and are available at any supermarket with little brand differentiation. Following this trend, nanomaterials are emerging from carrying premium profit margins for market participants to a status of commodification.

There is a spectrum of commoditization, rather than a binary distinction of "commodity versus differentiable product". Few products have complete undifferentiability and hence fungibility; even electricity can be differentiated in the market based on its method of generation (e.g., fossil fuel, wind, solar), in markets where energy choice lets a buyer opt (and pay more) for renewable methods if desired. Many products' degree of commoditization depends on the buyer's mentality and means. For example, milk, eggs, and notebook paper are not differentiated by many customers; for them, the product is fungible and lowest price is the main decisive factor in the purchasing choice. Other customers take into consideration other factors besides price, such as environmental sustainability and animal welfare. To these customers, distinctions such as "organic versus not" or "cage free versus not" count toward differentiating brands of milk or eggs, and percentage of recycled content or Forest Stewardship Council certification count toward differentiating brands of notebook paper.

Global commodities trading company
This is a list of companies trading globally in commodities, descending by size as of October 28, 2011.

 * 1) Vitol
 * 2) Glencore International AG
 * 3) Trafigura
 * 4) Cargill
 * 5) Salam Investment
 * 6) Archer Daniels Midland
 * 7) Gunvor (company)
 * 8) Mercuria Energy Group
 * 9) Noble Group
 * 10) Louis Dreyfus Group
 * 11) Bunge Limited
 * 12) Wilmar International
 * 13) Olam International
 * 14) Rochel International

Commodity trade
In the original and simplified sense, commodities were things of value, of uniform quality, that were produced in large quantities by many different producers; the items from each different producer were considered equivalent. On a commodity exchange, it is the underlying standard stated in the contract that defines the commodity, not any quality inherent in a specific producer's product.

Commodities exchanges include: Markets for trading commodities can be very efficient, particularly if the division into pools matches demand segments. These markets will quickly respond to changes in supply and demand to find an equilibrium price and quantity. In addition, investors can gain passive exposure to the commodity markets through a commodity price index.
 * Bourse Africa (formerly GBOT)
 * Bursa Malaysia Derivatives (MDEX)
 * Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT)
 * Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME)
 * Dalian Commodity Exchange (DCE)
 * Euronext.liffe (LIFFE)
 * Kansas City Board of Trade (KCBT)
 * London Metal Exchange (LME)
 * Marché à Terme International de France (MATIF)
 * Mercantile Exchange Nepal Limited (MEX)
 * Multi Commodity Exchange (MCX)
 * National Commodity and Derivatives Exchange (NCDEX)
 * National Commodity Exchange Limited (NCEL)
 * New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX)
 * Yiwu International Trade City(Yiwu Market)

In order to diversify their investments and mitigate the risks associated with inflationary debasement of currencies, pension funds and sovereign wealth funds allocate capital to non-listed assets such as a commodities and commodity-related infrastructure.

Inventory data
The inventory of commodities, with low inventories typically leading to more volatile future prices and increasing the risk of a "stockout" (inventory exhaustion). According to economist theorists, companies receive a convenience yield by holding inventories of certain commodities. Data on inventories of commodities are not available from one common source, although data is available from various sources. Inventory data on 31 commodities was used in a 2006 study on the relationship between inventories and commodity futures risk premiums.

Commodification of labour
In classical political economy and especially in Karl Marx's critique of political economy, a commodity is an object or a good or service ("product" or "activity" ) produced by human labour. Objects are external to man. However, some objects attain "use value" to persons in this world, when they are found to be "necessary, useful or pleasant in life". "Use value" makes an object "an object of human wants", or "a means of subsistence in the widest sense".

As society developed, people found that they could trade goods and services for other goods and services. At this stage, these goods and services became "commodities". According to Marx, commodities are defined as objects which are offered for sale or are "exchanged in a market". In the marketplace, where commodities are sold, "use value" is not helpful in facilitating the sale of commodities. Accordingly, in addition to having use value, commodities must have an "exchange value"—a value that could be expressed in the market.

Prior to Marx, many economists debated as to what elements made up exchange value. Adam Smith maintained that exchange value was made up of rent, profit, labour and the costs of wear and tear on the instruments of husbandry. David Ricardo, a follower of Adam Smith, modified Smith's approach on this point by alleging that labour alone is the content of the exchange value of any good or service. While maintaining that all exchange value in commodities was derived directly from the hands of the people that made the commodity, Ricardo noted that only part of the exchange value of the commodity was paid to the worker who made the commodity. The other part of the value of this particular commodity was labour that was not paid to the worker—unpaid labour. This unpaid labour was retained by the owner of the means of production. In capitalist society, the capitalist owns the means of production and therefore the unpaid labour is retained by the capitalist as rent or as profit. The means of production means the site where the commodity is made, the raw products that are used in the production and the instruments or machines that are used for the production of the commodity.

However, not all commodities are reproducible nor were all commodities originally intended to be sold in the market. These priced goods are also treated as commodities, e.g. human labour-power, works of art and natural resources ("earth itself is an instrument of labour"), even though they may not be produced specifically for the market, or be non-reproducible goods.

Marx's analysis of the commodity is intended to help solve the problem of what establishes the economic value of goods, using the labour theory of value. This problem was extensively debated by Adam Smith, David Ricardo and Karl Rodbertus-Jagetzow among others.

All three of the above-mentioned economists rejected the theory that labour composed 100% of the exchange value of any commodity. In varying degrees, these economists turned to supply and demand to establish the price of commodities. Marx held that the "price" and the "value" of a commodity were not synonymous. Price of any commodity would vary according to the imbalance of supply to demand at any one period of time. The "value" of the same commodity would be consistent and would reflect the amount of labour value used to produce that commodity.

Prior to Marx, economists noted that the problem with using the "quantity of labour" to establish the value of commodities was that the time spent by an unskilled worker would be longer than the time spent on the same commodity by a skilled worker. Thus, under this analysis, the commodity produced by an unskilled worker would be more valuable than the same commodity produced by the skilled worker. Marx pointed out, however, that in society at large, an average amount of time that was necessary to produce the commodity would arise. This average time necessary to produce the commodity Marx called the "socially necessary labour time". Socially necessary labour time was the proper basis on which to base the "exchange value" of a given commodity.

Commodity Super Cycle
Commodity Super Cycles are periods of time, around a decade, where commodities as a whole trade at a price that is greater than their long term moving average. A Super Cycle will usually occur when there is large industrial and commercial change in a country or world that requires more resources to support the change. As prices rise, goods and services that rely on commodities rise with them.

History of Super Cycles
There have been four super cycles over the last 120 years worldwide. The first commodity super cycle started in late 1890 and was accelerated on the back of widespread U.S. industrialization and World War 1. In 1917 commodity prices peaked and then entered a downtrend to the 1930s. As war erupted in Europe in the late 1930s and eventually including the U.S. the world saw a new cycle begin. Countries were not just preparing for war but also the Aftermath of World War II as lots of Europe and Asia faced heavy rebuilding. This cycle eventually peaked in 1951 and faded away in the early 70s. In the 1970s as world economies grew they needed more materials and energy to support expansion leading to increases in prices across the board. This boom came to an end as foreign investments fled as extractive industries became nationalized. The most recent of commodity super cycles began in 2000 as China joined the World Trade Organization. China was also in the beginning of their boom as industry and expansion took off. Workers moved into cities as emerging industries took off and offered a lots of new jobs and opportunities. In 2008 when the Great Recession hit it put a halt onto the supercycle as GDP's across the world tanked leaving many economies in recessions.

The next or the fifth supercycle could arrive as the world enters the final phases of the COVID-19 pandemic and starts to build massive clean energy infrastructure in view of the commodity price increase.

title: Commodity


text:
Talk:There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom

Versions?
"There was also a version of this talk, with the same name, that Feynman gave to high school students. One place that it was given was Los Angeles High School, in about 1960, to a group of fifty selected high school physics students."

This suggests that there were at least two versions of the talk given - the article states that the first talk was given in 1959, but it doesn't say where, and to whom. This information should be in the lead paragraph, IMO. TheMadBaron 18:53, 3 June 2006 (UTC)

The original talk "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom" was presented on occasion of the anual APS Winter Meeting of the West on the 29th December 1959 as an after-dinner speech. Feynman was invited speaker for this informal adress to the attendants of the conference dinner at CalTech's "Athaneum". The audio tape, from which the transscript in CalTech's journal "Engineering&Science" originated, has been lost over the years. (Andreas Junk, 4/29/08) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.176.150.114 (talk) 11:23, 29 April 2008 (UTC)

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Unnecessary mention of glass fibre
I feel this article is going a bit too broad, e.g. stating "At the present time, there are electronic components made of both materials. In glass, there are optical fiber cables that amplify the light pulses at regular intervals, using glass doped with the rare-earth element erbium. The doped glass is spliced into the fiber and pumped by a laser operating at a different frequency.". Such fibres have typically ∅8 μm core and no further miniaturization takes place here. And they are no electronic components. Does this have anything to do with nanotechnology? Or should we delete it? --FDominec (talk) 04:35, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

I agree. From "At the present time, ..." to the end of that paragraph is irrelevant, and should be deleted. (And I reached this conclusion before seeing this Talk section — it's just coincidence that we both spotted this 5 hours apart.) BMJ-pdx (talk) 09:37, 29 December 2021 (UTC)


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Point

A point is a small dot or the sharp tip of something. Point or points may refer to:

Mathematics

 * Point (geometry), an entity that has a location in space or on a plane, but has no extent; more generally, an element of some abstract topological space
 * Point, or Element (category theory), generalizes the set-theoretic concept of an element of a set to an object of any category
 * Critical point (mathematics), a stationary point of a function of an arbitrary number of variables
 * Decimal point
 * Point-free geometry
 * Stationary point, a point in the domain of a single-valued function where the value of the function ceases to change

Places

 * Point, Cornwall, England, a settlement in Feock parish
 * Point, Lewis, a peninsula in the Outer Hebrides, Scotland
 * Point, Texas, a city in Rains County, Texas, United States
 * Point, the NE tip and a ferry terminal of Lismore, Inner Hebrides, Scotland
 * Points, West Virginia, an unincorporated community in the United States

Business and finance

 * Point (loyalty program), a type of virtual currency in common use among mercantile loyalty programs, globally
 * Point (mortgage), a percentage sometimes referred to as a form of pre-paid interest used to reduce interest rates in a mortgage loan
 * Basis point, 1/100 of one percent, denoted bp, bps, and ‱
 * Percentage points, used to measure a change in percentage absolutely
 * Pivot point (technical analysis), a price level of significance in analysis of a financial market that is used as a predictive indicator of market movement
 * "Points", the term for profit sharing in the American film industry, where creatives involved in making the film get a defined percentage of the net profits or even gross receipts
 * Royalty points, a way of sharing profit between companies and unit holders
 * Vigorish point, the commission charged on a gambling bet or loanshark's loan

Measurement units

 * Point (gemstone), 2 milligrams, or one hundredth of a carat
 * Point (typography), a measurement used in printing, the meaning of which has changed over time
 * Point, in hunting, the number of antler tips on the hunted animal (e.g. 9 point buck)
 * Point, for describing paper-stock thickness, a synonym of mil and thou (one thousandth of an inch)
 * Point, a hundredth of an inch or 0.254 mm, a unit of measurement formerly used for rainfall in Australia
 * Paris point, 2/3 cm, used for shoe sizes
 * Points of the compass, one of the 32 directions on a traditional compass, equal to one eighth of a right angle (11.25 degrees)

Sports

 * Point (American football)
 * Point (basketball)
 * Point (ice hockey)
 * Point (pickleball)
 * Point (tennis)
 * Point, fielding (cricket)
 * Point, in sports Score
 * Point guard, in basketball
 * Points (association football)
 * Points decision, in boxing and some other fighting sports
 * The point (ice hockey), the location of an ice hockey player

Technology and transport

 * Point, a data element in a SCADA system representing a single input or output
 * Points, a contact breaker in an ignition system
 * Points, a railroad switch (British English)
 * Points, the clock position of an object seen from a moving vessel or aircraft on an imaginary horizontal clock with 12:00 at the front; e.g., two points to starboard is 2:00
 * Points of sail, a sailing boat's course in relation to wind direction
 * Point system (driving), a system of demerits for driving offenses
 * Projectile point, a hafted archaeological artifact used as a knife or projectile tip
 * Public Oregon Intercity Transit, styled POINT, a public transit system

Music

 * Point (Cornelius album), a 2001 album by Cornelius
 * Point #1, a 1999 album of Chevelle
 * Point Music, a record label
 * Points (album), by jazz pianist Matthew Shipp
 * "The Points", a 1995 single and video from the Panther soundtrack
 * Point (Yello album), a 2020 album by Yello
 * "Point", a song by the American band Bright from their self-titled album

Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media

 * High card points, used for hand evaluation in contract bridge
 * Le Point, a French weekly
 * On Point, a radio show
 * Point Broadcasting, a radio broadcasting company
 * Pointe technique, a ballet technique for dancing on the tips of toes
 * Take Point (2018), a South Korean action film

Other uses

 * Point (coat color), animal fur coloration of the extremities
 * Point (geography), a peninsula or headland
 * Point (surname), a surname
 * Make a point or come to a point, a hunting term referring to a pointing dog's standing rigid and facing the prey
 * On point, someone who possesses abundant and various qualities of competence, leadership or style, or to specific acts which demonstrate such qualities
 * Point man, one who takes point (defined below) on patrol, the lookout in the commission of a crime, a defense position in ice hockey, or someone who leads the defense of a political position
 * Point mutation, a change in a single nucleotide
 * Take point (or walk point, be on point, or be a point man), to be the lead, and likely most vulnerable, soldier, vehicle, or unit in a combat military formation
 * Point University, West Point, Georgia

title: Point