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List of castles in England

This list of castles in England is not a list of every building and site that has "castle" as part of its name, nor does it list only buildings that conform to a strict definition of a castle as a medieval fortified residence. It is not a list of every castle ever built in England, many of which have vanished without trace, but is primarily a list of buildings and remains that have survived. In almost every case the buildings that survive are either ruined, or have been altered over the centuries. For several reasons, whether a given site is that of a medieval castle has not been taken to be a sufficient criterion for determining whether or not that site should be included in the list.

Castles that have vanished or whose remains are barely visible are not listed, except for some important or well-known buildings and sites. Fortifications from before the medieval period are not listed, nor are architectural follies. In other respects it is difficult to identify clear and consistent boundaries between two sets of buildings, comprising those that indisputably belong in a list of castles and those that do not. The criteria adopted for inclusion in the list include such factors as: how much survives from the medieval period; how strongly fortified the building was; how castle-like the surviving building is; whether the building has been given the title of "castle"; how certain it is that a medieval castle stood on the site, or that the surviving remains are those of a medieval castle; how well-known or interesting the building is; and whether including or excluding a building helps make the list, in some measure, more consistent.

In order to establish a list that is as far as possible comprehensive as well as consistent, it is necessary to establish its boundaries. Before the list itself, a discussion of its scope includes lengthy lists of buildings excluded from the main lists for various reasons. The Castellarium Anglicanum, an authoritative index of castles in England and Wales published in 1983, lists over 1,500 castle sites in England. Many of these castles have vanished or left almost no trace. The present list includes more than 800 medieval castles of which there are visible remains, with over 300 having substantial surviving stone or brick remains.

History
A castle is a type of fortified structure, developed in Europe during the Middle Ages. The first castles appeared in France in the 10th century, and in England during the 11th century. A few castles are known to have been built in England before the Normans invaded in 1066; a great many were built in the years following, the principal mechanism by means of which the Normans were able to consolidate their control over the country. Whilst a few important castles, such as the White Tower in the Tower of London, were built of stone, most early castles were motte-and-bailey castles of earthwork and timber, which could be constructed quickly. Some were later rebuilt in stone, but there are a great many castle sites in England where all that is visible today are traces of earthworks.

Castles continued to be built in England for several hundred years, reaching a peak of military sophistication in the late 13th century. The two principal elements in their construction were the great tower or keep, such as the White Tower, and the fortified enclosure, such as is provided by the outer wall of the Tower of London. During the 14th century, largely as a result of the decline of feudalism, the construction of strong castles began to decline, in favour of more lightly fortified structures often described as fortified manor houses. In the far north of England, where conditions remained unsettled, fortified buildings continued to be built as late as the 16th century, not only by the rich and powerful but by any with adequate means, as defence not against great armies, but against the notorious Border Reivers. Many took the form of the pele tower, a smaller, more modest version of the castle keep, and many of these still survive, often incorporated in later buildings.

Castles differed from earlier fortifications in that they were generally private fortified residences. Typically, a castle was the residence of a feudal lord, providing the owner with a secure base from which to control his lands, and also a symbol of wealth and power. Earlier fortified structures, such as the Saxon burh or the Iron Age hillfort, provided public or communal defences, as did medieval town or city walls. The many Roman forts of which ruins survive in Britain differed in being wholly military in nature; they were camps or strongholds of the Roman army. The Romans also built town or city walls in England, which can still be seen, for instance at Silchester.

By the 16th century the role of fortifications had changed once more with the development of artillery capable of breaching even thick stone walls. In the reign of Henry VIII, fears of invasion led to the building of a series of new fortresses along the south coast of England, known as the Device Forts or Henrician Castles. These were designed to use and to defend against artillery, and since they were not private residences, but national fortifications, they do not possess what architectural historians have come to see as the defining characteristics of a castle. Nonetheless, they are visibly castle-like, being compact, with battlemented walls, squat turrets and sometimes a keep; and they were the last generation of fortresses in England to be known as castles, long before architectural historians began to argue that they should not be. One of them, Pendennis Castle, was one of the last Royalist strongholds to fall to the Parliamentarians during the English Civil War—starvation forcing surrender after a siege of five months.

As the role of the castle as a fortress declined in the later medieval period, its role as a residence increasingly became the more important. Castles such as Herstmonceux were built with fortifications seemingly designed more for show than for strength, implying a further evolution in the role and concept of the castle, becoming less a means of enforcing power but instead a symbol of its possession, a castle becoming a grand residence proclaiming the status of its owner. Once fortifications had become altogether redundant, it became increasingly rare in England for new buildings to be described as castles, in contrast to France, where country houses continued to be known as châteaux.

Once no longer needed as fortresses, castles – if they were not abandoned – were, over the centuries, adapted and modernised to make them more suitable for continued use as residences: large windows were inserted in defensive walls, as at Lumley; outer walls were demolished or lowered to open up views from within, as at Raby; new residential ranges were built to improve and extend accommodation, as at Windsor. Some castles were restored after falling into ruin, like Bamburgh; others, like Belvoir, were demolished and rebuilt, retaining little or none of the original structure. In the 18th and 19th centuries especially, many castles underwent "improvements" by architects such as Anthony Salvin, and in this period a fashion developed for entirely new houses to be built in the style of castles, and to be known as castles. Amongst these was Peckforton Castle, built by Salvin: a building so authentic in its recreation of a medieval castle that it has been described as possibly the last serious fortified home built in Britain.

Scope and exclusions
No list of castles in England is ever likely to be complete, because there will never be complete agreement in every case as to whether the remains of a building are those of a castle, whether a given place is the site of a castle, or whether a surviving building should be considered to be a castle.

Perhaps because the castle has become the most familiar type of fortification, many sites of fortifications earlier than the 10th century have become known as castles. Most of these are Iron Age hill forts. Amongst the best known are Abbotsbury Castle, Barbury Castle, Bratton Castle, Cadbury Castle, Castle Dore, Chûn Castle, Liddington Castle, Maen Castle, Maiden Castle and Uffington Castle, whilst many more appear in the List of hillforts in England. Others, such as Melandra Castle, Reculver Castle, Richborough Castle and Whitley Castle, are Roman forts, whilst Daw's Castle is a Saxon burh. None of these is included in the present list unless it is also the site of a medieval castle, as is the case with, for instance, Portchester Castle, where an imposing castle was built within the surviving walls of the Roman fort.

Nor are all medieval fortified sites included in the present list. The remains of town and city walls are excluded—most of these appear in the List of town walls in England and Wales. Also excluded are churches with defensive towers, such as Ancroft, Burgh by Sands, Edlingham, Garway, Great Salkeld and Newton Arlosh, as well as other fortified ecclesiastical sites such as Alnwick Abbey, Battle Abbey, Thornton Abbey, Wetheral Priory, Whalley Abbey and St Mary's Abbey, York. Some of the pele towers of Northern England are included, but the more modest fortified buildings known as bastles are not, though the distinction between them is not always altogether clear. Amongst fortified manor houses, those given the title of castle are included, whilst many others were more lightly fortified and are excluded. Amongst these are Baddesley Clinton, Cowdray House, Farnhill Hall, Hipswell Hall, Ightham Mote, Little Wenham Hall, Markenfield Hall and Walburn Hall.

The list includes pele towers that became known as castles, or preserve a castle-like aspect. Many others, or their remains, survive much altered—incorporated in later country houses or farmhouses, and are excluded. Amongst these are: Aske Hall, Biddlestone RC Chapel, Bolling Hall, Bolton Old Hall, Boltongate Rectory, Causey Park House, Clennell Hall, Cliburn Hall, Corbridge Low Hall, Cowmire Hall, Craster Arms (Beadnell), Croglin Old Pele, Denton Hall, Dovenby Hall, Dunstan Hall, East Shaftoe Hall, Godmond Hall, Great Salkeld Rectory, Hardrigg Hall, Hepscott Hall, Hetton Hall, Hollin Hall, Hutton Hall (Penrith), Irton Hall, Johnby Hall, Killington Hall, Kirkoswald College, Levens Hall, Little Harle Tower, Nether Hall, Netherby Hall, Ormside Hall, Pockerley Pele, Preston Patrick Hall, Randalholme Hall, Rock Hall, Rudchester Hall, Sella Park, Selside Hall, Skelsmergh Hall, Smardale Hall, Thistlewood Farmhouse, Warnell Hall, Weetwood Hall and Witton Tower.

In the post-medieval period, the distinction between true castles and later mock castles is blurred by the extent to which medieval castles were adapted and rebuilt. At Greystoke a new castle was built incorporating a medieval pele tower; at Thurland a new castle was built from the ruins of the old; at Belvoir the old castle was demolished and a new one built. The building of mock castles might be seen as the logical conclusion of a process already apparent in castles such as Herstmonceux or Tattershall, where the castle-like aspect of the building was becoming more for show than for strength.

Amongst post-medieval buildings in England that are known as castles, a few, such as Peckforton Castle, closely resemble medieval castles. Many others, such as Clearwell Castle, have some castle-like features, and some, like Mereworth Castle, bear no resemblance whatsoever to a castle. The list excludes buildings that neither look like castles, nor incorporate the remains of castles. Amongst these are Bolebroke Castle, Bovey Castle, Bruce Castle, Castle Ashby, Castle Howard, Clifton Castle, Highclere Castle, Mereworth Castle, New Wardour Castle, Sherborne Castle, Wentworth Castle, and Wisbech Castle. Many other buildings with some castle-like features are also excluded. Amongst these are Acton Castle, Allerton Castle, Augill Castle, Avon Castle, Bell's Castle, Bolesworth Castle, Bude Castle, Castle Eden Castle, Castle Goring, Cave Castle, Cholmondeley Castle, Clearwell Castle, Cliffe Castle, Coates Castle, Creech Castle, Droskyn Castle, Edmond Castle, Enmore Castle, Ewell Castle, Farleigh Castle, Farley Castle, Fillingham Castle, Hatherop Castle, Headingley Castle, Highcliffe Castle, Hilfield Castle, Kenwith Castle, Kirby Knowle Castle, Knepp Castle, Luscombe Castle, Midford Castle, Mulgrave Castle, Otterburn Tower, Pentillie Castle, Reeve Castle, Ryde Castle, St. Clare Castle, Sibdon Castle, Sneaton Castle, Stanhope Castle, Studley Castle, Swinton Castle, The Citadel (Weston-under-Redcastle), Tregenna Castle, Vanbrugh Castle, Wadhurst Castle, Wattisham Castle, Whitehaven Castle, Whitstable Castle, Willersley Castle, and Willsbridge Castle. Amongst those that have been demolished is Steephill Castle.

Artificial ruins and follies, often built as memorials or landscape features, are also excluded. Amongst these are Appley Tower, Black Castle, Bladon Castle, Blaise Castle, Bollitree Castle, Boston Castle, Braylsham Castle, Broadway Tower, Carr Hall Castle, Castlebourne, Clent Castle, Clopton Tower, Dinton Castle, Doyden Castle, Dunstall Castle, Durlston Castle, Fort Putnam, Hadlow Castle, Castle in Hagley Park Lawrence Castle, Long's Park Castle, Mow Cop Castle, Mowbray Castle, Pirton Castle, Radford Castle, Radway Tower, Ragged Castle (Badminton), Rivington Castle, Rodborough Fort, Ross Castle, Rothley Castle, Roundhay Castle, Sebergham Castle, Severndroog Castle, Shaldon Castle, Sham Castle (Bath), Sledmere Castle, Speedwell Castle, Stainborough Castle, Starlight Castle, Stowe Castle, Strattenborough Castle, Sundorne Castle, Toll House (Clevedon) and Wyke Castle. Finally, the 16th-century Henrician Castles, whose design was closely inspired by medieval castles, are included, but later military fortifications—with just a few exceptions—are not.

However carefully the criteria for including a building or site on this list are set out, borderline cases are inevitable. Many buildings known to incorporate northern pele towers in their fabric, but are no longer castle-like—such as the Red Lion Tower in Haltwhistle—have been excluded. On the other hand, Corby Castle, in which a pele tower survives wholly encased in a later building, is included because it is known as a castle, and by implication continued to fulfil the role of one, at least in part. Kimbolton Castle is included as the site of a medieval castle, and because the present mansion has a castellated aspect in deference to the medieval castle it replaced.

Bedfordshire
Castles of which only earthworks, fragments or nothing remains include: Bedford Castle†;

Biggleswade Castle

Bletsoe Castle

Cainhoe Castle

Chalgrave Castle

Eastcotts Castle

Etonbury Castle

Flitwick Castle

Higham Gobion Castle

Odell Castle

Old Warden Castle

Podington Castle

Renhold Castle

Risinghoe Castle

Thurleigh Castle

Tilsworth Castle

Toddington Castle

Totternhoe Castle

Yielden Castle

† Bedford Castle was demolished after a well-documented eight-week siege by Henry III, with around 2000 men, in 1224.

Berkshire
Castles of which only earthworks, fragments or nothing remains include: Beaumys Castle

Newbury Castle

Hampstead Norris Castle

West Woodhay Castle

Yattendon Castle

Bristol
Castles of which only vestiges remain include: Bristol Castle

Buckinghamshire
Castles of which only earthworks, fragments or nothing remains include: Bolbec Castle

Bradwell Castle

Buckingham Castle

Castlethorpe Castle

Cublington Castle

Desborough Castle

Ellesborough Castle (Cymbeline's Mount)

Lavendon Castle

Little Kimble Castle

Little Missenden Castle

Weston Turville Castle

Wolverton Castle

Cambridgeshire
Castles of which only earthworks, fragments or nothing remains include: Aldreth Castle

Bourn Castle

Burwell Castle

Cambridge Castle

Castle Camps

Cheveley Castle

Eaton Socon Castle

Ely Castle

Huntingdon Castle

Maxey Castle

Peterborough Castle

Rampton Castle

Wisbech Castle

Woodwalton Castle

Cheshire
Castles of which only earthworks, fragments or nothing remains include: Aldford Castle

Dodleston Castle

Frodsham Castle

Kingsley Castle

Macclesfield Castle

Malpas Castle

Nantwich Castle

Newhall Tower

Northwich Castle

Oldcastle

Pulford Castle

Shipbrook Castle

Shocklach Castle

Shotwick Castle

Warrington Castle

County Durham
Castles of which only earthworks or vestiges remain include: Bishopton Castle

Cotherstone Castle

Dalden Tower

Ludworth Tower

Streatlam Castle

Cornwall
Castles of which little or nothing remains include: Bossiney Castle

Bottreaux Castle

Cardinham Castle

Helston Castle

Liskeard Castle

Penstowe Castle

Upton Castle

Cumbria
Castles of which only earthworks, vestiges or no traces remain include: Aldingham Moat Hill

Castle Howe (Kendal)

Castle Howe (Tebay)

Haresceugh Castle

Hartley Castle

Hayes Castle

High Head Castle

Kirkoswald Castle

Lammerside Castle

Liddel Strength

Lowther Castle Stead

Maryport Castle

Netherhall Tower

Pennington Castle

Sedbergh Castle

Triermain Castle

Derbyshire
Castles of which only earthworks, vestiges or no traces remain include: Bakewell Castle

Derby Castle

Duffield Castle

Glossop (Mouselow) Castle

Gresley Castle

Hathersage Castle

Holmesfield Castle

Hope Castle

Horsley Castle

Melbourne Castle

Morley Motte

Pilsbury Castle

Devon
Castles of which only earthworks or vestiges remain include: Bampton Castle

Barnstaple Castle

Danes Castle

Durpley Castle

Blackdown Rings (Loddiswell)

Eggesford Castle

Heywood Castle

Holwell Castle

Millsome Castle

Plymouth Castle

Torrington Castle

Winkleigh Castle

Dorset
Castles of which only earthworks, fragments or nothing remains include: Dorchester Castle

East Chelborough Castle

Marshwood Castle

Powerstock Castle

Sturminster Newton Castle

Wareham Castle

East Riding of Yorkshire
Castles of which only earthworks, fragments or nothing remains include: Aughton Castle

Baynard Castle

Flamborough Castle

Great Driffield Castle

Hull Castle

Hunmanby Castle

Swine Castle

East Sussex
Castles of which little or nothing remains include: Glottenham Castle

Isfield Castle

Essex
Castles of which only earthworks remain include: Clavering Castle

Great Canfield Castle

Great Easton Castle

Ongar Castle

Mount Bures Castle

Pleshey Castle†;

Rayleigh Castle

Stebbing Castle

Stansted Mountfitchet Castle

† Pleshey Castle is a good example of a motte-and-bailey castle: only earthworks and a medieval brick bridge remain.

Gloucestershire
Castles of which only earthworks, fragments or nothing remains include: Bledisloe Tump

Brimpsfield Castle

Castle Hale (Painswick)

Castle Tump (Dymock)

Cirencester Castle

English Bicknor Castle

Gloucester Castle

Hailes Castle (Stanway)

Haresfield Mount

Hewelsfield Motte

Holme Castle (Tewkesbury)

Little Camp Hill (Lydney)

Littledean Camp

Miserden Castle

Newington Bagpath Motte

Newnham on Severn Castle

Ruardean Castle

South Cerney Castle

Stow Green (St. Briavels)

Taynton Castle

Weston Park (Saintbury)

Winchcombe Castle

Greater London
Castles of which no traces remain include: Baynard's Castle

Montfichet's Castle

Greenwich Castle

The table does not include The White House, a replica of a Polish palace in London.

Greater Manchester
Castles of which only earthworks, fragments or nothing remains include: Bury Castle

Buckton Castle

Dunham Castle

Manchester Castle

Rochdale Castle

Stockport Castle

Ullerwood Castle

Watch Hill Castle

Hampshire
Castles of which only earthworks or vestiges remain include: Ashley Castle

Basing House

Crondall Barley Pound

Godshill Castle

Merdon Castle

Powderham Castle (Crondall)

Rowland's Castle

St Andrew's Castle

Warblington Castle

Woodgarston Castle

Herefordshire
Castles of which little or no traces remain include: Almeley Castle

Ashton Castle

Bredwardine Castle

Bronsil Castle

Colwall Castle

Dorstone Castle

Eardisland Castle

Eardisley Castle

Edvin Loach Castle

Ewyas Harold Castle†;

Hereford Castle

Huntington Castle

Kilpeck Castle

Kingsland Castle

Kington Castle

Lingen Castle

Lyonshall Castle

Much Marcle Castle

Newcourt Tump (Bacton)

Newton Tump (Clifford)

Orcop Castle

Penyard Castle

Pipe Aston Castle

Richard's Castle

Stapleton Castle

Urishay Castle

Wacton Castle

Walford Castle

Walterstone Castle

† Ewyas Harold Castle is recorded in the Domesday Book and was probably built c. 1048.

Hertfordshire
Castles of which only earthworks, fragments or nothing remains include: Anstey Castle

Benington Castle

Pirton Castle

South Mimms Castle

Therfield Castle

Walkern Castle

Waytemore Castle

Wymondley Castle

Isle of Wight
Castles of which little or nothing remains include: East Cowes Castle

Isles of Scilly
Castles of which only vestiges remain include: Ennor Castle

Harry's Walls

King Charles's Castle

Kent
Castles of which little or nothing remains include: Binbury Castle

Brenchley Castle

Castle Toll (Newenden)

Folkestone Castle

Newnham Castle

Queenborough Castle

Sandown Castle

Sandwich Castle

Stowting Castle

Thurnham Castle

Lancashire
Castles of which only earthworks or vestiges remain include: Arkholme Motte

Castle Stede

Greenhalgh Castle

Halton Castle

Hapton Castle

Melling Motte

Penwortham Castle

Whittington Motte

Leicestershire
Castles of which only earthworks or vestiges remain include: Donington Castle

Earl Shilton Castle

Gilmorton Castle

Groby Castle

Hallaton Castle

Hinckley Castle

Mountsorrel Castle

Sapcote Castle

Sauvey Castle

Shackerstone Castle

Shawell Castle

Whitwick Castle

Lincolnshire
Castles of which only earthworks or vestiges remain include: Barrow upon Humber Castle

Bourne Castle

Bytham Castle

Carlton Castle

Folkingham Castle

Gainsborough Castle

Goltho Castle†;

Hough-on-the-Hill Castle

Heydour Castle

Kingerby Castle

Owston Ferry (Kinaird) Castle

Sleaford Castle

Stamford Castle

Tothill Castle

Welbourn Castle

Withern Castle

† Goltho Castle was built on the site of a Saxon fortified dwelling of c. 850, established by excavation.

Merseyside
Castles of which little or no traces remain include: Cutter Whey Castle

Liverpool Castle

West Derby Castle

Norfolk
Castles of which only earthworks or vestiges remain include: Two Castles at Buckenham

Denton Castle

Dilham Castle

Gresham Castle

Horsford Castle

Hunworth Castle

Middleton Mount

Mileham Castle

North Elmham Castle

Thetford Castle†;

Wormegay Castle

† The surviving motte of Thetford Castle is one of the highest in England, about 80 ft high.

Northamptonshire
Castles of which little or no traces remain include: Alderton Castle

Benefield Castle

Bury Mount (Towcester)

Castle Dykes (Farthingstone)

Fotheringhay Castle†;

Lilbourne Castle

Little Houghton Castle

Long Buckby Castle

Moor End Castle

Northampton Castle

Sulgrave Castle

Titchmarsh Castle

† Fotheringhay Castle was the scene of the trial and execution of Mary, Queen of Scots in 1587.

Northumberland
Castles of which little or nothing remains include: Cornhill Castle

Dally Castle

Duddo Tower

Elsdon Castle

Ford Parson's Tower

Great Tosson Tower

Haggerston Castle

Haltwhistle Castle

Heiferlaw Tower

Hepple Tower

Hethpool Tower

Howtel Tower

Kyloe Tower

Little Swinburne Tower

Lowick Castle

Nafferton Castle

Overgrass Tower

Ponteland Castle

Simonburn Castle

Staward Peel

Tarset Castle

Thornton Tower

Twizell Castle

Warden Castle

Wark Castle

Welton Hall

West Lilburn Tower

Widdrington Castle

North Yorkshire
Castles of which little remains include: Acklam Motte

Burton in Lonsdale Castle

Buttercrambe Castle

Carlton Castle

Castle Levington

Duffield Castle

Guisborough Castle

Harsley Castle

Henderskelfe Castle

Howe Hill (Yafforth)

Hunmanby Castle

Killerby Castle

Kilton Castle

Kirkby Fleetham Castle

Kyme Castle

Lythe Castle

Malton Castle

Saxton Castle

Sigston Castle

Slingsby Castle

Tadcaster Castle

Topcliffe Castle

Upsall Castle

Nottinghamshire
Castles of which little remains include: Annesley Castle

Aslockton Castle

Bothamsall Castle

Cuckney Castle

Egmanton Castle

Greasley Castle

Laxton Castle

Lowdham Castle

Worksop Castle

Oxfordshire
Castles of which little or nothing remains include: Ardley Castle

Ascot d'Oilly Castle

Ascott Earl Castle

Banbury Castle

Beaumont Castle

Brightwell Castle

Chipping Norton Castle

Deddington Castle

Faringdon Castle

FitzHarris Castle

Hinton Waldrist Castle

Leafield Castle

Radcot Castle

South Moreton Castle

Swerford Castle

Rutland
Castles of which little or nothing remains include: Burley Castle

Essendine Castle

Uppingham Castle

Woodhead Castle

Shropshire
Castles of which only earthworks or vestiges remain include: Apley Castle

Belan Bank (Kinnerley)

Bishop's Castle

Bryn Amlwg Castle

Buckhurst Castle

Bucknell Castle

Caus Castle

Charlton Castle

Cleobury Castle

Clungunford Castle

Colebatch Castle

Corfham Castle

Ellesmere Castle

Fordhall castle

Hodnet Castle

Holdgate Castle

Knockin Castle

Lea Castle

Little Ness Castle

Middlehope Castle

Minton Castle

Myddle Castle

Oswestry Castle

Panpudding Hill

Pulverbatch Castle

Rushbury Castle

Ruyton-XI-Towns Castle

Shrawardine Castle

Stapleton Castle

Wem Castle

Soulton Castle

The Beacon (Bretchel)

Tong Castle

Tyrley Castle

West Felton Castle

Wilcott Castle

Wollaston Castle

Yockleton Castle

Somerset
Castles of which only earthworks or no traces remain include: Ballands Castle

Bridgwater Castle

Bury Castle

Cary Castle

Castle Batch (Worle)

Castle Neroche

Cockroad Wood Castle

Crewkerne Castle

Culverhay Castle

Fenny Castle

Montacute Castle

Richmont Castle

Stowey Castle

South Yorkshire
Castles of which only earthworks, fragments or nothing remains include: Bradfield Castle (Bailey Hill)

Doncaster Castle

Hangthwaite Castle

Kimberworth Castle

Laughton Castle

Mexborough Castle

Sheffield Castle

Manor Castle

Thorne Castle

Staffordshire
Castles of which little or nothing remains include:

 * Audley Castle

Heighley Castle

Newcastle-under-Lyme Castle

Suffolk
Castles of which only earthworks or no traces remain include: Denham Castle

Freckenham Castle

Great Ashfield Castle

Haughley Castle

Ipswich Castle

Lidgate Castle

Milden Castle

Surrey
Castles of which only little or no traces remain include: Abinger Castle

Betchworth Castle

Bletchingley Castle

Cranleigh Castle (Broomhall Copse)

Reigate Castle

Starborough Castle

Thunderfield Castle

Walton-on-the-Hill Castle

Tyne and Wear
Castles of which little remains include: Burradon Tower

Heaton Castle

Warwickshire
Castles of which only earthworks or vestiges remain include: Baginton Castle

Beaudesert Castle

Brailes Castle

Brandon Castle

Brinklow Castle

Caludon Castle

Fillongley Castle

Hartshill Castle

Halford Castle

King John's Castle

Kingsbury Hall

Ratley Castle

Seckington Castle

Studley Old Castle

West Midlands
Castles of which little or no traces remain include: Allesley Castle

Bescot Castle

Bromwich Castle

Caludon Castle

Coventry Castle

Darlaston Castle

Hobs Moat

Walsall Castle

Wednesbury Castle

Weoley Castle

West Sussex
Castles of which only little or no traces remain include: Chichester Castle

Midhurst Castle

Pulborough Castle

Sedgwick Castle

West Yorkshire
Castles of which only earthworks or no traces remain include: Almondbury Castle

Bardsey Castle

Barwick-in-Elmet Castle

Sowerby Castle

Wakefield Castle

Wetherby Castle

Wiltshire
Castles of which only little or no traces remain include: Ashton Keynes Castle

Bincknoll Castle

Castle Combe Castle

Castle Orchard

Lewisham Castle

Malmesbury Castle

Marlborough Castle

Mere Castle

Norwood Castle

Sherrington Castle

Stapleford Castle

Worcestershire
Castles of which only earthworks remain include: Castlemorton Castle

Elmley Castle

Hanley Castle

Homme Castle

Inkberrow Castle

Leigh Castle

Tenbury Wells Castle

title: List of castles in England


text:
Itō Hirobumi

Prince Itō Hirobumi (伊藤 博文) was a Japanese politician and statesman who served as the first Prime Minister of Japan. He was also a leading member of the genrō, a group of senior statesmen that dictated Japanese policy during the Meiji era. He was born as Hayashi Risuke, also known as Hirofumi, Hakubun, and briefly during his youth as Itō Shunsuke.

A London-educated samurai of the Chōshū Domain and a central figure in the Meiji Restoration, Itō Hirobumi chaired the bureau which drafted the Constitution for the newly formed Empire of Japan. Looking to the West for inspiration, Itō rejected the United States Constitution as too liberal and the Spanish Restoration as too despotic. Instead, he drew on British and German models, particularly the Prussian Constitution of 1850. Dissatisfied with Christianity's pervasiveness in European legal precedent, he replaced such religious references with those rooted in the more traditionally Japanese concept of a kokutai or "national polity" which hence became the constitutional justification for imperial authority.

During the 1880s, Itō emerged as the leading figure among the Meiji oligarchy. By 1885, he became the first Prime Minister of Japan, a position he went on to hold four times (thereby making his tenure one of the longest in Japanese history). Even out of office as the nation's head of government, he continued to wield vast influence over Japan's policies as a permanent imperial adviser, or genkun, and the President of the Emperor's Privy Council. A staunch monarchist, Itō favored a large, all-powerful bureaucracy that answered solely to the Emperor and opposed the formation of political parties. His third term as prime minister was ended in 1898 by the opposition's consolidation into the Kenseitō party, prompting him to found the Rikken Seiyūkai party to counter its rise. In 1901, he resigned his fourth and final ministry upon tiring of party politics.

On the world stage, Itō presided over an ambitious foreign policy. He strengthened diplomatic ties with the Western powers including Germany, the United States and especially the United Kingdom. In Asia, he oversaw the First Sino-Japanese War and negotiated the surrender of China's ruling Qing dynasty on terms aggressively favourable to Japan, including the annexation of Taiwan and the release of Korea from the Chinese Imperial tribute system. While expanding his country's claims in Asia, Itō sought to avoid conflict with the Russian Empire through the policy of Man-Kan kōkan – the proposed surrender of Manchuria to Russia's sphere of influence in exchange for recognition of Japanese hegemony in Korea. However, in a diplomatic visit to Saint Petersburg in November 1901, Itō found Russian authorities completely unreceptive to such terms. Consequently, Japan's incumbent prime minister, Katsura Tarō, elected to abandon the pursuit of Man-Kan kōkan, which resulted in an escalation of tensions culminating in the Russo-Japanese War.

After Japanese forces emerged victorious over Russia, the ensuing Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 made Itō the first Japanese Resident-General of Korea. He consented to the total annexation of Korea in response to pressure from the increasingly powerful Imperial Army. Shortly thereafter, he resigned as Resident-General in 1909 and assumed office once again as President of the Imperial Privy Council. Four months later, Itō was assassinated by Korean-independence activist and nationalist An Jung-geun in Harbin, Manchuria. The annexation process was formalised by another treaty in 1910 which brought Korea under Japanese rule, following year after Itō's death. Through his daughter Ikuko, Itō was the father-in-law of politician, intellectual and author Suematsu Kenchō.

Early years
Hayashi Risuke (林利助) was born on 16 October 1841, in Tsukari, Kumage, Suō Province (present-day Hikari, Yamaguchi Prefecture), the eldest son of farmer Hayashi Jūzō and his wife Kotoko. After his father went bankrupt and left for Hagi, Yamaguchi in 1846, he went to live at his mother's parental home. In 1849, Jūzō invited the family to Hagi and the family reunited. There Risuke entered Kubo Gorō Saemon's school. Because the family was poor, when Risuke was 12, Jūzō was adopted by samurai servant Mizui Buhē. In 1854, Mizui Buhē was adopted by samurai foot soldier (ashigaru) Itō Yaemon from Aihata, Saba. Mizui Buhē was renamed Itō Naoemon, Jūzō took the name Itō Jūzō, and Hayashi Risuke was renamed Itō Shunsuke at first, then Itō Hirobumi. These adoptions allowed both Hirobumi and his father Jūzō to rise to the samurai class and become ashigaru. Jūzō was the biological son of Hayashi Sukezaemon (林助左衛門), a 5th generation descendant of Hayashi Nobuyoshi (林信吉) who was a member of the Hayashi clan of Owari (尾張林氏).

He was a student of Yoshida Shōin at the Shōka Sonjuku and later joined the Sonnō jōi movement ("to revere the Emperor and expel the barbarians"), together with Katsura Kogorō. Active in the movement, he took part in an incendiary attack of the British legation on 31 January 1863 led by Takasugi Shinsaku, and in the company of Yamao Yōzō attacked and mortally wounded the head of the Wagakukōdansho institute on 2 February 1863, believing a false report that the institute was looking into ways of toppling the Emperor. Itō was chosen as one of the Chōshū Five who studied at University College London in 1863, and the experience in Great Britain eventually convinced him Japan needed to adopt Western ways.

In 1864, Itō returned to Japan with fellow student Inoue Kaoru to attempt to warn Chōshū Domain against going to war with the foreign powers (the Bombardment of Shimonoseki) over the right of passage through the Straits of Shimonoseki. At that time, he met Ernest Satow for the first time, later a lifelong friend.

Rise to power

After the Meiji Restoration of 1868, Itō was appointed governor of Hyōgo Prefecture, junior councilor for Foreign Affairs, and sent to the United States in 1870 to study Western currency systems. Returning to Japan in 1871, he established Japan's taxation system. With the advice of Edmund Morel, a chief engineer of the railway department, Itō endeavored to found the Public Works together with Yamao Yozo. Later that year, he was sent on the Iwakura Mission around the world as vice-envoy extraordinary, during which he won the confidence of Ōkubo Toshimichi, one of the leaders of the Meiji government.

In 1873, Itō was made a full councilor, Minister of Public Works, and in 1875 chairman of the first Assembly of Prefectural Governors. He participated in the Osaka Conference of 1875. After Ōkubo's assassination, he took over the post of Home Minister and secured a central position in the Meiji government. By 1881, he successfully pushed for the resignation of Ōkuma Shigenobu, thereby allowing him to emerge as the de facto leader of the Meiji government.

Itō went to Europe in 1882 to study the constitutions of those countries, spending nearly 18 months away from Japan. While working on a constitution for Japan, he also wrote the first Imperial Household Law and established the Japanese peerage system (kazoku) in 1884.

In 1885, he negotiated the Convention of Tientsin with Li Hongzhang, normalizing Japan's diplomatic relations with Qing-dynasty China. In the same year, In 1885, Itō established a cabinet system of government based on European ideas, replacing the Daijō-kan as the nation's main policy-making organization.

As Prime Minister
On 22 December 1885, Itō became the first Prime Minister of Japan, as the head of First Itō Cabinet. The first Itō Cabinet endeavored to establish institutions preparatory to the promulgation of the Constitution, and in February 1886 established a system of government for each ministry, and in March, the Imperial University (now the University of Tokyo) was established, and in March of the following year, a national academic association was established and supported it. On the other hand, Inoue Kaoru was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs and was given responsibility for amending the treaty, but the amendment proposed by Inoue included the appointment of foreign judges, leading to the problem of appointing private officials. foreign legislation, leading to In July 1887, a revision meeting aimed at foreign countries was cancelled, and Inoue Kaoru resigned in September, leading to defeat. In June of the same year, he began studying the draft constitution with Itō Miyoji, Inoue Tsuyoshi, Kaneko Kentaro and others in Tsushima. On 30 April 1888, Itō resigned as prime minister, but headed the new Privy Council to maintain power behind-the-scenes. In 1889, he also became the first genrō. The Meiji Constitution was promulgated in February 1889. He had added to it the references to the kokutai or "national polity" as the justification of the emperor's authority through his divine descent and the unbroken line of emperors, and the unique relationship between subject and sovereign. This stemmed from his rejection of some European notions as unfit for Japan, as they stemmed from European constitutional practice and Christianity.

He remained a powerful force while Kuroda Kiyotaka and Yamagata Aritomo, his political nemeses, were prime ministers.

During Itō's second term as prime minister (8 August 1892 – 31 August 1896), he supported the First Sino-Japanese War and negotiated the Treaty of Shimonoseki in March 1895, made Taiwan a Japanese colony with his ailing foreign minister Mutsu Munemitsu. In the Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation of 1894, he succeeded in removing some of the onerous unequal treaty clauses that had plagued Japanese foreign relations since the start of the Meiji era.

During Itō's third term as prime minister (12 January – 30 June 1898), he was forced to contend with the rise of political parties. Both the Liberal Party and the Shimpotō opposed his proposed new land taxes, and in retaliation, Itō dissolved the lower house of the Imperial Diet and called for general election. As a result, both parties merged into the Kenseitō, won a majority of the seats, and forced Itō to resign. This lesson taught Itō the need for a pro-government political party, so he organized the Rikken Seiyūkai (Constitutional Association of Political Friendship) in 1900. Itō's womanizing was a popular theme in editorial cartoons and in parodies by contemporary comedians, and was used by his political enemies in their campaign against him.

Itō returned to office as prime minister for a fourth term from 19 October 1900, to 10 May 1901, this time facing political opposition from the House of Peers. Weary of political back-stabbing, he resigned in 1901, but remained as head of the Privy Council as the premiership alternated between Saionji Kinmochi and Katsura Tarō.

Toward the end of August 1901, Itō announced his intention of visiting the United States to recuperate. This turned into a long journey in the course of which he visited the major cities of the United States and Europe. He set off from Yokohama on 18 September, traveled through the U.S. to New York City, and received an honorary doctorate (LL.D.) from Yale University in late October. He then sailed to Boulogne, reaching Paris on 4 November. On 25 November, he reached Saint Petersburg, having been asked by the new prime minister, Katsura Tarō, to sound out the Russians, entirely unofficially, on their intentions in the Far East. Japan hoped to achieve what it called Man-Kan kōkan, the exchange of a free hand for Russia in Manchuria for a free hand for Japan in Korea, but Russia, feeling greatly superior to Japan and unwilling to give up the use of Korean ports for its navy, was in no mood to compromise. Foreign minister Vladimir Lamsdorf "thought that time was on the side of his country because of the [Trans-Siberian] railway and there was no need to make concessions to the Japanese". Itō left empty-handed for Berlin (where he received honors from Kaiser Wilhelm), Brussels, and London. Meanwhile, Katsura had decided that Man-Kan kōkan was no longer desirable for Japan, which should not renounce activity in Manchuria. In Britain, Itō met with Lord Lansdowne, which helped lay the groundwork for the Anglo-Japanese Alliance announced early the following year. The failure of his mission to Russia was "one of the most important events in the run-up to the Russo-Japanese War".

While Prime Minister, Itō invited Professor George Trumbull Ladd of Yale University to serve as a diplomatic adviser to promote mutual understanding between Japan and the United States. Lectures delivered by Ladd in Japan revolutionized its educational methods; he was the first foreigner to receive the Third Class honor (conferred by the Emperor in 1899) and the Second Class honor (in 1907) in the Orders of the Rising Sun. He later wrote a book on his personal experiences in Korea and with Resident-General Itō. When Ladd died, half his ashes were buried in a Buddhist temple in Tokyo and a monument was erected to him.

As Resident-General of Korea
On 9 November 1905, following the Russo-Japanese War, Itō arrived in Hanseong and gave a letter from the Emperor of Japan to Gojong, Emperor of Korea, asking him to sign the Japan–Korea Protectorate Treaty, which would make Korea a Japanese protectorate. On 15 November 1905, he ordered Japanese troops to encircle the Korean imperial palace.

On 17 November 1905, Itō and Japanese Field Marshal Hasegawa Yoshimichi entered the Jungmyeongjeon Hall, a Russian-designed building that was once part of Deoksu Palace, to persuade Gojong to approve the treaty, but the Emperor refused. Itō then pressured the Emperor's ministers with the implied, and later stated, threat of bodily harm, to sign the treaty. Five ministers signed an agreement that had been prepared by Itō in the Jungmyeongjeon. The agreement gave Imperial Japan complete responsibility for Korea's foreign affairs, and placed all trade through Korean ports under Imperial Japanese supervision.

After the treaty had been signed, Itō became the first Resident-General of Korea on 21 December 1905. In 1907, he urged Emperor Gojong to abdicate in favor of his son Sunjong and secured the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907, thereby giving Japan authority to dictate Korea's internal affairs.

While Itō was firmly against Korea falling into China or Russia's sphere of influence, he also opposed its annexation, advocating instead that the territory should be treated as a protectorate. When the cabinet voted in favor of annexing Korea, he proposed that the process be delayed in the hopes that the decision could eventually be reversed. However, Itō ultimately changed his mind and approved plans to have the region annexed on 10 April 1909. Despite changing his position, he was forced to resign on 14 June 1909 by the Imperial Japanese Army (one of the foremost advocates for Korea's annexation). His assassination is believed to have accelerated the path to the Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty.

Assassination
Itō arrived at the Harbin railway station on 26 October 1909 for a meeting with Vladimir Kokovtsov, a Russian representative in Manchuria. There An Jung-geun, a Korean nationalist and independence activist, fired six shots, three of which hit Itō in the chest. He died shortly thereafter. His body was returned to Japan on the Imperial Japanese Navy cruiser JAPANESE CRUISER Akitsushima, and he was accorded a state funeral on 4 November 1909 at Hibiya Park. An Jung-geun later listed "15 reasons why Itō should be killed" at his trial. On 14 February 1910, Ahn was sentenced to death by hanging, Yu to two years in prison, and Cao and Liu to one year and six months in prison for murder and crimes against the Imperial Japanese Government.

In Japan

 * A portrait of Itō Hirobumi was on the obverse of the Series C 1,000 yen note from 1963 until a new series was issued in 1984.
 * The publishing company Hakubunkan takes its name from Hakubun, an alternate pronunciation of Itō's given name.

Itō Hirobumi former residence in Hagi
The house where Itō lived from age 14 in Hagi after his father was adopted by Itō Naoemon still exists, and is preserved as a museum. It is a one-story house with a thatched roof and a gabled roof, with a total floor area of 29 tsubo and is located 150 meters south of the Shōkasonjuku Academy. The adjacent villa is a portion of a house built by Itō in 1907 in Oimura, Shimoebara-gun, Tokyo (currently Shinagawa, Tokyo). It was a large Western-style mansion, of which three structures, a part of the entrance, a large hall, and a detached room, were transported Hagi. The large hall has a mirrored ceiling and its wooden paneling uses 1000-year old cedar trees from Yoshino. The buildings were collectively designated a National Historic Site in 1932.

In Korea
The Annals of Sunjong record that Gojong held a positive view of Itō's governorship. In an entry for 28 October 1909, almost three years after being forced to abdicate his throne, the former emperor praised Itō, who had died two days earlier, for his efforts to develop Japanese civilization in Korea. However, the integrity of Joseon dated after the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 is considered dubious by Korean scholars due to the influence exerted over record-keeping by the Japanese.

Itō has been portrayed several times in Korean cinema. His assassination was the subject of North Korea's An Jung-gun Shoots Itō Hirobumi in 1979 and South Korea's Thomas Ahn Joong Keun in 2004; both films made his assassin An Jung-geun the protagonist. The 1973 South Korean film Femme Fatale: Bae Jeong-ja is a biopic of Itō's alleged adopted Korean daughter Bae Jeong-ja (1870–1952).

Itō argued the Pan-Asian view that if East Asians did not co-operate closely with one another, Japan, Korea and China would all fall victim to Western imperialism. Initially, Gojong and the Joseon government shared that belief and agreed to collaborate with the Japanese military. Korean intellectuals had predicted that the victor of the Russo-Japanese War would assume hegemony over their peninsula, and as an Asian power, Japan enjoyed greater public support in Korea than Russia. However, policies such as land confiscation and the drafting of forced labor turned popular opinion against the Japanese, a trend exacerbated by the arrest or execution of those who resisted. An Jung-geun was also a proponent of what was later called Pan-Asianism. He believed in a union of the three East Asian nations to repel Western imperialism and restore peace in the region.

Itō memorial temple built
On 26 October 1932, the Japanese unveiled in Seoul the Hakubun-ji 博文寺 Buddhist Temple dedicated to Prince Itō. Full official name "Prince Itō Memorial Temple (伊藤公爵祈念寺院)". Situated in then Susumu Tadashidan Park on the north slope of Namsan, which after liberation became Jangchungdan Park 장충단 공원. From October 1945, the main hall served as student home, ca. 1960 replaced by a guest house of the Park Chung-Hee administration, then reconstructed and again a student guest house. In 1979 it was incorporated into the grounds of the Shilla Hotel then opened. Several other parts of the temple are still at the site.

Genealogy
∴Hayashi Awajinokami Michioki ┃　┣━━━━━━━┳━━━━━━━┳━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━┳━━━━━━━━┳━━━━━━━━━┳━━━━━━━┳━━━━━━━━┓　┃　　　　┃　　　　┃Hayasi Magoemon ┃　　　　　┃　　　　　┃　　　　┃　　　　　┃ Michimoto　Michiyo　Michisige　　　　　Michiyoshi　Michisada　Michikata　Michinaga　Michisue ┃　　　　　　　　　　　┃　　　　　　　　　　　┃Hayasi Magosaburō Nobukatsu ┃　　　　　　　　　　　┃　　　　　　　　　　　┃Hayasi Magoemon Nobuyoshi ┃　┏━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━╋━━━━━━━━━┳━━━━━━━┓　┃Hayasi Magoemon ┃　　　　　┃　　　　┃ Nobuaki　　　　　　Sakuzaemon　Sojyurō　 Matazaemon ┃　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　┃　┃　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　┃　┃Hayasi Hanroku　　　　　　　　　　　　┃ Nobuhisa　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　 Genzō ┃　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　┃　┣━━━━━━━━━┓　　　　　　　　　　　　　　┃　┃　　　　　┃　　　　　　　　　　　　　　┃ Sōzaemon　　Heijihyōe　　　　　　　　　　Yoichiemon ┃　　　　　　　　　　　　　　┃　┏━━━━━━━━━┻━━━━━━┓　　　　　　┏━━━━━┫　┃Hayasi Hanroku　┃　　　　　　┃　　　┃ Rihachirō　　　　　Riemon　　　　Masuzō　Sukezaemon ┃adopted son of Hayasi Rihachirō ┏━━━━┳━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━┫　　　　　　┃Itō ┃Hayasi Shinbei's wife ┃Morita Naoyoshi's wife Jyuzō　woman　　　　　　　　　　woman ┃　　　　　　┃　　　　　　┃'''Itō Hirobumi''' ┃　┏━━━━━━━╋━━━━━━━━┳━━━━━━━┳━━━━━┓　┃Itō 　　┃Kida　　┃Itō 　　┃　　　┃ Hirokuni　Humiyoshi　Shinichi　woman　woman ┃　┣━━━━━━━┳━━━━━━━━━┳━━━━━━━━━━┳━━━━━━┳━━━━━━━┳━━━━━━━━┳━━━━━━━┳━━━━━━━━━┳━━━━━━━━┳━━━━━━━━━┳━━━━━┳━━━┓　┃Itō 　　┃Shimizu ┃Itō　　　　 ┃Itō　 ┃Itō　　 ┃Itō　　 ┃Itō　　 ┃Itō　　　 ┃Itō　　 ┃Itō　　　 ┃　　　┃　　┃ Hirotada　 Hiroharu　Hiromichi　 Hiroya　Hirotada　Hiroomi　Hironori　Hirotsune　Hirotaka　Hirohide　woman　woman　woman ┃　┣━━━━━━━┳━━━━━┳━━━━┳━━━━━┳━━━┓　┃Itō　　 ┃　　　┃　　┃　　　┃　　┃ Hiromasa　 woman　woman　woman　woman　woman ┃　┣━━━━━━━┓　┃Itō　　 ┃ Tomoaki　　woman
 * Hayashi family

∴ Itō Yaemon ┃ Itō Naoemon (Mizui Buhei)Yaemon's adopted son ┃ Itō Jyuzō (Hayashi Jyuzo)Naoemon's adopted son ┃ Itō Hirobumi (Hayashi Risuke)
 * Itō family

Honours
From the Japanese Wikipedia article

Peerages

 * Count (7 July 1884)
 * Marquess (5 August 1895)
 * Prince (21 September 1907)

Decorations

 * JPN Kyokujitsu-sho 1Class BAR.svg Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun (2 November 1877)
 * JPN Kyokujitsu-sho Paulownia BAR.svg Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers (11 February 1889)
 * JPN Daikun'i kikkasho BAR.svg Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (5 August 1895)
 * JPN Daikun'i kikkasho BAR.svg Collar of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (1 April 1906)

Court ranks

 * Fifth rank, junior grade (1868)
 * Fifth rank (1869)
 * Fourth rank (1870)
 * Senior fourth rank (18 February 1874)
 * Third rank (27 December 1884)
 * Second rank (19 October 1886)
 * Senior second rank (20 December 1895)
 * Junior First Rank (26 October 1909; posthumous)

Foreign

 * German Empire:
 * Knight 1st Class of the Order of the Crown (1886)
 * Grand Cross of the Order of the Red Eagle (22 December 1886); in Brilliants (December 1901)
 * Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach: Grand Cross of the Order of the White Falcon (29 September 1882)
 * Russian Empire:
 * Knight of the Order of the White Eagle (17 September 1883)
 * Knight of the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky (19 March 1896); in Brilliants (28 November 1901)
 * 🇸🇪 🇳🇴 Sweden-Norway: Commander Grand Cross of the Order of Vasa (25 May 1885)
 * Austria-Hungary: Knight 1st Class of the Order of the Iron Crown (27 September 1885)
 * Siam: Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Siam (24 January 1888)
 * undefined: Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III (26 October 1896)
 * 🇧🇪 Belgium: Grand Cordon of the Royal Order of Leopold (4 October 1897)
 * undefined: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (29 April 1898)
 * Qing dynasty: Order of the Double Dragon, Class I Grade III (5 December 1898)
 * undefined: Honorary Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (civil division) (14 January 1902)
 * Kingdom of Italy: Knight of the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation (16 January 1902)
 * Korean Empire: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Golden Ruler (18 April 1904)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Itō Hirobumi


text:
María Félix

María de los Ángeles Félix Güereña (8 April 1914 – 8 April 2002) was a Mexican actress and singer. Along with Pedro Armendáriz and Dolores del Río, she was one of the most successful figures of Latin American cinema in the 1940s and 1950s. Considered one of the most beautiful actresses of the Golden Age of Mexican cinema, her strong personality and taste for finesse garnered her the title of diva early in her career. She was known as La Doña, a name derived from her character in Doña Bárbara (1943), and María Bonita, thanks to the anthem composed exclusively for her as a wedding gift by Félix's second husband, Agustín Lara. Her acting career consists of 47 films made in Mexico, Spain, France, Italy and Argentina.

Early life
María de los Ángeles Félix Güereña was born in Álamos, Sonora, Mexico, on 8 April 1914. Her birth was registered on May 4, which was later misreported as her date of birth.

She was the daughter of Bernardo Félix Flores, a military officer and politician who was of distant Yaqui descent, and Josefina Güereña Rosas, who grew up in the U.S. state of California; both were of Mexican ancestry. She had fifteen siblings: Josefina, María de la Paz, Pablo, Bernardo, Miguel, María de las Mercedes, Fernando, Victoria Eugenia, Ricardo, Benjamín and Ana María del Sacramento.

She spent her childhood in Álamos. During her childhood, she had a close relationship with her brother Pablo. Her mother separated the two siblings, thinking they might be involved in an incestuous relationship. For that reason, Pablo was sent to the Colegio Militar, in Mexico City.

Later, the Félix family moved to Guadalajara. When María was 17, her beauty soon began to attract attention. She was crowned Beauty Queen at the University of Guadalajara. It was at this time that she met Enrique Álvarez Alatorre, a salesman for the cosmetics firm Max Factor. After a brief romance, the couple married in 1931. In 1935, Félix gave birth to her only child, Enrique, nicknamed Quique. Her marriage with Álvarez was unsuccessful and the couple divorced in 1937. After her divorce, Félix returned to Guadalajara with her family, where she was the subject of gossip and rumors due to her status as a divorcée. Because of this situation, Félix decided to move to Mexico City with her son.

In Mexico City, she worked as a receptionist in a plastic surgeon's office, and lived in a guest house. One day, the father of her son visited the child, and deliberately refused to give the boy back to his mother. Álvarez took the child to Guadalajara. Félix's son was recovered with the help of Agustín Lara, her second husband. They planned an elaborate recovery that tricked the grandmother and took the child.

First years

One afternoon after work when walking down the street in Mexico City, director and filmmaker Fernando Palacios approached her asking if she wanted to make movies. Her response was:

"'When I want to, it will be through the big door.'"

Palacios finally persuaded her to break into the movies. Becoming her "Pygmalion", he began to train her and present her in film circles. She made her first appearance in the "White and Black Ballroom" of the Mexico City Country Club where some of the great Mexican movie stars of the era (Esther Fernández, Lupe Vélez, Andrea Palma) gathered. Eventually she was taken to Hollywood, to the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios, where she met Cecil B. DeMille, who offered to launch her film career in Hollywood, but Félix was not interested. She preferred to begin her career in her own country. Finally, thanks to Palacios, she was offered the female lead role in a film by Grovas Productions: El Peñón de las Ánimas, directed by Miguel Zacarías.

In the film El Peñón de las Ánimas, Félix starred opposite the popular Mexican actor and singer Jorge Negrete. María Félix and Jorge Negrete got off to a bad relationship during the filming because he had asked that his girlfriend, the actress Gloria Marín, be given the lead role. For this reason the filming of the movie was difficult and led to a direct confrontation between Félix and Negrete. That confrontation helped to cement the reputation of Félix as a tough and arrogant woman.

In her second film, María Eugenia, Félix would be projected in a role out of her temperamental film personality. However, the film is remembered as the only movie where Félix appeared in swimwear. The same happened with the film La china poblana (1943), where Félix claimed to have paid a debt of gratitude to her discoverer Fernando Palacios, who directed the film. Nobody has heard from this movie (the second color film of the Mexican cinema), so it is considered lost. She called both films "her beginner sins".

Félix was known as La Doña for her role in the movie Doña Bárbara (1943), based on the novel by the Venezuelan writer Rómulo Gallegos. For the film, another actress (Isabela Corona) was already hired, but when Gallegos first saw Félix, he was charmed by her and said: "Here is my Doña Bárbara!" This movie was filmed in Venezuela with Mexican and Venezuelan actors. Doña Bárbara was to be the start of her major collaborations with the Mexican film director Fernando de Fuentes. Félix and de Fuentes filmed together another two films: La Mujer sin Alma (1944) and La Devoradora (1946). As María Félix herself said, "With these films, I became the number one enemy of the Mexican family morals."

"Somehow, I seduced the public, even those who criticize the conduct of my characters in the films. My legend began to take shape without moving a finger. The public imagination did everything for me."

Without her stereotyped role of a "femme fatale", María Félix filmed two sophisticated films: El monje blanco (1945), directed by Julio Bracho, and Vertigo (1946), directed by Antonio Momplet. Both characters required a great dramatic intensity.

Under the direction of Emilio Fernández, María Félix made three successful films: Enamorada (1946), Río Escondido (1947), and Maclovia (1948). The relationship between Félix and Fernández was cordial and smooth, despite the strong and famous temperament of the film director. In Enamorada, María Félix found her perfect film partner, the actor Pedro Armendáriz. The films of María Félix with Fernández and his team (writer Mauricio Magdaleno, photographer Gabriel Figueroa, and Armendáriz) had strong presence in several international film festivals. In turn, they gave María Félix her first Ariel Award for Enamorada and Río Escondido.

Between the films with Fernández, María Félix also worked with Roberto Gavaldón, another director who showcased some of her best performances. Their first collaboration was in La diosa arrodillada (1947) with Arturo de Córdova. Thanks to these films, María Félix's fame crossed the Atlantic.

In 1948 she was contracted by the Spanish film producer Cesáreo González. In this manner María Félix began her film adventure in Europe. She made only one more film in Mexico (Doña Diabla, 1949) until her return in 1952.

Europe
Félix debuted in the European cinema in Spain, with the film Mare Nostrum (1948), directed by Rafael Gil. With Gil as director, she made another two films in 1950: Una mujer cualquiera and La noche del sábado. In 1951, she filmed the French-Spanish production La Couronne Noire directed by Luis Saslavsky based on a story by Jean Cocteau. She debuted in Italy with the film Incantesimo Tragico (1951). In the same year, she filmed Messalina (1951), directed by Carmine Gallone. During the filming of this movie Félix suffered an emotional shock: her father died of a heart attack in Navojoa.

In 1952, Félix traveled to Argentina, where she filmed La pasión desnuda of the Argentine filmmaker Luis César Amadori. In the same year Félix returned to Mexico. She concluded her working relationship with Cesáreo González with the film Camelia filmed in her native country. Her stay in Mexico was mainly based on her marriage to the actor and singer Jorge Negrete, her former film rival, with whom she filmed El rapto, directed by Emilio Fernández, Negrete's last film.

After Negrete's death on 5 December 1953, Félix returned to Europe. In France she made the films La Belle Otero (1954), and Les Héros sont Fatigués (1955), alongside Yves Montand. However, the most important film of Félix in this period was French Cancan (1954) directed by Jean Renoir with the legendary French actor Jean Gabin. Her last film shot entirely in Europe was the Spanish film Faustina.

Last films
Félix returned to Mexico in 1955. This period of her career was characterized by performing in period pieces inspired by the Mexican Revolution. This cycle begins with La Escondida (1955). In this film, as well as in stories like Canasta de cuentos mexicanos (1955) and Café Colón (1958), she worked again with Pedro Armendáriz. In 1956 she starred in Tizoc with the actor and singer Pedro Infante. However, the film was not liked by the actress, despite her international success. Eventually she filmed Beyond All Limits (1957) with Jack Palance, and the melodramas Ash Wednesday and The Empty Star (both 1958). In 1959 she played the title role in The Soldiers of Pancho Villa with top billing lead Dolores del Río. In 1959 she performed in the Spanish-Mexican co-production Sonatas directed by Juan Antonio Bardem and the French-Mexican co-production La Fièvre Monte à El Pao, directed by Luis Buñuel.

In the 1960s Félix's presence in the cinema was limited to only a few films. The most prominent were Juana Gallo (1960), La bandida (1963), Amor y sexo (Sapho '63, 1963)), and La Valentina (1966). In 1970 she filmed La Generala, which would be her last film. The Mexican historical telenovela La Constitución (1971) would be her last professional acting job. Félix attempted to return to the cinema twice. First, in 1982, with the film Toña Machetes, and again in 1986 with the film Insólito resplandor. Neither project crystallized, and Félix never reappeared in film.

Roles declined in Hollywood
Almost from the beginning of her career, Félix received job offers in Hollywood, but Félix herself said: They only give me huehuenche (Indian) roles. While she was in France, Hollywood offered her the female role of Duel in the Sun, but she passed and the part went to Jennifer Jones. Another proposal was The Barefoot Contessa with Humphrey Bogart, but she refused it, instead making La Belle Otero in France. Ava Gardner ended up with the part. Later, the director Robert Aldrich sent her the script of The Legend of Lylah Clare, but she did not reach an agreement with the director and Kim Novak got the role.

Personal life
Félix was married four times. Her first marriage (1931–1938) was with the cosmetics sales agent Enrique Álvarez Alatorre. He fathered her only child, actor Enrique Álvarez Félix. According to journalist Sergio Almázon, once she found her son wearing a white dress and necklace. Infuriated, she beat him unconscious. Álvarez retaliated by taking their son to Guadalajara. Years later Félix was able to get her son back with the help of her second husband, Agustín Lara.

Félix's relationship with her son was distant in his early years because she sent him to schools abroad "to discipline" him. Years later, Enrique returned to Mexico and started a career as an actor in film and television. Regarding her son, Félix said: "Enrique is a very gifted man, with admirable common sense. He's my best friend. I have so much fun with him. He's not a 'mama's boy' as many believe. Self-employed, fight like being independent. He has his own career, his audience, his poster and assumes his responsibilities without relying on me." The unexpected death of Enrique from a heart attack in 1996 affected Félix greatly.

There are conflicting rumors that, in between her marriages to Enrique Álvarez and Agustín Lara, Félix had a brief marriage to Raúl Prado, member of the Trío Calaveras, but no concrete evidence has emerged that the marriage ever took place. Most of the rumors agree in claiming that Prado and Félix allegedly got married in 1943 after meeting on the set of The Rock of Souls and separated two months after the wedding. Mexican writer Enrique Serna interviewed the last survivor of the trio, Miguel Bermego, who told him he was a witness to the wedding. Prado's niece María Escalera also corroborated the marriage, saying that the marriage ended when Agustín Lara sent Félix a white piano as a gift, and "Raúl threw her out — with the piano. They later divorced. So, it appears, María Félix was my tía política [aunt-in-law]." In his book about Félix María Félix: 47 pasos por el cine, Paco Ignacio Taibo I wrote about the marriage as factual, saying "While filming this movie, María would meet Raúl Prado, a member of the Los Calaveras trio. After a quick courtship they got married and shortly after they divorced. This is one of the most carefully protected chapters of the star's life. María's friends keep claiming that it was crazy." Prado's obituary in the Spanish newspaper El País in April 1989 reported the marriage as factual, as did some obituaries of Félix's, such as the one in Argentine newspaper La Nación, the latter which only cited "a biography" as a source. It was cited by TVyNovelas as one of the "myths" surrounding Félix. It is known that Félix vehemently denied ever having married Prado. Serna, who also interviewed Félix, said "On our first meeting I asked her about her marriage to Raúl Prado (which she denied until the end), the member of the Calaveras trio who sang in Jorge Negrete's films, and she told me that if I was going to go on with those lies, we were not going to be able to work on the book." Serna added, "At one point she told me: 'Write what you want about me, because they believe anything about me. Say that I slept with an octopus.'"

Her second marriage (1945–1947) was to the composer Agustín Lara. Félix was a fan of Lara since her adolescence. They were formally introduced by a mutual friend, the actor Tito Novaro. The couple began a highly publicized relationship, which culminated in marriage in 1945. Lara immortalized Félix in a number of songs, such as "Humo en los ojos" ("Smoke in the eyes"), "Cuando vuelvas" ("When you come back"), "Dos puñales" ("Two daggers"), "Madrid" and especially the famous theme "María Bonita", composed in Acapulco during their honeymoon. "María Bonita" would become one of Lara's most popular songs. However, the relationship ended in 1947 due to Lara's jealousy. Félix said that Lara even tried to kill her in a fit of violent jealousy. After her second divorce, Félix had romances with some well-known men, such as Mexican aviation entrepreneur Jorge Pasquel, Spanish bullfighter Luis Miguel Dominguín, and Argentine actor Carlos Thompson. Félix met Thompson in Argentina in 1952 during the filming of Luis César Amadori's La pasión desnuda, and the relationship was reportedly serious to the point that they became engaged to be married, and Félix even called for her son Enrique Álvarez Félix to meet his potential stepfather. However, during filming, Félix received a call from director Emilio Fernández to offer her the leading role in The Rapture, which Félix accepted, telling Thompson that after filming of La pasión desnuda ended she would return to Mexico to promote the film and announce their future marriage. However, once in Mexico, Félix canceled the wedding days before it would take place, stating that she concluded that the only thing that united her to Thompson was a mere physical attraction and not true love.

During her stay in France, Félix was introduced by the painter Leonor Fini to French writer Jean Cau, assistant of the writer Jean Paul Sartre. Félix had a brief romance with Cau. From the end of 1950 to the spring of 1954, Félix also had a passionate same-sex affair with Suzanne Baulé, better-known as Frede, who at the time ran the cabaret Le Carroll's on Rue de Ponthieu in Paris, and the two women lived together at the Hotel George-V. The relationship was captured in a painting made by Fini of a plant with two flowers; one had the face of Félix and the other Frede's. Frede followed Félix on her filming trips to Buenos Aires and São Paulo upon learning of Félix's relationship with Carlos Thompson. Félix and Frede's relationship was interrupted by Félix's marriage to Jorge Negrete, but upon Negrete's death in 1953, Félix returned to Paris to briefly rekindle her relationship with Frede. However, they would violently break-up for good in 1954, leading to a trial in which Félix wanted to take back jewellery she had given to Frede and accused her of theft. Félix lost her lawsuit, and Frede was acquitted and kept the jewellery. Despite this, Félix held ownership of the painting Fini made of the two women, and afterwards Félix asked Fini to modify it to erase Frede's face, changing Frede's face to hers, resulting in the painting's two flowers both having Felix's face.

In 1953, when Félix returned to Mexico after her stay in Europe and Argentina, she was reunited with an "old enemy": the actor and singer Jorge Negrete. Unlike their difficult first meeting ten years ago on the set of El peñón de las ánimas, Félix found Negrete, in her own words: "surrendered to my feet". After a brief romance, the couple married in 1953, transmitted by radio to all Latin America, held at the House of Catipoato in Tlalpan. Negrete was already ill when the marriage took place, and died eleven months later at a hospital in Los Angeles, United States, while Félix was in Europe shooting La Belle Otero. Félix's appearance at his funeral, dressed in trousers, caused a huge scandal, which led Félix to take refuge in Europe.

Her fourth marriage (1956–1974), was with the Romanian-born French banker Alexander Berger. Félix met Berger in the 1940s, when they were both married. Years later they met again. Félix was married to Berger for 18 years. She tried becoming a mother again, but an accident during a filming in 1957 caused Félix to lose the child. It was at this time that she built her famous home, La Casa de las Tortugas (The House of Turtles), designed by Pepe Mendoza and resembling an Italian villa, in Cuernavaca. Berger died in 1974 of lung cancer months after the death of Félix's mother, which plunged her into a deep depression. To overcome this depression, she developed a new passion: horses. Some of her horses won major international equestrian awards. Félix kept her horses for 11 years.

Her last romantic relationship was the Russian-French painter Antoine Tzapoff. About him, Félix said: I don't know if he's the man who has most loved me, but he's who has loved me better.

The press speculated about a strong rivalry between Félix and Dolores del Río, the other leading female figure of Mexican cinema and a successful Hollywood star. Regarding this "rivalry", Félix said: "With Dolores I had no rivalry. On the contrary, we were friends and always treated each other with great respect, each with our own personality. We were completely different. She was refined, interesting, gentle on the deal, and I'm energetic, arrogant and bossy."

Influence in Art
During her life, Félix was a model for many renowned painters. In her adolescence she was painted in Guadalajara by José Clemente Orozco, but Félix said, "He painted me like a skull with make-up." Félix met the artist Diego Rivera during the filming of Río Escondido (1947). Félix developed a friendship with him and his wife, Frida Kahlo. In 1949, Rivera painted a portrait of her, which Félix classified as "very bad". In later years, Rivera asked to borrow the painting to be displayed as part of a retrospective on Rivera's work, but Félix refused. Félix did not like the painting and she sold it to Juan Gabriel for 15 million pesos. Félix would say, “I've never liked Rivera's painting, I told him. I wanted him to paint me as a Tehuana, but he said it was very vulgar, so he painted me as he wanted ... naked, because he was very much in love with me. Later, Diego wanted that portrait for an exhibition in the Palacio de Bellas Artes, but since I did not lend it to him, he stopped talking to me for more than a year. One day there was a bricklayer fixing my house, and I sent him to paint [my nude portrait] with white to cover a bit of everything and that's how it ended up. I sold it, very badly sold by the way."

Other renowned artists who recorded Félix in their canvases were the Surrealists Leonor Fini, Leonora Carrington, Remedios Varo and Bridget Tichenor among others. In the 1980s, the Russian-French artist Antoine Tzapoff (Félix's last partner) captured her in numerous portraits.

Influence in Literature, Music, and Theater
Félix also had dealings with numerous Mexican and foreign writers and playwrights some of whom have dedicated several novels. Among them they are Renato Leduc, Xavier Villaurrutia, Salvador Novo, Pita Amor, Jean Cocteau and Octavio Paz. Luis Spota was inspired by her life for his novel The Empty Star, and Félix even starred in the film version in 1958. Carlos Fuentes did the same in the novel Zona sagrada. Her relationship with Fuentes was terminated when the author made the play Orchids in the Moonlight, in which he parodies the figures of Félix and Dolores del Río. Félix, angry, called him "mujerujo" ("womanish").

Songs were composed for Félix, including María de Todas las Marías by Juan Gabriel and Je l'aime à mourir by Francis Cabrel.

Influence in Fashion
In fashion, Félix was dressed by designers like Christian Dior, Givenchy, Yves Saint Laurent, Chanel, and Balenciaga. The House of Hermès (Couture Department) designed extravagant creations just for her. She was a noted collector of fine antiques, favoring pieces like her famous collection of Second French Empire furniture. She was also a jewelry connoisseur and had an extensive jewelry collection, including the 41.37 carat (8.274 g), D-flawless Ashoka diamond. In 1968, she commissioned a serpent diamond necklace from Cartier. The result was a completely articulated serpent made out of platinum and white gold and encrusted with 178.21 carats (35.642 g) of diamonds. In 1975, she again asked Cartier to create a necklace for her, this time in the shape of two crocodiles. The two crocodile bodies were made of 524.9 grams of gold, one covered with 1,023 yellow diamonds, while the other was adorned with 1,060 circular cut emeralds. Later she sold most of her jewelry back to Cartier. She also left a Rolls-Royce in Paris.

Since Félix's death, these jewelry pieces have been displayed as part of The Art of Cartier Collection in several museums around the world. To pay tribute to the actress, in 2006 Cartier debuted its La Doña de Cartier collection. The La Doña de Cartier watch with reptilian links was created to impress by its wild look. The case of the La Doña de Cartier features a trapezoid shape with an asymmetrical profile reminiscent of a crocodile's head. The wristband of the watch resembles the contours of a crocodile in large, bold and gold scales. The La Doña de Cartier Collection also includes jewelry, accessories, and handbags.

Mexican milliner to the stars Gladys Tamez dedicated a hat collection "El Fénix" inspired by and intended to honor Félix.

In 2023, Museo Jumex in Mexico City displayed iconic jewelry pieces worn by Maria Félix in the exhibition “Cartier Design: A Living Legacy” that featured more than 160 pieces and was designed by renowned Mexican architect Frida Escobedo and curated by the Mexican art critic Ana Elena Mallet.

Death and legacy
María Félix died in her sleep on 8 April 2002, her 88th birthday in Mexico City. She was buried in her family's mausoleum alongside her son Enrique and parents at the Panteón Francés located in Mexico City. In 2018, Google celebrated Felix's 104th birthday with a Google Doodle. A skeletal version of Felix appears briefly in the 2017 Pixar film Coco, as a guest at a party in the Land of the Dead, with luchador El Santo as her date.

On 21 July 2022, the TelevisaUnivision produced biopic María Félix: La Doña, starring Sandra Echeverría, was released on streaming service Vix.

Discography
Side one: Side two:
 * La voz de María y la inspiración de Agustín (RCA Víctor, 1964)
 * 1) "Por qué negar"
 * 2) "Gotas de amor"
 * 3) "Escarcha"
 * 4) "Limosna"
 * 5) "Noche de ronda"
 * 6) "Te quiero"
 * 1) "Volverás"
 * 2) "Una cualquiera"
 * 3) "Arráncame la vida"
 * 4) "Cada noche un amor"
 * 5) "Rival"
 * 6) "Solamente una vez"

 * Enamorada (Fonovisa, 1998)
 * 1) "Ella"
 * 2) "La cigarra"
 * 3) "El corrido del norte"
 * 4) "Pobre corazón"
 * 5) "La noche de mi mal"
 * 6) "Cada noche un amor"
 * 7) "Mano a mano"
 * 8) "De mi barrio"
 * 9) "Escándalo"
 * 10) "Silencio"
 * 11) "Et maintenant"
 * 12) "Je l'aime à mourir"
 * 13) "Prends garde"

title: María Félix


text:
Franz Krienbühl

Franz Krienbühl (24 March 1929 – 13 April 2002) was a Swiss speed skater who is mostly known for his inventions that changed the sport.

Starting his international sporting career only in his late thirties at the 1968 Winter Olympics of Grenoble, Krienbühl mostly skated at the back of the field. However, in 1974, he introduced the one-piece skin suit into speed skating. In spite of the fact that he improved his times dramatically, he was initially laughed at. However, when other skaters also showed improvement, the top skaters quickly switched to the suits as well. Krienbühl also introduced minor improvements for skates.

Krienbühl's best performance was the eighth position on the 10,000 m at the 1976 Winter Olympics. He stopped speed skating internationally at age 48 the next season, though he continued to skate competitively until 1986. During his career, he won at least 14 Swiss Allround Championships. In 1989, Krienbühl was severely injured in a cycling accident. He died in April 2002, aged 73.

title: Franz Krienbühl