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Lancashire

Lancashire (, ; abbreviated Lancs) is a ceremonial county in North West England. It is bordered by Cumbria to the north, North Yorkshire and West Yorkshire to the east, Greater Manchester and Merseyside to the south, and the Irish Sea to the west.

The county has an area of 3079 km2 and a population of 1,490,300. After Preston (147,800), the largest settlements are Blackpool (141,100) and Blackburn (124,995); the city of Lancaster has a population of 52,655. For local government purposes, Lancashire comprises a non-metropolitan county, with twelve districts, and two unitary authority areas, Blackburn with Darwen and Blackpool. The county historically included northern Greater Manchester and Merseyside, the Furness and Cartmel peninsulas of Cumbria, and some of northern Cheshire, and excluded the eastern part of the Forest of Bowland.

The west of Lancashire contains flat coastal plains, which rise to the hills of the Pennines in the east. The county contains large parts of two national landscapes, Arnside and Silverdale and the Forest of Bowland, and other protected areas such as the Ribble and Alt Estuaries National nature reserve. The major rivers in the county are, from north to south, the Lune, the Wyre, and the Ribble, which all flow west into the Irish Sea. The highest point in Lancashire is either Gragareth or Green Hill, both approximately 628 m high and located in the far north-east of the county.

Lancashire was founded in the 12th century; in the Domesday Book of 1086 much of what would become the county is treated as part of Yorkshire and Cheshire. Until the Early Modern period the county was a comparatively poor backwater, although in 1351 it became a palatine, with a semi-independent judicial system. This changed during the Industrial Revolution, when the county rapidly industrialised; until 1974 it included both Liverpool, a major port, and Manchester, which with its surrounding towns dominated the manufacture of textiles. The Lancashire coalfield was also exploited, with many collieries opening. By 1971 Lancashire had a population of 5,118,405, which made it the most heavily populated county in the United Kingdom after Greater London.

Before the county
During Roman times the area was part of the Brigantes tribal area in the military zone of Roman Britain. The towns of Manchester, Lancaster, Ribchester, Burrow, Elslack and Castleshaw grew around Roman forts. In the centuries after the Roman withdrawal in 410 AD the northern parts of the county probably formed part of the Brythonic kingdom of Rheged, a successor entity to the Brigantes tribe. During the mid-8th century, the area was incorporated into the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria from the north of the River Ribble and the Kingdom of Mercia from the south, which both became parts of England in the 10th century.

In the Domesday Book, land between the Ribble and Mersey were known as "Inter Ripam et Mersam" and included in the returns for Cheshire. Although some historians consider this to mean south Lancashire was then part of Cheshire, it is by no means certain. It is also claimed that the territory to the north formed part of the West Riding of Yorkshire.

Early history
The county was established in 1182, and came to be bordered by Cumberland, Westmorland, Yorkshire, and Cheshire. It was divided into the hundreds of Amounderness, Blackburn, Leyland, Lonsdale, Salford and West Derby. Lonsdale was further partitioned into Lonsdale North, the detached part north of the sands of Morecambe Bay including Furness and Cartmel, and Lonsdale South.

Victorian era to late 20th century
Since the Victorian era, Lancashire has had multiple reforms of local government. In 1889, the administrative county of Lancashire was created, covering the greater part of the county. Multiple county boroughs were outside the county council control; Barrow-in-Furness, Blackburn, Bolton, Bootle, Burnley, Bury, Liverpool, Manchester, Oldham, Preston, Rochdale, Salford, St. Helens, and Wigan. The area served by the Lord-Lieutenant (termed now a ceremonial county) covered the entirety of the administrative county and the county boroughs. It expanded whenever boroughs annexed areas in neighbouring counties such as Wythenshawe in Manchester south of the River Mersey and from Cheshire, and southern Warrington. It did not cover the western part of Todmorden, where the ancient border between Lancashire and Yorkshire passes through the middle of the town.

During the 20th century, the county became increasingly urban with Warrington (1900), Blackpool (1904) and Southport (1905) becoming county boroughs, with many boundary extensions. The borders around the Manchester area were particularly complicated, with narrow protrusions of the administrative county between the county boroughs – Lees Urban District formed a detached part of the administrative county, between Oldham county borough and the West Riding of Yorkshire. Lancaster, the historic county town, became a city in 1937.

The administrative county was also the most populous of its type outside London, with a population of 2,280,359 in 1961. By the census of 1971, the population of Lancashire and its county boroughs had reached 5,129,416, making it the most populous geographic county in the UK.

Post-1974

On 1 April 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, southern parts of administrative Lancashire were transferred to the two newly established metropolitan counties of Merseyside and Greater Manchester. Widnes and Warrington, which did not form part of either new county but which were cut off from the rest of Lancashire, were transferred to Cheshire. In the north, the new county of Cumbria incorporated the Furness exclave.

The new ceremonial county of Lancashire also gained land in 1974, as the urban districts of Barnoldswick and Earby, Bowland Rural District, and the parishes of Bracewell and Brogden and Salterforth from Skipton Rural District were transferred from the West Riding of Yorkshire.

One parish, Simonswood, was transferred from the borough of Knowsley in Merseyside to the district of West Lancashire in 1994. In 1998 Blackpool and Blackburn with Darwen became unitary authorities, removing them from the non-metropolitan county but not from the ceremonial county.

As the new boundary changes came into effect on 1 April 1974, a government statement in The Times newspaper stated: “They are administrative areas and will not alter the traditional boundaries of counties”.

Geology, landscape, and ecology
The three main rivers in Lancashire are the Ribble, Wyre and Lune, which all drain west to the Irish Sea. The Wyre rises in Bowland and is entirely within Lancashire, while the Ribble and Lune rise in North Yorkshire and Cumbria respectively. Many of Lancashire's other rivers are tributaries of the Ribble, including the Calder, Darwen, Douglas, and Hodder. The Irwell, which flows through Manchester, has its source in Lancashire.

To the west of the county are the Fylde coastal plain and West Lancashire coastal plain, which lie north and south of the Ribble Estuary respectively. Apart from the coastal resorts these areas are largely rural and devoted to vegetable crops. Further north is Morecambe Bay. In the northwest corner of the county, straddling the border with Cumbria, is the Arnside and Silverdale National Landscape, characterised by its limestone pavements and home to the Leighton Moss nature reserve.

In the east of the county are upland areas leading to the Pennines. North of the Ribble are Beacon Fell Country Park and the Forest of Bowland, another National Landscape. Much of the lowland in this area is devoted to dairy farming and cheesemaking, whereas the higher ground is more suitable for sheep, and the highest ground is uncultivated moorland. The valleys of the River Ribble and its tributary the Calder form a large gap to the west of the Pennines, overlooked by Pendle Hill. South of the Ribble are the West Pennine Moors and the Forest of Rossendale, where former cotton mill towns are in deep valleys. The Lancashire Coalfield, largely in modern-day Greater Manchester, extended into Merseyside and to Ormskirk, Chorley, Burnley and Colne in Lancashire.

The highest point of the ceremonial county is Gragareth, near Whernside, which reaches a height of 627 m (2,057 ft). Green Hill near Gragareth has also been cited as the "county" top. The highest point in the historic county is Coniston Old Man in the Lake District, at 803 m (2,634 ft).

Human geography
[[File:North West Green Belt.svg|thumb|{{legend|#92F98B|The North West Green Belt|outline=#808080}}

]] The north of the ceremonial county is less densely populated than the south, especially inland. The Fylde coast forms a continuous built-up area from Lytham St Annes to Fleetwood, including Blackpool, and further north is the Lancaster/Morecambe built-up area. The rest of the region is characterised by small towns and villages in the flat farmland surrounding the lower reaches of the Ribble, Wyre, and Lune and the sparsely populated uplands of the Forest of Bowland.

The centre and south-east of Lancashire is relatively urbanised, especially around the major settlements of Preston, Blackburn, and Burnley and near the border with Greater Manchester. The Central Lancashire urban area includes the city of Preston and the towns of Penwortham, Leyland and Chorley. A short distance east, Blackburn and Darwen are the first of several adjacent areas urban areas which stretch east toward West Yorkshire and south into the valleys leading to Greater Manchester, the others being Accrington and Rossendale and Burnley. West Lancashire in the south-west is rural with the exception of Skelmersdale, which forms part of Wigan urban area.

The North West Green Belt covers a large part of the south and centre of the county, including all of the non-urban areas in the boroughs of West Lancashire and South Ribble and the majority of Chorley. Elsewhere it is less extensive but covers the areas between the major settlements to prevent their convergence both with each other and with the nearby Merseyside and Greater Manchester conurbations. There is a further area of green belt in the north of the county, between Lancaster, Morecambe, and Carnforth.

Some settlements within the historic county boundaries are in the ceremonial counties of West Yorkshire, Cheshire, Merseyside, Greater Manchester and Cumbria:

Boundary changes before 1974 include:
 * Todmorden, split between Lancashire and Yorkshire then entirely to West Riding of Yorkshire in 1889
 * Mossley, split between Lancashire, Yorkshire and Cheshire then entirely to Lancashire in 1889
 * Stalybridge, entirely to Cheshire in 1889
 * Areas such as Wythenshawe and Latchford, former county boroughs of Manchester and Warrington both extended south of the Mersey into historic Cheshire
 * areas such as Reddish and the Heatons (Heaton Chapel, Heaton Mersey, Heaton Moor and Heaton Norris), former county borough of Stockport extended north into historic Lancashire.

Local government
The ceremonial county of Lancashire is divided into fourteen local government districts. Twelve are part of the two-tier non-metropolitan county of Lancashire, which is administered by Lancashire County Council and twelve district councils. Lancashire County Council is based in County Hall in Preston, and has 84 councillors. The council has been controlled by the Conservative Party since the 2017 Lancashire County Council elections; the 2021 elections they won 48 seats, the Labour Party won 32, and the Liberal Democrats and the Green Party won two each. The twelve districts of the non-metropolitan county are Burnley, Chorley, Fylde, Hyndburn, Lancaster, Pendle, Preston, Ribble Valley, Rossendale, South Ribble, West Lancashire, and Wyre.

Blackpool and Blackburn with Darwen are unitary authorities, meaning their councils combine the functions of a district and county council. They were formed in 1996, before which each district was part of the non-metropolitan county of Lancashire. Both authorities currently have a majority Labour administration.

The ceremonial county itself only has a minor administrative functions, being the area to which the Lord Lieutenant of Lancashire is appointed; the shrieval county has the same boundaries and is the area to which the High Sheriff of Lancashire is appointed. As of 2023 these positions are held by Amanda Parker and David Taylor respectively.

Parliamentary constituencies
The ceremonial county is divided into sixteen constituencies for the purpose of parliamentary representation.

Duchy of Lancaster
The Duchy of Lancaster, the private estate of the sovereign, exercises the right of the Crown in the County Palatine of Lancaster. The most prominent effect of this is that the Duchy administers bona vacantia within the County Palatine, receiving the property of persons who die intestate and where the legal ownership cannot be ascertained. The county palatine boundaries remain the same as the historic boundaries, ignoring subsequent local government reforms.

Economy
Lancashire in the 19th century was a major centre of economic activity, and hence one of wealth. Activities included coal mining, textile production, particularly that which used cotton, and fishing. Preston Docks, an industrial port is now disused. Lancashire was historically the location of the port of Liverpool while Barrow-in-Furness is famous for shipbuilding.

As of 2013, the largest private sector industry is the defence industry with BAE Systems Military Air Solutions division based in Warton on the Fylde coast. The division operates a manufacturing site in Samlesbury. Other defence firms include BAE Systems Global Combat Systems in Chorley, Ultra Electronics in Fulwood and Rolls-Royce plc in Barnoldswick.

The nuclear power industry has a plant at Springfields, Salwick operated by Westinghouse and Heysham nuclear power station is operated by British Energy. Other major manufacturing firms include Leyland Trucks, a subsidiary of Paccar building the DAF truck range.

Other companies with a major presence in Lancashire include:

 * Airline Network, an internet travel company with headquarters in Preston.
 * Baxi, a heating equipment manufacturer has a large manufacturing site in Bamber Bridge.
 * Crown Paints, a major paint manufacturer based in Darwen.
 * Dr. Oetker, an international food processing company, has a factory in Leyland that produces frozen pizza mostly under the Chicago Town and Ristorante brands.
 * Enterprise plc, one of the UK's leading support services based in Leyland.
 * Hanson plc, a building supplies company operates the Accrington brick works.
 * Hollands Pies, a major manufacturer of baked goods based in Baxenden near Accrington.
 * National Savings and Investments, the state-owned savings bank, which offers Premium Bonds and other savings products, has an office in Blackpool.
 * Thwaites Brewery, a regional brewery founded in 1807 by Juno Thwaites in Blackburn.
 * Xchanging, a company providing business process outsourcing services, with operations in Fulwood.
 * AB InBev, a multinational beverage company, brews Budweiser, Stella Artois, Brahma, Bass and Boddingtons in Samlesbury.
 * Fisherman's Friend, a confection company, famous for making strong mints and lozenges, based in Fleetwood.
 * The Foulnaze cockle fishery is in Lytham. It has only opened the coastal cockle beds three times in twenty years; August 2013 was the last of these openings.

Enterprise zone
The creation of Lancashire Enterprise Zone was announced in 2011. It was launched in April 2012, based at the airfields owned by BAE Systems in Warton and Samlesbury. Warton Aerodrome covers 72 ha and Samlesbury Aerodrome is 74 hectares. Development is coordinated by Lancashire Enterprise Partnership, Lancashire County Council and BAE Systems. The first businesses to move into the zone did so in March 2015, at Warton.

In March 2015 the government announced a new enterprise zone would be created at Blackpool Airport, using some airport and adjoining land. Operations at the airport will not be affected.

Economic output

This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of the non-metropolitan county of Lancashire at basic prices published by the Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British pounds sterling.

Education
Lancashire has a mostly comprehensive system with four state grammar schools. Not including sixth form colleges, there are 77 state schools (not including Burnley's new schools) and 24 independent schools. The Clitheroe area has secondary modern schools. Sixth form provision is limited at most schools in most districts, with only Fylde and Lancaster districts having mostly sixth forms at schools. The rest depend on FE colleges and sixth form colleges, where they exist. South Ribble has the largest school population and Fylde the smallest (only three schools). Burnley's schools have had a new broom and have essentially been knocked down and started again in 2006. There are many Church of England and Catholic faith schools in Lancashire.

Lancashire is home to four universities: Lancaster University, the University of Central Lancashire, Edge Hill University and the Lancaster campus of the University of Cumbria. Seven colleges offer higher education courses.

Roadways
The Lancashire economy relies strongly on the M6 motorway which runs from north to south, past Lancaster and Preston. The M55 connects Preston to Blackpool and is 11.5 miles (18.3 km) long. The M65 motorway from Colne, connects Burnley, Accrington, Blackburn to Preston. The M61 from Preston via Chorley and the M66 starting 500 m inside the county boundary near Edenfield, provide links between Lancashire and Manchester, and the trans-Pennine M62. The M58 crosses the southernmost part of the county from the M6 near Wigan to Liverpool via Skelmersdale.

Other major roads include the east–west A59 between Liverpool in Merseyside and Skipton in North Yorkshire via Ormskirk, Preston and Clitheroe, and the connecting A565 to Southport; the A56 from Ramsbottom to Padiham via Haslingden and from Colne to Skipton; the A585 from Kirkham to Fleetwood; the A666 from the A59 north of Blackburn to Bolton via Darwen; and the A683 from Heysham to Kirkby Lonsdale via Lancaster.

Several bus companies run bus services in the Lancashire area serving the main towns and villages in the county with some services running to neighbouring areas, Cumbria, Greater Manchester, Merseyside and West Yorkshire. Some of these include:
 * Stagecoach Merseyside & South Lancashire
 * Stagecoach Cumbria & North Lancashire
 * Stagecoach Manchester
 * Go North West
 * Preston Bus
 * Diamond North West

Railways
The West Coast Main Line provides direct rail links with London, Glasgow and other major cities, with stations at Preston and Lancaster. East-west connections are carried via the East Lancashire Line between Blackpool and Colne via Lytham, Preston, Blackburn, Accrington and Burnley. The Ribble Valley Line runs from Bolton to Clitheroe via Darwen and Blackburn. There are connecting lines from Preston to Ormskirk and Bolton, and from Lancaster to Morecambe, Heysham and Skipton.

Airways
Blackpool Airport are no longer operating domestic or international flights, but it is still the home of flying schools, private operators and North West Air Ambulance. Manchester Airport is the main airport in the region. Liverpool John Lennon Airport is nearby, while the closest airport to the Pendle Borough is Leeds Bradford.

There is an operational airfield at Warton near Preston where there is a major assembly and test facility for BAE Systems.

Waterways
Heysham offers ferry services to Ireland and the Isle of Man. As part of its industrial past, Lancashire gave rise to an extensive network of canals, which extend into neighbouring counties. These include the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, Lancaster Canal, Sankey Canal, Bridgewater Canal, Rochdale Canal, Ashton Canal and Manchester Ship Canal.

Demography
The major settlements in the ceremonial county are concentrated on the Fylde coast (the Blackpool Urban Area), and a number of notable settlements along west to east of the M65: including the city of Preston and towns of Blackburn, Darwen, Accrington, Burnley, Padiham, Brierfield, Nelson and Colne. South of Preston are the towns of Leyland and Chorley (which, with Preston, formed Central Lancashire New Town designated in 1970), as well as Penwortham, Skelmersdale and Ormskirk.

The north of the county is predominantly rural and sparsely populated, except for the city of Lancaster and the towns of Morecambe and Heysham, the three of which form a large conurbation of almost 100,000 people. Lancashire is home to a significant Asian population, numbering over 70,000 and 6% of the county's population, and concentrated largely in the former cotton mill towns in the south east.

Symbols
The Red Rose of Lancaster is the county flower found on the county's heraldic badge and flag. The rose was a symbol of the House of Lancaster, immortalised in the verse "In the battle for England's head/York was white, Lancaster red" (referring to the 15th-century Wars of the Roses).

A flag consisting of a red rose on a gold field was designed by the Friends of Real Lancashire, a pressure group which promotes the historic county, and registered with the Flag Institute, a vexillological charity, in 2008. The flag has been flown from public buildings within the historic county boundaries on Lancashire Day (27 November), including from County Hall in Preston, St Helens Town Hall, the in the parts of the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham which were previously in Lancashire. It has also been flown from the Ministry for Housing, Communities, and Local Government building in London.

An alternative flag consists of a red rose on a white field. This design had already been registered by Montrose in Scotland.

Cricket
Lancashire County Cricket Club has been one of the most successful county cricket teams, particularly in the one-day game. It is home to England cricket team members James Anderson and Jos Buttler. The County Ground, Old Trafford, Trafford, has been the home cricket ground of LCCC since 1864.

Local cricket leagues include the Lancashire League, the Central Lancashire League and the North Lancashire and Cumbria League.

Since 2000, the designated ECB Premier League for Lancashire has been the Liverpool and District Cricket Competition.

Football
Football in Lancashire is governed by the Lancashire County Football Association which, like most county football associations, has boundaries that are aligned roughly with the historic counties. The Manchester Football Association and Liverpool County Football Association respectively operate in Greater Manchester and Merseyside.

Lancashire clubs were prominent in the formation of the Football League in 1888, with the league being officially named at a meeting in Manchester. Of the twelve founder members of the league, six were from Lancashire: Accrington, Blackburn Rovers, Bolton Wanderers, Burnley, Everton, and Preston North End.

The Football League now operates out of Preston. The National Football Museum was founded at Deepdale, Preston in 2001, but moved to Manchester in 2012.

Seven professional full-time teams were based in Lancashire at the start of the 2023–24 season:

 * Premier League: none
 * Championship: Blackburn Rovers, Burnley and Preston North End
 * League One: Blackpool
 * League Two: Accrington Stanley, Fleetwood Town and Morecambe

The county's most prominent football rivalries are the East Lancashire derby between Blackburn Rovers and Burnley, and the West Lancashire derby between Blackpool and Preston North End.

A further nine professional full-time teams lie within the historical borders of Lancashire but outside of the current ceremonial county. These include the Premier League clubs Everton, Liverpool, Manchester City and Manchester United.

Rugby league
Along with Yorkshire and Cumberland, Lancashire is recognised as the heartland of Rugby League. The county has produced many successful top flight clubs such as St. Helens, Wigan, Warrington, Oldham, Salford and Widnes. The county was once the focal point for many of the sport's professional competitions including the Lancashire League competition which ran from 1895 to 1970, and the Lancashire County Cup which ran until 1993. Rugby League has also seen a representative fixture between Lancashire and Yorkshire contested 89 times since its inception in 1895. In recent times there were several rugby league teams that are based within the ceremonial county which include Blackpool Panthers, East Lancashire Lions, and Blackpool Sea Eagles.

Archery
There are many archery clubs located within Lancashire. In 2004 Lancashire took the winning title at the Inter-counties championships from Yorkshire who had held it for 7 years.

Wrestling
Lancashire has a long history of wrestling, developing its own style called Lancashire wrestling, with many clubs that over the years have produced many renowned wrestlers. Some of these have crossed over into the mainstream world of professional wrestling; including multiple Catch wrestling champion Steve Wright father of Alex Wright, Billy Riley the founder of Wigan's catch-wrestling gym, 'The Snake Pit', Billy Robinson, Davey Boy Smith, William Regal, and the Dynamite Kid.

Folk music
Lancashire has a long and highly productive tradition of music making. In the early modern era the county shared in the national tradition of balladry, including perhaps the finest border ballad, "The Ballad of Chevy Chase", thought to have been composed by the Lancashire-born minstrel Richard Sheale. The county was also a common location for folk songs, including "The Lancashire Miller", "Warrington Ale" and "The soldier's farewell to Manchester", while Liverpool, as a major seaport, was the subject of many sea shanties, including "The Leaving of Liverpool" and "Maggie May", beside several local Wassailing songs. In the Industrial Revolution changing social and economic patterns helped create new traditions and styles of folk song, often linked to migration and patterns of work. These included processional dances, often associated with rushbearing or the Wakes Week festivities, and types of step dance, most famously clog dancing.

A local pioneer of folk song collection in the first half of the 19th century was Shakespearean scholar James Orchard Halliwell, but it was not until the second folk revival in the 20th century that the full range of song from the county, including industrial folk song, began to gain attention. The county produced one of the major figures of the revival in Ewan MacColl, but also a local champion in Harry Boardman, who from 1965 onwards probably did more than anyone to popularise and record the folk song of the county. Perhaps the most influential folk artists to emerge from the region in the late 20th century were Liverpool folk group the Spinners, and from Manchester folk troubadour Roy Harper and musician, comedian and broadcaster Mike Harding. The region is home to numerous folk clubs, many of them catering to Irish and Scottish folk music. Regular folk festivals include the Fylde Folk Festival at Fleetwood.

Classical music
Lancashire had a lively culture of choral and classical music, with very large numbers of local church choirs from the 17th century, leading to the foundation of local choral societies from the mid-18th century, often particularly focused on performances of the music of Handel and his contemporaries. It also played a major part in the development of brass bands which emerged in the county, particularly in the textile and coalfield areas, in the 19th century. The first open competition for brass bands was held at Manchester in 1853, and continued annually until the 1980s.

The vibrant brass band culture of the area made an important contribution to the foundation and staffing of the Hallé Orchestra from 1857, the oldest extant professional orchestra in the United Kingdom. The same local musical tradition produced eminent figures such as Sir William Walton (1902–88), son of an Oldham choirmaster and music teacher, Sir Thomas Beecham (1879–1961), born in St. Helens, who began his career by conducting local orchestras and Alan Rawsthorne (1905–71) born in Haslingden. The conductor David Atherton, co-founder of the London Sinfonietta, was born in Blackpool in 1944. Lancashire also produced more populist figures, such as early musical theatre composer Leslie Stuart (1863–1928), born in Southport, who began his musical career as organist of Salford Cathedral.

More recent Lancashire-born composers include Hugh Wood (1932– Parbold), Sir Peter Maxwell Davies (1934–2016, Salford), Sir Harrison Birtwistle (1934–2022, Accrington), Gordon Crosse (1937–, Bury), John McCabe (1939–2015, Huyton), Roger Smalley (1943–2015, Swinton), Nigel Osborne (1948–, Manchester), Steve Martland (1954–2013, Liverpool), Simon Holt (1958–, Bolton) and Philip Cashian (1963–, Manchester). The Royal Manchester College of Music was founded in 1893 to provide a northern counterpart to the London musical colleges. It merged with the Northern College of Music (formed in 1920) to form the Royal Northern College of Music in 1972.

Popular music
Liverpool, both during its time in Lancashire and after being moved to the new county of Merseyside, has produced a number of successful musicians. This includes pop stars such as Frankie Vaughan and Lita Roza, as well as rock stars such as Billy Fury, who is considered to be one of the most successful British rock and roll stars of all time. Many Lancashire towns had vibrant skiffle scenes in the late 1950s, out of which a culture of beat groups emerged by the early 1960s, particularly around Liverpool and Manchester. It has been estimated that there were at least 350 bands—including the Beatles—active in and around Liverpool during this era, playing ballrooms, concert halls, and clubs. A number of Liverpool performers followed the Beatles into the charts, including Gerry & the Pacemakers, the Searchers, and Cilla Black.

The first musicians to break through in the UK who were not from Liverpool or managed by Beatles manager Brian Epstein were Manchester's Freddie and the Dreamers, with Herman's Hermits and the Hollies also hailing from Manchester. The Beatles led a movement by various beat groups from the region which culminated in the British Invasion of the US, which in turn made a major contribution to the development of modern rock music. After the decline of beat groups in the late 1960s, the centre of rock culture shifted to London, and there were relatively few Lancashire bands who achieved national prominence until the growth of a disco scene and the punk rock revolution in the mid-and-late 1970s.

The towns of Accrington, Burnley, Chorley, Clitheroe, Colne, Lytham St Annes, Morecambe, Nelson, Ormskirk and Skelmersdale as well as the cities of Lancaster and Preston are referenced in the 1991 song, It's Grim Up North by the band the KLF.

Cuisine

Lancashire is the origin of the Lancashire hotpot, a casserole dish traditionally made with lamb. Other traditional foods from the area include:

 * Black peas, also known as parched peas: popular in Darwen, Bolton and Preston.
 * Bury black pudding has long been associated with the county. The most notable brand, Chadwick's Original Bury Black Puddings, are still sold on Bury Market, and are manufactured in Rossendale.
 * Butter cake: slice of bread and butter.
 * Butter pie: a savoury pie containing potatoes, onion and butter. Usually associated with Preston.
 * Clapbread: a thin oatcake made from unleavened dough cooked on a griddle.
 * Chorley cakes: from the town of Chorley.
 * Eccles cakes are small, round cakes filled with currants and made from flaky pastry with butter, originally made in Eccles.
 * Fag pie: pie made from chopped dried figs, sugar and lard. Associated with Blackburn and Burnley, where it was the highlight of Fag Pie Sunday (Mid-Lent Sunday).
 * Fish and chips: the first fish and chip shop in northern England opened in Mossley, near Oldham, around 1863.
 * Frog-i'-th'-'ole pudding: now known as "toad in the hole"
 * Frumenty: sweet porridge. Once a popular dish at Lancashire festivals, such as Christmas and Easter Monday.
 * Goosnargh cakes: small flat shortbread biscuits with coriander or caraway seeds pressed into the biscuit before baking. Traditionally baked on feast days like Shrove Tuesday.
 * Jannock: cake or small loaf of oatmeal. Allegedly introduced to Lancashire (possibly Bolton) by weavers of Flemish origin.
 * Lancashire cheese has been made in the county for several centuries. Beacon Fell Traditional Lancashire Cheese has been awarded EU Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) status.
 * Lancashire Flat Cake: A lemon flavoured sponge cake, traditionally made with a couple too many eggs, best eaten after being chilled.
 * Lancashire oatcake, resembling a large oval pancake, eaten either moist or dried
 * Lancashire Sauce, a lightly spiced mustard produced by the Entwistle family of Bury
 * "Stew and hard": a beef and cowheel stew with dried Lancashire oatcake
 * Nettle porridge: a common starvation diet in Lancashire in the early 19th century. Made from boiled stinging nettles and sometimes a handful of meal.
 * Ormskirk gingerbread: local delicacy that was sold throughout South Lancashire.
 * Parkin: a ginger cake with oatmeal.
 * Pobs or pobbies: bread and milk.
 * Potato hotpot: a variation of the Lancashire Hotpot without meat that is also known as fatherless pie.
 * Ran Dan: barley bread. A last resort for the poor at the end of the 18th century and beginning of the 19th century.
 * Rag pudding: traditional suet pudding filled with minced meat, originating in Oldham.
 * Throdkins: a traditional breakfast food of the Fylde.
 * Uncle Joe's Mint Balls: traditional mints produced by William Santus & Co. Ltd. in Wigan.

Cinema
Whistle Down the Wind (1961) was directed by Bryan Forbes, set at the foot of Worsaw Hill and in Burnley, and starred local Lancashire schoolchildren.

The tunnel scene was shot on the old Bacup-Rochdale railway line, location 53°41'29.65"N, 2°11'25.18"W, off the A6066 (New Line) where the line passes beneath Stack Lane. The tunnel is still there, in use as an industrial unit but the railway has long since been removed.

Funny Bones (1995) was set mostly in Blackpool, after opening scenes in Las Vegas.

Television
The county is covered by BBC North West and ITV Granada which broadcast from Salford. Television signals are received from the Winter Hill TV transmitter. A small part of East Lancashire around Barnoldswick and Earby is served by BBC Yorkshire and ITV Yorkshire broadcasting from Leeds. This area is served by a local transmitter in Skipton which is relayed from the Emley Moor TV transmitter.

Radio
BBC Local Radio for the county is served by BBC Radio Lancashire which broadcast from its studios in Blackburn, BBC Radio Merseyside can be heard in southern parts, BBC Radio Manchester in the east and BBC Radio Cumbria in the north. County-wide commercial stations are Greatest Hits Radio Lancashire, Capital Manchester and Lancashire, Heart North West, and Smooth North West. Community based stations are Beyond Radio (covering northwestern Lancashire), Pendle Community Radio (serving the Pendle area), Rossendale Radio (for Rossendale), and Central Radio (for The Fylde, Preston, Leyland and Chorley areas of Lancashire).

Newspapers
The county is served by these local newspapers:
 * Lancashire Telegraph (daily, East Lancashire, published in Blackburn)
 * Lancashire Evening Post (daily, Central and Northern Lancashire, published in Fulwood, Preston)
 * Accrington Observer (weekly)
 * Blackpool Gazette (daily)
 * Burnley Express (twice weekly)
 * Clitheroe Advertiser and Times (weekly)
 * Fleetwood Weekly News
 * Lytham St Annes Express (weekly)
 * Nelson Leader (weekly)
 * Pendle Express (weekly)
 * Rossendale Free Press (weekly)
 * The Visitor (weekly, published in Morecambe)

The national weekly Farmers Guardian is published in Fulwood, Preston.

Places of interest
The following are places of interest in the ceremonial county: • Arnside and Silverdale AONB UKAL icon.svg

• Astley Hall HH icon.png

• Avenham Park and Miller Park, Preston

• Bank Hall HH icon.png

• Beacon Fell CP icon.png

• Blackburn Cathedral AP Icon.svg

• Blackpool Pleasure Beach Themepark uk icon.png

• Blackpool Tower

• Blackpool Zoo

• British Commercial Vehicle Museum, Leyland

• Brockholes (nature reserve), Preston

• Camelot Theme Park Themepark uk icon.png

• Clitheroe Castle CL icon.svg

• Darwen Tower

• East Lancashire Railway HR icon.svg

• Forest of Bowland: Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty UKAL icon.svg

• Gawthorpe Hall, Padiham HH icon.png NTE icon.png

• Harris Museum, Preston

• Helmshore Mills Textile Museum

• Hoghton Tower HH icon.png

• Irwell Sculpture Trail

• Lancashire Infantry Museum, Preston

• Lancaster Castle CL icon.svg

• Lancaster Cathedral AP Icon.svg

• Lathom Park ChapelAP Icon.svg, site of Lathom House, seat of the Earls of Derby

• Lytham Hall

• Leighton Moss nature reserve, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds

• Martin Mere, Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust nature reserve, Burscough

• Morecambe Bay UKAL icon.svg

• Museum of Lancashire, Preston

• Pendle Hill UKAL icon.svg

• The Pennines UKAL icon.svg

• Preston Dock

• Ribble Steam Railway, Preston HR icon.svg

• Rivington Pike

• Rufford Old Hall HH icon.png NTE icon.png

• Samlesbury Hall HH icon.png

• St Mary's Church, Fernyhalgh, Preston and the Ladyewell Shrine AP Icon.svg

• St Walburge's Church, Preston AP Icon.svg

• Stonyhurst College – manor house dating from 1592, now a Jesuit public school

• Towneley Hall, Burnley HH icon.png Museum icon.png

• Queen Street Mill, Burnley Museum icon.png

• West Lancashire Light Railway HR icon.svg

• West Pennine Moors UKAL icon.svg

• Williamson Park and the Ashton Memorial

• Witton Country Park CP icon.png

• Yarrow Valley Park CP icon.png

• White Coppice UKAL icon.svg

• Haigh Hall

title: Lancashire


text:
901

Year 901 (CMI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * February – King Louis III (the Blind) is crowned as Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Benedict IV at Rome. His rival Berengar I seeks refuge in Bavaria at the court of King Louis IV (the Child).
 * March – Abu Abbas Abdallah resumes his Aghlabid campaign against the Byzantine enclaves of Sicily. He dispatches his fleet towards Messina, while bombarding the town walls of Damona.
 * June 10 – Abu Abbas Abdallah crosses the Strait of Messina and proceeds to Reggio Calabria. Appearing before its walls, the Byzantine garrison flees, surrendering the city to the Aghlabids.
 * Summer – Abu Abbas Abdallah defeats a relief Byzantine navy dispatched from Constantinople at Messina. He dismantles the fortifications of Messina and transfers his booty to Palermo.
 * July 10 – Battle of Zamora: In Al-Andalus, Ibn al-Qitt and Abū Naṣr ‘Abd Allāh ibn ‘Alī al-Sarrāj call for a small jihad, but are defeated by King Alfonso III.

Britain

 * Fall – Æthelwold (a son of Æthelred I) rebels against his cousin, King Edward the Elder. He comes with a fleet to Essex, and encourages the Danish Vikings of East Anglia to rise up.
 * Edward the Elder takes the title "King of the Anglo-Saxons". His mother, Dowager-Queen Ealhswith, founds the Nunnaminster at Winchester and retires into a religious life there.
 * The first written mention is made of Shrewsbury (West Midlands).

Arabian Empire

 * February 18 – Thābit ibn Qurra dies at Baghdad, having served as court astronomer to the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mutadid. He has spent his life translating and teaching the works of Greek mathematicians, and of his own.
 * Abu 'Abdullah al-Shi'i leads the rebellion of the Kutama Berbers (a movement of the Shiʿite Fatimids), against the Aghlabid emirate in Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia).

Asia

 * January 24 – Emperor Zhao Zong of the Tang Dynasty (after he is briefly deposed by general Liu Jishu) is restored to the Chinese throne. Liu, with four eunuch family members are killed.
 * January 25 – Sugawara no Michizane, a Japanese poet, is demoted from his aristocratic rank and is exiled to a minor official post at Dazaifu (Chikuzen Province).
 * The Kingdom of Hu Goguryeo is established by the rebel leader Gung Ye. He subjugates the local lords in the Korean Peninsula and proclaims himself king.
 * In China, Fuzhou City (Fujian Province) is expanded, with the construction of a new city wall ("Luo City").
 * Abaoji is elected chieftain of the Yila tribe and becomes commander of all Khitan military forces.

Mesoamerica

 * The Mesoamerican ballgame court is dedicated by the Maya ruler Chan Chak K'ak'nal Ajaw (also known as Lord Chac) at Uxmal (modern Mexico).
 * The Toltecs establish themselves at Tula. The city becomes the capital and rises to prominence after the fall of Teotihuacan (approximate date).

Religion

 * January – Arethas of Caesarea speaks on the occasion of the Epiphany. He becomes the official rhetor at the Byzantine court of Emperor Leo VI (the Wise) at Constantinople, and is nominated as Archbishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia.
 * March 1 – Nicholas Mystikos, a layman close to Photios, becomes Patriarch of Constantinople.

Births

 * Biagota, probable wife of duke Boleslaus I of Bohemia

Deaths

 * January 24 – Liu Jishu, general of the Tang Dynasty
 * February 12 – Antony II, patriarch of Constantinople
 * February 18 – Thābit ibn Qurra, Syrian astronomer and physician (b. 826)
 * April 12 – Eudokia Baïana, Byzantine empress and wife of Leo VI
 * July 8 – Grimbald, Frankish Benedictine monk (b. 820)
 * November 10 – Adelaide, queen of the West Frankish Kingdom
 * Guaimar I of Salerno, Lombard prince
 * Lady Shuiqiu, wife of Qian Kuan
 * Lei Man, warlord of the Tang Dynasty
 * Muhammad ibn Abi'l-Saj, Abbasid general
 * Ubayd Allah ibn Sulayman, Abbasid vizier
 * Wu Renbi, Chinese Taoist and writer
 * Xu Yanruo, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 901


text:
902

Year 902 (CMII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * Spring – Adalbert II, margrave of Tuscany, revolts against Emperor Louis III ("the Blind"). He helps the deposed King Berengar I to recover the Kingdom of Italy. Louis III is forced to abdicate the Lombard throne and flees to Provence, compelled to promise never to return to Italy.
 * February – March – Abu Abbas Abdallah, conqueror of Reggio Calabria, returns from Sicily and succeeds his father Ibrahim II as Aghlabid emir of Ifriqiya.
 * June – Ibrahim II lands with an Aghlabid expeditionary force in Trapani, and proceeds to Palermo. He crushes the reinforced Byzantine army at Giardini.
 * August 1 – Taormina, the last Byzantine stronghold in Sicily, is captured by the Aghlabid army. After nearly 75 years, all of Sicily is in Aghlabid hands.
 * September – Ibrahim II crosses the Strait of Messina into Calabria. He begins his march to conquer the rest of Italy, and lays siege at Cosenza.
 * October 23 – Ibrahim II dies of dysentery in a chapel near Cosenza. His grandson, Ziyadat Allah, takes over the army, but lifts the siege.
 * Winter – The Balearic Islands are conquered by the Emirate of Córdoba. The Moors improve agriculture with irrigation on the islands.

Britain And Ireland

 * December 13 – Battle of the Holme: The Anglo-Saxon army is defeated by the Danish Vikings under Æthelwold (a son of Æthelred I) at Holme. Æthelwold is killed, ending his revolt against King Edward the Elder.
 * Winter – The Norsemen are expelled from Dublin. After a brief foray into Seisyllwg (Wales), a group, under the Viking lord Ingimundr, settle in the Wirral with the agreement of Lady Æthelflæd of the Mercians.

Arabian Empire

 * April 5 – Caliph Al-Mu'tadid dies in Baghdad after a 10-year reign. Possibly poisoned in a palace intrigue, he is succeeded by his eldest son Al-Muktafi as ruler of the Abbasid Caliphate.
 * The Kutama tribe under Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i revolt against the Aghlabids. He begins a campaign and dispatches an invitation to the Fatimid spiritual leader Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah to support him.
 * Moorish Andalusian merchants set up a trade settlement (so-called emporium) in Oran (modern Algeria).

Asia

 * Spring – Emperor Zhao Zong appoints Yang Xingmi as the overall commander of the Eastern circuits in China. He receives the title of Prince Wuzhong of Wu.
 * The Kingdom of Nanzhao in East Asia is overthrown, followed by three dynasties in quick succession, before the establishment of the Kingdom of Dali in 937.

Births

 * November 25 – Tai Zong, emperor of the Liao dynasty (d. 947)
 * Ælfweard, king of Wessex (approximate date)
 * Du, empress of the Song dynasty (approximate date)
 * Eadgifu, queen and wife of Charles the Simple
 * Han Xizai, Chinese official and calligrapher (d. 970)
 * Lady Xu Xinyue, wife of Qian Yuanguan (d. 946)
 * Lothar I, Frankish nobleman (d. 929)
 * Wang Jun, chancellor of Later Zhou (or 903)

Deaths

 * February 16 – Mary the Younger, Byzantine saint (b. 875)
 * April 5 – Al-Mu'tadid, Abbasid caliph
 * August 14 – Badr al-Mu'tadidi, Abbasid commander-in-chief
 * October 23 – Ibrahim II, Aghlabid emir (b. 850)
 * December 5 – Ealhswith, queen and wife of Alfred the Great
 * December 16 – Wei Yifan, chancellor of the Tang dynasty
 * Æthelwold, son of Æthelred of Wessex
 * Amr ibn al-Layth, Saffarid emir
 * Anscar I, margrave of Ivrea (Italy)
 * Li Cunxin, general of the Tang dynasty (b. 862)
 * Wang Zongdi, Chinese official and governor
 * Yunju Daoying, Chinese Buddhist teacher (b. 830)

title: 902


text:
898

Year 898 (DCCCXCVIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * January 1 – King Odo I (or Eudes) dies at La Fère (Northern France) after a 10-year reign. His rival, the 18-year-old Charles the Simple in Laon, gains sovereignty and becomes ruler (with no real authority) of the West Frankish Kingdom. This puts an end to five years of civil war between the Frankish nobles.
 * Summer – Adalbert II, margrave of Tuscany, revolts (pushed by his wife Bertha) against his cousin, Emperor Lambert II. The Tuscan army proceeds against the Lombard capital of Pavia. Lambert with his forces at Marengo defeats Adalbert at Borgo San Donnino, taking him, as a prisoner, to Pavia.
 * October 15 – Lambert II dies from falling off his horse while hunting — or is killed (possibly assassinated by supporters of Maginulf of Milan). After the death of Lambert, his rival Berengar I gains recognition as king of Italy. He releases Adalbert II and receives homage from the Italian nobles.

Britain

 * King Alfred the Great makes his eldest son Edward the Elder co-ruler of Wessex in preparation for his accession to the English throne.

Religion

 * January – Pope John IX is consecrated and succeeds Theodore II as the 116th pope of the Catholic Church. His rival Serguis III (a Spoletan ally of Lambert II) is excommunicated and takes refuge at the court of Adalbert II.
 * John IX holds councils at Rome and Ravenna to rehabilitate the late Pope Formosus. He condemns the Cadaver Synod of the late Pope Stephen VI, and restores the clergymen who were deposed by Stephen's faction.

Births

 * Fu Yanqing, Chinese general (d. 975)
 * He Ning, Chinese chancellor (d. 955)
 * Hugh the Great, Father of Hugh Capet and progenitor of the Capetian Kings (approximate date) (d. 956)
 * Li Congyan, Chinese general (d. 946)
 * Sang Weihan, Chinese chief of staff (d. 947)

Deaths

 * January 1 – Odo I, king of the West Frankish Kingdom
 * October 15 – Lambert II, king of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor
 * Adalbold I, bishop of Utrecht (approximate date)
 * Ahmad ibn Isa al-Shaybani, Muslim leader
 * Aitíth mac Laigni, king of Ulaid (Ireland)
 * Al-Mubarrad, Muslim grammarian (b. 826)
 * Athanasius, bishop and duke of Naples
 * Doseon, Korean Buddhist monk (b. 826)
 * Gagik Apumrvan Artsruni, Armenian prince
 * Hsiang-yen Chih-hsien, Chinese Ch'an master
 * Luo Hongxin, Chinese warlord (b. 836)
 * Mashdotz I, Armenian monk and catholicos (or 897)
 * Stephen, duke of Amalfi (approximate date)
 * Wang Chao, Chinese warlord (b. 846)
 * Ya'qubi, Muslim geographer (or 897)

title: 898


text:
974

Year 974 (CMLXXIV) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * Battle of Danevirke: Emperor Otto II defeats the rebel forces of King Harald I, who has invaded Nordalbingia (modern-day Holstein), to shake off imperial overlordship. Otto's armies swiftly subdue the Danes, consolidating the frontier between Scandinavia and Northern Germany. Meanwhile, Henry II begins a rebellion against his cousin Otto. He forges alliances with Bavarian and Saxon nobles.

England

 * King Edgar I gives English help to Prince Hywel in ousting his uncle, King Iago of Gwynedd from his kingdom.
 * A great earthquake occurs in England.

Abbasid Caliphate

 * 5 August – Caliph al-Muti, ill and incapacitated, is deposed and succeeded by his son al-Ta'i, dying shortly after.

Africa

 * The Qarmatians are defeated north of Cairo by Fatimid forces under General Jawhar al-Siqilli. He consolidates Fatimid rule and sends a legation to the Christian land of Nubia to secure the southern border of Egypt. Arab traders introduce Islam to the population, which gradually supplants Christianity.
 * An offensive, by the Spain-based Caliphate of Córdoba brings the Maghrebi Idrisid Dynasty to an end. Caliph Al-Hakam II maintains the supremacy of the caliphate over the kingdoms of Navarra, Castile and León.

China

 * The Liao Dynasty exchanges ambassadors with the Song Dynasty on New Years Day (Spring Festival).
 * The city of Fuzhou, located in Fujian province, builds new city walls.

Religion

 * Summer – Pope Benedict VI is imprisoned in the Castel Sant'Angelo at Rome, where he is strangled to death through the influence of the powerful Crescentii family. Crescentius I (the Elder), Italian politician and aristocrat, engineers an election and replaces Benedict with his own candidate Franco, who ascends under the title anti-Pope Boniface VII.
 * Fall – Boniface VII is expelled by order of Otto II and flees to Constantinople, taking the Church treasury of the Vatican Basilica along with him. He is succeeded by Benedict VII as the 135th pope of the Catholic Church.
 * An abbey is founded at the site of Mönchengladbach (Germany).

Births

 * Bruno of Querfurt, German missionary bishop (d. 1009)
 * Ermengol I, count of Urgell (d. 1010)
 * Frederick, count of Walbeck (d. 1018)
 * Fujiwara no Korechika, Japanese nobleman (d. 1010)

Deaths

 * March 7 – John of Gorze, Frankish abbot and diplomat
 * October 12 – Al-Muti, caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate (b. 914)
 * Al-Qadi al-Nu'man, Fatimid jurist and historian
 * Benedict VI, pope of the Catholic Church
 * Fujiwara no Yoshitaka, Japanese waka poet (b. 954)
 * Muhammad Bal'ami, Persian historian and vizier
 * Ratherius (or Rathier), bishop of Verona
 * Shi Chonggui, emperor of Later Jin (b. 914)

title: 974


text:
970

Year 970 (CMLXX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar, the 970th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini designations, the 970th year of the 1st millennium, the 70th year of the 10th century, and the 1st year of the 970s decade.

Byzantine Empire

 * Emperor John I delegates the war in the Balkans to his brother-in-law, the Domestic of the Schools Bardas Skleros, and to the eunuch general Peter Phokas, who begin to gather a Byzantine army in Thrace. At the news of this, a powerful Kievan expeditionary force (30,000 men), along with many Bulgarians and a Pecheneg contingent, is sent south over the Balkan Mountains. After sacking the Bulgarian stronghold of Philippolis (modern-day Plovdiv), they bypass the heavily defended city of Adrianople, and turn towards Constantinople.
 * Battle of Arcadiopolis: John I dispatches an elite force (10–12,000 men) to delay the Kievan Rus'. The Byzantines under Bardas Skleros successfully ambush the Kievan-Bulgarian invaders at Arcadiopolis (modern Turkey). The battle turns into a complete rout, killing thousands. Grand Prince Sviatoslav I is driven out of Thrace and withdraws his forces to the fortress city of Silistra.
 * Summer – Bardas Phokas (the Younger) and his family rebel against their own cousin, John I. Bardas is proclaimed 'emperor' by his troops at Caesarea, but the rebellion is extinguished by Bardas Skleros. Phokas and his relatives are captured and exiled to the island of Chios (Aegean Sea).

Europe

 * Summer – Byzantine-Imperial truce: Emperor Otto I (the Great) meets with John I at Bari and accepts a permanent peace agreement. Pandulf I (Ironhead) is released from captivity in Constantinople (see 969).
 * The oldest preserved document (by Otto I) mentions Leibnitz in Styria (modern Austria).
 * Eric the Victorious becomes the first (documented) king of Sweden in Uppland.
 * Skagul Toste leads a Viking expedition to England and demands Danegeld.

Africa

 * Al-Hasan ibn Ubayd Allah, Ikhshidid governor of Palestine, is defeated and taken prisoner by General Ja'far ibn Fallah in Syria. Ending the Ikhshidid Dynasty as a ruling power.
 * Construction is completed on Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo, Egypt (the world's oldest Islamic university).

Asia

 * A major volcano erupts in Lake Mashū, Japan (approximate date).

Births

 * Adelaide, German abbess and saint (d. 1015)
 * Al-Sharif al-Radi, Persian Shi'ite scholar and poet (d. 1015)
 * Bartholomew of Grottaferrata, Italian abbot (d. 1055)
 * Constantine III, king of Scotland (approximate date)
 * Fulk III (the Black), French nobleman (d. 1040)
 * Gerberga, German noblewoman (approximate date)
 * Hedwig, French noblewoman (approximate date)
 * Henry of Schweinfurt, German nobleman (d. 1017)
 * Henry of Speyer, German nobleman (approximate date)
 * Heribert, archbishop of Cologne (approximate date)
 * Leif Erikson, Norse Viking explorer (approximate date)
 * Otto II, duke of Lower Lorraine (approximate date)
 * Procopius of Sázava, Czech hermit and abbot (d. 1053)
 * Radim Gaudentius, Polish archbishop (approximate date)
 * Richard of Verdun, French abbot (d. 1046)
 * Rudolph III, king of Burgundy (approximate date)
 * Sergius IV, pope of the Catholic Church (d. 1012)
 * Sitt al-Mulk, Fatimid princess and regent (d. 1023)
 * Wifred II, Spanish nobleman (approximate date)
 * William III, French nobleman (approximate date)
 * Xu Daoning, Chinese painter (approximate date)

Deaths

 * January 18 – Hatto II, archbishop of Mainz
 * January 30 – Peter I, emperor of Bulgaria
 * February 5 – Polyeuctus, patriarch of Constantinople
 * February 22 – García I, king of Pamplona
 * June 15 – Adalbert, bishop of Passau
 * August 31 – Han Xizai, Chinese official (b. 902)
 * November 1 – Boso, bishop of Merseburg
 * Abu'l-Fadl ibn al-'Amid, Persian statesman
 * Al-Qassab, Abbasid warrior-scholar
 * Beinir Sigmundsson, Viking chieftain
 * Brestir Sigmundsson, Viking chieftain
 * Erenfried II, Frankish nobleman (approximate date)
 * Fernán González, Frankish count of Castile
 * Fujiwara no Saneyori, Japanese statesman (b. 900)
 * Harald II (Greycloak), king of Norway
 * Hasdai ibn Shaprut, Jewish diplomat (approximate date)
 * Menahem ben Saruq, Jewish philologist (approximate date)
 * Minamoto no Saneakira, Japanese nobleman (b. 910)
 * Oswulf, bishop of Ramsbury (approximate date)
 * Taksony, Grand Prince of Hungary (approximate date)
 * Willa of Tuscany, queen consort of Italy

title: 970


text:
Gang of Four

The Gang of Four was a Maoist political faction composed of four Chinese Communist Party (CCP) officials. They came to prominence during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) and were later charged with a series of treasonous crimes due to their responsibility for the excesses and failures in the Cultural Revolution. The gang's leading figure was Jiang Qing (Mao Zedong's last wife). The other members were Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan, and Wang Hongwen.

The Gang of Four controlled the power organs of the CCP through the later stages of the Cultural Revolution, although it remains unclear which major decisions were made by Mao Zedong and carried out by the Gang, and which were the result of the Gang of Four's own planning.

Their fall did not amount to a rejection of the Cultural Revolution as such, but it was organized by the new leader, Premier Hua Guofeng, and others who had risen during that period. Significant repudiation of the entire process of change came later, with the return of Deng Xiaoping at the 11th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party and Hua's gradual loss of authority.

Formation
The group was led by Jiang Qing, and consisted of three of her close associates, Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan, and Wang Hongwen. Two other men who were already dead in 1976, Kang Sheng and Xie Fuzhi, were named as having been part of the "Gang". Chen Boda and Mao Yuanxin, the latter being Mao's nephew, were also considered some of the Gang's closer associates.

Most Western accounts consider that the actual leadership of the Cultural Revolution consisted of a wider group, referring predominantly to the members of the Central Cultural Revolution Group. Most prominent was Lin Biao, until his purported defection from China and death in a plane crash in 1971. Chen Boda is often classed as a member of Lin's faction rather than Jiang Qing's.

Role
At the beginning of the Cultural Revolution, on November 10, 1965, Yao Wenyuan in one of his most famous pieces of writing published an article in Wenhuibao criticizing the play Hai Rui Dismissed from Office. The article argued that the opera was actually a sympathetic portrayal of the reformist efforts of the military hero Peng Dehuai and thus an attack on Chairman Mao's Great Leap Forward. Mao subsequently purged Peng from power. The article is cited as the spark that launched the Cultural Revolution.

Jiang Qing staged revolutionary operas during the Cultural Revolution and met with the Red Guards.

The removal of this group from power is sometimes considered to have marked the end of the Cultural Revolution, which had been launched by Mao in 1966 as part of his power struggle with leaders such as Liu Shaoqi, Deng Xiaoping and Peng Zhen. Mao placed his wife Jiang Qing, a former film actress who before 1966 had not taken a public political role, in charge of the country's cultural apparatus. Zhang, Yao and Wang were party leaders in Shanghai who had played leading roles in securing that city for Mao during the Cultural Revolution.

Around the time of the death of Lin Biao in 1971, the Cultural Revolution began to lose momentum. The new commanders of the People's Liberation Army demanded that order be restored in light of the dangerous situation along the border with the Soviet Union (see Sino-Soviet split). Premier Zhou Enlai, who had accepted the Cultural Revolution, but never fully supported it, regained his authority, and used it to bring Deng Xiaoping back into the Party leadership at the 10th Party Congress in 1973. Liu Shaoqi had meanwhile died in prison in 1969.

Near the end of Mao's life, a power struggle occurred between the Gang of Four and the alliance of Deng Xiaoping, Zhou Enlai, and Ye Jianying.

Downfall
Zhou Enlai died in January 1976, and, in the subsequent months, a power struggle occurred in the top echelons of the party. The reformist Deng was named acting premier, while the Gang of Four began using their newspapers to criticize Deng and to mobilize their urban militia groups. Much of the military and party security remained under the control of the party elders of the Central Committee, who generally took a cautious role in mediating between the reformist Deng and the radical Gang of Four. They agreed to the removal of Deng from office after the April Tiananmen Incident but took steps to ensure that Deng and his allies would not be personally harmed in the process.

On September 9, Chairman Mao died. For the next few weeks the Gang of Four retained control over the government media, and many articles appeared on the theme of "principles laid down" (or "established") by Mao near the end of his life. (The words "principles laid down" were themselves supposedly a quotation from Mao, but their canonical status was in dispute. ) Urban militia units commanded by supporters of the radical group were placed on a heightened state of readiness.

Premier Hua Guofeng attacked the radicals' media line at a Politburo meeting in late September; but Jiang Qing emphatically disagreed with Hua, and she insisted that she be named as the new party chairman. The meeting ended inconclusively. On October 4 the radical group warned, via an article in the Guangming Daily, that any revisionist who interfered with the established principles would "come to no good end".

The radicals hoped that the key military leaders Wang Dongxing and Chen Xilian would support them, but instead, Hua won the Army over to his side. On 6 October 1976, Hua had the four leading radicals and a number of their lesser associates arrested. Han Suyin gave a detailed account of their overthrow:

"An emergency session of the Politburo was to take place in the Great Hall of the People that evening. Their presence was required. Since Wang Dongxing had been their ally, they did not suspect him... As they passed through the swinging doors into the entrance lobby, they were apprehended and led off in handcuffs. A special 8341 unit then went to Madam Mao's residence at No. 17 Fisherman's Terrace and arrested her. That night Mao Yuanxin was arrested in Manchuria, and the propagandists of the Gang of Four in Peking University and in newspaper offices were taken into custody. All was done with quiet and efficiency. In Shanghai, the Gang's supporters received a message to come to Beijing 'for a meeting'. They came and were arrested. Thus, without shedding a drop of blood, the plans of the Gang of Four to wield supreme power were ended."

According to historian Immanuel C.Y. Hsü, the operation was not completely bloodless – Wang Hongwen killed two of the guards trying to capture him and was wounded himself before being subdued.

Beginning on 21 October, nationwide denunciations of the Gang began, which culminated in the December release of files related to the Gang's alleged crimes to the public. The party issued a denunciation of the Gang of Four as "left in form, right in essence". Government media blamed the Gang of Four and Lin Biao for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution. Celebrations were prominent and not limited to the streets of Beijing and other major cities. During the nationwide "Movement of Exposition, Criticism and Uncovering (揭批查运动)" millions of formerly "rebel faction" red guards were publicly criticized as they were thought to be related to the Gang of Four.

Aftermath
Immediately after the arrests, Premier Hua Guofeng, Marshal Ye Jianying, and economic czars Chen Yun and Li Xiannian formed the core of the next party leadership. These four, together with the rehabilitated Deng Xiaoping and Wang Dongxing, were elected party Vice Chairmen at the August 1977 National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party. At the politburo level, the membership of all four living marshals, seven other generals and at least five others with close military ties reflected the deep concern for national stability.

Trial
The Gang of Four trials were part of the communist party's effort to establish an institutionalized justice system. The trials were highly visible to the Chinese public thanks to the daily television broadcasts of trial sessions and wide circulation of documentary films about the trials.

In late 1980, the four deposed leaders were subjected to a trial by the Supreme People's Court of China with Jiang Hua presiding; in January 1981, they were convicted of anti-party activities. During the trial, Jiang Qing in particular was extremely defiant, protesting loudly and bursting into tears at some points. She was the only member of the Gang of Four to argue on her own behalf. The defence's argument was that she obeyed the orders of Chairman Mao Zedong at all times. Zhang Chunqiao refused to admit any wrongdoing. Yao Wenyuan and Wang Hongwen expressed repentance and confessed their alleged crimes.

The prosecution separated political errors from actual crimes. Among the latter were the usurpation of state power and party leadership; the persecution of some 750,000 people, 34,375 of whom died during the period 1966–1976. The official records of the trial have not yet been released.

Audience members who attended the opening of the trial included selected people's representatives from each province and autonomous region, as well as victims' families including the widows of Liu Shaoqi, He Long, and Luo Ruiqing.

Jiang Qing and Zhang Chunqiao received death sentences that were later commuted to life imprisonment, while Wang Hongwen and Yao Wenyuan were given life and twenty years in prison, respectively. All members of the Gang of Four have since died; Jiang Qing committed suicide in 1991, Wang Hongwen died in 1992, and Yao Wenyuan and Zhang Chunqiao died in 2005, having been released from prison in 1996 and 1998, respectively.

Supporters of the Gang of Four, including Chen Boda and Mao Yuanxin, were also sentenced.

"Little Gang of Four"
In the struggle between Hua Guofeng's and Deng Xiaoping's followers, a new term emerged, pointing to Hua's four closest collaborators, Wang Dongxing, Wu De, Ji Dengkui and Chen Xilian. In 1980, they were charged with "grave errors" in the struggle against the Gang of Four and demoted from the Political Bureau to mere Central Committee membership.

Hong Kong's "Gangs of Four"
In 2013, mainland Chinese state media labelled Anson Chan, Martin Lee, Joseph Zen and Jimmy Lai as 'Hong Kong's "Gang of Four"' due to their alleged foreign connections.

In 2016, the pro-Beijing newspaper Sing Pao Daily News started publishing editorials that criticized Tung Chee-hwa, Leung Chun-ying, Zhang Xiaoming and Jiang Zaizhong as another 'Hong Kong's Gang of Four'. The articles claim that although all of them appeared to be loyal to Beijing, they were actually betraying it and destabilizing Hong Kong for their personal interest, by igniting social and political conflicts, as well as through other mischievous means.

In 2019, Chinese state media labelled Anson Chan, Martin Lee, Jimmy Lai and Albert Ho as yet another 'Gang of Four of Hong Kong' due to their alleged collusion with foreign forces in relation to the 2019–2020 Hong Kong protests. The phrase has in turn been denounced by the four individuals.

title: Gang of Four


text:
971

Year 971 (CMLXXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Byzantine Empire

 * Battle of Dorostolon: A Byzantine expeditionary army (possibly 30–40,000 men) attacks the Bulgarian frontier, personally led by Emperor John I. He lays siege to the fortress city of Dorostolon (located on the Lower Danube), and is reinforced by a fleet of 300 ships equipped with Greek fire. The Kievan Rus' and their Bulgarian allies are reduced to extremities by famine. After a 3-month siege, Grand Prince Sviatoslav I agrees to sign a peace treaty with the Byzantines, whereby he renounces his interests towards Bulgarian lands and the city of Chersonesos in Crimea. Sviatoslav is allowed to evacuate his army to Berezan Island, while the Byzantines enter Dorostolon. John renames the city Theodoropolis (named after the reigning Empress Theodora).
 * John I returns in triumph to Constantinople. He brings along Boris II, ruler (tsar) of the Bulgarian Empire, and his family, together with the contents of the Bulgarian imperial treasury. Boris is given the Byzantine 'court title' of magistros as compensation. The Bulgarian lands in Thrace and Lower Moesia become part of the Byzantine Empire.

Europe

 * Otto I 'the Great', Holy Roman Emperor, appoints his imperial secretary Willigis as chancellor (guardian of the emperor's seal), an office formerly held by Otto's brother, Archbishop Bruno I.

Britain

 * King Cuilén (or Cuilean) is killed by Britons after a 6-year reign. He is succeeded by his nephew Kenneth II, as ruler of Alba (Scotland). He will not be sole king until 977.

Middle East

 * Battle of Alexandretta: The Byzantines defeat a Fatimid force (4,000 men) near Alexandretta (modern Turkey), while the main Fatimid army is besieging the fortress city of Antioch. Coupled with news of an advance against Damascus of the Qarmatians, the Fatimids are forced to lift the siege and withdraw to Egypt.
 * First Qarmatian invasion of Egypt: The Qarmatians under al-Hasan al-A'sam invade Syria, recently conquered by the Fatimid Caliphate, capturing Damascus and Ramla, defeating a major Fatimid army and blockading another in Jaffa. A subsequent invasion of Egypt leads to widespread anti-Fatimid revolts in the Nile Delta, but the delay allows the Fatimid general Jawhar to prepare his defences, leading to the decisive Qarmatian at Ayn Shams on 24 December and the collapse of the invasion.

Asia

 * Emperor Aditya Chola II, co-regent of the Chola dynasty (modern India), is murdered and succeeded by Uttama. Due to his immaturity, Arunmozhi Varman becomes the heir apparent.

China

 * January 23 – A war elephant corps of the Southern Han is defeated at Shao, by crossbow fire from Song dynasty troops. The Southern Han Kingdom is forced to submit to the Song dynasty. Ending Southern Han rule, but also the first regular war elephant corps employed in a Chinese army, that had gained the Southern Han victories throughout the 10th century.

Religion

 * The grave of Swithun, Anglo-Saxon bishop of Winchester, is moved into an indoor shrine (he was previously buried outside) in the Old Minster. The ceremony is said to have been marred by 40 days of torrential rain.

Births

 * Kushyar Gilani, Persian mathematician and geographer (d. 1029)
 * Mahmud of Ghazni, emir of the Ghaznavid Empire (d. 1030)
 * Oliba, Spanish count and bishop (approximate date)
 * Rajendra Chola, Emperor of Chola Dynasty at its peak

Deaths

 * Aditya Chola II, prince and ruler of the Chola dynasty (India)
 * Abū Ja'far al-Khāzin, Persian astronomer (b. 900)
 * Anemas, Byzantine (Muslim) army commander
 * Atto, bishop of Vic (Spain) (approximate date)
 * Cuilén (or Cuilean), king of Alba (Scotland)
 * Eraclus (or Evraclus), bishop of Liège
 * Ja'far ibn Fallah, Fatimid general and governor
 * Kalokyros, Byzantine patrician and pretender
 * Li Jingda, prince of Southern Tang (b. 924)
 * Muhammad al-Khushani, Umayyad historian
 * Muhammad ibn Rumahis, Umayyad admiral
 * Ordgar, English ealdorman and advisor
 * Qian Hongzong, king of Wuyue (approximate date)
 * Ziri ibn Manad, founder of the Zirid dynasty

title: 971


text:
Stone of Destiny

Stone of Destiny may refer to:

Monuments

 * Stone of Scone, the coronation stone of Scottish monarchs
 * Lia Fáil (Stone of Destiny), a monolithic stone in Ireland
 * Pedra fadada (Stone of Destiny), stone that Goídel Glas chose as his seat in Hispania

Media

 * Stone of Destiny (book), 1940 book by Ion Idriess
 * "Stone of Destiny", a 2001 musical composition by Maurice Lennon
 * Stone of Destiny (film), a 2008 film directed by Charles Martin Smith

title: Stone of Destiny