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Boris III of Bulgaria

Boris III (Борѝс III ; Boris Treti; 30 January 1894 – 28 August 1943), originally Boris Klemens Robert Maria Pius Ludwig Stanislaus Xaver (Boris Clement Robert Mary Pius Louis Stanislaus Xavier), was the Tsar of the Kingdom of Bulgaria from 1918 until his death in 1943.

The eldest son of Ferdinand I, Boris assumed the throne upon the abdication of his father in the wake of Bulgaria's defeat in World War I. Under the 1919 Treaty of Neuilly, Bulgaria was forced to cede various territories, pay crippling war reparations, and greatly reduce the size of its military. That same year, Aleksandar Stamboliyski of the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union became prime minister. After Stamboliyski was overthrown in a coup in 1923, Boris recognized the new government of Aleksandar Tsankov, who harshly suppressed the Bulgarian Communist Party and led the nation through a brief border war with Greece. Tsankov was removed from power in 1926, and a series of prime ministers followed until 1934, when the corporatist Zveno (Звено) movement staged a coup and outlawed all political parties. Boris opposed the Zveno government and overthrew them in 1935, eventually installing Georgi Kyoseivanov as prime minister. For the remainder of his reign, Boris would rule as a de facto absolute monarch, with his prime ministers largely submitting to his will.

Following the outbreak of World War II, Bulgaria initially remained neutral. In 1940, Nazi sympathizer Bogdan Filov replaced Kyoseivanov as prime minister, becoming the last prime minister to serve under Boris. In September 1940, with the support of Nazi Germany, Bulgaria received the region of Southern Dobrudja from Romania as part of the Treaty of Craiova. In January 1941, Boris approved the anti-Semitic Law for Protection of the Nation, which denied citizenship to Bulgarian Jews and placed numerous restrictions upon them. In March 1941, Bulgaria joined the Axis and allowed German troops to use Bulgaria as a base from which to invade Yugoslavia and Greece. Bulgaria then received large portions of Yugoslav Macedonia, Pirot County in eastern Serbia and Greek Thrace, which were key targets of Bulgarian irredentism. Bulgaria was allowed to opt out of participation in the German invasion of the Soviet Union, as allowed by the provisions of the Axis alliance. As part of the Holocaust, Bulgarian authorities deported most Jews from occupied Greek and Yugoslav territories and transferred them to the German extermination camp of Treblinka. Under public pressure, Boris cancelled the deportation of Bulgarian Jews while expelling almost 20,000 Jews to the Bulgarian countryside to be deployed in forced labor camps. In 1942, Zveno, the Agrarian National Union, the Bulgarian Communist Party, and various other far-left groups united to form a resistance movement known as the Fatherland Front, which would later go on to overthrow the government in 1944. In August 1943, shortly after returning from a visit to Germany, Boris died at the age of 49. His six-year-old son, Simeon II, succeeded him as tsar.

Early life
Boris was born on 30 January 1894 in Sofia to Ferdinand I, Prince of Bulgaria, and his wife Princess Marie Louise of Bourbon-Parma.

In February 1896, his father paved the way for the reconciliation of Bulgaria and Russia with the conversion of the infant Prince Boris from Catholicism to Eastern Orthodoxy, a move that earned Ferdinand the frustration of his wife, the animosity of his Catholic Austrian relatives (particularly his uncle Franz Joseph I of Austria) and excommunication by Pope Leo XIII. In order to remedy this difficult situation, Ferdinand had his subsequent children baptised in the Catholic Church. Nicholas II of Russia stood as godfather to Boris and later met the young boy during Ferdinand's official visit to Saint Petersburg in July 1898.

He received his initial education in the so-called Palace Secondary School, which Ferdinand had founded in 1908 solely for his sons. Later, Boris graduated from the Military School in Sofia, then took part in the Balkan Wars. During the First World War, he served as liaison officer of the General Staff of the Bulgarian Army on the Macedonian front. In 1916, he was promoted to colonel and attached again as liaison officer to Army Group Mackensen and the Bulgarian Third Army for the operations against Romania. Boris worked hard to smooth the sometimes difficult relations between Field Marshal Mackensen and Lieutenant General Stefan Toshev, the commander of the Third Army. Through his courage and personal example, he earned the respect of the troops and the senior Bulgarian and German commanders, even that of the Generalquartiermeister of the German Army, Erich Ludendorff, who preferred dealing personally with Boris and described him as excellently trained, a thoroughly soldierly person and mature beyond his years. In 1918, Boris was made a major general.

Early reign
In September 1918, Bulgaria was defeated in the Vardar Offensive and forced to sue for peace. Ferdinand subsequently abdicated in favour of Boris, who became Tsar on 3 October 1918.

A year after Boris's accession, Aleksandar Stamboliyski (also Stambolijski) of the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union was elected prime minister. Though popular with the large peasant class, Stambolijski earned the animosity of the middle class and military, which led to his toppling in a military coup on 9 June 1923, and subsequent assassination. On 14 April 1925, an anarchist group attacked Boris's cavalcade as it passed through the Arabakonak Pass. Two days later, a bomb killed 150 members of the Bulgarian political and military elite in Sofia as they attended the funeral of a murdered general in the Saint Nedelya Church terror assault. Following a further attempt on Boris's life the same year, military reprisals killed several thousand communists and agrarians, including representatives of the intelligentsia. Finally, in October 1925, there was a short border war with Greece, known as the Petrich Incident, which was resolved with the help of the League of Nations.

In the coup on 19 May 1934, the Zveno military organisation established a dictatorship, abolished political parties, and reduced Boris to a puppet figurehead. The following year, he staged a counter-coup and retook control of the country. The political process was controlled by the Tsar, but a semi-parliamentary system was re-introduced, without restoration of political parties.

With the rise of the "King's government" in 1935, Bulgaria entered an era of prosperity and astounding growth, which deservedly qualifies it as the Golden Age of the Third Bulgarian Kingdom. It lasted nearly five years. According to Reuben H. Markham, former Balkan correspondent for The Christian Science Monitor, writing in 1941, "As a ruler, Boris is competent; as a citizen exemplary; as a personality inspiring.... His country is to a large extent indebted to him for the comparatively favorable situation it has held in the Balkans, during the last two decades." Markham added, "King Boris is very accessible. He constantly comes into contact with persons of every sort.  He drives his car up and down the country with no special guards and often stops to converse with peasants, workers or children.  He gives lifts to the humblest pedestrians.  Rare is the Bulgarian township that does not boast of at least one person who has ridden with the King." "He is without question one of the best kings in Europe."

During a visit to the United Kingdom in 1937, Boris made international news for taking the throttle of a London Midland Scotland Railway Coronation Class steam locomotive.

Marriage and issue
Boris married Giovanna of Italy, daughter of Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, and as he remained Orthodox, it was a Catholic nuptial ceremony outside of Mass. It was held at the Basilica of Saint Francis of Assisi in Assisi, Italy, on 25 October 1930. Benito Mussolini registered the marriage at the town hall immediately after the liturgy.

Their marriage produced two children: a daughter, Maria Louisa, on 13 January 1932, and a son and heir to the throne, Simeon, on 16 June 1937.

Second World War
In the early days of the Second World War, Bulgaria was neutral, but powerful groups in the country swayed its politics towards Germany (with which Bulgaria had been allied in the First World War). As a result of peace treaties that ended the First World War (the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Neuilly), Bulgaria, which had fought on the losing side, lost two important territories to neighboring countries: the Southern plain of Dobruja to Romania, and Western Thrace to Greece. The Bulgarians considered these treaties an insult and wanted the lands restored. When Adolf Hitler rose to power, he tried to win Bulgarian Tsar Boris III's allegiance. In the summer of 1940, after a year of war, Hitler hosted diplomatic talks between Bulgaria and Romania in Vienna. On 7 September, an agreement was signed for the return of Southern Dobruja to Bulgaria. The Bulgarian nation rejoiced. In March 1941, Boris allied himself with the Axis powers, thus recovering most of Macedonia and Aegean Thrace, as well as protecting his country from being crushed by the German Wehrmacht like neighboring Yugoslavia and Greece. For recovering these territories, Tsar Boris was called the Unifier (Bulgarian: Цар Обединител). Tsar Boris appeared on the cover of Time on 20 January 1941 wearing a full military uniform.

Despite this alliance, and the German presence in Sofia and along the railway line which passed through the Bulgarian capital to Greece, Boris was not willing to provide full and unconditional cooperation with Germany. He refused to send regular Bulgarian troops to fight the Soviet Union on the Eastern Front alongside Germany and the other Axis belligerents, and also refused to allow unofficial volunteers (such as Spain's Blue Division) to participate, although the German legation in Sofia received 1,500 requests from young Bulgarian men who wanted to fight against Bolshevism.

But there was a price to be paid for the return of Dobrudja. This was the adoption of the anti-Jewish "Law for Protection of the Nation" (Закон за защита на нацията – ЗЗН) on 24 December 1940. This law was in accordance with the Nuremberg Laws in Nazi Germany and the rest of Hitler's occupied Europe. Bulgarian Prime Minister Bogdan Filov and Interior Minister Petur Gabrovski, both Nazi sympathisers, were the architects of this law, which restricted Jewish rights, imposed new taxes, and established a quota for Jews in some professions. Many Bulgarians protested in letters to their government.

The Holocaust
In early 1943, Hitler's emissary, Theodor Dannecker, arrived in Bulgaria. Dannecker was an SS-Hauptsturmführer (captain) and one of Adolf Eichmann's associates who guided the campaign for the deportation of the French Jews to concentration camps. In February 1943, Dannecker met with the Commissar for Jewish Affairs in Bulgaria, Alexander Belev, notorious for his antisemitic and strong nationalist views. They held closed-door meetings and ended with a secret agreement signed on 22 February 1943 for the deportations of 20,000 Jews – 11,343 from Aegean Thrace and Vardar Macedonia, and 8,000 from Bulgaria proper. These were the territories conquered by Germany, but being under Bulgarian occupation and jurisdiction at the time, although this occupation was never recognized internationally. The Jewish people in these territories were the only ones who did not get Bulgarian citizenship in 1941–1942, unlike the rest of the population. The remaining 20,000 Bulgarian Jews were to be deported later.

The initial roundups began on 9 March 1943, during that month, Bulgarian military and police authorities deported 11,343 Jews from the Bulgarian-occupied regions of Vardar Macedonia, Pomoravlje in occupied Yugoslavia and Aegean Thrace to Auschwitz-Birkenau and Treblinka.

Boxcars were lined up in Kyustendil, a town near the western border. But as the news about the imminent deportations leaked out, protests arose throughout Bulgaria. On the morning of 9 March, a delegation from Kyustendil, composed of eminent public figures and headed by Dimitar Peshev, the deputy speaker of the National Assembly, met with Interior Minister Petur Gabrovski. Facing strong opposition from within the country, Gabrovski relented. The same day, he sent telegrams to the roundup centers in the pre-war territory of Bulgaria, postponing the deportations to a future, unidentified date. In a report of 5 April 1943, Adolph Hoffman, a German government adviser and police attache at the German legation in Sofia (1943–44) wrote: "The Minister of Interior has received instruction from the highest place to stop the planned deportation of Jews from the old borders of Bulgaria". In fact, Gabrovski's decision was not taken on his own "personal initiative", but had come from the highest authority – Tsar Boris III, who decided under pressure to temporarily stop the deportation of the rest of the Jews. While Jews living in Bulgaria proper were saved, almost all the Jews from Vardar Macedonia and Aegean Thrace perished in the death camps of Treblinka and Majdanek.

"The King has declared that up to now he has only given his consent for deportation of Jews from Macedonia and Thrace to areas in Eastern Europe. He only wants to deport a limited number of Bolsheviks-Communists from Bulgaria itself. The other 25,000 Jews will be concentrated in camps within the country"

Still reluctant to comply with the German deportation request, the royal palace utilised Swiss diplomatic channels to inquire whether it was possible to deport the Jews to British-controlled Palestine by ship rather than to concentration camps in German-occupied Poland by boat and train. This was blocked by the British Foreign Secretary, Anthony Eden.

Aware of Bulgaria's unreliability on the Jewish matter, the Nazis grew more suspicious about the quiet activities in aid of European Jewry of an old friend of Tsar Boris, Monsignor Angelo Roncalli (the future Pope John XXIII), the Papal Nuncio in Istanbul. Reporting on the humanitarian efforts of Roncalli, his secretary in Venice and in the Vatican, Monsignor Loris F. Capovilla writes: "Through his intervention, and with the help of Tsar Boris III of Bulgaria, thousands of Jews from Slovakia, who had first been sent to Hungary and then to Bulgaria, and who were in danger of being sent to Nazi concentration camps, obtained transit visas for Palestine signed by him."

Meetings with Hitler

Nazi pressure on Tsar Boris III continued for the deportation of the Bulgarian Jewry. At the end of March, Hitler "invited" the Tsar to visit him. Upon returning home, Boris ordered able-bodied Jewish men to join hard labor units to build roads within the interior of his kingdom. Some claim that this was the Tsar's attempt to avoid deporting them.

During May 1943, Dannecker and Belev, the Commissar for Jewish Affairs, planned the deportation of more than 48,000 Bulgarian Jews, who were to be loaded on steamers on the River Danube. Boris continued the cat-and-mouse game that he had long been playing; he insisted to the Nazis that Bulgarian Jews were needed for the construction of roads and railway lines inside his kingdom. Nazi officials requested that Bulgaria deport its Jewish population to German-occupied Poland. The request caused a public outcry, and a campaign whose most prominent leaders were Parliament's deputy speaker Dimitar Peshev and the head of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, Archbishop Stefan, was organised. Following this campaign, Boris refused to permit the extradition of Bulgaria's nearly 50,000 Jews.

On 30 June 1943, Apostolic Delegate Angelo Roncalli, the future Pope John XXIII, wrote to Boris, asking for mercy for "the sons of the Jewish people." He wrote that Tsar Boris should on no account agree to the dishonorable action that Hitler was demanding. On the copy of the letter, the future pope noted, by hand, that the Tsar replied verbally to his message. The note states "Il Re ha fatto qualche cosa" ("The Tsar did something"); and while noting the difficult situation of the monarch, Roncalli stressed once again "Però, ripeto, ha fatto" ("But I repeat, he has acted").

An excerpt from the diary of Rabbi Daniel Zion, the spiritual leader of the Jewish community in Bulgaria during the war years, reads:

"Do not be afraid, dear brothers and sisters! Trust in the Holy Rock of our salvation ... Yesterday I was informed by Bishop Stephen about his conversation with the Bulgarian tsar. When I went to see Bishop Stephen, he said: 'Tell your people, the Tsar has promised, that the Bulgarian Jews shall not leave the borders of Bulgaria ...'. When I returned to the synagogue, silence reigned in anticipation of the outcome of my meeting with Bishop Stephen. When I entered, my words were: 'Yes, my brethren, God heard our prayers ...'"

Most irritating for Hitler was the Tsar's refusal to declare war on the Soviet Union or send Bulgarian troops to the Eastern Front. On 9 August 1943, Hitler summoned Boris to a stormy meeting at Rastenburg, East Prussia. Boris arrived by plane from Vrazhdebna on 14 August. The Tsar asserted his stance once again not to send Bulgarian Jews to death camps in occupied Poland or Germany. While Bulgaria had declared a "symbolic" war on the distant United Kingdom and United States, the Tsar was not willing to do more than that. At the meeting, Boris once again refused to get involved in the war against the Soviet Union, giving two major reasons for his unwillingness to send troops to Russia. First, many ordinary Bulgarians had strong pro-Russian sentiments; and second, the political and military position of Turkey remained unclear. The "symbolic" war against the Western Allies turned into a disaster for the citizens of Sofia, as the city was heavily bombarded by the US Army Air Force and the British Royal Air Force in 1943 and 1944. (The bombardment of Bulgarian cities was started by the British Royal Air Force in April 1941 without declaring a war.)

Bulgaria's opposition came to a head at this last official meeting between Hitler and Boris. Reports of the meeting indicate that Hitler was furious with the Tsar for refusing either to join the war against the USSR or to deport the Jews within his kingdom. At the end of the meeting, it was agreed that "the Bulgarian Jews were not to be deported, for Tsar Boris had insisted that the Jews were needed for various laboring tasks including road maintenance."

Death

Shortly after returning to Sofia from a meeting with Hitler, Boris died of apparent heart failure on 28 August 1943, at approximately 16:22. According to the diary of the German attache in Sofia at the time, Carl-August von Schoenebeck, the two German doctors who attended the King — Sajitz and Hans Eppinger — both believed that he had died from the same poison that Dr. Eppinger had allegedly found two years earlier in the postmortem examination of the Greek Prime Minister, Ioannis Metaxas. Allegedly, this slow poison takes weeks to do its work and causes the appearance of blotches on the skin of its victim before death.

Rumors of the death of Boris III indicate that the Tsar was poisoned by an order of Hitler, who was greatly irritated after his last meeting with the Bulgarian ruler because of his refusal to hand over the Bulgarian Jews and send troops against the USSR. According to the Prime Minister, Prof. Bogdan Filov, however, in their last meeting, Hitler and Boris III discussed only the sending of additional Bulgarian troops to the Western Balkans, but not against the USSR.

His son Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha did not deny this version, but pointed out as probable the hypothesis that the USSR was also interested in the Tsar's death, in which case the NKVD intervened. Princess Marie Louise of Bulgaria stated in an interview that there was no definite version of what had happened, but that she was convinced that her father had not been poisoned by the Nazis or the British, but by the East. Meanwhile, the American news reports stated that Hitler tried to hit him and the Tsar suffered a heart attack at the meeting; the latter died three weeks later.

In his personal diary, Joseph Goebbels expressed doubts that the Italian government, in the person of Prime Minister Pietro Badoglio, was responsible for Boris III's death. According to Goebbels, Hitler was convinced that the Italian royal court was the organizer of the poisoning of Boris III, as Princess Mafalda of Savoy, sister of Joan of Bulgaria, was visiting Bulgaria four weeks before the monarch's death and her visit coincided with the events of 25 July 1943, the overthrow of the Italian Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, supported by King Victor Emmanuel III.

Boris was succeeded by his six-year-old son Simeon II, under a Regency Council headed by Boris's brother Prince Kiril of Bulgaria.

Following a large, impressive state funeral at the Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Sofia, where the streets were lined with weeping crowds, the coffin of Tsar Boris III was taken by train to the mountains and buried in Bulgaria's largest and most important monastery, the Rila Monastery. After taking power in September 1944, the Communist-dominated government had his body exhumed and secretly buried in the courtyard of Vrana Palace, near Sofia. At a later time, the Communist authorities moved the zinc coffin from Vrana to a secret location, which remains unknown to this day. After the fall of communism, an excavation was made at Vrana Palace. Only Boris's heart was found, as it had been put in a glass cylinder outside the coffin. The heart was taken by his widow in 1994 to Rila Monastery, where it was reinterred.

A wood carving is placed on the left side of his grave in Rila Monastery, made on 10 October 1943 by inhabitants of the village of Osoj, Debar district. The carving bears the following inscription:

"To its Tsar Liberator Boris III, from grateful Macedonia."

Family
In the year 1930, Boris married the Italian Princess Giovanna of Savoy, who became Queen of Bulgaria under the name Joanna. They had two children:
 * Princess Marie Louise (1933– )
 * Prince Simeon (1937– ), Tsar Simeon II (1943 to 1946)

National

 * Bulgaria: Sovereign Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Saints Cyril and Methodius
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Saint Alexander
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Bravery
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Military Merit
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Civil Merit
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign recipient of the Medal for the Independence of Bulgaria
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign recipient of the Medal for Participation in the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign recipient of the Medal for Participation in the European War 1915–1918
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign recipient of the Commemorative Medal of the death of Princess Marie Louise
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign recipient of the 1000th Anniversary Medal of the birth of Tsar Boris I
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign recipient of the Medal for the Coronation of Tsar Ferdinand I and Queen Eleonore
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign recipient of the 50th Anniversary Medal of Liberation from the Ottoman Empire
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign recipient of the 1000th Anniversary Medal of the death of Tsar Simeon I
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign recipient of the Medal for the Wedding of Tsar Boris III And Princess Giovanna of Italy

Foreign

 * Belgium: Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold
 * French Third Republic: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour
 * Germany:
 * Nazi Germany: Order of the German Eagle (Grand Cross class in gold with star)
 * German Imperial and Royal Family:
 * Knight of the Imperial and Royal Order of the Black Eagle
 * Knight Grand Cross of the Imperial and Royal Order of the Red Eagle
 * Pour le Mérite (military), 26 October 1916
 * Bavarian Royal Family: Knight with Collar of the Royal Order of St. Hubert
 * Ernestine Ducal Families: Knight Grand Cross of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order, 1908
 * Hungary:
 * Hungarian Royal Family: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Hungarian Order of St. Stephen, 1912
 * Regency Hungary: Knight Grand Cross with Holy Crown and Collar of the Order of Merit, 22 June 1939
 * Italian Royal Family: Knight with Collar of the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation, 2 February 1911
 * Parmese Ducal Family: Knight Grand Cross of the Sacred Military Constantinian Order of St. George
 * Montenegrin Royal Family: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I, 1910
 * Poland: Knight of the Order of the White Eagle
 * Romanian Royal Family: Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Carol I
 * Russian Imperial Family:
 * Knight with Collar of the Imperial Order of St. Andrew, 1907
 * Knight 1st Class of the Order of St. Anna
 * Georgian Royal Family: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Order of the Eagle of Georgia
 * United Kingdom: Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
 * Yugoslavian Royal Family: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Karađorđe

National patronages

 * Bulgaria: Sovereign Patron of the 1st Infantry regiment of Prince Alexander I
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign Patron of the 4th Infantry regiment of Prince Boris
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign Patron of the 6th Infantry regiment of Tsar Ferdinand I
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign Patron of the 8th Infantry regiment of Princess Marie Louise
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign Patron of the 9th Infantry regiment of Princess Clementine
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign Patron of the 18th Infantry regiment of Tsar Ferdinand I
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign Patron of the 20th Infantry regiment of Prince Krill and of Princesses Eudoxia and Nadezhda
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign Patron of the 24th Infantry regiment of Queen Eleonore
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign Patron of the 19th Infantry regiment of Prince Simeon
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign Patron of the 1st Cavalry regiment of Tsar Alexander I
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign Patron of the 2nd Cavalry regiment of Princess Marie Louise
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign Patron of the 10th Cavalry regiment of Queen Ionna
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign Patron of the 3rd Cavalry regiment of Prince Simeon
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign Patron of the 4th Artillery regiment of KTsar Ferdinand I
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign Patron of the Life Guard regiment of The Tsar
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign Patron of the Navy regiment of The Tsar
 * Bulgaria: Sovereign Patron of the 1st Army Artillery regiment of Prince Simeon

Foreign patronages

 * German Empire: Patron of the Balkan Infantry regiment of Emperor Wilhelm II
 * Saxe-Coburg and Gotha: Patron of the 22nd Infantry regiment of Charles Edward I
 * Russian Empire: Patron of the 17th Infantry regiment of Grand Duke Vladmir Alexandrovich
 * Russian Empire: Patron of the Azov Infantry regiment

Tributes
The Los Angeles Times reported in 1994 that the Jewish National Fund's Medal of the Legion of Honor was being awarded posthumously to Tsar Boris III, "the first non-Jew to receive one of the Jewish community's highest honors".

In 1996, Bulgarian Jews in the United States and the Jewish National Fund erected a monument in "The Bulgarian Forest" in Israel to honor Tsar Boris as a savior of Bulgarian Jews. In July 2003, a public committee headed by Israeli Chief Justice Dr. Moshe Beiski decided to remove the memorial because Bulgaria had consented to the delivery of 11,343 Jews from occupied territory of Macedonia, Thrace and Pirot to the Germans.

Borisova gradina, the largest park in Sofia and one of the city's biggest boulevards are named after him.

title: Boris III of Bulgaria


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Ophthalmology

Ophthalmology is a clinical and surgical specialty within medicine that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of eye disorders. A former term is oculism.

An ophthalmologist is a physician who undergoes subspecialty training in medical and surgical eye care. Following a medical degree, a doctor specialising in ophthalmology must pursue additional postgraduate residency training specific to that field. This may include a one-year integrated internship that involves more general medical training in other fields such as internal medicine or general surgery. Following residency, additional specialty training (or fellowship) may be sought in a particular aspect of eye pathology.

Ophthalmologists prescribe medications to treat ailments, such as eye diseases, implement laser therapy, and perform surgery when needed. Ophthalmologists provide both primary and specialty eye care—medical and surgical. Most ophthalmologists participate in academic research on eye diseases at some point in their training and many include research as part of their career. Ophthalmology has always been at the forefront of medical research with a long history of advancement and innovation in eye care.

Diseases
A brief list of some of the most common diseases treated by ophthalmologists:
 * Cataract
 * Excessive tearing (tear duct obstruction)
 * Proptosis (bulged eyes)
 * Thyroid eye disease
 * Eye tumors
 * Ptosis
 * Diabetic retinopathy
 * Dry eye syndrome
 * Glaucoma
 * Macular degeneration
 * Retinal detachment
 * Endophthalmitis
 * Refractive errors
 * Strabismus (misalignment or deviation of eyes)
 * Uveitis
 * Ocular trauma
 * Ruptured globe injury
 * Orbital fracture

The most valued pharmaceutical companies worldwide whose leading products are in Ophthalmology are Regeneron (United States) for Macular degeneration (AMD) treatment and Bausch Health (Canada) for Front of eye.

Eye examination
Following are examples of examination methods performed during an eye examination that enables diagnosis
 * Visual acuity assessment
 * Ocular tonometry to determine intraocular pressure
 * Extraocular motility and ocular alignment assessment
 * Slit lamp examination
 * Dilated fundus examination
 * Gonioscopy
 * Refraction

Specialized tests
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a medical technological platform used to assess ocular structures. The information is then used by physicians to assess staging of pathological processes and confirm clinical diagnoses. Subsequent OCT scans are used to assess the efficacy of managing diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, and glaucoma.

Optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) and Fluorescein angiography to visualize the vascular networks of the retina and choroid.

Electroretinography (ERG) measures the electrical responses of various cell types in the retina, including the photoreceptors (rods and cones), inner retinal cells (bipolar and amacrine cells), and the ganglion cells.

Electrooculography (EOG) is a technique for measuring the corneo-retinal standing potential that exists between the front and the back of the human eye. The resulting signal is called the electrooculogram. Primary applications are in ophthalmological diagnosis and in recording eye movements.

Visual field testing to detect dysfunction in central and peripheral vision which may be caused by various medical conditions such as glaucoma, stroke, pituitary disease, brain tumours or other neurological deficits.

Corneal topography is a non-invasive medical imaging technique for mapping the anterior curvature of the cornea, the outer structure of the eye.

Ultrasonography of the eyes may be performed by an ophthalmologist.

Ophthalmic surgery

Eye surgery, also known as ocular surgery, is surgery performed on the eye or its adnexa by an ophthalmologist. The eye is a fragile organ, and requires extreme care before, during, and after a surgical procedure. An eye surgeon is responsible for selecting the appropriate surgical procedure for the patient and for taking the necessary safety precautions.

Subspecialties
Ophthalmology includes subspecialities that deal either with certain diseases or diseases of certain parts of the eye. Some of them are:
 * Anterior segment surgery
 * Cornea, ocular surface, and external disease
 * Glaucoma
 * Neuro-ophthalmology
 * Ocular oncology
 * Oculoplastics and orbit surgery
 * Ophthalmic pathology
 * Paediatric ophthalmology/strabismus (misalignment of the eyes)
 * Refractive surgery
 * Medical retina, deals with treatment of retinal problems through non-surgical means
 * Uveitis
 * Veterinary specialty training programs in veterinary ophthalmology exist in some countries.
 * Vitreo-retinal surgery, deals with surgical management of retinal and posterior segment diseases

Medical retina and vitreo-retinal surgery sometimes are combined and together they are called posterior segment subspecialisation

Etymology
The Greek roots of the word ophthalmology are ὀφθαλμός (, "eye") and -λoγία (-, "study, discourse"), i.e., "the study of eyes". The discipline applies to all animal eyes, whether human or not, since the practice and procedures are quite similar with respect to disease processes, although there are differences in the anatomy or disease prevalence.

Ancient near east and the Greek period
In the Ebers Papyrus from ancient Egypt dating to 1550 BC, a section is devoted to eye diseases.

Prior to Hippocrates, physicians largely based their anatomical conceptions of the eye on speculation, rather than empiricism. They recognized the sclera and transparent cornea running flushly as the outer coating of the eye, with an inner layer with pupil, and a fluid at the centre. It was believed, by Alcamaeon (fifth century BC) and others, that this fluid was the medium of vision and flowed from the eye to the brain by a tube. Aristotle advanced such ideas with empiricism. He dissected the eyes of animals, and discovering three layers (not two), found that the fluid was of a constant consistency with the lens forming (or congealing) after death, and the surrounding layers were seen to be juxtaposed. He and his contemporaries further put forth the existence of three tubes leading from the eye, not one. One tube from each eye met within the skull.

The Greek physician Rufus of Ephesus (first century AD) recognised a more modern concept of the eye, with conjunctiva, extending as a fourth epithelial layer over the eye. Rufus was the first to recognise a two-chambered eye, with one chamber from cornea to lens (filled with water), the other from lens to retina (filled with a substance resembling egg whites).

Celsus the Greek philosopher of the second century AD gave a detailed description of cataract surgery by the couching method.

The Greek physician Galen (second century AD) remedied some mistaken descriptions, including about the curvature of the cornea and lens, the nature of the optic nerve, and the existence of a posterior chamber. Although this model was a roughly correct modern model of the eye, it contained errors. Still, it was not advanced upon again until after Vesalius. A ciliary body was then discovered and the sclera, retina, choroid, and cornea were seen to meet at the same point. The two chambers were seen to hold the same fluid, as well as the lens being attached to the choroid. Galen continued the notion of a central canal, but he dissected the optic nerve and saw that it was solid. He mistakenly counted seven optical muscles, one too many. He also knew of the tear ducts.

Ancient India
The Indian surgeon Sushruta wrote the Sushruta Samhita in Sanskrit in approximately the sixth century BC, which describes 76 ocular diseases (of these, 51 surgical) as well as several ophthalmological surgical instruments and techniques. His description of cataract surgery was compatible with the method of couching. He has been described as one of the first cataract surgeons.

Medieval Islam
Medieval Islamic Arabic and Persian scientists (unlike their classical predecessors) considered it normal to combine theory and practice, including the crafting of precise instruments, and therefore, found it natural to combine the study of the eye with the practical application of that knowledge. Hunayn ibn Ishaq, and others beginning with the medieval Arabic period, taught that the crystalline lens is in the exact center of the eye. This idea was propagated until the end of the 1500s.

Ibn al-Nafis, an Arabic native of Damascus, wrote a large textbook, The Polished Book on Experimental Ophthalmology, divided into two parts, On the Theory of Ophthalmology and Simple and Compounded Ophthalmic Drugs.

Avicenna wrote in his Canon "rescheth", which means "retiformis", and Gerard of Cremona translated this at approximately 1150 into the new term "retina".

Modern period
In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, hand lenses were used by Malpighi, microscopes by Leeuwenhoek, preparations for fixing the eye for study by Ruysch, and later the freezing of the eye by Petit. This allowed for detailed study of the eye and an advanced model. Some mistakes persisted, such as: why the pupil changed size (seen to be vessels of the iris filling with blood), the existence of the posterior chamber, and the nature of the retina. Unaware of their functions, Leeuwenhoek noted the existence of photoreceptors, however, they were not properly described until Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus in 1834.

Jacques Daviel performed the first documented planned primary cataract extraction on Sep. 18, 1750 in Cologne. Georg Joseph Beer (1763–1821) was an Austrian ophthalmologist and leader of the First Viennese School of Medicine. He introduced a flap operation for treatment of cataract (Beer's operation), as well as having popularized the instrument used to perform the surgery (Beer's knife).

In North America, indigenous healers treated some eye diseases by rubbing or scraping the eyes or eyelids.

Ophthalmic surgery in The United Kingdom
The first ophthalmic surgeon in the UK was John Freke, appointed to the position by the governors of St. Bartholomew's Hospital in 1727. A major breakthrough came with the appointment of Baron de Wenzel (1724–90), a German who became the oculist to King George III of Great Britain in 1772. His skill at removing cataracts legitimized the field. The first dedicated ophthalmic hospital opened in 1805 in London; it is now called Moorfields Eye Hospital. Clinical developments at Moorfields and the founding of the Institute of Ophthalmology (now part of the University College London) by Sir Stewart Duke-Elder established the site as the largest eye hospital in the world and a nexus for ophthalmic research.

Central Europe
In Berlin, ophthalmologist Albrecht von Graefe introduced iridectomy as a treatment for glaucoma and improved cataract surgery, he is also considered the founding father of the German Ophthalmological Society.

Numerous ophthalmologists fled Germany after 1933 as the Nazis began to persecute those of Jewish descent. A representative leader was Joseph Igersheimer (1879–1965), best known for his discoveries with arsphenamine for the treatment of syphilis. He fled to Turkey in 1933. As one of eight emigrant directors in the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Istanbul, he built a modern clinic and trained students. In 1939, he went to the United States, becoming a professor at Tufts University. German ophthalmologist, Gerhard Meyer-Schwickerath is widely credited with developing the predecessor of laser coagulation, photocoagulation.

In 1946, Igersheimer conducted the first experiments on light coagulation. In 1949, he performed the first successful treatment of a retinal detachment with a light beam (light coagulation) with a self-constructed device on the roof of the ophthalmic clinic at the University of Hamburg-Eppendorf.

Polish ophthalmology dates to the thirteenth century. The Polish Ophthalmological Society was founded in 1911. A representative leader was Adam Zamenhof (1888–1940), who introduced certain diagnostic, surgical, and nonsurgical eye-care procedures. He was executed by the German Nazis in 1940.

Zofia Falkowska (1915–93) head of the Faculty and Clinic of Ophthalmology in Warsaw from 1963 to 1976, was the first to use lasers in her practice.

Contributions by physicists
The prominent physicists of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries included Ernst Abbe (1840–1905), a co-owner of at the Zeiss Jena factories in Germany, where he developed numerous optical instruments. Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) was a polymath who made contributions to many fields of science and invented the ophthalmoscope in 1851. They both made theoretical calculations on image formation in optical systems and also had studied the optics of the eye.

Professional requirements
Ophthalmologists are physicians (MD/DO in the U.S. or MBBS in the UK and elsewhere or DO/DOMS/DNB, who typically complete an undergraduate degree, general medical school, followed by a residency in ophthalmology. Ophthalmologists typically perform optical, medical and surgical eye care.

Australia and New Zealand
In Australia and New Zealand, the FRACO or FRANZCO is the equivalent postgraduate specialist qualification. The structured training system takes place over five years of postgraduate training. Overseas-trained ophthalmologists are assessed using the pathway published on the RANZCO website. Those who have completed their formal training in the UK and have the CCST or CCT, usually are deemed to be comparable.

Bangladesh
In Bangladesh to be an ophthalmologist the basic degree is an MBBS. Then they have to obtain a postgraduate degree or diploma in an ophthalmology specialty. In Bangladesh, these are diploma in ophthalmology, diploma in community ophthalmology, fellow or member of the College of Physicians and Surgeons in ophthalmology, and Master of Science in ophthalmology.

Canada
In Canada, after medical school an ophthalmology residency is undertaken. The residency typically lasts five years, which culminates in fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons of Canada (FRCSC). Subspecialty training is undertaken by approximately 30% of fellows (FRCSC) in a variety of fields from anterior segment, cornea, glaucoma, vision rehabilitation, uveitis, oculoplastics, medical and surgical retina, ocular oncology, Ocular pathology, or neuro-ophthalmology. Approximately 35 vacancies open per year for ophthalmology residency training in all of Canada. These numbers fluctuate per year, ranging from 30 to 37 spots. Of these, up to ten spots are at French-speaking universities in Quebec. At the end of the five years, the graduating ophthalmologist must pass the oral and written portions of the Royal College exam in either English or French.

India
In India, after completing MBBS degree, postgraduate study in ophthalmology is required. The degrees are doctor of medicine, master of surgery, diploma in ophthalmic medicine and surgery, and diplomate of national board. The concurrent training and work experience are in the form of a junior residency at a medical college, eye hospital, or institution under the supervision of experienced faculty. Further work experience in the form of fellowship, registrar, or senior resident refines the skills of these eye surgeons. All members of the India Ophthalmologist Society and various state-level ophthalmologist societies hold regular conferences and actively promote continuing medical education.

Nepal
In Nepal, to become an ophthalmologist, three years of postgraduate study is required after completing an MBBS degree. The postgraduate degree in ophthalmology is called medical doctor in ophthalmology. Currently, this degree is provided by Tilganga Institute of Ophthalmology, Tilganga, Kathmandu, BPKLCO, Institute of Medicine, TU, Kathmandu, BP Koirala Institute of Health Sciences, Dharan, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, and National Academy of Medical Science, Kathmandu. A few Nepalese citizens also study this subject in Bangladesh, China, India, Pakistan, and other countries. All graduates have to pass the Nepal Medical Council Licensing Exam to become a registered ophthalmologists in Nepal. The concurrent residency training is in the form of a PG student (resident) at a medical college, eye hospital, or institution according to the degree providing university's rules and regulations. Nepal Ophthalmic Society holds regular conferences and actively promotes continuing medical education.

Ireland
In Ireland, the Royal College of Surgeons of Ireland grants membership (MRCSI (Ophth)) and fellowship (FRCSI (Ophth)) qualifications in conjunction with the Irish College of Ophthalmologists. Total postgraduate training involves an intern year, a minimum of three years of basic surgical training, and a further 4.5 years of higher surgical training. Clinical training takes place within public, Health Service Executive-funded hospitals in Dublin, Sligo, Limerick, Galway, Waterford, and Cork. A minimum of 8.5 years of training is required before eligibility to work in consultant posts. Some trainees take extra time to obtain MSc, MD or PhD degrees and to undertake clinical fellowships in the UK, Australia, and the United States.

Pakistan
In Pakistan, after MBBS, a four-year full-time residency program leads to an exit-level FCPS examination in ophthalmology, held under the auspices of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Pakistan. The tough examination is assessed by both highly qualified Pakistani and eminent international ophthalmic consultants. As a prerequisite to the final examinations, an intermediate module, an optics and refraction module, and a dissertation written on a research project carried out under supervision is also assessed.

Moreover, a two-and-a-half-year residency program leads to an MCPS while a two-year training of DOMS is also being offered. For candidates in the military, a stringent two-year graded course, with quarterly assessments, is held under Armed Forces Post Graduate Medical Institute in Rawalpindi.

The M.S. in ophthalmology is also one of the specialty programs. In addition to programs for physicians, various diplomas and degrees for allied eyecare personnel are also being offered to produce competent optometrists, orthoptists, ophthalmic nurses, ophthalmic technologists, and ophthalmic technicians in this field. These programs are being offered, notably by the College of Ophthalmology and Allied Vision Sciences, in Lahore and the Pakistan Institute of Community Ophthalmology in Peshawar. Subspecialty fellowships also are being offered in the fields of pediatric ophthalmology and vitreoretinal ophthalmology. King Edward Medical University, Al Shifa Trust Eye Hospital Rawalpindi, and Al- Ibrahim Eye Hospital Karachi also have started a degree program in this field.

Philippines
In the Philippines, Ophthalmology is considered a medical specialty that uses medicine and surgery to treat diseases of the eye. There is only one professional organization in the country that is duly recognized by the PMA and the PCS: the Philippine Academy of Ophthalmology (PAO). PAO and the state-standard Philippine Board of Ophthalmology (PBO) regulates ophthalmology residency programs and board certification. To become a general ophthalmologist in the Philippines, a candidate must have completed a doctor of medicine degree (MD) or its equivalent (e.g. MBBS), have completed an internship in Medicine, have passed the physician licensure exam, and have completed residency training at a hospital accredited by the Philippine Board of Ophthalmology (accrediting arm of PAO). Attainment of board certification in ophthalmology from the PBO is essential in acquiring privileges in most major health institutions. Graduates of residency programs can receive further training in ophthalmology subspecialties, such as neuro-ophthalmology, retina, etc. by completing a fellowship program that varies in length depending on each program's requirements.

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, three colleges grant postgraduate degrees in ophthalmology. The Royal College of Ophthalmologists (RCOphth) and the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh grant MRCOphth/FRCOphth and MRCSEd/FRCSEd, (although membership is no longer a prerequisite for fellowship), the Royal College of Glasgow grants FRCS. Postgraduate work as a specialist registrar and one of these degrees is required for specialization in eye diseases. Such clinical work is within the NHS, with supplementary private work for some consultants.

Only 2.3 ophthalmologists exist per 100,000 population in the UK – fewer pro rata than in any nations in the European Union.

United States
Ophthalmologists typically complete four years of undergraduate studies, four years of medical school and four years of eye-specific training (residency). Some pursue additional training, known as a fellowship - typically one to two years. Ophthalmologists are physicians who specialize in the eye and related structures. They perform medical and surgical eye care and may also write prescriptions for corrective lenses. They often manage late stage eye disease, which typically involves surgery.

Ophthalmologists must complete the requirements of continuing medical education to maintain licensure and for recertification.

Notable ophthalmologists
The following is a list of physicians who have significantly contributed to the field of ophthalmology:

18th–19th centuries

 * Theodor Leber (1840–1917) discovered Leber's congenital amaurosis, Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy, Leber's miliary aneurysm, and Leber's stellate neuroretinitis
 * Carl Ferdinand von Arlt (1812–1887), the elder (Austrian), proved that myopia is largely due to an excessive axial length, published influential textbooks on eye disease, and ran annual eye clinics in needy areas long before the concept of volunteer eye camps became popular; his name is still attached to some disease signs, e.g., von Arlt's line in trachoma and his son, Ferdinand Ritter von Arlt, the younger, was also an ophthalmologist
 * Jacques Daviel (1696–1762) (France) performed the first documented planned primary cataract extraction on Sep. 18, 1750 in Cologne.
 * Franciscus Donders (1818–1889) (Dutch) published pioneering analyses of ocular biomechanics, intraocular pressure, glaucoma, and physiological optics and he made possible the prescribing of combinations of spherical and cylindrical lenses to treat astigmatism
 * Joseph Forlenze (1757–1833) (Italy), specialist in cataract surgery, became popular during the First French Empire, healing, among many, personalities such as the minister Jean-Étienne-Marie Portalis and the poet Ponce Denis Lebrun; he was nominated by Napoleon "chirurgien oculiste of the lycees, the civil hospices and all the charitable institutions of the departments of the Empire", and he also was known for his free interventions, mainly in favour of poor people
 * Albrecht von Graefe (1828–1870) (Germany) probably the most important ophthalmologist of the nineteenth century, along with Helmholtz and Donders, one of the 'founding fathers' of ophthalmology as a specialty, he was a brilliant clinician and charismatic teacher who had an international influence on the development of ophthalmology, and was a pioneer in mapping visual field defects and diagnosis and treatment of glaucoma, and he introduced a cataract extraction technique that remained the standard for more than 100 years, and many other important surgical techniques such as iridectomy. He rationalised the use of many ophthalmically important drugs, including mydriatics and miotics; he also was the founder of one of the earliest ophthalmic societies (German Ophthalmological Society, 1857) and one of the earliest ophthalmic journals (Graefe's Archives of Ophthalmology)

 * L. L. Zamenhof (b.1859) (Poland) was a Polish ophthalmologist who created the constructed international auxiliary language known as Esperanto.

 * Allvar Gullstrand (1862–1930) (Sweden) was a Nobel Prize-winner in 1911 for his research on the eye as a light-refracting apparatus, he described the 'schematic eye', a mathematical model of the human eye based on his measurements known as the 'optical constants' of the eye; his measurements are still used today
 * Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894), a great German polymath, invented the ophthalmoscope (1851) and published important work on physiological optics, including colour vision.
 * Julius Hirschberg (1843–1925) (Germany) in 1879 became the first to use an electromagnet to remove metallic foreign bodies from the eye and in 1886 developed the Hirschberg test for measuring strabismus
 * Peter Adolph Gad (1846 – 1907), Danish-Brazilian ophthalmologist who founded the first eye infirmary in São Paulo, Brazil
 * Socrate Polara (1800–1860, Italy) founded the first dedicated ophthalmology clinic in Sicily in 1829, entirely as a philanthropic endeavor; later he was appointed as the first director of the ophthalmology department at the Grand Hospital of Palermo, Sicily, in 1831 after the Sicilian government became convinced of the importance of state support for the specialization
 * Herman Snellen (1834–1908) (Netherlands) introduced the Snellen chart to study visual acuity

20th–21st centuries

 * Vladimir Petrovich Filatov (1875–1956) (Russia) contributed the tube flap grafting method, corneal transplantation, and preservation of grafts from cadaver eyes and tissue therapy; he founded the Filatov Institute of Eye Diseases and Tissue Therapy, Odessa, one of the leading eye-care institutes in the world.
 * Shinobu Ishihara (1879–1963) (Japan), in 1918, invented the Ishihara Color Vision Test, a common method for determining Color blindness; he also made major contributions to the study of Trachoma and Myopia.
 * Ignacio Barraquer (1884–1965) (Spain), in 1917, invented the first motorized vacuum instrument (erisophake) for intracapsular cataract extraction; he founded the Barraquer Clinic in 1941 and the Barraquer Institute in 1947 in Barcelona, Spain.
 * Ernst Fuchs (1851–1930) was an Austrian ophthalmologist known for his discovery and description of numerous ocular diseases and abnormalities including Fuchs' dystrophy and Fuchs heterochromic iridocyclitis.
 * Tsutomu Sato (1902–1960) (Japan) pioneer in incisional refractive surgery, including techniques for astigmatism and the invention of radial keratotomy for myopia.
 * Jules Gonin (1870–1935) (Switzerland) was the "father of retinal detachment surgery".
 * Sir Harold Ridley (1906–2001) (United Kingdom), in 1949, may have been the first to successfully implant an artificial intraocular lens after observing that plastic fragments in the eyes of wartime pilots were well tolerated; he fought for decades against strong reactionary opinions to have the concept accepted as feasible and useful.
 * Charles Schepens (1912–2006) (Belgium) was the "father of modern retinal surgery" and developer of the Schepens indirect binocular ophthalmoscope whilst at Moorfields Eye Hospital; he was the founder of the Schepens Eye Research Institute, associated with Harvard Medical School and the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, in Boston, Massachusetts.
 * Tom Pashby (1915–2005) (Canada) was Canadian Standards Association and a sport safety advocate to prevent eye injuries and spinal cord injuries, developed safer sports equipment, named to the Order of Canada, inducted into Canada's Sport Hall of Fame.
 * Marshall M. Parks (1918–2005) (United States) was the "father of pediatric ophthalmology".
 * José Ignacio Barraquer (1916–1998) (Spain) was the "father of modern refractive surgery" and in the 1960s, he developed lamellar techniques, including keratomileusis and keratophakia, as well as the first microkeratome and corneal microlathe.
 * Tadeusz Krwawicz (1910–1988) (Poland), in 1961, developed the first cryoprobe for intracapsular cataract extraction.
 * Svyatoslav Fyodorov (1927–2000) (Russia) was the "father of ophthalmic microsurgery" and he improved and popularized radial keratotomy, invented a surgical cure for cataract, and he developed scleroplasty.
 * Charles Kelman (1930–2004) (United States) developed the ultrasound and mechanized irrigation and aspiration system for phacoemulsification, first allowing cataract extraction through a small incision.
 * Helena Ndume (b.1960) (Namibia) is a renowned ophthalmologist notable for her charitable work among people with eye-related illnesses.
 * Rand Paul (b. 1963) (United States) worked as an ophthalmologist before becoming a US senator.
 * Andromahi Rapanou ((b. 1984) (Greece), specialist in Retinal Pathology

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List of architects

The following is a list of notable architects – well-known individuals with a large body of published work or notable structures, which point to an article in the English Wikipedia.

Early architects

 * Aa (Middle Kingdom), Egyptian
 * Amenhotep, son of Hapu (14th c. BC), Egyptian
 * Anthemius of Tralles (c. 474 – 533–558), Greek
 * Apollodorus of Damascus (2nd c. AD), Damascus
 * Aristobulus of Cassandreia (c. 375 – 301 BC), Greek
 * Callicrates (mid-5th c. BC), Greek
 * Hermodorus of Salamis (fl. 146–102 BC), Cypriot
 * Hippodamus of Miletus (498–408 BC), Greek
 * Ictinus (fl. mid-5th c. BC), Greek
 * Imhotep (fl. late 27th c. BC), Egyptian
 * Ineni (18th Dynasty of Egypt), Egyptian
 * Isidore of Miletus (6th c. AD), Byzantine Greek
 * Marcus Agrippa (63–12 BC), Roman
 * Mnesicles (mid-5th c. BC), Athenian
 * Rabirius (1st–2nd cc. AD), Roman
 * Senemut (18th Dynasty of Egypt), Egyptian
 * Vitruvius (c. 80–70 BC – post–15 BC), Roman
 * Yu Hao (喻皓, fl 970), Chinese

 * Narasimhavarman II (695–729 CE), South India
 * Perumthachan (9th c. AD), South India

12th-century architects

 * Abbot Suger (c. 1081–1151), French
 * William the Englishman (1174 – c. 1214), English
 * William of Sens (died 1180), French

13th-century architects

 * Arnolfo di Cambio (c. 1240–1300/1310), Italian
 * Villard de Honnecourt (fl. 13th c.), French
 * Robert de Luzarches (fl. late 12th – early 13th c.), French
 * Jean d'Orbais (c. 1175–1231), French
 * Radovan (fl. 13th c.), Croatian

14th-century architects

 * Filippo Calendario (died 1355), Venetian
 * Jacopo Celega (died pre–1386), Italian
 * Taddeo Gaddi (c. 1290–1366), Florentine
 * Giotto di Bondone (c. 1267–1337), Florentine
 * Anđeo Lovrov Zadranin (fl. mid–14th c.), Croatian
 * Juraj Lovrov Zadranin (fl. 14th c.), Croatian
 * Heinrich Parler (c. 1310–1371), German
 * Johann Parler (c. 1359–1405/6), Bohemian
 * Peter Parler (c. 1333–1399), Bohemian
 * Wenzel Parler (c. 1360–1404), Bohemian

15th-century architects

 * Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472), Italian
 * Andrea Alessi (1425–1505), Dalmatian
 * Marko Andrijić (c. 1470 – post-1507), Dalmatian
 * Donato Bramante (1444–1514), Italian
 * Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446), Italian
 * Mauro Codussi (1440–1504), Italian/Venetian
 * Aristotele Fioravanti (c. 1415 or 1420 – c. 1486), Italian/Russian
 * Niccolò di Giovanni Fiorentino (1418–1506), Italian/Dalmatian
 * Juan Guas (c. 1430/1433 – c. 1496), Spanish
 * Luciano Laurana (c. 1420–1479), Venetian
 * Annibale Maggi detto Da Bassano (fl. 1490s), Venetian
 * Paskoje Miličević (c. 1440–1516), Croatian
 * Michelozzo Michelozzi (1396–1472), Italian
 * Bernardo Rossellino (1409–1464), Italian
 * Giorgio da Sebenico (c. 1410–1473), Venetian
 * Jacob van Thienen (fl. early 15th c.), Flemish
 * Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), Italian

16th-century architects

 * Antonio Abbondi (fl. early 16th c.), Italian
 * Galeazzo Alessi (1512–1572), Italian
 * Bartolomeo Ammanati (1511–1592), Italian
 * Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475–1564), Italian
 * Girolamo Cassar (c. 1520 – c. 1592), Maltese
 * Vittorio Cassar (c. 1550 – c. 1609), Maltese
 * Guglielmo dei Grigi (1485–1550), Italian
 * Nikolaus Gromann (1500–1566), German
 * Juan de Herrera (1530–1597), Spanish
 * Adam Kraft (1460–1509), German
 * Francesco Laparelli (1521–1570), Italian
 * Pirro Ligorio (1512–1583), Italian
 * Philibert de l'Orme (1514–1570), French
 * Giovanni Magenta (1565–1635), Italian
 * Hans Hendrik van Paesschen (c. 1510–1582), Flemish
 * Andrea Palladio (1508–1580), Italian
 * Antonio da Sangallo the Elder (c. 1453–1534), Italian
 * Antonio da Sangallo the Younger (1484–1546), Italian
 * Michele Sammicheli (1484–1559), Venetian
 * Raffaello Santi (Raphael) (1483–1520), Italian
 * Vincenzo Scamozzi (1548–1616), Italian
 * Sebastiano Serlio (1475–1554), Italian
 * Koca Mimar Sinan Agha (1489–1588), Ottoman Christian Turk
 * Friedrich Sustris (1540–1599), Italian/Dutch
 * Lambert Sustris (1518–1584), Dutch
 * Pellegrino Tibaldi (1527–1596), Italian
 * Giorgio Vasari (1511–1574), Italian
 * Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola (1507–1573), Italian
 * Postnik Yakovlev (fl. mid-16th c.), Russian

17th-century architects

 * Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598–1680), Italian
 * Francesco Borromini (1599–1667), Italian
 * Ustad Ahmad Lahauri (fl. 17th c.), Indian
 * Jacob van Campen (1596–1657), Dutch
 * Pietro da Cortona (1596/1597–1669), Italian
 * Jan Zygmunt Deybel (c. 1685–1752), German
 * Johann Dientzenhofer (1663–1726), German
 * Leonhard Dientzenhofer (1660–1707), German
 * Tumas Dingli (1591–1666), Maltese
 * Léopold Durand (1666–1746), French
 * Pietro Paolo Floriani (1585–1638), Italian
 * Lorenzo Gafà (1639–1703), Maltese
 * Guarino Guarini (1624–1683), Italian
 * Jules Hardouin-Mansart (1646–1708), French
 * Elias Holl (1573–1646), German
 * Inigo Jones (1573–1652), English
 * Louis Le Vau (1612–1670), French
 * Baldassarre Longhena (1598–1682), Italian
 * Carlo Maderno (1556–1629), Italian
 * François Mansart (1598–1666), French
 * Johann Arnold Nering (c. 1659?–1695), German
 * Francesco Antonio Picchiatti (1619–1694), Italian
 * Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann (1662–1736), German
 * Carlo Rainaldi (1611–1691), Italian
 * Andreas Schlüter (c. 1659–1714), German
 * Nicodemus Tessin the Younger (1654–1728), Swedish
 * John Webb (1611–1672), English
 * Elizabeth Mytton Wilbraham (1632–1705), English
 * Christopher Wren (1632–1723), English

18th-century architects

 * Robert Adam (1728–1792), Scottish
 * William Adam (1689–1748), Scottish
 * Cosmas Damian Asam (1686–1739), German
 * Egid Quirin Asam (1692–1750), German
 * Joseph Bonomi the Elder (1739–1808), Italian
 * Étienne-Louis Boullée (1728–1799)
 * William Buckland (1734–1774), English/American
 * Colen Campbell (1676–1729), Scottish
 * John Carr of York (1723–1807), English
 * Richard Cassels (1690–1751), German
 * William Chambers (1723–1796), Swedish/Scottish
 * François de Cuvilliés (1695–1768), Netherlandish/German
 * Christoph Dientzenhofer (1655–1722), German
 * Kilian Ignaz Dientzenhofer (1689–1751), German
 * Laurent-Benoît Dewez (1731–1812), Netherlandish
 * John Douglas (c. 1709–1788), Scottish
 * Nicolai Eigtved (1701–1754), Danish
 * Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach (1656–1723), Austrian
 * Johann Michael Fischer (1692–1766), German
 * Pierre François Léonard Fontaine (1762–1853), French
 * Ange-Jacques Gabriel (1698–1782), French
 * Alessandro Galilei (1691–1737), Italian
 * John Gwynn (1713–1786), English
 * Abraham Hargrave (1755–1808), English/Irish
 * Peter Harrison (1716–1775), American
 * Nicholas Hawksmoor (1661–1736), English
 * Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt (1668–1745), Austrian
 * James Hoban (1755–1831), Irish/American
 * John Hutchison, Scottish
 * Thomas Ivory (1709–1779), English
 * Nicolas-Henri Jardin (1720–1799), French (in Denmark)
 * Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826), American
 * Richard Jupp (1728–1799), English
 * Filippo Juvarra (1678–1736), Italian
 * William Kent (1685–1748), English
 * Benjamin Latrobe (1764–1820), English/American
 * Claude-Nicolas Ledoux (1736–1806), French
 * Giacomo Leoni (1686–1746), Italian
 * Joseph Christian Lillie (1760–1827), Danish
 * Johann Friedrich Ludwig (João Frederico Ludovice) (1673–1752), German
 * Giorgio Massari (1687–1766), Italian
 * Josef Munggenast (1680–1741), Austrian
 * Robert Mylne (1733–1811), Scottish
 * Ivan Fyodorovich Michurin (1700–1763), Russian
 * Balthasar Neumann (c. 1687–1733), German
 * Mateus Vicente de Oliveira (1706–86), Portuguese
 * Giovanni Paolo Pannini (1691–1765), Italian
 * Edward Lovett Pearce (1699–1733), Irish
 * Charles Percier (1764–1838), French
 * Giuseppe Piermarini (1734–1808), Italian
 * Paolo Posi (1708–1776), Italian
 * Jakob Prandtauer (1660–1726), Austrian
 * Giacomo Quarenghi (1744–1817), Italian/Russian
 * Joseph-Jacques Ramée (1764–1842), Italian
 * Bartolomeo Rastrelli (1700–1771), Italian/Russian
 * Charles Ribart (fl. 1776–1783), French
 * Antonio Rinaldi (c. 1710–1794), Italian
 * Nicola Salvi (1697–1751), Italian
 * Thomas Sandby (1721–1798), English
 * Jan Blažej Santini-Aichel (1677–1723), Austrian/Czech
 * Michael Searles (1750–1813), English
 * Jacques-Germain Soufflot (1713–1780), French
 * Manuel Caetano de Sousa (1738–1802), Portuguese
 * William Thornton (1759–1828), English/American
 * Lauritz de Thurah (1706–1759), Danish
 * Mary Townley (1753–1839), English
 * Domenico Trezzini (1670–1734), Swiss/Italian
 * John Vanbrugh (1664–1726), English
 * Luigi Vanvitelli (1700–1773), Italian
 * Bernardo Vittone (1704–1770), Italian
 * John Wood, the Elder (1704–1754), English
 * John Wood, the Younger (1728–1782), English
 * James Wyatt (1746–1813), English
 * Dominikus Zimmermann (1685–1766), German

A–M

 * Dankmar Adler (1844–1900), American
 * Frank Shaver Allen (1860–1934), American
 * Henry Austin (1804–1891), American
 * Alphonse Balat (1819–1895), Belgian
 * William Swinden Barber (1832–1908), English
 * Sir Charles Barry (1795–1860), English
 * Charles Barry Jr. (1823–1900), English
 * Edward Middleton Barry (1830–1880), English
 * Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi (1834–1904), French
 * Carlo Bassi (1807–1856), Italian
 * Asher Benjamin (1773–1845), American
 * Hendrik Beyaert (1823–1894), Belgian
 * Charles Bickel (1852–1921), American
 * Joseph Blick (1867–1947), American
 * Edward Blore (1787–1879), English
 * Camillo Boito (1836–1914), Italian
 * Ignatius Bonomi (1787–1870), English
 * Ferdinando Bonsignore (1760–1843), Italian
 * R. Newton Brezee (1851–1929), American
 * Gridley James Fox Bryant (1816–1899), American
 * David Bryce (1803–1876), Scottish
 * Aleksandar Bugarski (1835–1891), Serbian
 * Charles Bulfinch (1763–1844), American
 * William Burges (1827–1881), English
 * William Burn (1789–1870), Scottish
 * Decimus Burton (1800–1881), English
 * J. Cleaveland Cady (1837–1919), American
 * Carrère and Hastings (1885–1929), American
 * Cesar Castellani (died 1905), Maltese
 * Basil Champneys (1842–1935), English
 * Edward Clark (1822–1902), American
 * Adolf Cluss (1825–1905), American
 * S. N. Cooke (1882–1964), English
 * Lewis Cubitt (1799–1883), English
 * Thomas Cubitt (1788–1855), English
 * Pierre Cuypers (1827–1921), Dutch
 * Alexander Jackson Davis (1803–1892), American
 * George Devey (1820–1886), English
 * John Dobson (1787–1865), English
 * Thomas Leverton Donaldson (1795–1885), English
 * Henry Engelbert (1826–1901), American
 * Kolyu Ficheto (1800–1881), Bulgarian
 * George A. Frederick (1842–1924), American
 * Watson Fothergill (1841–1928), English
 * James Fowler (1828–1892), English
 * Thomas Fuller (1823–1898), Canadian
 * Frank Furness (1839–1912), American
 * Charles Garnier (1825–1898), French
 * Friedrich von Gärtner (1791–1847), German
 * Edward William Godwin (1833–1886), English
 * George Enoch Grayson (1833–1912), English
 * Samuel Hannaford (1835–1911), American
 * Theophil Hansen (1813–1891), Danish/Austrian
 * Philip Hardwick (1792–1870), English
 * Philip Charles Hardwick (1822–1892), English
 * William Alexander Harvey (1874–1951), English
 * Thomas Hastings (1860–1929), American
 * Sophia Hayden (1868–1953), American
 * Victor Horta (1861–1947), Belgian
 * William Hosking FSA (1800–1861), English
 * Heinrich Hübsch (1795–1863), German
 * Samuel Huckel (1858–1917), American
 * Richard Hunt (1827–1895), American
 * Benno Janssen (1874–1964), American
 * Giuseppe Jappelli (1783–1852), Italian
 * William LeBaron Jenney (1832–1907), American
 * Sir Horace Jones (1819–1887), English
 * Emilijan Josimović (1823–1897), Serbian
 * Abdallah Khan (fl. 1810–1850), Persian
 * Leo von Klenze (1784–1864), German
 * John A. B. Koch (1845–1928), Australian
 * Henri Labrouste (1801–1875), French
 * Barthelemy Lafon (1769–1820), American
 * Richard Lane (1795–1880), English
 * Benjamin Henry Latrobe (1764–1820), American
 * Robert Lawson (1833–1902), New Zealander
 * Charles F. Lembke (1865–1925), American
 * Joseph Christian Lillie (1760–1827), Danish
 * Alexander Wadsworth Longfellow Jr. (1854–1934), American
 * Sara Losh (1785–1853), English
 * Richard Lucae (1829–1879), German
 * Charles-François Mandar (1757–1844), French
 * Charles Follen McKim (1847–1909), American
 * Samuel McIntire (1757–1811), American
 * Enrico Marconi (1792–1863), Italian
 * Leandro Marconi (1834–1919), Polish
 * Oskar Marmorek (1863–1909), Austro-Hungarian
 * Frederick Marrable (1819–1872), English
 * Robert Mills (1781–1855), American
 * Josef Mocker (1835–1899), Bohemian
 * Auguste de Montferrand (1786–1858), French
 * Julia Morgan (1872–1957), American
 * William Morris (1834–1906), English
 * Alfred B. Mullett (1834–1890), American

N–Z

 * John Nash (1752–1835), English
 * Atanasije Nikolić (1803–1882), Serbian
 * Joseph Maria Olbrich (1867–1908), Austrian
 * Frederick Law Olmsted (1822–1903), American
 * Frederick J. Osterling (1865–1934), American
 * Edward Graham Paley (1823–1895), English
 * Alexander Parris (1780–1852), American
 * Joseph Paxton (1803–1865), English
 * John Wornham Penfold (1828–1909), English
 * Sir James Pennethorne, English
 * Francis Penrose (1817–1903), English
 * Friedrich Ludwig Persius (1803–1845), German
 * Francis Petre (1847–1918), New Zealand
 * Albert Pretzinger (b. 1863, death date unknown), American
 * William Lightfoot Price (1855–1916), American
 * Augustus Pugin (1812–1852), English
 * E. W. Pugin (1834–1875), English
 * Peter Paul Pugin (1851–1904), English
 * Joseph-Jacques Ramée (1764–1842), French
 * Charles Reed (1814–1859), English
 * Charles Reeves (1815–1866), English
 * James Renwick Jr. (1818–1895), American
 * Henry Hobson Richardson (1838–1886), American
 * Thomas Rickman (1776–1841), English
 * Eduard Riedel (1813–1885), German
 * Antonio Rivas Mercado (1853–1927), Mexican
 * Robert S. Roeschlaub (1843–1923), American
 * Isaiah Rogers (1800–1869), American
 * John Root (1850–1891), American
 * Carlo Rossi (1775–1849), Italian/Russian
 * Archimedes Russell (1840–1915), American
 * Octave van Rysselberghe (1855–1929), Belgian
 * John Holloway Sanders (1825–1884), English
 * Frederick C. Sauer (1860–1942), German/American
 * George Gilbert Scott (1811–1878), English
 * George Gilbert Scott Jr. (1839–1897), English
 * Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781–1841), German
 * Gottfried Semper (1803–1879), German
 * Edmund Sharpe (1809–1877), English
 * Joseph Lyman Silsbee (1848–1913), American
 * Jacob Snyder (1823–1890), American
 * John Soane (1848–1913), American
 * August Soller (1805–1853), German
 * Vasily P. Stasov (1769–1848), Russian
 * J. J. Stevenson (1831–1908), Scottish
 * Heinrich Strack (1805–1880), German
 * George Edmund Street (1824–1881), English
 * William Strickland (1788–1854), American
 * Friedrich August Stüler (1800–1865), German
 * Louis Sullivan (1856–1924), American
 * Henry Tanner (1849–1935), English
 * Thomas Alexander Tefft (1826–1859), American
 * Thomas Telford (1757–1834), Scottish
 * Samuel Sanders Teulon (1812–1873), English
 * Constantine Andreyevich Ton (1794–1881), Russian
 * Clair Tisseur (1827–1896), French
 * Ithiel Town (1784–1844), American
 * Silvanus Trevail (1851–1903), English
 * William Tubby (1858–1944), American
 * Richard Upjohn (1802–1878), English/American
 * Calvert Vaux (1824–1925), English/American
 * Eugène Viollet-le-Duc (1814–1879), French
 * Otto Wagner (1841–1918), Austrian
 * Thomas U. Walter (1804–1887), American
 * Alfred Waterhouse (1830–1905), English
 * George Webster (1797–1864), English
 * John Dodsley Webster (1840–1913), English
 * Stanford White (1853–1906), American
 * William Wilkins (1778–1839), English
 * Frederick Clarke Withers (1828–1901), English/American
 * William Halsey Wood (1855–1897), American
 * Thomas Worthington (1826–1909), English
 * Thomas Henry Wyatt (1807–1880), Irish/English
 * Edward Alexander Wyon (1842–1872), English
 * Ammi B. Young (1798–1874), American
 * Nikola Živković (1792–1870), Serbian

A–C

 * Alvar Aalto (1898–1976), Finland
 * Max Abramovitz (1908–2004), US
 * David Adler (1882–1949), US
 * Gerard Pieter Adolfs (1898–1968), Dutch East Indies
 * Charles N. Agree (1897–1982), Detroit, Michigan, US
 * Walter W. Ahlschlager (1887–1965), US
 * Franco Albini (1905–1977), Italy
 * Christopher Alexander (born 1936), Austria
 * Tadao Ando (born 1941), Japan
 * Paul Andreu (1938–2018), France
 * Edmund Anscombe (1874–1948), New Zealand
 * Milan Antonović (1850–1929)
 * Siah Armajani (1939–2020), Iran
 * Raul de Armas (born 1941), Cuba
 * João Batista Vilanova Artigas (1915–1985), Brazil
 * Hisham N. Ashkouri (born 1948), US
 * Charles Herbert Aslin (1893–1959), UK
 * Gunnar Asplund (1885–1940), Sweden
 * Ian Athfield (1940–2015), New Zealand
 * Fritz Auer (born 1933), Germany
 * Gae Aulenti (1927–2012), Italy
 * Carlo Aymonino (1926–2010), Italy
 * Rafiq Azam, Bangladesh
 * Laurie Baker (1917–2007), UK/India
 * Sixto Durán Ballén (1921–2016), US
 * Lina Bo Bardi (1914–1992), Italy/Brazil
 * Edward Larrabee Barnes (1915–2004), US
 * Howard R. Barr (1910–2002), US
 * Luis Barragán (1902–1988), Mexico
 * Fred Bassetti (1917–2013), US
 * Garry Baverstock (born 1949), Australia
 * Geoffrey Bawa (1919–2003), Sri Lanka
 * Isobel Hogg Kerr Beattie (1900–1970), UK
 * Welton Becket (1902–1969), US
 * Claud Beelman (1883–1963), US
 * Adolf Behne (1885–1948), Germany
 * Peter Behrens (1868–1940), Germany
 * Pietro Belluschi (1899–1994), US
 * Hendrik Petrus Berlage (1856–1934), Netherlands
 * Mordechai Benshemesh (1911–1993), Australia
 * Antonio Bilbao La Vieja (1892–1980), Argentina
 * Titus de Bobula (1878–1961)
 * Ricardo Bofill (born 1939), Spain
 * Oriol Bohigas (born 1925), Spain
 * Gottfried Böhm (1920–2021), Germany
 * J. Max Bond Jr. (1935–2009), US
 * Dariush Borbor (born 1934), Iran
 * Mario Botta (born 1943), Switzerland
 * Claude Fayette Bragdon (1866–1946), US
 * C.A. "Peter" Bransgrove (1914–1966), Tanganyika/Tanzania
 * Marcel Breuer (1902–1981), Hungary
 * Denise Scott Brown (1931), US
 * Halldóra Briem (1913–1993), Iceland
 * Gordon Bunshaft (1909–1990), US
 * John Burgee (born 1933), US
 * Daniel Burnham (1846–1912), US
 * Santiago Calatrava (born 1951), Spain
 * Peter Calthorpe (born 1949), US
 * Alberto Campo Baeza (born 1946), Spain
 * Sir Hugh Casson (1910–1999), UK
 * Judith Chafee (1932–1998), US
 * James Chapman-Taylor (1958–1978), UK/New Zealand
 * Ethel Charles (1871–1962), UK
 * Jorge Ferreira Chaves (1920–1982), Portugal
 * Ann R. Chaintreuil (born 1947), United States
 * Serge Chermayeff (1900–1996), Chechnya/UK
 * David Chipperfield (born 1953), UK
 * Wells Coates (1895–1958), UK/Canada
 * Josep Antoni Coderch (1913–1984), Spain
 * Charles A. Cofield, US
 * Coleman Coker (born 1951), US
 * Mary Colter (1869–1958), US
 * Peter Cook (born 1936), UK
 * Isadore (Issie) Coop (1926–2003), Canada
 * Le Corbusier (1887–1965), Switzerland/France
 * Ernest Cormier (1885–1980), Canada
 * Charles Correa (1930–2015), India
 * Lúcio Costa (1902–1998), Brazil
 * Ralph Adams Cram (1863–1942), US
 * Charles Howard Crane (1885–1952), US
 * Paul Philippe Cret (1876–1945), France, US
 * Louis Curtiss (1865–1924), US
 * Kirtland Cutter (1860–1939), US

D–G

 * Justus Dahinden (1925–2020), Switzerland
 * Karl Damschen (born 1942), Germany
 * Raimondo Tommaso D'Aronco (1857–1932), Italy
 * Miša David (1942–2000), Yugoslavia
 * Giancarlo De Carlo (1919–2005), Italy
 * Frederic Joseph DeLongchamps (1882–1969), US
 * François Deslaugiers (1934–2009), France
 * Jack Diamond (born 1932), South Africa/Canada
 * Filipe Oliveira Dias (1963–2014), Portugal
 * Theo van Doesburg (1883–1931), Netherlands
 * B. V. Doshi (born 1927), India
 * Alden B. Dow (1904–1983), US
 * Jane Drew (1911–1996), UK
 * Andrés Duany (born 1949), US
 * Max Dudler (born 1949), Switzerland/Germany
 * Michael Middleton Dwyer (born 1954), US
 * Willem Marinus Dudok (1884–1974), Netherlands
 * Arthur Dyson (born 1940), US
 * H. Kempton Dyson (1880–1944), UK
 * Charles Eames (1907–1978), US
 * Ray Eames (1912–1988), US
 * John Eberson (1875–1964), Romania/US
 * Peter Eisenman (born 1932), US
 * George Grant Elmslie (1869–1952), US
 * Richard England (born 1937), Malta
 * Arthur Erickson (1924–2009), Canada
 * Raymond Erith (1904–1973), US
 * Aldo van Eyck (1918–1999), Netherlands
 * Hassan Fathy (1900–1989), Egypt
 * Sverre Fehn (1924–2009), Norway
 * Arthur Fehr (1904–1969), US
 * Hermann Finsterlin (1887–1973), Germany
 * Theodor Fischer (1862–1938), Germany
 * Harold H. Fisher (1901–2005), US
 * Kay Fisker (1893–1965), Denmark
 * O'Neil Ford (1905–1982), US
 * Mohammad Foyez Ullah (born 1967), Bangladesh
 * Norman Foster (born 1935), UK
 * Yona Friedman (1923–2020), Hungary/France
 * Maxwell Fry (1899–1987), UK
 * Buckminster Fuller (1895–1983), US
 * Ignazio Gardella (1905–1999), Italy
 * Antoni Gaudí (1852–1926), Spain
 * Giuli Gegelia (born 1942), Georgia
 * Frank Gehry (born 1929), Canada/US
 * Haralamb H. Georgescu (1908–1977), Romania/US
 * Heydar Ghiai (1922–1985), Iran
 * Cass Gilbert (1859–1934), US
 * Moisei Ginzburg (1892–1946), Belarus/USSR
 * Romaldo Giurgola (1920–2016), Italy/US/Australia
 * Hansjörg Göritz (born 1959), Germany
 * Bruce Goff (1904–1982), US
 * Ernő Goldfinger (1902–1987), Hungary/UK
 * Teodoro Gonzalez de Leon (1926–2016), Mexico
 * Bertram Goodhue (1869–1924), US
 * Ferdinand Gottlieb (1919–2007), Germany/US
 * Noemí Goytia (born 1936), Argentina
 * Giorgio Grassi (born 1935), Italy
 * Michael Graves (1934–2015), US
 * Charles Sumner Greene (1868–1957), US
 * Henry Mather Greene (1870–1954), US
 * Jules Gregory (1920–1985), US
 * Vittorio Gregotti (1927–2020), Italy
 * Walter Burley Griffin (1876–1937), US
 * Sir Nicholas Grimshaw (born 1939), UK
 * Walter Gropius (1883–1969), Germany
 * Victor Gruen (1903–1980), Austria
 * Hector Guimard (1867–1942), France

H–K

 * Zaha Hadid (1950-2016), Iran-UK
 * Charles Haertling (1928–1984), US
 * William John Hale (1862–1929), UK
 * Robert Bell Hamilton (1892–1948), Australia
 * Halfdan M. Hanson (1884–1952), US
 * Bashirul Haq (1942–2020), Bangladesh
 * Hugo Häring (1882–1958), Germany
 * David M. Harper (born 1953), US
 * Wallace Harrison (1895–1981), US
 * Francis R. Heakes (1858–1930), Canada
 * John Hejduk (1929–2000), US
 * Herman Hertzberger (born 1932), Netherlands
 * Heinz Hess (1922–1992), Germany
 * Fernando Higueras (1930–2008), Spain
 * Ludwig Hilberseimer (1885–1967), German
 * Herbert Hirche (1910–2002), Germany
 * Harold Frank Hoar (1907–1976), UK
 * Florence Fulton Hobson (1881–1978), Ireland
 * Charles Holden (1875–1960), UK
 * Hans Hollein (1934–2014), Austria
 * Raymond Hood (1881–1934), US
 * Sir Michael Hopkins (born 1935), UK, 1994 RIBA Gold Medal winner
 * Victor Horta (1861–1947), Belgium
 * Edith Hughes (1888–1971), UK
 * A. R. Hye (1919–2008), Pakistan
 * Friedensreich Hundertwasser (1928–2000), Austria
 * Wilbur R. Ingalls Jr. (1923–1997), US
 * Muzharul Islam (1923–2012), Bangladesh
 * Arata Isozaki (born 1931), Japan
 * Arne Jacobsen (1902–1971), Denmark
 * Hugh Newell Jacobsen (1929–2021), US
 * Helmut Jahn (1940–2021), Germany/US
 * Peter Janesch (born 1953), Hungary
 * Benno Janssen (1874–1964), US
 * Pierre Jeanneret (1896–1967), Switzerland
 * Peder Vilhelm Jensen-Klint (1853–1930), Denmark
 * Jon Jerde (1940–2015), US
 * Philip Johnson (1906–2005), US
 * Clarence H. Johnston Sr. (1859–1936), US
 * E. Fay Jones (1921–2004), US
 * Josep Maria Jujol (1879–1949), Spain
 * Ryszard Jurkowski (born 1945), Poland
 * Albert Kahn (1869–1942), US
 * Fazlur Rahman Khan (1929–1982), Bangladesh
 * Louis Kahn (1901/1902–1974), US
 * Maxwell M. Kalman (1906–2009), Canada
 * Mariam Kamara (born 1979), Niger
 * Louis Kamper (1861–1953), US
 * Jan Kaplický (1937–2009), Czech/UK
 * Katayama Tōkuma (1854–1917), Japan
 * Oskar Kaufmann (1873–1956), Hungary
 * Kendrick Bangs Kellogg (born 1934), US
 * Raymond M. Kennedy (1891–1976), US
 * Hugh T. Keyes (1888–1963), US
 * Nader Khalili (1936–2008), US
 * Edward Killingsworth (1917–2004), US
 * Kim Swoo-geun (1931-1986), South Korea
 * Charles Klauder (1872–1938), US
 * George Klenzendorff (1883–?), US
 * Michel de Klerk (1884–1923), Netherlands
 * Ralph Knott (1878–1929), UK
 * Austin Eldon Knowlton (1909–2003), US
 * Carl Koch (1912–1998), US
 * Hans Kollhoff (born 1946), Germany
 * Musa Konsulova (1921-2019), USSR, Ukraine
 * Rem Koolhaas (born 1944), Netherlands
 * Károly Kós (1883–1977), Hungary
 * Johannes Krahn (1908–1974), Germany
 * Piet Kramer (1881–1961), Netherlands
 * Léon Krier (born 1946), Luxembourg
 * Kisho Kurokawa (1934–2007), Japan
 * Edgar-Johan Kuusik (1888–1974), Estonia
 * Ivan Sergeyevich Kuznetsov (1867–1942), Russia

L–M

 * Thomas W. Lamb (1871–1942), US
 * G. Albert Lansburgh (1876–1969), US
 * Eve Laron OAM (1931–2009), Australia
 * Henning Larsen (1925–2013), Denmark
 * Sir Denys Lasdun (1914–2001), UK
 * Vilhelm Lauritzen (1894–1984), Denmark
 * John Lautner (1911–1994), US
 * Ricardo Legorreta (1931–2011), Mexico
 * William Lescaze (1896–1969), US
 * Jan Letzel (1880–1925), Czechoslovakia
 * Amanda Levete (born 1955), UK
 * Sigurd Lewerentz (1885–1975), Sweden
 * Liang Sicheng (1901–1972), China
 * Adalberto Libera (1903–1963), Italy
 * Daniel Libeskind (born 1946), Poland/US
 * João Filgueiras Lima (1931–2014), Brazil
 * Maya Lin (born 1959), US
 * El Lissitzky (1890–1941), Russia
 * Gordon W. Lloyd (1832–1905), US
 * Leandro Locsin (1928–1994), Philippines
 * Elmar Lohk (1901–1963), Estonia
 * Adolf Loos (1870–1933), Austria/Czechoslovakia
 * Berthold Lubetkin (1901–1990), UK/USSR
 * Bill Lucas (1924–2001), Australia
 * Hans Luckhardt (1890–1954), Germany
 * Wassili Luckhardt (1889–1972), Germany
 * Owen Luder (born 1928), UK
 * Edwin Lutyens (1869–1944), UK
 * Ivar Lykke (born 1941), Norway
 * George Washington Maher (1864–1926), US
 * Fumihiko Maki (born 1928), Japan
 * Charles Rennie Mackintosh (1868–1928), UK
 * Imre Makovecz (1935–2011), Hungary
 * Robert Mallet-Stevens (1886–1945), France
 * Angelo Mangiarotti (1921–2012), Italy
 * George R. Mann (1856–1939), US
 * Robert Matthew (1906–1975), UK
 * George D. Mason (1856–1948), US
 * Edward Maufe (1883–1974), UK
 * Bernard Maybeck (1862–1957), US
 * Wayne McAllister (1907–2000), US
 * Raymond McGrath (1903–1977), UK/Ireland
 * Roy Mason (1938–1996), US
 * François Massau, Belgium
 * Richard Meier (born 1934), US
 * Konstantin Melnikov (1890–1974), USSR
 * Erich Mendelsohn (1887–1953), Germany
 * Paulo Mendes da Rocha (1928–2021), Brazil
 * Henry Mercer (1856–1930), US
 * Geoffrey Harley Mewton (1905–1998), Australia
 * Johan van der Mey (1878–1949), Netherlands
 * Hannes Meyer (1889–1954), Switzerland
 * Giovanni Michelucci (1891–1990), Italy
 * Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886–1969), Germany/USA
 * Andrés Mignucci (born 1957), Puerto Rico
 * Vlado Milunić (born 1941), Czech Republic
 * James Rupert Miller (1869–1946), US
 * Dom Mintoff (1916–2012), Malta
 * F. A. Minuth, American, New York City
 * Hadi Mirmiran (1945–2006), Iran
 * Enric Miralles (1955–2000), Spain
 * Antonio Miró Montilla (born 1937), Puerto Rico
 * Samuel Mockbee (1944–2001)
 * Erik Møller (1909–2002)
 * Rafael Moneo (born 1937), Spain
 * Roger Montgomery (1925–2003), US
 * Adolfo Moran (born 1953), Spain
 * Riccardo Morandi (1902–1989), Italy
 * Luigi Moretti (1907–1973), Italy
 * Arthur Cotton Moore (born 1935), US
 * Charles Willard Moore (1925–1993), US
 * Lester S. Moore (1871–1924), US
 * Julia Morgan (1872–1957), US
 * Raymond Moriyama (1929–2023), Canada
 * Eric Owen Moss (born 1943), US
 * Michel Mossessian (born 1959), France/UK
 * Frederick Augustus Muhlenberg (1887–1980), US
 * Glenn Murcutt (born 1936), Australia
 * C. F. Møller (1898–1988), Denmark
 * Barton Myers (born 1934), Canada

N–R

 * Robert Natus (1890–1950)
 * Pier Luigi Nervi (1891–1979), Italy
 * Peter Newell (1916–2010), Australia
 * Richard Neutra (1892–1970)
 * Ngo Viet Thu (1926–2000), Vietnam
 * Oscar Niemeyer (1907–2012)
 * Enamul Karim Nirjhar (born 1962), Bangladesh
 * Oscar Nitzchke (1900–1991)
 * Percy Erskine Nobbs (1875–1964)
 * Samuel Tilden Norton (1877–1959)
 * Ellice Nosworthy (1897–1972), Australia
 * Jean Nouvel (born 1945)
 * Martin Nyrop (1849–1921), Denmark
 * Gyo Obata (1923–2022)
 * Samuel Oghale Oboh (born 1971) Canada / Nigeria
 * John J. O'Malley (1915–1970), US
 * Yafes Osman (born 1946), Bangladesh
 * Frei Otto (1925–2015)
 * J.J.P. Oud (1890–1963)
 * Félix Candela Outeriño (1910–1997), Spain/Mexico
 * Paul Paget (1901–1985)
 * Henry (Harry) Paley (1859–1946)
 * Mustapha Khalid Palash (born 1963), Bangladesh
 * Mihály (Michael) Párkányi (1924–1991) Hungary
 * John and Donald Parkinson (1861–1945)
 * John Pawson (born 1949)
 * Arthur Peabody (1858–1942)
 * I. M. Pei (1917–2019)
 * César Pelli (1926–2019)
 * Hubert Petschnigg (1913–1997)
 * Frits Peutz (1896–1974)
 * Timothy L. Pflueger (1892–1946)
 * Renzo Piano (born 1937), Italy
 * Stjepan Planić (1900–1980)
 * Jože Plečnik (1872–1957)
 * Hans Poelzig (1869–1936)
 * Gino Pollini (1903–1991), Italy
 * James Polshek (born 1930)
 * Donald Perry Polsky (born 1928)
 * Gio Ponti (1891–1979)
 * John Russell Pope (1874–1937)
 * John Portman (1924–2017)
 * Christian de Portzamparc (born 1944), France
 * George B. Post (1837–1913), US
 * Fernand Pouillon (1912–1986), France
 * Henry Price (1867–1944)
 * Alain Provost (born 1938)
 * Freeman A. Pretzinger
 * William Gray Purcell (1880–1965), US
 * C. W. Rapp (1860–1926), US
 * George L. Rapp (1878–1941), US
 * Isaac Rapp (1854–1933), US
 * Ralph Rapson (1914–2008)
 * Steen Eiler Rasmussen (1898–1990)
 * Antonin Raymond (1888–1976), Japan/US
 * William J. Reese (1943–2011), US
 * Affonso Eduardo Reidy (1909–1964), Brazil
 * Sir Charles Herbert Reilly (1874–1948)
 * Sir Albert Richardson (1880–1964)
 * Gerrit Rietveld (1888–1964)
 * Isabel Roberts (1871–1955), US
 * Harry G. Robinson III (born 1942)
 * Kevin Roche (1922–2019)
 * Ernesto Nathan Rogers (1909–1969)
 * Richard Rogers (1933–2021)
 * Mario Romañach (1917–1984), Cuba
 * Aldo Rossi (1931–1997), Italy
 * Wirt C. Rowland (1878–1946)
 * Anne Marie Rubin (1919–1993)
 * Paul Rudolph (1918–1997)
 * Robert Tor Russell (1888–1972)

S–Z

 * Eero Saarinen (1910–1961), Finland
 * Eliel Saarinen (1873–1950), Finland
 * Eugen Sacharias (1906–2002)
 * Moshe Safdie (born 1938)
 * Paul Saintenoy (1862–1952)
 * Rogelio Salmona (1929–2007), Spain/Colombia
 * Guðjón Samúelsson (1887–1950), Iceland
 * João Santa-Rita (born 1960)
 * Carlos A. Santos-Viola (1912–1994)
 * Louis Sauer (born 1928)
 * Carlo Scarpa (1906–1978)
 * Hans Scharoun (1893–1972)
 * Rudolf Schindler (1887–1953)
 * Elisabeth Scott (1898–1972), UK
 * Frederic Schwartz (1951–2014)
 * Paul Schmitthenner (1884–1972)
 * Alexey Shchusev (1873–1949)
 * Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky (1897–2000)
 * Giles Gilbert Scott (1880–1960)
 * Harry Seidler (1923–2006)
 * Richard Seifert (1910–2001)
 * Joseph Lluís Sert (1902–1983)
 * H. Craig Severance (1879–1941)
 * Hooshang Seyhoun (1920–2014), Iran
 * Arpan Shah (born 1975), Indian
 * Richard Sheppard (1910–1982)
 * Vladimir Shukhov (1853–1939)
 * Claudio Silvestrin (born 1954)
 * Scott Simons (born 1952), US
 * Alvaro Siza (born 1933), Portugal
 * Howard Dwight Smith (1886–1958)
 * George Washington Smith (1876–1930)
 * Alison Smithson (1928–1993)
 * Peter Smithson (1923–2003)
 * Charles B. J. Snyder (1860–1945), US
 * Paolo Soleri (1919–2013), Italy
 * Alejandro de la Sota (1913–1996)
 * Eduardo Souto de Moura (born 1952), Portugal
 * Albert Speer (1905–1981)
 * Basil Spence (1907–1976)
 * Johann Otto von Spreckelsen (1929–1987)
 * Sheila Sri Prakash (born 1955), India
 * William L. Steele (1875–1949), US
 * Andrew Steiner (1908–2009), Czechoslovak-American
 * Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925)
 * Joseph Allen Stein (1912–2001), US, India
 * Robert A.M. Stern (born 1939)
 * John Calvin Stevens (1855–1940), US
 * Sir James Stirling (1926–1992)
 * Edward Durrell Stone (1902–1978)
 * James Strutt (1924–2008), Canada
 * Joseph Sunlight (1889–1978)
 * Kimiko Suzuki (1929–1992), Japan
 * Roger Taillibert (1926–2019)
 * Benedetta Tagliabue (born 1963), Italy, co-founder of EMBT
 * Alexander Tamanyan (1878–1936), Armenia
 * Kenzo Tange (1913–2005)
 * Bruno Taut (1880–1938)
 * Max Taut (1884–1967)
 * Giuseppe Terragni (1904–1943)
 * Quinlan Terry (born 1937)
 * Heinrich Tessenow (1876–1950), German
 * Benjamin C. Thompson (1918–2002)
 * Edmund von Trompowsky (1851–1919), Latvia
 * Horace Trumbauer (1868–1938)
 * Bernard Tschumi (born 1944)
 * Gilbert Stanley Underwood (1890–1960)
 * Jørn Utzon (1918–2008), Denmark
 * Vann Molyvann (1926–2017), Cambodia
 * François Valentiny (born 1953), Luxembourg
 * William van Alen (1883–1954)
 * Henry Van de Velde (1863–1957)
 * Henri van Dievoet (1869–1931)
 * Antoine Varlet (1893–1940)
 * Robert Venturi (1925–2018)
 * Miguel Vila Luna (1943–2005), Dominican Republic
 * Carlos Raúl Villanueva (1900–1975)
 * Rafael Viñoly (born 1944)
 * Roland Wank (1898–1970)
 * Paul Waterhouse (1861–1924), UK
 * Carlo Weber (1934–2014)
 * W. H. Weeks (1864–1936)
 * Carl Westman (1866–1936)
 * Paul Williams (1894–1980)
 * Clough Williams-Ellis (1883–1978)
 * Jan Wils (1891–1972)
 * George J. Wimberly (1914–1996)
 * James Wines (born 1932), US
 * Geoffrey Wooding (1954–2010)
 * Lebbeus Woods (1940–2012), US
 * Frank Lloyd Wright (1867–1959), US
 * Marcellus E. Wright Sr. (1881–1962), US
 * Minoru Yamasaki (1912–1986)
 * F. R. S. Yorke (1906–1962), UK
 * Jean-François Zevaco (1916–2003)
 * Milan Zloković (1898–1965)
 * Peter Zumthor (born 1943), Switzerland

A–M

 * Adolfo Moran
 * Alessandro Caruso (born 1969), Italy
 * Alexandre Chan
 * Andy Martin (architect) (born 1963)
 * Antonio Citterio (born 1950), Italy
 * Arif Hasan (born 1943), Pakistan
 * Atsushi Kitagawara (born 1951), Japan
 * Basil Al Bayati (born 1946), UK
 * Bernard Khoury (born in 1969), Lebanon
 * Bjarke Ingels (born 1974), Denmark
 * Cantarutti Robby (born 1966), Italy
 * Carol Ross Barney (born 1949), US
 * Christina Cho, Australia
 * Christoph Ingenhoven (born 1960), Germany
 * Christopher Charles Benninger (born 1942), India
 * Craig W. Hartman
 * Daniel Libeskind (born 1946, Poland), US
 * David Adjaye (born 1966), Tanzania
 * David M. Harper (born 1953)
 * David Randall Hertz (born 1960), US
 * Dominique Gauzin-Müller (born 1960), France
 * Dy Proeung, Cambodia
 * Eric Corey Freed
 * Erick van Egeraat (born 1956), Netherlands
 * Eugene Pandala (born 1954), India
 * Greg Lynn
 * Gregory Henriquez
 * Günay Erdem (born 1978, Bulgaria), Turkey
 * Hafeez Contractor (born 1950), India
 * H. R. Hiegel
 * Hidetsugu Aneha (born 1957), Japan
 * Hossein Amanat (born 1942), Iran
 * Ivan Harbour (born 1962), UK
 * James Garrison (born 1963), US
 * Jeanne Gang (born 1964), US
 * Jimenez Lai
 * Jing Liu
 * Jun'ya Ishigami (born 1974), Japan
 * Kamel Mahadin (born 1954), Jordan
 * Kazuyo Sejima (born 1956), Japan
 * Kees Christiaanse (born 1953), Netherlands
 * Keith Griffiths (born 1954), UK
 * Kengo Kuma
 * Kevin Kennon
 * Lise Anne Couture (born 1959), Canada
 * Marco Casagrande (born 1971), Finland
 * Mariam Kamara (born 1979), Niger
 * Massimiliano Fuksas, Italy
 * Maya Lin, US
 * Michael Middleton Dwyer, US
 * Michael Green, Canada
 * Michel Abboud (born 1977), Lebanon
 * Nabil Gholam (born 1962), Lebanon
 * Norman Foster, (born 1935), UK
 * Odile Decq, (born 1955), France
 * Olajumoke Adenowo (born 1968), Nigeria
 * Peter Eisenman (born 1932), US
 * Peter Exley, US
 * Pouya Khazaeli (born 1975), Iran
 * Rafiq Azam, Bangladesh
 * Rem Koolhaas (born 1944), Netherlands
 * Roger Duffy
 * Ron Arad (born 1951), Israel
 * Sunita Kohli (born 1946), India
 * Sean Godsell (born 1960), Australia
 * Shigeru Ban (born 1957), Japan
 * Sir Terry Farrell, UK
 * Sou Fujimoto (born 1971), Japan
 * Stefano Boeri, Italy
 * Stephan Braunfels (born 1950), Germany
 * Steven Holl (born 1947), US
 * Sue Courtenay, Belize
 * Sunay Erdem (born 1971, Bulgaria), Turkey
 * Tatiana Bilbao, Mexico
 * T.J. Gottesdiener
 * Terence Conran (1931–2020), UK
 * Thom Mayne
 * Thomas Doerr (born 1964), US
 * Thomas Herzog
 * Tom Kundig
 * Tony Fretton (born 1945), UK
 * Toshiko Mori, Japan
 * Toyo Ito (born 1941), Japan
 * Wiel Arets (born 1955), Netherlands
 * William McDonough
 * Zaha Hadid (1950–2016), UK
 * Nzinga Biegueng Mboup, Senegal

N–Z

 * Florent Nédélec
 * Enamul Karim Nirjhar
 * Samuel Oghale Oboh (born 1971), Canada/Nigeria
 * Liz Ogbu
 * Neri Oxman
 * Satyendra Pakhale (born 1967), India
 * Mustapha Khalid Palash
 * Bimal Patel (born 1961), India
 * Thomas Phifer
 * Renzo Piano, Italy
 * Dimitris Potiropoulos
 * Antoine Predock
 * Joshua Prince-Ramus
 * Philippe Rahm
 * Richard Rogers, UK
 * Fernando Romero, Mexico
 * Lawrence Scarpa
 * Kazuyo Sejima (born 1956), Japan
 * Adrian Smith
 * Galia Solomonoff
 * Sheila Sri Prakash (born 1955), India
 * Paul Steelman (born 1955), US
 * Marshall Strabala
 * Sergei Tchoban (born 1962), Russian-born architect
 * Jack Travis (born 1952), US
 * Victor Vechersky (born 1958), Ukraine
 * Ross Wimer
 * Wang Shu (born 1963), China
 * Jörg Stollmann, Germany
 * Wilfried van Winden (born 1955)
 * Gert Wingårdh (born 1951), Sweden
 * Jun Xia, China
 * Ken Yeang (born 1948), Malaysia

Mythological/fictional architects
Several architects occur in worldwide mythology, including Daedalus, builder of the Labyrinth, in Greek myth. In the Bible, Nimrod is considered the creator of the Tower of Babel, and King Solomon built Solomon's Temple with the assistance of the architect Hiram. In Hinduism, the palaces of the gods were built by the architect and artisan Vishvakarma. Moreover, Indian epic Mahabharata cites amazing work by architect 'Maya.'

Architects also occur in modern fiction. Examples include Howard Roark, protagonist in Ayn Rand's The Fountainhead; Bloody Stupid Johnson, a parody of Capability Brown who appears in Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels; and Slartibartfast, designer of planets in Douglas Adams's The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. Basil Al Bayati's novel The Age of Metaphors on the theme of Metaphoric Architecture is also replete with fictional architects. The main characters of Sa'ad, Shiymaa and Sa'im are all architects, as are a number of others who appear throughout the book.

Many films have included central characters who are architects, including Henry Fonda's character "Juror 8" (Davis) in 12 Angry Men (1957), Charles Bronson's character in Death Wish (1974), John Cassavetes' character in Tempest (1982), Wesley Snipes' character in "Jungle Fever" (1991), Christopher Lloyd's character in Suburban Commando (1991), Tom Hanks' character in Sleepless in Seattle (1993), David Strathairn's character in The River Wild (1994), Michael J. Fox's character in The Frighteners (1996), Michael Keaton's character in White Noise (2005) and Jeremy Irons' character in High-Rise (2015).

In television, Mike Brady, father of The Brady Bunch, is an architect; as is Wilbur Post, owner of Mister Ed; Ted Mosby, from How I Met Your Mother, Marshall Darling from Clarissa Explains It All; and David Vincent from The Invaders. Adam Cartwright of Bonanza was an architectural engineer with a university education who designed the sprawling familial ranch-house on the Ponderosa Ranch. The character George Costanza pretends to be an architect named "Art Vandelay" in Seinfeld. Architect Halvard Solness is the protagonist of Henrick Ibsen's 1892 play The Master Builder.

Lists of architects by country
• List of American architects

• List of Armenian architects

• List of Australian architects

• List of Austrian artists and architects

• List of Bahamian architects

• List of Bangladeshi architects

• List of Belgian architects

• List of Brazilian architects

• List of British architects

• List of Bulgarian architects

• List of Canadian architects

• List of Chinese architects (see Category:Chinese architects)

• List of Croatian architects

• List of Cuban architects

• List of Czech architects

• List of Danish architects

• List of Dutch architects

• List of Egyptian architects

• List of Estonian architects

• List of Finnish architects

• List of French architects

• List of German architects

• List of Hungarian architects

• List of Indian architects

• List of Indonesian architects

• List of Iranian architects

• List of Italian architects

• List of Japanese architects

• List of Korean architects

• List of Latvian architects

• List of Lebanese architects

• List of Lithuanian architects

• List of Malaysian architects

• List of Mexican architects

• List of New Zealand architects

• List of Norwegian architects

• List of Pakistani architects

• List of Polish architects

• List of Portuguese architects

• List of Romanian architects

• List of Russian architects

• List of Serbian architects

• List of Slovak architects

• List of Slovenian architects

• List of Spanish architects

• List of Sri Lankan architects

• List of Swedish architects

• List of Swiss architects

• List of Turkish architects

• List of Uruguayan architects

title: List of architects