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Splenda

Splenda is a global brand of sugar substitutes and reduced-calorie food products. While the company is known for its original formulation containing sucralose, it also manufactures items using natural sweeteners such as stevia, monk fruit and allulose. It is owned by the American company Heartland Food Products Group. The high-intensity sweetener ingredient sucralose used in Splenda Original is manufactured by the British company Tate & Lyle.

Sucralose was discovered by Tate & Lyle and researchers at Queen Elizabeth College, University of London, in 1976. Tate & Lyle subsequently developed sucralose-based Splenda products in partnership with Johnson & Johnson subsidiary McNeil Nutritionals, LLC. The Splenda brand was transferred to Heartland Food Products Group after its purchase of the line with investor Centerbridge Partners in 2015.

Since its approval by the United States government in 1998 and introduction there in 1999, sucralose has overtaken Equal in the $1.5-billion artificial sweetener market, holding a 62% market share. According to market research firm IRI, Splenda sales were $212 million in 2006 in the U.S. while Equal's totaled $48.7 million. According to a 2012 article in The New Zealand Herald it is "the category leader in table-top sweetener in the US".

Products
Splenda is available in a variety of products, including:
 * Splenda Original Sweeteners (based on sucralose)
 * Splenda Stevia Sweeteners
 * Splenda Monk Fruit Sweeteners
 * Splenda Allulose Sweeteners
 * Splenda Liquid Sweeteners
 * Splenda Coffee Creamers
 * Splenda Diabetes Care Shakes
 * Splenda Premium Sweet Teas

Energy (caloric) content
The energy content of a single-serving (1 g packet) of Splenda is 3.36 kcal, which is 31% of a single-serving (2.8 g packet) of granulated sugar (10.8 kcal). In the United States, it is legally labelled "zero calories"; U.S. FDA regulations allow this "if the food contains less than 5 Calories per reference amount customarily consumed and per labeled serving". 3.2 packets (3.36 kcal each) of Splenda contain the same caloric content as one packet of sugar (10.8 kcal). Further, Splenda contains a relatively small amount of sucralose, little of which is metabolized; virtually all of Splenda's caloric content derives from the dextrose or highly fluffed maltodextrin "bulking agents" that give Splenda its volume. Like other carbohydrates, dextrose and maltodextrin have 3.75 kcal per gram.

Cooking
Unlike other artificial sweeteners, sucralose is heat stable up to 450 °F (232 °C), so Splenda can be used as a replacement for table sugar in cooking and baking, and there are Splenda products packaged specifically for this purpose. In product testing by Cook's Illustrated, the major drawback to cooking with Splenda was found to be that it does not produce the browning or caramelization the way table sugar does. However, Cook's Illustrated also found that desserts baked with Splenda were "lacking the artificial flavors that just about every other sugar substitute brings with it".

Health and safety regulation
Splenda usually contains 95% dextrose (D-glucose) and maltodextrin (by volume) which the body readily metabolizes, combined with a small amount of mostly indigestible sucralose. Sucralose is made by replacing three select hydrogen-oxygen groups on sucrose (table sugar) molecules with three chlorine atoms. The tightly bound chlorine atoms create a molecular structure that is stable under intense conditions. Sucralose itself is recognized as safe to ingest as a diabetic sugar substitute, but the sugars or other carbohydrates used as bulking agents in Splenda products should be evaluated individually. The recommended amount of sucralose that can be consumed on a daily basis over a person's lifetime without any adverse effects is 900 mg/kg BW/day, or about 60 g for a 70 kg (150 lb) person.

A repeated dose study of sucralose in human subjects concluded that "there is no indication that adverse effects on human health would occur from frequent or long-term exposure to sucralose at the maximum anticipated levels of intake". Conversely, a Duke University animal study funded by the Sugar Association found evidence that doses of Splenda between 100 and 1000 mg/kg BW/day, containing sucralose at 1.1 to 11 mg/kg BW/day, fed to rats reduced fecal microflora, increased the pH level in the intestines, contributed to increases in body weight, and increased levels of P-glycoprotein (P-gp). These effects have not been reported in humans. In response, McNeil Nutritionals, along with an expert panel that included scientists from Duke University, Rutgers University, New York Medical College, Harvard School of Public Health, and Columbia University reported in Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology that the Duke study was "not scientifically rigorous and is deficient in several critical areas that preclude reliable interpretation of the study results". The other ingredients in Splenda—dextrose and maltodextrin—are listed as generally recognized as safe because of their long history of safe consumption.

Sucralose may not be completely biologically inert, and a study showed that cooking with sucralose at high temperatures could cause it to degrade into potentially toxic compounds. However, only a very small amount (approximately 2–8% of sucralose consumed) is metabolized by the body, on average, and the amount of sucralose present in Splenda is slight.

Marketing controversy
In 2006, Merisant, the maker of Equal, filed suit against McNeil Nutritionals in U.S. District Court, Philadelphia, alleging that Splenda's tagline; "made from sugar, so it tastes like sugar" is misleading. McNeil argued during the trial that it had never deceived consumers or set out to deceive them, since the product is in fact made from sugar. Merisant asked that McNeil be ordered to surrender profits and modify its advertising. The case ended with an agreement reached outside of court, with undisclosed settlement conditions. In 2004, Merisant filed a complaint with the Better Business Bureau regarding McNeil's advertising. McNeil alleged that Merisant's complaint was in retaliation for a ruling in federal court in Puerto Rico, which forced Merisant to stop packaging Equal in packages resembling Splenda's. McNeil filed suit in Puerto Rico seeking a ruling which would declare its advertising to not be misleading. Following Merisant's lawsuit in Philadelphia, McNeil agreed to a jury trial and to the dismissal of its lawsuit in Puerto Rico. However, on May 11, 2007, the parties reached a settlement on the case, the terms of which were not disclosed.

In 2007, Merisant France prevailed in the Commercial Court of Paris against subsidiaries of McNeil Nutritionals LLC. The court awarded Merisant $54,000 in damages and ordered the defendants to cease advertising claims found to violate French consumer protection laws, including the slogans; "because it comes from sugar, sucralose tastes like sugar" and "With sucralose: comes from sugar and tastes like sugar".

A Sugar Association complaint to the Federal Trade Commission stated that "Splenda is not a natural product. It is not cultivated or grown and it does not occur in nature." McNeil Nutritionals, the manufacturer of Splenda, has responded that its "advertising represents the products in an accurate and informative manner and complies with applicable advertising rules in the countries where Splenda brand products are marketed." The Sugar Association created a web site to criticise sucralose which cites an association-sponsored study.

title: Splenda


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Academy Award for Best Story

The Academy Award for Best Story was an Academy Award given from the beginning of the Academy Awards until 1956. This award can be a source of confusion for modern audiences, given its co-existence with the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay and Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. The Oscar for Best Story most closely resembles the usage of modern film treatments, or prose documents that describe the entire plot and characters, but typically lack most dialogue. A separate screenwriter would convert the story into a full screenplay.

As an example, at the 1944 Academy Awards, producer and director Leo McCarey won Best Story for Going My Way while screenwriters Frank Butler and Frank Cavett won Best Screenplay. The elimination of this category in 1956 reflects the decline of Hollywood's studio system and the emergence of independent screenwriters.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Academy Award for Best Story


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James Louis Sobieski

James Louis Henry Sobieski (Polish: Jakub Ludwik Henryk Sobieski; French: Jacques Louis Henri de Sobieski; 2 November 1667 – 19 December 1737) was a Polish-French nobleman, politician, diplomat, scholar, traveller and the son of John III of Poland by his wife Marie de La Grange d'Arquien.

Biography
Jakub Ludwik Henry Sobieski was born on 2 November 1667 in Paris, France. He was given the first name Jakub in honor of his grandfather Jakub Sobieski, while his middle names "Louis" Henry were a gesture to his godparents, Louis XIV of France and Henrietta Maria of France.

Health problems were a constant for Jakub in his youth, and there is a wealth of correspondence exchanged between his parents on the subject. He likely had a spinal deformation, which was likely not very severe because Jakub was known as a good dancer and a proficient equestrian. His mother Maria Kazimiera repeatedly expressed her worry over her son's precarious health in her letters which survived to the present day. Father Kostrzycki became Jakub' guardian and educator in 1671.

Prince of Poland
With his father's election as King of Poland in 1674 the education of Prince Jakub Sobieski became a state matter. As the son of the new monarch, he had every right to receive a proper education. Nonetheless, a fair number of deputies protested and were unwilling to grant royal rights to the Sobieski family. It is worth noting that relatively strong opposition to the king and his family arose within the szlachta's ranks during the peak of the king's popularity, immediately following his victory in the Battle of Khotyn. The general disdain that the nobility projected towards Jakub and his father Jan would be a constant impediment in the careers of both men in the decades to come.

Dynastic plans in Silesia and Ducal Prussia
The young prince was also drawn into his parents' dynastic plans, which only further inflamed the aristocracy's antipathy towards the Sobieski family. Despite efforts by his parents at the Vienna court, they were unable to secure for Jakub rule over the Duchies of Legnica, Brzeg, Wołów, and Oława in Silesia after the Piast dynasty died out in 1675. This led Jakub' father Jan III Sobieski to put a plan together to seize power in Ducal Prussia and elevate his son. The secret treaty of Jaworów signed in 1675 between the Polish king and France committed Poland to aiding France against Brandenburg-Prussia in exchange for French monetary subsidies and support for Polish claims over Ducal Prussia. The French promised to mediate between Poland and the Ottoman Empire so that Polish forces could be diverted from the southern border.

The treaty failed however, as French diplomats were unable to improve the relations between Poland and the Ottomans. The Truce of Żurawno signed the following year was unfavorable to Poland. France eventually concluded the Treaty of Nijmegen with Prussia in 1679. This cooled France's relations with Poland, as Sobieski abandoned his pro-French stance. The Polish-French alliance had completely fallen apart by 1683 when some of the pro-French faction members within Poland were accused of plotting to overthrowing Sobieski, and French ambassador Nicolas-Louis de l'Hospital, Bishop of Beauvais and Marquis of Vitry was forced to leave the country.

The failure of this plan prompted the king to promote Prince Jakub through participation in the war against the Ottoman Empire. In this way, King Jan was aiming to gain social acceptance for an increased role for the prince, who he hoped would become the second most important person in the Commonwealth after himself. These efforts culminated in the fifteen-year-old prince fighting alongside his father against the Turks at the Battle of Vienna in 1683. In line with his parents ambitions for him, Prince Jakub was a member of the Order of the Golden Fleece a Catholic order of chivalry which has been referred to as the most elite brotherhood in the Christian faith.

Attempt to seize the Moldavian throne
Between 1685 and 1693 the Principality of Moldavia was ruled by Hospodar Constantin Cantemir. The first of the Cantemir dynasty on the Moldavian throne, Constantin was an illiterate from petty nobility who once served as an officer in the Polish Army whereas his predecessors had mostly been members of the powerful boyar families. Constantin's reign was characterized by clashes between two powerful factions of boyars, a pro-Polish and a pro-Ottoman camp. While Kantemir himself officially sided with the pro-Ottomans, he nonetheless informally cooperated to some extent with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Sensing weakness, Polish King Jan III Sobieski had Polish troops enter Moldavia twice in 1686 and 1691 to try to put his son Jakub on the Moldavian throne, utilizing the Armenian monastery of Suceava as a base of operations. These efforts were unsuccessful, and Kantemir ordered the execution of the leader of the pro-Polish party.

Duke of Oława
He was initially engaged to Ludwika Karolina Radziwiłł but the marriage never materialized. On 25 March 1691 Jakub Ludwik married Hedwig Elisabeth Amelia of Neuburg (1673–1722), the daughter of the Elector Palatine Philip William. In celebration of their wedding the opera Per goder in amor ci vuol costanza was created by librettist Giovanni Battista Lampugnani and composer Viviano Augustini. The couple had five daughters, two of whom would have progeny. As part of his wife's dowry, he received the Principality of Oława.

Candidacy for the Polish Crown

With the death of Jakub Louis' father in 1696, no fewer than eighteen candidates stood for the vacant Polish throne. Family rivalries prevented the election of Jakub Ludwik Sobieski even though Austria supported his candidacy. Jakub Ludwik Sobieski's own mother, Marie Casimire, favored her son-in-law, Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria. The powerful King Louis XIV of France supported François Louis, Prince of Conti (1664–1709).

In the end, Frederick Augustus, Elector of Saxony, who renounced Lutheranism and converted to Catholicism in order to qualify, was crowned as Augustus II, King of Poland on 1 September 1697. It was the first time that a deceased monarch's son had not been elected to succeed him, the previous king's heir had been debarred from the throne by military force, and that a German became king (which went against a tradition of avoiding German hegemony). Augustus II's first act as king was to expel the prince of Conti from the country.

Exile in Oława and imprisonment
After the coronation of King Augustus II, Sobieski began negotiations to reconcile with the new Polish king. During the talks Jakub was accused of trying to organize a rebellion against the new monarch, and as a result, lost substantial land holdings. Offended, Sobieski refused to pay homage to Augustus and left the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth for Oława in Silesia.

In 1704 Jakub Ludwik Sobieski and his brother Alexander were seized by Augustus II's troops in the vicinity of Wrocław and imprisoned over fears by Augustus that Sobieski may try to gain the Polish throne. The brothers remained in prison in Pleissenburg and Königstein for two years before finally being released after the Treaty of Altranstädt where he signed a formal agreement to never again make any attempt to become King of Poland.

Return to Poland
Jakub Sobieski received a favorable sentence during the Silent Sejm in 1717, which enabled him to return to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and recover his family property which had been confiscated by King Augustus. He returned to Poland and reconciled with the king, and subsequently settled in the Sobieski's ancestral castle in Żółkiew. After falling out of favor with Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI for allowing his daughter Maria Clementina Sobieska to marry James Francis Edward Stuart he lost the principality of Oława in 1719, but was able to regain his Silesian holdings in 1722. Sobieski would return to Oława periodically between 1722 and 1734. He spent the last years of his life managing his properties, traveling between his residences in Ukraine and Silesia, while devoting himself to philanthropy.

Death
Jakub Ludwik Sobieski died of a stroke on 19 December 1737 in Żółkiew, Poland and is buried there. His oldest surviving daughter Maria Karolina, inherited his vast land holdings which included 11 cities and 140 villages.

Sobieski's Legacy in Oława
The connection to the Polish state which Sobieski's rule brought to Oława set this part of Lower Silesia on a different trajectory, and thanks to it the Polish language was preserved here long after Jakub' death in 1737. After the end of the Silesian Wars in 1763, the city along with most of Silesia was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia, which immediately set out to Germanize their subjects. Yet the population remained Polish speaking in the vicinity of Oława. Julius Roger in his ethnographic book on Silesian folk songs recorded a Polish tune from Oława in 1863. In his book "Schlesien: eine Landeskunde für das deutsche Volk" published in 1896, outstanding German geographer Joseph Partsch expresses his surprise that:

"...it is difficult to understand how it could have happened that on the west side of the Odra River, in the Oława district and in the vicinity of parts of Wrocław and Strzelin, that a completely dense territory of Polish-speaking residents could survive, in an area which contains many important roads that extends on all sides from the great transport center which is Wrocław ..."

After World War II German Silesia was ceded to the Polish People's Republic. Since then, a number of sites within Oława have been renamed to commemorate Jakub Sobieski.

Issue

 * 1) Maria Leopoldyna (30 April 1693 – 12 July 1695).
 * 2) Maria Casimira (20 January 1695 – 18 May 1723), engaged to Charles XII of Sweden.
 * 3) Maria Karolina (15 November 1697 – 8 May 1740) married (1) Frederick Maurice de la Tour d'Auvergne (2) Charles Godefroy de La Tour d'Auvergne and had issue.
 * 4) Jan (21 October 1698 – July 1699).
 * 5) Maria Klementyna (18 July 1702 – 24 January 1735) married James Francis Edward Stuart and had issue (Charles Edward Stuart and Henry Benedict Stuart)
 * 6) Maria Magdalena (born and died 3 August 1704).

title: James Louis Sobieski


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Talk:Treblinka

What is the exact translation of voivodship?

 * My Langenscheidt's Polish-English dictionary says:  województwo   n   province, voivodship As far as I can see, voivodship is a perfectly acceptable English word within the context of discussing Poland, just as département is when discussing France, though adding "(province)" as a clarifier might be a good idea. On the other hand, shouldn't linking it be enough? Brion VIBBER

Thanks. Chris Mahan

title: Talk:Treblinka


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Coptic language

Coptic (Bohairic Coptic:, Timetremǹkhēmi) is a group of closely related Egyptian dialects, representing the most recent developments of the Egyptian language, and historically spoken by the Copts, starting from the third century AD in Roman Egypt. It was commonly spoken until at least the 16th century when it was completely replaced by the Arabic language under the Mamluk Sultanate. Coptic has no native speakers today, although it remains in daily use as the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church and of the Coptic Catholic Church. Innovations in grammar and phonology and the influx of Greek loanwords distinguish Coptic from earlier periods of the Egyptian language. It is written with the Coptic alphabet, a modified form of the Greek alphabet with several additional letters borrowed from the Demotic Egyptian script.

The major Coptic dialects are Sahidic, Bohairic, Akhmimic, Fayyumic, Lycopolitan, and Oxyrhynchite. Sahidic Coptic was spoken between the cities of Asyut and Oxyrhynchus and flourished as a literary language across Egypt in the period c. 325 AD. Bohairic, the language of the Nile Delta, gained prominence in the 9th century and is the dialect used by the Coptic Church.

Name
In Coptic the language is called (timetremǹkhēmi) "Egyptian" or  (tiaspi ǹremǹkhēmi) "the Egyptian language". Coptic also possessed the term (gyptios) "Egyptian", derived from Greek  (Aigúptios). This was borrowed into Arabic as (qibṭ/qubṭ), and from there into the languages of Europe, giving rise to words like French copte and English Copt.

Geographic distribution
Coptic is today spoken liturgically in the Coptic Orthodox and Coptic Catholic Church (along with Modern Standard Arabic). The language is spoken only in Egypt and historically has had little influence outside of the territory, except for monasteries located in Nubia. Coptic's most noticeable linguistic impact has been on the various dialects of Egyptian Arabic, which is characterised by a Coptic substratum in lexical, morphological, syntactical, and phonological features.

Influence on other languages
In addition to influencing the grammar, vocabulary and syntax of Egyptian Arabic, Coptic has lent to both Arabic and Modern Hebrew such words as:

 * timsāḥ (تمساح; תמסח), "crocodile"; emsah ; this subsequently entered Turkish as timsah. Coptic is grammatically masculine and hence would have taken the form pemsah (Sahidic: ; Bohairic: ) with the definite articular prefix. Hence it is unclear why the word should have entered Arabic with an initial t, which would have required the word to be grammatically feminine (i.e. Sahidic: ; Bohairic: ).
 * ṭūbah, طوبة, "brick"; Sahidic:, tōōbe; Bohairic , tōbi; this subsequently entered Catalan and Spanish (via Andalusian Arabic) as tova and adobe respectively, the latter of which was borrowed by American English.
 * wāḥah, واحة, "oasis"; Sahidic:, ouahe; Bohairic: , ouehi; this subsequently entered Turkish as vaha

A few words of Coptic origin are found in the Greek language; some of the words were later lent to various European languages — such as barge, from Coptic baare (, "small boat").

However, most words of Egyptian origin that entered into Greek and subsequently into other European languages came directly from Ancient Egyptian, often Demotic. An example is the Greek oasis (ὄασις), which comes directly from Egyptian or Demotic. However, Coptic reborrowed some words of Ancient Egyptian origin into its lexicon, via Greek. For example, both Sahidic and Bohairic use the word ebenos, which was taken directly from Greek ἔβενος ("ebony"), originally from Egyptian.

Many place names in modern Egypt are Arabic adaptations of their former Coptic names:

The Coptic name, papnoute (from Egyptian pꜣy-pꜣ-nṯr), means "belonging to God" or "he of God". It was adapted into Arabic as Babnouda, which remains a common name among Egyptian Copts to this day. It was also borrowed into Greek as the name Παφνούτιος (Paphnutius). That, in turn, is the source of the Russian name Пафнутий (Pafnuty), perhaps best known in the name of the mathematician Pafnuty Chebyshev.

History
The Egyptian language may have the longest documented history of any language, from Old Egyptian that appeared just before 3200 BC to its final phases as Coptic in the Middle Ages. Coptic belongs to the Later Egyptian phase, which started to be written in the New Kingdom of Egypt. Later Egyptian represented colloquial speech of the later periods. It had analytic features like definite and indefinite articles and periphrastic verb conjugation. Coptic, therefore, is a reference to both the most recent stage of Egyptian after Demotic and the new writing system that was adapted from the Greek alphabet.

Pre-Islamic period

The earliest attempts to write the Egyptian language using the Greek alphabet are Greek transcriptions of Egyptian proper names, most of which date to the Ptolemaic Kingdom. Scholars frequently refer to this phase as pre-Coptic. However, it is clear that by the Late Period of ancient Egypt, demotic scribes regularly employed a more phonetic orthography, a testament to the increasing cultural contact between Egyptians and Greeks even before Alexander the Great's conquest of Egypt. Coptic itself, or Old Coptic, takes root in the first century. The transition from the older Egyptian scripts to the newly adapted Coptic alphabet was in part due to the decline of the traditional role played by the priestly class of ancient Egyptian religion, who, unlike most ordinary Egyptians, were literate in the temple scriptoria. Old Coptic is represented mostly by non-Christian texts such as Egyptian pagan prayers and magical and astrological papyri. Many of them served as glosses to original hieratic and demotic equivalents. The glosses may have been aimed at non-Egyptian speakers.

Under late Roman rule, Diocletian persecuted many Egyptian converts to the new Christian faith, which forced new converts to flee to the Egyptian deserts. In time, the growth of these communities generated the need to write Christian Greek instructions in the Egyptian language. The early Fathers of the Coptic Church, such as Anthony the Great, Pachomius the Great, Macarius of Egypt and Athanasius of Alexandria, who otherwise usually wrote in Greek, addressed some of their works to the Egyptian monks in Egyptian. The Egyptian language, now written in the Coptic alphabet, flourished in the second and third centuries. However, it was not until Shenoute that Coptic became a fully standardised literary language based on the Sahidic dialect. Shenouda's native Egyptian tongue and knowledge of Greek and rhetoric gave him the necessary tools to elevate Coptic, in content and style, to a literary height nearly equal to the position of the Egyptian language in ancient Egypt.

Islamic period

The Muslim conquest of Egypt by Arabs came with the spread of Islam in the seventh century. At the turn of the eighth century, Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan decreed that Arabic replace Koine Greek as the sole administrative language. Literary Coptic gradually declined, and within a few hundred years, Egyptian bishop Severus ibn al-Muqaffa found it necessary to write his History of the Patriarchs in Arabic. However, ecclesiastically the language retained an important position, and many hagiographic texts were also composed during this period. Until the 10th century, Coptic remained the spoken language of the native population outside the capital.

As a written language, Coptic is thought to have completely given way to Egyptian Arabic around the 13th century, though it seems to have survived as a spoken language until the 17th century and in some localities even longer.

The Coptic language massively declined under the hands of Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, as part of his campaigns of religious persecution. He issued strict orders completely prohibiting the use of Coptic anywhere, whether in schools, public streets, and even homes, including mothers speaking to their children. Those who did not comply had their tongues cut off. He personally walked the streets of Cairo and eavesdropped on Coptic-speaking homes to find out if any family was speaking Coptic.

From the medieval period there is one known example of tarsh-printed Coptic. The fragmentary amulet A.Ch. 12.145, now in the Austrian National Library, contains a frame of Coptic text around an Arabic main text.

In the early 20th century, some Copts tried to revive the Coptic language, but they were unsuccessful.

In the second half of the 20th century, Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria started a national Church-sponsored movement to revive Coptic. Several works of grammar were published, including a more comprehensive dictionary than had been formerly available. The scholarly findings of the field of Egyptology and the inauguration of the Institute of Coptic Studies further contributed to the renaissance. Efforts at language revitalisation continue to be undertaken, both inside and outside the Church, and have attracted the interest of Copts and linguists in and outside of Egypt.

Writing system

Coptic uses a writing system almost wholly derived from the Greek alphabet, with the addition of a number of letters that have their origins in Demotic Egyptian. This is comparable to the Latin-based Icelandic alphabet, which includes the runic letter thorn. There is some variation in the number and forms of these signs depending on the dialect. Some of the letters in the Coptic alphabet that are of Greek origin were normally reserved for Greek words. Old Coptic texts used several graphemes that were not retained in the literary Coptic orthography of later centuries.

In Sahidic, syllable boundaries may have been marked by a supralinear stroke ⟨◌̄⟩, or the stroke may have tied letters together in one word, since Coptic texts did not otherwise indicate word divisions. Some scribal traditions use a diaeresis over the letters and  at the beginning of a word or to mark a diphthong. Bohairic uses a superposed point or small stroke known as (jinkim, "movement"). When jinkim is placed over a vowel it is pronounced independently, and when it is placed over a consonant a short precedes it.

Literature
The oldest Coptic writings date to the pre-Christian era (Old Coptic), though Coptic literature consists mostly of texts written by prominent saints of the Coptic Church such as Anthony the Great, Pachomius the Great and Shenoute. Shenoute helped fully standardise the Coptic language through his many sermons, treatises and homilies, which formed the basis of early Coptic literature.

Vocabulary
The core lexicon of Coptic is Egyptian, most closely related to the preceding Demotic phase of the language. Up to 40% of the vocabulary of literary Coptic is drawn from Greek, but borrowings are not always fully adapted to the Coptic phonological system and may have semantic differences as well. There are instances of Coptic texts having passages that are almost entirely composed from Greek lexical roots. However, that is likely because the majority of Coptic religious texts are direct translations of Greek works.

"What invariably attracts the attention of the reader of a Coptic text, especially if it is written in the Sa'idic dialect, is the very liberal use which is made of Greek loan words, of which so few, indeed, are to be found in the Ancient Egyptian language. There Greek loan words occur everywhere in Coptic literature, be it Biblical, liturgical, theological, or non-literary, i.e. legal documents and personal letters. Though nouns and verbs predominate, the Greek loan words may come from any other part of speech except pronouns'"

Words or concepts for which no adequate Egyptian translation existed were taken directly from Greek to avoid altering the meaning of the religious message. In addition, other Egyptian words that would have adequately translated the Greek equivalents were not used as they were perceived as having overt pagan associations. Old Coptic texts use many such words, phrases and epithets; for example, the word '(Who is) in (His) Mountain', is an epithet of Anubis. There are also traces of some archaic grammatical features, such as residues of the Demotic relative clause, lack of an indefinite article and possessive use of suffixes.

Thus, the transition from the 'old' traditions to the new Christian religion also contributed to the adoption of Greek words into the Coptic religious lexicon. It is safe to assume that the everyday speech of the native population retained, to a greater extent, its indigenous Egyptian character, which is sometimes reflected in Coptic nonreligious documents such as letters and contracts.

Phonology
Coptic provides the clearest indication of Later Egyptian phonology from its writing system, which fully indicates vowel sounds and occasionally stress patterns. The phonological system of Later Egyptian is also better known than that of the Classical phase of the language because of a greater number of sources indicating Egyptian sounds, including cuneiform letters containing transcriptions of Egyptian words and phrases, and Egyptian renderings of Northwest Semitic names. Coptic sounds, in addition, are known from a variety of Coptic-Arabic papyri in which Arabic letters were used to transcribe Coptic and vice versa. They date to the medieval Islamic period, when Coptic was still spoken.

Vowels
There are some differences of opinion among Coptic language scholars on the correct phonetic interpretation of the writing system of Coptic. Differences centre on how to interpret the pairs of letters ⲉ/ⲏ and ⲟ/ⲱ. In the Attic dialect of Ancient Greek in the 5th century BC, the first member of each pair is a short closed vowel, and the second member is a long open vowel. In some interpretations of Coptic phonology, it is assumed that the length difference is primary, with ⲉ/ⲏ and ⲟ/ⲱ is. Other scholars argue for a different analysis in which ⲉ/ⲏ and ⲟ/ⲱ are interpreted as  and.

These two charts show the two theories of Coptic vowel phonology:

Dialects vary in their realisation. The difference between and  seems to be allophonic. Evidence is not sufficient to demonstrate that these are distinct vowels, and if they are, the difference has a very low functional load. For dialects that use orthographic $⟨ⲉⲓ⟩$ for a single vowel, there appears to be no phonetic difference from $⟨ⲓ⟩$.

Double orthographic vowels are presumed here to be long, as that makes the morphology more straightforward. (Another common interpretation is that these represented glottal stop.)

There is no length distinction in final stressed position, but only those vowels that occur long appear there: $⟨(ⲉ)ⲓ, ⲉ, ⲁ, ⲟ~ⲱ, ⲟⲩ⟩$.

In Sahidic, the letter ⲉ was used for short before back fricatives, and also for unstressed schwa. It's possible there was also a distinction between short and, but if so the functional load was extremely low.

Bohairic did not have long vowels. was only written $⟨ⲓ⟩$. As above, it's possible that and  were distinct vowels rather than just allophones.

In Late Coptic (that is, Late Bohairic), the vowels were reduced to those found in Egyptian Arabic,. $⟨ⲱ, ⲟ⟩$ became, $⟨ⲉ⟩$ became , and $⟨ⲏ⟩$ became either or. It is difficult to explain $⟨ⲏ⟩$. However, it generally became in stressed monosyllables,  in unstressed monosyllables, and in polysyllables,  when followed by, and  when not.

There were no doubled orthographic vowels in Mesokemic. Some representative correspondences with Sahidic are:

It is not clear if these correspondences reflect distinct pronunciations in Mesokemic, or if they are an imitation of the long Greek vowels $⟨η, ω⟩$.

Consonants
As with the vowels, there are differences of opinion over the correct interpretation of the Coptic consonant letters, particularly with regard to the letters and. is transcribed as $\langlej\rangle$ in many older Coptic sources and as $\langleɡ\rangle$ or $\langleč\rangle$. notes that the current conventional pronunciations are different from the probable ancient pronunciations: Sahidic was probably pronounced  and  was probably pronounced. suggests that was pronounced.

Beside being found in Greek loanwords, the letters $\langleφ, θ, χ\rangle$ were used in native words for a sequence of plus, as in  =  "the-way" (f.sg.) and  =  "the-snake" (m.sg). The letters did not have this use in Bohairic, which used them for single sounds.

It is possible that in addition there was a glottal stop,, that was not consistently written. Coptic does not seem to have had a glottal stop at the beginning of orthographically vowel-initial words. It is possible that vowels written double were an attempt to indicate glottal stop, rather than a long vowel, in the middle of a word. However, there is little evidence for this (e.g., Arabic words with short vowels and glottal stop are not written with double vowels in Coptic, and Coptic words with double orthographic vowels are transcribed with long vowels rather than hamza in Arabic.)

In Late Coptic (ca. 14th century), Bohairic sounds that did not occur in Egyptian Arabic were lost. A possible shift from a tenuis-aspirate distinction to voiced-tenuis is only attested from the alveolars, the only place that Arabic has such a contrast.

Earlier phases of Egyptian may have contrasted voiceless and voiced bilabial plosives, but the distinction seems to have been lost. Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic all interchangeably use their respective graphemes to indicate either sound; for example, Coptic for 'iron' appears alternately as, and. That probably reflects dialect variation. Both letters were interchanged with and  to indicate, and  was also used in many texts to indicate the bilabial approximant. Coptologists believe that Coptic was articulated as a voiced bilabial fricative. In the present-day Coptic Church services, this letter is realised as, but it is almost certainly a result of the pronunciation reforms instituted in the 19th century.

Whereas Old Egyptian contrasts and, the two sounds appear to be in free variation in Coptic, as they were since the Middle Egyptian period. However, they are contrasted only in Greek loans; for example, native Coptic (anzēb) and  (ansēbə) 'school' are homophonous. Other consonants that sometimes appear to be either in free variation or to have different distributions across dialects are and,  and  (especially in the Fayyumic dialect, a feature of earlier Egyptian) and  and , with the voiceless stop consonants being more common in Coptic words and the voiced ones in Greek borrowings. Apart from the liquid consonants, this pattern may indicate a sound change in Later Egyptian, leading to a neutralisation of voiced alveolar and velar plosives. When the voiced plosives are realised, it is usually the result of consonant voicing in proximity to.

Though there is no clear evidence that Coptic had a glottal stop, different orthographic means have been posited for indicating one by those who believe that it did: with word-initially, with  word-finally in monosyllabic words in northern dialects and  in monosyllabic words in Akhmimic and Assiutic, by reduplication of a vowel's grapheme but mostly unwritten.

A few early manuscripts have a letter or  ç where Sahidic and Bohairic have  š. and Akhmimic has x. This sound seems to have been lost early on.

Grammar
Coptic is agglutinative with subject–verb–object word order but can be verb–subject–object with the correct preposition in front of the subject. Number, gender, tense, and mood are indicated by prefixes that come from Late Egyptian. The earlier phases of Egyptian did this through suffixation. Some vestiges of the suffix inflection survive in Coptic, mainly to indicate inalienable possession and in some verbs. Compare the Middle Egyptian form *satāpafa 'he chooses' (written stp.f in hieroglyphs) to Coptic (Sahidic) f.sotp 'he chooses'.

Nouns
All Coptic nouns carry grammatical gender, either masculine or feminine, usually marked through a prefixed definite article as in the Romance languages. Masculine nouns are marked with the article and feminine nouns with the article  in the Sahidic dialect and  and  in the Bohairic dialect.

 * Bohairic:  – 'the man' /   – 'the hand'
 * Sahidic:  – 'the man' /   – 'the hand'

The definite and indefinite articles also indicate number; however, only definite articles mark gender. Coptic has a number of broken plurals, a vestige of Older Egyptian, but in the majority of cases, the article marks number. Generally, nouns inflected for plurality end in, but there are some irregularities. The dual was another feature of earlier Egyptian that survives in Coptic in only few words, such as (snau) 'two'.

Words of Greek origin keep their original grammatical gender, except for neuter nouns, which become masculine in Coptic.

Possession of definite nouns is expressed with a series of possessive articles which are prefixed to the noun. These articles agree with the person, number, and gender of the possessor and the number and gender of the possessed noun. The forms of the possessive article vary according to dialect.

Pronouns
Coptic pronouns are of two kinds, dependent and independent. Independent pronouns are used when the pronoun is acting as the subject of a sentence, as the object of a verb, or with a preposition. Dependent pronouns are a series of prefixes and suffixes that can attach to verbs and other nouns. Coptic verbs can therefore be said to inflect for the person, number and gender of the subject and the object: a pronominal prefix marks the subject, and a pronominal suffix marks the object, e.g. "I I'have'it the ball." When (as in this case) the subject is a pronoun, it normally is not also expressed independently, unless for emphasis.

As in other Afroasiatic languages, gender of pronouns differ only in the second and third person singular.

Adjectives
Most Coptic adjectives are actually nouns that have the attributive particle n to make them adjectival. In all stages of Egyptian, this morpheme is also used to express the genitive; for example, the Bohairic word for 'Egyptian',, is a combination of the nominal prefix  rem- (the reduced form of  rōmi 'man'), followed by the genitive morpheme  ən ('of') and finally the word for Egypt,  kʰēmi.

Verbal grade system
Coptic, like Ancient Egyptian and Semitic languages, has root-and-pattern or templatic morphology, and the basic meaning of a verb is contained in a root and various derived forms of root are obtained by varying the vowel pattern. For example, the root for 'build' is kt. It has four derived forms: (The nominal state grade is also called the construct state in some grammars of Coptic.)
 * 1)   (the absolute state grade)
 * 2)  ket- (the nominal state grade)
 * 3)  kot= (the pronominal state grade)
 * 4)   (the stative grade)

The absolute, nominal, and pronominal state grades are used in different syntactic contexts. The absolute state grade of a transitive verb is used before a direct object with the accusative preposition, and the nominal state grade is used before a direct object with no case-marking. The pronominal state grade is used before a pronominal direct object enclitic. In addition, many verbs also have a neutral state grade, used to express a state resulting from the action of the verb. Compare the following forms:

 ABS:absolute state grade NOM:nominal state grade PRONOM:pronominal state grade

For most transitive verbs, both absolute and nominal state grade verbs are available for non-pronominal objects. However, there is one important restriction, known as Jernstedt's rule (or the Stern-Jernstedt rule) : present-tense sentences cannot be used in the nominal state grade. Thus sentences in the present tense always show a pattern like the first example above (absolute state), never the second pattern (nominal state).

In general, the four grades of Coptic verb are not predictable from the root, and are listed in the lexicon for each verb. The following chart shows some typical patterns of correspondence:

It is hazardous to make firm generalisations about the relationships between these grade forms, but the nominal state is usually shorter than the corresponding absolute and neutral forms. Absolute and neutral state forms are usually bisyllabic or contain a long vowel; the corresponding nominal state forms are monosyllabic or have short vowels.

Tense/aspect/mood inflection
Coptic has a very large number of distinct tense-aspect-mood categories, expressed by particles which are either before the verb or before the subject. The future is a preverbal particle and follows the subject:

In contrast, the perfective is a pre-subject particle:

There is some variation in the labels for the tense/aspect/mood categories. The chart below shows the labels from, ,. (Where they agree, only one label is shown.) Each form lists the morphology found with a nonpronominal subject (Marked with an underscore in Coptic) and a third person singular masculine pronominal subject ('he'):

An approximate range of use for most of the tense/aspect/mood categories is shown in the following table:

Second tenses
An unusual feature of Coptic is the extensive use of a set of "second tenses", which are required in certain syntactic contexts. "Second tenses" are also called "relative tenses" in some work.

Prepositions
Coptic has prepositions, rather than postpositions:

Pronominal objects of prepositions are indicated with enclitic pronouns:

Many prepositions have different forms before the enclitic pronouns. Compare:

Sentential syntax
Coptic typically shows subject–verb–object (SVO) word order, as in the following examples:

The verbs in these sentences are in the, which requires that its direct object be introduced with the preposition. This preposition functions like accusative case.

There is also an alternative of the verb in which the direct object of the verb follows with no preposition:

Dialects

There is little written evidence of dialectal differences in the pre-Coptic phases of the Egyptian language due to the centralised nature of the political and cultural institutions of ancient Egyptian society. However, literary Old and Middle (Classical) Egyptian represent the spoken dialect of Lower Egypt around the city of Memphis, the capital of Egypt in the Old Kingdom. Later Egyptian is more representative of the dialects spoken in Upper Egypt, especially around the area of Thebes as it became the cultural and religious center of the New Kingdom.

Coptic more obviously displays a number of regional dialects that were in use from the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in northern Egypt, south into Nubia, and in the western oases. However, while many of these dialects reflect actual regional linguistic (namely phonological and some lexical) variation, they mostly reflect localised orthographic traditions with very little grammatical differences.

Sahidic

Sahidic (also known as Thebaic) is the dialect in which most known Coptic texts are written, and was the leading dialect in the pre-Islamic period. It is thought to have originally been a regional dialect from the area around Hermopolis (Ϣⲙⲟⲩⲛⲉⲓⲛ). Around 300 it began to be written in literary form, including translations of major portions of the Bible (see Coptic versions of the Bible). By the 6th century, a standardised spelling had been attained throughout Egypt. Almost all native authors wrote in this dialect of Coptic. Sahidic was, beginning in the 9th century, challenged by Bohairic, but is attested as late as the 14th.

While texts in other Coptic dialects are primarily translations of Greek literary and religious texts, Sahidic is the only dialect with a considerable body of original literature and non-literary texts. Because Sahidic shares most of its features with other dialects of Coptic with few peculiarities specific to itself, and has an extensive corpus of known texts, it is generally the dialect studied by learners of Coptic, particularly by scholars outside of the Coptic Church.

Akhmimic
Akhmimic was the dialect of the area around the town of Akhmim (Πανὸς πόλις). It flourished during the fourth and fifth centuries, after which no writings are attested. Akhmimic is phonologically the most archaic of the Coptic dialects. One characteristic feature is the retention of the phoneme, which is realised as in most other dialects.

Aswanic
Aswanic was the dialect of the area around the town of Aswan. It is considered a sub-dialect and is very close to Akhmimic, although, what makes it different is that "ϩ" is written before pronouns, for example in normal Coptic it is said Afso, which means drank, but in the Aswanic dialect it is said Hafso. It also has a distinctive way of writing; so the letter "ⲃ" is written instead of the letter "ϥ".

Lycopolitan
Lycopolitan (also known as Subakhmimic and Assiutic) is a dialect closely related to Akhmimic in terms of when and where it was attested, but manuscripts written in Lycopolitan tend to be from the area of Asyut. The main differences between the two dialects seem to be graphic in nature. The Lycopolitan variety was used extensively for translations of Gnostic and Manichaean works, including the texts of the Nag Hammadi library.

Bohairic

 * The Bohairic (also known as Memphitic) dialect originated in the western Nile Delta. The earliest Bohairic manuscripts date to the 4th century, but most texts come from the 9th century and later; this may be due to poor preservation conditions for texts in the humid regions of northern Egypt. It shows several conservative features in lexicon and phonology not found in other dialects. Bohairic is the dialect used today as the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church, replacing Sahidic some time in the eleventh century. In contemporary liturgical use, there are two traditions of pronunciation, arising from successive reforms in the 19th and 20th centuries (see Coptic pronunciation reform). Modern revitalisation efforts are based on this dialect.
 * Bashmuric (also known as Mansurian and Dialect G) was a sub dialect of Bohairic most likely spoken in Eastern Delta. Its main characteristic is using solely Greek letters to represent Coptic phonemes.

Fayyumic

 * Fayyumic (also written as Faiyumic; in older works it is often called Bashmuric) was spoken primarily in the Faiyum west of the Nile Valley. It is attested from the 3rd to the 10th centuries. It is most notable for writing (which corresponds to ), where other dialects generally use   (probably corresponding to a flap ). In earlier stages of Egyptian, the liquids were not distinguished in writing until the New Kingdom, when Late Egyptian became the administrative language. Late Egyptian orthography utilised a grapheme that combined the graphemes for  and  in order to express . Demotic for its part indicated  using a diacritic variety of.
 * South Fayyumic (also called Dialect V) was spoken around modern towns of Beni Suef and Bush and is distinguished from central Fayyumic by not having lambdacism.
 * Ashmuninic (also known as Hermopolitan or Dialect H) was spoken around the city of Shmun and shares South Fayyumic features like vowel gemination and absence of lambdacism.

Oxyrhynchite
Oxyrhynchite (also known as Mesokemic or [confusingly] Middle Egyptian) is the dialect of Oxyrhynchus and surrounding areas. It shows similarities with Fayyumic and is attested in manuscripts from the fourth and fifth centuries.

General studies

 * Emmel, Stephen. 1992. "Languages (Coptic)". In The Anchor Bible Dictionary, edited by David Noel Freedman. Vol. 4 of 6 vols. New York: Doubleday. 180–188.
 * Kasser, Radolphe. 1991. "Dialects". In The Coptic Encyclopedia, edited by Aziz Suryal Atiya. Vol. 8 of 8 vols. New York and Toronto: Macmillan Publishing Company and Collier Macmillan Canada. 87–96.
 * Wolfgang Kosack. Lehrbuch des Koptischen.Teil I:Koptische Grammatik.Teil II:Koptische Lesestücke, Graz 1974.
 * Loprieno, Antonio. 1995. Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 * Polotsky, Hans Jakob. 1971. "Coptic". In Afroasiatic: A Survey, edited by Carleton Taylor Hodge. (Jana Linguarum: Series Practica; 163). 's Gravenhage and Paris: Mouton. 67–79.
 * Wolfgang Kosack. Lehrbuch des Koptischen.Teil I:Koptische Grammatik.Teil II:Koptische Lesestücke, Graz 1974.
 * Loprieno, Antonio. 1995. Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 * Polotsky, Hans Jakob. 1971. "Coptic". In Afroasiatic: A Survey, edited by Carleton Taylor Hodge. (Jana Linguarum: Series Practica; 163). 's Gravenhage and Paris: Mouton. 67–79.

Grammars and grammatical studies

 * Chaîne, Marius. 1933. Éléments de grammaire dialectale copte: bohairique, sahidique, achmimique, fayoumique. Paris: Paul Geuthner.
 * Eberle, Andrea, & Regine Schulz. 2004. Koptisch – Ein Leitfaden durch das Saïdische. LINCOM Languages of the World/Materials 07. Munich: LINCOM Europa.
 * Layton, Bentley. 2000. A Coptic Grammar (Sahidic Dialect): With a Chrestomathy and Glossary. (Porta linguarum orientalium; N.S., 20). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
 * Mallon, Alexis. 1956. Grammaire copte: bibliographie, chrestomathie et vocabulaire. 4th edition. Beyrouth.
 * Mattar, Nabil. 1990. A Study in Bohairic Coptic. Pasadena: Hope Publishing House.
 * Polotsky, Hans Jakob. 1987. Grundlagen des koptischen Satzbaus. American Studies in Papyrology 28. Decatur, Ga.: Scholars Press.
 * Shisha-Halevy, Ariel. 1988. Coptic Grammatical Chrestomathy: a course for academic and private study. Orientalia lovaniensia analecta 30. Leuven: Peeters.
 * Shisha-Halevy, Ariel. 1986. Coptic Grammatical Categories: Structural Studies in the Syntax of Shenoutean Sahidic. Analecta Orientalia 53. Roma: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum. ISBN 88-7653-255-2.
 * Shisha-Halevy, Ariel. 2007. Topics in Coptic Syntax: Structural Studies in the Bohairic Dialect. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 160. Leuven – Paris – Dudley, MA: Peeters. ISBN 978-90-429-1875-7.
 * Tattam, Henry, A compendious grammar of the Egyptian language as contained in the Coptic, Sahidic, and Bashmuric Dialects (London 1863)
 * Till, Walter C. 1994. Koptische Dialektgrammatik. Berlin: Walter De Gruyter.
 * Vergote, Jozef. 1973–1983. Grammaire copte. Leuven: Peeters.
 * Younan, Sameh. 2005. So, you want to learn Coptic? A guide to Bohairic Grammar. Sydney: St.Mary, St.Bakhomious and St.Shenouda Coptic Orthodox Church.
 * Shisha-Halevy, Ariel. 1986. Coptic Grammatical Categories: Structural Studies in the Syntax of Shenoutean Sahidic. Analecta Orientalia 53. Roma: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum. ISBN 88-7653-255-2.
 * Shisha-Halevy, Ariel. 2007. Topics in Coptic Syntax: Structural Studies in the Bohairic Dialect. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 160. Leuven – Paris – Dudley, MA: Peeters. ISBN 978-90-429-1875-7.
 * Tattam, Henry, A compendious grammar of the Egyptian language as contained in the Coptic, Sahidic, and Bashmuric Dialects (London 1863)
 * Till, Walter C. 1994. Koptische Dialektgrammatik. Berlin: Walter De Gruyter.
 * Vergote, Jozef. 1973–1983. Grammaire copte. Leuven: Peeters.
 * Younan, Sameh. 2005. So, you want to learn Coptic? A guide to Bohairic Grammar. Sydney: St.Mary, St.Bakhomious and St.Shenouda Coptic Orthodox Church.

Dictionaries

 * Černý, Jaroslav. 1976. Coptic Etymological Dictionary. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
 * Crum, Walter Ewing. 1939. A Coptic Dictionary]. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Reprinted by Sandpiper Books Ltd, London & Powells Books, Chicago, 2000.
 * Wolfgang Kosack: Koptisches Handlexikon des Bohairischen. Koptisch – Deutsch – Arabisch. Verlag Christoph Brunner, Basel 2013, ISBN 978-3-9524018-9-7.
 * Vycichl, Werner. 1983. Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue copte. Leuven: Éditions Peeters.
 * Westendorf, Wolfhart. 1965/1977. Koptisches Handwörterbuch. Heidelberg: Carl Winter.

Phonology

 * Depuydt, Leo. 1993. "On Coptic Sounds", Orientalia 62 (new series): 338–75.
 * Greenberg, Joseph H (originally published 1962). "The interpretation of the Coptic vowel system", On Language: Selected Writings of Joseph H. Greenberg, eds., K Denning & S Kemmer. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990: 428–38.
 * Grossman, Eitan and Martin Haspelmath. 2015. "The Leipzig-Jerusalem Transliteration of Coptic", Egyptian-Coptic Linguistics in Typological Perspective, eds., Eitan Grossman, Martin Haspelmath & Tonio Sebastian Richter. Berlin/Munich/Boston: Walter de Gruyter. 145–56.
 * Isḥāḳ, Emile Māher. 1975. "The phonetics and phonology of the Boḥairic dialect of Coptic and the Survival of Coptic Word in the Colloquial and Classical Arabic of Egypt and of Coptic Grammatical Constructions in Colloquial Egyptian Arabic". University of Oxford. 32-671.
 * Loprieno, Antonio. 1997. "Egyptian and Coptic Phonology", Phonologies of Asia and Africa (Including the Caucasus), vol. 1, ed., Alan S. Kaye. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. 431–60.
 * Grossman, Eitan and Martin Haspelmath. 2015. "The Leipzig-Jerusalem Transliteration of Coptic", Egyptian-Coptic Linguistics in Typological Perspective, eds., Eitan Grossman, Martin Haspelmath & Tonio Sebastian Richter. Berlin/Munich/Boston: Walter de Gruyter. 145–56.
 * Isḥāḳ, Emile Māher. 1975. "The phonetics and phonology of the Boḥairic dialect of Coptic and the Survival of Coptic Word in the Colloquial and Classical Arabic of Egypt and of Coptic Grammatical Constructions in Colloquial Egyptian Arabic". University of Oxford. 32-671.
 * Loprieno, Antonio. 1997. "Egyptian and Coptic Phonology", Phonologies of Asia and Africa (Including the Caucasus), vol. 1, ed., Alan S. Kaye. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. 431–60.

Bibliographies

 * Kammerer, Winifred (compiler), A Coptic Bibliography, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1950. (Reprint New York: Kraus Reprint Co., 1969)
 * Wolfgang Kosack: Der koptische Heiligenkalender. Deutsch – Koptisch – Arabisch nach den besten Quellen neu bearbeitet und vollständig herausgegeben mit Index Sanctorum koptischer Heiliger, Index der Namen auf Koptisch, Koptische Patriarchenliste, Geografische Liste. Christoph Brunner, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-9524018-4-2.
 * Wolfgang Kosack: Schenute von Atripe De judicio finale. Papyruskodex 63000.IV im Museo Egizio di Torino. Einleitung, Textbearbeitung und Übersetzung herausgegeben von Wolfgang Kosack. Christoph Brunner, Berlin 2013, ISBN 978-3-9524018-5-9.
 * Wolfgang Kosack: Basilios "De archangelo Michael": sahidice Pseudo – Euhodios "De resurrectione": sahidice Pseudo – Euhodios "De dormitione Mariae virginis": sahidice & bohairice : < Papyruskodex Turin, Mus. Egizio Cat. 63000 XI. > nebst Varianten und Fragmente. In Parallelzeilen ediert, kommentiert und übersetzt von Wolfgang Kosack. Christoph Brunner, Berlin 2014. ISBN 978-3-906206-02-8.
 * Wolfgang Kosack: Novum Testamentum Coptice. Neues Testament, Bohairisch, ediert von Wolfgang Kosack. Novum Testamentum, Bohairice, curavit Wolfgang Kosack. / Wolfgang Kosack. neue Ausgabe, Christoph Brunner, Basel 2014. ISBN 978-3-906206-04-2.

title: Coptic language


text:
320

Year 320 (CCCXX) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Constantinus and Constantinus (or, less frequently, year 1073 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 320 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Crispus, eldest son of Constantine I, leads a victorious campaign against the Franks, assuring twenty years of peace along the Rhine frontier. He establishes his residence in Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier), capital of Germania.
 * Licinius reneges on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan, and begins a new persecution of Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire. He imprisons Christians, confiscates their properties and destroys churches.

Asia

 * King Chandragupta I founds the Gupta dynasty in northern India (approximate date).
 * Zhang Shi (張寔), Zhang Duke of Xiping and governor of Liang Province, (涼州)is assassinated by Yan She (閻涉) and Zhao Ang (趙卬) and replaced by Zhang Mao (張茂), commonly accepted first ruler of the Chinese state Former Liang.

Art

 * Construction begins on the Old St. Peter's Basilica, Rome (approximate date).

Culture and Religion

 * In Nydam Mose (Denmark), the Nydam oak boat is sacrificed by the Danes (the boat is excavated in the 1830s, when a local farmer finds weapons, including swords and spears).

Science

 * October 18 – Pappus of Alexandria, Greek philosopher, observes an eclipse of the sun and writes a commentary on The Great Astronomer (Almagest).

Births

 * Aurelius Victor, Roman historian and politician (approximate date)
 * Constans I, Roman emperor (d. 350)
 * Flavian I, Patriarch of Antioch (d. 404)
 * Jin Jianwendi, emperor of the Jin Dynasty (d. 372)
 * Oribasius, Greek physician (approximate date)
 * Tuoba Shiyijian, prince of the Tuoba Dai (d. 376)
 * Xie An, statesman of the Jin Dynasty (d. 385)

Deaths

 * January 2 – Narcissus, Argeus, and Marcellinus, Roman Catholic martyrs and saints
 * January 29 – Valerius of Trèves, Roman Catholic priest and saint
 * February 6 – Dorothea of Alexandria, Roman Catholic virgin, martyr and saint
 * March 9 – 40 Martyrs of Sebaste
 * March 10 – Cyrion and Candidus, Armenian Orthodox priest and saints
 * July 11 – Januarius and Pelagia, Roman Catholic priests, martyrs and saints
 * November 29 – Saint Illuminata, Roman Catholic religious sister and saint
 * December 9 – Proculus of Verona, Roman Catholic priest and saint

Date unknown

 * Lactantius, Christian writer (approximate date)
 * Sima Bao, prince of the Jin Dynasty (b. 294)
 * Zhang Shi, Duke of Xiping

title: 320


text:
314

Year 314 (CCCXIV) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Rufius and Annianus (or, less frequently, year 1067 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 314 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * A large Pictish raid southwards in Roman Britain is attempted.

Religion

 * January 10 – Pope Miltiades' reign ends.
 * January 31 – Pope Sylvester I succeeds Pope Miltiades as the 33rd pope.
 * August 30 – Council of Arles: Confirms the pronouncement of Donatism as a schism, and passes other canons.
 * Synod of Ancyra: Consulting a magician is declared a sin earning five years of penance.
 * Alexander becomes Bishop of Byzantium.

Births

 * Libanius, Greek rhetorician and sophist (approximate date)
 * Li Qi, Chinese emperor of the Cheng Han Dynasty (d. 338)
 * Zhi Dun, Chinese Buddhist monk and philosopher (d. 366)

Deaths

 * January 10 – Miltiades (or Melchiades), bishop of Rome
 * Liu E (or Lihua), Chinese empress of the Xiongnu state
 * Wang Jun (or Pengzu), Chinese general and warlord (b. 252)
 * Zhang Gui, Chinese governor and duke of Xiping (b. 255)

title: 314


text:
315

Year 315 (CCCXV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Constantinus and Licinianus (or, less frequently, year 1068 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 315 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Constantine the Great and co-emperor Licinius battle the Sarmates, the Goths and the Carpians along the Danube. Constantine leads a punitive expedition into Dacia and reestablishes the Roman fortifications of the frontier.
 * July 25 – The Arch of Constantine is completed near the Colosseum at Rome to commemorate Constantine's victory over Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge. As part of the ceremony Constantine is expected to make a sacrifice to Rome's traditional gods, but he refuses to do so.
 * Constantine I dedicates the Basilica of Maxentius and installs a large statue of himself inside it.
 * Crucifixion is abolished as punishment in the Roman Empire.
 * A program of assistance to the poor is established in the Roman Empire.
 * Immense baths are constructed in Augusta Treverorum (modern-day Trier).

Religion

 * Eusebius becomes bishop of Caesarea (approximate date).
 * The lamb becomes the symbol of Jesus in Christian art.

Births

 * Flavius Hannibalianus, ruler of Armenia and Pontus (d. 337)
 * Hilary of Poitiers, Christian bishop and Doctor of the Church
 * Himerius, Greek sophist and rhetorician (approximate date)
 * Vettius Agorius Praetextatus, Roman politician (d. 384)

Deaths

 * September 14 – Maternus of Cologne, bishop of Trier
 * Du Tao (or Jingwen), Chinese general and rebel leader
 * Galeria Valeria, Roman empress and wife of Galerius
 * Prisca, Roman empress and wife of Diocletian (b. 247)
 * Valerius of Saragossa, Christian bishop and martyr

title: 315


text:
316

Year 316 (CCCXVI) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Sabinus and Rufinus (or, less frequently, year 1069 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 316 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Constantine the Great issues an edict, prohibiting the punishment of slaves by crucifixion and facial branding.
 * Constantine I sends his half-brother Julius Constantius to Licinius at Sirmium (Pannonia), with the proposal to accept Bassianus as Caesar and give him power over Italy. Licinius refuses, and forces a conspiracy against Constantine.
 * Licinius elevates Valerius Valens to Augustus, and mobilises an army against Constantine. Bassianus is accused of conspiracy and executed.
 * October 8 – Battle of Cibalae: Constantine the Great defeats his rival Licinius near the town of Colonia Aurelia Cibalae (modern-day Vinkovci, Croatia). Licinius is forced to flee to Sirmium and loses all of the Balkans except for Thrace. Peace negotiations are initiated between the two Augusti, but they are unsuccessful.
 * December – Battle of Mardia: Constantine I defeats his rival Licinius and senior officer Valerius Valens, near the town of Harmanli (Bulgaria).

Asia

 * The Xiongnu sack Chang'an, capital of the Chinese Western Jin Dynasty. Emperor Jin Mindi surrenders to Liu Yao.
 * The Western Jin Dynasty ends, and Ancient China is divided.

Religion

 * At the request of the Christians, Constantine I attempts to end the schism with the Donatist sect.

Births

 * Constantine II, Roman emperor (d. 340)
 * Martin of Tours, bishop of Tours (d. 397)

Deaths

 * Diocletian, Roman emperor, commits suicide (b. 244) (most historians date his death to 311 or 312)
 * Blaise, bishop of Sebastea (martyred)
 * Bassianus, Roman advisor and politician
 * Suo Chen (or Juxiu), Chinese general
 * Tuoba Pugen, Chinese chieftain of the Tuoba clan
 * Tuoba Yilu, Chinese chieftain of the Tuoba clan

title: 316


text:
317

Year 317 (CCCXVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Gallicanus and Bassus (or, less frequently, year 1070 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 317 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * March 1 – Emperor Constantine the Great and co-emperor Licinius elevate their sons Crispus, Constantine II (being still a baby) and Licinius II to Caesars. After this arrangement Constantine rules the dioceses Pannonia and Macedonia, and establishes his residence at Sirmium, from where he prepares a campaign against the Goths and Sarmatians.
 * Licinius recognizes Constantine I as senior emperor and executes Valerius Valens.

Asia

 * Sixteen Kingdoms: Jingwen (later Yuan of Jin) flees with remnants of the Jin court and noble families to the south. He succeeds Emperor Min of Jin as first ruler of the Eastern Jin Dynasty and decides to make Jiankang (modern Nanjing) his new capital.
 * The earliest historically verified reference to tea is recorded, although the Chinese have been drinking the beverage for centuries.

Births

 * August 7 – Constantius II, Roman emperor (d. 361)
 * Fú Jiàn, Chinese emperor of the Former Qin (d. 355)
 * Junius Bassus Theotecnius, Roman politician (d. 359)
 * Themistius, Byzantine statesman and philosopher

Deaths

 * Valerius Valens, Roman emperor

title: 317


text:
318

Year 318 (CCCXVIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Licinianus and Crispus (or, less frequently, year 1071 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 318 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Constantine the Great gives the ancient Roman town Drepana (Asia Minor) the name Helenopolis, after his mother Helena, and builds a church in honour of the martyr St. Lucian.
 * Constantine the Great is given the title Brittanicus Maximus, for successful engagements in Britain.

Asia

 * The Eastern Jin dynasty loses its territories to the north of the Yangtze River, to the benefit of the Xiongnu and the Xianbei. The Former Zhao state is proclaimed; Liu Can and the state ruling family at Pingyang is executed in a coup d'état by Jin Zhun, who is in turn overthrown by Shi Le and Liu Yao.
 * Liu Yao becomes the new emperor of Han-Zhao and moves his capital to Chang'an.

Religion

 * Gregory the Illuminator appoints his son Aristax as successor in the patriarchate of Armenia.

Births

 * Liu, Chinese empress and wife of Shi Hu (d. 349)

Deaths

 * February 7 – Min of Jin, Chinese emperor (b. 300)
 * August 31 – Liu Cong, Chinese emperor
 * Fan Changsheng, Chinese religious leader
 * Jin Zhun, Chinese official and chancellor
 * Liu Can (or Shiguang), Chinese emperor
 * Liu Kun, Chinese general and poet (b. 270)
 * Theodota of Philippi, Greek harlot and martyr

title: 318


text:
319

Year 319 (CCCXIX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Constantinus and Licinius (or, less frequently, year 1072 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 319 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Constantine the Great prohibits the separation of the families of slaves, during a change in ownership.

India

 * King Chandragupta I succeeds his father Ghatotkacha, as ruler of the Gupta dynasty.

Georgia

 * Christianity is introduced in Colchis, present-day Georgia.

Religion

 * Arius travels to Nicomedia at the invitation of Bishop Eusebius, after having been accused of heresy and condemned by Alexander, the Patriarch of Alexandria. This gives rise to the Arian Controversy.

Births

 * Murong Jun, Chinese emperor of the Former Yan (d. 360)

Deaths

 * Du Zeng, Chinese general and rebel leader
 * Ghatotkacha, Indian ruler of the Gupta Empire
 * Theodore Stratelates, Greek general and martyr (b. 281)

title: 319


text:
Talk:Hans Holbein the Younger

Basic Edits

 * user:Jfahler -- reworked the introduction and tried to do my best in the interest of the flow of the article. The article certainly needs work.
 * user:Iconofiler -- Can someone qualified list some of the "recent exhibitions" or take out the (currently unproductive) sentence that mentions them?

Artcyclopedia link

 * user:H.J. -- it is a very nice site and it should stay, because it is a good thing to support the arts and museums, in this case by spreading the knowledge about the artists, the paintings and some income for the museums
 * JHK -- that is just a link to a commercial site, and doesn't really add anything to the article

Copyright
An earlier version of this article, contributed by user:H.J., was a rewording of this article. Lee Daniel Crocker suggested that it was "at least paraphrased sufficiently to avoid copyright problems".

Because of the importance (as generally agreed) of citing one's sources, Martin added an "earlier version" link to the article to avoid possible accusations of plagiarism.

Portrait
According to this website, the portrait shown is not a self-portrait by Holbein at all, but may have been a portrait done of him after his death by Lucas Horenbout.

 * The URL to the Wallace Collection websites page about the portrait minature og Hans Holbein the Younger made by Lucas Horenbout has been changed. It's here now: http://www.wallacecollection.org/c/w_a/t_m/m/2003_09.htm --Jorunn 20:57, 16 August 2006 (UTC)

The Body of the Dead Christ in the Tomb
Should this article mention this particular work? As far as I am aware, it's a rather unique depiction.Editor437 23:58, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

Knife fight
I've cut this for the moment, putting it here while I check on it further.

"...he was also charged with taking part in a knife fight."

I haven't got Wolf. Buck says that Holbein was sentenced on 10 December 1517 for his part in a brawl in Lucerne. On the other hand, I am very surprised that the exhaustive biographer Derel Wilson makes no mention of this. Nor does Strong. Will check further. qp10qp (talk) 17:30, 24 November 2008 (UTC)

 * Dealt with. Rowlands comes through with the details, now added. I've looked at Wolf on Google Books and he doesn't give a ref for the knife aspect, so I'm avoiding mention of the knife until I can corroborate it. qp10qp (talk) 18:03, 24 November 2008 (UTC)

 * Getting close. North mentions a knife fight as a separate incident from the brawl, but gives no details of when/where it took place. qp10qp (talk) 15:04, 17 December 2008 (UTC)
 * Great. Johnbod (talk) 15:17, 17 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Cheers. (Don't worry, I don't mind talking to myself–just think I ought to document here my provisional removal of a referenced detail from the article.)qp10qp (talk) 17:05, 17 December 2008 (UTC)

Rewrite
I'm going to try to block in the raw facts of Holbein's life. After that, I'll go through (all being well and RL permitting) adding more about specific works of art, styles, religious and intellectuall background, etc. qp10qp (talk) 19:20, 24 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Is there anything specific you need/want? - PKM (talk) 23:31, 15 February 2009 (UTC)

 * This article's in basic shape now, just need to sharpen and simplify the prose and work on some image links and captions. I've been working on List of paintings by Hans Holbein the Younger as a backup to this page (hope to do an equivalent on the drawings eventually, but, whew, it's time consuming). My real problem is the miniatures and roundels, because I can't find or scan any as good as your Brandons (and the Mrs Small will be all right once I deframe it). I tend to blow them up a bit because real-scale miniatures are uncomfortably tiny, but that exposes the page print patterns and the limitations of my scanner. So if you can do any good miniature scans, that would be a help. The best roundel is File:Simon George, by Hans Holbein the Younger.jpg, because it was so big in the first place.

 * The only other need I can think of is that our images of Christina of Denmark are unsatisfactory in some way; the one in this main article at the moment is too printy and overblack in the gown. I've stood in awe in front of that painting at the National Gallery, but I can't for the life of me remember its precise colouring; I'm sure it's not as grey as another one on Commons, but also not as garishly green and yellow some of the ones in my books. I suspect it has a restrained but rich viridian greenness in the wall and a subtle mid-yellow-ochre floor. So, in short, if you are able to upload a superior version of Christina, I'd be eternally grateful, since it is essential to have one in the article. Many thanks for your interest: thank goodness I never tire of Holbein because this is all taking longer than I expected. qp10qp (talk) 15:07, 16 February 2009 (UTC)
 * Yes those are almost as bad as the one on the NG website. I think you are right on the colours, though it is always an alarming experience to lug the catalogue into an exhibition & hold it up in front of the actual work. But it's no joke trying to match colours in print or digitally, especially when you can't see the screen & the original together, as I know from personal experience.  Johnbod (talk) 19:09, 16 February 2009 (UTC)

INRI
The "INRI" inscribed on Tuke's crucifix is, according to scholars Bätschmann and Griener, "a magical prophylactic, intended to protect its owner against ill-health".[140] Magical prophylactic? I see. Is it an incantation? What dark secret meaning does it hold? Can anyone enlighten me? Mabe he was an asthmatic and he'd left his puffer in the draw beside the bed. In Need of Respiratoy Inhalant. Johnbo! Where are you? Amandajm (talk) 01:04, 3 March 2009 (UTC)

 * How very interesting! At about the time of this portrait, the pilgrimage took place from Northern England, protesting at the closure of the monastries. The Holy Wounds depicted on Tuke's cross were taken as their symbol. There may be more to this than meets the eye.
 * Anyway, B and G's pointlessly anti-Christian POV jibe offended me, and would have offended Tuke, so I editted out the "magical prophylactic" bit. Amandajm (talk) 01:37, 3 March 2009 (UTC)

 * I think this interpretation goes back to John Oliver Hand, who showed the Five Wounds as part of an incantation on a ring. It probably needs to be cut in the end, though, as being too particularised. Such a challenge in this article to know when to particularise or dip beyond the standard images and interpretations (but I think it's important to do so here and there to ensure the Wikipedia article is distinct from the other trawls through Holbein's life and work on the net).

 * I plan to put the article up for Peer Review sometime, for a good raking through. First I need to put up loads more images on Commons, so readers have the opportunity to chase the art up without frustration. At least (almost) every work mentioned in the article has a sourced image on Commons now. Still plenty to do to make the coverage there thorough, and I'm slow at it. qp10qp (talk) 17:03, 3 March 2009 (UTC)

 * The point is that "INRI" might be "used as part of" an incantation. But it is not, of itself, magical, prophylactic or an incantation. While the presence of the Five Wounds might suggest that the particular style of cross is being worn specifically to ward of ills, the inscription INRI does not. It signifies "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews", and is a normal feature of many crucifixes. To say that INRI is a "magical prophylactic", implying that this is its primary or only meaning is erroneous. The use of the word "magical" rather than "Christian" or "religious" also carries conotations that are completely unnecessary and out of place in this context.

 * Was Brian Tuke linked to the Pilgrimage of Grace as his display of the Five Wounds suggests?
 * Re pics. I will take a look through my repros of drawings.

Amandajm (talk) 02:06, 7 March 2009 (UTC)
 * INRI is also perhaps a rather scholarly touch at this date - looking at Schiller it seems to be far more common in German art than Italian. Johnbod (talk)

 * OK, the Tuke example is on my list to be excised and replaced by something else to illustrate the "private world of sitter" point. qp10qp (talk) 15:07, 7 March 2009 (UTC)
 * I think replacing Tuke is unnecessary. Everything is fine now that the words "magical prophylactic" are removed. Amandajm (talk) 03:20, 8 March 2009 (UTC)

Dance of Death/ Faces de la Mort
copied from my talk: ... trying to hunt down the exact details. The sources are so confusing, even on the sizes. Rumelin in Muller is saying "41 woodcuts by Hans Lutzelburger and Veit Specklin". Peter Parshall in Roskill says: "Holbein designed the Pictures of Death while still resident in Basel, and the earliest known impressions were printed from forty-one of the fifty-one blocks. This printing was probably done around 1525–26 once the majority had been cut. It also seems certain that the blocks were cut according to their intended sequence, save for the culminating images, which must have been made in advance in order to issue the first edition. I conclude this from the fact that the remaining ten blocks portray tradesmen and other figures from the lower classes, following a logical division of the estates". My problems in nailing this at the moment are: where are these ten images? I can't find them anywhere. They weren't published in the 1538 Les Simulacres & historiees faces de la mort, so can they rightly be counted as part of this work? I will be able to get a grip if I can find where/when they were published. We need a ref for the bit in the notes somewhere that the series was left incomplete by Lutzelburger's death and for the bit in the image description that Specklin completed them. Work in progress. (By the way, I am coming round to the idea of not primarily calling them Dance of Death anymore: recent scholars seem to be calling them "images" or "pictures" of Death, which is certainly justified by what they were called when published. What do you think?)qp10qp (talk)
 * The 1538 edition, and the later 1542 & 1545 had only Hans L's 41, but they had been done as prints before that (sometimes misleadingly called "proofs"). "Subsequent editions" had other ones (see weblink below). The Abbot is one of the 41. This from Bartrum,Giulia; German Renaissance Prints, 1490-1550; British Museum Press, 1995, ISBN 071412604 - # 232 a-p, (and Landau & Parshall). Her 16 exhibited go as low down the social scale as the Altman, Altweyb & Schiffman. There is more on the 1538 edn in Landau & Parshall. I thought combining the 2 notes on the matter might be better. but neither of these mention Specklin - Bartrum just says "by further woodcutters" (she talks of Specklin re the 91 decorative thingies by HH). But it seems clear Holbein did a set of 51, so the other 10 belong in the work - the 1538 preface mentions them & puffily says no other cutter was able to attempt them (Parshall 217).  Both are happy using Dance of Death which I think is sufficiently well established by tradition, rightly or wrongly.  How many extra? See  here for a full list, or here for less handy details from the MMA.  Parshall, 216 says there were 10 further Holbein designs, as mentioned in the 1538 preface, & Bartrum just says "further woodcuts, also designed by Holbein but cut by different block-cutters (H [Holstein] 99 (42-58)" - which is 16, 57 in total (H 99 (1) is the frontispiece perhaps). What Parshall has against the last 6 I don't know. 1538 edn, This and this (very odd notes) is what the book editions, with text, looked like (ie rather faint!) - the ones just with titles are I think always the single so-called "proof" impressions.  Hope that helps! Johnbod (talk) 00:09, 7 March 2009 (UTC)
 * There's a site here that's very good on all the copies by other artists, btw. . Did you see I set off on a formschneider rampage & expanded Hans Lützelburger, as well as Jost de Negker and a new Hieronymus Andreae?Johnbod (talk) 01:43, 7 March 2009 (UTC)

 * Yes, I did see the Lützelburger: it's really useful! I need to check into this Specklin character now, who Rümelin credits with Lützelburger for the 41. Also, on a separate tack, Hans Herman, who seems to have cut this. qp10qp (talk) 14:59, 7 March 2009 (UTC)

 * Many thanks for all the links, which I've read through. I'm still not comfortable, though, because Müller's The Basel Years is exhaustively comprehensive and does not include any more images than the 41 (these include the Altman, Altweyb, Schiffman, and Astrologer—the last not titled in the "proof" form but published in 1538 with the other 40). None of the websites illustrate any of the further ones, as far as I can see (I'm dying to have a look). Wilson, like Rümelin in The Basel Years, only bothers with the 41; he says: "Here we consider the forty-one designs published in 1538. Seventeen further engravings appeared in later editions, some or all of which may not have been by Holbein's pen". Still looking into this. qp10qp (talk) 14:52, 7 March 2009 (UTC)
 * The "full list" link above shows most - the highlighted ones. The authorship of the whole series used to be disputed, because the 1538 preface doesn't mention Holbein at all, only Hans L (& him not by name), but that's all over now. Johnbod (talk) 15:02, 7 March 2009 (UTC)
 * Aha, didn't realise the red print was links. qp10qp (talk) 15:13, 7 March 2009 (UTC)

I'm getting somewhere now. The pictures are fascinating (some obviously not Holbein but others plausibly so); the website does introduce them, though, by saying "These 12 new characters were probably not drawn by Holbein; an unknown artist must have added them to the original work". I've just read an article by Stephanie Buck in which she tries to analyse which of the (she also says 12) new pictures published by 1547 were based on Holbein compositions. She decides that seven were. The issue seems to be a matter of scholarly opinion. It is now easy to think of wordings to cover this in the article and image notes. The question of Specklin is a different matter, because Rümelin seems to think that he contributed to the original 41, not that he was necessarily the cutter of only later additions. He claims that his role has been for a long time a matter of dispute, but I've read some quite heavy-duty articles now and Specklin is hardly mentioned, so I think it will be safe to de-mention him: a catch-all phrase about possible other hands will cover all the images, core and late. But it does seem as if the 41 were probably finished before Lützelburger died. qp10qp (talk) 16:55, 7 March 2009 (UTC)
 * Right - per Bartrum the 91 Holbein thingies used to be disputed between Specklin & Hans L, but are now mostly considered Specklin, with some by inferior hands. All these guys had assistants & stylistic judgements are very difficult beyond a judgement of quality (except if you have the actual block apparently, where individual technique is more evident). It would be good to have an article on them, now we have got so far - I was fascinated by the versions of them by other artists. Johnbod (talk) 17:18, 7 March 2009 (UTC)
 * Yes, I thought the soldier looked good. The wagoner is the one, I think, that the 1538 publisher said would be difficult—and I can see why, because that's a handful of a composition to woodcut. qp10qp (talk) 17:30, 7 March 2009 (UTC)
 * By the way, it's definitely on my Holbein list to do an article on this work: but I have to admit I tend to keep it at the bottom of the list, probably because the topic's intrinsically messy. Nothing seems agreed about it: precursors, meaning, dates, reasons for delayed publication, the lot. qp10qp (talk) 17:40, 7 March 2009 (UTC)

Reformation
Is h was proponent of Reformation?--Vojvodaeist 09:03, 16 May 2009 (UTC)

 * The article has plenty on this, though it's not conclusive. We have hardly any evidence of Holbein's religious position, other than deducible from the art. My opinion is that business came first with Holbein, that he went with the flow, and that as a result he gradually did become a Reformation artist. qp10qp (talk) 13:43, 16 May 2009 (UTC)

Picture "Ambassador" Problem
it appears that there is a streched picture of a skull overlaying the picture of the two ambassadors. i did not know if that was supposed to be there, because does not look like it matches the rest of the picture, or the artist's style.Balance of paradox (talk) 19:52, 6 April 2012 (UTC)

 * @Balance of paradox Nope, that's in the original. Creedweber (talk) 19:22, 1 October 2023 (UTC)

Unclear sentence
A sentence in the second paragraph is unclear: "At first, he painted murals and religious works, designed stained glass windows and printed books." Did he print books or did he design printed books? If he printed books, then we need a comma after "windows." If he designed printed books, then we don't want a comma, but we need to eliminate the ambiguity, which we can do by writing, "designed stained glass windows as well as printed books." Also, do we need "printed" if he designed books? Could he have designed handwritten books, making it necessary for us to used "printed" to indicate that he did not design handwritten books? Maurice Magnus (talk) 02:59, 15 December 2022 (UTC)

 * He designed some of the illustrations of a printer in Basel. I do not remember having read that he printed books, but that he was very close with a printer family this is a fact. Paradise Chronicle (talk) 03:25, 15 December 2022 (UTC)
 * I have removed the book printing and replaced it with that he designed illustrations for a book printer Paradise Chronicle (talk) 03:44, 15 December 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hans Holbein the Younger


text:
Orleans (disambiguation)

Orléans is a city in north-central France, about 100 km south-west of Paris.

Orleans may also refer to:

Brazil

 * Orleans, Santa Catarina

Canada

 * Île d'Orléans, an island in the St. Lawrence River near Québec city
 * Orleans, Ontario, a community which became part of the city of Ottawa in 2001
 * Orléans (federal electoral district)
 * Orléans (provincial electoral district)

United States

 * Orleans, California
 * Orleans, former name of Orleans Flat, California
 * Orleans, Indiana
 * Orleans, Iowa
 * Orleans, Massachusetts, a New England town
 * Orleans (CDP), Massachusetts, village in the town
 * Orleans, Minnesota
 * Orleans, Missouri
 * Orleans, Nebraska
 * Orleans, New York
 * Orleans, Vermont
 * New Orleans, Louisiana, terminus with Orleans Parish
 * Orleans County (disambiguation)
 * Orleans Township (disambiguation)

Other uses

 * Orleans (band), a 1970s rock band
 * Orléans (grape), a white grape variety
 * Orleans (software framework), a framework for building scalable and robust distributed applications
 * Orleans (TV series), a 1997 CBS television series
 * Orléans Express, Canadian bus operator
 * The Orleans, a hotel and casino in Las Vegas, Nevada
 * US Orléans, a French football club
 * Canal d'Orléans, a canal in France
 * Charlotte Orléans, a fictional character
 * "Orleans", a song by the American band Bright from the album The Miller Fantasies

title: Orleans (disambiguation)


text:
John George III, Elector of Saxony

Johann George III (20 June 1647 – 12 September 1691) was Elector of Saxony from 1680 to 1691. He belonged to the Albertine branch of the House of Wettin.

Early life
Johann Georg III was born in Dresden, the only son of Johann George II and Magdalene Sybille of Brandenburg-Bayreuth.

John George succeeded his father as elector of Saxony when he died, in 1680; he was also appointed Marshal of the Holy Roman Empire. Because of his courage and his enthusiasm for the War he gained the nickname of the "Saxonian Mars".

From his childhood, he learned the typical duties and manners of an heir to the throne. That included not only a strictly Lutheran education but also language tuition and instruction in the art of fortress building and warfare.

In character he resembled his father. He shared his liking for Italian music and theatre. In 1685 John George III met the Venetian opera singer Margarita Salicola and began a relationship; he brought her to Dresden (not only to work, but also as his official mistress). She began a new era for the opera in Saxony, which had previously been dominated by the castrati. In 1686, the pietist Philipp Jakob Spener became the court chaplain in Dresden. But Spener was not generally accepted there and in 1691 he moved to Brandenburg.

Meanwhile, the electorate had recovered from the consequences of the Thirty Years' War. By 1689, Dresden had a population of 21,300 and was becoming less provincial. Four years before, in 1685, the old city of Dresden was destroyed by a fire; later, Wolf Caspar von Klengel and Balthasar Permoser were entrusted by the elector with the reconstruction of the city in the baroque style which was the new fashion at the time.

John George showed a strong interest in the military and even while he was still the heir led Saxon Army forces in the Rhine Campaign.

Career as elector
After his accession as Elector, he reduced the size of the royal household and began with the establishment of a small standing army of 12,000 men, after the model of the Margraviate of Brandenburg and managed to extract from the states of the realm a commitment to contribute funds. The Privy War Chancellery (geheime Kriegskanzlei) was set up as the highest military authority. Extreme pressure was used to obtain recruits for the new army. He always neglected home affairs. In foreign policy, he was less inconstant than his father. He broke off relations with the French crown and strove energetically to win Brandenburg and other German princes for the Imperial war against the French aggressor.

Valued as an ally by the Habsburg court, he was nevertheless viewed with extreme distrust and was not able to overall command of all the imperial troops in the face of a Turkish invasion and he did not obtain the means (food supply and winter accommodation) necessary for the maintenance of his auxiliary troops. There was also the matter of John George's wish for Emperor Leopold I to decide a law case concerning a wooded area in the Ore Mountains (Erzgebirge) in his favour. The Emperor did not grant material support until the siege of Vienna made his situation look increasingly desperate. John George eventually led his 10,400 strong army against the Turks. However, there was strong opposition from the estates of Saxony, not only because this expensive campaign was exhausting the finances of the Electorate of Saxony but also because they were not pleased with this support for the catholic Emperor, who had often proceeded harshly against Protestants in his own country. At Tulln, on the Danube, he joined the Imperial army and they set off for the relief of Vienna. In the ensuing Battle of Vienna (12 September 1683) he commanded the left wing, where he demonstrated great personal courage. The battle call selected by the emperor "Maria Help" (which might carry Roman Catholic connotations) had been previously amended to "Jesus and Maria help" at the request of John George.

King John III Sobieski of Poland, who also took part in the battle, said of John George: "the Elector of Saxony is an honest man with a straight heart".

John George also accompanied the Emperor after the victory when he entered Vienna. But on 15 September, without taking leave of the Emperor or the other commanders, he set off with his troops on the march back to Saxony, probably as a result of the brusque treatment he had been accorded as a Protestant.

In 1686 he again supported Leopold's Turkish War. For payment of 300,000 thalers, he sent a troop of 5,000 men to the Emperor. In 1685 he had already hired out 3,000 Saxon nationals for 120,000 thalers to the Republic of Venice for their Morean War on the Greek Peloponnese Peninsula.

He did not join the League of Augsburg of 1686 against France, but he did travel personally to The Hague in March 1688, to discuss with Prince William III of Orange, George William, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, and Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg possible moves against Louis XIV. However, he did not directly support the forthcoming assumption of the English throne by William.

Following a renewed invasion by France in (1689), he again led his troops into battle to protect Franconia. He later joined the army of Charles V, Duke of Lorraine and took part in the siege of Mainz.

He later had to leave the theatre because of an illness but, against the advice of his physicians and advisors, he returned in May 1690 and with a reinforced alliance with the Emperor, took overall command of the imperial army. Success was limited, however, partly owing to personal skirmishes between John George, the Field Marshal Hans Adam von Schöning and the Austrian commander Aeneas de Caprara; only the crossing of the Rhine at Sandhofen succeeded.

John George died shortly after in Tübingen, where he had been brought, of an epidemic illness, probably Cholera or the Plague. He was buried in the Cathedral of Freiberg.

Children
John George married Anne Sophie, daughter of King Frederick III of Denmark and Norway, in Copenhagen on 9 October 1666. They had two sons:
 * 1) Johann George IV (b. Dresden, 18 October 1668 – died of smallpox, Dresden, 28 May 1694), successor of his father as elector
 * 2) Frederick Augustus I (b. Dresden, 22 May 1670 – died in Warsaw, 1 February 1733), successor of his brother as elector and later king of Poland (as Augustus II).

He also had an illegitimate son by his mistress, the opera singer Margarita Salicola:
 * 1) Johann Georg Maximilian von Fürstenhoff (b. 1686 – d. 1753), married first to Margareta Dorothea Kühler (d. 1738) and then to a Charlotte Emilie (who identity is unknown). From his first marriage he had two children: a son and a daughter, both unknown; the son apparently died young and the daughter married Philipp Christian von Kleinberg, but both spouses died in 1743.

Literature

 * Heinrich Theodor Flathe: Johann Georg III., Kurfürst von Sachsen. In: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB). Band 14, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1881, S. 383 f.
 * Karlheinz Blaschke: Johann Georg III.. In: Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB). Band 10, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1974, ISBN 3-428-00191-5, S. 527 (Digitalisat).
 * Hans-Joachim Böttcher: Johann Georg IV. von Sachsen und Magdalena Sibylla von Neitschütz - Eine tödliche Liaison, Dresdner Buchverlag, Dresden 2014, ISBN 978-3-941757-43-1.

title: John George III, Elector of Saxony