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PSD

PSD may refer to: pica

Educational bodies

 * Pennsylvania School for the Deaf, a Pre-K to 12th grade school for Deaf and Hard of Hearing students, located in the Germantown section of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
 * Philippine School Doha, a Filipino school in Doha, Qatar
 * Pontiac School District, a school district in Michigan, US
 * Poudre School District, a school district in Larimer County, Colorado

Government and military

 * Payment Services Directive, EU regulation for payment services
 * Pesticides Safety Directorate, UK
 * Presidential Study Directive, a kind of national security directive from the Obama presidency
 * Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) permit, under the Clean Air Act (United States)
 * Protective Services Detail, Personal Security Detachment, or Personal Security Detail; US military security details

Language

 * Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary, lexicography project for the ancient language isolate
 * Plains Indian Sign Language (ISO 639-3 code: psd)
 * Proto-South Dravidian, unattested language of south India

Africa

 * Social Democratic Party (Angola), a political party of Angola
 * Social Democratic Party (Benin), a political party of Benin
 * Social Democratic Party of Madagascar, a political party of Madagascar
 * Social Democratic Party (Rwanda), a political party of Rwanda
 * Socialist Destourian Party, former name (to 1988) of the ruling party in Tunisia, currently called Constitutional Democratic Rally

Americas

 * Parti social démocratique du Québec, a former provincial political party in Canada
 * Democratic Socialist Party (Argentina), a defunct political party of Argentina
 * Social Democratic Party (Brazil, 1945–65), a defunct political party of Brazil
 * Social Democratic Party (Brazil, 2011), a current political party of Brazil
 * Social Democratic Party (El Salvador), a political party of El Salvador
 * Social Democratic Party (Mexico), a defunct political party of Mexico
 * Social Democratic Party (Nicaragua), a political party of Nicaragua

Europe

 * Civil Movement "People's Self-Defense", a defunct political movement in Ukraine which was part of the Our Ukraine–People's Self-Defense Bloc electoral alliance
 * Party of Socialists and Democrats, a major political party of San Marino
 * Social Democratic Party of Albania, a minor political party of Albania
 * Social Democratic Party (France), a defunct political party of France
 * Social Democratic Party (Moldova), a political party of Moldova
 * Social Democratic Party (Portugal), a major political party of Portugal
 * Social Democratic Party (Romania), a major political party of Romania
 * Social Democratic Party (Spain), a defunct political party of Spain

Computing

 * Personal or portable storage device
 * .psd, a Photoshop document file extension
 * Professional Scrum Developer, a course leading to certification for Scrum (development)
 * Power spectral density, the distribution of power per unit time into frequency components composing that signal.

Medicine

 * Protein S deficiency
 * Post-stroke depression
 * Postsynaptic density, a specialization of the cytoskeleton at the synaptic junction
 * Psychiatric service dog

Other uses in science and engineering

 * Particle size distribution, in granular materials
 * Platform screen doors, in railway platforms
 * Position sensitive device or detector, a two-dimensional photodetector
 * Positive semidefinite (disambiguation)
 * Power spectral density, distribution of power of a signal
 * Program Service Data, data displayed on HD radio receiver

Other uses

 * PSD (rapper), a Californian rapper and hip-hop producer
 * Port Said Airport, Egypt (IATA code PSD)
 * Private Sector Development, term used in international development
 * PSD Bank, German banking group

 * Patricia Street Deli, a famous sandwich and soup restaurant located in the tourist town of Jasper, Alberta, Canada
 * FK PSD, a handgun chambered mainly in 7.5 FK but also comes with barrels for 10mm Auto and 9x19mm

title: PSD


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The Memory of Earth

The Memory of Earth (1992) is a science fiction novel by American writer Orson Scott Card. It is the first book of the Homecoming Saga, a loose fictionalization of the first few hundred years recorded in the Book of Mormon.

Plot summary
Humanity has lived for 40 million years on a planet called Harmony, after leaving an Earth that has been destroyed by human conflict. In order not to repeat the mistakes that led to the destruction of civilization on Earth, a computer, known as the Oversoul, was left as guardian of this planet.

Its main mission was to prevent humans from developing technologies that could make wars a global affair. For that, humans were genetically modified so they could communicate with the Oversoul. The Oversoul uses this connection to make humans quite easily distracted when thinking about forbidden technologies, leading them to forget that train of thought. However, after this long time the Oversoul is beginning to fail, and it chooses a group of humans to return to Earth in search of the Keeper of Earth, in the hopes it will be able to find a way to maintain power over the people on Harmony.

To this end the Oversoul recruits Volemak, father of the protagonist of the story, Nafai. Nafai and Issib, his brother, begin to try and defy the Oversoul's capability to override thought. Through this they learn of the danger that it is in. Nafai begins hearing the Oversoul's voice in his mind. The first book focuses on the family's eventual betrayal, the taking of the Index, and the downfall of the man Gaballufix, who had been planning to ally the city of Basilica, the home of the main characters and the setting of the first half of the book, with a malignant nation.

Nafai, Elemak and Mebbekew, his older half brothers, Issib and his father Volemak are eventually forced to leave the city. They come back to retrieve the Index of the Oversoul, which allows them to communicate with it directly. Because of Nafai's careless blunders and miraculous successes, Elemak, Nafai's oldest brother, begins to hate him, a theme that will play out throughout the rest of the saga.

Characters
The characters listed here are those whose primary role is in The Memory of Earth. For other characters, see Homecoming Saga or individual books.

 * Nafai: Youngest son of Wetchik Volemak and Rasa by second contract, brother to Elemak, Mebbekew, and Issib. Nafai is a tall, 18-year-old-boy (14 in "temple years") who clearly hears the voice of the Oversoul in his mind. Nafai and his brothers and father are banished from Basilica and are forced into the desert from a cunning plot conceived by Gaballufix. Volemak urges his four sons to go back to Basilica and retrieve the Index (a tool or index used to retrieve information from the Oversoul). Later Nafai confronts Gaballufix and cuts off his head under the bidding of the Oversoul.

 * Gaballufix: Elemak's oldest (half) brother, son of Hosni by Zdedhnoi, and father of Sevet and Kokor by Rasa. He attempts to ally Basilica with Potokgavan against the Gorayni (also known as the Wetheads).  More importantly, he tries to draw the city into a war that goes beyond the Oversoul's (failing) mental blocks, and destroy its traditional female-dominated structure with the help of holographically-disguised soldiers that roam the streets.  He sets up a plot to kill Volemak, who opposes him; after Volemak and his sons retreat to the desert, they realize that they need the Index, which is in Gaballufix's possession.  He is eventually killed by Nafai, who will agonize over this choice and never really forgive himself for it.

 * Rashgallivak: Steward to the Wetchik fortune. After Volemak embarks on a series of seemingly ill-advised actions, Rashgallavik takes control of the money.  Though his intentions (to protect the Wetchik's funds, as per his job) are originally good, he is overwhelmed by his own power after first becoming the Wetchik himself and then taking over Gaballufix's position.  His tenuous hold over Gaballufix's guards is broken by Hushidh.

 * Hosni: Volemak's "auntie" (a woman assigned to a boy as he hits puberty, to teach him about sex through example) and, by him, the mother of Elemak. She is also the mother of Gaballufix by Zdedhnoi, who is never mentioned within the series itself, only referenced in genealogy charts.  Other children of Hosni's by several different (anonymous) men, whose appearance is also limited to genealogy charts, are Psugal, Azh, and Okhai.

 * Roptat: One of the three most influential men in Basilica, along with Volemak and Gaballufix. Gaballufix plots to have Roptat and Volemak killed, and frame Nafai for the crime.

 * Elemak: The eldest child of Volemak the Wetchik by Hosni. Half brother to Gaballufix.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Memory of Earth


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Italian Radicals (disambiguation)

The Italian Radicals are a liberal political party in Italy, formed in 2001.

In politics, Italian Radicals may also refer to:
 * Italian Radical Party, a far-left/left-liberal party (1877–1922)
 * Radical Party, a left-liberal party splintered from the Italian Liberal Party (1955–1989)
 * Transnational Radical Party, the transnational evolution of the Radical Party (1989–present)
 * Antiprohibitionists on Drugs, electoral list (1989–1992)
 * Pannella List, political association (1992–present) and electoral list (1992–1999)
 * Bonino List, electoral successor of the Pannella List (1999–2004)
 * Coscioni List, radical list that never ran in elections (2005)
 * Rose in the Fist, electoral list (2006 general election)
 * Bonino-Pannella List, electoral list (2009 European Parliament election)
 * Amnesty Justice Freedom List, electoral list (2013 general election)

In architecture and design, Italian Radicals refers also to the Radical movement, 1965–1975

title: Italian Radicals (disambiguation)


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Shields (Star Trek)

In the Star Trek fictional universe, shields refer to a 23rd and 24th century technology that provides starships, space stations, and entire planets with limited protection against damage. They are sometimes referred to as deflectors, deflector shields, or (in Star Trek: The Original Series) screens. Types of shields include navigational deflectors.

History
The term 'shields' first appears in the Star Trek episode "Balance of Terror", in which they were deployed, albeit to little effect, by a Federation outpost under attack from a Romulan Warbird. The first depicted use by a starship was in the Star Trek episode "Arena", in which the USS Enterprise raises its 'screens' after being attacked by an alien warship although the term 'shields' is not used in this episode. Shields are not mentioned during the earlier seasons of the Star Trek: Enterprise series, starships instead using "polarized hull plating" to make their hull more resistant to damage.

Design
Like most technologies in the Star Trek fictional universe, the exact operation of shield technology is never precisely described. Characters discuss its existence and manipulation, while only superficially describing its exact physics, which result in a field being projected around a ship or other body, deflecting or dispersing projectiles and energy weapons. Shields are not shown unless struck, and are then often shown briefly for dramatic effect as a translucent bubble of energy.

Shields are said to be made of a screen of gravitons that can deflect beam and projectile weaponry.

In The Making of Star Trek, authors Gene Roddenberry and Stephen Whitfield write that shields are force fields similar in nature to the navigational deflector, while Mr. Scott's Guide to the Enterprise further states that shields on post-refit Constitution-class vessels - of which the USS Enterprise of Star Trek: The Original Series is an example - were generated by the subatomic scan and replication of an alloy known as diburnium-osmium, and then projected as a force field beyond a ship's hull along the shield grid. In "That Which Survives", the alloy of diburnium and osmium is stated to be the hardest alloy known to the Federation.

Shields can be weakened by attack, and are often shown to collapse after prolonged bombardment. Shields may be unable to repel certain types of weapons; the phased polaron weapons used by the Dominion - one of the primary antagonists of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine - are initially unhindered by the shields of Starfleet ships.

The USS Defiant, introduced in the third season of Deep Space Nine, was said to use ablative armor in addition to shields; this technology also appeared in the alternate time line of the early 25th century shown in the Star Trek: Voyager series finale "Endgame", where it withstood repeated assaults by Borg weaponry and tractor beams.

Another type of shield, the navigational deflector (also known just as the deflector, the deflector array, the deflector dish, the main deflector, the nav deflector, or the parabolic dish), was a force beam generator, usually a dish on the front of a ship, that was primarily used to deflect objects that might collide with the ship specially when traveling using Warp drive when even minute particles could cause serious damage.

title: Shields (Star Trek)


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Georges Perec

Georges Perec (7 March 1936 – 3 March 1982) was a French novelist, filmmaker, documentalist, and essayist. He was a member of the Oulipo group. His father died as a soldier early in the Second World War and his mother was killed in the Holocaust. Many of his works deal with absence, loss, and identity, often through word play.

Early life
Born in a working-class district of Paris, Perec was the only son of Icek Judko and Cyrla (Schulewicz) Peretz, Polish Jews who had emigrated to France in the 1920s. He was a distant relative of the Yiddish writer Isaac Leib Peretz. Perec's father, who enlisted in the French Army during World War II, died in 1940 from untreated gunfire or shrapnel wounds, and his mother was killed in the Holocaust, probably in Auschwitz sometime after 1943. Perec was taken into the care of his paternal aunt and uncle in 1942, and in 1945, he was formally adopted by them.

Career
Perec started writing reviews and essays for La Nouvelle Revue française and Les Lettres nouvelles, prominent literary publications, while studying history and sociology at the Sorbonne. In 1958/59 Perec served in the army as a paratrooper (XVIIIe Régiment de Chasseurs Parachutistes), and married Paulette Petras after being discharged. They spent one year (1960/1961) in Sfax, Tunisia, where Paulette worked as a teacher; these experiences are reflected in Things: A Story of the Sixties, which is about a young Parisian couple who also spend a year in Sfax.

In 1961 Perec began working at the Neurophysiological Research Laboratory in the unit's research library funded by the CNRS and attached to the Hôpital Saint-Antoine as an archivist, a low-paid position which he retained until 1978. A few reviewers have noted that the daily handling of records and varied data may have influenced his literary style. In any case, Perec's work on the reassessment of the academic journals under subscription was influenced by a talk about the handling of scientific information given by Eugene Garfield in Paris and he was introduced to Marshall McLuhan by Jean Duvignaud. Perec's other major influence was the Oulipo, which he joined in 1967, meeting Raymond Queneau, among others. Perec dedicated his masterpiece, La Vie mode d'emploi (Life: A User's Manual) to Queneau, who died before it was published.

Perec began working on a series of radio plays with his translator Eugen Helmle and the musician in the late 60s; less than a decade later, he was making films. His first work, based on his novel Un Homme qui dort, was co-directed by, and won him the Prix Jean Vigo in 1974. Perec also created crossword puzzles for Le Point from 1976 on.

La Vie mode d'emploi (1978) brought Perec some financial and critical success—it won the Prix Médicis—and allowed him to turn to writing full-time. He was a writer-in-residence at the University of Queensland, Australia, in 1981 during which time he worked on 53 Jours (53 Days), which he would not finish. Shortly after his return from Australia, his health deteriorated. A heavy smoker, he was diagnosed with lung cancer. He died the following year in Ivry-sur-Seine at age 45, four days shy of his 46th birthday; his ashes are held at the columbarium of the Père Lachaise Cemetery.

Work
Many of Perec's novels and essays abound with experimental word play, lists and attempts at classification, and they are usually tinged with melancholy.

Perec's first novel Les Choses (published in English as Things: A Story of the Sixties) (1965) was awarded the Prix Renaudot.

Perec's most famous novel La Vie mode d'emploi (Life A User's Manual) was published in 1978. Its title page describes it as "novels", in the plural, the reasons for which become apparent on reading. La Vie mode d'emploi is a tapestry of interwoven stories and ideas as well as literary and historical allusions, based on the lives of the inhabitants of a fictitious Parisian apartment block. It was written according to a complex plan of writing constraints and is primarily constructed from several elements, each adding a layer of complexity. The 99 chapters of his 600-page novel move like a knight's tour of a chessboard around the room plan of the building, describing the rooms and stairwell and telling the stories of the inhabitants. At the end, it is revealed that the whole book actually takes place in a single moment, with a final twist that is an example of "cosmic irony". It was translated into English by David Bellos in 1987.

Perec is noted for his constrained writing. His 300-page novel La disparition (1969) is a lipogram, written with natural sentence structure and correct grammar, but using only words that do not contain the letter "e". It has been translated into English by Gilbert Adair under the title A Void (1994). His novella Les revenentes (1972) is a complementary univocalic piece in which the letter "e" is the only vowel used. This constraint affects even the title, which would conventionally be spelt Revenantes. An English translation by Ian Monk was published in 1996 as The Exeter Text: Jewels, Secrets, Sex in the collection Three. It has been remarked by Jacques Roubaud that these two novels draw words from two disjoint sets of the French language, and that a third novel would be possible, made from the words not used so far (those containing both "e" and a vowel other than "e").

W ou le souvenir d'enfance, (W, or the Memory of Childhood, 1975) is a semi-autobiographical work which is hard to classify. Two alternating narratives make up the volume: one, a fictional outline of a remote island country called "W", at first appears to be a utopian society modelled on the Olympic ideal, but is gradually exposed as a horrifying, totalitarian prison much like a concentration camp. The second narrative is a description of Perec's childhood during and after World War II. Both narratives converge towards the end, highlighting the common theme of the Holocaust.

"Cantatrix sopranica L. Scientific Papers" is a spoof scientific paper detailing experiments on the "yelling reaction" provoked in sopranos by pelting them with rotten tomatoes. All the references in the paper are multi-lingual puns and jokes, e.g. "(Karybb & Szyla, 1973)".

David Bellos, who has translated several of Perec's works, wrote an extensive biography of Perec: Georges Perec: A Life in Words, which won the Académie Goncourt's bourse for biography in 1994.

The Association Georges Perec has extensive archives on the author in Paris.

In 1992 Perec's initially rejected novel Gaspard pas mort (Gaspard not dead), which was believed to be lost, was found by David Bellos amongst papers in the house of Perec's friend. The novel was reworked several times and retitled  and published in 2012; its English translation by Bellos followed in 2014 as Portrait of a Man after the 1475 painting of that name by Antonello da Messina. The initial title borrows the name Gaspard from the Paul Verlaine poem "Gaspar Hauser Chante" (inspired by Kaspar Hauser, from the 1881 collection Sagesse) and characters named "Gaspard" appear in both W, or the Memory of Childhood and Life: A User's Manual, while in MICRO-TRADUCTIONS, 15 variations discrètes sur un poème connu he creatively re-writes the Verlaine poem 15 times.

Honours
Asteroid no. 2817, discovered in 1982, was named after Perec. In 1994, a street in the 20th arrondissement of Paris was named after him,. The French postal service issued a stamp in 2002 in his honour; it was designed by Marc Taraskoff and engraved by Pierre Albuisson. For his work, Perec won the Prix Renaudot in 1965, the Prix Jean Vigo in 1974, and the Prix Médicis in 1978. He was featured as a Google Doodle on his 80th birthday.

Books
The most complete bibliography of Perec's works is Bernard Magné's Tentative d'inventaire pas trop approximatif des écrits de Georges Perec (Toulouse, Presses Universitaires du Mirail, 1993).

Films

 * Un homme qui dort, 1974 (with Bernard Queysanne, English title: The Man Who Sleeps)
 * Les Lieux d'une fugue, 1975
 * Série noire (Alain Corneau, 1979)
 * Ellis Island (TV film with Robert Bober)

title: Georges Perec


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Siracusa

Siracusa may refer to:

 * Province of Syracuse, Sicily
 * Syracuse, Sicily, the capital of the Italian province of the same name
 * A.S.D. Città di Siracusa, the football team currently representing the city, also known as Siracusa Calcio
 * U.S. Siracusa a defunct football club
 * A.S. Siracusa a defunct football club
 * Chiara Siracusa (born 1976), a Maltese singer
 * Mayla Siracusa (born 1980), a Brazilian water polo player

title: Siracusa


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Marsala

Marsala (, Maissala local ; Lilybaeum) is an Italian comune located in the Province of Trapani in the westernmost part of Sicily. Marsala is the most populated town in its province and the fifth largest in Sicily.

The town is famous for the docking of Giuseppe Garibaldi on 11 May 1860 (the Expedition of the Thousand) and for its Marsala wine. A feature of the area is the Stagnone Lagoon Natural Reserve – a marine area with salt ponds.

Marsala is built on the ruins of the ancient Carthaginian city of Lilybaeum, and includes in its territory the archaeological site of the island of Motya, an ancient Phoenician town. The modern name likely derived from the Arabic مَرْسَى عَلِيّ (marsā ʿaliyy, "Ali's harbor"), or possibly مَرْسَى اللّٰه (marsā llāh, "God's harbor").

Geography
Situated at the extreme western point of Sicily, the town was founded on Lilibeo Cape from where the Aegadian Islands and the Stagnone Lagoon can be seen.

Territory
The territory of Marsala, 241 km2, has a rich cultural and landscape heritage; its area includes the Stagnone Lagoon, a Natural Reserve in which is located the island of Mozia.

The city of Marsala had a population of about 86,000 until the end of 1970, when Petrosino, a village formerly part of Marsala, decided to become a self-governing town after a local referendum.

The area of Marsala is classified as a seismic zone 2 (medium). In the last 200 years three earthquakes of medium-high intensity were recorded:
 * 18 May 1828 – magnitude 5.17 (about VI Mercalli scale).
 * 15 January 1968 – Belice earthquake which in Marsala reached VII Mercalli scale (although its intensity was as high as X in other locations).
 * 7 June 1981 – magnitude 4.60 (IV–V scala Mercalli scale) with epicentre in Borgo Elefante in Mazara del Vallo, about 20 km from the town-centre of Marsala.

Climate
Marsala has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa), similar to most coastal towns in Sicily, with hot and dry summers coupled with moderately wet and mild winters. Weather in Marsala is similar to that of nearby Trapani.

Summers are generally warm with a record maximum temperature of 37 °C in August 2017. In the summer, due to how dry it is, it is not unusual to experience the effect of Sirocco wind, which brings dust and sand from the Sahara.

Winters are generally rainy and cooler with temperatures ranging between minimum of 1 °C (in December 2014) and 21 °C. Snowfall occurs very rarely, since the temperature has never dropped below freezing, although snow has fallen before, for example in December 2014.

Mythology
In Greek mythology, Butes was the only Argonaut who jumped in the sea while sailing past the Sirens because he couldn't resist the charm of their singing, but Aphrodite saved him and transferred him to Lilybaeum.

Carthaginian Period
The Carthaginian army sent to conquer Selinunte in 409 BC landed and camped near the site of the later Lilybaeum. In 397 BC when the Phoenician colony of Motya on the southwestern coast of Sicily was invaded and destroyed by the Syracusan tyrant Dionysius I, the survivors founded a town on the mainland nearby, the site of modern-day Marsala, which they called by a Punic name, recorded in Greek as Lilýbaion (Λιλύβαιον) and in Latin as Lilybaeum. Over the following two centuries, it became a trade centre for manufactured goods and served as a strategic port between Carthage and Carthaginian territories in Sardinia. It was built with strong defensive walls from the beginning and had three linked harbours. Punic Lilybaion was never conquered although it was besieged several times e.g. by Pyrrhus of Epirus and the Romans. The walls were ultimately over 10m high and 7m thick. They were strengthened for Pyrrhus' Siege of Lilybaeum in 278 BC by a second wall 10m from the first. The siege lasted 2 months before he withdrew. It was the only city which Pyrrhus could not conquer during his campaign at Sicily.

The First Punic War began here when the Punic army landed at Lilybaion in 265–264 BC, then marched across Sicily to Messina, where the opening clash of the war took place.

In 250 BC the Romans sent a huge naval expedition of up to 240 ships towards Lilybaeum, the Carthaginian headquarters. A massive Roman army of 4 legions under the two consuls was also sent. The Carthaginians also understood the importance of this port and put their whole force together to save the city including about 10,000 mercenaries (Celts and Greeks). The Carthaginians sailed 50 ships from Africa under the command of Hannibal to try to save the city by charging towards the centre of the harbour. The Romans did not attempt to stop the entry of the fleet because of their sudden appearance and unfavourable winds in a foreign port.

The Roman fleet was defeated at Drepana in 249 BC when attempting a surprise attack there, followed by the destruction of the rest of the fleet soon afterwards in a storm. This forced the Romans to settle in for a long siege.

The Siege of Lilybaeum (250 BC) lasted for 9 years without Roman success. Carthage was able to reinforce and re-supply Lilybaeum during the war. Some of the Gallic mercenaries planned to betray the city but Alexon, who had previously saved Agrigentum from similar treachery, foiled the plot by informing the Carthaginian commander Himilco.

In 241 BC the city was given to the Romans as part of the peace treaty ending the First Punic War and then became one of the most important cities in Sicily.

Roman Lilybaeum

In 218 BC, in the Second Punic War, the Battle of Lilybaeum was fought between the navies of Carthage and Rome when Carthage attempted a secret raid on the city to re-establish a base. Marcus Amellius, the praetor at Lilybaeum, was told about the impending raid and prepared his 20 ships which managed to defeat the 50 opposing quinqueremes.

In the republican period the city was enriched with mansions and public buildings and dubbed splendidissima urbs by Cicero, who served as quaestor in the region between 76 and 75 BC. During the Civil Wars Lilybaeum was twice besieged, in 43 BC by Sextus Pompeius and 38 by Lepidus during which the walls were further strengthened as shown by an inscription.

The city walls were abandoned in the 4th c. AD as shown by buildings erected over or beside the walls.

Post-Roman Period
The city was the seat of the Diocese of Lilybaeum from at least the early 5th century AD. Ravaged by Vandals during the 5th century AD, the town was annexed in the 6th century to Justinian's Byzantine Empire. In this period the town was struck by dysentery, raided by pirates, and neglected by Constantinople. The arrival of the Arabs at the nearby Granitola mount in the 8th century entailed the resumption of commerce and the start of the rebirth of the town. The town was renamed Marsa ʿAlī "ʿAlī's harbour" or maybe, Marsa ʿāliyy, "Big harbour", for the width of the ancient harbour, placed near Punta d'Alga. Another possible derivation is Marsa Allāh, "God's harbour".

Since the end of the 11th century, the area has been conquered by Norman, Angevin and Aragonese troops. During this time, Marsala became wealthy, primarily through trade. However the blocking up of the harbour of Punta Alga, decreed by Emperor Charles V so as to stop Saracen forays, brought an end to this period of prosperity.

The development of Marsala wine at the end of the 18th century, headed by English merchants settled in Sicily, considerably improved local trade. This triggered an economic expansion in Marsala, including the funding of infrastructure projects such as the current harbour of Margitello.

On 11 May 1860 Giuseppe Garibaldi landed at Marsala, beginning the process of Italian unification.

On 11 May 1943, in the lead-up to the World War II Allied invasion of Sicily, an Allied bombardment of the town permanently damaged its Baroque centre and claimed many victims: "Marsala Wiped Off the Map" titled the New York Times on 13 May 1943.

Archaeology

The archaeological area of Marsala has been investigated both through excavations and topographic studies. Lilybaeum, the ancient town, took up a rectangular area on Capo Boeo, a low and rocky promontory sloping gently down towards the sea. The urban layout of the town can be dated back to the 2nd century BC with modern-day Viale Vittorio Veneto the Decumanus Maximus and Viale Cesare Battisti the Cardo Maximus.

Based on the archaeological findings at Capo Boeo, Lilybaeum was rebuilt twice, in the 1st century BC and in the 3rd century AD. There is not enough evidence to associate the latter with the 365 Crete earthquake, even though literature and archaeological discoveries elsewhere show that other Sicilian towns, such as Selinunte, were affected.

Several fragments of the city walls and floors and walls of public and private buildings are visible. Excavations in several places under the modern city have revealed rich mosaic floors in town houses.

The Baglio Anselmi Archaeological Museum houses an example of Carthaginian ship possibly used during the Battle of the Aegates Islands (241 BC) found on the seabed off the coast of Marsala, as well as other ancient remains from the area, such as pottery, marble sculptures and mosaics. Many fine painted tombs and funerary monuments have been excavated showing unique preservation of colours.

The three entrance gates into the town dating from Norman times: Porta Nuova, Porta di Mare and Porta Mazara were rebuilt in the 17th and 18th centuries in a much grander form: Porta Mazara, ("Mazara Gate") rebuilt in 1572, located in the south-east; Porta di Mare ("Sea Gate") (renamed to Porta Garibaldi), rebuilt in 1685, located in the south-west of the town; Porta Nuova ("New Gate") was rebuilt in 1790, and is located in the north-west of the town. The city council decided to demolish the city walls in 1887 to make way for the rapidly-expanding town. Along with this demolition was demolished the north-east gate called Porta Trapani, constructed in the early 17th century, nicknamed "Porticella" due to its small size in comparison to the other three gates of the town; it used to be located at the intersection of Via Pellegrino and Via Sardegna.

Economy
The economy of Marsala still depends on the production of wine, although tourism is a growing industry and it too is becoming an important source of income for the city. With its 14 km coastline of sandy beaches and clear sea, access to the nearby Aegadian Islands and the natural environment of the Saline Della Laguna and Stagnone Lagoon, Marsala is an important Sicilian tourist destination.

Notable people

 * Giulia Adamo
 * Alborosie
 * Ignazio Boschetto, tenor of the Italian operatic pop group Il Volo
 * Michele Genna
 * Angelo "Bloody Angelo" Genna
 * Vincenzo Genna
 * Antonio Genna Jr.
 * Joe Masseria

Religious architecture

 * Marsala Cathedral (17th century), dedicated to Saint Thomas of Canterbury and built on the site of a Norman predecessor from 1176. There is an organ with 4,317 pipes.
 * Church of Purgatorio.
 * Church of Addolorata.
 * Church of Itriella.
 * Convent, church and belfry of the Carmine.
 * Church of Saint Matthew.
 * Church and monastery of Saint Peter.
 * Church of Saint John the Baptist.

Civil architecture

 * Spanish Quarters (Town Hall).
 * VII April Palace (16th–17th century), built on the site of the Lodge of Pisani.
 * Fici Palace.
 * Grignani Palace.
 * Spanò-Burgio Palace.
 * Communal theatre, built in 19th Century, consists in 300 seats, reopened in 1994 and dedicated to Eliodoro Sollima.
 * Cine Teatro Impero, built during Fascism.
 * Agricultural Technical Institute With Specialized School Wine "Abele Damiani" Marsala – Aggregate IPSAA Strasatti With Hospitality Section (state public high school).

Military architecture

 * Villa Araba, Carabinieri (military police, and public security), Command Company and Operative Centre.
 * Castle of Marsala (formerly a State Prison up to a few years ago).
 * Ancient Gates and walls of Marsala.

Culture
Large-scale wine production started in 1773, encouraged by English trader John Woodhouse. Important winemaking establishments include Ingham-Whitaker, le Cantine Florio, Martinez, Pellegrino, Rallo, Mineo, Bianchi, Baglio Hopps, Donnafugata, Alagna, Caruso e Minini. Marsala cellars produce also red and white wines. Varieties include Alcesti, De Bartoli, Fina, Vinci, Birgi, Mothia, Paolini e Baglio Oro. In 2012, Marsala was named the European Capital of Wine.

Twin towns – sister cities
Marsala is twinned with:
 * 🇹🇳 Kelibia, Tunisia
 * 🇮🇹 Modica, Italy
 * 🇵🇱 Nysa County, Poland
 * Porto, Portugal

title: Marsala


text:
Framestore

Framestore is a British animation and visual effects studio based on Chancery Lane in London, England. Formed in 1985, Framestore specialises in effects for film and prestige TV, advertising, rides and immersive experiences. It is the largest production house in Europe, employing roughly 3,000 staff, including 1,000 in London, and 1,500 across studios in Chicago, New York, Los Angeles, Montreal, Melbourne and Mumbai.

Foundation
Framestore was founded in 1986 by William Sargent and Sharon Reed, together with three friends. Tim Webber joined Framestore in 1988 and led the company's push into digital film and television, developing Framestore's virtual camera and motion rig systems. In 1992, Mike Milne started the CGI department, adding computer-generated animation to the company's range of facilities.

Merger with CFC
In 1997, Framestore acquired the Computer Film Company, which was one of the UK's first digital film special effects companies, developing technology for digital film scanning, compositing, and output. CFC was founded in London in 1984 by Mike Boudry, Wolfgang Lempp (now CTO at Filmlight) and Neil Harris (Lightworks). CFC's first film was The Fruit Machine, in 1988, which utilised early morphing techniques.

In 2004, Framestore opened their first satellite office in New York City, to focus on advertising. This was followed by another office in Iceland in 2008, which has since been closed and has reopened as a local VFX company, RVX. In 2013 Framestore opened an office in Montreal, followed by another in Los Angeles the same year. In 2014, it launched a production arm.

Early projects for the company include the delivery of its first feature animation project The Tale of Despereaux with Universal; the completion of Europe's first digital intermediate for the film Chicken Run in 2000; contribution of scenes for the 2009 film Avatar, and the completion as a production project of four British feature films which opened in theatres between during 2009 and 2010.

Acquisition by CIH
In November 2016, Framestore agreed to let the Shanghai-based Cultural Investment Holdings Co acquire 75% of it for £112.50 million. The company worked on projects such as Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them, Beauty and the Beast, and Paddington 2. In April 2017, Framestore opened a third US location, in Chicago, Illinois.

The company also worked on the 2017 film Darkest Hour directed by Joe Wright, working out of the Montreal facility of Framestore to create historically accurate backdrops for 85 shots in the film, including battle scenes.

The team created around 300 shots for the 2017 film Blade Runner 2049, with Framestore winning a special visual effects award at the 2018 British Academy Film Awards. They have also worked on Black Mirror, creating props such as the 60s-style spaceship in the premiere of the fourth season.

Reception
Framestore has been awarded two Scientific and Technical Academy Awards, and 14 Primetime Emmys. In 2008, Framestore won their first Oscar for Best Visual Effects for the film The Golden Compass; they also won the BAFTA Award for that film the same year. Framestore was also nominated for Oscars in 2009 (The Dark Knight) and again in 2010 (Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1).

Tim Webber was the VFX supervisor on Gravity (2013), and the techniques involved in the film realised by Webber and the Framestore team took three years to complete. The team won the best visual effects awards BAFTA Award for Best Special Visual Effects at the 67th British Academy Film Awards, and the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects award at the 86th Academy Awards. The company then won both the Academy Award and BAFTA for Best Visual Effects in 2018 for its work on Blade Runner 2049.

In advertising the team has also won major awards including Cannes Lions, British Television Advertising Awards, Clios, D&AD and others.

The company's R&D team spun off to create the technology company Filmlight, which in 2010 received four Scientific Academy Awards.

Framestore won the 2020 BAFTA TV Craft Awards for Special, Visual & Graphic Effects for its extensive work on the HBO / BBC series His Dark Materials (TV series).

Advertising and trade characters
Framestore has collaborated with companies and advertising agencies to create trade characters, and also created an attempted photorealistic computer-generated Audrey Hepburn for a Galaxy chocolate advert. A combination of elements including body doubles, motion capture, FACS and rendering software called Arnold were used to mimic the appearance of the actress 20 years after her death. The advert drew press attention both for the cutting-edge technology utilized and the ethical implications of using a person's likeness posthumously for commercial purposes.

title: Framestore


text:
Part of speech

In grammar, a part of speech or part-of-speech (abbreviated as POS or PoS, also known as word class or grammatical category ) is a category of words (or, more generally, of lexical items) that have similar grammatical properties. Words that are assigned to the same part of speech generally display similar syntactic behavior (they play similar roles within the grammatical structure of sentences), sometimes similar morphological behavior in that they undergo inflection for similar properties and even similar semantic behavior. Commonly listed English parts of speech are noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, interjection, numeral, article, and determiner.

Other terms than part of speech—particularly in modern linguistic classifications, which often make more precise distinctions than the traditional scheme does—include word class, lexical class, and lexical category. Some authors restrict the term lexical category to refer only to a particular type of syntactic category; for them the term excludes those parts of speech that are considered to be function words, such as pronouns. The term form class is also used, although this has various conflicting definitions. Word classes may be classified as open or closed: open classes (typically including nouns, verbs and adjectives) acquire new members constantly, while closed classes (such as pronouns and conjunctions) acquire new members infrequently, if at all.

Almost all languages have the word classes noun and verb, but beyond these two there are significant variations among different languages. For example:
 * Japanese has as many as three classes of adjectives, where English has one.
 * Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese have a class of nominal classifiers.
 * Many languages do not distinguish between adjectives and adverbs, or between adjectives and verbs (see stative verb).

Because of such variation in the number of categories and their identifying properties, analysis of parts of speech must be done for each individual language. Nevertheless, the labels for each category are assigned on the basis of universal criteria.

History
The classification of words into lexical categories is found from the earliest moments in the history of linguistics.

India
In the Nirukta, written in the 6th or 5th century BCE, the Sanskrit grammarian Yāska defined four main categories of words:

These four were grouped into two larger classes: inflectable (nouns and verbs) and uninflectable (pre-verbs and particles).
 * 1) नाम nāma – noun (including adjective)
 * 2) आख्यात ākhyāta – verb
 * 3) उपसर्ग upasarga – pre-verb or prefix
 * 4) निपात nipāta – particle, invariant word (perhaps preposition)

The ancient work on the grammar of the Tamil language, Tolkāppiyam, argued to have been written around 2nd century CE, classifies Tamil words as peyar (பெயர்; noun), vinai (வினை; verb), idai (part of speech which modifies the relationships between verbs and nouns), and uri (word that further qualifies a noun or verb).

Western tradition
A century or two after the work of Yāska, the Greek scholar Plato wrote in his Cratylus dialogue, "sentences are, I conceive, a combination of verbs [rhêma] and nouns [ónoma]". Aristotle added another class, "conjunction" [sýndesmos], which included not only the words known today as conjunctions, but also other parts (the interpretations differ; in one interpretation it is pronouns, prepositions, and the article).

By the end of the 2nd century BCE, grammarians had expanded this classification scheme into eight categories, seen in the Art of Grammar, attributed to Dionysius Thrax:

 * 1) 'Name' (ónoma) translated as "Noun": a part of speech inflected for case, signifying a concrete or abstract entity. It includes various species like nouns, adjectives, proper nouns, appellatives, collectives, ordinals, numerals and more.

 * 1) Verb (rhêma): a part of speech without case inflection, but inflected for tense, person and number, signifying an activity or process performed or undergone
 * 2) Participle (metokhḗ): a part of speech sharing features of the verb and the noun
 * 3) Article (árthron): a declinable part of speech, taken to include the definite article, but also the basic relative pronoun
 * 4) Pronoun (antōnymíā): a part of speech substitutable for a noun and marked for a person
 * 5) Preposition (próthesis): a part of speech placed before other words in composition and in syntax
 * 6) Adverb (epírrhēma): a part of speech without inflection, in modification of or in addition to a verb, adjective, clause, sentence, or other adverb
 * 7) Conjunction (sýndesmos): a part of speech binding together the discourse and filling gaps in its interpretation

It can be seen that these parts of speech are defined by morphological, syntactic and semantic criteria.

The Latin grammarian Priscian (fl. 500 CE) modified the above eightfold system, excluding "article" (since the Latin language, unlike Greek, does not have articles) but adding "interjection".

The Latin names for the parts of speech, from which the corresponding modern English terms derive, were nomen, verbum, participium, pronomen, praepositio, adverbium, conjunctio and interjectio. The category nomen included substantives (nomen substantivum, corresponding to what are today called nouns in English), adjectives (nomen adjectivum) and numerals (nomen numerale). This is reflected in the older English terminology noun substantive, noun adjective and noun numeral. Later the adjective became a separate class, as often did the numerals, and the English word noun came to be applied to substantives only.

Classification
Works of English grammar generally follow the pattern of the European tradition as described above, except that participles are now usually regarded as forms of verbs rather than as a separate part of speech, and numerals are often conflated with other parts of speech: nouns (cardinal numerals, e.g., "one", and collective numerals, e.g., "dozen"), adjectives (ordinal numerals, e.g., "first", and multiplier numerals, e.g., "single") and adverbs (multiplicative numerals, e.g., "once", and distributive numerals, e.g., "singly"). Eight or nine parts of speech are commonly listed:

 * 1) noun
 * 2) verb
 * 3) adjective
 * 4) adverb
 * 5) pronoun
 * 6) preposition
 * 7) conjunction
 * 8) interjection
 * 9) determiner

Some traditional classifications consider articles to be adjectives, yielding eight parts of speech rather than nine. And some modern classifications define further classes in addition to these. For discussion see the sections below.

Additionally, there are other parts of speech including particles (yes, no) and postpositions (ago, notwithstanding) although many fewer words are in these categories.

The classification below, or slight expansions of it, is still followed in most dictionaries:
 * Noun (names): a word or lexical item denoting any abstract (abstract noun: e.g. home) or concrete entity (concrete noun: e.g. house); a person (police officer, Michael), place (coastline, London), thing (necktie, television), idea (happiness), or quality (bravery). Nouns can also be classified as count nouns or non-count nouns; some can belong to either category. The most common part of speech; they are called naming words.
 * Pronoun (replaces or places again): a substitute for a noun or noun phrase (them, he). Pronouns make sentences shorter and clearer since they replace nouns.
 * Adjective (describes, limits): a modifier of a noun or pronoun (big, brave). Adjectives make the meaning of another word (noun) more precise.
 * Verb (states action or being): a word denoting an action (walk), occurrence (happen), or state of being (be). Without a verb, a group of words cannot be a clause or sentence.
 * Adverb (describes, limits): a modifier of an adjective, verb, or another adverb (very, quite). Adverbs make language more precise.
 * Preposition (relates): a word that relates words to each other in a phrase or sentence and aids in syntactic context (in, of). Prepositions show the relationship between a noun or a pronoun with another word in the sentence.
 * Conjunction (connects): a syntactic connector; links words, phrases, or clauses (and, but). Conjunctions connect words or group of words.
 * Interjection (expresses feelings and emotions): an emotional greeting or exclamation (Huzzah, Alas). Interjections express strong feelings and emotions.
 * Article (describes, limits):a grammatical marker of definiteness (the) or indefiniteness (a, an). The article is not always listed separately as its own part of speech. It is considered by some grammarians to be a type of adjective or sometimes the term 'determiner' (a broader class) is used.

English words are not generally marked as belonging to one part of speech or another; this contrasts with many other European languages, which use inflection more extensively, meaning that a given word form can often be identified as belonging to a particular part of speech and having certain additional grammatical properties. In English, most words are uninflected, while the inflected endings that exist are mostly ambiguous: -ed may mark a verbal past tense, a participle or a fully adjectival form; -s may mark a plural noun, a possessive noun, or a present-tense verb form; -ing may mark a participle, gerund, or pure adjective or noun. Although -ly is a frequent adverb marker, some adverbs (e.g. tomorrow, fast, very) do not have that ending, while many adjectives do have it (e.g. friendly, ugly, lovely), as do occasional words in other parts of speech (e.g. jelly, fly, rely).

Many English words can belong to more than one part of speech. Words like neigh, break, outlaw, laser, microwave, and telephone might all be either verbs or nouns. In certain circumstances, even words with primarily grammatical functions can be used as verbs or nouns, as in, "We must look to the hows and not just the whys." The process whereby a word comes to be used as a different part of speech is called conversion or zero derivation.

Functional classification
Linguists recognize that the above list of eight or nine word classes is drastically simplified. For example, "adverb" is to some extent a catch-all class that includes words with many different functions. Some have even argued that the most basic of category distinctions, that of nouns and verbs, is unfounded, or not applicable to certain languages. Modern linguists have proposed many different schemes whereby the words of English or other languages are placed into more specific categories and subcategories based on a more precise understanding of their grammatical functions.

Common lexical category set defined by function may include the following (not all of them will necessarily be applicable in a given language):
 * Categories that will usually be open classes:
 * adjectives
 * adverbs
 * nouns
 * verbs (except auxiliary verbs)
 * interjections
 * Categories that will usually be closed classes:
 * auxiliary verbs
 * clitics
 * coverbs
 * conjunctions
 * determiners (articles, quantifiers, demonstrative adjectives, and possessive adjectives)
 * particles
 * measure words or classifiers
 * adpositions (prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions)
 * preverbs
 * pronouns
 * contractions
 * cardinal numbers

Within a given category, subgroups of words may be identified based on more precise grammatical properties. For example, verbs may be specified according to the number and type of objects or other complements which they take. This is called subcategorization.

Many modern descriptions of grammar include not only lexical categories or word classes, but also phrasal categories, used to classify phrases, in the sense of groups of words that form units having specific grammatical functions. Phrasal categories may include noun phrases (NP), verb phrases (VP) and so on. Lexical and phrasal categories together are called syntactic categories.

Open and closed classes
Word classes may be either open or closed. An open class is one that commonly accepts the addition of new words, while a closed class is one to which new items are very rarely added. Open classes normally contain large numbers of words, while closed classes are much smaller. Typical open classes found in English and many other languages are nouns, verbs (excluding auxiliary verbs, if these are regarded as a separate class), adjectives, adverbs and interjections. Ideophones are often an open class, though less familiar to English speakers, and are often open to nonce words. Typical closed classes are prepositions (or postpositions), determiners, conjunctions, and pronouns.

The open–closed distinction is related to the distinction between lexical and functional categories, and to that between content words and function words, and some authors consider these identical, but the connection is not strict. Open classes are generally lexical categories in the stricter sense, containing words with greater semantic content, while closed classes are normally functional categories, consisting of words that perform essentially grammatical functions. This is not universal: in many languages verbs and adjectives are closed classes, usually consisting of few members, and in Japanese the formation of new pronouns from existing nouns is relatively common, though to what extent these form a distinct word class is debated.

Words are added to open classes through such processes as compounding, derivation, coining, and borrowing. When a new word is added through some such process, it can subsequently be used grammatically in sentences in the same ways as other words in its class. A closed class may obtain new items through these same processes, but such changes are much rarer and take much more time. A closed class is normally seen as part of the core language and is not expected to change. In English, for example, new nouns, verbs, etc. are being added to the language constantly (including by the common process of verbing and other types of conversion, where an existing word comes to be used in a different part of speech). However, it is very unusual for a new pronoun, for example, to become accepted in the language, even in cases where there may be felt to be a need for one, as in the case of gender-neutral pronouns.

The open or closed status of word classes varies between languages, even assuming that corresponding word classes exist. Most conspicuously, in many languages verbs and adjectives form closed classes of content words. An extreme example is found in Jingulu, which has only three verbs, while even the modern Indo-European Persian has no more than a few hundred simple verbs, a great deal of which are archaic. (Some twenty Persian verbs are used as light verbs to form compounds; this lack of lexical verbs is shared with other Iranian languages.) Japanese is similar, having few lexical verbs. Basque verbs are also a closed class, with the vast majority of verbal senses instead expressed periphrastically.

In Japanese, verbs and adjectives are closed classes, though these are quite large, with about 700 adjectives, and verbs have opened slightly in recent years. Japanese adjectives are closely related to verbs (they can predicate a sentence, for instance). New verbal meanings are nearly always expressed periphrastically by appending suru (する) to a noun, as in undō suru (運動する), and new adjectival meanings are nearly always expressed by adjectival nouns, using the suffix -na (〜な) when an adjectival noun modifies a noun phrase, as in hen-na ojisan (変なおじさん). The closedness of verbs has weakened in recent years, and in a few cases new verbs are created by appending -ru (〜る) to a noun or using it to replace the end of a word. This is mostly in casual speech for borrowed words, with the most well-established example being sabo-ru (サボる), from sabotāju (サボタージュ). This recent innovation aside, the huge contribution of Sino-Japanese vocabulary was almost entirely borrowed as nouns (often verbal nouns or adjectival nouns). Other languages where adjectives are closed class include Swahili, Bemba, and Luganda.

By contrast, Japanese pronouns are an open class and nouns become used as pronouns with some frequency; a recent example is jibun (自分), now used by some young men as a first-person pronoun. The status of Japanese pronouns as a distinct class is disputed, however, with some considering it only a use of nouns, not a distinct class. The case is similar in languages of Southeast Asia, including Thai and Lao, in which, like Japanese, pronouns and terms of address vary significantly based on relative social standing and respect.

Some word classes are universally closed, however, including demonstratives and interrogative words.

title: Part of speech


text:
From Hell

From Hell is a graphic novel by writer Alan Moore and artist Eddie Campbell, originally published in serial form from 1989 to 1998. The full collection was published in 1999 by Top Shelf Productions.

Set during the Whitechapel murders of the late Victorian era, the novel speculates upon the identity and motives of Jack the Ripper. The novel depicts several true events surrounding the murders, although portions have been fictionalised, particularly the identity of the killer and the precise nature and circumstances of the murders.

The title is taken from the first words of the "From Hell" letter, which some authorities believe was an authentic message sent from the killer in 1888. The collected edition is 572 pages long. The 2000 and later editions are the most common prints. The comic was loosely adapted into a film, released in 2001. In 2000, the graphic novel was banned in Australia for several weeks after customs officers seized copies of the seventh issue from a shipment intended for Quality Comics.

Development
Moore began developing the plot for From Hell in the late 1980s. Writer Neil Gaiman recalled Moore calling him up to discuss a television documentary he had just seen about Jack the Ripper, and then asking for Gaiman's help tracking down "rare and forgotten biographies of possible Ripper suspects at the British Museum".

From Hell takes as its premise Stephen Knight's theory that the Jack the Ripper murders were part of a conspiracy to conceal the birth of an illegitimate royal baby fathered by Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence, slightly modified: the involvement of Walter Sickert is reduced, and Knight's allegation that the child's mother was a Catholic has been dropped. Knight's theories have been described as "a good fictional read" whose "conclusions have been disproved numerous times".

Publication history
From Hell was originally serialized as one of several features in Taboo, an anthology comic book published by Steve Bissette's Spiderbaby Grafix. After running in Taboo #2–7 (1989–1992), Moore and Campbell moved the project to its own series, published first by Tundra Publishing, then by Kitchen Sink Press. The series was published in ten volumes between 1991 and 1996, and an appendix, From Hell: The Dance of the Gull-catchers, was published in 1998. The entire series was collected in a trade paperback and published by Eddie Campbell Comics in 1999; trade paperback and hardcover versions were published by Top Shelf Productions in the United States and Knockabout Comics in the UK. A fully colorized Master Edition was serialized starting in September 2018.

Plot
Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence, also known as Prince Eddy, secretly marries and fathers a child with Annie Crook, a shop girl in London's East End. Prince Eddy had visited the area under an assumed name and Annie is unaware of her husband's royal position. Queen Victoria becomes aware of the marriage and has Albert separated forcibly from his wife, whom she places in an asylum. Victoria then instructs her royal physician Sir William Gull to impair Annie's sanity, which he does by damaging or impairing her thyroid gland. The prince's daughter is taken to Annie's parents by the artist Walter Sickert, a friend of Eddy's who had accompanied him on his trips to the East End. Annie's father believes the child to be his through an incestuous relationship with his daughter. Sickert reluctantly leaves the child with Annie's parents.

The potentially scandalous matter is resolved, until a group of prostitutes — Annie's friends Mary Kelly, Polly Nichols, Anne Chapman, and Liz Stride — who are aware of the illegitimate child and its royal connections, attempt to blackmail Sickert. After Queen Victoria learns of the blackmail attempt, Gull is enlisted to silence the group of women. The police are granted prior knowledge of Gull's intentions, and are adjured not to interfere until the plot is completed.

Gull, a high-ranking Freemason, murders the four women in Whitechapel with the aid of a carriage driver, John Netley. While he justifies the murders by claiming they are a Masonic warning to an apparent Illuminati threat to the throne, the killings are, in Gull's mind, part of an elaborate mystical ritual to ensure male societal dominance over women. While targeting Kelly, Gull also kills Catherine Eddowes, who was using Kelly's name as an alias. As the killings progress, Gull becomes psychologically unhinged and has a vision of the future while murdering a woman he believes to be Kelly.

Gull takes Netley on a tour of London landmarks, expounding on their hidden mystical significance. Later, Gull forces the semi-literate Netley to write the infamous From Hell letter. Following this, several people write letters to the police claiming to be the murderer, and the nickname "Jack the Ripper" becomes a household name.

Inspector Frederick Abberline, who once patrolled Whitechapel as a police officer, investigates the Ripper crimes without success. He meets Robert James Lees, a fraudulent psychic who acts as a spiritual advisor to Queen Victoria. Lees contacts Abberline and identifies Gull as the murderer. Abberline and Lees confront Gull, who instantly confesses. Abberline reports the confession to his superiors at Scotland Yard, who cover up the discovery. The police inform both Abberline and Lees that Gull was operating alone and was gripped by insanity. Abberline later discovers Gull's intentions to cover up the matter of the royal "bastard" fathered by the Duke of Clarence. He resigns from the Metropolitan Police in protest of the official cover-up of the murders, and contemplates leaving England to join the Pinkertons.

Gull is tried by a secret Masonic council, which determines he is insane. Gull refuses to submit to the council, informing them that because of his accomplishments and his visions, no man amongst them may be counted as his peer and cannot judge the "mighty work" he has wrought. A phony funeral is staged, and Gull is imprisoned under a pseudonym "Thomas Mason." The Freemasons frame boarding school teacher Montague Druitt as a suspect, killing him and making his death look like suicide. Years later, and moments before his death, Gull has an extended mystical experience, where his spirit travels through time, observing the crimes of the London Monster, instigating or inspiring a number of other killers (Peter Sutcliffe, Ian Brady), causing Netley's death, as well as serving as the inspiration for both Robert Louis Stevenson's Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde and William Blake's painting The Ghost of a Flea. The last experience his spirit undergoes before it "becomes God" is visiting a woman living in Ireland. The woman has four children who are named after the women murdered by Gull in Whitechapel. She is apparently able to see Gull's spirit, and abjures him to begone "back to Hell."

Interpretations and themes
From Hell was partly inspired by the title of Douglas Adams' novel Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency, in that it explores the notion that to solve a crime holistically, one would need to solve the entire society in which it occurred.

From Hell also explores Moore's ideas on the nature of time. Early on, Gull's friend James Hinton discusses his son Howard's theory of the "fourth dimension", which proposes that time is a spatial dimension. All time co-exists, and it is only the limits of our perception that make it appear to progress. Sequences of related events can be seen as shapes in the fourth dimension: history can "be said to have an architecture", as Gull puts it. Gull's experiences seem to confirm this: he has visions of the 20th century during the murders, and as he is dying he experiences, and appears to influence, past and future events. Moore had earlier explored similar ideas in Watchmen, where Doctor Manhattan perceives past, present and future simultaneously, and describes himself as "a puppet who can see the strings".

Critic Gary Groth says the most elaborate theme in From Hell stems from Moore's statement that "the Ripper murders — happening when they did and where they did — were almost like an apocalyptic summary of... that entire Victorian age."

Awards
From Hell won several Eisner Awards, including "Best Serialized Story" (1993), "Best Writer" (1995, 1996, 1997 ), and "Best Graphic Album – Reprint" (2000). It won the 1995 Harvey Award for Best Continuing or Limited Series, and the collected edition won the 2000 Harvey Award for Best Graphic Album of Previously Published Work.

The book also won the 2000 Eagle Award for Favourite Trade Paperback/Reprint Collection, and the "Prix de la critique" at the Angoulême International Comics Festival in 2001, for the French edition published by Éditions Delcourt.

The collected edition was a top vote getter for the Comics Buyer's Guide Fan Award for Favorite Reprint Graphic Album in 1999.

During its initial serialization, From Hell received the 1996 International Horror Guild Award for Graphic Story/illustrated Narrative, and the 1997 Ignatz Award for Outstanding Story.

Film adaptation
A film, loosely based on the series, was made by the Hughes brothers in 2001, starring Johnny Depp, Heather Graham, and Ian Holm. It received mixed reviews from critics, with a rating of 57% on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes.

TV adaptation
In 2015 it was reported that FX was developing a From Hell drama series with Don Murphy, who produced the 2001 film, as executive producer; David Arata was announced as the writer of the adaptation.

title: From Hell


text:
Abelian category

In mathematics, an abelian category is a category in which morphisms and objects can be added and in which kernels and cokernels exist and have desirable properties.

The motivating prototypical example of an abelian category is the category of abelian groups, $Ab$.

Abelian categories are very stable categories; for example they are regular and they satisfy the snake lemma. The class of abelian categories is closed under several categorical constructions, for example, the category of chain complexes of an abelian category, or the category of functors from a small category to an abelian category are abelian as well. These stability properties make them inevitable in homological algebra and beyond; the theory has major applications in algebraic geometry, cohomology and pure category theory.

Mac Lane says Alexander Grothendieck defined the abelian category, but there is a reference that says Eilenberg's disciple, Buchsbaum, proposed the concept in his PhD thesis, and Grothendieck popularized it under the name "abelian category".

Definitions
A category is abelian if it is preadditive and
 * it has a zero object,
 * it has all binary biproducts,
 * it has all kernels and cokernels, and
 * all monomorphisms and epimorphisms are normal.

This definition is equivalent to the following "piecemeal" definition:
 * A category is preadditive if it is enriched over the monoidal category $Ab$ of abelian groups. This means that all hom-sets are abelian groups and the composition of morphisms is bilinear.
 * A preadditive category is additive if every finite set of objects has a biproduct. This means that we can form finite direct sums and direct products. In Def. 1.2.6, it is required that an additive category have a zero object (empty biproduct).
 * An additive category is preabelian if every morphism has both a kernel and a cokernel.
 * Finally, a preabelian category is abelian if every monomorphism and every epimorphism is normal. This means that every monomorphism is a kernel of some morphism, and every epimorphism is a cokernel of some morphism.

Note that the enriched structure on hom-sets is a consequence of the first three axioms of the first definition. This highlights the foundational relevance of the category of Abelian groups in the theory and its canonical nature.

The concept of exact sequence arises naturally in this setting, and it turns out that exact functors, i.e. the functors preserving exact sequences in various senses, are the relevant functors between abelian categories. This exactness concept has been axiomatized in the theory of exact categories, forming a very special case of regular categories.

Examples

 * As mentioned above, the category of all abelian groups is an abelian category. The category of all finitely generated abelian groups is also an abelian category, as is the category of all finite abelian groups.
 * If R is a ring, then the category of all left (or right) modules over R is an abelian category. In fact, it can be shown that any small abelian category is equivalent to a full subcategory of such a category of modules (Mitchell's embedding theorem).
 * If R is a left-noetherian ring, then the category of finitely generated left modules over R is abelian. In particular, the category of finitely generated modules over a noetherian commutative ring is abelian; in this way, abelian categories show up in commutative algebra.
 * As special cases of the two previous examples: the category of vector spaces over a fixed field k is abelian, as is the category of finite-dimensional vector spaces over k.
 * If X is a topological space, then the category of all (real or complex) vector bundles on X is not usually an abelian category, as there can be monomorphisms that are not kernels.
 * If X is a topological space, then the category of all sheaves of abelian groups on X is an abelian category. More generally, the category of sheaves of abelian groups on a Grothendieck site is an abelian category. In this way, abelian categories show up in algebraic topology and algebraic geometry.
 * If C is a small category and A is an abelian category, then the category of all functors from C to A forms an abelian category. If C is small and preadditive, then the category of all additive functors from C to A also forms an abelian category. The latter is a generalization of the R-module example, since a ring can be understood as a preadditive category with a single object.

Grothendieck's axioms
In his Tōhoku article, Grothendieck listed four additional axioms (and their duals) that an abelian category A might satisfy. These axioms are still in common use to this day. They are the following: and their duals
 * AB3) For every indexed family (Ai) of objects of A, the coproduct *Ai exists in A (i.e. A is cocomplete).
 * AB4) A satisfies AB3), and the coproduct of a family of monomorphisms is a monomorphism.
 * AB5) A satisfies AB3), and filtered colimits of exact sequences are exact.
 * AB3*) For every indexed family (Ai) of objects of A, the product PAi exists in A (i.e. A is complete).
 * AB4*) A satisfies AB3*), and the product of a family of epimorphisms is an epimorphism.
 * AB5*) A satisfies AB3*), and filtered limits of exact sequences are exact.

Axioms AB1) and AB2) were also given. They are what make an additive category abelian. Specifically:
 * AB1) Every morphism has a kernel and a cokernel.
 * AB2) For every morphism f, the canonical morphism from coim f to im f is an isomorphism.

Grothendieck also gave axioms AB6) and AB6*).

 * AB6) A satisfies AB3), and given a family of filtered categories $$I_j, j\in J$$ and maps $$A_j : I_j \to A$$, we have $$\prod_{j\in J} \lim_{I_j} A_j = \lim_{I_j, \forall j\in J} \prod_{j\in J} A_j$$, where lim denotes the filtered colimit.
 * AB6*) A satisfies AB3*), and given a family of cofiltered categories $$I_j, j\in J$$ and maps $$A_j : I_j \to A$$, we have $$\sum_{j\in J} \lim_{I_j} A_j = \lim_{I_j, \forall j\in J} \sum_{j\in J} A_j$$, where lim denotes the cofiltered limit.

Elementary properties
Given any pair A, B of objects in an abelian category, there is a special zero morphism from A to B. This can be defined as the zero element of the hom-set Hom(A,B), since this is an abelian group. Alternatively, it can be defined as the unique composition A → 0 → B, where 0 is the zero object of the abelian category.

In an abelian category, every morphism f can be written as the composition of an epimorphism followed by a monomorphism. This epimorphism is called the coimage of f, while the monomorphism is called the image of f.

Subobjects and quotient objects are well-behaved in abelian categories. For example, the poset of subobjects of any given object A is a bounded lattice.

Every abelian category A is a module over the monoidal category of finitely generated abelian groups; that is, we can form a tensor product of a finitely generated abelian group G and any object A of A. The abelian category is also a comodule; Hom(G,A) can be interpreted as an object of A. If A is complete, then we can remove the requirement that G be finitely generated; most generally, we can form finitary enriched limits in A.

Given an object $$A$$ in an abelian category, flatness refers to the idea that $$- \otimes A$$ is an exact functor. See flat module or, for more generality, flat morphism.

Related concepts
Abelian categories are the most general setting for homological algebra. All of the constructions used in that field are relevant, such as exact sequences, and especially short exact sequences, and derived functors. Important theorems that apply in all abelian categories include the five lemma (and the short five lemma as a special case), as well as the snake lemma (and the nine lemma as a special case).

Semi-simple Abelian categories
An abelian category $$\mathbf{A}$$ is called semi-simple if there is a collection of objects $$\{X_i\}_{i \in I} \in \text{Ob}(\mathbf{A})$$ called simple objects (meaning the only sub-objects of any $$X_i$$ are the zero object $$0$$ and itself) such that an object $$X \in \text{Ob}(\mathbf{A})$$ can be decomposed as a direct sum (denoting the coproduct of the abelian category)"$X \cong \bigoplus_{i \in I} X_i$"This technical condition is rather strong and excludes many natural examples of abelian categories found in nature. For example, most module categories over a ring $$R$$ are not semi-simple; in fact, this is the case if and only if $$R$$ is a semisimple ring.

Examples
Some Abelian categories found in nature are semi-simple, such as

 * Category of vector spaces $$\text{Vect}(k)$$ over a fixed field $$k$$.
 * By Maschke's theorem the category of representations $$\text{Rep}_k(G)$$ of a finite group $$G$$ over a field $$k$$ whose characteristic does not divide $$|G|$$ is a semi-simple abelian category.
 * The category of coherent sheaves on a Noetherian scheme is semi-simple if and only if $$X$$ is a finite disjoint union of irreducible points. This is equivalent to a finite coproduct of categories of vector spaces over different fields. Showing this is true in the forward direction is equivalent to showing all $$\text{Ext}^1$$ groups vanish, meaning the cohomological dimension is 0. This only happens when the skyscraper sheaves $$k_x$$ at a point $$x \in X$$ have Zariski tangent space equal to zero, which is isomorphic to $$\text{Ext}^1(k_x,k_x)$$ using local algebra for such a scheme.

Non-examples
There do exist some natural counter-examples of abelian categories which are not semi-simple, such as certain categories of representations. For example, the category of representations of the Lie group $$(\mathbb{R},+)$$ has the representation $$a \mapsto \begin{bmatrix} 1 & a \\ 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}$$ which only has one subrepresentation of dimension $$1$$. In fact, this is true for any unipotent group pg 112.

Subcategories of abelian categories
There are numerous types of (full, additive) subcategories of abelian categories that occur in nature, as well as some conflicting terminology.

Let A be an abelian category, C a full, additive subcategory, and I the inclusion functor.
 * C is an exact subcategory if it is itself an exact category and the inclusion I is an exact functor. This occurs if and only if C is closed under pullbacks of epimorphisms and pushouts of monomorphisms. The exact sequences in C are thus the exact sequences in A for which all objects lie in C.
 * C is an abelian subcategory if it is itself an abelian category and the inclusion I is an exact functor. This occurs if and only if C is closed under taking kernels and cokernels. Note that there are examples of full subcategories of an abelian category that are themselves abelian but where the inclusion functor is not exact, so they are not abelian subcategories (see below).
 * C is a thick subcategory if it is closed under taking direct summands and satisfies the 2-out-of-3 property on short exact sequences; that is, if $$0 \to M' \to M \to M \to 0 $$ is a short exact sequence in A such that two of $$M',M,M$$ lie in C, then so does the third. In other words, C is closed under kernels of epimorphisms, cokernels of monomorphisms, and extensions. Note that P. Gabriel used the term thick subcategory to describe what we here call a Serre subcategory.
 * C is a topologizing subcategory if it is closed under subquotients.
 * C is a Serre subcategory if, for all short exact sequences $$0 \to M' \to M \to M \to 0 $$ in A we have M in C if and only if both $$M',M$$ are in C. In other words, C is closed under extensions and subquotients. These subcategories are precisely the kernels of exact functors from A to another abelian category.
 * C is a localizing subcategory if it is a Serre subcategory such that the quotient functor $$Q\colon\mathbf A \to \mathbf A/\mathbf C$$ admits a right adjoint.
 * There are two competing notions of a wide subcategory. One version is that C contains every object of A (up to isomorphism); for a full subcategory this is obviously not interesting. (This is also called a lluf subcategory.) The other version is that C is closed under extensions.

Here is an explicit example of a full, additive subcategory of an abelian category that is itself abelian but the inclusion functor is not exact. Let k be a field, $$T_n$$ the algebra of upper-triangular $$n\times n$$ matrices over k, and $$\mathbf A_n$$ the category of finite-dimensional $$T_n$$-modules. Then each $$\mathbf A_n$$ is an abelian category and we have an inclusion functor $$I\colon\mathbf A_2 \to \mathbf A_3$$ identifying the simple projective, simple injective and indecomposable projective-injective modules. The essential image of I is a full, additive subcategory, but I is not exact.

History
Abelian categories were introduced by (under the name of "exact category")  and  in order to unify various cohomology theories. At the time, there was a cohomology theory for sheaves, and a cohomology theory for groups. The two were defined differently, but they had similar properties. In fact, much of category theory was developed as a language to study these similarities. Grothendieck unified the two theories: they both arise as derived functors on abelian categories; the abelian category of sheaves of abelian groups on a topological space, and the abelian category of G-modules for a given group G.

title: Abelian category


text:
370

Year 370 (CCCLXX) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Augustus and Valens (or, less frequently, year 1123 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 370 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Germanic Invasions: The German peoples surround the north borders of the Roman Empire, while the Huns are destroying everything in their path--villages, cities, even empires.
 * A law of Valentinian I and Valens bans marriages between Romans and barbarians under penalty of death.
 * An edict issued by Valentinian I and Valens bans the importation of wine and olive oil from areas controlled by the barbarians.

Europe

 * The Huns migrate westward from the Volga into Europe, and subjugate the Alans and the Ostrogoths. With their arrival, a tradition of composite bows is introduced.
 * Athanaric, Gothic leader of the Tervingi, advances eastwards and takes up a defensive position along the banks of the Dniester (Romania).

Asia

 * Former Qin conquers Former Yan in China.

Religion

 * Basil the Great becomes bishop of Caesarea (Cappadocia).
 * Demophilus of Constantinople becomes Patriarch of Constantinople, although his position is disputed by Evagrius of Constantinople.
 * John Chrysostom is baptized.

Births

 * Alaric I (or Alaricus), king of the Visigoths (d. 410)
 * Brice of Tours, Catholic bishop of Tours (d. 444)
 * Claudian, Roman poet and writer (d. 404)
 * Decimus Rusticus, Roman praetorian prefect
 * Hypatia, Greek female philosopher (d. 415)

Deaths

 * Deng Xia (or Yingyuan), Chinese general (approximate date)
 * Eudoxius of Antioch, Syrian patriarch of Constantinople
 * Lucifer Calaritanus, founder of the Luciferian sect (approximate date)
 * Pharantzem, Armenian queen and regent (approximate date)
 * Strategius Musonianus, Roman politician (approximate date)
 * Valentinianus Galates, Roman emperor (approximate date)
 * Yuan Zhen (or Yanren), Chinese general and rebel leader

title: 370


text:
User:Bignose/Ben Finney

Ben Finney (on Wikipedia as Bignose), currently living in Melbourne, Australia. Email address is ben (at) benfinney (dot) id (dot) au. My homepage is at http://bignose.squidly.org/.

I discovered Wikipedia on 25 September 2001, after a kuro5hin.org article about it. I looked up a topic I hoped was covered, the game of Go; it was, but I couldn't help myself from diving in and heavily editing it. This was before visiting the home page, before even figuring out whether Wikipedia and Nupedia were different things. I suppose that makes me a confessed Wikipediholic.

Subpages

 * Wikipedia markup -- I ran afoul of LMS on my third day here :-) I think the issue of separating presentation from content and structure is particularly important for works of wide appeal like Wikipedia; please discuss there if you agree or disagree.

Hello from another Melbourne wikipediholic! -- User:Claudine

 * Hi, thanks for pinging my page and prompting me to seek out other Aussies on here :-) -- Ben Finney

Well, I've lived in Sydney since I was nine, but I was born in Melbourne, and lived there before I came to Sydney. I'm now 19, so that means I've spent slightly under half my life so far in Melbourne. -- User:Simon J Kissane

I went to Melbourne once. It was raining. --User:Manning Bartlett (who is hoping no-one finds out he is originally from Tasmania)

 * When I first returned to Melbourne after spending most of my first 20 years in South Australia, I travelled overland by train, economy class (not recommended). I awoke from a restless sleep to find we were in a suburb called Sunshine.  I looked outside into the pouring rain...  -- Ben Finney

-- Ummm - it's a matter of some debate whether every date needs a link, but I for one am sure we don't need more than ONE link to the same year in the same entry. Adrian IV just picked several of those. --MichaelTinkler

 * Yeh, I've been trawling through random entries and linkifying a lot tonight (27-Sep-2001), it's probably time I went to sleep. However, I think the balance of links is definitely on the low side of optimal for most entries, so in a way this is deliberately provocative to prompt a bit of debate.  Even if every year and date in every entry was a link, I still don't think that would be over-wikification; every word and number would be too much, yes.  Where do you think the balance lies?  -- Bignose

 * I could do with more links, but surely not EVERY occurence of 1154 in one article needs to be linked? If you're going to do hyperlinking you do need to look and see if there's a convention lurking out there, like (please hit edit and see) cardinal Otherwise, have at it, Ben. Oh, by the way, there is a debate entry on this issue in one of the wikipedia policy pages, something about "only relevant links should be made." --MichaelTinkler
 * aha! Make only links relevant to the context debate.  Notice that this is not a settled policy, so go ahead, link away! --MichaelTinkler

Well, Ben, I haven't said welcome yet, and you're evidently doing a lot of great work here. So, welcome! Good to have you here! Anyone who passionately cares about presentational vs. structural and semantic markup is probably smart and a good hand. --User:LMS

 * Thanks for founding Wikipedia, it's a blast being here. -- Bignose

Hi Ben. What does BFUOT mean? --Stephen Gilbert

 * Bignose: I have no idea what BFUOT could mean. The only reference I find to it on Wikipedia is in this very page.

title: User:Bignose/Ben Finney