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Blackburn Aircraft

Blackburn Aircraft Limited was a British aircraft manufacturer from 1914 to 1963 that concentrated mainly on naval and maritime aircraft.

History
Blackburn Aircraft was founded by Robert Blackburn and Jessy Blackburn, who built his first aircraft in Leeds in 1908 with the company's Olympia Works at Roundhay opening in 1914.

The Blackburn Aeroplane & Motor Company was created in 1914 and established in a new factory at Brough, East Riding of Yorkshire in 1916. Robert's brother Norman Blackburn later became managing director.

Blackburn acquired the Cirrus-Hermes Engineering company in 1934, beginning its manufacture of aircraft engines. However an updated range of engines was under development and Blackburn wanted to wait until it was established before giving its name to them, so Cirrus Hermes Engineering was retained as a separate company for the time being.

The company's name was changed to Blackburn Aircraft Limited in 1936.

In 1937, with the new Cirrus engines now well established, engine manufacturing was brought into the parent company as an operating division, giving rise to the Blackburn Cirrus name.

By 1937, pressure to re-arm was growing and the Yorkshire factory was approaching capacity. A fortuitous friendship between Maurice Denny, managing director of William Denny and Brothers, the Dumbarton ship building company, and Robert Blackburn resulted in the building of a new Blackburn factory at Barge Park, Dumbarton where production of the Blackburn Botha commenced in 1939.

Blackburn amalgamated with General Aircraft Limited in 1949 as Blackburn and General Aircraft Limited, reverting to Blackburn Aircraft Limited by 1958.

As part of the rationalisation of British aircraft manufacturers, its aircraft production and engine operations were absorbed into Hawker Siddeley and Bristol Siddeley respectively in 1960/1961. The Blackburn name was dropped completely in 1963.

An American company, Blackburn Aircraft Corp., was incorporated in Detroit on 20 May 1929 to acquire design and patent rights of the aircraft of Blackburn Airplane & Motor Co., Ltd. in the USA. It was owned 90% by Detroit Aircraft Corp. and 10% by Blackburn Airplane & Motor Co., Ltd. Agreements covered such rights in North and South America, excepting Brazil and certain rights in Canada and provided that all special tools and patterns were to be supplied by the UK company at cost.

Locations
The company had factories at Olympia in Leeds, Sherburn-in-Elmet, Brough (East Yorkshire) and Dumbarton. In the early days, Blackburn himself flew aircraft on the beaches at Marske and Filey, with the company also using the former RAF Holme-on-Spalding Moor. Before production shifted to Sherburn-in-Elmet and Brough from the Leeds site, aircraft were flown in and out of Olympia works by an adjacent airstrip in Roundhay Park.

Aircraft

 * Blackburn First Monoplane (1909) – Single-engine, single-seat high-wing monoplane aircraft
 * Blackburn Second Monoplane (1911) – Single-engine midwing monoplane aircraft.
 * Blackburn Mercury (1911) – Single-engine, two-seat midwing monoplane training aircraft
 * Blackburn Type B (1912) – Single-engine, two-seat midwing monoplane training aircraft. A development of the Blackburn Mercury
 * Blackburn Type D (1912) – Single-engine single-seat mid-winged monoplane. Preserved in flying condition by the Shuttleworth Collection at Old Warden, and survives as the oldest British-built aircraft.
 * Blackburn Type E (1912) – Single-engine, midwing metal-framed monoplanes, one single-seater one twin.
 * Blackburn Type I (1913) – Single-engine 1/2-seat mid-wing monoplane built both as land- and seaplane.
 * Blackburn Type L (1914) – Single-engine two-seat biplane seaplane.
 * AD Scout (1915) – Admiralty designed single-engine, single-seat pusher anti-Zeppelin aircraft. Two each built by Blackburn and by Hewlett & Blondeau.
 * Blackburn Twin Blackburn (1915) – Twin-fuselage, two-engine, two-seat anti-Zeppelin seaplane.
 * Blackburn General Purpose (1916) – Twin-engine three-seat seaplane biplane anti-submarine patrol bomber.
 * Blackburn Triplane (1916) – Blackburn-designed triplane version of Scout
 * Blackburn White Falcon (1916) – Single-engine two-seat mid-wing monoplane.
 * Blackburn R.T.1 Kangaroo (1918) – Twin-engine, three-seat biplane reconnaissance/torpedo bomber
 * Blackburn N.1B (1918) – Single-engine single-seat biplane flying boat escort bomber (started; not finished; never flew).
 * Blackburn Blackburd (1918) – Single-engine, single-seat biplane torpedo bomber
 * Blackburn Sidecar (1919) Single-engine two-seat mid wing monoplane ultra light: may not have flown.
 * Blackburn T.1 Swift (1920) – Single-engine, single-seat floatplane torpedo bomber
 * Blackburn T.2 Dart (1921) – Single-engine, single-seat biplane torpedo bomber
 * Alula D.H.6 (1921) – Experimental aircraft to test the Alula wing using an Airco DH.6 fuselage.
 * Alula Semiquaver (1921) – Single-engine Alula wing conversion of the Martinsyde Semiquaver.
 * Blackburn R.1 Blackburn (1922) – Single-engine, three-seat biplane naval spotter/reconnaissance aircraft.
 * Blackburn Pellet (1923) – Single-engine single-seat biplane Schneider racer.
 * Blackburn Bluebird (1924) – Single-engine, two-seat biplane training/touring aircraft
 * Blackburn T.4 Cubaroo (1924) – Single-engine, four-seat large biplane torpedo bomber.
 * Blackburn T.3 Velos (1925) – Single-engine, two-seat biplane bomber floatplane
 * Blackburn R.2 Airedale (1925) – Single-engine three-seat high-wing monoplane reconnaissance.
 * Blackburn T.5 Ripon (1926) – Single-engine, two-seat biplane reconnaissance/torpedo bomber
 * Blackburn Sprat (1926) single-engine two-seat biplane advanced trainer.
 * Blackburn R.B.1 Iris (1926) – Three-engine, five-seat biplane flying boat
 * Blackburn F.1 Turcock (1928) – Single-engine fighter aircraft.
 * Blackburn F.2 Lincock (1928) – Single-engine, single-seat biplane fighter.
 * Blackburn Beagle (1928) – Single-engine two-seat two-seat biplane bomber.
 * Blackburn Bluebird IV (1929) – Single-engine, two-seat biplane training/touring aircraft.
 * Blackburn 2F.1 Nautilus (1929) – Single-engine two-seat engine biplane fighter
 * Blackburn T.7B (1929) – Single-engine three-seat biplane bomber/reconnaissance prototype for Japanese Navy. Built as Mitsubishi B2M
 * Blackburn R.B.2 Sydney (1930) – Three-engine, four-seat parasol-wing long-range flying boat.
 * Blackburn C.B.2 Nile (1930) – Three-engine, two-seat parasol-wing cargo transport, a variant of the Sydney.
 * Blackburn B-1 Segrave (1930) – Twin-engine, four-seat low-wing monoplane touring aircraft
 * Blackburn C.A.15C (1932) – Twin-engine ten passenger high-wing monoplane/ biplane airliner.
 * Blackburn T.8 Baffin (1932) – Single-engine, two-seat biplane torpedo bomber.
 * Blackburn B-2 (1932) – Single-engine, two-seat biplane training aircraft.
 * Blackburn B-3 M.1/30 (1932) – Single-engine, two-seat biplane naval torpedo bomber.
 * Blackburn B-5 Baffin (1932)
 * Blackburn R.B.3 Perth (1933) – Three-engine, five-seat biplane flying boat.
 * Blackburn T.9 Shark (1933) – single-engine, three-seat carrier-based biplane torpedo bomber; see also the prototype named Blackburn B-6 Shark (1933)
 * Blackburn F.3 (1934) – Single-engine single-seat biplane fighter: built, never flew
 * Blackburn B-7 (1934) – General-purpose biplane.
 * Blackburn H.S.T.10 (B-9) (1936) – Twin-engine twelve-passenger low-wing monoplane airliner: built, never flew
 * Blackburn Skua (1937) – Company designation B-24. Single-engine, two-seat low-wing monoplane naval fighter/dive bomber
 * Blackburn Roc (1938) – Company designation B-25. Single-engine, two-seat low-wing monoplane naval fighter/dive bomber with rear turret (detail design and built by Boulton Paul Aircraft)
 * Blackburn Botha (1938) – B-36. Twin-engine, four-seat high-wing monoplane reconnaissance/torpedo bomber & crew trainer
 * Blackburn B-29: Submission for a naval torpedo-bomber reconnaissance aircraft to Specification S.24/37 (which resulted in the Fairey Barracuda); mock-up only, never flew.
 * Blackburn B-20 (1940) – Twin-engine, six-seat experimental monoplane retractable-hull flying boat. Built for Air Ministry specification R1/36
 * Blackburn Firebrand (1942) – B-37. Single-engine, single-seat propeller naval fighter
 * Blackburn B-40 - development of B.20 design for specification R.13/40 . Cancelled.
 * Blackburn B.44 (1942) – Single-engine flying-boat fighter
 * Blackburn Firebrand (1942) – B.45. Single-engine, single-seat propeller naval strike fighter development of B-37.
 * Blackburn Firebrand (1945) – B.46. Single-engine, single-seat propeller naval strike fighter development of B-45.
 * Blackburn Firecrest (Y.A.1, B-48) (1947) – Single-engine, single-seat propeller naval strike fighter.
 * Blackburn B-50 (1945) – Design proposal for a single engine Nene powered Fleet Air Arm strike fighter. Not built.
 * Blackburn B-52 – Design proposal for a single-engined advanced trainer to meet Specification T.7/45. Not built.
 * Blackburn B-67 (1947) – Design proposal for a naval fighter to specification N40/46. Not built.
 * Blackburn B-68 (1946) – Design proposal for a naval fighter. Not built.
 * Blackburn B-71 (1947) – Design proposal for a flexible deck landing version of B.67. Not built.
 * Blackburn B-74 (1947) – Design proposal for a naval fighter. Not built.
 * Blackburn B-54 (Y.A.5, Y.A.7, Y.A.8) (1949) – single-piston-engine, two-seat contra-rotating propeller naval anti-submarine aircraft.
 * Blackburn B-82 (1949) – Design proposal for a naval fighter to specification N.14/49.
 * Blackburn B-88 (Y.B.1) (1950) – single-turboprop-engine, two-seat contra-rotating propeller naval anti-submarine aircraft
 * Blackburn B-89 (1951) – Submission for a naval fighter to specification N.114T.
 * Blackburn B-90 (1951) – Design proposal for an experimental swing wing aircraft to ER.110T. Not built.
 * Blackburn B-94 (1951) – Design proposal for a flexible deck landing version of B.90. Not built.
 * Handley Page HP.88 (Blackburn Y.B.2) (1951) – Experimental aircraft for Handley Page using a Supermarine-built fuselage.
 * Blackburn B-95 (1952) – Design proposal for a revised version of B.89.
 * Blackburn B-97 (1952) – Design proposal for a rocket powered fighter to specification F.124T. Not built.
 * Blackburn B-99 (1952) – Development of N.97. Not built.
 * Blackburn Beverley (1950) – B-101. four-engine, high-wing, propellers, transport airplane (designed by General Aircraft)
 * Blackburn B-102 (1952) – Design proposal for a mixed powerplant fighter based on B.89 and B.95. Not built.
 * Blackburn Buccaneer (Y.B.3, B-103) (1958) – twin-engine, two-seat jet naval strike aircraft to Naval Staff Requirement NA.39
 * Blackburn B-104 (1953) - Design proposal for a two-engine medium-range military transport for the Royal Air Force. Not built.
 * Blackburn B-109 (1958) – Design proposal for a Mach 1.5 strike fighter version of the Buccaneer for the Canadian Air Force. Not built.
 * Blackburn B-112 (1958) – Design proposal for a Mach 1.5 fighter version of the Buccaneer for the Royal Navy. Not built.
 * Blackburn B-117 (1960) – Design proposal for a high attitude fighter version of the Buccaneer. Not built.
 * Blackburn B-120 (1962) – Design proposal for a Mach 1.8 fighter version of the Buccaneer. Not built.

The company also produced aircraft from other aircraft companies' specifications, such as the Sopwith Cuckoo (1918) and the Fairey Swordfish (1942), both of which were built at Blackburn's Sherburn-in-Elmet factory.

Piston engines

 * Blackburn Cirrus Major (1936)
 * Blackburn Cirrus Minor (1937)
 * Blackburn Cirrus Midget (1937)
 * Blackburn Cirrus Bombardier (c. 1954)

Gas turbine engines (with Turbomeca)

 * Blackburn-Turbomeca Artouste (1947)
 * Blackburn-Turbomeca Palas (1950)
 * Blackburn-Turbomeca Palouste (1952)
 * Blackburn-Turbomeca A.129 (later known as the Bristol Siddeley Nimbus, then Rolls-Royce Nimbus) (1958)

title: Blackburn Aircraft


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Data (Star Trek)

Data is a fictional character in the Star Trek franchise. He appears in the television series Star Trek: The Next Generation (TNG) and the first and third seasons of Star Trek: Picard; and the feature films Star Trek Generations (1994), First Contact (1996), Insurrection (1998), and Nemesis (2002). Data is portrayed by actor Brent Spiner.

Data is a self-aware, sapient, sentient and anatomically fully functional male android who serves as the second officer and chief operations officer aboard the Federation starship USS Enterprise-D and later the USS Enterprise-E.

Data is in many ways a successor to the original Star Trek's Spock, in that the character has superior mental skills and offers an "outsider's" perspective on humanity.

Development
Gene Roddenberry told Brent Spiner that over the course of the series, Data was to become "more and more like a human until the end of the show, when he would be very close, but still not quite there. That was the idea and that's the way that the writers took it." Spiner felt that Data exhibited the Chaplinesque characteristics of a sad, tragic clown. To get into his role as Data, Spiner used the character of Robby the Robot from the film Forbidden Planet as a role model.

Commenting on Data's perpetual albino-like appearance, he said: "I spent more hours of the day in make-up than out of make-up", so much so that he even called it a way of method acting. Spiner also portrayed Data's manipulative and malevolent brother Lore (a role he found much easier to play, because the character was "more like me"), and Data's creator, Dr. Noonien Soong. Additionally, he portrayed another Soong-type android, B-4, in the film Star Trek: Nemesis, and also Arik Soong, one of Soong's ancestors in three episodes of Star Trek: Enterprise. Spiner said his favorite Data scene takes place in "Descent", when Data plays poker on the holodeck with a re-creation of the famous physicist Stephen Hawking, played by Hawking himself.

Spiner reprised his role of Data in the Star Trek: Enterprise series finale "These Are the Voyages..." in an off-screen speaking part. Spiner felt that he had visibly aged out of the role and that Data was best presented as a youthful figure. Spiner returned to the role for 2020 Star Trek: Picard, having been convinced by the advent of digital de-aging tools. He also accepted because the negative fan reaction to the death of Data in Nemesis took him by surprise, and the scene in Picard gave a new opportunity for a proper sendoff to the character. Initially stating that the 2020 first season of Picard would be his final time playing Data, Spiner returned to the role for the series' 2023 third and final season, portraying an aged Data, Lore, and B-4.

Television series and films
It was in the Star Trek prequel "Star Trek: Enterprise" episode "The Augments" that the origin of Data can be traced back to a scientific theory created by Genetic Engineer Arik Soong, ancestor to Data's "father / creator" Noonien Soong, who noted that his theory would take generations beyond his lifetime to develop into a practical working model. Arik Soong created the theory while serving life imprisonment for recreating the discontinued "Augments" program which originally started the Eugenics War of the late 20th century. This links the Data storyline to that of Khan Noonien Singh from the original Star Trek. Dialog in "Datalore" establishes some of Data's backstory. It is stated that he was deactivated in 2336 on Omicron Theta before an attack by the Crystalline Entity, a spaceborne creature which converts life forms to energy for sustenance. He was found and reactivated by Starfleet personnel two years later. Data went to Starfleet Academy from 2341 to 2345 (he describes himself as "Class of '78" to Commander William Riker in the series premiere "Encounter at Farpoint"—with "honors in probability mechanics and exobiology", although canonically may only refer to the stardate) and then served in Starfleet aboard the USS Trieste. He was assigned to the Enterprise under Captain Jean-Luc Picard in 2364. In "Datalore", Data discovers his amoral brother, Lore, and learns that Dr. Noonien Soong created Data after Lore. Lore fails in an attempt to betray the Enterprise to the Crystalline Entity, and Wesley Crusher beams Data's brother into space at the episode's conclusion. Lore claimed that Data was "less-perfect", which was a lie, as Soong later confirmed to Data in "Brothers"; the only real difference between the two of them "was some programming" (Lore's positronic net differed from Data's: it had a Type-"L" phase discriminator compared to Data's Type-"R"; see episode "Time's Arrow").

In "The Measure of a Man", a Starfleet judge rules that Data is not Starfleet property.

Data's family is expanded in "The Offspring", which introduces Lal, a gynoid based on Data's neural interface and whom Data refers to as his daughter. Lal "dies" shortly after activation. In "Brothers", Data reunites with Dr. Soong. There he meets again with Lore, who steals the emotion chip Soong meant for Data to receive. Lore then fatally wounds Soong. In "Descent", Lore returns, using the emotion chip to control Data and make him help with Lore's attempt to make the Borg entirely artificial lifeforms. Data eventually deactivates Lore, and recovers, but does not install the damaged emotion chip. In "Inheritance", Soong's former wife Juliana reunites with Data, though the crew discovers she was a gynoid duplicate built by Soong after the real Julianna's death, programmed to die after a long life, and to believe she is the true Julianna unaware of the fact she is an android. Faced with the decision, Data chooses not to disclose this to her and allows her to continue her normal life.

In "All Good Things...", the two-hour series finale of The Next Generation, Captain Picard travels among three different time periods. The Picard of 25 years into the future goes with Geordi La Forge to seek advice from now Professor Data, a luminary physicist who holds the Lucasian Chair at Cambridge University.

In the film Star Trek Generations, Data finally installs the emotion chip he retrieved from Lore, and experiences the full scope of emotions. However, those emotions proved difficult to control and Data struggled to master them. In Star Trek: First Contact, Data has managed to gain complete control of the chip, which includes deactivating it to maintain his performance efficiency. In the film Star Trek: Nemesis, Data beams Picard off an enemy ship before destroying it, sacrificing himself and saving the captain and crew of the Enterprise. However, Data had copied his core memories into B-4, his lost brother who is introduced in the movie. This was done with the reluctant help of La Forge, who voiced concerns about how this could cause B-4 to be nothing more than an exact duplicate of Data.

In the first season of Star Trek: Picard, Data is seen in Picard's dreams, playing poker with him in Ten-Forward, and later painting in the middle of the vineyards of Chateau Picard. It is revealed that Dahj and Soji Asha are Data's daughters, created through fractal neuronic cloning, a procedure developed by Dr. Bruce Maddox. These neurons were apparently salvaged from B-4, who had been dismantled and placed in storage after his positronic net was found to be too primitive to integrate Data's memories. However, Data's consciousness is revealed to still exist inside a quantum simulation crafted by Maddox and based upon memories retrieved from the neurons Maddox salvaged from B-4, the equipment holding the network now in the possession of Altan Soong, Noonien Soong's biological son. After Picard dies, Altan Soong transfers Picard's consciousness into a golem intended for his own consciousness and Picard meets with Data inside the simulation. Data requests that Picard terminate his consciousness, which would allow Data the experience of dying, believing that he could only truly live if he had a finite lifespan. Once Picard awakens, he carries out Data's wish and Data's consciousness rapidly ages to death, Picard giving a brief eulogy as he observes that what made Data remarkable was his ability to see humanity's worst traits and still aspire to the best parts of the human condition.

In the third season of Star Trek: Picard, Data is revealed to have been revived by Altan within a new synthetic body, having partially merged with Lore, B-4, and the memories of Altan Soong himself. It's believed by Riker that while Data's memories had previously been unrecoverable, the lifting of the ban on synthetics had allowed Soong to work on it more and properly extract them from B-4. The new android was requisitioned by the Daystrom Institute, Starfleet's foremost advanced research center. Riker, Worf, and Raffi Musiker steal the android, and bring him aboard the USS Titan, where he is reunited with Picard. The android entity holds valuable information on Daystrom's research projects, and Data's persona reveals that the antagonists of the season have stolen Picard's original dead organic body. However, it takes several hours for La Forge to re-engineer the android to allow Data's persona to truly dominate it, with Lore's persona dominating in the meantime. Data's persona is seemingly unable to overpower Lore who has taken over the Titan's systems, but upon realizing that Lore envied the compassion and empathy Data developed from his memories, Data eventually surrenders them to Lore. Lore initially regards them as his battle trophies; they consume him, reintegrating Lore and reconstituting Data, allowing him to fully take over the new body and reprogram the Titan systems against the Changelings. Data's personality is thus newly enriched, and attains its most human-like state with Data stating that he is Data, but also Lore, B-4, Lal and everything else that Soong had programmed into the android.

In the series final episodes, the Changelings are revealed to be working with the Borg who take over Starfleet. Data plays an instrumental role in the final defeat of the Borg, piloting the rebuilt USS Enterprise-D to the heart of a Borg cube over Jupiter on a gut feeling, a feat that La Forge had believed to be impossible for even a computer or the best pilot to accomplish. Afterwards, Data attempts to adjust to having an artificial organic body and everything that comes with it and is last seen playing poker with his Enterprise crewmates at the Ten Forward bar in Los Angeles.

Spot
Spot is Data's pet cat and a recurring character in the show. Spot appears in several episodes during TNG's last four seasons, as well as in the feature films Star Trek Generations and Star Trek: Nemesis. She first appears in the episode "Data's Day". Spot originally appears as a male Somali cat, but later appears as a female orange tabby cat, eventually giving birth to kittens (TNG: "Genesis"). In Star Trek: Picard, his memories of Spot are the last ones that Data "surrenders" to Lore.

Biography
Data was found by Starfleet in 2338. He was the sole survivor on Omicron Theta in the rubble of a colony left after an attack from the Crystalline Entity. He is a synthetic life form with artificial intelligence, designed and built by Doctor Noonien Soong in his own likeness (likewise portrayed by Spiner).

His positronic brain allows him impressive computational capabilities. He experienced ongoing difficulties during the early years of his life with understanding various aspects of human behavior and was unable to feel emotion or understand certain human idiosyncrasies, inspiring him to strive for his own humanity. This goal eventually led to the addition of an "emotion chip", created by Soong, to Data's positronic net. Although Data's endeavor to increase his humanity and desire for human emotional experience is a significant plot point (and source of humor) throughout the series, he consistently shows a nuanced sense of wisdom, sensitivity and curiosity, garnering respect from his peers and colleagues.

Popular culture
Like Spock, Data became a sex symbol and Spiner's fan mail came mostly from women. He described the letters as "romantic mail" that were "really written to Data; he's a really accessible personality".

Robotics engineers regard Data (along with the droids from the Star Wars movies) as the pre-eminent face of robots in the public's perception of their field. On April 9, 2008, Data was inducted into Carnegie Mellon University's Robot Hall of Fame during a ceremony at the Carnegie Science Center in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

Spiner himself released an album of old pop standards from the 1930s and '40s entitled Ol' Yellow Eyes Is Back, a reference to the contact lenses he wore as Data, as well as a play on the name of the Frank Sinatra album, Ol' Blue Eyes Is Back.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Data (Star Trek)


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User:Apswartz

Alan Swartz currently serves as a United Methodist pastor (retired) in North Carolina, USA. He holds degrees from Methodist University, Duke University, and Drew University.

title: User:Apswartz


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Talk:Blackfish

Comment
The style of this suggests a copy from an old source. Can whoever entered it *please* edit at least enough to clarify what "recent years" means here. A Linnean binomial would also be useful.

 * It looks like the name for this may be Tautoga onitis in the family Labridae, but I can't be sure.

 * This is probably correct, however it is not a common name currently in use that I know of. Therefore I'm going to completely eliminate the info here, and put the two blackfish that are listed in some of my field guides... Minnow types. :P Rgamble

title: Talk:Blackfish


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Hawker Pacific Aerospace

Hawker Pacific Aerospace (HPA) is an aircraft maintenance company which offers landing gear and hydraulic maintenance, repair and overhaul services for all major aircraft types, including all current Airbus, Boeing, Bombardier and Embraer models, as well as helicopters.

Lufthansa Technik (LHT), a subsidiary of Lufthansa German Airlines, acquired Hawker Pacific in 2002. Within the LHT network, Hawker is able to provide an around the world landing gear service.

HPA's corporate headquarters are located in Sun Valley, Los Angeles, California, near to Bob Hope Burbank International Airport.

History
Hawker Pacific Aerospace was formed in 1980. In 1991, Hawker Siddeley was absorbed by BTR Aerospace Group. In 1994, Hawker Pacific merged with Dunlop Aviation Inc and in 1996, Hawker Pacific Aerospace was sold by BTR and became a stand-alone company.

In 1998, Hawker Pacific completed its initial public offering of common stock and used the proceeds to acquire the landing gear, flap track and flap carriage operation from British Airways.

In 2002, Lufthansa Technik acquired 100% ownership of Hawker Pacific Aerospace including its UK location. Hawker was added to Lufthansa Technik's Landing Gear Division to form a global network for landing gear maintenance, repair and operations services.

In January 2011, Hawker Pacific Aerospace UK was sold to Lufthansa Technik and renamed into Lufthansa Technik Landing Gear Services UK.

Business divisions
Hawker Pacific Aerospace has three business divisions:
 * Landing Gear Services
 * Component Maintenance Services
 * Spares Services

title: Hawker Pacific Aerospace


text:
599

Year 599 (DXCIX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The denomination 599 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Byzantine Empire

 * Emperor Maurice refuses to pay ransom for 12,000 Byzantine soldiers taken prisoner by the Avars. Their leader Bayan I orders the execution of the prisoners, and slaughters them all. His failure to buy back the captives destroys Maurice's popularity with the Byzantine troops in the Balkan Peninsula.
 * Summer – Balkan Campaign: The Byzantine generals Priscus and Comentiolus join their forces at Singidunum (modern Belgrade), and move downstream to the fortress city of Viminacium (Serbia). The Byzantines cross the Danube River and invade Upper Moesia, where they defeat the Avars in open battle.
 * Priscus pursues the fleeing Avar tribes and invades their homeland in Pannonia. He devastates the land east of the Tisza River, deciding the war for the Byzantines and ending the Avar and Slavic incursions across the Danube.
 * Autumn – Comentiolus reopens the Gate of Trajan pass, near Ihtiman (Bulgaria). This strategic mountain pass, whose fortress "Stipon" defends the border between the provinces Thrace and Macedonia, is not used for decades.

Europe

 * Callinicus, governor (exarch) of Ravenna, repulses attacks of the South Slavs in Istria (Croatia). The region is pillaged, but the Byzantines drive them all out.
 * Callinicus breaks the truce by kidnapping the Lombard daughter of King Agilulf, beginning a war with the Exarchate of Ravenna (approximate date).

Britain

 * Rædwald becomes king (bretwalda) of East Anglia (East of England), under the overlordship of Æthelberht of Kent (according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle).

Persia

 * King Khosrau II sends a Persian expedition to South Arabia and conquers Yemen. He establishes a military base to control the sea trade with the East (approximate date).

Asia

 * Tardu declares himself to be ruler (khagan) of the united Turkic Khaganate (east and west). His new status is not recognised widely in the empire.
 * Beop becomes king of the Korean kingdom of Baekje.

Mesoamerica

 * The Maya city of Palenque (southern Mexico) is plundered by King Scroll Serpent of Calakmul (approximate date).

Religion

 * Venantius Fortunatus, Latin poet and hymnodist in the Merovingian court, is appointed bishop of Poitiers.

Births

 * January 23 – Tai Zong, emperor of the Tang dynasty (d. 649)

Deaths

 * Anastasius I, patriarch of Antioch
 * Hye, king of Baekje (Korea)
 * Taliesin, Brythonic poet (approximate date)
 * Tulan Qaghan, ruler (khagan) of the Göktürks

title: 599


text:
598

Year 598 (DXCVIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The denomination 598 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Byzantine Empire

 * March 30 – Balkan Campaign: The Avars lift the siege of the fortress city of Tomis (modern Romania). A Byzantine army under Comentiolus crosses the Balkan Mountains, and marches along the Danube River to Zikidiba.
 * The Avars rout the Byzantine forces of Comentiolus (south of Haemus Mons), and capture Drizipera (Thrace). A large part of their troops are killed by the plague, after many cities are devastated in the Balkan Peninsula.
 * Emperor Maurice pays tribute to the Avars and concludes a treaty with their leader Bayan I, allowing Byzantine expeditions in Wallachia. He reorganises his army and strengthens the Long Walls (west of Constantinople).

Europe

 * Maurice makes peace with King Agilulf, conceding northern Italy. Pope Gregory I the Great negotiates a truce, ending 30 years of Lombard terror. Agilulf expands the Lombard Kingdom by occupying Sutri and Perugia.

Britain

 * Battle of Catraeth: The Gododdin under Mynyddog Mwynfawr, Brythonic king of Hen Ogledd ("The Old North"), defeat the Angles of Bernicia and Deira, at the stronghold of Catraeth in Northern England (approximate date).

Asia

 * August 4 – Goguryeo War: Emperor Wéndi orders his youngest son, Yang Liang (assisted by the co-prime minister Gao Jiong), to conquer Goguryeo (Korea) during the rainy season, with a Chinese army (300,000 men).
 * The Chinese fleet engages in battle against the Goguryeo fleet (50,000 men) under Admiral Kang I-sik, and is destroyed in the Bohai Sea. During the invasion the Sui forces are all defeated, and Yang Liang is forced to retreat.
 * King Yeongyang sends an embassy to Daxing; Wéndi accepts a peace agreement with Goguryeo. He claims a hollow victory, as the Sui dynasty lost nearly 90% of his army and navy during the disastrous campaign.
 * Hye becomes king of the Korean kingdom of Baekje.

Religion

 * Missionaries begin to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity throughout much of what will later be the British Isles (approximate date).
 * The Guoqing Temple is built on Mount Tiantai (Zhejiang), and becomes the site for the teachings of Chinese Buddhism.

Births

 * January 28 – Taizong, emperor of the Tang dynasty (d. 649)
 * Dou Dexuan, high official of the Tang dynasty (d. 666)
 * Du Fuwei, rebel leader during the Sui dynasty (d. 624)
 * Pingyang, princess of the Tang ynasty (d. 623)
 * Brahmagupta, Indian mathematician and astronomer (d. 668)
 * Gomentrude, Frankish queen consort (fl. 630)

Deaths

 * Áed mac Ainmuirech, High King of Ireland
 * Dallán Forgaill, Christian Irish poet
 * Wideok, king of Baekje (Korea) (b. 525)

title: 598


text:
596

Year 596 (DXCVI) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The denomination 596 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Byzantine Empire

 * Emperor Maurice uses the city of Marcianopolis (modern Bulgaria) as a military base of operations on the lower Danube River, against the Slavs on the Balkans.

Britain

 * Battle of Raith: An invading force of Angles lands on the Fife coast near Raith (Kirkcaldy) and defeats an alliance of Scots, Britons and Picts, under King Áedán mac Gabráin of Dál Riata (Scotland).

Asia

 * Emperor Wéndi sends diplomatic letters to the royal court of Goguryeo (Korea). He demands the cancellation of the military alliance with the Eastern Turk Khanate, and the raiding of Sui border regions.

Religion

 * Gregorian Mission: Augustine of Canterbury lands with a group of missionaries on the Isle of Thanet (South East England). He is welcomed by King Æthelberht of Kent, who accepts baptism along with the rest of his court at the behest of his Christian Frankish wife, Bertha. Æthelbert assigns Augustine and his 40 monks a residence at Canterbury (Kent), where they found a Benedictine monastery that will make the town a centre of Christianity (or 597).

Births

 * Cui Dunli, general of the Tang dynasty (d. 656)
 * Daoxuan, Chinese Buddhist monk (d. 667)
 * Gao Jifu, chancellor of the Tang dynasty (d. 654)
 * Kōtoku, emperor of Japan (d. 654)
 * Liu Xiangdao, official of the Tang dynasty (d. 666)

Deaths

 * Ebrulf, Frankish hermit and abbot (b. 517)
 * Marius Aventicensis, bishop of Aventicum (b. 532)

title: 596


text:
595

Year 595 (DXCV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The denomination 595 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Byzantine Empire

 * Balkan Campaign: A Byzantine relief force under Priscus marches up the Danube River along the southern bank to Novae (modern Bulgaria). The fortress city of Singidunum (Belgrade) is plundered by the Avars, and abandoned after the approach of the Byzantines. The Avars retreat and launch a raid against Dalmatia.

Europe

 * October – King Childebert II dies; his mother Brunhilda attempts to rule Austrasia and Burgundy, as regent for her grandsons. He is succeeded by his two young sons, Theudebert II and Theuderic II.
 * The Lombards sack the town of Terracina (Central Italy). After they conquer more cities, Terracina remains an important military stronghold of the Byzantine Empire.
 * After the death of Euin, Gaidoald becomes the Duke of Trent (Northern Italy).

Britain

 * King Dynod Bwr of the Pennines (Northern England) dies fighting off a Bernician invasion. His kingdom Hen Ogledd ("The Old North") is overrun, and his family flees to Powys (approximate date).

Asia

 * Spring – Emperor Wéndi orders the confiscation and destruction of privately held weapons; he exempts the border provinces from this edict.
 * Supratisthitavarman succeeds his father Susthitavarman, as king of the Varman dynasty in Assam (Northeast India).
 * Construction begins on the Zhaozhou Bridge ("Safe crossing bridge") in Hebei Province, during the Sui dynasty (China).

Religion

 * June – Pope Gregory I the Great sends a group of Benedictine monks under Augustine of Canterbury on a mission to Britain, to Christianize King Æthelberht, and convert the Kingdom of Kent from native Anglo-Saxon paganism. He carries letters of commendation to bishops, and is accompanied by Frankish interpreters.
 * September 2 – John IV ("the Faster"), patriarch of Constantinople, dies after a 13-year reign in which he has mediated disputes between the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Monophysites.
 * Muhammad, Islamic prophet, meets and marries Khadija. She is a 40-year-old widow and 15 years older than he. Supported by Khadija's wealth, they form a successful merchant partnership.

Births

 * Asmā' bint Abu Bakr, female companion of Muhammad (d. 695)
 * Cen Wenben, chancellor and editor of the Book of Zhou (d. 645)
 * Kim Yu-shin, general of Silla (Korea) (d. 673)
 * Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas, companion of Muhammad (d. 674)
 * Talhah, disciple and companion of Muhammad (approximate date)
 * Zaynab bint Khuzayma, wife of Muhammad (d. 627)

Deaths

 * September 2 – John IV, patriarch of Constantinople
 * Berach, Irish bishop and saint
 * Childebert II, king of Austrasia (b. 570)
 * Dynod Bwr, king of Hen Ogledd (approximate date)
 * Euin, Lombard duke of Trent (Italy)
 * Gartnait II, king of the Picts
 * Owain mab Urien, king of Rheged (approximate date)
 * Yuchi Chifan, empress of Northern Zhou (b. 566)

title: 595


text:
Cosmic ray

Cosmic rays or astroparticles are high-energy particles or clusters of particles (primarily represented by protons or atomic nuclei) that move through space at nearly the speed of light. They originate from the Sun, from outside of the Solar System in our own galaxy, and from distant galaxies. Upon impact with Earth's atmosphere, cosmic rays produce showers of secondary particles, some of which reach the surface, although the bulk are deflected off into space by the magnetosphere or the heliosphere.

Cosmic rays were discovered by Victor Hess in 1912 in balloon experiments, for which he was awarded the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physics.

Direct measurement of cosmic rays, especially at lower energies, has been possible since the launch of the first satellites in the late 1950s. Particle detectors similar to those used in nuclear and high-energy physics are used on satellites and space probes for research into cosmic rays. Data from the Fermi Space Telescope (2013) have been interpreted as evidence that a significant fraction of primary cosmic rays originate from the supernova explosions of stars. Based on observations of neutrinos and gamma rays from blazar TXS 0506+056 in 2018, active galactic nuclei also appear to produce cosmic rays.

Etymology
The term ray (as in optical ray) seems to have arisen from an initial belief, due to their penetrating power, that cosmic rays were mostly electromagnetic radiation. Nevertheless, following wider recognition of cosmic rays as being various high-energy particles with intrinsic mass, the term "rays" was still consistent with then known particles such as cathode rays, canal rays, alpha rays, and beta rays. Meanwhile "cosmic" ray photons, which are quanta of electromagnetic radiation (and so have no intrinsic mass) are known by their common names, such as gamma rays or X-rays, depending on their photon energy.

Composition
Of primary cosmic rays, which originate outside of Earth's atmosphere, about 99% are the bare nuclei of common atoms (stripped of their electron shells), and about 1% are solitary electrons (that is, one type of beta particle). Of the nuclei, about 90% are simple protons (i.e., hydrogen nuclei); 9% are alpha particles, identical to helium nuclei; and 1% are the nuclei of heavier elements, called HZE ions. These fractions vary highly over the energy range of cosmic rays. A very small fraction are stable particles of antimatter, such as positrons or antiprotons. The precise nature of this remaining fraction is an area of active research. An active search from Earth orbit for anti-alpha particles has failed to detect them.

Upon striking the atmosphere, cosmic rays violently burst atoms into other bits of matter, producing large amounts of pions and muons (produced from the decay of charged pions, which have a short half-life) as well as neutrinos. The neutron composition of the particle cascade increases at lower elevations, reaching between 40% and 80% of the radiation at aircraft altitudes.

Of secondary cosmic rays, the charged pions produced by primary cosmic rays in the atmosphere swiftly decay, emitting muons. Unlike pions, these muons do not interact strongly with matter, and can travel through the atmosphere to penetrate even below ground level. The rate of muons arriving at the surface of the Earth is such that about one per second passes through a volume the size of a person's head. Together with natural local radioactivity, these muons are a significant cause of the ground level atmospheric ionisation that first attracted the attention of scientists, leading to the eventual discovery of the primary cosmic rays arriving from beyond our atmosphere.

Energy
Cosmic rays attract great interest practically, due to the damage they inflict on microelectronics and life outside the protection of an atmosphere and magnetic field, and scientifically, because the energies of the most energetic ultra-high-energy cosmic rays have been observed to approach 3 × eV  (This is slightly greater than 21 million times the design energy of particles accelerated by the Large Hadron Collider, 14 TeV. ) One can show that such enormous energies might be achieved by means of the centrifugal mechanism of acceleration in active galactic nuclei. At 50 J, the highest-energy ultra-high-energy cosmic rays (such as the OMG particle recorded in 1991) have energies comparable to the kinetic energy of a 90 kph baseball. As a result of these discoveries, there has been interest in investigating cosmic rays of even greater energies. Most cosmic rays, however, do not have such extreme energies; the energy distribution of cosmic rays peaks at 300 MeV.

History
After the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896, it was generally believed that atmospheric electricity, ionization of the air, was caused only by radiation from radioactive elements in the ground or the radioactive gases or isotopes of radon they produce. Measurements of increasing ionization rates at increasing heights above the ground during the decade from 1900 to 1910 could be explained as due to absorption of the ionizing radiation by the intervening air.

Discovery
In 1909, Theodor Wulf developed an electrometer, a device to measure the rate of ion production inside a hermetically sealed container, and used it to show higher levels of radiation at the top of the Eiffel Tower than at its base. However, his paper published in Physikalische Zeitschrift was not widely accepted. In 1911, Domenico Pacini observed simultaneous variations of the rate of ionization over a lake, over the sea, and at a depth of 3 metres from the surface. Pacini concluded from the decrease of radioactivity underwater that a certain part of the ionization must be due to sources other than the radioactivity of the Earth.

In 1912, Victor Hess carried three enhanced-accuracy Wulf electrometers to an altitude of 5,300 metres in a free balloon flight. He found the ionization rate increased approximately fourfold over the rate at ground level. Hess ruled out the Sun as the radiation's source by making a balloon ascent during a near-total eclipse. With the moon blocking much of the Sun's visible radiation, Hess still measured rising radiation at rising altitudes. He concluded that "The results of the observations seem most likely to be explained by the assumption that radiation of very high penetrating power enters from above into our atmosphere." In 1913–1914, Werner Kolhörster confirmed Victor Hess's earlier results by measuring the increased ionization enthalpy rate at an altitude of 9 km. Hess received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1936 for his discovery.

Identification
Bruno Rossi wrote in 1964: "In the late 1920s and early 1930s the technique of self-recording electroscopes carried by balloons into the highest layers of the atmosphere or sunk to great depths under water was brought to an unprecedented degree of perfection by the German physicist Erich Regener and his group. To these scientists we owe some of the most accurate measurements ever made of cosmic-ray ionization as a function of altitude and depth."

Ernest Rutherford stated in 1931 that "thanks to the fine experiments of Professor Millikan and the even more far-reaching experiments of Professor Regener, we have now got for the first time, a curve of absorption of these radiations in water which we may safely rely upon".

In the 1920s, the term cosmic ray was coined by Robert Millikan who made measurements of ionization due to cosmic rays from deep under water to high altitudes and around the globe. Millikan believed that his measurements proved that the primary cosmic rays were gamma rays; i.e., energetic photons. And he proposed a theory that they were produced in interstellar space as by-products of the fusion of hydrogen atoms into the heavier elements, and that secondary electrons were produced in the atmosphere by Compton scattering of gamma rays. In 1927, while sailing from Java to the Netherlands, Jacob Clay found evidence, later confirmed in many experiments, that cosmic ray intensity increases from the tropics to mid-latitudes, which indicated that the primary cosmic rays are deflected by the geomagnetic field and must therefore be charged particles, not photons. In 1929, Bothe and Kolhörster discovered charged cosmic-ray particles that could penetrate 4.1 cm of gold. Charged particles of such high energy could not possibly be produced by photons from Millikan's proposed interstellar fusion process.

In 1930, Bruno Rossi predicted a difference between the intensities of cosmic rays arriving from the east and the west that depends upon the charge of the primary particles—the so-called "east–west effect". Three independent experiments  found that the intensity is, in fact, greater from the west, proving that most primaries are positive. During the years from 1930 to 1945, a wide variety of investigations confirmed that the primary cosmic rays are mostly protons, and the secondary radiation produced in the atmosphere is primarily electrons, photons and muons. In 1948, observations with nuclear emulsions carried by balloons to near the top of the atmosphere showed that approximately 10% of the primaries are helium nuclei (alpha particles) and 1% are nuclei of heavier elements such as carbon, iron, and lead.

During a test of his equipment for measuring the east–west effect, Rossi observed that the rate of near-simultaneous discharges of two widely separated Geiger counters was larger than the expected accidental rate. In his report on the experiment, Rossi wrote "... it seems that once in a while the recording equipment is struck by very extensive showers of particles, which causes coincidences between the counters, even placed at large distances from one another." In 1937, Pierre Auger, unaware of Rossi's earlier report, detected the same phenomenon and investigated it in some detail. He concluded that high-energy primary cosmic-ray particles interact with air nuclei high in the atmosphere, initiating a cascade of secondary interactions that ultimately yield a shower of electrons, and photons that reach ground level.

Soviet physicist Sergei Vernov was the first to use radiosondes to perform cosmic ray readings with an instrument carried to high altitude by a balloon. On 1 April 1935, he took measurements at heights up to 13.6 kilometres using a pair of Geiger counters in an anti-coincidence circuit to avoid counting secondary ray showers.

Homi J. Bhabha derived an expression for the probability of scattering positrons by electrons, a process now known as Bhabha scattering. His classic paper, jointly with Walter Heitler, published in 1937 described how primary cosmic rays from space interact with the upper atmosphere to produce particles observed at the ground level. Bhabha and Heitler explained the cosmic ray shower formation by the cascade production of gamma rays and positive and negative electron pairs.

Energy distribution
Measurements of the energy and arrival directions of the ultra-high-energy primary cosmic rays by the techniques of density sampling and fast timing of extensive air showers were first carried out in 1954 by members of the Rossi Cosmic Ray Group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The experiment employed eleven scintillation detectors arranged within a circle 460 metres in diameter on the grounds of the Agassiz Station of the Harvard College Observatory. From that work, and from many other experiments carried out all over the world, the energy spectrum of the primary cosmic rays is now known to extend beyond 1020 eV. A huge air shower experiment called the Auger Project is currently operated at a site on the Pampas of Argentina by an international consortium of physicists. The project was first led by James Cronin, winner of the 1980 Nobel Prize in Physics from the University of Chicago, and Alan Watson of the University of Leeds, and later by scientists of the international Pierre Auger Collaboration. Their aim is to explore the properties and arrival directions of the very highest-energy primary cosmic rays. The results are expected to have important implications for particle physics and cosmology, due to a theoretical Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin limit to the energies of cosmic rays from long distances (about 160 million light years) which occurs above 1020 eV because of interactions with the remnant photons from the Big Bang origin of the universe. Currently the Pierre Auger Observatory is undergoing an upgrade to improve its accuracy and find evidence for the yet unconfirmed origin of the most energetic cosmic rays.

High-energy gamma rays (>50MeV photons) were finally discovered in the primary cosmic radiation by an MIT experiment carried on the OSO-3 satellite in 1967. Components of both galactic and extra-galactic origins were separately identified at intensities much less than 1% of the primary charged particles. Since then, numerous satellite gamma-ray observatories have mapped the gamma-ray sky. The most recent is the Fermi Observatory, which has produced a map showing a narrow band of gamma ray intensity produced in discrete and diffuse sources in our galaxy, and numerous point-like extra-galactic sources distributed over the celestial sphere.

Modulation
The solar cycle causes variations in the magnetic field of the solar wind through which cosmic rays propagate to Earth. This results in a modulation the arriving fluxes at lower energies, as detected indirectly by the globally distributed neutron monitor network.

Types
Cosmic rays can be divided into two types: However, the term "cosmic ray" is often used to refer to only the extrasolar flux.
 * galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and extragalactic cosmic rays, i.e., high-energy particles originating outside the solar system, and
 * solar energetic particles, high-energy particles (predominantly protons) emitted by the sun, primarily in solar eruptions.

Cosmic rays originate as primary cosmic rays, which are those originally produced in various astrophysical processes. Primary cosmic rays are composed mainly of protons and alpha particles (99%), with a small amount of heavier nuclei (≈1%) and an extremely minute proportion of positrons and antiprotons. Secondary cosmic rays, caused by a decay of primary cosmic rays as they impact an atmosphere, include photons, hadrons, and leptons, such as electrons, positrons, muons, and pions. The latter three of these were first detected in cosmic rays.

Primary cosmic rays
Primary cosmic rays mostly originate from outside the Solar System and sometimes even outside the Milky Way. When they interact with Earth's atmosphere, they are converted to secondary particles. The mass ratio of helium to hydrogen nuclei, 28%, is similar to the primordial elemental abundance ratio of these elements, 24%. The remaining fraction is made up of the other heavier nuclei that are typical nucleosynthesis end products, primarily lithium, beryllium, and boron. These nuclei appear in cosmic rays in greater abundance (≈1%) than in the solar atmosphere, where they are only about 10$18$ as abundant (by number) as helium. Cosmic rays composed of charged nuclei heavier than helium are called HZE ions. Due to the high charge and heavy nature of HZE ions, their contribution to an astronaut's radiation dose in space is significant even though they are relatively scarce.

This abundance difference is a result of the way in which secondary cosmic rays are formed. Carbon and oxygen nuclei collide with interstellar matter to form lithium, beryllium, and boron in a process termed cosmic ray spallation. Spallation is also responsible for the abundances of scandium, titanium, vanadium, and manganese ions in cosmic rays produced by collisions of iron and nickel nuclei with interstellar matter.

At high energies the composition changes and heavier nuclei have larger abundances in some energy ranges. Current experiments aim at more accurate measurements of the composition at high energies.

Primary cosmic ray antimatter
Satellite experiments have found evidence of positrons and a few antiprotons in primary cosmic rays, amounting to less than 1% of the particles in primary cosmic rays. These do not appear to be the products of large amounts of antimatter from the Big Bang, or indeed complex antimatter in the universe. Rather, they appear to consist of only these two elementary particles, newly made in energetic processes.

Preliminary results from the presently operating Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS-02) on board the International Space Station show that positrons in the cosmic rays arrive with no directionality. In September 2014, new results with almost twice as much data were presented in a talk at CERN and published in Physical Review Letters. A new measurement of positron fraction up to 500 GeV was reported, showing that positron fraction peaks at a maximum of about 16% of total electron+positron events, around an energy of 275 ± 32 GeV. At higher energies, up to 500 GeV, the ratio of positrons to electrons begins to fall again. The absolute flux of positrons also begins to fall before 500 GeV, but peaks at energies far higher than electron energies, which peak about 10 GeV. These results on interpretation have been suggested to be due to positron production in annihilation events of massive dark matter particles.

Cosmic ray antiprotons also have a much higher average energy than their normal-matter counterparts (protons). They arrive at Earth with a characteristic energy maximum of 2 GeV, indicating their production in a fundamentally different process from cosmic ray protons, which on average have only one-sixth of the energy.

There is no evidence of complex antimatter atomic nuclei, such as antihelium nuclei (i.e., anti-alpha particles), in cosmic rays. These are actively being searched for. A prototype of the AMS-02 designated AMS-01, was flown into space aboard the on STS-91 in June 1998. By not detecting any antihelium at all, the AMS-01 established an upper limit of 1.1 × 10−6 for the antihelium to helium flux ratio.

Secondary cosmic rays
When cosmic rays enter the Earth's atmosphere, they collide with atoms and molecules, mainly oxygen and nitrogen. The interaction produces a cascade of lighter particles, a so-called air shower secondary radiation that rains down, including x-rays, protons, alpha particles, pions, muons, electrons, neutrinos, and neutrons. All of the secondary particles produced by the collision continue onward on paths within about one degree of the primary particle's original path.

Typical particles produced in such collisions are neutrons and charged mesons such as positive or negative pions and kaons. Some of these subsequently decay into muons and neutrinos, which are able to reach the surface of the Earth. Some high-energy muons even penetrate for some distance into shallow mines, and most neutrinos traverse the Earth without further interaction. Others decay into photons, subsequently producing electromagnetic cascades. Hence, next to photons, electrons and positrons usually dominate in air showers. These particles as well as muons can be easily detected by many types of particle detectors, such as cloud chambers, bubble chambers, water-Cherenkov, or scintillation detectors. The observation of a secondary shower of particles in multiple detectors at the same time is an indication that all of the particles came from that event.

Cosmic rays impacting other planetary bodies in the Solar System are detected indirectly by observing high-energy gamma ray emissions by gamma-ray telescope. These are distinguished from radioactive decay processes by their higher energies above about 10 MeV.

Cosmic-ray flux
The flux of incoming cosmic rays at the upper atmosphere is dependent on the solar wind, the Earth's magnetic field, and the energy of the cosmic rays. At distances of ≈94 AU from the Sun, the solar wind undergoes a transition, called the termination shock, from supersonic to subsonic speeds. The region between the termination shock and the heliopause acts as a barrier to cosmic rays, decreasing the flux at lower energies (≤ 1 GeV) by about 90%. However, the strength of the solar wind is not constant, and hence it has been observed that cosmic ray flux is correlated with solar activity.

In addition, the Earth's magnetic field acts to deflect cosmic rays from its surface, giving rise to the observation that the flux is apparently dependent on latitude, longitude, and azimuth angle.

The combined effects of all of the factors mentioned contribute to the flux of cosmic rays at Earth's surface. The following table of participial frequencies reach the planet and are inferred from lower-energy radiation reaching the ground.

 * {| class="wikitable"

!scope="col"| Particle energy (eV) !scope="col"| Particle rate (m$−3$s$−2$) !scope="row"| $−1$ (GeV) !scope="row"| $1$ (TeV) !scope="row"| $1$ (10 PeV) !scope="row"| $1$ (100 EeV)
 * +Relative particle energies and rates of cosmic rays
 * 1
 * $1$ (a few times a year)
 * $1$ (once a century)
 * }
 * }

In the past, it was believed that the cosmic ray flux remained fairly constant over time. However, recent research suggests one-and-a-half- to two-fold millennium-timescale changes in the cosmic ray flux in the past forty thousand years.

The magnitude of the energy of cosmic ray flux in interstellar space is very comparable to that of other deep space energies: cosmic ray energy density averages about one electron-volt per cubic centimetre of interstellar space, or ≈1 eV/cm3, which is comparable to the energy density of visible starlight at 0.3 eV/cm3, the galactic magnetic field energy density (assumed 3 microgauss) which is ≈0.25 eV/cm3, or the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation energy density at ≈0.25 eV/cm3.

Detection methods
There are two main classes of detection methods. First, the direct detection of the primary cosmic rays in space or at high altitude by balloon-borne instruments. Second, the indirect detection of secondary particle, i.e., extensive air showers at higher energies. While there have been proposals and prototypes for space and balloon-borne detection of air showers, currently operating experiments for high-energy cosmic rays are ground based. Generally direct detection is more accurate than indirect detection. However the flux of cosmic rays decreases with energy, which hampers direct detection for the energy range above 1 PeV. Both direct and indirect detection are realized by several techniques.

Direct detection
Direct detection is possible by all kinds of particle detectors at the ISS, on satellites, or high-altitude balloons. However, there are constraints in weight and size limiting the choices of detectors.

An example for the direct detection technique is a method based on nuclear tracks developed by Robert Fleischer, P. Buford Price, and Robert M. Walker for use in high-altitude balloons. In this method, sheets of clear plastic, like 0.25 mm Lexan polycarbonate, are stacked together and exposed directly to cosmic rays in space or high altitude. The nuclear charge causes chemical bond breaking or ionization in the plastic. At the top of the plastic stack the ionization is less, due to the high cosmic ray speed. As the cosmic ray speed decreases due to deceleration in the stack, the ionization increases along the path. The resulting plastic sheets are "etched" or slowly dissolved in warm caustic sodium hydroxide solution, that removes the surface material at a slow, known rate. The caustic sodium hydroxide dissolves the plastic at a faster rate along the path of the ionized plastic. The net result is a conical etch pit in the plastic. The etch pits are measured under a high-power microscope (typically 1600× oil-immersion), and the etch rate is plotted as a function of the depth in the stacked plastic.

This technique yields a unique curve for each atomic nucleus from 1 to 92, allowing identification of both the charge and energy of the cosmic ray that traverses the plastic stack. The more extensive the ionization along the path, the higher the charge. In addition to its uses for cosmic-ray detection, the technique is also used to detect nuclei created as products of nuclear fission.

Indirect detection
There are several ground-based methods of detecting cosmic rays currently in use, which can be divided in two main categories: the detection of secondary particles forming extensive air showers (EAS) by various types of particle detectors, and the detection of electromagnetic radiation emitted by EAS in the atmosphere.

Extensive air shower arrays made of particle detectors measure the charged particles which pass through them. EAS arrays can observe a broad area of the sky and can be active more than 90% of the time. However, they are less able to segregate background effects from cosmic rays than can air Cherenkov telescopes. Most state-of-the-art EAS arrays employ plastic scintillators. Also water (liquid or frozen) is used as a detection medium through which particles pass and produce Cherenkov radiation to make them detectable. Therefore, several arrays use water/ice-Cherenkov detectors as alternative or in addition to scintillators. By the combination of several detectors, some EAS arrays have the capability to distinguish muons from lighter secondary particles (photons, electrons, positrons). The fraction of muons among the secondary particles is one traditional way to estimate the mass composition of the primary cosmic rays.

An historic method of secondary particle detection still used for demonstration purposes involves the use of cloud chambers to detect the secondary muons created when a pion decays. Cloud chambers in particular can be built from widely available materials and can be constructed even in a high-school laboratory. A fifth method, involving bubble chambers, can be used to detect cosmic ray particles.

More recently, the CMOS devices in pervasive smartphone cameras have been proposed as a practical distributed network to detect air showers from ultra-high-energy cosmic rays. The first app to exploit this proposition was the CRAYFIS (Cosmic RAYs Found in Smartphones) experiment. In 2017, the CREDO (Cosmic-Ray Extremely Distributed Observatory) Collaboration released the first version of its completely open source app for Android devices. Since then the collaboration has attracted the interest and support of many scientific institutions, educational institutions, and members of the public around the world. Future research has to show in what aspects this new technique can compete with dedicated EAS arrays.

The first detection method in the second category is called the air Cherenkov telescope, designed to detect low-energy (<200 GeV) cosmic rays by means of analyzing their Cherenkov radiation, which for cosmic rays are gamma rays emitted as they travel faster than the speed of light in their medium, the atmosphere. While these telescopes are extremely good at distinguishing between background radiation and that of cosmic-ray origin, they can only function well on clear nights without the Moon shining, have very small fields of view, and are only active for a few percent of the time.

A second method detects the light from nitrogen fluorescence caused by the excitation of nitrogen in the atmosphere by particles moving through the atmosphere. This method is the most accurate for cosmic rays at highest energies, in particular when combined with EAS arrays of particle detectors. Similar to the detection of Cherenkov-light, this method is restricted to clear nights.

Another method detects radio waves emitted by air showers. This technique has a high duty cycle similar to that of particle detectors. The accuracy of this technique was improved in the last years as shown by various prototype experiments, and may become an alternative to the detection of atmospheric Cherenkov-light and fluorescence light, at least at high energies.

Changes in atmospheric chemistry
Cosmic rays ionize nitrogen and oxygen molecules in the atmosphere, which leads to a number of chemical reactions. Cosmic rays are also responsible for the continuous production of a number of unstable isotopes, such as carbon-14, in the Earth's atmosphere through the reaction:

Cosmic rays kept the level of carbon-14 in the atmosphere roughly constant (70 tons) for at least the past 100,000 years, until the beginning of above-ground nuclear weapons testing in the early 1950s. This fact is used in radiocarbon dating.

Reaction products of primary cosmic rays, radioisotope half-lifetime, and production reaction
• Hydrogen-1 (stable): spallation from nitrogen and oxygen, decay of neutrons from such spallation

• Helium-3 (stable): spallation or from tritium

• Helium-4 (stable): spallation producing alpha rays

• Tritium (12.3 years): 14N(n, 3H)12C (spallation)

• Beryllium-7 (53.3 days)

• Beryllium-10 (1.39 million years): 14N(n,p α)10Be (spallation)

• Carbon-14 (5730 years): 14N(n, p)14C (neutron activation)

• Sodium-22 (2.6 years)

• Sodium-24 (15 hours)

• Magnesium-28 (20.9 hours)

• Silicon-31 (2.6 hours)

• Silicon-32 (101 years)

• Phosphorus-32 (14.3 days)

• Sulfur-35 (87.5 days)

• Sulfur-38 (2.84 hours)

• Chlorine-34 m (32 minutes)

• Chlorine-36 (300,000 years)

• Chlorine-38 (37.2 minutes)

• Chlorine-39 (56 minutes)

• Argon-39 (269 years)

• Krypton-85 (10.7 years)

Role in ambient radiation
Cosmic rays constitute a fraction of the annual radiation exposure of human beings on the Earth, averaging 0.39mSv out of a total of 3mSv per year (13% of total background) for the Earth's population. However, the background radiation from cosmic rays increases with altitude, from 0.3mSv per year for sea-level areas to 1.0mSv per year for higher-altitude cities, raising cosmic radiation exposure to a quarter of total background radiation exposure for populations of said cities. Airline crews flying long-distance high-altitude routes can be exposed to 2.2mSv of extra radiation each year due to cosmic rays, nearly doubling their total exposure to ionizing radiation.

Figures are for the time before the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. Human-made values by UNSCEAR are from the Japanese National Institute of Radiological Sciences, which summarized the UNSCEAR data.

Effect on electronics
Cosmic rays have sufficient energy to alter the states of circuit components in electronic integrated circuits, causing transient errors to occur (such as corrupted data in electronic memory devices or incorrect performance of CPUs) often referred to as "soft errors". This has been a problem in electronics at extremely high-altitude, such as in satellites, but with transistors becoming smaller and smaller, this is becoming an increasing concern in ground-level electronics as well. Studies by IBM in the 1990s suggest that computers typically experience about one cosmic-ray-induced error per 256 megabytes of RAM per month. To alleviate this problem, the Intel Corporation has proposed a cosmic ray detector that could be integrated into future high-density microprocessors, allowing the processor to repeat the last command following a cosmic-ray event. ECC memory is used to protect data against data corruption caused by cosmic rays.

In 2008, data corruption in a flight control system caused an Airbus A330 airliner to twice plunge hundreds of feet, resulting in injuries to multiple passengers and crew members. Cosmic rays were investigated among other possible causes of the data corruption, but were ultimately ruled out as being very unlikely.

In August 2020, scientists reported that ionizing radiation from environmental radioactive materials and cosmic rays may substantially limit the coherence times of qubits if they are not shielded adequately which may be critical for realizing fault-tolerant superconducting quantum computers in the future.

Significance to aerospace travel
Galactic cosmic rays are one of the most important barriers standing in the way of plans for interplanetary travel by crewed spacecraft. Cosmic rays also pose a threat to electronics placed aboard outgoing probes. In 2010, a malfunction aboard the Voyager 2 space probe was credited to a single flipped bit, probably caused by a cosmic ray. Strategies such as physical or magnetic shielding for spacecraft have been considered in order to minimize the damage to electronics and human beings caused by cosmic rays.

On 31 May 2013, NASA scientists reported that a possible crewed mission to Mars may involve a greater radiation risk than previously believed, based on the amount of energetic particle radiation detected by the RAD on the Mars Science Laboratory while traveling from the Earth to Mars in 2011–2012.

Flying 12 km high, passengers and crews of jet airliners are exposed to at least 10 times the cosmic ray dose that people at sea level receive. Aircraft flying polar routes near the geomagnetic poles are at particular risk.

Role in lightning
Cosmic rays have been implicated in the triggering of electrical breakdown in lightning. It has been proposed that essentially all lightning is triggered through a relativistic process, or "runaway breakdown", seeded by cosmic ray secondaries. Subsequent development of the lightning discharge then occurs through "conventional breakdown" mechanisms.

Postulated role in climate change
A role for cosmic rays in climate was suggested by Edward P. Ney in 1959 and by Robert E. Dickinson in 1975. It has been postulated that cosmic rays may have been responsible for major climatic change and mass extinction in the past. According to Adrian Mellott and Mikhail Medvedev, 62-million-year cycles in biological marine populations correlate with the motion of the Earth relative to the galactic plane and increases in exposure to cosmic rays. The researchers suggest that this and gamma ray bombardments deriving from local supernovae could have affected cancer and mutation rates, and might be linked to decisive alterations in the Earth's climate, and to the mass extinctions of the Ordovician.

Danish physicist Henrik Svensmark has controversially argued that because solar variation modulates the cosmic ray flux on Earth, it would consequently affect the rate of cloud formation and hence be an indirect cause of global warming. Svensmark is one of several scientists outspokenly opposed to the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming, leading to concerns that the proposition that cosmic rays are connected to global warming could be ideologically biased rather than scientifically based. Other scientists have vigorously criticized Svensmark for sloppy and inconsistent work: one example is adjustment of cloud data that understates error in lower cloud data, but not in high cloud data; another example is "incorrect handling of the physical data" resulting in graphs that do not show the correlations they claim to show. Despite Svensmark's assertions, galactic cosmic rays have shown no statistically significant influence on changes in cloud cover, and have been demonstrated in studies to have no causal relationship to changes in global temperature.

Possible mass extinction factor
A handful of studies conclude that a nearby supernova or series of supernovas caused the Pliocene marine megafauna extinction event by substantially increasing radiation levels to hazardous amounts for large seafaring animals.

Research and experiments
There are a number of cosmic-ray research initiatives, listed below.

Ground-based

 * Akeno Giant Air Shower Array
 * Chicago Air Shower Array
 * CHICOS
 * CLOUD
 * CRIPT
 * GAMMA
 * GRAPES-3
 * HAWC
 * HEGRA
 * High Energy Stereoscopic System
 * High Resolution Fly's Eye Cosmic Ray Detector
 * IceCube
 * KASCADE
 * MAGIC
 * MARIACHI
 * Milagro
 * NMDB
 * Pierre Auger Observatory
 * QuarkNet
 * Spaceship Earth
 * Telescope Array Project
 * Tunka experiment
 * VERITAS
 * Washington Large Area Time Coincidence Array

Satellite

 * ACE (Advanced Composition Explorer)
 * Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer
 * Cassini–Huygens
 * Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope
 * HEAO 1, HEAO 2, HEAO 3
 * Interstellar Boundary Explorer
 * Langton Ultimate Cosmic-Ray Intensity Detector
 * PAMELA
 * Solar and Heliospheric Observatory
 * Voyager 1 and Voyager 2

Balloon-borne

 * Advanced Thin Ionization Calorimeter
 * BESS
 * Cosmic Ray Energetics and Mass (CREAM)
 * HEAT (High Energy Antimatter Telescope)
 * PERDaix
 * TIGER
 * TRACER (cosmic ray detector)

Further references

 * R.G. Harrison and D.B. Stephenson, Detection of a galactic cosmic ray influence on clouds, Geophysical Research Abstracts, Vol. 8, 07661, 2006 SRef-ID: 1607-7962/gra/EGU06-A-07661
 * R. Clay and B. Dawson, Cosmic Bullets, Allen & Unwin, 1997. ISBN 1-86448-204-4
 * T. K. Gaisser, Cosmic Rays and Particle Physics, Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 0-521-32667-2
 * P. K. F. Grieder, Cosmic Rays at Earth: Researcher's Reference Manual and Data Book, Elsevier, 2001. ISBN 0-444-50710-8
 * A. M. Hillas, Cosmic Rays, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1972 ISBN 0-08-016724-1
 * M. D. Ngobeni and M. S. Potgieter, Cosmic ray anisotropies in the outer heliosphere, Advances in Space Research, 2007.
 * M. D. Ngobeni, Aspects of the modulation of cosmic rays in the outer heliosphere, MSc Dissertation, Northwest University (Potchefstroom campus) South Africa 2006.
 * D. Perkins, Particle Astrophysics, Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-850951-0
 * C. E. Rolfs and S. R. William, Cauldrons in the Cosmos, The University of Chicago Press, 1988. ISBN 0-226-72456-5
 * B. B. Rossi, Cosmic Rays, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1964.
 * Martin Walt, Introduction to Geomagnetically Trapped Radiation, 1994. ISBN 0-521-43143-3
 * TRACER Long Duration Balloon Project: the largest cosmic ray detector launched on balloons.
 * D. Perkins, Particle Astrophysics, Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-850951-0
 * C. E. Rolfs and S. R. William, Cauldrons in the Cosmos, The University of Chicago Press, 1988. ISBN 0-226-72456-5
 * B. B. Rossi, Cosmic Rays, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1964.
 * Martin Walt, Introduction to Geomagnetically Trapped Radiation, 1994. ISBN 0-521-43143-3
 * TRACER Long Duration Balloon Project: the largest cosmic ray detector launched on balloons.
 * TRACER Long Duration Balloon Project: the largest cosmic ray detector launched on balloons.
 * TRACER Long Duration Balloon Project: the largest cosmic ray detector launched on balloons.

title: Cosmic ray


text:
Talk:Andaman Islands

Confusing
I've marked this article confusing. This is because large sections of it have not been rewritten from the 1911 Encyclopedia. They are therefore now factually wrong, which is confusing until you realise this. For example, the penal colony section, and the section on the native Andamanese. Francis Irving 22:34, 8 August 2006 (UTC)

Flora
What is Siberian coffee? Maybe a mistake or outdated terminology? Maias 07:46, 22 July 2006 (UTC)

Andaman People
If nobody objects, I'm going to spin off a separate page about the people, who might not be important on a geopolitical scale, but are of stunning significance as a people with their own culture and language group which may be the last remains of those whic inhabited the entire pacific coastal area, along Asia and the islands to its south and west. Kaz 05:28, 31 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Way to go, Kaz! utcursch 11:00, Dec 31, 2004 (UTC)

 * I linked to Andamanese from a section on People in this article. Info on the current demography would be worth mentioning here. --Singkong2005 · talk 02:27, 7 November 2006 (UTC)

previous stuff
Just noting the 1911ese that I have removed

I removed that the begin to age at about age 40, because that makes no sense to me. Presumably, they age from birth to death just like everyone else. If it means that they reach middle-agedness and all its associated characteristics, then that's hardly remarkable.

I also removed the statement that incest is unknown, because I very strongly doubt it and would like to see some verification.

I removed:

 * The children are possessed of a bright intelligence. The Andamanese are, indeed, bright and merry companions, busy in their own pursuits, keen sportsmen, naturally independent and not lustful, but when angered, cruel, jealous, treacherous and vindictive.

For reasons that are, perhaps, obvious.

I also removed the statement that there is no idea of government because the second half of the sentence says that each sept has a head (i.e. a government).

Lastly, I didn't take it out, but are they really unable to make fire? And is it true that their language gives "expression to only the most direct and the simplest thought"? Both seem unlikely. Tuf-Kat

mammal species
The numbers for mammal species don't add up. Correction? Pollinator 17:02, Dec 31, 2004 (UTC)

tall...
They really reached a height of 5 meters? That's pretty frickin' tall. Gotta be a typo.

I have just re-read 'The Spotted Deer' by JH Williams - author of 'Elephant Bill'. During the 1920's as a forest officer in Burma Williams was charged with an exploration of the Andaman islands to see if timber could be extracted economically with the use of Elephants. The result of the 3 month expedition is highly readable. Originally published by Rupert Hart Davis in London.

Proposed merging
This article has very much in parallel with the Andaman and Nicobar Islands article. The two groups of islands have very much a common history. I saw that each one has much useful information which the other does not, and a reader getting to only one would miss the information availalbe in the other. .Adam Keller 08:51, 23 April 2007 (UTC)

 * no merge. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands is a political subdivision (in this case, a union territory of India), while the Andaman Islands is a geographic designation (coinciding with the Andaman district, another political subdivision of the UT), similarly for the Nicobars. The distinction could probably be made more clear, and useful info cross-referenced, but the A&I Islands article needs to stand separate from the articles on the geographical and district groupings.--cjllw ʘ  TALK 09:23, 23 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Comment, copied from Andaman and Nicobars talk page: I don't really have a problem with merging, though I am concerned that a combined article could get quite large. I presume that, to be consistent, the Nicobar Islands article would have to be merged as well. Given that much of the history does overlap, there are significant differences in (for example) ecology and ethnology. A combined article would need to have, as well as a section on common history and current administrative status, two large separate sections on the two island groups where they differ.  An alternative would be to keep three separate articles but tidy them up considerably and move information from one to another where appropriate to minimise overlap. Maias 04:24, 26 April 2007 (UTC)
 * No merge Istead, improve all 3 articles:A&N Islands, Andamans, and Nicobars. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by WoodElf (talk • contribs) 06:01, 4 May 2007 (UTC).

 * No Merge the Andaman and nicobar islands and the actual andaman islands are seperate, the Andaman and nicobar islands are a 'state' or a 'province, if you get what i mean, and the andamans are just the collection of ilands that are called thatAustralian Jezza 08:30, 17 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Merge proposal tag is now removed/closed, as it's evident there's no consensus to do so. --cjllw ʘ  TALK 08:38, 23 August 2007 (UTC)

request for another map
I think it would help article clarity to have another map, showing where they are in the bay of bengal. Not only that, but not all readers will know on which coast of india the bay is... in short, a more "zoomed-out" map might help... unfortunately, I have no experience with mapmaking. Thanks, Storkk (talk) 17:34, 21 November 2007 (UTC)
 * Perhaps Image:IndiaAndamanNicobar.png could be svg-fied, and modified to point out which island groups are which, then used on both this page and Nicobar Islands page. --Storkk (talk) 17:37, 21 November 2007 (UTC)

WP:INDIA Banner/Andaman and Nicobar Islands workgroup Addition
Note: WP India Project Banner with Andaman and Nicobar Islands workgroup parameters was added to this article talk page because the article falls under Category:Andaman and Nicobar Islands or its subcategories. Should you feel this addition is inappropriate, please undo my changes and update/remove the relavent categories to the article --  TinuCherian  (Wanna Talk?) - 05:37, 24 June 2008 (UTC)

Government
Can anyone with some knowledge on the subject add to the article how this island group is governed, what its structure is, and what influence the central Indian government has? ChillyMD (talk) 19:19, 15 January 2009 (UTC)

Potential Bias?
The article seems to have an underlying anti-British sentiment. Such terms as 'concentration camps' are evocative of very powerful emotions and should not be used unless they were actually used by the British administration. I call for much more politically neutral words to be used, so as not to have wikipedia become an unwitting instrument of revisionist history and propaganda. 66.31.55.175 (talk) 21:23, 10 August 2009 (UTC)

 * I have removed the "concentration camp" text. This is a stretch. Normal prison by 19th century standards. 19th century prisons were Not Fun. "Concentration camp" is 20th century terminology. This comes down to the frequently encountered problem in India, to get reliable, unbiased, scholarly information about anything. I left the reference which is fairly reprehensible, because I don't know of anything else offhand that is better! It is pretty bad, but by Indian standards, about average. If you can find a university professor someplace who has written a book, you might have something. But who knows? Student7 (talk) 02:39, 21 May 2010 (UTC)

Anti-British sentiment Basically most of the Wikipedia articles connected to India, Indian politicians, political incidences, Freedom struggles, castes etc. are just propaganda writings that show only a fan, disciple or member version. For example, see this quote from Malabar Rebellion:

Unofficial estimates put the number imprisoned at almost 50,000 of whom 20,000 were deported, mainly to the penal colony in the Andaman Islands, while around 10,000 went missing

That article itself claims that the rioting was an anti-British uprising, yet, in the same article there is inputs that depict the terror that that rioters did to each other. British official intervention can only be said to right and timely. As to the number mentioned also about persons taken as prisoners is not believable. For the places in which the rioting took place were quite sparsely populated. Beyond all that, the number of persons sent to Andamans from this single event of social violence is also quite incredible. For there were many other violence in the sub-continent society. If all such claims are added together, most probably a huge population mass would have accumulated over there on the islands, which would naturally have later wiped out the local native population. --Ved from Victoria Institutions (talk) 08:12, 7 March 2012 (UTC)

More bias?
Under Fauna the following appears: There has been numerous deaths due to their aggressive nature and the government refuses to do anything about it. Sadly, tourist's are not made aware of their existence.

"Refuses to do anything about it" sounds really biased to me. Lilly (talk) 16:31, 18 May 2010 (UTC)

 * An inexperienced editor has been making these edits. They have been reverted. Please revert or delete them when found. Not significant to this article even if referenced. Student7 (talk) 02:28, 21 May 2010 (UTC)

North Sentinel Island

 * The Most Isolated People in the World us1.campaign-archive2.com — Preceding unsigned comment added by 91.39.99.159 (talk) 07:37, 6 July 2011 (UTC)
 * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentinelese_people Kortoso (talk) 17:37, 3 June 2015 (UTC)

Silver Grey wood
I cannot make sense of this entry in the "timber" section:
 * Silver Grey (a special formation of wood in white utkarsh)

Could anyone please clarify it? Thanks... --Jorge Stolfi (talk) 23:02, 9 July 2012 (UTC)

Surfing?
This article really needs a paragraph about white people going to the Andamans to surf? That's encyclopedic? MarkinBoston (talk) 23:49, 25 December 2012 (UTC)

Adivasis?
Are Andamans really classified as Adivasis in India, since they are much closer to [black] Melanesians than anything to do with Indian aboriginals? The only reason this is part of India is because of British annexation, so I highly doubt Indians would incorporate them as "indigenous Indians." — Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.12.187.216 (talk) 05:04, 13 May 2013 (UTC)

Copyright problem removed
Prior content in this article duplicated one or more previously published sources. The material was copied from: here. Copied or closely paraphrased material has been rewritten or removed and must not be restored, unless it is duly released under a compatible license. (For more information, please see "using copyrighted works from others" if you are not the copyright holder of this material, or "donating copyrighted materials" if you are.) For legal reasons, we cannot accept copyrighted text or images borrowed from other web sites or published material; such additions will be deleted. Contributors may use copyrighted publications as a source of information, but not as a source of sentences or phrases. Accordingly, the material may be rewritten, but only if it does not infringe on the copyright of the original or plagiarize from that source. Please see our guideline on non-free text for how to properly implement limited quotations of copyrighted text. Wikipedia takes copyright violations very seriously, and persistent violators will be blocked from editing. While we appreciate contributions, we must require all contributors to understand and comply with these policies. Thank you. Diannaa (talk) 02:38, 6 March 2014 (UTC)

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Etymology
Expand etymology section. Some sources suggest the island is named after Hanuman. How true is that? ChandlerMinh (talk) 15:21, 2 February 2021 (UTC)

Maratha ?
Of the three citations given for Maratha empire, only one shows any direct evidence connection for any Maratha influence in Andama. Not surprisingly, the source is a defence related forum written by a non-expert hence not WP:RS
 * Source 1 doesn’t make any mentions of Maratha influence in Andaman; it is just a website of Central Public Works Department talking about history of public infrastructure in India

 * Source 2 makes the claim but without any further citations, written by a non-expert in history. The source is an Internet forum hence not WP:RS

 * Source 3 again no mention of Maratha having occupied Andaman. Only time the word ‘Andaman’ mentioned here is about a Sādhu being deported to Andaman during British rule. ChandlerMinh (talk) 04:46, 31 August 2021 (UTC)

End of Japanese occupation
An edit today removed the following information, with an edit summary calling it misinformation:
 * According to Werner Gruhl: "Before leaving the islands, the Japanese rounded up and executed 750 innocents."

The Gruhl reference does indeed contain that claim, and cites two other sources in support of it (although I have not tracked down those sources to verify their claims). What is the argument for regarding the claim as misinformation not worthy of inclusion in Wikipedia? Mgnbar (talk) 19:07, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Andaman Islands


text:
Fork (chess)

In chess, a fork is a tactic in which a piece multiple enemy pieces simultaneously. The attacker usually aims to capture one of the forked pieces. The defender often cannot counter every threat. A fork is most effective when it is, such as when the king is put in check. A fork is a type of.

Terminology
A fork is an example of a. The type of fork is named after the type of forking piece. For example, a fork by a knight is a knight fork. The attacked pieces are forked. If the king is one of the attacked pieces, the term absolute fork is sometimes used. A fork not involving the enemy king is a relative fork.

A fork of the king and queen, the highest material-gaining fork possible, is sometimes called a royal fork. A fork of the enemy king, queen, and one (or both) rooks is sometimes called a grand fork. A knight fork of the enemy king, queen, and possibly other pieces is sometimes called a family fork or family check.

Strategy
Any piece can deliver a fork. Forks are most often delivered by knights: a knight is not attacked by a piece it attacks except for an enemy knight, and it can be exchanged for a more valuable piece.

Since the queen is usually more valuable than the pieces it attacks, a queen fork gains material only when the pieces attacked are undefended or if one of them is the king and the other is undefended, and no other piece can capture the queen.

Game examples
This example is from the first round of the FIDE World Chess Championship 2004 between Mohamed Tissir and Alexey Dreev. After

 * 33... Nf2+ 34. Kg1 Nd3

White resigned. In the final position the black knight forks White's queen and rook; after the queen moves away, Black will win the exchange.

This example is from the ninth round of the Clarin GP Final between Guillermo Soppe and Fernando Braga. After

 * 40... Qh1+

White resigned. The only move is 41.Ke2 which enables a royal fork with 41...Nc3+, winning the queen.

In the Two Knights Defense (1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Nf6) after 4.Nc3, Black can eliminate White's e4-pawn immediately with
 * 4... Nxe4

due to the fork trick
 * 5. Nxe4 d5

regaining either the bishop or the knight.

title: Fork (chess)


text:
Backyard Blitz

Backyard Blitz was a Logie Award winning Australian lifestyle and DIY television program that aired on the Nine Network between 2000 through to 2007 before its cancellation. It was hosted by Jamie Durie and was created by Don Burke and produced by his CTC Productions team.

Overview
The show featured a very similar premise to the show Ground Force, in which a team of gardeners employed by the show descend on a supposedly worthy individual's place and improve the garden for the cameras within a specified time limit. This similarity led to legal action being taken by the rival Seven Network, which at the time was set to debut an Australian version of Ground Force. Seven ultimately lost its claim as Don Burke's CTC was able to argue that Burke's previous program Burke's Backyard had featured backyard garden renovations which they claimed naturally morphed into the Backyard Blitz concept.

The four regular presenters on the show were landscaper Jamie Durie (the main host and the show's lead landscaper), Scott Cam (builder/carpenter), Nigel Ruck (landscaper) and Jody Rigby (horticulturist). The show would launch the television careers of Durie, Rigby and Cam; Durie and Cam would later become hosts of Nine's successful reality television show The Block during different seasons.

During its run the show was immensely popular across all demographics; it regularly won its time slot and consistently ranked in the top 20 national shows at year's end. However, on 14 November 2006 Backyard Blitz was axed by the Nine Network after seven years on air. Don Burke, whose own show Burke's Backyard was broadcast by Nine for nearly 18 years before it was axed in 2004, said his production company was "quite shocked by this decision". In mid-2007 Nine aired the six remaining unaired episodes that were filmed before the show was cancelled.

In 2008, Nine started airing a spin-off show called Domestic Blitz, hosted by Cam and Shelley Craft. The show lasted until 2010, encompassing 4 seasons.

Awards
During the show's run, Backyard Blitz has won (and been nominated) for several Logie Awards. The show won six consecutive 'Most Popular Lifestyle Program' awards (2002–2006), and was nominated in the same category in 2007 but lost. Jamie Durie won the 'Most Popular New Male Talent' in 2001 and was nominated for 'Most Popular TV Presenter' in 2005 and 2006 for his role on the show.

title: Backyard Blitz