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9th millennium BC

[[Image:8500bce.PNG|thumb|right|Europe and surrounding areas in the 9th millennium BC. Blue areas are covered in ice. 1. Upper Palaeolithic cultures.

2. Mesolithic cultures.

3. Swiderian cultures.

4. Pontic Tardenoisian cultures.

5. Iberian Capsian cultures.

6. Oranian cultures.

7. Lower Capsian cultures.

8. The Fertile Crescent.]]

The 9th millennium BC spanned the years 9000 BC to 8001 BC (11 to 10 thousand years ago). In chronological terms, it is the first full millennium of the current Holocene epoch that is generally reckoned to have begun by 9700 BC (11.7 thousand years ago). It is impossible to precisely date events that happened around the time of this millennium and all dates mentioned here are estimates mostly based on geological and anthropological analysis, or by radiometric dating.

In the Near East, especially in the Fertile Crescent, the transitory Epipalaeolithic age was gradually superseded by the Neolithic with evidence of agriculture across the Levant to the Zagros Mountains in modern-day Iran. The key characteristic of the Neolithic is agricultural settlement, albeit with wooden and stone tools and weapons still in use. It is believed that agriculture had begun in China by the end of the millennium. Elsewhere, especially in Europe, the Neolithic continued.

Global environment
In the geologic time scale, the first stratigraphic stage of the Holocene is the "Greenlandian" from about 9700 BC to the fixed date 6236 BC and so including the whole of the 9th millennium. The starting point for the Greenlandian has been correlated with the end of the Younger Dryas and a climate shift from near-glacial to interglacial, causing glaciers to retreat and sea levels to rise.

It has been estimated that the Bering Land Bridge was inundated around 8500 BC by the rising sea levels so that North America and Asia were again separated by the waters of the Bering Strait and the Chukchi Sea. It is generally believed that there was a migration across the land bridge from eastern Siberia into North America during the Last Glacial Maximum. Sometime after the American glaciers melted, these peoples expanded southward into the wider continent to become the Native Americans. After the land bridge was inundated by the rising sea water, no further migration was possible from Siberia.

During the millennium, there were three known volcanic eruptions which registered magnitude 5 or more on the volcanic explosivity index (VEI). These were at Ulleungdo (aka Ulreung), an island east of the Korean Peninsula about 8750 BC; Grímsvötn, north east Iceland about 8230 BC; and Taupo Caldera, New Zealand about 8130 BC. The biggest eruption was at Grímsvötn, VEI 6, producing some 15 km3 of tephra.

Population and communities
As the Neolithic began in the Fertile Crescent, most people around the world still lived in scattered hunter-gatherer communities which remained firmly in the Palaeolithic. The world population was probably stable and slowly increasing. It has been estimated that there were some five million people in 10,000 BC growing to forty million by 5000 BC and 100 million by 1600 BC. That is an average growth rate of 0.027% per annum from the beginning of the Neolithic to the Middle Bronze Age.

Near East
From the beginning of the 9th millennium, Göbekli Tepe was inhabited after possibly being first occupied during the previous millennium. It is a carved stone hilltop sanctuary in south-eastern Anatolia which includes the world's oldest known megaliths. As with Göbekli Tepe, the site at Tell Qaramel, in north-west Syria, was inhabited from 9000 BC following possible first occupation in the previous millennium. In the same region, the settlement at Nevalı Çori has been dated about 8500 BC. Elsewhere in the Fertile Crescent, there is evidence of settlements at Mureybet and Ganj Dareh from around 8500 BC. Towards the end of the millennium, by 8200 BC, the site of Aşıklı Höyük in central Anatolia was first occupied (until around 7400 BC).

Europe
It is believed that European sites settled before 8500 were still Palaeolithic, or at best Mesolithic, communities. At Star Carr in North Yorkshire, the results of radiocarbon analysis in 2018 indicate that occupation first commenced between 9335 and 9275 BC, lasting for a period of around 800 years until 8525–8440 BC, although such occupations may have been episodic in nature, varying in intensity between different periods. Archaeological excavations at Cramond in prehistoric Scotland have uncovered evidence of habitation dating to around 8500 BC. Another settlement may have been established at Ærø in Denmark.

Japan
In Japan, the Jōmon culture had probably been established by small communities on the Pacific side of Honshu by this time. The word means "cord-pattern", referring to the distinctive pottery of the period. As there was no potter's wheel, the clay was prepared in the shape of a rope and manually coiled upwards to create a vessel that was baked in an open fire. At first, the vessels were simple bowls and jars but later became artistic. Proposed dates for the start of the Jomon are wildly variable, ranging from the Ice Ages to as late as c. 4500. It is generally accepted that the period ended c. 300 BC when it was superseded by the Yayoi culture.

Americas
In North America, the Paleo-Indian Clovis culture is believed to have ended around 8800 BC having fathered numerous local variants. One of these was the Folsom complex which was centred in the Great Plains and is dated from c.9000 to c.8000 BC. The people were hunter-gatherers who hunted the now-extinct Bison antiquus.

In Patagonia, the Fell's Tradition prevailed through the millennium at Cueva Fell. Another Paleo-Indian site in the region is the Las Cuevas Canyon near Los Toldos (Santa Cruz) where rock art has been found.

In Central America, remains of three prehistoric human fossils have been discovered since 2006 in the cave system at Chan Hol in Quintana Roo, Mexico. All have been dated to around the 9th millennium.

Early warfare
Evidence of a precursor to warfare has been found at Nataruk in Kenya. Remains of at least 27 individuals have been found and dated to 7550–8550 BC. The condition of the skeletons indicates that a massacre took place as hands were bound and skulls were smashed by blunt force. Communities in Africa at the time would have been nomadic hunter-gatherers.

Rise of agriculture
The Natufian culture continued to prevail in the Levantine and upper Mesopotamian areas of the Fertile Crescent with their most significant site at Jericho (Tell es-Sultan) in the Jordan Valley. The Natufian people had been sedentary or semi-sedentary through the 10th millennium, even before the introduction of agriculture.

By about 8500 BC, the Natufians were harvesting wild wheat with flint-edged sickles. It was around that time, or soon afterwards, that the wild wheat crossed with a natural goat grass to form emmer, the seeds of which could scatter in the wind to spread naturally. Later, emmer crossed with another goat grass to form the even larger hybrid that is bread wheat. The Natufians learned how to harvest the new wheat, grind it into flour and make bread. The early bread was unleavened, with the dough allowed to dry on hot stones. Writing in 1973, Jacob Bronowski argued that the combination of wheat and water at Jericho enabled man to begin civilisation. Jericho, having a natural spring, was an oasis on the edge of the Syrian Desert and, although similar developments occurred elsewhere, Bronowski called Jericho "a microcosm of history".

The earliest known cultivation of lentils was at Mureybet in Syria, where wheat and barley were also grown. Lentils were later (by 7500 BC) found at Hacilar and Çayönü in Turkey. Ganj Dareh, in Iranian Kurdistan, has been cited as the earliest settlement to domesticate animals, specifically the goat, towards the end of the millennium.

Agriculture may have begun in the Far East before 8300 BC, the estimated date for the earliest cultivation of common millet. Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica) were important crops beginning in the Early Neolithic of China. Some of the earliest evidence of millet cultivation in China was found at Cishan (north), where proso millet husk phytoliths and biomolecular components have been identified around 10,300–8,700 years ago in storage pits along with remains of pit-houses, pottery, and stone tools related to millet cultivation.

Pottery and dating systems
Beginning with China c.18,000 BC, pottery is believed to have been invented independently in various places – for example, at Ounjougou in central Mali (dated c.9400 BC). These early innovations were probably created accidentally by fires lit on clay soil. The potter's wheel had not yet been invented and, where pottery as such was made, it was still hand-built, often by means of coiling, and pit fired.

The first chronological pottery system was the Early, Middle and Late Minoan framework devised in the early 20th century by Sir Arthur Evans for his Bronze Age findings at Knossos for the period c. 2800 BC to c. 1050 BC. Dame Kathleen Kenyon was the principal archaeologist at Tell es-Sultan (ancient Jericho) and she discovered that there was no pottery there. The vessels she found were made from stone and she reasonably surmised that others made from wood or vegetable fibres would have long since decayed. Using Evans' system as a benchmark, Kenyon divided the Near East Neolithic into phases called Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA), from c. 10,000 BC to c. 8800 BC; Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB), from c. 8800 BC to c. 6500 BC; and then Pottery Neolithic (PN), which had varied start-points from c. 6500 BC until the beginnings of the Bronze Age towards the end of the 4th millennium. At the beginning of the 9th millennium, the Natufian culture co-existed with the PPNA which prevailed in the Levantine and upper Mesopotamian areas of the Fertile Crescent.

Metallurgy
Copper (Cu, 29) was originally found in raw surface lumps and first used in the Middle East. It was later extracted from ores such as malachite. A copper pendant from Mesopotamia is dated 8700 BC. The use of copper and, from the eighth millennium, lead (Pb, 82) was gradual – it could not become widespread until systematic processes had been developed for extraction of the metals from their ores; this did not happen until about the sixth millennium.

title: 9th millennium BC


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Photomontage

Photomontage is the process and the result of making a composite photograph by cutting, gluing, rearranging and overlapping two or more photographs into a new image. Sometimes the resulting composite image is photographed so that the final image may appear as a seamless physical print. A similar method, although one that does not use film, is realized today through image-editing software. This latter technique is referred to by professionals as "compositing", and in casual usage is often called "photoshopping" (from the name of the popular software system). A composite of related photographs to extend a view of a single scene or subject would not be labeled as a montage, but instead a stitched image or a digital image mosaic.

History
Author Oliver Grau in his book, Virtual Art: From Illusion to Immersion, notes that the creation of an artificial immersive virtual reality, arising as a result of technical exploitation of new inventions, is a long-standing human practice throughout the ages. Such environments as dioramas were made of composited images.

19th century

The first and most famous mid-Victorian photomontage (then called combination printing) was "The Two Ways of Life" (1857) by Oscar Rejlander, followed shortly thereafter by the images of photographer Henry Peach Robinson such as "Fading Away" (1858). These works actively set out to challenge the then-dominant painting and theatrical tableau vivants. In late Victorian North America, William Notman of Montreal used photomontage to commemorate large social events which could not otherwise be captured on film. Fantasy photomontage postcards were also popular in the late Victorian era and Edwardian era. One of the preeminent producers in this period was the Bamforth & Co Ltd, of Holmfirth, West Yorkshire, and New York. The high point of its popularity came, however, during World War I, when photographers in France, Great Britain, Germany, Austria, and Hungary produced a profusion of postcards showing soldiers on one plane and lovers, wives, children, families, or parents on another. Many of the early examples of fine-art photomontage consist of photographed elements superimposed on watercolours, a combination returned to by (e.g.) George Grosz in about 1915.

Heartfield, Grosz, and Dada
In 1916, John Heartfield and George Grosz experimented with pasting pictures together, a form of art later named "Photomontage.”

George Grosz wrote, "When John Heartfield and I invented photomontage in my South End studio at five o’clock on a May morning in 1916, neither of us had any inkling of its great possibilities, nor of the thorny yet successful road it was to take. As so often happens in life, we had stumbled across a vein of gold without knowing it."

John Heartfield and George Grosz were members of Berlin Club Dada (1916–1920). The German Dadists were instrumental in making montage into a modern art-form. The term "photomontage” became widely known at the end of World War I, around 1918 or 1919.[5]

Heartfield used photomontage extensively in his innovative book dust jackets for the Berlin publishing house Malik-Verlag. He revolutionized the look of these book covers. Heartfield was the first to use photomontage to tell a “story” from the front cover of the book to the back cover. He also employed groundbreaking typography to enhance the effect.

From 1930 to 1938, John Heartfield used photomontage to create 240 “Photomontages of The Nazi Period” to use art as a weapon against fascism and The Third Reich. The photomontages appeared on street covers all over Berlin on the cover of the widely circulated AIZ magazine published by Willi Münzenberg, Heartfield lived in Berlin until April, 1933, when he escaped to Czechoslovakia after he was targeted for assassination by the SS. Continuing to produce anti-fascist art in Czechoslovakia until 1938, Heartfield's political photomontages earned him the number five position on the Gestapo's Most Wanted List.

Hannah Höch began experimenting with photomontage in 1918. Höch worked for Ullstein Verlag designing knitting and embroidery patterns that were inspired by her photomontage work of the time. She continued to work with photomontage for almost the rest of her life, even after she broke from the Berlin Dadaists.

Other major artists who were members of Berlin Club Dada and major exponents of photomontage were Kurt Schwitters, Raoul Hausmann, and Johannes Baader. Individual photographs combined to create a new subject or visual image proved to be a powerful tool for the Dadists protesting World War I and the interests that they believed inspired the war. Photomontage survived Dada and was a technique inherited and used by European Surrealists such as Salvador Dalí. Its influence also spread to Japan where avant-garde painter Harue Koga produced photomontage-style paintings based on images culled from magazines. The world's first retrospective show of photomontage was held in Germany in 1931. A later term coined in Europe was, "photocollage", which usually referred to large and ambitious works that added typography, brushwork, or even objects stuck to the photomontage.

Russian/Soviet Constructivism
Parallel to the Germans, Russian Constructivist artists such as El Lissitzky, Alexander Rodchenko, and the husband-and-wife team of Gustav Klutsis and Valentina Kulagina created pioneering photomontage work as propaganda, such as in the journal USSR in Construction, for the Soviet government.

In the Americas
Following his exile to Mexico in the late 1930s, Spanish Civil War activist and montage artist, Josep Renau Berenguer, compiled his acclaimed, Fata Morgana USA: the American Way of Life, a book of photomontage images highly critical of American culture and North American "consumer culture". His contemporary, Lola Alvarez Bravo, experimented with photomontage on life and social issues in Mexican cities.

In Argentina during the late 1940s, the German exile, Grete Stern, began to contribute photomontage work on the theme of Sueños (Dreams), as part of a regular psychoanalytical article in the magazine, Idilio.

Postwar photomontage
The pioneering techniques of early photomontage artists were co-opted by the advertising industry from the late 1920s onward. The American photographer Alfred Gescheidt, while working primarily in advertising and commercial art in the 1960s and 1970s, used photomontage techniques to create satirical posters and postcards.

Starting in the 1960s, Jerry Uelsmann became influential in the photomontage world, using multiple enlargers to utilize many techniques that would someday influence digital photomontage, down to the naming of tools in Photoshop. In 1985 he even published a book demonstrating and explaining his techniques, two years before Thomas and John Knoll began selling Photoshop through Adobe.

Ten years later in 1995, Adobe's creative director Russel Brown tried to get Uelsmann to test out Photoshop. Uelsmann didn't like it, but his wife Maggie Taylor did, and began using it to produce digital photomontage, becoming a founder of the modern genre.

Techniques
Other methods for combining images are also called photomontage, such as Victorian "combination printing", the printing of more than one negative on a single piece of printing paper (e.g. O. G. Rejlander, 1857), front-projection and computer montage techniques. Much as a collage is composed of multiple facets, artists also combine montage techniques. A series of black and white "photomontage projections" by Romare Bearden (1912–1988) is an example. His method began with compositions of paper, paint, and photographs put on boards measuring 8½ × 11 inches. Bearden fixed the imagery with an emulsion that he then applied with hand roller. Subsequently, he photographed and enlarged them. The nineteenth century tradition of physically joining multiple images into a composite and photographing the results prevailed in press photography and offset lithography until the widespread use of digital image editing.

20th century Xerox technology made possible the ability to copy both flat images and three-dimensional objects using the copier as a scanning camera. Such copier images could then be combined with real objects in a traditional cut-and-glue collage manner.

Contemporary photograph editors in magazines now create "paste-ups" digitally. Creating a photomontage has, for the most part, become easier with the advent of computer software such as Adobe Photoshop, Paint Shop Pro, Corel Photopaint, Pixelmator, Paint.NET, or GIMP. These programs make the changes digitally, allowing for faster workflow and more precise results. They also mitigate mistakes by allowing the artist to "undo" errors. Yet some artists are pushing the boundaries of digital image editing to create extremely time-intensive compositions that rival the demands of the traditional arts. The current trend is to create images that combine painting, theatre, illustration, and graphics in a seamless photographic whole.

Legal and ethical issues

A photomontage may contain elements at once real and imaginary. Combined photographs and digital manipulations may set up a conflict between aesthetics and ethics – for instance, in fake photographs that are presented to the world as real news. For example, in the United States, the National Press Photographers Association (NPPA) has set out a Code of Ethics promoting the accuracy of published images, advising that photographers "do not manipulate images ... that can mislead viewers or misrepresent subjects."

Scrapbooking
Photomontage also may be present in the scrapbooking phenomenon, in which family images are pasted into scrapbooks and a collage created along with paper ephemera and decorative items.

Digital art scrapbooking employs a computer to create simple collage designs and captions. The amateur scrapbooker can turn home projects into professional output, such as CDs, DVDs, displays on television, uploads to a website for viewing, or assemblies into one or more books for sharing.

Photograph manipulation
Photograph manipulation refers to alterations made to an image. Often, the goal of photograph manipulation is to create another 'realistic' image. This has led to numerous political and ethical concerns, particularly in journalism.

Other
Gallery of jane.jeruto Eldoretian like many of Eding

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Photomontage


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10th century BC

The 10th century BC comprises the years from 1000 BC to 901 BC. This period followed the Late Bronze Age collapse in the Near East, and the century saw the Early Iron Age take hold there. The Greek Dark Ages which had come about in 1200 BC continued. The Neo-Assyrian Empire is established towards the end of the 10th century BC. In the Iron Age in India, the Vedic period is ongoing. In China, the Zhou dynasty is in power. Bronze Age Europe continued with Urnfield culture. Japan was inhabited by an evolving hunter-gatherer society during the Jōmon period.

The world in the 10th century BC

Events

Late 10th century BC:
 * 1000 BC: India—Iron Age of India. Indian kingdoms rule India—Panchala, Kuru, Kosala, Pandya and Videha.
 * c. 1000 BC: The Sa Huỳnh culture started in central and southern Vietnam.
 * 993 BC: Amenemope succeeds Psusennes I as king of Egypt.
 * 993 BC: Archippus, King of Athens dies after a reign of 19 years and is succeeded by his son Thersippus.
 * 984 BC: Osorkon the Elder succeeds Amenemope as king of Egypt.
 * 982 BC: The end of first period (1197 BC—982 BC) by Sau Yung's concept of the I Ching and history.
 * 978 BC: Siamun succeeds Osorkon the Elder as king of Egypt.
 * 967 BC: Tiglath-Pileser II becomes King of Assyria.
 * 965 BC: David, king of the United Monarchy, dies.
 * 962 BC: Solomon becomes king of Israel, following the death of his father, King David. (traditional date)
 * 959 BC: Psusennes II succeeds Siamun as king of Egypt.
 * 957 BC: Solomon completes the construction of the First Temple in Jerusalem.
 * c. 953 BC: Alternative date to the founding of Rome.
 * 952 BC: Thersippus, King of Athens dies after a reign of 41 years and is succeeded by his son Phorbas.
 * 947 BC: Death of King Mo of Zhou, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
 * 946 BC: King Gong of Zhou becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
 * 945/943 BC: Egypt: Psusennes II dies, the last pharaoh of the Twenty-first Dynasty. Shoshenq I succeeds him, and founds the Twenty-second Dynasty.
 * 935 BC: Death of King Gong of Zhou, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
 * 935 BC: Death of Tiglath-Pileser II king of Assyria.
 * 931 BC: Solomon, king of the ancient Israelites, dies.
 * c. 925 BC: Partition of ancient Israel into the Kingdoms of Judah and Israel.
 * c. 922 BC: Osorkon I succeeds his father Shoshenq I as king of Egypt.
 * 922 BC: Phorbas, King of Athens, dies after a reign of 30 years and is succeeded by his son Megacles.
 * 912 BC: Adad-nirari II succeeds his father Ashur-Dan II as king of Assyria.
 * 911 BC: Abijah, king of Judah, dies.
 * 909 BC: Jeroboam, the first king of the northern Hebrew kingdom of Israel, dies and is succeeded by his son Nadab.
 * c. 900 BC: the Villanovan culture emerges in northern Italy.
 * c. 900 BC: Foundation of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.
 * c. 900 BC — the Adichanallur relics, from Tamil Nadu Culture, India came from this era
 * 900 BC: Kingdom of Kush.
 * Centaur, from Lefkandi, Euboea is made. It is now at the Archaeological Museum of Eretria in Greece.
 * Foundation of Sparta.
 * The kingdom of Ethiopia is founded by Menelik I, who according to legend was the son of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.
 * First extant evidence of written Aramaic language.
 * The earliest known settlement in Plymouth, England dates back to this era.
 * Creation of ceremonial golden hats in Central Europe.

Sovereign states
See: List of sovereign states in the 10th century BC.

title: 10th century BC


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Talk:Aromatic hydrocarbon

Aromatic compounds contain...
Aromatic Compounds contain a benzene ring.

>>The term "aromatic" is actually a more subtle designation than this. While most aromatic organic molecules of interest do, indeed, contain the 6-carbon benzene ring structure, many aromatics do not (e.g. furan, pyrimidine). The of being aromatic is bestowed upon any organic molecule whose atoms (usu. carbon) are sp2 hybridized and whose Pi electorns follow the "4n+2" Hueckel rule in number (for n=0,1,2...).

Aromatic hydrocarbon?
I don't know anything, but isn't this the same as aromatic hydrocarbon? -Smack

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Aromatic hydrocarbon which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 22:01, 23 September 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Aromatic hydrocarbon


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8th millennium BC

The 8th millennium BC spanned the years 8000 BC to 7001 BC (c. 10 ka to c. 9 ka). In chronological terms, it is the second full millennium of the current Holocene epoch and is entirely within the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) phase of the Early Neolithic. It is impossible to precisely date events that happened around the time of this millennium and all dates mentioned here are estimates mostly based on geological and anthropological analysis, or by radiometric dating.

Global environment
In the geologic time scale, the first stratigraphic stage of the Holocene epoch is the "Greenlandian" from about 9700 BC to the fixed date 6236 BC and so including the whole of the 8th millennium. The Greenlandian followed the Younger Dryas and essentially featured a climate shift from near-glacial to interglacial, causing glaciers to retreat and sea levels to rise. Towards the end of the 8th millennium, the Holocene Climate Optimum (HCO) – also called the Holocene Thermal Maximum (HTM) – began as a warm period lasting roughly 4,000 years until about 3000 BC. Insolation during summers in the northern hemisphere was unusually strong with pronounced warming in the higher latitudes such as Greenland, northern Canada and northern Europe with a resultant reduction in Arctic sea ice.

During the 8th millennium, there were five known volcanic eruptions which registered magnitude 5 above on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI). These were at Rotoma Caldera in New Zealand's Taupō Volcanic Zone about 7560 BC; Lvinaya Past in the Kuril Islands about 7480 BC; Pinatubo on the island of Luzon in the Philippines about 7460 BC; Fisher Caldera, on Unimak Island in the Aleutians about 7420 BC; and at Lake Toba in North Sumatra about 7400 BC. The biggest eruptions were at Fisher Caldera, VEI 6, producing more than 50 km3 of tephra and at Lake Toba, VEI 8, which, according to Toba catastrophe theory, had a major effect on the early human population.

The date of c. 7640 BC has been theorised for the impact of Tollmann's hypothetical bolide with Earth. The hypothesis holds that there was a resultant global cataclysm such as the legendary Universal Deluge. Bolides are asteroids or comets.

According to radiometric dates, the main occupation phases recognized at Shillourokambos took place between the end of the 9th millennium BC and the end of this millennium, long before the Khirokitia Culture. The fact remains that its disappearance in the Middle Phase at Shillourokambos, in the second half of this millennium, is not an isolated incident but one of a number of expressions of a deep cultural change.

Population and communities
Outside the Near East, most people around the world still lived in scattered hunter-gatherer communities which remained firmly in the Palaeolithic. Within the Near East, Neolithic culture and technology had become established throughout much of the Fertile Crescent by 8000 BC and was gradually spreading westward, though it is not believed to have reached Europe till about the end of this millennium. Planting and harvesting techniques were transferred through Asia Minor and across the Aegean Sea to Greece and the Balkans. The techniques were, in the main, cultivation of wheats and barleys; and domestication of sheep, goats and cattle.

The world population was probably stable and slowly increasing. It has been estimated that there were some five million people c. 10,000 BC growing to forty million by 5000 BC and 100 million by 1600 BC. That is an average growth rate of 0.027% p.a. from the beginning of the Neolithic to the Middle Bronze Age.

Fertile Crescent
By c. 7500 BC (see map above right), important sites in or near the Fertile Crescent included Jericho, 'Ain Ghazal, Huleh, Tell Aswad, Tell Abu Hureyra, Tell Qaramel, Tell Mureibit, Jerf el Ahmar, Göbekli Tepe, Nevalı Çori, Hacilar, Çatalhöyük, Hallan Çemi Tepesi, Çayönü Tepesi, Shanidar, Jarmo, Zrebar, Ganj Dareh and Ali Kosh. Jericho in the Jordan Valley continued to be the world's most significant site through this millennium. Çatalhöyük (see image) was a large Neolithic and Chalcolithic proto-city settlement in southern Anatolia which flourished from c. 7500 BC until it was abandoned c. 5700 BC.

Pottery and dating systems
There was no pottery per se in the Near East at this time as the potter's wheel had not yet been invented. Rudimentary clay vessels were hand-built, often by means of coiling, and pit fired. Dame Kathleen Kenyon was the principal archaeologist at Tell es-Sultan (ancient Jericho) and she discovered that there was no pottery there. The vessels she found were made from stone and she reasonably surmised that others made from wood or vegetable fibres would have long since decayed. The first chronological pottery system had been devised by Sir Arthur Evans for his Bronze Age findings at Knossos and Kenyon used this as a benchmark for the Near East Neolithic. She divided the period into phases called Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA), from c. 10,000 BC to c. 8800 BC; Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB), which includes the entire 8th millennium, from c. 8800 BC to c. 6500 BC; and then Pottery Neolithic (PN), which had varied start-points from c. 6500 BC until the beginnings of the Bronze Age towards the end of the 4th millennium (c. 3000 BC).

Agriculture in the Americas
It was from c. 8000 BC that agriculture developed throughout the Americas, especially in modern Mexico. There were numerous New World crops, as they are now termed, and domestication began with the potato and the cucurbita (squash) about this time. Other crops began to be harvested over the next 7,500 years including chili peppers, maize, peanut, avocado, beans, cotton, sunflower, cocoa and tomato.

Other cultural developments
The Mount Sandel Mesolithic site in Ireland is dated to c. 7900–7600 BC. This was long thought to be the earliest human activity on the island, until the discovery of the Alice and Gwendoline Cave pushed the date back to 10,000 BC.

The date for construction of a round-house near Howick, Northumberland is calculated c. 7600 BC by radiocarbon dating. The site is believed to have been occupied for about 100 years.

The Homo sapiens fossil from Combe-Capelle in southern France, discovered in 1909, is estimated to be 9,500 years old (c. 7500 BC).

title: 8th millennium BC


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Conjugate (acid-base theory)

A conjugate acid, within the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, is a chemical compound formed when an acid gives a proton (H+) to a base—in other words, it is a base with a hydrogen ion added to it, as it loses a hydrogen ion in the reverse reaction. On the other hand, a conjugate base is what remains after an acid has donated a proton during a chemical reaction. Hence, a conjugate base is a substance formed by the removal of a proton from an acid, as it can gain a hydrogen ion in the reverse reaction. Because some acids can give multiple protons, the conjugate base of an acid may itself be acidic.

In summary, this can be represented as the following chemical reaction:

Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Martin Lowry introduced the Brønsted–Lowry theory, which said that any compound that can give a proton to another compound is an acid, and the compound that receives the proton is a base. A proton is a subatomic particle in the nucleus with a unit positive electrical charge. It is represented by the symbol H+ because it has the nucleus of a hydrogen atom, that is, a hydrogen cation.

A cation can be a conjugate acid, and an anion can be a conjugate base, depending on which substance is involved and which acid–base theory is used. The simplest anion which can be a conjugate base is the free electron in a solution whose conjugate acid is the atomic hydrogen.

Acid–base reactions
In an acid–base reaction, an acid and a base react to form a conjugate base and a conjugate acid respectively. The acid loses a proton and the base gains a proton. In diagrams which indicate this, the new bond formed between the base and the proton is shown by an arrow that starts on an electron pair from the base and ends at the hydrogen ion (proton) that will be transferred: In this case, the water molecule is the conjugate acid of the basic hydroxide ion after the latter received the hydrogen ion from ammonium. On the other hand, ammonia is the conjugate base for the acidic ammonium after ammonium has donated a hydrogen ion to produce the water molecule. Also, OH− can be considered as the conjugate base of, since the water molecule donates a proton to give in the reverse reaction. The terms "acid", "base", "conjugate acid", and "conjugate base" are not fixed for a certain chemical substance but can be swapped if the reaction taking place is reversed.

Strength of conjugates
The strength of a conjugate acid is proportional to its splitting constant. A stronger conjugate acid will split more easily into its products, "push" hydrogen protons away and have a higher equilibrium constant. The strength of a conjugate base can be seen as its tendency to "pull" hydrogen protons towards itself. If a conjugate base is classified as strong, it will "hold on" to the hydrogen proton when dissolved and its acid will not split.

If a chemical is a strong acid, its conjugate base will be weak. An example of this case would be the splitting of hydrochloric acid in water. Since is a strong acid (it splits up to a large extent), its conjugate base  will be weak. Therefore, in this system, most will be hydronium ions  instead of attached to Cl− anions and the conjugate bases will be weaker than water molecules.

On the other hand, if a chemical is a weak acid its conjugate base will not necessarily be strong. Consider that ethanoate, the conjugate base of ethanoic acid, has a base splitting constant (Kb) of about $0$, making it a weak base. In order for a species to have a strong conjugate base it has to be a very weak acid, like water.

Identifying conjugate acid–base pairs
To identify the conjugate acid, look for the pair of compounds that are related. The acid–base reaction can be viewed in a before and after sense. The before is the reactant side of the equation, the after is the product side of the equation. The conjugate acid in the after side of an equation gains a hydrogen ion, so in the before side of the equation the compound that has one less hydrogen ion of the conjugate acid is the base. The conjugate base in the after side of the equation lost a hydrogen ion, so in the before side of the equation, the compound that has one more hydrogen ion of the conjugate base is the acid.

Consider the following acid–base reaction:

Nitric acid is an acid because it donates a proton to the water molecule and its conjugate base is nitrate. The water molecule acts as a base because it receives the hydrogen cation (proton) and its conjugate acid is the hydronium ion.

Applications
One use of conjugate acids and bases lies in buffering systems, which include a buffer solution. In a buffer, a weak acid and its conjugate base (in the form of a salt), or a weak base and its conjugate acid, are used in order to limit the pH change during a titration process. Buffers have both organic and non-organic chemical applications. For example, besides buffers being used in lab processes, human blood acts as a buffer to maintain pH. The most important buffer in our bloodstream is the carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer, which prevents drastic pH changes when is introduced. This functions as such:

Furthermore, here is a table of common buffers.

A second common application with an organic compound would be the production of a buffer with acetic acid. If acetic acid, a weak acid with the formula, was made into a buffer solution, it would need to be combined with its conjugate base in the form of a salt. The resulting mixture is called an acetate buffer, consisting of aqueous and aqueous. Acetic acid, along with many other weak acids, serve as useful components of buffers in different lab settings, each useful within their own pH range.

Ringer's lactate solution is an example where the conjugate base of an organic acid, lactic acid, is combined with sodium, calcium and potassium cations and chloride anions in distilled water which together form a fluid which is isotonic in relation to human blood and is used for fluid resuscitation after blood loss due to trauma, surgery, or a burn injury.

Table of acids and their conjugate bases
Below are several examples of acids and their corresponding conjugate bases; note how they differ by just one proton (H+ ion). Acid strength decreases and conjugate base strength increases down the table.

Table of bases and their conjugate acids
In contrast, here is a table of bases and their conjugate acids. Similarly, base strength decreases and conjugate acid strength increases down the table.

title: Conjugate (acid-base theory)


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Founding of Rome

The founding of Rome was a prehistoric event or process later greatly embellished by Roman historians and poets. Archaeological evidence indicates that Rome developed from the gradual union of several hilltop villages during the Final Bronze Age or early Iron Age. Prehistoric habitation of the Italian Peninsula occurred by 48,000 years ago, with the area of Rome being settled by around 1600 BC. Some evidence on the Capitoline Hill possibly dates as early as c. 1700 BC and the nearby valley that later housed the Roman Forum had a developed necropolis by at least 1000BC. The combination of the hilltop settlements into a single polity by the later 8th centuryBC was probably influenced by the trend for city-state formation emerging from ancient Greece.

Roman myth held that their city was founded by Romulus, son of the war god Mars and the Vestal virgin Rhea Silvia, fallen princess of Alba Longa and descendant of Aeneas of Troy. Exposed on the Tiber river, Romulus and his twin Remus were suckled by a she-wolf at the Lupercal before being raised by the shepherd Faustulus, taking revenge on their usurping great-uncle Amulius, and restoring Alba Longa to their grandfather Numitor. The brothers then decided to establish a new town but quarrelled over some details, ending with Remus's murder and the establishment of Rome on the Palatine Hill.

Most modern historians doubt the existence of a single founder or founding event for the city, and no material evidence has been found connecting early Rome to Alba or Troy. Most modern historians also dismiss the putative Aeneid dynasty at Alba Longa as fiction. The legendary account was still much discussed and celebrated in Roman times. The Parilia Festival on 21 April was considered to commemorate the anniversary of the city's founding during the late Republic and that aspect of the holiday grew in importance under the Empire until it was fully transformed into the Romaea in AD121. The year of the supposed founding was variously computed by ancient historians, but the two dates seeming to be officially sanctioned were the Varronian chronology's 753 BC (used by Claudius's Secular Games and Hadrian's Romaea) and the adjacent year of 752 BC (used by the Fasti and the Secular Games of Antoninus Pius and Philip I). Despite known errors in Varro's calculations, it is the 753BC date that continues to form the basis for most modern calculations of the AUC calendar era.

Cultural context

The conventional division of pre-Roman cultures in Italy deals with cultures which spoke Indo-European and non-Indo-European languages. The Italic languages, which include Latin, are Indo-European and were spoken, according to inscriptions, in the lower Tiber Valley. It was once thought that Faliscan – spoken north of Veii on the right bank of the Tiber – was a separate language, but inscriptions discovered in the 1980s indicate that Latin was spoken more generally in the area. Etruscan speakers were concentrated in modern Tuscany with a similar language called Raetic spoken on the upper Adige (the foothills of the eastern Italian Alps).

When drawing a connection between peoples and their languages, a reconstruction emerges with Indo-European peoples arriving in various waves of migrations during the first and second millennia BC: first a western Italic group (including Latin), followed by a central Italic group of Osco-Umbrian dialects, with a late arrival of Greek and Celtic on the Italian peninsula, from across the Adriatic and Alps, respectively. These migrations are generally believed to have displaced speakers of Etruscan and other pre-Indo-European languages; although it is possible that Etruscan arrived also by migration, it must have done so before 2000 BC.

The start of the Iron age saw a gradual increase in social complexity and population that led to the emergence of proto-urban settlements in central and northern Italy writ large. These proto-urban agglomerations were normally clusters of smaller settlements that were insufficiently distant to be separated communities; over time, they would unify.

Archaeological evidence

There is archaeological evidence of human occupation of the area of modern Rome from at least 5,000 years ago, but the dense layer of much younger debris obscures any Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites. Traces of occupation have been found in the general region – including Lavinium and the coast near Ardea – going back to the 15th century BC. The area was home to the Apennine and Proto-Villanovan cultures before the advent of the more regional Latial culture.

Bronze Age
Archaeological evidence suggests that Rome developed over a long period, but it was definitely occupied by the middle of the Bronze Age. Core samples have shown that the terrain of Bronze-Age Rome differed greatly from what is present now. The area of the Forum Boarium north of the Aventine Hill was a seasonally dry plain that simultaneously provided a safe inland port for the era's seafaring ships, a wide area for watering horses and cattle, and a safe ford of the Tiber with shallow and slow-flowing water even if Tiber Island had not yet formed, one of the river's major fords between Etruria and Campania. This advantageous but exposed location was closely flanked by the Capitoline, which at that time rose sharply from the more easterly bank of the Tiber and provided a ready citadel for defense and for control of the salt production along the river and at its mouth. The other hills and the marshes between them provided similarly defensible points for settlement.

Accordingly, thick deposits of manure and ancient pottery shards have been discovered in the Forum Boarium from the middle of the Bronze Age. Current evidence suggests that there were three separate bronze-using settlements on the Capitoline during the period 1700–1350 BC and in the neighboring valley that later became the Roman Forum from 1350–1120 BC. Some 13th centuryBC structures indicate that the Capitoline was already being terraced to manage its slope. Evidence in the Final Bronze Age around 1200–975 BC is clearer, showing occupation of the Capitoline, Forum, and adjacent Palatine. Excavations near the modern Capitoline Museums suggest the construction of fortifications and some scholars have speculated that settlements also existed on the other hills, especially the Janiculum, Quirinal, and Aventine. The Capitoline currently seems to have been the earliest settled but it is debated whether the settlements on the other hills were independent, colonies of the Capitoline settlement, or formerly separate villages already consolidated into a single polity. By 1000 BC, a necropolis existed in the Forum for cremation graves. By the early Iron Age c. 900 BC, graves started to be placed into the ground. Other cemeteries appear on the Esquiline, Quirinal, and Viminal Hills by the 9th century, containing pottery, imported Greek wares, fibulae, and bronze objects. Remains from huts on the Palatine have been found that date to the 9th or 8th centuries BC, with accelerating development by the early to middle 8th century BC.

Eighth and seventh centuries BC

By this time, four major settlements emerged in Rome. The nuclei appeared on the Palatine, the Capitoline, the Quirinal and Viminal, and the Caelian, Oppian, and Velia. There is, however, no evidence linking any settlement on the Quirinal hill with the Sabines, as is alleged by some ancient accounts.

The area of the Forum also was converted at this time into a public space. Burials there discontinued and portions of it were paved over. Votive offerings appear in the comitium in the eighth century, indicating a more central religious cult, and other public buildings appear to have been erected around that time. One of those buildings was the domus publica (the official residence of the pontifex maximus), which is now believed to have been constructed between 750 and 700 BC. Religious activity started also in this period on the Capitoline hill, suggesting a connection to the ancient cult of Jupiter Feretrius. Other offerings discovered indicate Rome's connections outside Latium, with imported Greek pottery from Euboea and Corinth.

The first evidence of a wall appears in the middle or late eighth century on the Palatine, dated between 730 and 720 BC. It is possible that the circuit of the wall marked out what later Romans believed to be the original pomerium (sacred boundary) of the city. The discovery of gates and streets connected to the wall, with the remains of various huts, suggest that Rome had by this time:

"acquired a defined boundary ... [and] a more sophisticated level of social and political organisation ... the use of the Forum as a public space point[s] to the development of [a] shared civil and ritual space[] for the inhabitants of all communities, demonstrating an increasing level of centralisation."

Like other Villanovan proto-urban centres, this archaic Rome was likely organised around clans that guarded their own areas, but by the later eighth century had confederated. The development of city-states was likely a Greek innovation that spread through the Mediterranean from 850 to 750 BC. The earliest votive deposits are found in the early seventh century on the Capitoline and Quirinal hills, suggesting that by that time a city had formed with monumental architecture and public religious sanctuaries. Certainly, by 600 BC, a process of synoikismos was complete and there had been formed a unified Rome – reflected in the production of a central forum area, public monumental architecture, and civic structures – can be spoken of.

Ancient tradition and founding myths

By the late Republic, the usual Roman origin myth held that their city was founded by a Latin named Romulus on the day of the Parilia Festival (21 April) in some year around 750BC. Important aspects of the myth concerned Romulus's murder of his twin Remus, the brothers' descent from the god Mars and the royal family of Alba Longa, and that dynasty's supposed descent from the Aeneas, himself supposedly descended from the goddess Aphrodite and the royal family of Troy. The accounts in the first book of Livy's History of Rome and in Vergil's Aeneid were particularly influential. Some accounts further asserted that there had been a Mycenaean Greek settlement on the Palatine even earlier than Romulus and Remus, at some time during the 12th century BC.

Modern scholars disregard most of the traditional accounts as myths. There is no persuasive archaeological evidence for either the Romulan foundation or for the idea of an early Greek settlement. Even the name Romulus is now generally believed to have been retrojected from the city's name – glossed as "Mr Rome" by the classicist Mary Beard – rather than reflecting a historical figure. Some scholars, particularly Andrea Carandini, have argued that it remains possible that these foundation myths reflect underlying historical events in some form and that the city and Roman Kingdom were in fact founded by a single actor in some way. This remains a minority viewpoint in present scholarship and highly controversial in the absence of further evidence, with the arguments made by Carandini and others appearing to rest on highly tendentious interpretations of what is currently known with certainty from scientific excavations.

The Romans' origin myths, however, provide evidence of how the Romans conceived of themselves as a mixture of different ethnic groups and foreign influences, The Romans took the foundation of their own new cities seriously, undertaking many rituals and attributing many of them to remote antiquity. They long maintained the Hut of Romulus, a primitive dwelling on the Palatine attributed to their founder, although they had no firm basis for associating it with him specifically.

Chronological disagreements
While the Romans believed that their city had been founded by an eponymous founder at a specific time, when that occurred was disputed by the ancient historians. The earliest dates placed it c. 1100BC out of a belief that Romulus had been Aeneas's grandson. This moved Rome's foundation much closer to the fall of Troy, dated by Eratosthenes to 1184–83 BC; these dates are attested as early as the 4th centuryBC. Romulus was later chronologically connected to Aeneas and the time of the Trojan War by introducing a line of Alban kings, which scholars consider to be entirely spurious. Ancient attempts to date the foundation of the city were based on the length of the republic, counted by the number of consuls, followed by subtracting of an estimated regal period. Modern scholars, however, largely reject the estimates of the length of the regal period as synthetic calculations.

From Claudius's Secular Games in AD47 to Hadrian's Romaea in AD121, the official date seems to have used the chronology established by Varro in the late 1st centuryBC, placing Rome's founding in 753BC. Augustus's Fasti running to AD13 and the Secular Games celebrated at Rome's 900th and 1000th anniversaries under Antoninus Pius and PhilipI, meanwhile, used dates computed from a foundation a year later in 752BC. Despite known errors in Varro's work, it is the former date that has become the most repeated in modernity and is still used for computing the AUC calendar era.

Romulus and Remus

In the best known form of the legend, Romulus and Remus are the grandsons of Numitor, the king of Alba Longa. After Numitor is deposed by his brother Amulius and his daughter Rhea Silvia is forced to become a Vestal virgin, she becomes pregnant – allegedly raped by the war god Mars – and delivers the two illegitimate brothers. Amulius orders that the children be left to die on the slopes of the Palatine or in the Tiber River, but they are suckled by a she-wolf at the Lupercal and then discovered by the shepherd Faustulus and taken in by him and his wife Acca Larentia. (Livy combines Larentia and the she-wolf, considering them most likely to have referred to a prostitute, also known in Latin slang as a lupa or she-wolf.) Faustulus eventually reveals the brothers' true origins, and they depose or murder Amulius and restore Numitor to his throne. They then leave or are sent to establish a new city at the location where they had been rescued.

The twins then come into conflict during the foundation of the city, leading to the murder of Remus. The dispute is variously said to have been over the naming of the new city, over the interpretation of auguries, whether to place it on the Palatine or Aventine Hill, or concerned with Remus's disrespect of the new town's ritual furrow or wall. Some accounts say Romulus slays his brother with his own hand, others that Remus and sometimes Faustulus are killed in a general melee. Wiseman and some others attribute the aspects of fratricide to the 4th-century BC Conflict of the Orders, when Rome's lower-class plebeians began to resist excesses by the upper-class patricians.

Romulus, after ritualistically ploughing the generally square course of the city's future boundary, erects its first walls and declares the settlement an asylum for exiles, criminals, and runaway slaves. The city becomes larger but also acquires a mostly male population. When Romulus' attempts to secure the women of neighbouring settlements by diplomacy fail, he uses the religious celebration of Consualia to abduct the women of the Sabines. According to Livy, when the Sabines rally an army to take their women back, the women force the two groups to make peace and install the Sabine king Titus Tatius as comonarch with Romulus.

The story has been theorised by some modern scholars to reflect anti-Roman propaganda from the late fourth century BC, but more likely reflects an indigenous Roman tradition, given the Capitoline Wolf which likely dates to the sixth century BC. Regardless, by the third century, it was widely accepted by Romans and put onto some of Rome's first silver coins in 269 BC. In his 1995 Beginnings of Rome, Tim Cornell argues that the myths of Romulus and Remus are "popular expressions of some universal human need or experience" rather than borrowings from the Greek east or Mesopotamia, inasmuch as the story of virgin birth, intercession by animals and humble stepparents, with triumphant return expelling an evil leader are common mythological elements across Eurasia and even into the Americas.

Aeneas

The indigenous tradition of Romulus was also combined with a legend telling of Aeneas coming from Troy and travelling to Italy. This tradition emerges from the Iliad's prophecy that Aeneas's descendants would one day return and rule Troy once more. Greeks by 550 BC had begun to speculate, given the lack of any clear descendants of Aeneas, that the figure had established a dynasty outside the proper Greek world. The first attempts to tie this story to Rome were in the works of two Greek historians at the end of the fifth century BC, Hellanicus of Lesbos and Damastes of Sigeum, likely only mentioning off hand the possibility of a Roman connection; a more assured connection only emerged at the end of the fourth century BC when Rome started having formal dealings with the Greek world.

The ancient Roman annalists, historians, and antiquarians faced an issue tying Aeneas to Romulus, as they believed that Romulus lived centuries after the Trojan War, which was dated at the time c. 1100 BC. For this, they fabricated a story of Aeneas's son founding the city of Alba Longa and establishing a dynasty there, which eventually produced Romulus.

In Livy's first book he recounts how Aeneas, a demigod of the Trojan royal Anchises and the goddess Venus, leaves Troy after its destruction during the Trojan War and sailed to the western Mediterranean. He brings his son – Ascanius – and a group of companions. Landing in Italy, he forms an alliance with a local magnate called Latinus and marries his daughter Lavinia, joining the two into a new group called the Latini; they then found a new city, called Lavinium. After a series of wars against the Rutuli and Caere, the Latins conquer the Alban Hills and its environs. His son Ascanius then founds the legendary city of Alba Longa, which became the dominant city in the region. The later descendants of the royal lineage of Alba Longa eventually produce Romulus and Remus, setting up the events of their mythological story.

Dionysius of Halicarnassus similarly attempted to show a Greek connection, giving a similar story for Aeneas, but also a previous series of migrations. He describes migrations of Arcadians into southern Italy some time in the 18th century BC, migrations into Umbria by Greeks from Thessaly, and the foundation of a settlement on the Palatine hill by Evander (originally hailing also from Arcadia) and Hercules,

The introduction of Aeneas follows a trend across Italy towards Hellenising their own early mythologies by rationalising myths and legends of the Greek Heroic Age into a pseudo-historical tradition of prehistoric times; this was in part due to Greek historians' eagerness to construct narratives purporting that the Italians were actually descended from Greeks and their heroes. These narratives were accepted by non-Greek peoples due Greek historiography's prestige and claims to systematic validity.

Archaeological evidence shows that worship of Aeneas had been established at Lavinium by the sixth century BC. Similarly, a cult to Hercules had been established at the Ara Maxima in Rome during the archaic period. By the early fifth century BC, these stories had become entrenched in Roman historical beliefs. These cults, along with the early – in literary terms – account of Cato the Elder, show how Italians and Romans took these Greek histories seriously and as reliable evidence by later annalists, even though they were speculations of little value. Much of the syncretism, however, may simply reflect Roman desires to give themselves a prestigious backstory: claim of Trojan descent proved politically advantageous with the Greeks by justifying both claims of common heritage and ancestral enmity.

Other myths
By the time of the Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC), there were some sixty different myths for Rome's foundation that circulated in the Greek world. Most of them attributed the city to an eponymous founder, usually "Rhomos" or "Rhome" rather than Romulus. One story told how Romos, a son of Odysseus and Circe, was the one who founded Rome. Martin P. Nilsson speculates that this older story was becoming a bit embarrassing as Rome became more powerful and tensions with the Greeks grew. Being descendants of the Greeks was no longer preferable, so the Romans settled on the Trojan foundation myth instead. Nilsson further speculates that the name of Romos was changed by some Romans to the native name Romulus, but the same name Romos (later changed to the native Remus) was never forgotten by many of the people, so both these names were used to represent the founders of the city.

Another story, attributed to Hellanicus of Lesbos by Dionysius of Halicarnassus, says that Rome was founded by a woman named Rhome, one of the followers of Aeneas, after landing in Italy and burning their ships. That by the middle of the fifth century Aeneas was also allegedly the founder of two or three other cities across Italy was no object. These myths also differed as to whether their eponymous matriarch Roma was born in Troy or Italy – i.e. before or after Aeneas's journey – or otherwise if their Romus was a direct or collateral descendant of Aeneas.

Myths of the early third century also differed greatly in the claimed genealogy of Romulus or the founder, if an intermediate actor was posited. One tale posited that a Romus, son of Zeus, founded the city. Callias posited that Romulus was descended from Latinus and a woman called Roma who was the daughter of Aeneas and a homonymous mother. Other authors depicted Romulus and Romus, as a son of Aeneas, founding not only Rome but also Capua. Authors also wrote their home regions into the story. Polybius, who hailed from Arcadia, for example, gave Rome not a Trojan colonial origin but rather an Arcadian one.

title: Founding of Rome


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Telecommunications in Azerbaijan

Telecommunications in Azerbaijan provides information about television, radio, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet in Azerbaijan. The Azerbaijan economy has been markedly stronger recently and, not surprisingly, the country has been making progress in developing ICT sector. Nonetheless, it still faces problems. These include poor infrastructure and an immature telecom regulatory regime. The Ministry of Communications and Information Technologies of Azerbaijan (MCIT), as well as being an operator through its role in Aztelekom, is both a policy-maker and regulator.

Telephones

 * Telephones - main lines in use: 1,820,000 (2014)
 * Country comparison to the world: 64

 * Telephones - mobile cellular: 11,000,000 (2014)
 * Country comparison to the world: 75

Telephone system
Azerbaijan's telephone system is a combination of old Soviet era technology used by Azerbaijani citizens and small- to medium-size commercial establishments, and modern cellular telephones used by an increasing middle class, large commercial ventures, international companies, and most government officials; the average citizen waits on a 200,000-person list for telephone service; Internet and e-mail service are available in all major cities and some remote towns. general assessment:' inadequate; requires considerable expansion and modernization; teledensity of 15 main lines per 100 persons is low; mobile-cellular penetration is increasing and is currently about 50 telephones per 100 persons. domestic: local - the majority of telephones are in Baku or other industrial centers - about 700 villages still do not have public telephone service; intercity; all long-distance service must use Azertel's (Ministry of Communications) lines; satellite service connects Baku to a modern switch in its separated enclave of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. international: the old Soviet system of cable and microwave is still serviceable; satellite service between Baku and Turkey provides access to 200 countries; additional satellite providers supply services between Baku and specific countries; Azerbaijan is a signator of the Trans-Asia-Europe Fiber-Optic Line (TAE); their lines are not laid but a Turkish satellite and a microwave link between Azerbaijan and Iran could provide Azerbaijan worldwide access

Mobile phone
As of June 2014, Azerbaijan has 11.0 million subscribers in total, and a 107% penetration rate.

There are three major mobile phone operators currently in Azerbaijan: Azercell, Bakcell and Nar (Brand of Azerfon). Azercell, Bakcell and Nar (Brand of Azerfon) offer 2G, 3G and 4G services. All three networks are widely modern and reliable, with shops located in major towns and cities where one can purchase a sim card or get assistance if needed. Most unlocked mobile phones are able to be used on roaming, however network charges apply. Azercell, Bakcell and Azerfon are often recommended to tourists due to the variety of tariffs available and the help available in a variety of languages. Other mobile phone operators include Aztelekom, AzEuroTel, Caspian Telecom and Catel Eurasiacom.

As of June 2014, approximately 95% of all main lines are digitized. The remaining 5% is in the modernization process.

International system
Azerbaijan is connected to the Trans-Asia-Europe (TAE) fiber-optic cable, providing international connectivity to the rest of the World. Additionally, the old Soviet system by microwave radio relay and landline connections to other countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States is still available, and by satellite earth stations. The main backbones of Azerbaijani networks are made by E3 or STM-1 lines via microwave units across the whole country with many passive retranslations. There are two major private companies in Azerbaijan that connect the country to the global Internet network. These are AzerTelecom and Delta Telekom companies.

Radio
As of 2014, Azerbaijan has 9 AM stations, 17 FM stations, and one shortwave station. Additionally, there are approximately 4,350,000 radios in existence. The primary network provider is the Ministry of Communications and Information Technologies of Azerbaijan (MCIT). According to MCIT, the FM radio penetration rate is 97% according to 2014 data.

 * Radio broadcast stations: 26 (2014)
 * Radio Respublika - FM 105.0 MHz
 * İctimai FM - FM 90 MHz
 * Naxçıvan Dövlət radiosu (Nakhchivan State Radio) - FM 103 MHz
 * Naxçıvanın səsi (Voice of Nakhchivan) - FM 103 MHz
 * ARAZ FM    - FM 103.3 MHz
 * Radio Enerji (formerly Antenn FM)  - FM 101.1 MHz
 * ANS ChM - FM 102 MHz
 * Avto FM    - FM 107.7 MHz
 * Azad Azərbaycan FM - FM 106 MHz
 * Bürc FM FM 100.5 MHz
 * Kəpəz FM   - FM 90.3 MHz
 * Lider FM   - FM 107 MHz
 * Media FM   - FM 105.5 MHz
 * Space FM   - FM 104 MHz
 * Xəzər FM   - FM 103 MHz
 * Radios: 175,000 (1997)

Television
Azerbaijan has a total of 47 television channels, of which 4 are public television channels and 43 are private television channels of which 12 are national television channels and 31 regional television channels. According to the Ministry of Communications and Information Technologies of Azerbaijan (MCIT), the television penetration rate is 99% according to 2014 data. The penetration rate of cable television in Azerbaijan totaled 28.1% of households in 2013, from a study by the State Statistical Committee of the Azerbaijan Republic. Almost 39% of the cable television subscriber base is concentrated in major cities. The penetration rate is 59.1% in the city of Baku.

 * Television broadcast stations: 43 (2014)
 * Televisions: 170,000 (1997)

Internet

 * Internet service providers (ISPs): 15 (2005) 29 (2009)
 * Country code: AZE
 * Internet TLD: .az
 * Internet hosts: 46,856 (2011)
 * Country comparison to the world: 98

 * Internet users: 2.200,000 (2014)
 * Country comparison to the world: 70

 * Internet penetration: 77% (2015)

title: Telecommunications in Azerbaijan


text:
Transport in Azerbaijan

The transport in Azerbaijan involves air traffic, waterways and railroads. All transportation services in Azerbaijan except for oil and gas pipelines are regulated by the Ministry of Transportation of Azerbaijan Republic.

 * For Soviet transportation, see Transport in the Soviet Union.

Railways

There are 2932 km of rail tracks out of which only 2117 km are in common carrier service and 810 km are industrial lines.

Total: 2932 km (2013) Country comparison to the world: 59 Broad gauge: gauge

Metro System
Currently, the only metro system in Azerbaijan is the Baku Metro, located in Baku, the country's capital. New plans to open metro systems in the most populated and developed cities of Azerbaijan were unveiled. Sumgayit, Nakhchivan and Ganja all plan to have subway systems in the future.

Roadways
There are about 25,000 kilometres of roads in Azerbaijan, serving domestic cargo traffic and providing access to international main highways. Highways are mostly in fair condition and need an upgrade to international standards in a view to accommodating growing transit traffic. Main and rural roads are in poor condition and in urgent need of rehabilitation and maintenance. The total vehicle fleet in Azerbaijan was about 517,000 in 2004, with about 49 private passenger cars per 1,000 inhabitants, which is quite low compared to European benchmarks but rapidly increasing due to the fast economic growth. Road transport accounted for 54% of all freight in 2003, up from about 48% in 1999.

International highways
Main highways carrying international traffic are the Baku–Alat–Ganja–Qazakh–Georgian Border corridor (Azerbaijani section of TRACECA corridor) with a length of 503 km and the so-called North–South Transport Corridor that stretches out from the Russian to the Iranian border along 521 km. Road connections are disrupted with Armenia because of the unresolved conflict regarding the possession of the Nagorno-Karabakh. Travel between the mainland and the detached exclave of Nakhchivan is made by air or by road through Iran. Nakhchivan has a 9-kilometre strategic border with Turkey.

Pipelines
Baku is the centre of major oil- and gas-producing regions, and major long-distance pipelines radiate from the region's oil fields to all neighbouring areas. Pipelines are generally high-capacity lines and have diameters of either 1,020 or 1,220 millimetres. The main petroleum pipeline was completed in 2005 under American pressure to limit Russian and Iranian influence in the area. It runs from Baku via Tbilisi to Ceyhan in Turkey, therefore the acronym BTC pipeline. It made partly obsolete the old Soviet pipeline pumping crude oil from the onshore and offshore Caspian fields near Baku west across Azerbaijan and Georgia to the port of Batumi, where the oil is either exported in its crude form or processed at Batumi's refinery. Two natural gas lines parallel the old petroleum line as far as Tbilisi, where they turn north across the Caucasus Mountains to join the grid of natural gas pipelines that supply cities throughout Russia and Eastern Europe.

Condensate 89 km; gas 3,890 km; oil 2,446 km

Ports and harbours
Sea and water cargo transportation have vital importance for Azerbaijan, especially in regions where road and rail connections are disputed. Azerbaijan has direct maritime connections only with other Caspian littoral states (Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkmenistan). However, the Volga–Don Canal provides maritime access to the high seas. The main activity is the transport of cargo, mainly of oil and oil products. Shipping regions are the Caspian, Black, Mediterranean, and Marmara Seas. The main shipping company owes 72 ships, 37 of which are tankers (including 1 water carrier).

Baku International Marine Trade Port is the largest port on the Caspian Sea. Its ferry terminal underwent a major reconstruction supported by a US$16.2 million loan from EBRD. It is now able to handle 30 million tons of freight a year. The Caspian Sea provides vital transport links with other countries and is being used to ship oil until various pipeline projects are completed.

In 2014, Azerbaijan stated it would seek to ease transportation on the Caspian Sea due to increased demand by its neighbouring states.

On June 4, 2004, the Ministry of Transportation of the Republic of Azerbaijan established the Maritime Administration. As the regulatory authority in maritime transport, its functions include participating in the formulation of state policy, regulating transport demand of goods and passengers and for other types of maritime transport services, as well as implementing state programs, concepts, and projects for the development of maritime transport.

 * Ports and harbors: Alat, Baku, Dubandi, Lankaran

Merchant marine
Total: 305 ships Ships by type: general cargo 40, oil tanker 48, other 217

Country comparison to the world: 53

Airports
There are regular passenger flights between Azerbaijan and former Soviet countries, UK, Germany, France, Austria, Italy, Israel, Iran, Pakistan, Turkey, UAE, United States, China, Georgia and cargo flights to UAE, Turkey, Luxembourg, Germany, China, Kyrgyzstan, Afghanistan, and Iraq. The national airline is Azerbaijan Airlines (AZAL). There are 5 international airports located in Baku, Ganja, Nakhchivan, Lankaran and Zaqatala. Heydar Aliyev International Airport in Baku reopened in 1999 after a US$64 million upgrade and extension financed by Turkish company Enka. The airport can now handle 1,600 passengers an hour. The new runways are also able to serve jumbo jets. The complete overhaul of the international airport in Nakhchivan was completed in May 2004. The US$32 million reconstruction project of Ganja Airport has been launched by the Government and was completed by mid-2006. In 2008, two more airports were opened in Azerbaijan. The Lankaran International Airport is located in the southern part of Azerbaijan, Zaqatala Airport is in the north-west of Azerbaijan territory.

Airports: 37 Country comparison to the world: 107

Airports – with paved runways
Total: 30 Over 3,047 m: 5 2,438 to 3,047 m: 5 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13 914 to 1,523 m: 4 Under 914 m: 3

Airports – with unpaved runways
Total: 7 Under 914 m: 7

Heliports
Total: 4

title: Transport in Azerbaijan


text:
Vapor pressure

Vapor pressure or equilibrium vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases (solid or liquid) at a given temperature in a closed system. The equilibrium vapor pressure is an indication of a liquid's thermodynamic tendency to evaporate. It relates to the balance of particles escaping from the liquid (or solid) in equilibrium with those in a coexisting vapor phase. A substance with a high vapor pressure at normal temperatures is often referred to as volatile. The pressure exhibited by vapor present above a liquid surface is known as vapor pressure. As the temperature of a liquid increases, the attractive interactions between liquid molecules become less significant in comparison to the entropy of those molecules in the gas phase, increasing the vapor pressure. Thus, liquids with strong intermolecular interactions are likely to have smaller vapor pressures, with the reverse true for weaker interactions.

The vapor pressure of any substance increases non-linearly with temperature, often described by the Clausius–Clapeyron relation. The atmospheric pressure boiling point of a liquid (also known as the normal boiling point) is the temperature at which the vapor pressure equals the ambient atmospheric pressure. With any incremental increase in that temperature, the vapor pressure becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and cause the liquid to form vapor bubbles. Bubble formation in greater depths of liquid requires a slightly higher temperature due to the higher fluid pressure, due to hydrostatic pressure of the fluid mass above. More important at shallow depths is the higher temperature required to start bubble formation. The surface tension of the bubble wall leads to an overpressure in the very small initial bubbles.

The vapor pressure that a single component in a mixture contributes to the total pressure in the system is called its partial pressure. For example, air at sea level, and saturated with water vapor at 20 °C, has partial pressures of about 2.3 kPa of water, 78 kPa of nitrogen, 21 kPa of oxygen and 0.9 kPa of argon, totaling 102.2 kPa, making the basis for standard atmospheric pressure.

Measurement and units
Vapor pressure is measured in the standard units of pressure. The International System of Units (SI) recognizes pressure as a derived unit with the dimension of force per area and designates the pascal (Pa) as its standard unit. One pascal is one newton per square meter (N·m−2 or kg·m−1·s−2).

Experimental measurement of vapor pressure is a simple procedure for common pressures between 1 and 200 kPa. The most accurate results are obtained near the boiling point of the substance; measurements smaller than 1 kPa are subject to major errors. Procedures often consist of purifying the test substance, isolating it in a container, evacuating any foreign gas, then measuring the equilibrium pressure of the gaseous phase of the substance in the container at different temperatures. Better accuracy is achieved when care is taken to ensure that the entire substance and its vapor are both at the prescribed temperature. This is often done, as with the use of an isoteniscope, by submerging the containment area in a liquid bath.

Very low vapor pressures of solids can be measured using the Knudsen effusion cell method.

In a medical context, vapor pressure is sometimes expressed in other units, specifically millimeters of mercury (mmHg). Accurate knowledge of the vapor pressure is important for volatile inhalational anesthetics, most of which are liquids at body temperature but have a relatively high vapor pressure.

Estimating vapor pressures with Antoine equation
The Antoine equation is a pragmatic mathematical expression of the relation between the vapor pressure and the temperature of pure liquid or solid substances. It is obtained by curve-fitting and is adapted to the fact that vapor pressure is usually increasing and concave as a function of temperature. The basic form of the equation is:
 * $$\log P = A-\frac{B}{C+T}$$

and it can be transformed into this temperature-explicit form:
 * $$T = \frac{B}{A-\log P} - C$$

where:
 * $$P$$ is the absolute vapor pressure of a substance
 * $$T$$ is the temperature of the substance
 * $$A$$, $$B$$ and $$C$$ are substance-specific coefficients (i.e., constants or parameters)
 * $$\log$$ is typically either $$\log_{10}$$ or $$\log_e$$

A simpler form of the equation with only two coefficients is sometimes used:
 * $$\log P = A- \frac{B}{T}$$

which can be transformed to:
 * $$T = \frac{B}{A-\log P}$$

Sublimations and vaporizations of the same substance have separate sets of Antoine coefficients, as do components in mixtures. Each parameter set for a specific compound is only applicable over a specified temperature range. Generally, temperature ranges are chosen to maintain the equation's accuracy of a few up to 8–10 percent. For many volatile substances, several different sets of parameters are available and used for different temperature ranges. The Antoine equation has poor accuracy with any single parameter set when used from a compound's melting point to its critical temperature. Accuracy is also usually poor when vapor pressure is under 10 Torr because of the limitations of the apparatus used to establish the Antoine parameter values.

The Wagner equation gives "one of the best" fits to experimental data but is quite complex. It expresses reduced vapor pressure as a function of reduced temperature.

Relation to boiling point of liquids
As a general trend, vapor pressures of liquids at ambient temperatures increase with decreasing boiling points. This is illustrated in the vapor pressure chart (see right) that shows graphs of the vapor pressures versus temperatures for a variety of liquids. At the normal boiling point of a liquid, the vapor pressure is equal to the standard atmospheric pressure defined as 1 atmosphere, 760Torr, 101.325kPa, or 14.69595psi.

For example, at any given temperature, methyl chloride has the highest vapor pressure of any of the liquids in the chart. It also has the lowest normal boiling point at −24.2 °C, which is where the vapor pressure curve of methyl chloride (the blue line) intersects the horizontal pressure line of one atmosphere (atm) of absolute vapor pressure.

Although the relation between vapor pressure and temperature is non-linear, the chart uses a logarithmic vertical axis to produce slightly curved lines, so one chart can graph many liquids. A nearly straight line is obtained when the logarithm of the vapor pressure is plotted against 1/(T + 230) where T is the temperature in degrees Celsius. The vapor pressure of a liquid at its boiling point equals the pressure of its surrounding environment.

Liquid mixtures: Raoult's law
Raoult's law gives an approximation to the vapor pressure of mixtures of liquids. It states that the activity (pressure or fugacity) of a single-phase mixture is equal to the mole-fraction-weighted sum of the components' vapor pressures:
 * $$ P_{\rm tot} =\sum_i P y_i = \sum_i P_i^{\rm sat} x_i \,$$

where $$P_{\rm tot}$$ is the mixture's vapor pressure, $$x_i$$ is the mole fraction of component $$i$$ in the liquid phase and $$y_i$$ is the mole fraction of component $$i$$ in the vapor phase respectively. $$P_i^{\rm sat}$$ is the vapor pressure of component $$i$$. Raoult's law is applicable only to non-electrolytes (uncharged species); it is most appropriate for non-polar molecules with only weak intermolecular attractions (such as London forces).

Systems that have vapor pressures higher than indicated by the above formula are said to have positive deviations. Such a deviation suggests weaker intermolecular attraction than in the pure components, so that the molecules can be thought of as being "held in" the liquid phase less strongly than in the pure liquid. An example is the azeotrope of approximately 95% ethanol and water. Because the azeotrope's vapor pressure is higher than predicted by Raoult's law, it boils at a temperature below that of either pure component.

There are also systems with negative deviations that have vapor pressures that are lower than expected. Such a deviation is evidence for stronger intermolecular attraction between the constituents of the mixture than exists in the pure components. Thus, the molecules are "held in" the liquid more strongly when a second molecule is present. An example is a mixture of trichloromethane (chloroform) and 2-propanone (acetone), which boils above the boiling point of either pure component.

The negative and positive deviations can be used to determine thermodynamic activity coefficients of the components of mixtures.

Solids
Equilibrium vapor pressure can be defined as the pressure reached when a condensed phase is in equilibrium with its own vapor. In the case of an equilibrium solid, such as a crystal, this can be defined as the pressure when the rate of sublimation of a solid matches the rate of deposition of its vapor phase. For most solids this pressure is very low, but some notable exceptions are naphthalene, dry ice (the vapor pressure of dry ice is 5.73 MPa (831 psi, 56.5 atm) at 20 °C, which causes most sealed containers to rupture), and ice. All solid materials have a vapor pressure. However, due to their often extremely low values, measurement can be rather difficult. Typical techniques include the use of thermogravimetry and gas transpiration.

There are a number of methods for calculating the sublimation pressure (i.e., the vapor pressure) of a solid. One method is to estimate the sublimation pressure from extrapolated liquid vapor pressures (of the supercooled liquid), if the heat of fusion is known, by using this particular form of the Clausius–Clapeyron relation:
 * $$\ln\,P^{\rm sub}_{\rm s} = \ln\,P^{\rm sub}_{\rm l} - \frac{\Delta_{\rm fus}H}{R} \left( \frac{1}{T_{\rm sub}} - \frac{1}{T_{\rm fus}} \right)$$

where:
 * $$P^{\rm sub}_{\rm s}$$ is the sublimation pressure of the solid component at the temperature $$ T_{\rm sub} < T_{\rm fus} $$.
 * $$ P^{\rm sub}_{\rm l}$$ is the extrapolated vapor pressure of the liquid component at the temperature $$ T_{\rm sub} < T_{\rm fus} $$.
 * $$\Delta_{\rm fus}H $$ is the heat of fusion.
 * $$R$$ is the gas constant.
 * $$T_{\rm sub}$$ is the sublimation temperature.
 * $$T_{\rm fus}$$ is the melting point temperature.

This method assumes that the heat of fusion is temperature-independent, ignores additional transition temperatures between different solid phases, and it gives a fair estimation for temperatures not too far from the melting point. It also shows that the sublimation pressure is lower than the extrapolated liquid vapor pressure (ΔfusH > 0) and the difference grows with increased distance from the melting point.

Boiling point of water

Like all liquids, water boils when its vapor pressure reaches its surrounding pressure. In nature, the atmospheric pressure is lower at higher elevations and water boils at a lower temperature. The boiling temperature of water for atmospheric pressures can be approximated by the Antoine equation:
 * $$\log_{10}\left(\frac{P}{1\text{ Torr}}\right) = 8.07131 - \frac{1730.63\ {}^\circ\text{C}}{233.426\ {}^\circ\text{C} + T_b}$$

or transformed into this temperature-explicit form:
 * $$T_b = \frac{1730.63\ {}^\circ\text{C}}{8.07131 - \log_{10}\left(\frac{P}{1\text{ Torr}}\right)} - 233.426\ {}^\circ\text{C}$$

where the temperature $$T_b$$ is the boiling point in degrees Celsius and the pressure $$P$$ is in torr.

Dühring's rule
Dühring's rule states that a linear relationship exists between the temperatures at which two solutions exert the same vapor pressure.

Examples
The following table is a list of a variety of substances ordered by increasing vapor pressure (in absolute units).

Estimating vapor pressure from molecular structure
Several empirical methods exist to estimate the vapor pressure from molecular structure for organic molecules. Some examples are SIMPOL.1 method, the method of Moller et al., and EVAPORATION (Estimation of VApour Pressure of ORganics, Accounting for Temperature, Intramolecular, and Non-additivity effects).

Meaning in meteorology
In meteorology, the term vapor pressure means the partial pressure of water vapor in the atmosphere, even if it is not in equilibrium. This differs from its meaning in other sciences. According to the American Meteorological Society Glossary of Meteorology, saturation vapor pressure properly refers to the equilibrium vapor pressure of water above a flat surface of liquid water or solid ice, and is a function only of temperature and whether the condensed phase is liquid or solid. Relative humidity is defined relative to saturation vapor pressure. Equilibrium vapor pressure does not require the condensed phase to be a flat surface; it might consist of tiny droplets possibly containing solutes (impurities), such as a cloud. Equilibrium vapor pressure may differ significantly from saturation vapor pressure depending on the size of droplets and presence of other particles which act as cloud condensation nuclei.

However, these terms are used inconsistently, and some authors use "saturation vapor pressure" outside the narrow meaning given by the AMS Glossary. For example, a text on atmospheric convection states, "The Kelvin effect causes the saturation vapor pressure over the curved surface of the droplet to be greater than that over a flat water surface" (emphasis added).

The still-current term saturation vapor pressure derives from the obsolete theory that water vapor dissolves into air, and that air at a given temperature can only hold a certain amount of water before becoming "saturated". Actually, as stated by Dalton's law (known since 1802), the partial pressure of water vapor or any substance does not depend on air at all, and the relevant temperature is that of the liquid. Nevertheless, the erroneous belief persists among the public and even meteorologists, aided by the misleading terms saturation pressure and supersaturation and the related definition of relative humidity.

title: Vapor pressure


text:
12th century BC

The 12th century BC is the period from 1200 to 1101 BC. The Late Bronze Age collapse in the ancient Near East and eastern Mediterranean is often considered to begin in this century.

Events

 * 1200 BC: the first civilization in Central and North America develops in about 1200 BC in the coastal regions of the southern part of the Gulf of Mexico. Known as the Olmec civilization, its early site is at San Lorenzo.
 * 1200 BC: the Phoenicians found the port of Lisbon, Portugal
 * 1197 BC: the beginning of the first period (1197 BC–982 BC) by Shao Yong's concept of the I Ching and history.
 * c. 1194 BC: the beginning of the legendary Trojan War.
 * 1192 BC: Wu Ding, King of the Shang dynasty, dies.
 * 1191 BC: Menestheus, legendary King of Athens, dies during the Trojan War after a reign of 23 years and is succeeded by his nephew Demophon, a son of Theseus. Other accounts place his death a decade later and shortly after the Trojan War (see 1180s BC).
 * 1186 BC: end of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt, start of the Twentieth Dynasty.
 * April 24, 1184 BC: traditional date for the fall of Troy, Asia Minor to the Mycenaeans and their allies. This marks the end of the Trojan War of Greek mythology.
 * 1181 BC: Menestheus, legendary King of Athens and veteran of the Trojan War, dies after a reign of 23 years and is succeeded by his nephew Demophon, a son of Theseus. Other accounts place his death a decade earlier and during the Trojan War (see 1190s BC).
 * 1180 BC: the last Kassite King, Anllil-nadin-akhe, is defeated by the Elamites.
 * 1180 BC: collapse of Hittite power in Anatolia with the destruction of their capital Hattusa.
 * c. 1177 BC: Ramesses III of Egypt repels attacks by northern invaders (the "Sea-Peoples") in the 8th year of his reign (1177 or 1186 BC); an event which Eric Cline closely relates to the beginning of the Late Bronze Age collapse.
 * April 16, 1178 BC: a solar eclipse may mark the return of Odysseus, legendary King of Ithaca, to his kingdom after the Trojan War. He discovers a number of suitors competing to marry his wife Penelope, whom they believe to be a widow, in order to succeed him on the throne. He organizes their slaying and re-establishes himself on the throne.
 * 1160 BC: death of Pharaoh Ramesses V, from smallpox.
 * 1159 BC: the Hekla 3 eruption triggers an 18-year period of climatic cooling.
 * 1154 BC: death of exiled Queen Helen of Sparta at Rhodes (estimated date).
 * c. 1150 BC: end of Egyptian rule in Canaan, with Ramesses VI the last Pharaoh acknowledged.
 * c. 1150 BC: Demophon, legendary King of Athens and veteran of the Trojan War, dies after a reign of 33 years and is succeeded by his son Oxyntes.
 * 1137 BC: Ramesses VII begins his reign as the sixth ruler of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt.
 * c. 1138 BC: Oxyntes, legendary King of Athens, dies after a reign of 12 years and is succeeded by his elder son Apheidas.
 * c. 1137 BC: Apheidas, legendary King of Athens, is assassinated and succeeded by his younger brother Thymoetes after a reign of 1 year.
 * c. 1128 BC: Thymoetes, legendary King of Athens, dies childless after a reign of 8 years. He is succeeded by his designated heir Melanthus of Pylos, a fifth-generation descendant of Neleus who had reportedly assisted him in battle against the Boeotians.
 * 1122 BC: legendary founding date of the city of Pyongyang.
 * c. 1120 BC: Troy VIIb1 is destroyed.
 * 1115 BC: Tiglath-Pileser I becomes King of Assyria.
 * 1107 BC: Pharaoh Ramesses X of Egypt dies and is succeeded by Ramesses XI, probably his son, as 10th and final pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt and last ruler of the New Kingdom of Egypt.
 * c. 1104 BC: Cádiz (Gadir) founded by Phoenicians in southwestern Spain.
 * 1100 BC: Tiglath-Pileser I of Assyria conquers the Hittites.
 * c. 1100 BC: the Dorians supposedly invade Greece.
 * c. 1100 BC: beginning of the proto-Villanovan culture in northern Italy.
 * c. 1100 BC: Mycenaean civilization ends. Start of Greek Dark Ages.
 * Elamite invaders loot art treasures from Mesopotamia and carry them into Susa.
 * Approximate date: Fang ding, from Tomb 1004, Houjiazhuang, Anyang, Henan (Shang dynasty) is made.

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

 * 1100s BC—Alphabet, developed by the Phoenicians

Sovereign states
See: List of sovereign states in the 12th century BC

title: 12th century BC