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Cyclone

In meteorology, a cyclone  is a large air mass that rotates around a strong center of low atmospheric pressure, counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere as viewed from above (opposite to an anticyclone). Cyclones are characterized by inward-spiraling winds that rotate about a zone of low pressure. The largest low-pressure systems are polar vortices and extratropical cyclones of the largest scale (the synoptic scale). Warm-core cyclones such as tropical cyclones and subtropical cyclones also lie within the synoptic scale. Mesocyclones, tornadoes, and dust devils lie within the smaller mesoscale.

Upper level cyclones can exist without the presence of a surface low, and can pinch off from the base of the tropical upper tropospheric trough during the summer months in the Northern Hemisphere. Cyclones have also been seen on extraterrestrial planets, such as Mars, Jupiter, and Neptune. Cyclogenesis is the process of cyclone formation and intensification. Extratropical cyclones begin as waves in large regions of enhanced mid-latitude temperature contrasts called baroclinic zones. These zones contract and form weather fronts as the cyclonic circulation closes and intensifies. Later in their life cycle, extratropical cyclones occlude as cold air masses undercut the warmer air and become cold core systems. A cyclone's track is guided over the course of its 2 to 6 day life cycle by the steering flow of the subtropical jet stream.

Weather fronts mark the boundary between two masses of air of different temperature, humidity, and densities, and are associated with the most prominent meteorological phenomena. Strong cold fronts typically feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather, and may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines. Such fronts form west of the circulation center and generally move from west to east; warm fronts form east of the cyclone center and are usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog. Warm fronts move poleward ahead of the cyclone path. Occluded fronts form late in the cyclone life cycle near the center of the cyclone and often wrap around the storm center.

Tropical cyclogenesis describes the process of development of tropical cyclones. Tropical cyclones form due to latent heat driven by significant thunderstorm activity, and are warm core. Cyclones can transition between extratropical, subtropical, and tropical phases. Mesocyclones form as warm core cyclones over land, and can lead to tornado formation. Waterspouts can also form from mesocyclones, but more often develop from environments of high instability and low vertical wind shear. In the Atlantic and the northeastern Pacific oceans, a tropical cyclone is generally referred to as a hurricane (from the name of the ancient Central American deity of wind, Huracan), in the Indian and south Pacific oceans it is called a cyclone, and in the northwestern Pacific it is called a typhoon. The growth of instability in the vortices is not universal. For example, the size, intensity, moist-convection, surface evaporation, the value of potential temperature at each potential height can affect the nonlinear evolution of a vortex.

Nomenclature
Henry Piddington published 40 papers dealing with tropical storms from Calcutta between 1836 and 1855 in The Journal of the Asiatic Society. He also coined the term cyclone, meaning the coil of a snake. In 1842, he published his landmark thesis, Laws of the Storms.

Structure
There are a number of structural characteristics common to all cyclones. A cyclone is a low-pressure area. A cyclone's center (often known in a mature tropical cyclone as the eye), is the area of lowest atmospheric pressure in the region. Near the center, the pressure gradient force (from the pressure in the center of the cyclone compared to the pressure outside the cyclone) and the force from the Coriolis effect must be in an approximate balance, or the cyclone would collapse on itself as a result of the difference in pressure.

Because of the Coriolis effect, the wind flow around a large cyclone is counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. In the Northern Hemisphere, the fastest winds relative to the surface of the Earth therefore occur on the eastern side of a northward-moving cyclone and on the northern side of a westward-moving one; the opposite occurs in the Southern Hemisphere. In contrast to low-pressure systems, the wind flow around high-pressure systems are clockwise (anticyclonic) in the northern hemisphere, and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere.

Formation

Cyclogenesis is the development or strengthening of cyclonic circulation in the atmosphere. Cyclogenesis is an umbrella term for several different processes that all result in the development of some sort of cyclone. It can occur at various scales, from the microscale to the synoptic scale.

Extratropical cyclones begin as waves along weather fronts before occluding later in their life cycle as cold-core systems. However, some intense extratropical cyclones can become warm-core systems when a warm seclusion occurs.

Tropical cyclones form as a result of significant convective activity, and are warm core. Mesocyclones form as warm core cyclones over land, and can lead to tornado formation. Waterspouts can also form from mesocyclones, but more often develop from environments of high instability and low vertical wind shear. Cyclolysis is the opposite of cyclogenesis, and is the high-pressure system equivalent, which deals with the formation of high-pressure areas—Anticyclogenesis.

A surface low can form in a variety of ways. Topography can create a surface low. Mesoscale convective systems can spawn surface lows that are initially warm-core. The disturbance can grow into a wave-like formation along the front and the low is positioned at the crest. Around the low, the flow becomes cyclonic. This rotational flow moves polar air towards the equator on the west side of the low, while warm air move towards the pole on the east side. A cold front appears on the west side, while a warm front forms on the east side. Usually, the cold front moves at a quicker pace than the warm front and "catches up" with it due to the slow erosion of higher density air mass out ahead of the cyclone. In addition, the higher density air mass sweeping in behind the cyclone strengthens the higher pressure, denser cold air mass. The cold front over takes the warm front, and reduces the length of the warm front. At this point an occluded front forms where the warm air mass is pushed upwards into a trough of warm air aloft, which is also known as a trowal.

Tropical cyclogenesis is the development and strengthening of a tropical cyclone. The mechanisms by which tropical cyclogenesis occurs are distinctly different from those that produce mid-latitude cyclones. Tropical cyclogenesis, the development of a warm-core cyclone, begins with significant convection in a favorable atmospheric environment. There are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis:
 * 1) sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures,
 * 2) atmospheric instability,
 * 3) high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere
 * 4) enough Coriolis force to develop a low-pressure center
 * 5) a preexisting low-level focus or disturbance
 * 6) low vertical wind shear.

An average of 86 tropical cyclones of tropical storm intensity form annually worldwide, with 47 reaching hurricane/typhoon strength, and 20 becoming intense tropical cyclones (at least Category 3 intensity on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale).

Synoptic scale

The following types of cyclones are identifiable in synoptic charts.

Surface-based types
There are three main types of surface-based cyclones: Extratropical cyclones, Subtropical cyclones and Tropical cyclones

Extratropical cyclone
An extratropical cyclone is a synoptic scale low-pressure weather system that does not have tropical characteristics, as it is connected with fronts and horizontal gradients (rather than vertical) in temperature and dew point otherwise known as "baroclinic zones".

"Extratropical" is applied to cyclones outside the tropics, in the middle latitudes. These systems may also be described as "mid-latitude cyclones" due to their area of formation, or "post-tropical cyclones" when a tropical cyclone has moved (extratropical transition) beyond the tropics. They are often described as "depressions" or "lows" by weather forecasters and the general public. These are the everyday phenomena that, along with anticyclones, drive weather over much of the Earth.

Although extratropical cyclones are almost always classified as baroclinic since they form along zones of temperature and dewpoint gradient within the westerlies, they can sometimes become barotropic late in their life cycle when the temperature distribution around the cyclone becomes fairly uniform with radius. An extratropical cyclone can transform into a subtropical storm, and from there into a tropical cyclone, if it dwells over warm waters sufficient to warm its core, and as a result develops central convection. A particularly intense type of extratropical cyclone that strikes during winter is known colloquially as a nor'easter.

Polar low
A polar low is a small-scale, short-lived atmospheric low-pressure system (depression) that is found over the ocean areas poleward of the main polar front in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Polar lows were first identified on the meteorological satellite imagery that became available in the 1960s, which revealed many small-scale cloud vortices at high latitudes. The most active polar lows are found over certain ice-free maritime areas in or near the Arctic during the winter, such as the Norwegian Sea, Barents Sea, Labrador Sea and Gulf of Alaska. Polar lows dissipate rapidly when they make landfall. Antarctic systems tend to be weaker than their northern counterparts since the air-sea temperature differences around the continent are generally smaller. However, vigorous polar lows can be found over the Southern Ocean. During winter, when cold-core lows with temperatures in the mid-levels of the troposphere reach -45 C move over open waters, deep convection forms, which allows polar low development to become possible. The systems usually have a horizontal length scale of less than 1000 km and exist for no more than a couple of days. They are part of the larger class of mesoscale weather systems. Polar lows can be difficult to detect using conventional weather reports and are a hazard to high-latitude operations, such as shipping and gas and oil platforms. Polar lows have been referred to by many other terms, such as polar mesoscale vortex, Arctic hurricane, Arctic low, and cold air depression. Today the term is usually reserved for the more vigorous systems that have near-surface winds of at least 17 m/s.

Subtropical

A subtropical cyclone is a weather system that has some characteristics of a tropical cyclone and some characteristics of an extratropical cyclone. They can form between the equator and the 50th parallel. As early as the 1950s, meteorologists were unclear whether they should be characterized as tropical cyclones or extratropical cyclones, and used terms such as quasi-tropical and semi-tropical to describe the cyclone hybrids. By 1972, the National Hurricane Center officially recognized this cyclone category. Subtropical cyclones began to receive names off the official tropical cyclone list in the Atlantic Basin in 2002. They have broad wind patterns with maximum sustained winds located farther from the center than typical tropical cyclones, and exist in areas of weak to moderate temperature gradient.

Since they form from extratropical cyclones, which have colder temperatures aloft than normally found in the tropics, the sea surface temperatures required is around 23 degrees Celsius (73 °F) for their formation, which is three degrees Celsius (5 °F) lower than for tropical cyclones. This means that subtropical cyclones are more likely to form outside the traditional bounds of the hurricane season. Although subtropical storms rarely have hurricane-force winds, they may become tropical in nature as their cores warm.

Tropical
A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by a low-pressure center and numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds and flooding rain. A tropical cyclone feeds on heat released when moist air rises, resulting in condensation of water vapour contained in the moist air. They are fueled by a different heat mechanism than other cyclonic windstorms such as nor'easters, European windstorms, and polar lows, leading to their classification as "warm core" storm systems.

The term "tropical" refers to both the geographic origin of these systems, which form almost exclusively in tropical regions of the globe, and their dependence on Maritime Tropical air masses for their formation. The term "cyclone" refers to the storms' cyclonic nature, with counterclockwise rotation in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise rotation in the Southern Hemisphere. Depending on their location and strength, tropical cyclones are referred to by other names, such as hurricane, typhoon, tropical storm, cyclonic storm, tropical depression, or simply as a cyclone.

While tropical cyclones can produce extremely powerful winds and torrential rain, they are also able to produce high waves and a damaging storm surge. Their winds increase the wave size, and in so doing they draw more heat and moisture into their system, thereby increasing their strength. They develop over large bodies of warm water, and hence lose their strength if they move over land. This is the reason coastal regions can receive significant damage from a tropical cyclone, while inland regions are relatively safe from strong winds. Heavy rains, however, can produce significant flooding inland. Storm surges are rises in sea level caused by the reduced pressure of the core that in effect "sucks" the water upward and from winds that in effect "pile" the water up. Storm surges can produce extensive coastal flooding up to 40 km from the coastline. Although their effects on human populations can be devastating, tropical cyclones can also relieve drought conditions. They also carry heat and energy away from the tropics and transport it toward temperate latitudes, which makes them an important part of the global atmospheric circulation mechanism. As a result, tropical cyclones help to maintain equilibrium in the Earth's troposphere.

Many tropical cyclones develop when the atmospheric conditions around a weak disturbance in the atmosphere are favorable. Others form when other types of cyclones acquire tropical characteristics. Tropical systems are then moved by steering winds in the troposphere; if the conditions remain favorable, the tropical disturbance intensifies, and can even develop an eye. On the other end of the spectrum, if the conditions around the system deteriorate or the tropical cyclone makes landfall, the system weakens and eventually dissipates. A tropical cyclone can become extratropical as it moves toward higher latitudes if its energy source changes from heat released by condensation to differences in temperature between air masses. A tropical cyclone is usually not considered to become subtropical during its extratropical transition.

Polar cyclone
A polar, sub-polar, or Arctic cyclone (also known as a polar vortex) is a vast area of low pressure that strengthens in the winter and weakens in the summer. A polar cyclone is a low-pressure weather system, usually spanning 1000 km to 2000 km, in which the air circulates in a counterclockwise direction in the northern hemisphere, and a clockwise direction in the southern hemisphere. The Coriolis acceleration acting on the air masses moving poleward at high altitude, causes a counterclockwise circulation at high altitude. The poleward movement of air originates from the air circulation of the Polar cell. The polar low is not driven by convection as are tropical cyclones, nor the cold and warm air mass interactions as are extratropical cyclones, but is an artifact of the global air movement of the Polar cell. The base of the polar low is in the mid to upper troposphere. In the Northern Hemisphere, the polar cyclone has two centers on average. One center lies near Baffin Island and the other over northeast Siberia. In the southern hemisphere, it tends to be located near the edge of the Ross ice shelf near 160 west longitude. When the polar vortex is strong, its effect can be felt at the surface as a westerly wind (toward the east). When the polar cyclone is weak, significant cold outbreaks occur.

TUTT cell
Under specific circumstances, upper level cold lows can break off from the base of the tropical upper tropospheric trough (TUTT), which is located mid-ocean in the Northern Hemisphere during the summer months. These upper tropospheric cyclonic vortices, also known as TUTT cells or TUTT lows, usually move slowly from east-northeast to west-southwest, and their bases generally do not extend below 20,000 ft in altitude. A weak inverted surface trough within the trade wind is generally found underneath them, and they may also be associated with broad areas of high-level clouds. Downward development results in an increase of cumulus clouds and the appearance of a surface vortex. In rare cases, they become warm-core tropical cyclones. Upper cyclones and the upper troughs that trail tropical cyclones can cause additional outflow channels and aid in their intensification. Developing tropical disturbances can help create or deepen upper troughs or upper lows in their wake due to the outflow jet emanating from the developing tropical disturbance/cyclone.

Mesoscale
The following types of cyclones are not identifiable in synoptic charts.

Mesocyclone
A mesocyclone is a vortex of air, 2.0 km to 10 km in diameter (the mesoscale of meteorology), within a convective storm. Air rises and rotates around a vertical axis, usually in the same direction as low-pressure systems in both northern and southern hemisphere. They are most often cyclonic, that is, associated with a localized low-pressure region within a supercell. Such storms can feature strong surface winds and severe hail. Mesocyclones often occur together with updrafts in supercells, where tornadoes may form. About 1,700 mesocyclones form annually across the United States, but only half produce tornadoes.

Tornado
A tornado is a violently rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. Also referred to as twisters, a colloquial term in America, or cyclones, although the word cyclone is used in meteorology, in a wider sense, to name any closed low-pressure circulation.

Dust devil
A dust devil is a strong, well-formed, and relatively long-lived whirlwind, ranging from small (half a metre wide and a few metres tall) to large (more than 10 metres wide and more than 1000 metres tall). The primary vertical motion is upward. Dust devils are usually harmless, but can on rare occasions grow large enough to pose a threat to both people and property.

Waterspout
A waterspout is a columnar vortex forming over water that is, in its most common form, a non-supercell tornado over water that is connected to a cumuliform cloud. While it is often weaker than most of its land counterparts, stronger versions spawned by mesocyclones do occur.

Steam devil
A gentle vortex over calm water or wet land made visible by rising water vapour.

Fire whirl
A fire whirl – also colloquially known as a fire devil, fire tornado, firenado, or fire twister – is a whirlwind induced by a fire and often made up of flame or ash.

Other planets
Cyclones are not unique to Earth. Cyclonic storms are common on giant planets, such as the Small Dark Spot on Neptune. It is about one third the diameter of the Great Dark Spot and received the nickname "Wizard's Eye" because it looks like an eye. This appearance is caused by a white cloud in the middle of the Wizard's Eye. Mars has also exhibited cyclonic storms. Jovian storms like the Great Red Spot are usually mistakenly named as giant hurricanes or cyclonic storms. However, this is inaccurate, as the Great Red Spot is, in fact, the inverse phenomenon, an anticyclone.

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Lignite

Lignite (derived from Latin lignum meaning 'wood'), often referred to as brown coal, is a soft, brown, combustible sedimentary rock formed from naturally compressed peat. It has a carbon content around 25–35% and is considered the lowest rank of coal due to its relatively low heat content. When removed from the ground, it contains a very high amount of moisture, which partially explains its low carbon content. Lignite is mined all around the world and is used almost exclusively as a fuel for steam-electric power generation.

Lignite combustion produces less heat for the amount of carbon dioxide and sulfur released than other ranks of coal. As a result, lignite is the most harmful coal to human health. Depending on the source, various toxic heavy metals, including naturally occurring radioactive materials, may be present in lignite and left over in the coal fly ash produced from its combustion, further increasing health risks.

Characteristics

Lignite is brownish-black in color and has a carbon content of 60–70 percent on a dry ash-free basis. However, its inherent moisture content is sometimes as high as 75 percent and its ash content ranges from 6–19 percent, compared with 6–12 percent for bituminous coal. As a result, its carbon content on the as-received basis (i.e., containing both inherent moisture and mineral matter) is typically just 25-35 percent.

The energy content of lignite ranges from 10 to 20 MJ/kg (9–17 million BTU per short ton) on a moist, mineral-matter-free basis. The energy content of lignite consumed in the United States averages 15 MJ/kg (13 million BTU/ton), on the as-received basis. The energy content of lignite consumed in Victoria, Australia, averages 8.6 MJ/kg (8.2 million BTU/ton) on a net wet basis.

Lignite has a high content of volatile matter which makes it easier to convert into gas and liquid petroleum products than higher-ranking coals. Its high moisture content and susceptibility to spontaneous combustion can cause problems in transportation and storage. Processes which remove water from brown coal reduce the risk of spontaneous combustion to the same level as black coal, increase the calorific value of brown coal to a black coal equivalent fuel, and significantly reduce the emissions profile of 'densified' brown coal to a level similar to or better than most black coals. However, removing the moisture increases the cost of the final lignite fuel.

Lignite rapidly degrades when exposed to air. This process is called slacking or slackening.

Uses
Most lignite is used to generate electricity. However, small amounts are used in agriculture, in industry, and even, as jet, in jewelry. Its historical use as fuel for home heating has continuously declined and is now of lower importance than its use to generate electricity.

As fuel
Lignite is often found in thick beds located near the surface, making it inexpensive to mine. However, because of its low energy density, tendency to crumble, and typically high moisture content, brown coal is inefficient to transport and is not traded extensively on the world market compared with higher coal grades. It is often burned in power stations near the mines, such as in Australia's Latrobe Valley and Luminant's Monticello plant and Martin Lake plant in Texas. Primarily because of latent high moisture content and low energy density of brown coal, carbon dioxide emissions from traditional brown-coal-fired plants are generally much higher per megawatt-hour generated than for comparable black-coal plants, with the world's highest-emitting plant being Australia's Hazelwood Power Station until its closure in March 2017. The operation of traditional brown-coal plants, particularly in combination with strip mining, is politically contentious due to environmental concerns.

The German Democratic Republic relied extensively on lignite to become energy self-sufficient, and eventually obtained 70% of its energy requirements from lignite. Lignite was also an important chemical industry feedstock via Bergius process or Fischer-Tropsch synthesis in lieu of petroleum, which had to be imported for hard currency following a change in policy by the Soviet Union in the 1970s, which had previously delivered petroleum at below market rates. East German scientists even converted lignite into coke suitable for metallurgical uses (high temperature lignite coke) and much of the railway network was dependent on lignite either through steam trains or electrified lines mostly fed with lignite derived power. As per the table below, East Germany was the largest producer of lignite for much of its existence as an independent state.

In 2014, about 12 percent of Germany's energy and, specifically, 27 percent of Germany's electricity came from lignite power plants, while in 2014 in Greece, lignite provided about 50 percent of its power needs. Germany has announced plans to phase out lignite by 2038 at the latest. Greece has confirmed that the last coal plant will be shut in 2025 after receiving pressure from the European Union and plans to heavily invest in renewable energy.

Home heating
Lignite was and is used as a replacement for or in combination with firewood for home heating. It is usually pressed into briquettes for that use. Due to the smell it gives off when burned, lignite was often seen as a fuel for poor people compared to higher value hard coals. In Germany, briquettes are still readily available to end consumers in home improvement stores and supermarkets.

In agriculture
An environmentally beneficial use of lignite is in agriculture. Lignite may have value as an environmentally benign soil amendment, improving cation exchange and phosphorus availability in soils while reducing availability of heavy metals, and may be superior to commercial K humates. Lignite fly ash produced by combustion of lignite in power plants may also be valuable as a soil amendment and fertilizer. However, rigorous studies of the long-term benefits of lignite products in agriculture are lacking.

Lignite may also be used for the cultivation and distribution of biological control microbes that suppress plant pests. The carbon increases the organic matter in the soil while the biological control microbes provide an alternative to chemical pesticides.

Leonardite is a soil conditioner rich in humic acids that is formed by natural oxidation when lignite comes in contact with air. The process can be replicated artificially on a large scale. The less matured xyloid (wood-shaped) lignite also contains high amounts of humic acid.

In drilling mud
Reaction with quaternary amine forms a product called amine-treated lignite (ATL), which is used in drilling mud to reduce fluid loss during drilling.

As an industrial adsorbent
Lignite may have potential uses as an industrial adsorbent. Experiments show that its adsorption of methylene blue falls within the range of activated carbons currently used by industry.

In jewellery
Jet is a form of lignite that has been used as a gemstone. The earliest jet artifacts date to 10,000 BCE and jet was used extensively in necklaces and other ornamentation in Britain from the Neolithic until the end of Roman Britain. Jet experienced a brief revival in Victorian Britain.

Geology

Lignite begins as an accumulation of partially decayed plant material, or peat. Peat accumulates most readily in areas where there is ample moisture, slow subsidence of the land surface, and lack of disturbance by rivers or oceans. Peat swamps are otherwise found in a wide variety of climates and geographical settings. Under these conditions, the area remains saturated with water, which covers dead plant material and protects it from degradation by atmospheric oxygen. Anaerobic bacteria may continue to degrade the peat, but this process is slow, particularly in acid water. Once the peat is buried by other sediments, biological degradation essentially comes to a halt, and further changes are a result of increased temperature and pressure from burial.

Lignite forms from peat that has not experienced deep burial and heating. It forms at temperatures below 100 C, primarily by biochemical degradation. This includes humification, in which microorganisms extract hydrocarbons from the peat and humic acids are formed. The humic acids make the environment more acidic, which slows the rate of further bacterial decay. Humification is still incomplete in lignite, coming to completion only when the coal reaches sub-bituminous rank. The most characteristic chemical change in the organic material during formation of lignite is the sharp reduction in the number of C=O and C-O-R functional groups.

Lignite deposits are typically younger than higher-ranked coals, with the majority of them having formed during the Tertiary period.

Extraction
Lignite is often found in thick beds located near the surface. These are inexpensive to extract using various forms of surface mining, though this can result in serious environmental damage. Regulations in the United States and other countries require that land that is surface mined must be restored to its original productivity once mining is complete.

Strip mining of lignite in the United States begins with drilling to establish the extent of the subsurface beds. Topsoil and subsoil must be properly removed and either used to reclaim previously mined-out areas or stored for future reclamation. Excavator and truck overburden removal prepares the area for dragline overburden removal to expose the lignite beds. These are broken up using specially equipped tractors (coal ripping) and then loaded into bottom dump trucks using front loaders.

Once the lignite is removed, restoration involves grading the mine spoil to as close an approximation as practical of the original ground surface (Approximate Original Contour or AOC). Subsoil and topsoil are restored and the land reseeded with various grasses. In North Dakota, a performance bond is held against the mining company for at least ten years after the end of mining operations to guarantee that the land has been restored to full productivity. A bond (not necessary in this form) for mine reclamation is required in the US by the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977.

Example open cast mine

 * 1) Location: Nochten, Germany
 * 2) Owner: Lausitz Energie Bergbau AG (LEAG)
 * 3) Parent Company: Energetický a průmyslový holding AS [50.0%]; PPF Investments Ltd [50.0%]
 * 4) Supplies fule to: Boxberg Power Station and Schwarze Pumpe power station
 * 5) Location: near Weißwasser and Boxberg in Saxony, Germany
 * 6) GPS Coordinates: 51.457109, 14.574709 (exact)
 * 7) Mine Status: Operating
 * 8) Production: 14Mt (2020), 16.1Mt (2021), 14.5Mt (2022)
 * 9) Coal Type: Lignite
 * 10) Mine Size: 107 km2
 * 11) Opened in Year: 1968
 * 12) Closure Year: 2031 (expected)
 * 13) Planned out and constructed: 1966-1968
 * 14) Mine type: open cast surface pit mine

Australia
The Latrobe Valley in Victoria, Australia, contains estimated reserves of some 65 billion tonnes of brown coal. The deposit is equivalent to 25 percent of known world reserves. The coal seams are up to 98 m thick, with multiple coal seams often giving virtually continuous brown coal thickness of up to 230 m. Seams are covered by very little overburden (10 to 20 m).

A partnership led by Kawasaki Heavy Industries and backed by the governments of Japan and Australia has begun extracting hydrogen from brown coal. The liquefied hydrogen will be shipped via the transporter Suiso Frontier to Japan.

North America
The largest lignite deposits in North America are the Gulf Coast lignites and the Fort Union lignite field. The Gulf Coast lignites are located in a band running from Texas to Alabama roughly parallel to the Gulf Coast. The Fort Union lignite field stretches from North Dakota to Saskatchewan. Both are important commercial sources of lignite.

Types
Lignite can be separated into two types. The first is xyloid lignite or fossil wood and the second form is the compact lignite or perfect lignite.

Although xyloid lignite may sometimes have the tenacity and the appearance of ordinary wood, it can be seen that the combustible woody tissue has experienced a great modification. It is reducible to a fine powder by trituration, and if submitted to the action of a weak solution of potash, it yields a considerable quantity of humic acid. Leonardite is an oxidized form of lignite, which also contains high levels of humic acid.

Jet is a hardened, gem-like form of lignite used in various types of jewelry.

Production
Germany is the largest producer of lignite, followed by China, Russia, and United States. Lignite accounted for 8% of all U.S. coal production in 2019.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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423

Year 423 (CDXXIII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Marinianus and Asclepiodotus (or, less frequently, year 1176 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 423 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * August 15 – Emperor Honorius, age 38, dies at Ravenna of dropsy, perhaps pulmonary edema. With no children to claim the throne, Joannes, primicerius notariorum ("chief notary", head of the civil service), seizes the throne of the Western Roman Empire, and is declared emperor. Among his supporters are Flavius Aetius, Roman general (magister militum). Joannes' rule is accepted in the dioceses of Gaul, Hispania and Italia, but not in Africa.
 * Winter – Emperor Theodosius II refuses to recognize Joannes as emperor, and prepares for war. He mobilizes an expeditionary force under command of Ardaburius, and his son Flavius Aspar.

Religion

 * Theodoret becomes bishop of Cyrrhus (Syria). He converts more than 1,000 Marcionites in his diocese.

Births

 * Theodosius the Cenobiarch, monk and founder of the Monastery of St. Theodosius (approximate date)

Deaths

 * August 15 – Honorius, Roman Emperor (b. 384)
 * December 23 – Ming Yuan Di, ruler of the Xianbei state Northern Wei (b. 392)
 * Eulalius, antipope of Rome
 * Tufa, Chinese princess and wife of Qifu Chipan
 * Xiao Wenshou, empress dowager of the Liu Song Dynasty (b. 343)

title: 423


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424

Year 424 (CDXXIV) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Castinus and Victor (or, less frequently, year 1177 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 424 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * October 23 – Emperor Theodosius II nominates his cousin Valentinian, age 5, the imperial title nobilissimus Caesar ("most noble") of the Western Roman Empire. Valentinian is betrothed to Theodosius's own daughter Licinia Eudoxia, who is only 2 years old.
 * Roman usurper Joannes sends Flavius Aetius, governor of the Palace (cura palatii), to the Huns to ask for their assistance. After negotiating, he returns to Italy with a large force.
 * Winter – A Roman army under the command of Ardaburius leaves Thessalonica (modern Central Macedonia) and marches for Northern Italy, where they make their base at Aquileia.

China

 * Shao Di, age 18, is deposed by a group of high officials and succeeded by his younger brother Wen Di as emperor of the Liu Song Dynasty. Shao is exiled to Suzhou, and later killed by an assassin.

Death

 * Shao Di, emperor of the Liu Song Dynasty (b. 406)

title: 424


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425

Year 425 (CDXXV) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Theodosius and Valentinianus (or, less frequently, year 1178 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 425 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Roman civil war: Summer – Joannes, Roman usurper, is defeated at the fortified city of Ravenna and brought to Aquileia. After a humiliating parade on a donkey and the insults of the populace, he is executed.
 * October 23 – Valentinian III, six-year-old son of Galla Placidia, is installed as emperor (Augustus) of the Western Roman Empire. Real power is in the hands of his mother who becomes a regent.
 * Flavius Aetius leads a force of Huns (60,000 men) into Northern Italy. He reaches a compromise with Placidia, in return for obtaining the rank commander-in-chief (magister militum) in Gaul.
 * The Huns advance unopposed on Constantinople, but are halted by a plague that decimates their hordes (see 433).

Israel

 * The Sanhedrin is disbanded by the Roman Empire.

Arts and Sciences

 * Last known usage of Demotic script in Egypt.
 * c. 425–426 – Mausoleum of Galla Placidia is built.

Education

 * February 27 – The University of Constantinople is founded by emperor Theodosius II at the urging of his wife Aelia Eudocia.

Religion

 * Buddhism begins to spread to Southeast Asia.

Births

 * Iamblichus, Syrian philosopher
 * Zeno, Byzantine Emperor (approximate date)

Deaths

 * November 5 – Atticus, archbishop of Constantinople
 * Gamliel VI, last Nasi (head of the Sanhedrin)
 * Helian Bobo, emperor of the Chinese Xiongnu state Xia (born 381)
 * Joannes, Roman usurper
 * Mavia, Arab warrior-queen
 * Sulpicius Severus, Christian writer (approximate date)
 * Yax Nuun Ayiin I 15th Ajaw of Tikal (approximate date)

title: 425


text:
428

Year 428 (CDXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Felix and Taurus (or, less frequently, year 1181 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 428 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Flavius Felix is elected consul for the Western Empire and issues consular diptychs during his political office.
 * Flavius Aetius gains appointment as master of both services (magister militum praesentalis), after gaining victories in Gaul over Visigoth and Frankish forces.

Europe

 * King Gunderic, age 49, dies after a reign of 21 years, and is succeeded by his half-brother Genseric. He is styled with the title Rex Wandalorum et Alanorum ("King of the Vandals and Alans"). Genseric increases his power and wealth in the residence of the province of Hispania Baetica (Southern Spain).
 * King Vortigern invites a number of Germanic warriors to aid him in consolidating his position in Britain, according to the Historia Brittonum. He hires Saxons who are probably settled in Kent as mercenaries to fight against the Picts and the Scots beyond Hadrian's Wall.
 * Frankish War (428): Commander-in-chief of the Roman army Aetius put an end to the invasion of Chlodio, king of the Salian Franks in Northern Gaul.

Asia

 * Artaxias IV, last king of Greater Armenia, is deposed by Bahram V. The Arshakuni Dynasty ends and the kingdom becomes a province of the Persian Empire.

Astronomy

 * October 26 – The planet Venus occults the planet Jupiter.

Religion

 * April 10 – Nestorius is made patriarch of Constantinople. He preaches a new doctrine that will be called Nestorianism. It makes a distinction between the divine and human natures of Jesus but comes under immediate attack from pope Celestine I and Cyril of Alexandria.
 * Hydatius becomes bishop of Aquae Flaviae in Gallaecia (modern Chaves) in Portugal.
 * John succeeds Theodotus as patriarch of Antioch, and gives his support to Nestorius.
 * Euthymius the Great builds a monastery in Palestine, near the Dead Sea.

Births

 * Tuoba Huang, prince of the Xianbei state Northern Wei (d. 451)

Deaths

 * Gunderic, king of the Vandals and Alans (b. 379)
 * Qifu Chipan, prince of the Xianbei state Western Qin
 * Theodore of Mopsuestia, bishop and theologian

title: 428


text:
202

Year 202 (CCII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Severus and Antoninus (or, less frequently, year 955 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 202 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Septimius Severus returns to Rome after a five-year absence. Festivals are held to celebrate his six-year reign. Severus undertakes changes in the imperial government, giving the Roman army a dominant role, raising pay in the legions and permitting legionaries to marry in order to secure their loyalty.
 * Rome is a city of about 1.5 million citizens, its people housed mostly in 46,600 insulae or apartment blocks, each three to eight stories high, flimsily made of wood, brick or rubble.
 * Some 400,000 slaves perform the menial work of Rome, with middle-class citizens often owning eight; the rich from 500 to 1,000; an emperor as many as 20,000. Free urban workers enjoy 17 to 18 hours of leisure each day, with free admission to baths, sport events and gladiatorial games.
 * Severus launches a campaign in Africa; Legio III Augusta under Quintus Anicius Faustus fights a guerrilla war against the Garamantes along the Limes Tripolitanus. They capture several settlements such as Cydamus, Gholaia and their capital Garama, 600 km south of Lepcis Magna. The province of Numidia is enlarged: the Romans annex Castellum Dimmidi, Gemellae and Vescera.
 * An edict bans conversions to Christianity and all Christian propaganda.
 * A Roman law bans female gladiators.
 * The Pantheon is restored.

China

 * Battle of Bowang: Warlord Liu Bei defeats Cao Cao's forces under Xiahou Dun.

Medicine

 * Rome establishes medical licenses, awarded only to trained physicians who have passed examinations. Medical societies and civic hospitals are set up, and laws are passed to govern the behavior of medical students. They are prohibited from visiting brothels.

Religion

 * In order to avoid Septimus Severus' persecution of Christians, Clement of Alexandria seeks refuge with Alexander in Cappadocia.

Births

 * Jiang Wei, Chinese general and regent (d. 264)

Deaths

 * June 28 – Yuan Shao, Chinese warlord (b. 154)
 * Irenaeus, Greek bishop and theologian (b. 130)
 * Lady Wu, wife of Sun Jian and mother of Sun Ce
 * Pang Ji (or Yangtu), Chinese official and adviser

title: 202


text:
203

Year 203 (CCIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Plautianus and Geta (or, less frequently, year 956 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 203 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Septimius Severus rebuilds Byzantium, and expands the southern frontier of Africa, with the metropolis Carthage re-fortified.
 * Gaius Fulvius Plautianus and Publius Septimius Geta become Roman Consuls.
 * An arch dedicated to Septimius Severus is erected near the Forum.
 * The Portico of Octavia is reconstructed.

India

 * Prince Vijaya becomes king of the Andhra Empire. During his reign, the empire is broken apart into smaller independent principalities.

China

 * Battle of Xiakou: Warlord Sun Quan battles his rival Huang Zu along the Yangtze River near Wuhan.

Religion

 * Origen of Alexandria replaces Clement as the head of the Christian school in Alexandria.

Births

 * Zhuge Ke, Chinese general and politician (d. 253)

Deaths

 * Eulpaso, Korean official and Prime-Minister
 * Ling Cao, Chinese general under Sun Ce
 * Perpetua and Felicity, Christian martyrs
 * Sun Yi, Chinese general and politician (b. 184)
 * Wu Jing, Chinese general under Sun Ce

title: 203


text:
La Paz

La Paz, officially Nuestra Señora de La Paz, is the seat of government of the Plurinational State of Bolivia. With an estimated 816,044 residents as of 2020, La Paz is the third-most populous city in Bolivia. Its metropolitan area, which is formed by La Paz, El Alto, Achocalla, Viacha, and Mecapaca makes up the second most populous urban area in Bolivia, with a population of 2.2 million, after Santa Cruz de la Sierra with a population of 2.3 million. It is also the capital of the La Paz Department.

The city, in west-central Bolivia 68 km southeast of Lake Titicaca, is set in a canyon created by the Choqueyapu River. It is in a bowl-like depression, part of the Amazon basin, surrounded by the high mountains of the Altiplano. Overlooking the city is the triple-peaked Illimani. Its peaks are always snow-covered and can be seen from many parts of the city. At an elevation of roughly 3650 m above sea level, La Paz is the highest capital city in the world. Due to its altitude, La Paz has an unusual subtropical highland climate, with rainy summers and dry winters.

La Paz was founded on 20 October 1548, by the Spanish conquistador Captain Alonso de Mendoza, at the site of the Inca settlement of Laja as a connecting point between the commercial routes that led from Potosí and Oruro to Lima; the full name of the city was originally Nuestra Señora de La Paz (meaning Our Lady of Peace) in commemoration of the restoration of peace following the insurrection of Gonzalo Pizarro and fellow conquistadors against the first viceroy of Peru. The city was later moved to its present location in the valley of Chuquiago Marka. La Paz was under Spanish colonial rule as part of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, before Bolivia gained independence. Since its founding, the city was the site of numerous revolts. In 1781, the indigenous leader and independence activist Túpac Katari laid siege to the city for a total of six months, but was finally defeated. On 16 July 1809, the Bolivian patriot Pedro Domingo Murillo ignited a revolution for independence, marking the beginning of the Spanish American Wars of Independence, which gained the freedom of South American states in 1821.

As the seat of the government of Bolivia, La Paz is the site of the Palacio Quemado, the presidential palace. It is also the seat of the Bolivian legislature, the Plurinational Legislative Assembly, and numerous government departments and agencies. The constitutional capital of Bolivia, Sucre, retains the judicial power. The city hosts all the foreign embassies as well as international missions in the country. La Paz is an important political, administrative, economic, and sports center of Bolivia; it generates 24% of the nation's gross domestic product and serves as the headquarters for numerous Bolivian companies and industries.

La Paz is also an important cultural center of South America, as it hosts several landmarks dating from colonial times, such as the San Francisco Church, the Metropolitan Cathedral, the Plaza Murillo and Jaén Street. La Paz is also situated at the confluence of archaeological regions of the Tiwanaku and Inca Empire. The city is renowned for its markets, particularly the Witches' Market, and for its nightlife. Its topography offers views of the city and the surrounding mountains of the Cordillera Real from numerous natural viewing points. La Paz is home to the largest urban cable car network in the world.

Name and toponyms

The Spanish conquistadors founded the city in 1548 with the name Nuestra Señora de La Paz (meaning Our Lady of Peace). The name commemorated the restoration of peace following the insurrection of Gonzalo Pizarro and fellow conquistadors four years earlier against Blasco Núñez Vela, the first viceroy of Peru.

In 1825, after the decisive victory of the republicans at Ayacucho over the Spanish army in the course of the Spanish American wars of independence, the city's full name was changed to La Paz de Ayacucho (meaning The Peace of Ayacucho).

The region in which La Paz is located in was known as Chuquiago Marka (marka means village; Chuqi Yapu means 'gold farm', probably due to the exploitation of gold nuggets in the small rivers of the place; spelling differences due to Aymara writing compared to Spanish transliteration) in the Aymara language, leading former President of Bolivia Evo Morales to suggest renaming the city to "Chuquiago Marka" in a speech in 2017.

History
This area had been the site of an Inca city on a major trading route.

Although the Spanish conquistadors entered the area in 1535, they did not found La Paz until 1548. Originally it was to be at the site of the Native American settlement, Laja. The town site was moved a few days later to its present location in the valley of Chuquiago, which is more clement.

Control over the former Inca lands had been entrusted to Pedro de la Gasca by the Spanish king (and Holy Roman Emperor) Emperor Charles V. Gasca commanded Alonso de Mendoza to found a new city commemorating the end of the civil wars in Peru; the city of La Paz was founded on 20 October 1548, by Alonzo de Mendoza, with Juan de Vargas appointed as its first mayor.

In 1549, Juan Gutierrez Paniagua was commanded to design an urban plan that would designate sites for public areas, plazas, official buildings, and a cathedral. These were meant to express the ideals and relationships of Spanish colonial society. La Plaza de los Españoles, which is known today as the Plaza Murillo, was chosen as the location for government buildings as well as the Metropolitan Cathedral.

Spain controlled La Paz with a firm grip and the Spanish king had the last word in all matters political, but consultation was extended, taking months or longer by sea. Indigenous and other unrest was repeated around the turn of the nineteenth century. In 1781, for a total of six months, a group of Aymara people laid siege to La Paz. Under the leadership of Tupac Katari, they destroyed churches and government property. Thirty years later Indians conducted a two-month siege against La Paz. This incident was the setting for the origin of the legend of the Ekeko. In 1809 the struggle for independence from the Spanish rule brought uprisings against the royalist forces. On 16 July 1809 Pedro Domingo Murillo said that the Bolivian revolution was igniting a lamp that nobody would be able to turn off. This uprising formally marked the beginning of the liberation of South America from Spain. The first open rebellions against the Spanish Crown took place in La Paz and the city of Sucre simultaneously. This event is known as the Primer Grito Libertario de América and brought about the Bolivian War of Independence. Pedro Domingo Murillo was hanged at the Plaza de los Españoles several months later, on 29 January 1810. After Bolivia gained independence, La Paz named this plaza after him, to commemorate him always. He is remembered as the voice of revolution across South America.

In 1898, La Paz was made the de facto seat of the national government, with Sucre remaining the nominal historical as well as judiciary capital. This change reflected the shift of the Bolivian economy away from the largely exhausted silver mines of Potosí to the exploitation of tin near Oruro, and resulting shifts in the distribution of economic and political power among various national elites.

The segregation of Cholitas (women of Andean indigenous background) continued until the 1980s. They were not allowed to enter certain public places and were banned from cinemas and some restaurants, with more emphasis in Bolivian eastern cities like Santa Cruz De La Sierra.

Geography
La Paz is in the valleys of the Andes, close to the Eastern split of the Altiplano region. The metropolitan area is near to the Cordillera Real range, which includes such notable mountains as Illimani (guardian of La Paz), Mururata, Huayna Potosi, Chacaltaya, Kunturiri, Llamp'u, Chachakumani, Chearoco, and Ancohuma.

La Paz is built in a canyon created by the Choqueyapu River (now mostly built over), which runs northwest to southeast. The city's main thoroughfare, which roughly follows the river, changes names over its length, but the central tree-lined section running through the downtown core is called the Prado.

The geography of La Paz (in particular the altitude) is marked by social differences. The more affluent residents live in the lower, central areas of the city southwest of the Prado. Many middle-class residents live in high-rise condos near the center. Lower-income residents live in makeshift brick houses in the surrounding hills. The satellite city of El Alto, where the airport is, is spread over a broad area to the west of the canyon, on the Altiplano.

An earthquake in July 1994 rated at 8.2 struck 200 mi north of La Paz. It could be felt near La Paz and caused damage throughout the villages of the area. In February 2002 the city was subjected to a hail and rainstorm that resulted in flooding causing serious damage and over 50 deaths.

Climate

At more than 4000 m above sea level, higher parts of La Paz have a subalpine subtropical highland climate (Köppen: Cwc), bordering on a tundra climate (Köppen: ET). At this altitude, night-time temperatures range from cold to very cold. Snow flurries can occur in winter, especially at dawn and usually melts before noon. Despite being located only 16 degrees from the equator, this part of the city has average temperatures similar to that of cities such as Bergen, Norway or Tórshavn, Faroe Islands.

Temperatures in central La Paz, at 3600 m, and in the Zona Sur (Southern Zone), at 3250 m above sea level are warmer and are classified as subtropical highland climates (Köppen: Cwb). Heavy precipitation typically occurs throughout summer, and often causes destructive mudslides. At an altitude of 3,250 meters, in the southern part of the city, the wettest month is January with a monthly average of 114 mm, and the driest is July with 8 mm.

The whole city has rainy summers and dry winters. The city has a relatively dry climate, with rainfall occurring mainly in the slightly warmer months of November to March. Heavy precipitation typically occurs throughout summer, and often causes destructive mudslides. The wettest month is January with a monthly average of 100-140 mm of precipitation, and the driest months are June and July with around 5 mm of precipitation.

In the highest part of the city, above 4,000 meters, the two cloudiest months are February and March, in late summer, when sunshine averages around 5 hours per day. The two sunniest months are June and July, in winter, when sunshine averages around 8 hours per day.

Main neighborhoods and zones

 * San Jorge: Vista del barrio de Sopocachi.jpged in the district known as Cotahuma and near [[Sopocachi]], is one of the main residential and diplomatic areas of the city. San Jorge was one of the most exclusive neighborhoods of La Paz and the financial center of the metropolis, housing international firms like Deloitte, Bank of America, Ernst & Young, BBVA and the famous Ritz Hotel. It is now home of some of Bolivia's tallest building known as Torre Girasoles, Torres del Poeta, and the only intelligent building of the country, known as Torre Azul. The neighborhood is also populated with expensive offices, renowned restaurants, museums and bookstores. Its Avenida Arce, one of the main streets of the city, is the highest-priced street in the country and the one with the most upscale boutiques in Bolivia. San Jorge is home to the embassies of the United States, the United Kingdom, Brazil, Japan, Germany and Spain. The offices of the World Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank, the CAF – Development Bank of Latin America and the Caribbean, the Goethe Institut, the Alliance Française and the Dante Alighieri Society are also located in this modern neighborhood.

 * Sopocachi : Located in the 1st District (Cotahuma), Sopocachi is probably one of the oldest residential neighborhoods, 10 minutes from the center of the city. Despite the expansion and development of the area, this quarter maintained its residential property. In the last years, there has been an important commercial expansion, mainly on the surroundings of Abaroa Square, one of the many squares and parks of the zone.

 * San Pedro : Located in the 1st District (Cotahuma), on the right bank of the Choqueyapu River and built around the "Plaza de San Pedro" (official name: Plaza Sucre, Sucre Square), is home to numerous shops, businesses and small enterprises, especially printing, spare parts and auto maintenance and repair shops. San Pedro's "Rodriguez Market" remains as one of the most popular middle-class and oldest of the city. The San Pedro prison is here.

 * Centro: The city's downtown area, in the 7th District, comprising the center of La Paz and principal roads of the city, like Arce Avenue, 16 July Avenue (also known as "Prado Avenue"), Mariscal Santa Cruz Avenue and Camacho Avenue – the last one being the home of the headquarters of the principal banks and companies of the country.
 * Casco Viejo : Located in the 7th District, is the historic and ancient center of La Paz. It now houses museums, hotels, shops and buildings as the Mayor City of La Paz and the Central Bank of Bolivia. In the Old Quarter is the Plaza Murillo, which is home to the Government Palace and the National Congress.

 * Miraflores : In the 7th District, Miraflores district is separated from downtown by a long barrel (Parque Urbano Central, "Central Urban Park") and connected by the Bridge of the Americas and two avenues. Originally a residential zone, its growth has led it to become a major recreational center. It houses universities (including the Universidad Mayor de San Andrés's faculty of medicine), hospitals and the Estadio Hernando Siles (capacity of 45,000 people).

 * Northern District : Located in the 2nd and 3rd districts, it has a significant industrial activity (mainly food), being the Cervecería Boliviana Nacional (Bolivian National Brewery) the most significant industry founded by Germans, and one of the city's biggest companies in the country. It connects La Paz with the city of El Alto by the autopista (highway).

 * Southern District : Calacoto La Paz, Bolivia.jpg the 5th district; has less height than the rest of La Paz (3,200 to 2,800 meters). It is referenced as the "Macrodistrito Sur" which has 3 districts with an area of 47.8 km2. The population density reached 3,084 inhabitants per squared km. in 2016. Obrajes, Bolognia, Koani, Achumani, San Miguel, Cota Cota, Irpavi, Següencoma, Ovejuyo, Chasquipampa, La Florida and Calacoto are some neighborhoods that make it up. This city district is the area of greatest expansion and growth, both population and the construction sector in La Paz. This area houses some of the most affluent and exclusive neighborhoods of the city. It has been benefited from steady economic growth and is now the second commercial and financial center of the city, housing international firms like Moody's, Citibank, Aon Corporation, Huawei, Millicom International Cellular, Nissan Motor Corporation, Samsung Electronics, Pan American Silver Corporation, a Sumitomo Corporation branch, Ernst & Young, and the "MegaCenter", La Paz's biggest shopping mall.

Colonial architecture

The city of La Paz has a consistently decreasing volume of colonial buildings, mostly centered around the vicinity of the Plaza Murillo. Due to a lack of funds and the inability of property owners to pay for restorations to colonial buildings, many have been torn down, or are in a dilapidated state. As historic buildings are more expensive to keep, land owners find it less of a burden to construct more modern buildings as opposed to keeping the old ones. Although there has been an increasing number of projects and propositions to restore some of the city's colonial buildings, the future of these historic edifices remains uncertain.

Economy
The economy of La Paz has improved greatly in recent years, mainly as a result of improved political stability. Due to the long period of high inflation and economic struggle faced by Bolivians in the 1980s and early 1990s, a large informal economy developed. Evidence of this is provided by the markets found all around the city. While there are stable markets, almost every street in the downtown area and surrounding neighborhoods has at least one vendor on it.

La Paz remains the principal center of manufacturing enterprises that produce finished-product goods for the country, with about two-thirds of Bolivia's manufacturing located nearby. Historically, industry in Bolivia has been dominated by mineral processing and the preparation of agricultural products. However, in the urban center of La Paz, small plants carry out a large portion of the industry. Food, tobacco products, clothing, various consumer goods, building materials, and agricultural tools are produced. "The tin quotations from London are watched in La Paz with close interest as an index of the country's prosperity; a third of the national revenue and more than half of the total customs in 1925 were derived from tin; in short, that humble but indispensable metal is the hub around which Bolivia's economic life revolves. The tin deposits of Bolivia, second largest in the world, ... invite development."

Sports
La Paz is the home of some of the biggest football teams in Bolivia.

 * Club Bolívar : Founded in 1925, it was named in honor of the Libertador Simón Bolívar, the team has won most of the tournaments national and international championships in the last 20 years, and is the largest team, by number of fans, of the country. The year 1964 was a bad year, as it was relegated from the top division, playing the next year in the second division. But it soon returned to the top flight.
 * The Strongest : Founded in 1908 the club hosts some of its games and trains on their home stadium named Rafael Mendoza after Don Rafael Mendoza, one of the most important presidents of the club. In 1968 an airplane accident took the life of almost all the players, but Rafael Mendoza made many efforts that allowed the team to rise again as one of the most important in the country.

 * La Paz F.C. : Founded in 1989, the club quickly rose through the ranks to become the third major club in the capital, only behind in popularity to the two well-established city rivals.

The city is host to several other teams that play in the first and second divisions such as:

 * Academia de Balompié Boliviano
 * Always Ready
 * Chaco Petrolero
 * Club 31 de Octubre
 * Deportivo Municipal de La Paz
 * Fraternidad Tigres
 * Mariscal Braun
 * Universitario de La Paz
 * Club Unión Maestranza

With the exception of Deportivo Municipal and Unión Maestranza, all the other teams play the majority of their games in the city stadium, the Estadio Hernando Siles, which also hosts the national football team and international games. Always Ready frequently play at the Estadio Rafael Mendoza which belongs to The Strongest, who rarely use the stadium due to its relatively small capacity.

Education
The city hosts some of the most important universities of the country:

Tourism
La Paz is an important cultural center of Bolivia. The city hosts several cathedrals belonging to the colonial times, such as the San Francisco Cathedral and the Metropolitan Cathedral, this last one located on Murillo Square, which is also home of the political and administrative power of the country. Hundreds of different museums can be found across the city, the most notable ones on Jaén Street, which street design has been preserved from the Spanish days and is home of 10 different museums.

The home of the Bolivian government is located on Murillo Square and is known as "Palacio Quemado" (Burnt Palace) as it has been on fire several times. The palace has been restored many times since, but the name has remained untouched.

Museums and cultural centers

 * The former home of Pedro Domingo Murillo, martyr of the independence revolution of 1809, has been preserved and is now a museum. The house displays a collection of furniture, textiles, and art from colonial times.
 * Museo Costumbrista: Displays ceramic dolls wearing traditional customs that show how was life in the early 19th century. Also on display are photos of old La Paz.
 * Museo Nacional de Arqueología (National Museum of Archeology): Depicts a collection of artifacts of the Tiawanaku culture.
 * Museo del Litoral (Museum of the Litoral Coastal Region): Displays objects from the 1879 war in which Bolivia lost its sea coast to Chile.
 * Museo del Oro (Gold Museum): Depicts pre-Conquest works made of gold, silver and copper.
 * Museo de Etnografía y Folklore (Ethnography and Folkolore Museum): Located in a house built during the late 18th century, it exhibits customs and art of two ethnic groups: Chipayas and Ayoreos.
 * Museo del Charango (Museum of Charango): Located in Calle Linares, the museum displays an important variety of charangos. Other native instruments are displayed as well.
 * Museo de Historia Natural (Natural History Museum): Exhibits on Bolivian paleontology, geology, zoology and botanical elements of interest.
 * Casa Museo Marina Nuñez del Prado (Marina Nuñez del Prado House Museum): Displays Quechua and Aymara-theme sculptures by Bolivian artist Marina Nuñez del Prado.[[File:Palacio Quemado (Palacio de Gobierno) y Catedral Metropolitana de La Paz, Bolivia.jpg|thumb|The [[Palacio Quemado]] next to the Cathedral Basilica of Our Lady of Peace]]
 * Museo Nacional de Arte (National Art Museum): Located in Calle Comercio, on a former palace built in 1775, displays works by Melchor Perez de Holguín and Marina Nuñez del Prado, among others.
 * Mercado de Brujas (Witches' Market): Merchandise sold here includes herbs, remedies as well as other ingredients used in Aymara traditions.
 * Feria de Alasitas: This fair is celebrated for two weeks each year, beginning 24 January. The central figure is a little god of abundance known as Ekeko, which means dwarf in Aymara.
 * Museo San Francisco Cultural Center

Churches and cathedrals

 * Metropolitan Cathedral, built in 1835 and located next to the Presidential Palace, on Murillo Square;
 * San Francisco Church, founded in 1548 and rebuilt 1784.
 * San Jose of the Recoleta Church, founded in 1896 and completed in 1930.
 * Parroquia Señor de la Exaltación, founded in 1956.

Other attractions

 * Bolivian Presidential Palace, also known as "Burned Palace".
 * Parque Urbano Central (Central Urban Park)
 * Valle de la Luna (Bolivia)
 * El Montículo
 * Mirador Laikakota
 * Mirador Killi Killi

Food
Popular food from La Paz includes:
 * Marraqueta
 * Plato Paceño
 * Salteña
 * Fricasé
 * Picante Mixto
 * Api and Pastel
 * Llaucha
 * Papa Rellena
 * Ranga ranga
 * Chairo
 * Sandwich de Chola
 * Anticucho

Local festivals

 * January: Achocalla Festival: Occurs during the first week of January. The city of La Paz comes together to celebrate this religious festival with traditional dances, music, and a parade. In Bolivia's harvest calendar, Achocalla marks the time when potato fields begin to bloom. People dance the traditional folklore dance known as “tarqueada” during the festival.
 * 24 January: Alasitas is a yearly fair where people buy miniature gifts and praise the god of prosperity, Ekeko. The fair begins every 24 January and lasts for a month. In 2017, it has been included into the Intangible Cultural World Heritage of UNESCO.
 * 2 February: Virgen de Copacabana, (Villa Copacabana)
 * 1 May: San José Obrero (V. Nuevo Potosí)
 * 3 May: Señor de la Santa Cruz (Calvario, Tacagua, Calacoto)
 * 13 May: Virgen de Fátima (Villa Fátima)
 * 14 May: San Isidro, Labrador (San Isidro)
 * 17 May: Señor de la Sentencia (Villa Armonía)
 * May: Santísima Trinidad del Señor Jesús del Gran Poder (movible, Gran Poder) La Fiesta del Gran Poder occurs on Trinity Sunday. Therefore, it happens on different dates every year. But the festival typically occurs during late May to early June. This festival pays homage to El Señor del Gran Poder. During the festival, over 30,000 dancers take the streets of La Paz performing dances with themes that represent both Aymara folktales and Catholic traditions. The dancers wear colorful homemade costumes. The Parade lasts all day throughout the night. In 2019, it has been included into the Intangible Cultural World Heritage of UNESCO.
 * 13 June: San Antonio de Padua (San Antonio)
 * 24 June: San Juan Bautista (Valle Hermoso, San Juan)
 * 29 June: San Pedro Apóstol (San Pedro)
 * 16 July: Virgen del Carmen, Patroness of Bolivia and the Armed Forces of the Nation Efemerides of La Paz
 * 25 July: Apóstol Santiago (Munaypata, Pampahasi, Pasankeri, Periférica, Alto Delicias)
 * 15 August: Virgen de Urqupiña (Urkupiña)
 * 15 August: Virgen de la Asunción (Villa Victoria)
 * 8 September: Virgen de las Nieves (V. Copacabana, M. Paredes, La Portada, Achachicala, Alto Irpavi, Cotahuma, Las Nieves)
 * 8 September: Virgen de los Remedios (Miraflores)
 * 14 September: Señor de la Exaltación (Obrajes, G. de Lima, Bajo Tejar, Vino Tinto)
 * 24 September: Virgen de la Merced (Cota Cota)
 * 7 October: Virgen del Rosario (El Rosario)
 * November: Cristo Rey (Pura Pura)
 * 4 December: Santa Barbara (Santa Bárbara, Llojeta)
 * 8 December: Virgen de la Concepción (Kupini, Sopocachi, Achumani)

Transportation
Automobiles and public transportation are the main means to get into the city. In March 2012, more than 1.5 million vehicles were registered. Heavy traffic is common in the city center and traffic jams occur on peak hours.

Highways
The La Paz-El Alto Highway is a toll road that connects the city of La Paz with the neighboring city of El Alto. It is the city's main highway. It allows easy access to El Alto International Airport. The highway runs 11,7 km and crosses the city of El Alto:
 * DISCO BOLIVIA RUTA 3.png Autopista La Paz-El Alto/RN-3 (La Paz-El Alto Highway) – Connects La Paz with El Alto.
 * A-1.svg Autovía La Paz Oruro/A-1 (La Paz-Oruro Highway) – Connects La Paz with the cities of Oruro, Patacamaya and Caracollo. It then connects with Ruta Nacional 1/RN-1 (National Highway 1) heading south to the cities of Potosí, Camargo, Tarija.

The Southern District, one of La Paz's most affluent and commercial neighborhoods, is relatively separated from the rest of the city, including the CBD. The Avenida Costanera and Avenida Kantutani (Costanera and Kantutani Avenues) connect the southern district with the rest of the metropolitan area.

Air
El Alto International Airport (IATA code: LPB) is La Paz's national and international airport and a principal hub for Línea Aérea Amaszonas and Transporte Aéreo Militar. It also serves as a focus city for Boliviana de Aviación, Bolivia's flag-carrier and largest airline. The airport is located in the city of El Alto and is (8 mi) south-west of La Paz's city center. At an elevation of 4061 m, it is the highest international airport and fifth highest commercial airport in the world. The runway has a length of 4000 m. It is one of Bolivia's three main international gateways, along with Jorge Wilstermann International Airport and Viru Viru International Airport.

International carriers serving El Alto International Airport include Avianca and LATAM Airlines, which offer direct flights from La Paz to cities such as Bogotá, Lima, and Santiago. However, most international traffic, including flights to Europe, operated out of Viru Viru International Airport in Santa Cruz de la Sierra which is at a much lower altitude and is capable of handling larger aircraft.

Airport facilities include ATMs, cafés and restaurants, car rentals, duty-free shops, and free Wi-Fi internet. Additionally, the airport supplies travelers with oxygen for those who suffer from altitude sickness.

Bus
La Paz Bus Station, originally a bus and train station, was built by the French architect Gustave Eiffel. It is the main gateway for inter-city buses with several daily departures to all the main Bolivian cities, and routes to Chile and Peru. The city is connected by road with the city of Oruro from where there are routes to Sucre, Potosí and the south of the country. Another highway branches off before Oruro to reach Cochabamba and Santa Cruz. Roads to the west go to Copacabana and Tiwanaku, near Lake Titicaca, and continue to Cuzco, Peru via the border town of Desaguadero. There are also roads north to get to Yungas crossing the Andes Mountains.

Departures to smaller cities and towns within the department use informal stations located in Villa Fátima (departures to Los Yungas, Beni and Pando), Upper San Pedro (for Apolo) and near the General Cemetery (for Copacabana, Lake Titicaca, or via Tiwanaku to Desaguadero on the Peruvian border).

Cable car system
A system of urban transit aerial cable cars called Mi Teleférico ("My Cable Car") was opened in 2014. Eight lines are in operation, and three more lines are in the planning stage. The initial three lines were built by the Austrian company Doppelmayr. The first two lines (Red and Yellow) connected La Paz with El Alto. All stations have both a Spanish name and an Aymara name.

Communications and media

 * The postal service is run by ECOBOL (National Company) which has its headquarters in La Paz. There are other companies offering courier and transport logistics courier nationally and internationally.
 * The private telecommunications company 'Entel' is located in the city and provides telephony, Internet, cell phone, data and voice services. The telephone cooperative Cotel is responsible for managing much of their phones and now offers Internet services and cable television among others.
 * Area Code: 2
 * Country Code: 591
 * The main daily newspapers in circulation are: Página Siete, La Razon, El Diario, La Prensa, Jornada and El Alteño. Other papers of local importance are: Extra and Gente. There are also several other publications and weekly magazines.
 * There are 18 television channels with offices in La Paz. Channel 7 is state property. The main ones are: Unitel, ATB Bolivia, Red Uno, Bolivision, Red PAT. Channel 13 is managed by the Universidad Mayor de San Andres. Two local companies offer cable television service as Multivision and Cotel TV.

Water supply
The water supply of La Paz is threatened by the impact of climate change through the melting of glaciers. The city receives its drinking water from three water systems: El Alto, Achachicala and Pampahasi. La Paz shares the first and largest of these systems with its sister city El Alto. All three systems are fed by glaciers and rivers in the Cordillera mountain range. 20-28 % of its water is fed by glaciers, the remainder coming from rainfall and snowmelt. The glaciers recede as a result of climate change, initially increasing water availability during the dry season, but ultimately threatening a substantial decrease in dry season run-off when they completely disappear. A small glacier, the Chacaltaya near El Alto, already disappeared in 2008. The El Alto system receives its water from the Tuni Dam and two water channels. These channels divert water that flows from the Zongo Glacier on the slopes of Huayna Potosi and from Condoriri North of El Alto. The 2.9 km long Zongo glacier retreats at a rate of about 18 meters per year. The Tuni and Condoriri glaciers have lost 39% of their area between 1983 and 2006. According to a study by the Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI), the El Alto system is the least resilient against the impact of climate change among the three systems. The study says that reducing water distribution losses is the most effective short-term strategy to deal with water scarcity. New water sources further to the North in the Cordillera include the Khara Kota and Taypicacha, but they are expensive to develop and their water supply is also affected by glacier melt.

International relations
La Paz is part of the Union of Ibero-American Capital Cities from 12 October 1982.

La Paz is also a member of Merco Ciudades, a group of 180 cities within Mercosur, since 1999.

Twin towns – sister cities
La Paz is twinned with:

 * 🇵🇾 Asunción, Paraguay
 * 🇨🇴 Bogotá, Colombia
 * 🇩🇪 Bonn, Germany
 * 🇺🇾 Canelones, Uruguay
 * 🇨🇺 Havana, Cuba
 * 🇻🇪 Libertador (Caracas), Venezuela
 * 🇺🇾 Montevideo, Uruguay
 * 🇷🇺 Moscow, Russia
 * 🇪🇨 Quito, Ecuador
 * 🇧🇷 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
 * 🇧🇷 São Paulo, Brazil
 * 🇹🇼 Taipei, Taiwan
 * 🇪🇸 Zaragoza, Spain

Notable people

 * Luis Arce (1963), politician
 * Alcides Arguedas (1879–1946), writer and philosopher
 * Yolanda Bedregal (1916–1999), poet and novelist, known as  Yolanda de Bolivia
 * Armin Franulic (1943–2021, rally driver
 * Rodolfo Illanes (1958–2016), lawyer and politician
 * Carlos Mesa (born 1953), former president of Bolivia
 * Víctor Montoya (born 1958), writer
 * Daniel Nuñez del Prado (1840–1891), Secretary of State, freedom fighter and doctor
 * Wilfred von Oven (1912–2008), press officer at the Reich Propaganda Ministry, Journalist
 * Verona Pooth born,  Feldbusch  (born 1968), German presenter and businesswoman
 * Andrés de Santa Cruz (1792–1865), President of Peru and Bolivia
 * Luis Adolfo Siles Salinas (1925–2005), lawyer, politician and former President of Bolivia
 * Gualberto Vega (d. 1980 at La Paz), Bolivian trade unionist
 * Alberto Villalpando (born 1940), composer
 * Emilio Villanueva (1882–1970), architect

title: La Paz


text:
244

Year 244 (CCXLIV) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Armenius and Aemilianus (or, less frequently, year 997 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 244 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Around February 11 – Battle of Misiche: King Shapur I and his Iranian army defeats the Roman army.
 * February 11 – Emperor Gordian III is murdered by mutinous soldiers in Zaitha (Mesopotamia). A mound is raised at Carchemish in his memory.
 * Philip the Arab (Marcus Julius Philippus) declares himself co-emperor, and makes a controversial peace with the Sassanian Empire, withdrawing from their territory and giving Shapur 500,000 gold pieces. The Sassanians occupy Armenia.
 * Philip the Arab is recognized by the Roman Senate as the new Roman Emperor with the honorific Augustus. He nominates his son Philippus, age 6, with the title of Caesar and makes him heir to the throne; gives his brother Priscus supreme power (rector Orientis) in the Eastern provinces; and begins construction of the city of Shahba (Syria) in the province of his birth.
 * The vassal Upper Mesopotamian kingdom of Osroene is absorbed into the Roman Empire, its last ruler being Abgar (XI) Farhat Bar Ma’nu.

Asia

 * Battle of Xingshi: Shu Han defeats the Chinese state of Cao Wei.

Korea

 * The Goguryeo–Wei War is fought between the Korean kingdom Goguryeo and the Chinese state Cao Wei.

Art and Science

 * Plotinus, Greek philosopher, escapes the bloodshed that accompanies the murder of Gordianus III and makes his way to Antioch. Back in Rome he founds his Neoplatonist school and attracts disciples like Porphyry, Castricius Firmus and Eustochius of Alexandria.
 * 244–249 – Bust of Philip the Arab (in Braccio Nuovo, Vatican Museums, Rome).

Commerce

 * The silver content of the Roman denarius falls to 0.5 percent under emperor Philippus I, down from 28 percent under Gordian III.

Religion

 * 244–245 – Last phase of construction of the house-style Dura-Europos synagogue in Syria, one of the oldest to survive (wall-paintings in the National Museum of Damascus, Syria).

Births

 * December 22 – Diocletian, Roman emperor (d. 311)
 * Alexander of Constantinople, bishop of Byzantium (approximate date)

Deaths

 * February 11 – Gordian III, Roman emperor (b. 225)
 * Cao Xun, Chinese prince of the Cao Wei state (b. 231)
 * Ge Xuan (or Xiaoxian), Chinese Taoist (b. 164)
 * Zhang Cheng (or Zhongsi), Chinese general (b. 178)

title: 244


text:
246

Year 246 (CCXLVI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar, the 246th Year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 246th year of the 1st millennium, the 46th year of the 3rd century, and the 7th year of the 240s decade. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Praesens and Albinus (or, less frequently, year 999 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 246 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Philip the Arab fights the Germans along the Danube River.
 * The first of two Councils of Arabia in the Roman Christian Church is held in Bostra, Arabia Petraea.

Korea

 * Baekje Kingdom under King Goi of Baekje attacks the Chinese commandery of Daifang.

Births

 * Cao Huan, Chinese emperor of the Cao Wei state (d. 303)

Deaths

 * Dong Yun (or Xiuzhao), Chinese general and politician
 * Gu Tan (or Zimo), Chinese official and politician (b. 205)
 * Jiang Wan (or Gongyan), Chinese general and statesman

title: 246


text:
247

Year 247 (CCXLVII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Philippus and Severus (or, less frequently, year 1000 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 247 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Rome becomes 1,000 years old. The 1,000th anniversary is commemorated with the Ludi Saeculares festivals, celebrated throughout the Roman Empire.
 * Marcus Julius Philippus Augustus and his 10-year-old son Marcus Julius Philippus Caesar become Roman Consuls.
 * The Goths appear on the lower Danube frontier; they invade Ukraine and Romania.
 * Emperor Philip the Arab marks the millennium of Rome by holding the Ludi Saeculares.
 * The last of the two Councils of Arabia in the Roman Christian Church is held in Bostra, Arabia Petraea.

Asia

 * Himiko of Yamataikoku, in Japan, begins a war against King Himikoku of Kunukoku.
 * Cheomhae becomes king of the Korean kingdom of Silla.

Births

 * Pan Yue, Chinese poet and writer of the Jin Dynasty (d. 300)
 * Prisca, Roman empress and wife of Diocletian (d. 315)

Deaths

 * Abba Arikha, Babylonian Jewish scholar and rabbi (b. 175)
 * Bu Zhi (or Zishan), Chinese general, official and statesman
 * Xiang Lang (or Juda), Chinese general, official and politician
 * Zhang Chunhua, wife of Sima Yi, regent of the Cao Wei state (b. 189)

title: 247


text:
248

Year 248 (CCXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Philippus and Severus (or, less frequently, year 1001 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 248 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * The revolts of Pacatianus in Moesia and Iotapianus in Syria are put down by Senator Trajan Decius, by order of Emperor Philip the Arab.
 * The Roman Empire continues the celebration of the 1,000th anniversary of Rome, with the ludi saeculares, organized by Philip the Arab.

Asia

 * Jungcheon becomes ruler of the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo (until 270).

Religion

 * Cyprian, Christian writer of Berber descent, becomes bishop of Carthage.
 * Origen writes an eight-volume work, criticizing the pagan writer Celsus.

Births

 * Flavia Iulia Helena, Greco-Roman Augusta (empress), mother of Constantine I (approximate date) (d. 330)
 * Li Liu (Cheng Han or Xuantong), Chinese Grand general (d. 303)
 * Sima You (or Dayou), Chinese prince and politician (d. 283)

Deaths

 * Dongcheon, Korean ruler of Goguryeo (b. 209)
 * Himiko (or Shingi Waō), Japanese queen regnant (b. 170)
 * Lady Triệu (Triệu Ẩu or Triệu Thị Trinh), Vietnamese female warrior (b. 226)
 * Wang Ping, Chinese general and politician

title: 248


text:
249

Year 249 (CCXLIX) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Gavius and Aquilinus (or, less frequently, year 1002 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 249 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Trajan Decius puts down a revolt in Moesia and Pannonia. Loyal legionaries proclaim him emperor, and he leads them into Italy.
 * Battle of Verona: Decius defeats and kills Emperor Philip the Arab.
 * Decius begins persecuting Christians, and others refusing to participate in Emperor worship.

Asia

 * February 5 – Incident at Gaoping Tombs: In the Chinese state of Cao Wei, regent Sima Yi, in a coup d'état, forces his co-regent Cao Shuang to relinquish his power, after taking control of the capital city of Luoyang. Sima Yi issues a memorial, which lists the various crimes he and his associates has committed.

Religion

 * In Alexandria, the populace pillages the homes of Christians.

Births

 * Shi Chong (or Jilun), Chinese politician and statesman

Deaths

 * February 9
 * Bi Gui (or Zhaoxian), Chinese politician
 * Cao Shuang, Chinese general and regent
 * Deng Yang (or Xuanmao), Chinese politician
 * He Yan (or Pingshu), Chinese philosopher
 * Huan Fan (or Yuanze), Chinese general
 * Li Sheng (or Gongzhao), Chinese politician
 * May 18 – Jiang Ji (or Zitong), Chinese general
 * Jotapianus (or Jotapian), Roman usurper
 * Ma Zhong (or Dexin), Chinese general and politician
 * Philip II (the Younger), Roman emperor (b. 237)
 * Philip the Arab, Roman general and emperor (b. 204)
 * Quan Cong, Chinese general and politician (b. 198)
 * Wang Bi, Chinese philosopher and politician (b. 226)
 * Xu Miao (or Jingshan), Chinese politician (b. 172)
 * Zhu Ran, Chinese adviser and general (b. 182)

title: 249


text:
243

Year 243 (CCXLIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known in Rome as the Year of the Consulship of Arrianus and Papus (or, less frequently, year 996 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 243 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Battle of Resaena: A Roman army under Timesitheus defeats the Sassanids at Resaena (modern Syria); King Shapur I is forced to flee to the Euphrates.
 * Timesitheus becomes ill and dies under suspicious circumstances. Shapur I retreats to the Sassanid Empire, giving up all the territories he has conquered.
 * Emperor Gordian III appoints Philip the Arab as his new praetorian prefect (after the death of Timesitheus) and proceeds with his campaign in Mesopotamia.
 * Cohors I Ubiorum, the garrison at Capidava in Scythia Minor, is replaced by Cohors I Germanorum Civium Romanorum, until the end of the 3rd century AD.

Asia

 * Fan Chan of Funan sends a tribute mission to China (approximate date).

Births

 * Sun Hao, Chinese emperor of the Eastern Wu state (d. 284)
 * Sun Liang, Chinese emperor of the Eastern Wu state (d. 260)

Deaths

 * Gu Yong (or Yuantan), Chinese official and politician (b. 168)
 * Hu Zong (or Weize), Chinese official and general (b. 183)
 * Timesitheus, Roman advisor and praetorian prefect (b. 190)
 * Xue Zong (or Jingwen), Chinese official, politician and poet

title: 243


text:
242

Year 242 (CCXLII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Gratus and Lepidus (or, less frequently, year 995 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 242 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Gordian III begins a campaign against King Shapur I, and leads victories at Antioch, Carrhae, Nisibis, and Resaina.
 * Gordian III evacuates the Cimmerian cities in the Bosphorus (Crimea), as the territory is now controlled by the Goths.

Persia

 * Shapur I makes a pre-emptive attack on Antioch to drive out the Romans. Gordian's father-in-law, Timesitheus, leads a Roman army to defeat the Sassanids at Carrhae and Nisibis.
 * King Ardashir I, founder of the Sassanid Empire, dies after a 30-year reign. He is succeeded by his son and co-ruler Shapur I.

Religion

 * Patriarch Titus succeeds Eugenius I as Patriarch of Constantinople (until 272).

Births

 * Saloninus, Roman emperor (d. 260)

Deaths

 * Ammonius Saccas, Egyptian philosopher (b. 175)
 * Ardashir I, king of the Sassanid Empire (b. 180)
 * Cao Hui, Chinese prince of the Cao Wei state
 * Man Chong (or Boning), Chinese politician

title: 242


text:
241

Year 241 (CCXLI) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Gordianus and Pompeianus  by the Romans (or, less frequently, year 994 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 241 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Winter – Emperor Gordian III reaches Antioch and, with his army, prepares an offensive against the Sassanids.
 * Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus becomes praetorian prefect and de facto ruler of the Roman Empire.

Persia

 * Prince Shapur I succeeds his father Ardashir I as ruler of the Sassanid Empire. He begins his expansion in India.
 * Shapur I annexes parts of the Kushan Empire. The ancient city of Bagram (modern Afghanistan) is abandoned.
 * Fall of Hatra: Shapur I captures Hatra, the capital of the Kingdom of Hatra. The city is destroyed by the Sassanids.

Europe

 * November 1 – The Battle of Samhain is fought in Ireland (approximate date).

Religion

 * The Dura-Europos church is converted from a house in Syria (approximate date).

Births

 * Cao Mao, Chinese emperor of the Cao Wei state in the Three Kingdoms period (d. 260)

Deaths

 * Sanatruq II, king of Hatra (Ending of the Kingdom of Hatra)
 * Sun Deng, Chinese prince of the Eastern Wu state (b. 209)
 * Sun Shao, Chinese general of the Eastern Wu state (b. 188)
 * Zhuge Jin, Chinese general of the Eastern Wu state (b. 174)

title: 241


text:
240

Year 240 (CCXL) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Sabinus and Venustus (or, less frequently, year 993 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 240 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * The Roman Empire is threatened on several fronts at the same time. Africa revolts and tribes in northwest Germania, under the name of the Franks, are raiding the Rhine frontier.

Persia

 * April 12 – Prince Shapur I becomes co-ruler of the Sasanian Empire with his father King Ardashir I.
 * Siege of Hatra: The Sasanians besiege the capital of the Kingdom of Hatra ruled by Sanatruq II.

India

 * Maharaja Sri-Gupta becomes ruler of the Gupta Empire (approximate date).

Religion

 * Mani, a young mystic of Ctesiphon, proclaims himself a prophet at the court of Ardashir I. He preaches his doctrine, Manichaeism, throughout the Sassanid Empire.

Births

 * Lucian of Antioch, Syrian theologian and martyr (d. 312)
 * Sporus of Nicaea, Greek mathematician (approximate date)
 * Zenobia, queen of the Palmyrene Empire (d. 274)

Deaths

 * Ammonius Saccas, Neoplatonic philosopher (approximate date)
 * Herodian of Antioch, Roman historian and writer (b. 170)
 * Huang Quan (or Gongheng), Chinese general

title: 240


text:
Inessive case

In grammar, the inessive case (abbreviated ; from inesse "to be in or at") is a locative grammatical case. This case carries the basic meaning of "in": for example, "in the house" is talo·ssa in Finnish, maja·s in Estonian, куд·са (kud·sa) in Moksha, etxea·n in Basque, nam·e in Lithuanian, sāt·ā in Latgalian and ház·ban in Hungarian.

In Finnish the inessive case is typically formed by adding. Estonian adds -s to the genitive stem. In Moksha -са (-sa) is added (in Erzya -со (-so)). In Hungarian, the suffix ban/ben is most commonly used for inessive case, although many others, such as on/en/ön and others are also used, especially with cities.

In the Finnish language, the inessive case is considered the first (in Estonian the second) of the six locative cases, which correspond to locational prepositions in English. The remaining five cases are:

 * Elative case ("out of")
 * Illative case ("into")
 * Allative case ("onto")
 * Adessive case ("on")
 * Ablative case ("from")

Finnish
The Finnish language inessive uses the suffix -ssa or -ssä (depending on vowel harmony). It is usually added to nouns and associated adjectives.

It is used in the following ways:

 * Expressing the static state of being in something.
 * asumme Suomessa = we live in Finland

 * (with time expressions) stating how long something took to be accomplished or done
 * possible English translations include in, within
 * kahdessa vuodessa = within 2 years, during 2 years

 * when two things are closely connected
 * English translations can include on in phrases of this type
 * N.N. puhelimessa = N.N. on the phone
 * sormus on sormessani = the ring is on my finger

 * as an existensial clause with the verb olla (to be), to express possession of objects
 * sanomalehdessä on 68 sivua = the newspaper has 68 pages

 * with the verb käydä, vierailla
 * minä käyn baarissa = I visit the bar

 * There are both singular and plural forms
 * Käyn baareissa = I visit the bars

Dialectal variants
In a large part of the southwestern, south Ostrobothnian, southeastern as well as in some Tavastian dialects, the suffix is simply -s (e.g. maas, talos), similarly to Estonian. This is an example of apocope. When coupled with a possessive suffix, the result can be like in standard Finnish "maassani, talossani" or a shorter "maasani, talosani" depending on the dialect: the former is more common in Tavastian and southeastern dialects while the latter is more common in southwestern dialects.

Most central and northern Ostrobothnian dialects as well as some southwestern and Peräpohjola dialects use a shorter suffix -sa/-sä, e.g. maasa, talosa.

title: Inessive case


text:
Elative case

In grammar, the elative case (abbreviated ; from efferre "to bring or carry out") is a locative grammatical case signifying that something comes from something, somewhere or someone.

Uralic languages
In Finnish, the elative is typically formed by adding, in Estonian by adding to the genitive stem, -õst in Livonian and -sto in Erzya. In Hungarian, the suffix expresses the elative:

 * talosta - "out of the house, from the house" (Finnish talo = "house") taloista - "out of the houses, from the houses" (Finnish talot = "houses")
 * majast - "out of the house, from the house" (Estonian maja = "house")
 * Erzya: kudosto - "out of the house, from the house" (Erzya kudo = "house")
 * házból - "out of the house" (Hungarian ház = "house")

In some dialects of Finnish it is common to drop the final vowel of the elative ending, which then becomes identical to the elative morpheme of Estonian; for example: talost. This pronunciation is common in southern Finland, appearing in the southwestern dialects and in some Tavastian dialects. Most other dialects use the standard form -sta.

Russian
In some rare cases the elative still exists in contemporary Russian, though it was used more widely in 17-18th cc. texts: и́з лесу (out of the forest), кровь и́з носу (blood from the nose), из Яросла́влю (from Yaroslavl).

title: Elative case


text:
239

Year 239 (CCXXXIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Gordianus and Aviola (or, less frequently, year 992 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 239 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Asia

 * Cao Fang succeeds his adoptive father Cao Rui as emperor of the Cao Wei state, in the Three Kingdoms period of China.
 * A Chinese expeditionary force from the Eastern Wu state discovers the island of Taiwan.

Religion

 * Origen publishes the Old Testament in five languages (approximate date).

Deaths

 * January 22 – Cao Rui (or Yuanzhong), Chinese emperor (b. 206)
 * Lu Mao (or Zizhang), Chinese official and politician
 * Pan Jun (or Chengming), Chinese official and general

title: 239