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Chicken soup

Chicken soup is a soup made from chicken, simmered in water, usually with various other ingredients. The classic chicken soup consists of a clear chicken broth, often with pieces of chicken or vegetables; common additions are pasta, noodles, dumplings, or carrots, and grains such as rice and barley. Chicken soup is commonly considered a comfort food.

History
Humans were already boiling food by the time that chicken was domesticated in the neolithic period, so it is likely that chickens were being boiled for soup.

Modern American chicken soup, which typically includes root vegetables such as carrot, onion, leeks and celery, was a staple across Northern Europe and was brought to the United States by immigrants.

Preparation
Variations on the flavor are gained by adding root vegetables such as parsnip, potato, sweet potato and celery root; herbs such as bay leaves, parsley and dill; other vegetables such as zucchini, whole garlic cloves, lettuce, or tomatoes; and black pepper. The soup should be brought slowly to a boil and then simmered in a covered pot on a very low flame for one to three hours, adding water if necessary. Saffron or turmeric are sometimes added as a yellow colorant.

Nutritional value
Chicken soup can be a relatively low fat food: fat can be removed by chilling the soup after cooking and skimming the layer of congealed fat from the top. A study determined that "prolonged cooking of a bone in soup increases the calcium content of the soup when cooked at an acidic, but not at a neutral pH".

Terminology
Strictly speaking, chicken soup, unless qualified, implies that the soup is served as a thin broth, with pieces of meat, and possibly vegetables, and either noodles, rice, barley, or dumplings.

Cream of chicken soup is a thick, creamy, soup made with chicken stock and pieces, combined with milk (or cream) and flour, which might contain vegetable pieces, depending on the recipe.

Several terms are used when referring to chicken soups:

 * Chicken broth is the liquid part of chicken soup. Broth can be served as is, or used as stock, or served as soup with noodles. Broth can be milder than stock, does not need to be boiled as long, and can be made with meatier chicken parts.
 * Chicken bouillon or bouillon de poulet is the French term for chicken broth.
 * Chicken consommé is a more refined chicken broth. It is usually strained to perfect clarity, and reduced to concentrate it.
 * Chicken stew is a more substantial dish with a higher ratio of solids to broth. The broth may also be thickened toward a gravy-like consistency with a roux or by adding flour-based dumplings (matzah balls do not have the same thickening effect).
 * Chicken stock is a liquid in which chicken bones and vegetables have been simmered for the purpose of serving as an ingredient in more complex dishes. Chicken stock is not usually served as is. Stock can be made with less palatable parts of the chicken, such as feet, necks or bones: the higher bone content in these parts contributes more gelatin to the liquid, making it a better base for sauces. Stock can be reboiled and reused as the basis for a new stock. Bouillon cubes or soup base are often used instead of chicken stock prepared from scratch.

Health effects
Chicken soup has long been touted as a form of folk medicine to treat respiratory infections. In 2000, scientists at the University of Nebraska Medical Center in Omaha studied the effect of chicken soup on the inflammatory response in vitro. They found that some components of the chicken soup inhibit neutrophil migration, which may have an anti-inflammatory effect that could hypothetically lead to temporary ease from symptoms of illness. However, since these results have been obtained from purified cells (and directly applied), the diluted soup in vivo effect is debatable. The New York Times reviewed the University of Nebraska study, among others, in 2007 and concluded that "none of the research is conclusive, and it is not known whether the changes measured in the laboratory really have a meaningful effect on people with cold symptoms."

It has also been shown that chicken soup contains the amino acid cysteine, which is very similar to acetylcysteine, which is used by doctors for patients with bronchitis and other respiratory infections.

Chicken soup is also known as "Jewish penicillin", either as ersatz penicillin, or as alternative to penicillin.

China
Many Chinese soups are based on chicken broth. Typical Chinese chicken soup is made from old hens and is seasoned with ginger, scallions, black pepper, soy sauce, rice wine and sesame oil. A more elaborate version can be made from freshly killed spent hen and various herbs such as ginseng, dried goji, and old ginger root. The soup is then boiled for hours.

Colombia
Bogotá, Colombia's capital, is known for a version of chicken soup called ajiaco. Along with chicken, ajiaco typically includes maize, three types of potatoes, avocado, capers, and a herb called guascas, and is served with a dollop of cream.

Sancocho de gallina is another popular dish throughout Colombia and in neighboring countries. This is a broth that includes entire pieces of (often rather tough) soup hen on the bone with large pieces of plantain, potato, cassava and/or other vegetables. A bowl of sancocho is usually an entire meal.

Denmark
The Danish hønsekødssuppe is traditionally cooked using large hens specifically reserved for soup, known as suppehøner ("soup-hens"). Vegetables like celeriac, carrots, onions and leek are usually added and typical flavourings are thyme, laurels and white pepper. The soup may be served with small white dumplings and meatballs. As part of traditional housekeeping, the cooked meat is reserved for other dishes such as høns i asparges ("hens in asparagus") or hønsesalat ("hens-salad").

France
The French serve chicken-based forms of bouillon and consommé. Typical French seasonings for chicken soup includes: bay leaves, fresh thyme, dry white wine and garlic.

Germany
In Germany, chicken soup is made with chicken broth, vegetables, such as carrots, spices and herbs and small noodles. For the broth, a large hen, called a Suppenhuhn (lit.: "soup hen"), may be boiled, and pieces of it—especially from the boiled breast—can later be added to the soup. In southern Germany, homemade chicken soup typically consists of chicken broth, to which spices and semolina dumplings or noodles are added. Another dish made with chicken broth, pieces of chicken, boiled vegetables, and spices is known as Hühnereintopf, meaning "chicken stew". Alternatively, homemade noodles may be added to the chicken broth, without vegetables, and with only pickling spice, salt and pepper added to it.

Ghana
In Ghana, chicken soup, also known as Chicken Light soup is made by cooking the chicken in a blended mixture of tomatoes, onions,  pepper and other spices and sometimes garden eggs and is served primarily with fufu or on its own.

Greece
In Greece, chicken soup is most commonly made in the avgolemono ("egg-lemon") fashion, wherein beaten eggs mixed with lemon are added to a broth slowly so that the mixture heats up without curdling, also adding rice or pasta like kritharáki ("little barley;" orzo), resulting in a thicker texture; it is a traditional remedy for colds, stomach aches, and hangovers.

Hungary
Hungarian chicken soup is a clear soup, a consommé, called Újházi chicken soup. A consommé with entire pieces of chicken, chicken liver and heart, with chunky vegetables and spices like whole black peppercorn, bay leaves, salt and ground black pepper. The vegetables boiled along with the pieces of chicken are usually carrots, celeriac, parsley root and parsnip. Soup vermicelli, semolina dumplings or thin Spätzle noodles or small dumplings are also added to the soup. Even other vegetables may be used, such as green peas, a whole tomato and whole onions boiled along with the soup, mushrooms, asparagus, celery, green pepper, cauliflower, kohlrabi, green beans or parsley, in different combinations.

Indonesia
In Indonesia, chicken soup might appear as sayur sop, vegetable and chicken broth soup that contains chicken pieces, potato, green beans, carrot, celery, and fried shallot. Another chicken soup variant commonly found across the country is soto ayam; a turmeric yellow spicy chicken soup with vegetables and noodle or vermicelli, served with steamed rice, pieces of lontong or ketupat.

Italy
In Italy, chicken soup is often served with pasta, in such dishes as cappelletti in brodo, tortellini in brodo and passatelli. Even when served on its own, the meat and any vegetables used are usually removed from the broth and served as a second dish.

Japan
In Japan, chicken soup is known as torijiru. Typically it starts with dashi, which is made from boiling konbu (kelp) and katsuobushi (dried skipjack tuna flakes), and not by boiling the chicken (whole chicken is not typically available in Japanese supermarkets). After the dashi is prepared, pieces of boneless chicken thigh meat are usually used and combined with vegetables like daikon radish, carrot, burdock, konnyaku, welsh onion, mushrooms, potatoes, and taro root. At the end, different seasonings are added depending on the region of the country or type of soup. It could be a miso-based soup or soy sauce-based. Cooking sake, mirin, salt, and vinegar are also used with the soy sauce or miso. The pork equivalent called butajiru is more popular than the chicken-based soup.

Bone stocks for ramen are also often made with chicken stock, and it is almost invariably used in the less common kotteri variety.

Jewish (Ashkenazi)

Chicken soup is a traditional dish of the European Jewish kitchen. The Russian and Polish Jewish communities use a relatively high proportion of chicken stock for their soup, made mostly from the bones. The soup is prepared with herbs like parsley and fresh dill or thyme, and is often served with knaidlach (matzah balls), kreplach (dumplings), lokshen (flat egg noodles), or mandlen (Shkedei Marak in Israel) (soup "almonds"). A traditional garnish was eyerlekh (little eggs). These unlaid chicken eggs were taken from a hen and boiled in the soup.  Modern health standards make these difficult to obtain now.

Korea

Samgyetang is a Korean chicken soup with insam (Korean ginseng), daechu (dried jujube fruits), garlic, ginger, glutinous rice, and sometimes other medicinal herbs. It is believed to be not only a cure for physical ailments but also a preventer of sickness. Dak baeksuk, a type of chicken broth with garlic, is also popular among Koreans. It is believed by some to help cure minor illnesses such as the common cold. Some types of baeksuk also contains noodles, similar to chicken noodle soup.

Mexico
Caldo de pollo, also known as Consome de Pollo, is a common Latin-American soup made with whole chicken pieces instead of chopped or shredded chicken, and large cuts of vegetables, such as half-slices of potatoes and whole leaves of cabbage. Another variation of chicken soup is caldo tlalpeño which is garnished with chopped avocado, white cheese, and a chipotle chile.

Peru
Aguadito de pollo is a traditional chicken soup in Peruvian cuisine consisting of chicken, cilantro, vegetables and spices.

Caldo de Gallina (lit., "broth of hen"), the Peruvian form of chicken soup, is made with whole pieces of chicken instead of chopped or shredded chicken, along with potatoes, egg noodles, and hard-boiled eggs. Lime wedges and chili or aji pepper paste are added as condiments.

Philippines
Chicken soup in the Philippines is called sopas and has some western influences in it. While there are many variations in the recipe, it usually contains chicken strips in broth, onions, vegetables (mainly carrots, cabbage and celery), and macaroni noodles. It is cooked with evaporated milk to give it richer flavor. Sopas is normally associated with the cold, rainy season in the Philippines, and may thus be regarded as local comfort food.

Another chicken soup is called mami which its style derives from its other Asian neighboring countries, especially East Asia and normally served with sliced chicken, broth, noodles, chopped vegetables. Mami is also associated with the cold, rainy season as well.

Other chicken dishes are considered soups. Tinola has chicken cuts in broth, with ginger, chayote, and chili pepper leaves. Sinampalukang manok is sometimes regarded as a chicken version of sinigang, but here the meat is browned first before being boiled in the water and it uses tamarind leaves. Kadyos, manok, kag ubad from the Western Visayas uses pigeon peas and banana pith.

Poland
The Polish chicken soup is called rosół. It is commonly served with fine noodles, boiled carrots and parsley every Sunday. The broth is served separate from chicken meat.

There are many types of rosół, as:

Rosół Królewski (royal rosół), made of three meats: beef or veal, white poultry (hen, turkey or chicken) and dark poultry as duck, goose (crop only), just a couple of dried king boletes, one single cabbage leaf and a variety of vegetables such as parsley, celery, carrot, and leek. The cooking must take at least six hours of sensitive boiling over a small fire. At the end, softly burnt onion is added to the soup.

Rosół myśliwski (The hunter's rosół) is made of a variety of wild birds as well as pheasant, capercaillie, wood grouse, black grouse, or grey partridge, with a small addition of roe deer meat, a couple of wild mushrooms, and 2–3 juniper fruits.

Portugal and Brazil
Chicken soup is known as canja, a chicken broth prepared with rice or pasta and shredded chicken meat. It is believed to help a person overcome colds and digestive problems, among other mild forms of sickness.

Romania and Moldova
In most regions of Romania, chicken soup known as supă de pui consists of a clear or dense sour soup with strained chicken and vegetable broth, and either noodles (tăieței) or dumplings (găluște) are added. Different versions use pieces of chicken and pieces of boiled vegetables (like onion, carrot, parsnip, celery, zucchini, peas, beans, leaves and root of parsley or peppers) and are seasoned usually with sour cream (smântână), tomato juice, lemon juice, or borș.

Taiwan
In Taiwan-style chicken soup, dried jujube fruits, dried shiitake, and other various herbs are also sometimes added. While it may be possible to use regular ginseng in the recipe, a special type of ginseng called San qi is commonly used. This is grown almost exclusively in Wenshan County, Yunnan Province. The roots are powdered for ease of use, although it may also be possible to use the flowerheads.

Russia and Ukraine
East Slavs traditionally prefer an often simple chicken and vegetable bouillon with added noodles or rice, and a pinch of fresh herbs. Another type of chicken soup includes chicken, noodles, carrot, potato and onion. Some cooks add chopped boiled egg and even sour cream to their variations of the soup.

United Kingdom
Traditionally, chicken soup (or broth) in Britain is a clear and watery soup with chunky vegetables (such as carrot, celery and onion), chicken, salt and pepper. However, a thick, creamy variety called cream of chicken soup, which may not contain any vegetable pieces (depending on the recipe), is more popular today. A distinct version from Scotland that has become popular throughout the UK is cock-a-leekie soup, a clear, thin broth of shredded chicken and leeks.

United States and Canada
In the United States and Canada, chicken soup often has noodles or rice in it, thus giving it its common name of "chicken noodle soup". The term may have been coined in a commercial for the Campbell Soup Company in the 1930s. The original 21 varieties of Campbell's condensed soup featured a "chicken soup with noodles", but when it was advertised on the Amos 'n' Andy radio show in the 1930s by a slip of the tongue the soup was referred to as "chicken noodle soup". Traditionally, American chicken soup was prepared using old hens too tough and stringy to be roasted or cooked for a short time. In modern times, these fowl are difficult to come by, and broiler chickens (young chickens suitable for roasting or broiling) are often used to make soup.

Canned chicken soup
Often (but not always) sold as a condensed soup, canned chicken soup such as Campbell's Chicken Noodle Soup, is notable for its high sodium content: 890 mg per $1/2$ cup serving. This gives a $1 1/2$ cup bowl of soup about 2,500 mg of sodium, a full day's allowance in the case of this mainstream brand. Other condensed chicken soups produced by Campbell's, such as Chicken with Rice or Chicken & Stars Soup, have similar amounts, as do generic versions of the product.

Canned chicken soup with much less sodium than the traditional formulation is available, including many varieties produced by Campbell's, some with as little as 100 mg of sodium. Campbell's claims production of a chicken noodle soup that will find broad consumer acceptance—in short, that will sell—is very difficult, so it has to balance healthfulness with sodium content.

Usually, the main ingredients of this canned soup are:
 * Chicken Broth
 * Chicken
 * Noodles
 * Carrots
 * Salt
 * And others such as celery, lettuce, or mushrooms depending on the brand

In media

 * There is a series of motivational therapy books entitled Chicken Soup for the Soul.
 * Chicken Soup was the title of a short-lived 1989 ABC sitcom starring Jackie Mason.
 * "Chicken Noodle Soup" featuring Young B. was made into a popular hip-hop song by DJ Webstar.
 * Chicken Soup with Barley is a 1956 play by British playwright Arnold Wesker. It explores the challenges faced by a family of communist Jewish immigrants in the UK from 1936 to 1956.
 * Chicken Soup with Rice is a poem by author and illustrator Maurice Sendak. It was popularized in 1975 by a cartoon musical on TV titled Really Rosie. Carole King voiced the title character. She also wrote the music and sang all the songs.
 * Andy Warhol's work Campbell's Soup Cans depicts five varieties of Campbell's soups: chicken noodle, chicken gumbo, cream of chicken, chicken with rice, and chicken vegetable.
 * South Korean rapper J-Hope, from the K-pop group BTS, released a solo single titled "Chicken Noodle Soup" in 2019, featuring Becky G.
 * Australian Jewish punk rock band YIDcore released an EP in 2002 called The Great Chicken Soup Caper. The band’s mascot is a rubber chicken.

title: Chicken soup


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EPC

EPC may refer to:

Government and politics

 * Eastern Provincial Council, in Sri Lanka
 * European Policy Centre, a Belgian think tank
 * Proposed European Political Community (1952), intended to be a directly-elected body
 * European Political Community, from 2022, an intergovernmental forum
 * European Political Cooperation, 1970–1993, co-ordination of foreign policy

Law

 * European Patent Convention

Science and technology

 * Asus Eee PC, netbook computers
 * Early Prostate Cancer programme
 * Electronic Product Code
 * Endothelial progenitor cell
 * Energy Performance Certificate
 * × Epicattleya, an orchid genus
 * Evolved Packet Core, part of the System Architecture Evolution, in telecommunications
 * Experimental Psychology Conference, run annually in Australia or New Zealand
 * Extra-pair copulation

Other uses

 * EPC (EP), by Battles
 * Edgewell Personal Care, a US company
 * Electronic Poetry Center
 * Engineering, procurement, and construction contract
 * EPC Group, a German engineering and construction company
 * EPC Groupe, a French explosives company
 * European Paralympic Committee
 * European Payments Council, a banking organization
 * Evangelical Presbyterian Church (disambiguation)
 * Event-driven process chain, in process modeling
 * Export Promotion Council, a Kenyan trade group
 * Class designation for Reading electric multiple units
 * Execution Phase Contracts, see Front-end engineering

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: EPC


text:
User:SJK

= Articles to improve = I have this odd interest in old IBM mainframe stuff. I try to improve articles with references (mostly Computerworld, just because it is so easily accessible via Google Books – I wish other old magazines were as easy to access). These are some articles I plan to work on:
 * IBM Power (software)
 * Grasp (software)
 * The Spooler
 * Edos – confused about relation between "Edos/VSE" and "NIDOS/VSE", is NIDOS just Edos renamed by Nixdorf, or is the relationship between them something else? If Nidos is just a new name for Edos, Computerworld has some articles talking about Edos. This page contains some Danish text which mentions both Edos and NIDOS, I am not sure what (if anything) it says about their relation–I don't read Danish, and the results of Google Translate aren't very good–and the website looks suspicious (it looks like it has real Danish periodical articles on it, but without sources and almost surely the wrong dates too.)
 * Westi
 * DUCS (software)
 * Valour (software)
 * Virtue (software)
 * WDU (software)

Not explicitly mainframe related:
 * ML/I needs refs, I can find some

title: User:SJK


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Talk:Wade–Giles

Origins
This page lacks both details and links about the previous romanization systems: the apostrophy would make much more sense by considering the attempts of romanization started with the very first contacts, including people like the Italian-origin, Spanish-ruled, Latin-speaking Jesuit Matteo Ricci and friends. Comparing this to English by default sounds like a dangerous contemporary English-only culture biais.

Considering comtemporary Mandarin as the default language is also certainly true went looking at Wade's and Giles' goal, but it erases the fact that they were "standing on the shoulders" -- not of giants, but people who talked to and translated and learned from XVIIth century Chinese speakers.

A better "encyclopedic" approach might want to consider: Having a systematic "History led us there; because of that, this changed." approach would make "Confucius", "Tao" and "Qi" (to summarize to the three most important words in Chinese) much more understandable. 84.5.34.215 00:55, 1 November 2005 (UTC), links by Hongthay (talk) 21:14, 11 August 2008 (UTC)
 * a short description, with example and a rapid time frame;
 * a full history of the system, starting with the first ever, and considering the main steps and debates;
 * an emphasis on Wade and Giles contribution, that is what thy changed to the system, what questions they faced, what were both side transformations at that time;
 * a conclusion where the reproaches to Wade, Giles and they system would have they full meaning -- as these would be understandable with a historical and linguistic approach;
 * a full list of transcription, through a table, to make things clear: it is a coding for the Westerners issue (difficult because no language is stable) but not an actual Chinese language question (though with the importance of the Latin alphabet, it became more than that).

Poor organization
This article should strive to describe first the essential principles behind the system. Instead you get a mixture of basic facts and criticism, as if the editors are saying, "Don't bother with reading this article about an obsolete system".

Example: Under history you get "...a general sense that the system is non-intuitive for non-specialists and not useful for teaching Chinese pronunciation". The same section ends with "The Hanyu Pinyin system is the official and most widely used system in the People's Republic of China", which does not help the reader understand Wade-Giles. The following section begins with "A common complaint about the Wade-Giles system...."

218.162.113.60 04:17, 14 September 2005 (UTC)

 * I agree with your criticism, but I will put it a different way: this article should be re-written from the point of view of an English speaking person who does not speak any dialect of chinese. The article should attempt as best it can to show some words and how to pronounce them and how they get transliterated. Right now the article is written for experts debating fine points and is completely useless to a person trying to learn some understandable lessons. Also, remove the chinese nationalism.

Cat fight

 * See also Use_pinyin_not_Wade-Giles for some very old discussion threads in the early days of wikipedia.

The following was removed and replaced with the lamest excuse.
 * The following is a strange blend of information, misinformation, and opinion. That's why I removed it. --BV

The Wade-Giles transliteration system blends /b/ with /p/, /d/ with /t/, /g/ with /k/.

In the native Bopomofo notation, Bo and Po are two distinct sounds, in fact, they are the FIRST two sounds of the phonetic system. Right after Bo Po Mo Fo are De Te Na La, obviously D and T are distinct as the 5th and 6th of the pronounciation system. Then followed by Ge Ke He, again G and K sounds are distinct as the 9th and 10th sounds.

Wade and Giles specifically dropped the FIRST sounds out of the FIRST three groups of the phonetic symbols, namely Bo, De and Ge. These sounds were significant enough to be placed first in the native phonetic system. Yet they were omitted in the Mandarin to western transliteration system. It is hard to explain their intention. Some theorized that they simply pulled a cruel practical joke on the Chinese language. What better way to make fun of a language than to remove the most important sounds? It is like removing ABC from the English alphabet.

I totally don't buy the excuse that the Mandarin BoPoMoFo were replaced with some P'oPoMoFo notation because some aspired and unaspired B and P sounds. To me, it just sound like the linguists were trying to make an excuse for Wade and Giles. It would be the biggest scandal if the joke was not covered up with some lame excuses. Given pinyin, everyone in the world now knows that B sounds closer to P' in representing the Bo sound in Mandarin regardless of the voicing and aspire argument.
 * I guess that's because you don't know what you're talking about. Perhaps you should learn something about phonetics? --BV

Despite the archane explanation that loaded with lingust jargons, P'o is no Bo, T'e is no De, K'e is no Ge to anyone who speaks native Mandarin.

 * Big fat duh. That's because those are the pinyin transliterations, which are more useful and accurate for non-linguists unfamiliar with the use of the apostrophe as an aspiration marker, and are tought to most people who speak native Mandarin, as well as most people who learn it as a second language. That's why Wade-Giles is being driven into well-deserved obscurity. --Brion VIBBER, Monday, April 1, 2002

I strongly believed the Wade-Giles system was intended as a joke or an insult, but no-one knew enough of both languages to get the joke at the time. Then it was accepted as a de facto standard for over hundred of years because there was no better alternative. Of course when Wade and Giles got their fame, they wouldn't be stupid enough to ruin their own names by explaining the cruel practical joke. It is a sad thing that much of the Western knowledge of China was recorded based on such a malice. Despite worldwide recognition of this transliteration system, it is piece of junk in my opinion.

Remember this was done at a time when the westerners called Chinese people Ching Chong and other funny names.

Yes, I admit that I am strongly opinionated and I pay absolutely no respect to this Wade-Giles thing because I actually considered it an insult to all the Chinese people. Let's dig these two guys out of their grave and use pinyin! -- User:Kowloonese

Well said. You know that there's not an ounce of decency left in this world when "何" is regarded to as "ho". :D -Taoster

 * And I believe everybody also knows that "hs" sounds much more like the ㄒ sound (as in 西) than, of all things, "x"! Of course one had to understand the least bit about languages and phonetics to get Wade-Giles. If you knew French (I know I expect too much, but there are more Western languages than English...), anyways, if you knew French you would see that pinyin B is almost exactly the soft unaspirated P of, for example, "Paris".

 * And none of my (non Chinese) friends ever spoke 學期 as "ksue-kwi" when I gave them a Wade-Giles text.--Laca 15:11, 28 May 2004 (UTC)

 * All right, Traditional-Chinese guy, in Wade-Giles it's actually "hsyue2-chi1" (xué qī). And yes Taoster, it is a complete insult to Chinese. I wonder what they were thinking... (writing XinJiang as SinKiang, Beijing as Peiching, Guanzhou as Canton, etc., etc...) Note: And I'm not ethnic-Chinese at all...--Metawe (talk) 02:59, 6 February 2008 (UTC)

propose adding to 8 Influences
the influences section seems far too empty and doesnt perform the funtion the title implies... and yes i know the history tries to do this, but then again its not history so ppl need to change the history into sth on how it came to be popular among taiwan and outsiders, esp who were these two kids and where they got their jargon... but i dont rite well so i'd like it if this gets some feedback and/or gets added into the article....

 * This system has brought some infamous expressions like "Yangtze" and "Nanking" into common use among non-Chinese and some spellings for the last names of early Chinese emmigrants, but has fallen into mostly oblivion for good reason. It is generally recognized that the system makes no sense to non-linguistic doctorates and the very people who use Chinese get confused by this system that some (which is at least most people I know) have called an insult to both the European and Chinese languages.

and unlike previously stated in the article, wade isnt used widely in taiwan, its just that they made up sth more similar to wades than pinyin in defiance to the fact that they lost to the communists and poor ppl

1698 2005 October 31 21:21 (PST)

Empty Rime?
I can't find any explanation (other than the commercial clones of this very page) on the internet for "empty rime". Maybe it comes under some other name, but that would not be "empty rhyme" either. Put a page in Wikipedia, and link to it from the phrase on the Wade-Giles page, please. --Sobolewski 02:11, 29 April 2006 (UTC)

Wrong Phonetics
This wade-giles thing is just wrong phonetics. For example, the /zh/ sound in Pinyin should be pronounced /dʒ/ not /ch/. Also the /j/ sound should be pronounced /z/ not /dʒ/. The stupidity of the English inventor is just beyond people's immagination.
 * Ermm..... no.  in pinyin is unvoiced and unaspirated, while  is unvoiced and aspirated. Neither of them corresponds to the voiced /dʒ/ sound that begins in English. In IPA, /j/ represents the first phoneme of in English, not . Also, there is no /z/ sound in standard Putonghua.  in Mandarin is a voiceless unaspirated alveolo-palatal affricate, while /z/ in English is a voiced alveolar fricative. The two sound quite different actually. -- ran (talk) 19:56, 28 June 2006 (UTC)
 * You are wrong in believing that voiced consonants are always voiced in English! So stop attacking the OP! --2.245.118.79 (talk) 20:47, 4 September 2016 (UTC)

I corrected the IPA equivalent you submitted for the English "J" here. WikiPro1981X (talk) 13:04, 3 October 2009 (UTC)

Need help on WG to pinyin mapping
I posted a question on Talk:Tien_Gow for over a year regarding some Chinese words. It was never answered. Can someone who knows Wade-Giles offer some help? Kowloonese 21:11, 3 August 2006 (UTC)
 * I can help you--Metawe (talk) 03:03, 6 February 2008 (UTC)

Transliteration corrected to transcription
Although frequently improperly called "transliteration", Wade-Giles' system is a transcription of Chinese, as there can be no transliteration of Chinese script into any phonetic script, like the Latin (or English) alphabet. Any system of romanization of Chinese renders the sounds (pronunciation) and not the characters (written form).

NoychoH 09:09, 3 August 2007 (UTC)

Pre-Giles Wade system
Anyone have reference for the Wade system before Giles? I am trying to merge Cyrillization of Chinese from Wade-Giles with Cyrillization of Chinese from pinyin, but about half of the notations on Wade-Giles page appears to be garbage, so I speculate its the Wade system before Giles. --Voidvector (talk) 22:51, 28 September 2008 (UTC)

"fu"
As of now, there's no way to determine from the charts on this page how "fu" should be pronounced (as in "Kung-fu" or "K'ung-fu-tzu"). I assume that "u" is pronounced like "oo" in the English word "zoo." But, I'd rather not assume. zadignose (talk) 02:29, 29 September 2008 (UTC)

yes, it is.--刻意(Kèyì) 20:51, 18 April 2010 (UTC)

"hs-"
An explanation of the 'hs-' in the Wade-Giles system appears to be absent, along with its equivalence in pinyin (which I believe is 'x-'). It would be useful if this were to be added to the appropriate equivalence table.

Nanjing
"Nanjing" links to an article on that city, and nothing on the "nanjing" disambiguation page seems relevant to the romanization of Chinese words. Unfree (talk) 22:48, 31 October 2009 (UTC)

Tonality in Wade-Giles
I know that Wade-Giles can express tonality through the use of numeric suffixes; which I see done in Wikipedia, sometimes -- either as regular or as superscript. Sometimes no tone is indicated: I understand that the elimination of tone marks was often carried out by English-language publishers, due to a perception that this would better be received by the reading public. I think it would be useful to include a discussion of tone in Wade-Giles, and whether it is optional, obligatory, and so on. Dcattell (talk) 20:29, 2 February 2010 (UTC)
 * I've looked at the 1912 edition of Giles Dictionary and I can tell you that he doesn't use the tone marks as part of his transcription system. The only place I have seen them used off Wikipedia is in Giles' preface. IMO, they should be removed as it is misleading to claim they are part of the Wade-Giles system. Who uses a 1912 dictionary nowadays? Cambridge History of China or Joseph Needham's Science and Civilization would be more relevant. FineStructure137 (talk) 10:44, 6 November 2018 (UTC)
 * Giles provides the tones in numerical terms (1-4) at the top right of each character under each Romanisation entry in both the 1892 and 1912 editions of his dictionary, so tonality is very much a part of the system. sirlanz 10:53, 6 November 2018 (UTC)
 * That's hardly the same as what is being done on Wikipedia. FineStructure137 (talk) 11:15, 6 November 2018 (UTC)

 * In table II, Giles gives a list of family names in the exact same format that Wikipedia uses.

 * The reason we use Giles's dictionary as a source is that it's the authoritative source for the Wade-Giles system, as our article on the dictionary points out. Scriptions (talk) 01:45, 7 November 2018 (UTC)
 * Why would you get spellings from a supplementary table as opposed to the dictionary itself? Table II itself is not exactly a font of consistency, you know. The title of the source material is given T'u shu chi ch'ing, i.e. without tone marks. FineStructure137 (talk) 05:36, 7 November 2018 (UTC)

 * Because the dictionary itself doesn't include any spellings, just characters with numbers in combination with syllables unmarked for tone. While the title of the source material is given without tone marks, all the surnames are given with superscript numbers. All systems, even Hànyǔ Pīnyīn, can be written without tone marks, so the presence of Wade-Giles without tone marks in Giles's dictionary is no more concerning than the presence of Hànyǔ Pīnyīn without tone marks in official PRC sources. A Chinese-English Dictionary shows that Wade-Giles may be used with tone marks, and Wikipedia, when it uses transcriptions to convey Standard Mandarin pronunciations (in infoboxes or parentheses), always uses tone marks with those transcription systems that have them, since otherwise it would be impossible to use those systems to convey pronunciations. Scriptions (talk) 06:57, 7 November 2018 (UTC)
 * "The dictionary itself doesn't include any spellings"!!! It certainly has spellings, just not the ones you want it to have. The entry titles are most directly relevant source since they are how the reader looks up information. I consulted Encyclopedia of China (1999) by Dorothy Perkins. She has a substantial entry on Wade-Giles, including a full page of examples. But there are no examples of tone marks or even a mention of them. FineStructure137 (talk) 10:53, 7 November 2018 (UTC)

 * Actually, the dictionary itself doesn't include a single spelling of a character. To get the pronunciation of a character (e.g. 客), you have to combine the number next to it (in this case, ⁴) with the heading of the section it's in (in this case, kʻo). Only then are you able to transcribe the character's pronunciation (in this case, kʻo⁴).

 * Since we have access to the authoritative source on the subject, what less authoritative sources say is irrelevant. A Chinese-English Dictionary shows that Giles himself wrote Wade-Giles with tone marks, and if it's OK for Giles himself to do it, then obviously it's OK for Wikipedia to do it as well. Scriptions (talk) 08:12, 8 November 2018 (UTC)

Old and New
The article refers in several places to 'old' and 'new' versions of Wade-Giles. This needs to be specific. What reform is being referred to, when was it? Tibetologist (talk) 08:34, 12 May 2010 (UTC)

"ŭ"
The u-breve "ŭ" appears in the Wade–Giles system, and appears in the table (tzŭ, tz'ŭ, szŭ), but isn't mentioned/explained/illustrated in the article. For a moment I thought, oh, these are part of the older WG system, and that use of û is just typographical stand-ins for the harder-to-get ŭ,... But the earlier text explains that "The older version writes tsû, ts'û, and ssû", and those aren't the things in the table.

It looks like ŭ is part of the newer system, but... is left off in almost every case, since it is both redundant and rare to find in a typecase? I mean, looking across the symbols in the Comparison Chart, ŭ is the only letter not found in a typecase that you could use for all of English and French (and the only one not in Latin-1, or Code page 437, or MacRoman). And: dropping it doesn't clash with some other syllable's spelling.

BUT! Goggling seems to show that when people put any accent on the u in "Lao Tzu", the typographically baroque "Lao Tzŭ" is common, and the "Lao Tzû" is uncommon! ("Lao Tsŭ" and "Lao Tsû" are vanishingly rare.)

So: ŭ still appears only in the table, and its role in Old WG vs New WG vs who-knows-what isn't explained. -- Sean M. Burke (talk) 14:17, 25 February 2011 (UTC)

British Imperialist Arrogance
It is infuriating how 2 British diplomats who clearly had no idea about any Chinese spoken languages appointed themselves to romanize Chinese words. So Wade created his unique one-of-a-kind system and began to teach it at "Cambridge University"? Then Giles was supposed to have "refined" this nothing-like-it system? He clearly failed to correct any of Wade's mistakes. And they were deemed the Chinese experts to train Chinese specialists? Talking about blind leading the blind! No wonder the gap of East and West remained wide and few words westerns said are understood by the Chinese. This ridiculous system should be assigned to the trash heap where it belongs so we can put the British imperialistic arrogance behind us and move on with the correct pin-ying system which transcribes the official Chinese unified language.

Why didn't Wade or Giles use normal English/International alphabets? Why should B and D not be included in their system? What happened to G? What's with all their use of CH that replaced multiple Chinese sounds which do not resemble anything close to the actual sound of ch? Were Wade and Giles illiterate in the English language also? What in the world is "tofu" and "tao" and "tai-chi"? There is no Taoism in China and no book named Tao Te Ching anymore than there is Klustenanity and Puple in the West. According to their system, London should be known as Lon'ton and England be known as Inkland? Americans, unfortunately, looked to Mother England for everything, right or wrong. No wonder the Dolittle Raiders in WWII were not able to find Chuchou after they bombed Tokyo in 1942. There is no such place as Chuchou in China.

Wade and Giles should go down history as two of the Stupidest People and two of the most Irresponsibly Arrogant People ever lived.

And who the hell translated the great Long River of China to Yangtze River? Yangtze River is a very small tributory river that flow into the Long River near the town of Yangzhou. Should the great Mississippi be now known as the Yatzu river because there is a small stream near the delta by that name? Stupid is as stupid does. The old imperialists didn't know any better because they thought God was English. But they were clearly wrong. There is no reason why people now should remain ignorant and refuse to acknowledge their mistakes. VimalaNowlis (talk) 06:03, 19 October 2011 (UTC)
 * Beer. —Sburke (talk) 10:17, 4 February 2013 (UTC)
 * Quite funny to see this coming from someone who cannot spell "Pinyin". The sounds spelt by Pinyin "b, d, g" are not voiced! Mandarin Chinese contrasts aspiration vs. lack thereof (like English pin vs spin), not voicing vs. lack thereof (like English pin vs bin), making the Wade-Giles apostrophe perfectly sensible. Double sharp (talk) 09:32, 20 July 2021 (UTC)

Clarification Needed
The shift from Wade-Giles to Pinyin, seems to have been a long, slow process in the US, and moreso in the UK, and one fraught with mystery. Not being a linguist, I was made aware of the change more or less by osmosis, having noticed at some point that a city I'd never heard of -- "Bay Jing" (Beijing)-- had become the new capital of China at some unspecified point, and the old capital -- "Pee King" (Peking) -- seemed to have vanished from the map, except in BBC broadcasts. In due course, a friend who spent many years living in China, and who actually spoke the language, made me aware if the various trransliteration systems, and explained -- somewhat -- the relatively recent (in the west) shift to Pinyin.

I say "somewhat," because the explanation left me wondering what the actual intent of a "transliteration" system was supposed to be, exactly. I had been taught that transliteration was a means of rendering the spoken sounds of a language into the written alphabet of another language, such that native speakers of the second language would have a basis for reasonably approximating the pronunciation of words in the first language.

As far as English is concerned, Wade-Giles seemed to accomplish this task adequately, if imperfectly, as did a nujmber of other systems. Pinyin, on the other hand, seems to confuse the issue more than it helps.

For example, I came to this article in hopes of understanding, among other things, the transformation of "Dung Chow Ping" into "Deng Xiaoping". Frankly, the article was no help in this regard. I don't even see the diagraph "xi" or "xia" in the chart. And I'm frankly at a loss as to supposed pronunciation.

"Dung Chow Ping" I would have pronounced as written: dung (rhymes with hung), chow (rhymes with wow), ping (rhymes with ring).

The Pinyin transliteration is problematic in English, as there are few, if any words that rhyme with "eng", "X" is commonly pronounced as "Z", or else as the name of the letter -- "eks", and the only sense I can make of "iao" is in the Victorian spelling for the sound a cat makes: "miaow" now more commonly rendered as "meow". This leaves me with either "Deng Eks-ee-ow-ping" or "Deng Z-eye-ee-ow-ping", neither of which exactly falls trippingly off the tongue. Moreover, this ambiguity would seem to be something that transliteration is supposed to prevent, and not foster.

I concede that possibly none of these efforts come close to an authentic Chinese pronunciation, but since the point is to render the words in English, shouldn't the system chosen use those letter combinations most likely to be at least approximately properly pronounced by a native English speaker, than combinations which make no immediate sense to said English speaker? If Deng's name is closer in pronunciation to "Chow Ping" than to "Eks eye ee ow ping", then shouldn't it be written as "Chow Ping" for English speakers?

Or, are we to assume that "X" represents the Greek "chi"? This might make more sense, but certainly is not what the average English speaker is going to think of when he encounters an "X".

If the real purpose of transliteration is to obfuscate, you could just have left the words in the original Chinese pictographs.

My point being, I think this problem needs to be addressed in the article, even if only by way of a mention with a link to a more comprehensive explanation elsewhere.

Contradiction
The lede reads: "It developed from a system produced by Thomas Wade during the mid-19th century, and was given completed form with Herbert Giles's Chinese–English Dictionary of 1892."

Under 'History' a couple of paragraphs later, we learn: "Wade published the first Chinese textbook in English in 1867. The system was refined in 1912 by Herbert Allen Giles, a British diplomat in China and his son, Lionel Giles, a curator at the British Museum."

Which is it? 84.92.8.221 (talk) 13:11, 14 November 2013 (UTC)

History section seems weak
I'll confess up front that I am neither a speaker nor a student of Chinese in any of its dialects. This makes me a non-expert, yet probably representative of the audience this article should be written for.

Obviously Wade-Giles transliteration has largely been replaced by Pinyin, yet W-G lingers on in historical and even contemporary writing, especially for primarily English-speaking audiences. Presumably Wade-Giles originally replaced some previous transliteration system(s). Even if W-G has been deprecated, it was in vogue for a century more or less. Whatever deficiencies may be evident in hindsight, W-G was historically important.

The History section needs to more clearly explain transitions into and out of W-G. It is glaringly weak on the transition to Pinyin. Apparently there has been some kind of religious war/paradigm shift. Zeal of proselytizers or traditionalists notwithstanding, it should be possible to describe these transitions in clear, neutral, encyclopedic language. I would like to know approximately when the PRC really started pushing Pinyin and the time period in which the West (e.g. New York Times, National Geographic magazine, Times of London etc.) switched over. The existing section does a better job conveying that the ROC dragged its feet but eventually switched to Pinyin too. LADave (talk) 17:13, 17 January 2014 (UTC)

 * Maybe the History section would be a good place to address three widespread confusions. Right on this talk page several comments assume the once familiar spelling "Peking" is correct Wade Giles, and that Wade Giles would have us say "pea-king."  They also assume every Chinese phoneme exists in English -- notably the pinyin x must have some conventional English spelling.  (One phrasebook suggests the middle sound in "fresh cheese." I am not kidding.)  These errors are corrected on the page now if you read carefully but the confusions remain common.  Maybe they should be addressed. Colin McLarty (talk) 00:22, 14 August 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Wade–Giles. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20100714072949/http://www.cybertranslator.idv.tw:80/pinyin/bopomofo.htm to http://www.cybertranslator.idv.tw/pinyin/bopomofo.htm

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 15:40, 27 February 2016 (UTC)

ʻ or ` ???
When you look up Wade-Giles on ctext.org, they use the grave accent instead of the left apostrophe, such that you get this:

t`ao2

http://ctext.org/dictionary.pl?if=en&reading=t%60ao2&method=wadegiles

I presume you all would say it should be written as tʻao2.

Who is right??? Geographyinitiative (talk) 23:21, 27 December 2017 (UTC)
 * Neither: spiritus asper - sirlanz 00:33, 28 December 2017 (UTC)
 * Clarification: Thomas Wade used the spiritus asper (vertically reflected apostrophe)  ῾  (see e.g. (1867) Yü-yen tzu-erh chi) (as did Percy, Boym, Gouvea, Bridgman and Wells Williams) but Giles used the left apostrophe  ‘  (opening quotation mark) (as did Premare, Chalmers, Lobscheid & Eitel), so if we're talking Wade-Giles, left/opening apostrophe, as in the article now, is correct.  Another group (Hager, Goncalves, Remusat, Medhurst, Kidd, Legge and Gutzlaff) used the plain old apostrophe (  ’  ).  sirlanz 04:26, 28 December 2017 (UTC)

 * I'm trying to make the punctuation consistent across articles that use Wade-Giles. This article is actually currently using, though I could change it to  which is what the above comments say the article is using or should use. However, MOS:STRAIGHT says that Wikipedia's house style uses straight quote marks where other publications might use curved. MOS:' says the same for curved apostrophes, but not for non-English letters that happen to resemble apostrophes. So should I actually be changing everything to  ? -- Beland (talk) 21:26, 22 July 2019 (UTC)
 * (U+02BB is used to encode the ʻOkina and similar characters, which I assume this is not supposed to be?) -- Beland (talk) 21:30, 22 July 2019 (UTC)
 * Well, given the variation I'm going to assume these are simply visual variants of the apostrophe, and go with ASCII following MOS:STRAIGHT. Please ping me if you have an objection; if no one says anything I'll start making other articles consistent with this practice. -- Beland (talk) 04:55, 14 August 2019 (UTC)
 * They are not visual variants; from the point of view of someone knowing Ancient Greek point of view it makes sense to think of this as a spiritus asper, which is distinct from an apostrophe. Your proposed mass change would do some harm, and there is no reason to believe MOS:STRAIGHT should apply. —Kusma (t·c) 15:07, 14 August 2019 (UTC)
 * Following discussion on Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_China, I'm converting these characters to asper. I've converted this article; hope that looks good, and feel free to ping me if it doesn't. Your note on the typographical history is extremely helpful. I added a vague summary of what you wrote to the article itself; if you happen to have particular publications in mind, full names of authors and citations would finish the job there.  Thanks all.  -- Beland (talk) 04:48, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
 * Thank you for an extremely generous comment. You're amazing.  I am adding this to my wikiwork and hope one day soon to get to it.  I really ought.  I have almost all the works in my library so no excuse to hide behind but time. sirlanz 09:18, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

Greetings! Regarding this revert: If I'm understanding correctly, according to and Rough breathing, Wade-Giles might use, not ? Template:Asper has been changed from to, which it sounds like neither is correct? Are there any external sources to point to that would confirm which Unicode character is considered standard for Wade-Giles? I'm just trying to find a named alternative to the numerical HTML entity, which editors have a lot of trouble understanding. If Wade-Giles needs its own template, that's fine; I just need to know which character to put in it. -- Beland (talk) 07:20, 27 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Given this seems to be somewhat disputed and the involved editors haven't come here to reach a consensus, I'm going to untangle Wade-Giles from Greek and whatnot. I've created wg-apos and am changing articles over to use that for Wade-Giles transliteration. I've started it off with U+02BB and noted that as a possibility on rough breathing. If you think this is the wrong character, feel free to change the template or discuss with other editors on the template talk page. -- Beland (talk) 19:49, 28 May 2022 (UTC)

RFC on Wade-Giles tone marks
Should tone marks be used in Wade-Giles transliterations? Is it Wei1 Chai2 Shih4 Pʻin1-yin1 or Wei Chai Shih Pʻin-yin?

TLDR: You’d be hard pressed to find anyone other than Wikipedia who transliterates Chinese with Wade-Giles tone marks. I searched for Mao² Tsê²-tung¹ on Gbooks and went away empty handed.

Until the early 1980s, Wade-Giles was that standard way to transliterate Chinese characters. It was popularized by A Chinese-English Dictionary (1912) by Herbert Giles. The entry titles in Giles’ dictionary are all-caps and without tone marks: “HUANG.” The idea that the system includes tones marks does not come from the dictionary itself, but rather from usage by Giles in the preface and supplementary tables of his dictionary.

The name "Wade-Giles system" is intended to suggest "Wade's system as implemented in Giles dictionary." But in fact the system is usually understood to encompass implementations by Mathew's Dictionary (1943) and others. It is not the property of Herbert Giles. Encyclopedia Britannica`s article on the system includes an extensive list of examples, none of them with tone marks. The multivolume reference work Cambridge History of China is one of the few places where the contemporary reader might encounter Wade-Giles in the wild, so to speak. The CHC implementation does not include tone marks. FineStructure137 (talk) 14:01, 14 November 2018 (UTC)

 * In running text, tone marks are most often not used. For instance, people most often write ‘Nanjing’, not ‘Nánjīng’. Wikipedia follows this practice of leaving out tone marks in running text, writing ‘Beijing’ and ‘I Ching’, not ‘Běijīng’ and ‘I⁴ Ching¹’. So Wikipedia already follows the same practice as the Cambridge History of China. The only place Wikipedia does use tone marks is in infoboxes and parentheses, where the point is to communicate pronunciations, which is impossible without tone marks. Just like the spelling ‘Xiamen’ being more common than ‘Xiàmén’ doesn't mean we should refrain from writing ‘Xiàmén’ in a linguistics infobox, so the spelling ‘I Ching’ being more common than ‘I⁴ Ching¹’ doesn't mean we should refrain from writing ‘I⁴ Ching¹’ in a linguistics infobox. By your logic, we would have to remove all the tone marks from all the Hànyǔ Pīnyīn transcriptions in all the linguistics infoboxes. When the point is to communicate a pronunciation, people write Hànyǔ Pīnyīn and Wade-Giles with tone marks. When that's not the point, they most often don't, a practice which is followed by Wikipedia and the Cambridge History of China alike. You would have a case if A Chinese-English Dictionary, which is ‘the authoritative source for the Wade-Giles system of Romanization’, didn't contain Wade-Giles with tone marks, but it does, as pointed out in the discussion above. You're conflating the use of Wade-Giles in running text, where Wikipedia already follows your desired practice, with the use of Wade-Giles to convey pronunciations, which would not be possible without tone marks. Scriptions (talk) 21:42, 14 November 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Wade–Giles


text:
Image compression

Image compression is a type of data compression applied to digital images, to reduce their cost for storage or transmission. Algorithms may take advantage of visual perception and the statistical properties of image data to provide superior results compared with generic data compression methods which are used for other digital data.

Lossy and lossless image compression
Image compression may be lossy or lossless. Lossless compression is preferred for archival purposes and often for medical imaging, technical drawings, clip art, or comics. Lossy compression methods, especially when used at low bit rates, introduce compression artifacts. Lossy methods are especially suitable for natural images such as photographs in applications where minor (sometimes imperceptible) loss of fidelity is acceptable to achieve a substantial reduction in bit rate. Lossy compression that produces negligible differences may be called visually lossless.

Methods for lossy compression:

 * Transform coding – This is the most commonly used method.
 * Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) – The most widely used form of lossy compression. It is a type of Fourier-related transform, and was originally developed by Nasir Ahmed, T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1974. The DCT is sometimes referred to as "DCT-II" in the context of a family of discrete cosine transforms (see discrete cosine transform). It is generally the most efficient form of image compression.
 * DCT is used in JPEG, the most popular lossy format, and the more recent HEIF.
 * The more recently developed wavelet transform is also used extensively, followed by quantization and entropy coding.
 * Color quantization - Reducing the color space to a few "representative" colors in the image. The selected colors are specified in the color palette in the header of the compressed image. Each pixel just references the index of a color in the color palette. This method can be combined with dithering to avoid posterization.
 * Whole-image palette, typically 256 colors, used in GIF and PNG file formats.
 * block palette, typically 2 or 4 colors for each block of 4x4 pixels, used in BTC,  CCC, S2TC, and  S3TC.
 * Chroma subsampling. This takes advantage of the fact that the human eye perceives spatial changes of brightness more sharply than those of color, by averaging or dropping some of the chrominance information in the image.
 * Fractal compression.
 * More recently, methods based on Machine Learning were applied, using Multilayer perceptrons, Convolutional neural networks and Generative adversarial networks. Implementations are available in OpenCV, TensorFlow, MATLAB's Image Processing Toolbox (IPT), and the High-Fidelity Generative Image Compression (HiFiC) open source project.

Methods for lossless compression:

 * Run-length encoding – used in default method in PCX and as one of possible in BMP, TGA, TIFF
 * Predictive coding – used in DPCM
 * Entropy encoding – the two most common entropy encoding techniques are arithmetic coding and Huffman coding
 * Adaptive dictionary algorithms such as LZW – used in GIF and TIFF
 * DEFLATE – used in PNG, MNG, and TIFF
 * Chain codes
 * Diffusion models

Other properties
The best image quality at a given compression rate (or bit rate) is the main goal of image compression, however, there are other important properties of image compression schemes:

Scalability generally refers to a quality reduction achieved by manipulation of the bitstream or file (without decompression and re-compression). Other names for scalability are progressive coding or embedded bitstreams. Despite its contrary nature, scalability also may be found in lossless codecs, usually in form of coarse-to-fine pixel scans. Scalability is especially useful for previewing images while downloading them (e.g., in a web browser) or for providing variable quality access to e.g., databases. There are several types of scalability:

 * Quality progressive or layer progressive: The bitstream successively refines the reconstructed image.
 * Resolution progressive: First encode a lower image resolution; then encode the difference to higher resolutions.
 * Component progressive: First encode grey-scale version; then adding full color.

Region of interest coding. Certain parts of the image are encoded with higher quality than others. This may be combined with scalability (encode these parts first, others later).

Meta information. Compressed data may contain information about the image which may be used to categorize, search, or browse images. Such information may include color and texture statistics, small preview images, and author or copyright information.

Processing power. Compression algorithms require different amounts of processing power to encode and decode. Some high compression algorithms require high processing power.

The quality of a compression method often is measured by the peak signal-to-noise ratio. It measures the amount of noise introduced through a lossy compression of the image, however, the subjective judgment of the viewer also is regarded as an important measure, perhaps, being the most important measure.

History
Entropy coding started in the late 1940s with the introduction of Shannon–Fano coding, the basis for Huffman coding which was published in 1952. Transform coding dates back to the late 1960s, with the introduction of fast Fourier transform (FFT) coding in 1968 and the Hadamard transform in 1969.

An important development in image data compression was the discrete cosine transform (DCT), a lossy compression technique first proposed by Nasir Ahmed, T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1973. JPEG was introduced by the Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) in 1992. JPEG compresses images down to much smaller file sizes, and has become the most widely used image file format. JPEG was largely responsible for the wide proliferation of digital images and digital photos, with several billion JPEG images produced every day as of 2015.

Lempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW) is a lossless compression algorithm developed by Abraham Lempel, Jacob Ziv and Terry Welch in 1984. It is used in the GIF format, introduced in 1987. DEFLATE, a lossless compression algorithm developed by Phil Katz and specified in 1996, is used in the Portable Network Graphics (PNG) format.

The JPEG 2000 standard was developed from 1997 to 2000 by a JPEG committee chaired by Touradj Ebrahimi (later the JPEG president). In contrast to the DCT algorithm used by the original JPEG format, JPEG 2000 instead uses discrete wavelet transform (DWT) algorithms. It uses the CDF 9/7 wavelet transform (developed by Ingrid Daubechies in 1992) for its lossy compression algorithm, and the Le Gall–Tabatabai (LGT) 5/3 wavelet transform (developed by Didier Le Gall and Ali J. Tabatabai in 1988) for its lossless compression algorithm. JPEG 2000 technology, which includes the Motion JPEG 2000 extension, was selected as the video coding standard for digital cinema in 2004.

Huffman Coding
Huffman coding is a fundamental technique used in image compression algorithms to achieve efficient data representation. Named after its inventor David A. Huffman, this method is widely employed in various image compression standards such as JPEG and PNG.

Principle of Huffman Coding
Huffman coding is a form of entropy encoding that assigns variable-length codes to input symbols based on their frequencies of occurrence. The basic principle is to assign shorter codes to more frequently occurring symbols and longer codes to less frequent symbols, thereby reducing the average code length compared to fixed-length codes.

Application in Image Compression
In image compression, Huffman coding is typically applied after other transformations like Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) in the case of JPEG compression. After transforming the image data into a frequency domain representation, Huffman coding is used to encode the transformed coefficients efficiently.

Steps in Huffman Coding for Image Compression

 * 1) Frequency Analysis: Calculate the frequency of occurrence of each symbol or symbol combination in the transformed image data.
 * 2) Constructing the Huffman Tree: Build a Huffman tree based on the symbol frequencies. The tree is constructed recursively by combining the nodes with the lowest frequencies until a single root node is formed.
 * 3) Assigning Codewords: Traverse the Huffman tree to assign variable-length codewords to each symbol, with shorter codewords assigned to more frequent symbols.
 * 4) Encoding: Replace the original symbols in the image data with their corresponding Huffman codewords to generate the compressed data stream.

Benefits of Huffman Coding in Image Compression

 * Lossless Compression: Huffman coding can be used in both lossy and lossless image compression techniques, providing flexibility in balancing between compression ratio and image quality.
 * Efficiency: By assigning shorter codes to frequently occurring symbols, Huffman coding reduces the average code length, resulting in efficient data representation and reduced storage requirements.
 * Compatibility: Huffman coding is widely supported and can be seamlessly integrated into existing image compression standards and algorithms.

Conclusion
Huffman coding plays a crucial role in image compression by efficiently encoding image data into a compact representation. Its ability to adaptively assign variable-length codewords based on symbol frequencies makes it an essential component in modern image compression techniques, contributing to the reduction of storage space and transmission bandwidth while maintaining image quality.

title: Image compression


text:
Crop rotation

Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of different types of crops in the same area across a sequence of growing seasons. This practice reduces the reliance of crops on one set of nutrients, pest and weed pressure, along with the probability of developing resistant pests and weeds.

Growing the same crop in the same place for many years in a row, known as monocropping, gradually depletes the soil of certain nutrients and selects for both a highly competitive pest and weed community. Without balancing nutrient use and diversifying pest and weed communities, the productivity of monocultures is highly dependent on external inputs that may be harmful to the soil's fertility. Conversely, a well-designed crop rotation can reduce the need for synthetic fertilizers and herbicides by better using ecosystem services from a diverse set of crops. Additionally, crop rotations can improve soil structure and organic matter, which reduces erosion and increases farm system resilience.

History

Farmers have long recognized that suitable rotations such as planting spring crops for livestock in place of grains for human consumption make it possible to restore or to maintain productive soils. Ancient Near Eastern farmers practiced crop rotation in 6000 BC, alternately planting legumes and cereals.

Two-field systems
Under a two-field rotation, half the land was planted in a year, while the other half lay fallow. Then, in the next year, the two fields were reversed. In China both the two- and three-field systems had been used since the Eastern Zhou period.

Three-field systems
From the times of Charlemagne (died 814), farmers in Europe transitioned from a two-field system to a three-field system. This persisted until the 20th century. Available land was divided into three sections. One section was planted in the autumn with rye or winter wheat, followed by spring oats or barley; the second section grew crops such as one of the legumes, namely peas, lentils, or beans; and the third field was left fallow. The three fields were rotated in this manner so that every three years, one of the fields would rest and lie fallow. Under the two-field system, only half the land was planted in any year. Under the new three-field rotation system, two thirds of the land was planted, potentially yielding a larger harvest. But the additional crops had a more significant effect than mere quantitative productivity. Since the spring crops were mostly legumes, which fix nitrogen needed for plants to make proteins, they increased the overall nutrition of the people of Northern Europe.

Four-field rotations
Farmers in the region of Waasland (in present-day northern Belgium) pioneered a four-field rotation in the early 16th century, and the British agriculturist Charles Townshend (1674–1738) popularised this system in the 18th century. The sequence of four crops (wheat, turnips, barley and clover), included a fodder crop and a grazing crop, allowing livestock to be bred year-round. The four-field crop rotation became a key development in the British Agricultural Revolution.

Modern developments
George Washington Carver (1860s–1943) studied crop-rotation methods in the United States, teaching southern farmers to rotate soil-depleting crops like cotton with soil-enriching crops like peanuts and peas.

In the Green Revolution of the mid-20th century, crop rotation gave way in the developed world to the practice of supplementing the chemical inputs to the soil through topdressing with fertilizers, adding (for example) ammonium nitrate or urea and restoring soil pH with lime. Such practices aimed to increase yields, to prepare soil for specialist crops, and to reduce waste and inefficiency by simplifying planting, harvesting, and irrigation.

Crop choice
A preliminary assessment of crop interrelationships can be found in how each crop:

 * 1) Contributes to soil organic matter (SOM) content.
 * 2) Provides for pest management.
 * 3) Manages deficient or excess nutrients.
 * 4) How it contributes to or controls for soil erosion.
 * 5) Interbreeds with other crops to produce hybrid offspring.
 * 6) Impacts surrounding food webs and field ecosystems.

Crop choice is often related to the goal the farmer is looking to achieve with the rotation, which could be weed management, increasing available nitrogen in the soil, controlling for erosion, or increasing soil structure and biomass, to name a few. When discussing crop rotations, crops are classified in different ways depending on what quality is being assessed: by family, by nutrient needs/benefits, and/or by profitability (i.e. cash crop versus cover crop). For example, giving adequate attention to plant family is essential to mitigating pests and pathogens. However, many farmers have success managing rotations by planning sequencing and cover crops around desirable cash crops. The following is a simplified classification based on crop quality and purpose.

Row crops
Many crops which are critical for the market, like vegetables, are row crops (that is, grown in tight rows). While often the most profitable for farmers, these crops are more taxing on the soil. Row crops typically have low biomass and shallow roots: this means the plant contributes low residue to the surrounding soil and has limited effects on structure. With much of the soil around the plant exposed to disruption by rainfall and traffic, fields with row crops experience faster break down of organic matter by microbes, leaving fewer nutrients for future plants.

In short, while these crops may be profitable for the farm, they are nutrient depleting. Crop rotation practices exist to strike a balance between short-term profitability and long-term productivity.

Legumes
A great advantage of crop rotation comes from the interrelationship of nitrogen-fixing crops with nitrogen-demanding crops. Legumes, like alfalfa and clover, collect available nitrogen from the atmosphere and store it in nodules on their root structure. When the plant is harvested, the biomass of uncollected roots breaks down, making the stored nitrogen available to future crops.

Grasses and cereals
Cereal and grasses are frequent cover crops because of the many advantages they supply to soil quality and structure. The dense and far-reaching root systems give ample structure to surrounding soil and provide significant biomass for soil organic matter.

Grasses and cereals are key in weed management as they compete with undesired plants for soil space and nutrients.

Green manure
Green manure is a crop that is mixed into the soil. Both nitrogen-fixing legumes and nutrient scavengers, like grasses, can be used as green manure. Green manure of legumes is an excellent source of nitrogen, especially for organic systems, however, legume biomass does not contribute to lasting soil organic matter like grasses do.

Planning a rotation
There are numerous factors that must be taken into consideration when planning a crop rotation. Planning an effective rotation requires weighing fixed and fluctuating production circumstances: market, farm size, labor supply, climate, soil type, growing practices, etc. Moreover, a crop rotation must consider in what condition one crop will leave the soil for the succeeding crop and how one crop can be seeded with another crop. For example, a nitrogen-fixing crop, like a legume, should always precede a nitrogen depleting one; similarly, a low residue crop (i.e. a crop with low biomass) should be offset with a high biomass cover crop, like a mixture of grasses and legumes.

There is no limit to the number of crops that can be used in a rotation, or the amount of time a rotation takes to complete. Decisions about rotations are made years prior, seasons prior, or even at the last minute when an opportunity to increase profits or soil quality presents itself.

Relationship to other systems
Crop rotation systems may be enriched by other practices such as the addition of livestock and manure, and by growing more than one crop at a time in a field. A monoculture is a crop grown by itself in a field. A polyculture involves two or more crops growing in the same place at the same time. Crop rotations can be applied to both monocultures and polycultures, resulting in multiple ways of increasing agricultural biodiversity (table).

Incorporation of livestock
Introducing livestock makes the most efficient use of critical sod and cover crops; livestock (through manure) are able to distribute the nutrients in these crops throughout the soil rather than removing nutrients from the farm through the sale of hay.

Mixed farming or the practice of crop cultivation with the incorporation of livestock can help manage crops in a rotation and cycle nutrients. Crop residues provide animal feed, while the animals provide manure for replenishing crop nutrients and draft power. These processes promote internal nutrient cycling and minimize the need for synthetic fertilizers and large-scale machinery. As an additional benefit, the cattle, sheep and/or goat provide milk and can act as a cash crop in the times of economic hardship.

Polyculture
Polyculture systems, such as intercropping or companion planting, offer more diversity and complexity within the same season or rotation. An example is the Three Sisters, the inter-planting of corn with pole beans and vining squash or pumpkins. In this system, the beans provide nitrogen; the corn provides support for the beans and a "screen" against squash vine borer; the vining squash provides a weed suppressive canopy and a discouragement for corn-hungry raccoons.

Double-cropping is common where two crops, typically of different species, are grown sequentially in the same growing season, or where one crop (e.g. vegetable) is grown continuously with a cover crop (e.g. wheat). This is advantageous for small farms, which often cannot afford to leave cover crops to replenish the soil for extended periods of time, as larger farms can. When multiple cropping is implemented on small farms, these systems can maximize benefits of crop rotation on available land resources.

Organic farming
Crop rotation is a required practice, in the United States, for farms seeking organic certification. The “Crop Rotation Practice Standard” for the National Organic Program under the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, section §205.205, states that

"Farmers are required to implement a crop rotation that maintains or builds soil organic matter, works to control pests, manages and conserves nutrients, and protects against erosion. Producers of perennial crops that aren’t rotated may utilize other practices, such as cover crops, to maintain soil health."

In addition to lowering the need for inputs (by controlling for pests and weeds and increasing available nutrients), crop rotation helps organic growers increase the amount of biodiversity their farms. Biodiversity is also a requirement of organic certification, however, there are no rules in place to regulate or reinforce this standard. Increasing the biodiversity of crops has beneficial effects on the surrounding ecosystem and can host a greater diversity of fauna, insects, and beneficial microorganisms in the soil as found by McDaniel et al 2014 and Lori et al 2017. Some studies point to increased nutrient availability from crop rotation under organic systems compared to conventional practices as organic practices are less likely to inhibit of beneficial microbes in soil organic matter.

While multiple cropping and intercropping benefit from many of the same principals as crop rotation, they do not satisfy the requirement under the NOP.

Benefits
Agronomists describe the benefits to yield in rotated crops as "The Rotation Effect". There are many benefits of rotation systems. The factors related to the increase are broadly due to alleviation of the negative factors of monoculture cropping systems. Specifically, improved nutrition; pest, pathogen, and weed stress reduction; and improved soil structure have been found in some cases to be correlated to beneficial rotation effects.

Other benefits include reduced production cost. Overall financial risks are more widely distributed over more diverse production of crops and/or livestock. Less reliance is placed on purchased inputs and over time crops can maintain production goals with fewer inputs. This in tandem with greater short and long term yields makes rotation a powerful tool for improving agricultural systems.

Soil organic matter
The use of different species in rotation allows for increased soil organic matter (SOM), greater soil structure, and improvement of the chemical and biological soil environment for crops. With more SOM, water infiltration and retention improves, providing increased drought tolerance and decreased erosion.

Soil organic matter is a mix of decaying material from biomass with active microorganisms. Crop rotation, by nature, increases exposure to biomass from sod, green manure, and various other plant debris. The reduced need for intensive tillage under crop rotation allows biomass aggregation to lead to greater nutrient retention and utilization, decreasing the need for added nutrients. With tillage, disruption and oxidation of soil creates a less conducive environment for diversity and proliferation of microorganisms in the soil. These microorganisms are what make nutrients available to plants. So, where "active" soil organic matter is a key to productive soil, soil with low microbial activity provides significantly fewer nutrients to plants; this is true even though the quantity of biomass left in the soil may be the same.

Soil microorganisms also decrease pathogen and pest activity through competition. In addition, plants produce root exudates and other chemicals which manipulate their soil environment as well as their weed environment. Thus rotation allows increased yields from nutrient availability but also alleviation of allelopathy and competitive weed environments.

Carbon sequestration
Crop rotations greatly increase soil organic carbon (SOC) content, the main constituent of soil organic matter. Carbon, along with hydrogen and oxygen, is a macronutrient for plants. Highly diverse rotations spanning long periods of time have shown to be even more effective in increasing SOC, while soil disturbances (e.g. from tillage) are responsible for exponential decline in SOC levels. In Brazil, conversion to no-till methods combined with intensive crop rotations has been shown an SOC sequestration rate of 0.41 tonnes per hectare per year.

In addition to enhancing crop productivity, sequestration of atmospheric carbon has great implications in reducing rates of climate change by removing carbon dioxide from the air.

Nitrogen fixing
Rotations can add nutrients to the soil. Legumes, plants of the family Fabaceae, have nodules on their roots which contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria called rhizobia. During a process called nodulation, the rhizobia bacteria use nutrients and water provided by the plant to convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia, which is then converted into an organic compound that the plant can use as its nitrogen source. It therefore makes good sense agriculturally to alternate them with cereals (family Poaceae) and other plants that require nitrates. How much nitrogen made available to the plants depends on factors such as the kind of legume, the effectiveness of rhizobia bacteria, soil conditions, and the availability of elements necessary for plant food.

Pathogen and pest control
Crop rotation is also used to control pests and diseases that can become established in the soil over time. The changing of crops in a sequence decreases the population level of pests by (1) interrupting pest life cycles and (2) interrupting pest habitat. Plants within the same taxonomic family tend to have similar pests and pathogens. By regularly changing crops and keeping the soil occupied by cover crops instead of lying fallow, pest cycles can be broken or limited, especially cycles that benefit from overwintering in residue. For example, root-knot nematode is a serious problem for some plants in warm climates and sandy soils, where it slowly builds up to high levels in the soil, and can severely damage plant productivity by cutting off circulation from the plant roots. Growing a crop that is not a host for root-knot nematode for one season greatly reduces the level of the nematode in the soil, thus making it possible to grow a susceptible crop the following season without needing soil fumigation.

This principle is of particular use in organic farming, where pest control must be achieved without synthetic pesticides.

Weed management
Integrating certain crops, especially cover crops, into crop rotations is of particular value to weed management. These crops crowd out weeds through competition. In addition, the sod and compost from cover crops and green manure slows the growth of what weeds are still able to make it through the soil, giving the crops further competitive advantage. By slowing the growth and proliferation of weeds while cover crops are cultivated, farmers greatly reduce the presence of weeds for future crops, including shallow rooted and row crops, which are less resistant to weeds. Cover crops are, therefore, considered conservation crops because they protect otherwise fallow land from becoming overrun with weeds.

This system has advantages over other common practices for weeds management, such as tillage. Tillage is meant to inhibit growth of weeds by overturning the soil; however, this has a countering effect of exposing weed seeds that may have gotten buried and burying valuable crop seeds. Under crop rotation, the number of viable seeds in the soil is reduced through the reduction of the weed population.

In addition to their negative impact on crop quality and yield, weeds can slow down the harvesting process. Weeds make farmers less efficient when harvesting, because weeds like bindweeds, and knotgrass, can become tangled in the equipment, resulting in a stop-and-go type of harvest.

Reducing soil erosion
Crop rotation can significantly reduce the amount of soil lost from erosion by water. In areas that are highly susceptible to erosion, farm management practices such as zero and reduced tillage can be supplemented with specific crop rotation methods to reduce raindrop impact, sediment detachment, sediment transport, surface runoff, and soil loss.

Protection against soil loss is maximized with rotation methods that leave the greatest mass of crop stubble (plant residue left after harvest) on top of the soil. Stubble cover in contact with the soil minimizes erosion from water by reducing overland flow velocity, stream power, and thus the ability of the water to detach and transport sediment. Soil erosion and seal prevent the disruption and detachment of soil aggregates that cause macropores to block, infiltration to decline, and runoff to increase. This significantly improves the resilience of soils when subjected to periods of erosion and stress.

When a forage crop breaks down, binding products are formed that act like an adhesive on the soil, which makes particles stick together, and form aggregates. The formation of soil aggregates is important for erosion control, as they are better able to resist raindrop impact, and water erosion. Soil aggregates also reduce wind erosion, because they are larger particles, and are more resistant to abrasion through tillage practices.

The effect of crop rotation on erosion control varies by climate. In regions under relatively consistent climate conditions, where annual rainfall and temperature levels are assumed, rigid crop rotations can produce sufficient plant growth and soil cover. In regions where climate conditions are less predictable, and unexpected periods of rain and drought may occur, a more flexible approach for soil cover by crop rotation is necessary. An opportunity cropping system promotes adequate soil cover under these erratic climate conditions. In an opportunity cropping system, crops are grown when soil water is adequate and there is a reliable sowing window. This form of cropping system is likely to produce better soil cover than a rigid crop rotation because crops are only sown under optimal conditions, whereas rigid systems are not necessarily sown in the best conditions available.

Crop rotations also affect the timing and length of when a field is subject to fallow. This is very important because depending on a particular region's climate, a field could be the most vulnerable to erosion when it is under fallow. Efficient fallow management is an essential part of reducing erosion in a crop rotation system. Zero tillage is a fundamental management practice that promotes crop stubble retention under longer unplanned fallows when crops cannot be planted. Such management practices that succeed in retaining suitable soil cover in areas under fallow will ultimately reduce soil loss. In a recent study that lasted a decade, it was found that a common winter cover crop after potato harvest such as fall rye can reduce soil run-off by as much as 43%, and this is typically the most nutritional soil.

Biodiversity
Increasing the biodiversity of crops has beneficial effects on the surrounding ecosystem and can host a greater diversity of fauna, insects, and beneficial microorganisms in the soil as found by McDaniel et al 2014 and Lori et al 2017. Some studies point to increased nutrient availability from crop rotation under organic systems compared to conventional practices as organic practices are less likely to inhibit of beneficial microbes in soil organic matter, such as arbuscular mycorrhizae, which increase nutrient uptake in plants. Increasing biodiversity also increases the resilience of agro-ecological systems.

Farm productivity
Crop rotation contributes to increased yields through improved soil nutrition. By requiring planting and harvesting of different crops at different times, more land can be farmed with the same amount of machinery and labour.

Risk management
Different crops in the rotation can reduce the risks of adverse weather for the individual farmer.

Challenges
While crop rotation requires a great deal of planning, crop choice must respond to a number of fixed conditions (soil type, topography, climate, and irrigation) in addition to conditions that may change dramatically from year to the next (weather, market, labor supply). In this way, it is unwise to plan crops years in advance. Improper implementation of a crop rotation plan may lead to imbalances in the soil nutrient composition or a buildup of pathogens affecting a critical crop. The consequences of faulty rotation may take years to become apparent even to experienced soil scientists and can take just as long to correct.

Many challenges exist within the practices associated with crop rotation. For example, green manure from legumes can lead to an invasion of snails or slugs and the decay from green manure can occasionally suppress the growth of other crops.

title: Crop rotation


text:
Drawn butter

Drawn butter is melted butter, often served as a sauce for steamed seafood. Some cooks restrict the term to clarified butter, while others insist that it should not be clarified.

When it is served with seafood, diners often add lemon juice to it.

Drawn butter sauces
In the 18th century, a small amount of flour and water or milk was often added to melted butter to thicken it and prevent it from separating. Later in the 19th century, increasing amounts of flour and water were used. These sauces may themselves be named simply "melted butter", "drawn butter", or "drawn butter sauce", and flavored with vinegar, salt, pepper, capers, watercress, and so on.

title: Drawn butter