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John of Damascus

John of Damascus (يوحنا الدمشقي;, ; Ioannes Damascenus; born Yūḥana ibn Manṣūr ibn Sarjūn, يوحنا إبن منصور إبن سرجون) or John Damascene was an Arab Christian monk, priest, hymnographer, and apologist. He was born and raised in Damascus c. 675 or 676; the precise date and place of his death is not known, though tradition places it at his monastery, Mar Saba, near Jerusalem on 4 December 749.

A polymath whose fields of interest and contribution included law, theology, philosophy, and music, he was given the by-name of Chrysorroas (Χρυσορρόας, literally "streaming with gold", i.e. "the golden speaker"). He wrote works expounding the Christian faith, and composed hymns which are still used both liturgically in Eastern Christian practice throughout the world as well as in western Lutheranism at Easter.

He is one of the Fathers of the Eastern Orthodox Church and is best known for his strong defence of icons. The Catholic Church regards him as a Doctor of the Church, often referred to as the Doctor of the Assumption due to his writings on the Assumption of Mary. He was also a prominent exponent of perichoresis, and employed the concept as a technical term to describe both the interpenetration of the divine and human natures of Christ and the relationship between the hypostases of the Trinity. John is at the end of the Patristic period of dogmatic development, and his contribution is less one of theological innovation than one of a summary of the developments of the centuries before him. In Catholic theology, he is therefore known as the "last of the Greek Fathers".

The main source of information for the life of John of Damascus is a work attributed to one John of Jerusalem, identified therein as the Patriarch of Jerusalem. This is an excerpted translation into Greek of an earlier Arabic text. The Arabic original contains a prologue not found in most other translations, and was written by an Arab monk, Michael, who explained that he decided to write his biography in 1084 because none was available in his day. However, the main Arabic text seems to have been written by an unknown earlier author sometime between the early 9th and late 10th century. Written from a hagiographical point of view and prone to exaggeration and some legendary details, it is not the best historical source for his life, but is widely reproduced and considered to contain elements of some value. The hagiographic novel Barlaam and Josaphat, is a work of the 10th century attributed to a monk named John. It was only considerably later that the tradition arose that this was John of Damascus, but most scholars no longer accept this attribution. Instead much evidence points to Euthymius of Athos, a Georgian who died in 1028.

Family background
John was born in Damascus, in 675 or 676, to a prominent Damascene Christian Arab family. His father, Sarjun ibn Mansur, served as an official of the early Umayyad Caliphate. His grandfather, Mansur ibn Sarjun, was a prominent Byzantine official of Damascus, who had been responsible for the taxes of the region during the reign of Emperor Heraclius and also served under Emperor Maurice. Mansur seems to have played a role in the capitulation of Damascus to the troops of Khalid ibn al-Walid in 635 after securing favorable conditions of surrender. Eutychius, a 10th-century Melkite patriarch, mentions him as one high-ranking official involved in the surrender of the city to the Muslims.

The tribal background of Mansur ibn Sarjun, John's grandfather, is unknown, but biographer Daniel Sahas has speculated that the name Mansur could have implied descent from the Arab Christian tribes of Kalb or Taghlib. The name was common among Syrian Christians of Arab origins, and Eutychius noted that the governor of Damascus, who was likely Mansur ibn Sarjun, was an Arab. However, Sahas also asserts that the name does not necessarily imply an Arab background and could have been used by non-Arab, Semitic Syrians. While Sahas and biographers F. H. Chase and Andrew Louth assert that Mansūr was an Arabic name, Raymond le Coz asserts that the "family was without doubt of Syrian origin"; indeed, according to historian Daniel J. Janosik, "Both aspects could be true, for if his family ancestry were indeed Syrian, his grandfather [Mansur] could have been given an Arabic name when the Arabs took over the government." When Syria was conquered by the Muslim Arabs in the 630s, the court at Damascus retained its large complement of Christian civil servants, John's grandfather among them. John's father, Sarjun (Sergius), went on to serve the Umayyad caliphs. John of Jerusalem claims that he also served as a senior official in the fiscal administration of the Umayyad Caliphate under Abd al-Malik before leaving Damascus and his position around 705 to go to Jerusalem and become a monk. However, this point is debated within the academic community as there is no trace of him in the Umayyad archives, unlike his father and grandfather. Some researchers, such as Robert G. Hoyland, deny such an affiliation, while others, like Daniel Sahas or the Orthodox historian Jean Meyendorff, suppose that he might have been a lower-level tax administrator, a local tax collector who would not have needed to be mentioned in the archives, but who might not have necessarily been part of the court either. In addition, John's own writings never refer to any experience in a Muslim court. It is believed that John became a monk at Mar Saba, and that he was ordained as a priest in 735.

Biography

John was raised in Damascus, and Arab Christian folklore holds that during his adolescence, John associated with the future Umayyad caliph Yazid I and the Taghlibi Christian court poet al-Akhtal.

One of the vitae describes his father's desire for him to "learn not only the books of the Muslims, but those of the Greeks as well." From this it has been suggested that John may have grown up bilingual. John does indeed show some knowledge of the Quran, which he criticizes harshly.

Other sources describe his education in Damascus as having been conducted in accordance with the principles of Hellenic education, termed "secular" by one source and "classical Christian" by another. One account identifies his tutor as a monk by the name of Cosmas, who had been kidnapped by Arabs from his home in Sicily, and for whom John's father paid a great price. As a refugee from Italy, Cosmas brought with him the scholarly traditions of Latin Christianity. Cosmas was said to have rivaled Pythagoras in arithmetic and Euclid in geometry. He also taught John's orphan friend, Cosmas of Maiuma.

John possibly had a career as a civil servant for the Caliph in Damascus before his ordination.

He then became a priest and monk at the Mar Saba monastery near Jerusalem. One source suggests John left Damascus to become a monk around 706, when al-Walid I increased the Islamicisation of the Caliphate's administration. This is uncertain, as Muslim sources only mention that his father Sarjun (Sergius) left the administration around this time, and fail to name John at all. During the next two decades, culminating in the Siege of Constantinople (717-718), the Umayyad Caliphate progressively occupied the borderlands of the Byzantine Empire. An editor of John's works, Father Le Quien, has shown that John was already a monk at Mar Saba before the dispute over iconoclasm, explained below.

In the early 8th century, iconoclasm, a movement opposed to the veneration of icons, gained acceptance in the Byzantine court. In 726, despite the protests of Germanus, Patriarch of Constantinople, Emperor Leo III (who had forced his predecessor, Theodosius III, to abdicate and himself assumed the throne in 717 immediately before the great siege) issued his first edict against the veneration of images and their exhibition in public places.

All agree that John of Damascus undertook a spirited defence of holy images in three separate publications. The earliest of these works, his Apologetic Treatises against those Decrying the Holy Images, secured his reputation. He not only attacked the Byzantine emperor, but adopted a simplified style that allowed the controversy to be followed by the common people, stirring rebellion among the iconoclasts. Decades after his death, John's writings would play an important role during the Second Council of Nicaea (787), which convened to settle the icon dispute.

Leo III reportedly sent forged documents to the caliph which implicated John in a plot to attack Damascus. The caliph then ordered John's right hand be cut off and hung up in public view. Some days afterwards, John asked for the restitution of his hand, and prayed fervently to the Theotokos before her icon: thereupon, his hand is said to have been miraculously restored. In gratitude for this miraculous healing, he attached a silver hand to the icon, which thereafter became known as the "Three-handed", or Tricherousa. That icon is now located in the Hilandar monastery of the Holy Mountain.

Due to his commitment to iconodulism, he was condemned by anathema by the iconoclastic Council of Hieria in 754. He was later rehabilitated by the Second Council of Nicaea in 787.

Veneration
When the name of John of Damascus was inserted in the General Roman Calendar in 1890, it was assigned to 27 March. The feast day was moved in 1969 to the day of John's death, 4 December, the day on which his feast day is celebrated also in the Byzantine Rite calendar, Lutheran Commemorations, and the Anglican Communion and Episcopal Church.

John of Damascus is honored in the Church of England and in the Episcopal Church on 4 December.

In 1890, he was declared a Doctor of the Church by Pope Leo XIII.

List of works
Besides his purely textual works, many of which are listed below, John of Damascus also composed hymns, perfecting the canon, a structured hymn form used in Byzantine Rite liturgies.

Early works

 * Three Apologetic Treatises against those Decrying the Holy Images – These treatises were among his earliest expositions in response to the edict by the Byzantine Emperor Leo III, banning the veneration or exhibition of holy images.

Teachings and dogmatic works

 * The Fountain of Knowledge, The Fountain of Wisdom or The Fount of Knowledge (Koinē Greek: Πηγή Γνώσεως, Pēgē gnōseōs, literally meaning “The Source of Knowledge”), is described as a synthesis and unification of Christian philosophy, ideas and doctrine that was influential in directing the course of medieval Latin thought and that became the principal textbook of Greek Orthodox theology. Divided into three parts the chapters are:
 * Philosophical Chapters (Koinē Greek: Κεφάλαια φιλοσοφικά, Kefálea filosofiká) – commonly called "Dialectic", it deals mostly with logic, its primary purpose being to prepare the reader for a better understanding of the rest of the book. Based on the previous work of the late 3rd-century Neoplatonist Porphyry’s Isagoge, an introduction to the logic of Aristotle. The work was notable in that it allowed John of Damascus with information to explain the basic concepts of logic and the rationalisation of God.
 * Concerning Heresy (Koinē Greek: Περὶ αἱρέσεων, Perì eréseon, literally meaning “About Heresies”) – Based on the previous work of the Panarion. (Koinē Greek: Πανάριον, derived from Latin panarium, meaning "bread basket") by Epiphanius of Salamis  .The work was notable  it allowed John with information about different heresies as well as a model for how to organize a catalogue of heresies. In original 80 religious sects which either classed as organized groups or philosophies, from the time of Adam to the latter part of the fourth century according to Epiphanius. John added twenty heresies that had occurred during his time. The last chapter of Concerning Heresy (Chapter 101) deals with the Heresy of the Ishmaelites. Unlike earlier sections devoted to other heresies, which are disposed of succinctly in just a few lines, this chapter runs into several pages. It constitutes one of the first Christian refutations of Islam.  In treating of Heresy of the Ishmaelites he vigorously assails the immoral practices of Muhammad and the corrupt teachings inserted in the Quran to legalize the delinquencies of the prophet. Concerning Heresy was frequently translated from Greek into Latin. His manuscript is one of the first Orthodox Christian refutations of Islam which has influenced the Western Roman Catholic Church's attitude on Islam. It was among the first sources representing Muhammad to the West as a "false prophet" and "Antichrist".
 * An Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith (Koinē Greek: Ἔκδοσις Ἀκριβὴς τῆς Ὀρθοδόξου Πίστεως, Ékdosis akribès tēs Orthodóxou Písteōs) – a summary of the teachings and dogmatic writings of the Early Church Fathers. More specifically the Cappadocian Fathers (Saint Basil, Saint Gregory of Nazianzus and Saint Gregory of Nyssa) from the 4th century. It incorporates Aristotelian language and demonstrates originality through John's selection of texts and annotations influenced by Antiochene analytical theology. This work, when translated into Oriental languages and Latin, became a valuable resource for both Eastern and Western thinkers, offering logical and theological concepts. Additionally, its systematic style served as a model for subsequent theological syntheses composed by medieval Scholastics. The "Exposition" delves into speculations about the nature and existence of God, giving rise to points of debate among later theologians.This writing was the first work of systematic theology in Eastern Christianity and an important influence on later Scholastic works.

Teaching on Islam
As stated above, in the final chapter of Concerning Heresy, John mentions Islam as the Heresy of the Ishmaelites. He is one of the first known Christian critics of Islam. John claims that Muslims were once worshipers of Aphrodite who followed after Muhammad because of his "seeming show of piety," and that Mohammad himself read the Bible and, "likewise, it seems," spoke to an Arian monk that taught him Arianism instead of Christianity. John also claims to have read the Quran, or at least parts of it, as he criticizes the Quran for saying that the Virgin Mary was the sister of Moses and Aaron and that Jesus was not crucified but brought alive into heaven. John further claims to have spoken to Muslims about Mohammad. He uses the plural "we", whether in reference to himself, or to a group of Christians that he belonged to who spoke to the Muslims, or in reference to Christians in general.

Regardless, John claims that he asked the Muslims what witnesses can testify that Muhammad received the Quran from God – since, John says, Moses received the Torah from God in the presence of the Israelites, and since Islamic law mandates that a Muslim can only marry and do trade in the presence of witnesses – and what biblical prophets and verses foretold Muhammad 's coming – since, John says, Jesus was foretold by the prophets and whole Old Testament. John claims that the Muslims answered that Muhammad received the Quran in his sleep. John claims that he jokingly answered, "You're spinning my dreams."

Some of the Muslims, John says, claimed that the Old Testament that Christians believe foretells Jesus' coming is misinterpreted, while other Muslims claimed that the Jews edited the Old Testament so as to deceive Christians (possibly into believing Jesus is God, but John does not say).

While recounting his alleged dialogue with Muslims, John claims that they have accused him of idol worship for venerating the Cross and worshipping Jesus. John claims that he told the Muslims that the black stone in Mecca was the head of a statue of Aphrodite. Moreover, he claims, the Muslims would be better off to associate Jesus with God if they say Jesus is the Word of God and Spirit. John claims that the word and the spirit are inseparable from that in which they exist and if the Word of God has always existed in God, then the Word must be God.

John ends the chapter by claiming that Islam permits polygamy, that Muhammad committed adultery with a companion's wife before outlawing adultery, and that the Quran is filled with stories, such as the She-Camel of God and God giving Jesus an "incorruptible table."

Other works

 * Against the Jacobites
 * Against the Nestorians
 * Dialogue against the Manichees
 * Elementary Introduction into Dogmas
 * Letter on the Thrice-Holy Hymn
 * On Right Thinking
 * On the Faith, Against the Nestorians
 * On the Two Wills in Christ (Against the Monothelites)
 * Sacred Parallels (dubious)
 * Octoechos (the church's liturgical book of eight tones)
 * On Dragons and Ghosts

Arabic translation
It is believed that the homily on the Annunciation was the first work to be translated into Arabic. Much of this text is found in Manuscript 4226 of the Library of Strasbourg (France), dating to 885 AD.

Later in the 10th century, Antony, superior of the monastery of St. Simon (near Antioch) translated a corpus of John Damascene. In his introduction to John's work, Sylvestre patriarch of Antioch (1724–1766) said that Antony was monk at Saint Saba. This could be a misunderstanding of the title Superior of Saint Simon probably because Saint Simon's monastery was in ruins in the 18th century.

Most manuscripts give the text of the letter to Cosmas, the philosophical chapters, the theological chapters and five other small works.

In 1085, Mikhael, a monk from Antioch, wrote the Arabic life of the Chrysorrhoas. This work was first edited by Bacha in 1912 and then translated into many languages (German, Russian and English).

Modern English translations

 * On holy images; followed by three sermons on the Assumption, translated by Mary H. Allies, (London: Thomas Baker, 1898)
 * Exposition of the Orthodox faith, translated by the Reverend SDF Salmond, in Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. 2nd Series vol 9. (Oxford: Parker, 1899) [reprint Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1963.]
 * Writings, translated by Frederic H. Chase. Fathers of the Church vol 37, (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1958) [ET of The fount of knowledge; On heresies; The orthodox faith]
 * Daniel J. Sahas (ed.), John of Damascus on Islam: The "Heresy of the Ishmaelites", (Leiden: Brill, 1972)
 * On the divine images: the apologies against those who attack the divine images, translated by David Anderson, (New York: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1980)
 * Louth, who also wrote the introduction, was at the University of Durham as Professor of Patristics and Byzantine Studies.

Two translations exist of the 10th-century hagiographic novel Barlaam and Josaphat, traditionally attributed to John:
 * Barlaam and Ioasaph, with an English translation by G.R. Woodward and H. Mattingly, (London: Heinemann, 1914)
 * The precious pearl: the lives of Saints Barlaam and Ioasaph, notes and comments by Augoustinos N Kantiotes; preface, introduction, and new translation by Asterios Gerostergios, et al., (Belmont, MA: Institute for Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, 1997)

title: John of Damascus


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Talk:Continuous probability distribution

Untitled
I moved this from the main page:

 * A random variable is continuous if the set of all possible values it can assume forms an interval, either finite or infinite.

 * The probability that a continuous random variable will take a value in any particular sub-interval is given by the probability density function.

Not every variable whose range is an interval (surely of positive length?) has a probability density function. Are continuous random variables those whose cdf if continuous? AxelBoldt

What more?
Something should be added relating to multivariate distributions, a little more about mixed continous-discrete distributions (example of rainfall perhaps), and about general decomposition in continuous, discrete etc components. Melcombe (talk) 17:01, 20 May 2008 (UTC)

Needs expert attention
Bizarre/confused mix of random variables and distributions that sometimes conflate the two. Also, everything can be improved.

Assessment comment
Substituted at 19:53, 1 May 2016 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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User talk:Tommy~enwiki

AfD
A vote was entered in your name by an anon IP at Articles for deletion/Democracy & Nature. If this was you, and a genuine edit, please come along and say so. Thanks - Just zis Guy, you know? [T]/[C] (W) AfD? 10:35, 25 November 2005 (UTC)

 * That was not me. Tommy 13:37, 3 February 2006 (UTC)

Speedy deletion of Indiekarma
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Thank you for your understanding and happy editing :) Editing on behalf of User:Jarry1250, LivingBot (talk) 22:16, 14 March 2011 (UTC)

The Event ratings graph
Hi. Yes, I make the graph in Excel. You can find ratings of U.S. television series here. Super nino  15:20, 21 May 2011 (UTC)  —Preceding unsigned comment added by Supernino (talk • contribs)

I am proposing a move for an article that you edited
Please check Talk:The_evolution_of_cooperation, thank you. --Enric Naval (talk) 11:53, 21 October 2011 (UTC)

Your user page
Hello, I found your user page while doing some wikiarchaeology. . I have restored all of its earliest surviving revisions from old copies of the Wikipedia database, so they are available to everyone now. Hope you don't mind. Graham 87 13:01, 25 June 2013 (UTC)
 * The pleasure is all mine. Thanks, and happy digging! Tommy (talk) 23:44, 25 June 2013 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

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Renamed
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title: User talk:Tommy~enwiki


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Talk:Compact disc

James Russell the CD inventor
This must in History: "The Compact Disc, or CD, is an optical disc used to store digital data, originally developed for storing digital audio. In 1965, James Russell acted upon his idea that the music industry needed a new medium whereby a gramophone record and the needle on a phonograph would no longer come into contact with one another. With an interest in lasers, Russell soon began his research in an optical system that would replace a phonograph's needle and replace it with a laser that would read codes in order to record and playback sound.[173][174] At 12 inches (30 cm) in diameter, Russell in 1970 had successfully invented and built the world's first compact disc that contained digitized codes etched onto the disc that could be read from a laser.[175][176][177][178] After partnering with Digital Recording which was later acquired by Optical Recording Corporation, Russell and the parent company that he worked for, found it increasingly difficult to enforce and protect his patents from infringement by competitors such as Sony, Philips, and Time Warner who all profited from Russell's invention. The belief that Dutch and Japanese scientists "invented" the compact disc is a misconception in the sense that Philips and Sony used Russell's underlying technology in order to develop a disc more refined, practical, smaller and sophisticated. In 1982, Sony and Philips had commercially introduced the compact disc, twelve years after Russell had already created a working prototype in 1970. By 1986, Optical Recording decided to legally act by suing Sony, Phillips, and Time Warner. Two years later, the company came to a licensing settlement with Sony and soon thereafter, agreements with Phillips and others soon followed, including a June 1992 court ruling that required Time Warner to pay Optical Recording $30 million due to patent infringement." — Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.160.120.223 (talk) 15:49, 22 January 2012 (UTC)

 * http://inventors.about.com/od/qrstartinventors/a/CD.htm http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/russell.html  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.160.98.84 (talk) 16:22, 22 January 2012 (UTC)

 * http://www.google.de/imgres?imgurl=http://www.babusinesslife.com/Media/images/EntrepH0509-James-T-Russell-ea00887c-56f2-4649-8471-2063986ff745.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.babusinesslife.com/Tools/Entrepreneurship/The-Digital-Music-Revolution.html&usg=__J9XXQwXyu19tJTkOCkMgmBw5AUw=&h=412&w=605&sz=49&hl=de&start=0&zoom=1&tbnid=1bYdt99WYhV0QM:&tbnh=127&tbnw=186&ei=TkEcT_eUBImCtQaTzLVH&prev=/search%3Fq%3DJames%2BT%2BRussell%26hl%3Dde%26biw%3D1170%26bih%3D639%26gbv%3D2%26tbm%3Disch&itbs=1&iact=hc&vpx=95&vpy=153&dur=177&hovh=185&hovw=272&tx=131&ty=202&sig=113535680373983037897&page=1&ndsp=21&ved=1t:429,r:0,s:0 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.160.96.158 (talk) 17:05, 22 January 2012 (UTC)

I think the history section of the article would be better if some reference were made to James Russell, as the above-user mentions. From everything I've read, Russell played a key role in the invention of the compact disc. Starting with Philips and Sony is, in effect, beginning in the middle, instead of at the start. (I hope this post meets the applicable criteria - it is my first post. John M. Becker173.166.126.249 (talk) 17:26, 8 January 2014 (UTC)
 * I was wondering about this too. The successful commercial application of a technology is certainly important but it seems strange that this article does not make any mention of Russell inventing the format decades earlier. -- 109.76.128.3 (talk) 15:23, 10 November 2023 (UTC)

a CD could store much more data than a personal computer hard disk drive
The article says: a CD could store much more data than a personal computer hard disk drive which is likely true, but I suspect people in 1980 didn't master CDs on their PC. (Which were more likely to be Apple II, or similar.) History of hard disk drives seems not to well cover the drives used by medium sized computers in the 1980s. Somewhere between IBM mainframes and PCs, such as Sun workstations, or similar. Those drives were getting close to CD sized, and systems might have had more than one. Gah4 (talk) 00:26, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

Integrity section
Could an expert please expand the Integrity section to include a comparison of life expectancies for various storage media? Thank you. 2A00:23C6:549D:C301:B579:6C3F:960:FE1F (talk) 08:02, 11 November 2022 (UTC)

Correct cleaning of the media surface
The data on a CD (e.g. audio files) is placed in concentric circles (not a spiral as on a gramophone record) and is read by a laser from the inside out (unlike a gramophone record on which the needle reads from the outside in). Therefore, in order to clean a CD safely and effectively, it should be done from the inside to the outer edge with straight movements instead of a circular motion, which gives us the advantage of not smearing the dirt on the surface of the disc but "sliding it off" and at the same time avoiding situations where possible the long scratch on the data portion caused by us (if we wipe in a circular manner) is along the data reading line and will prevent the laser from reading the disc correctly, unlike the situation when the scratch is across the laser reading line and any short damage to the track will not affect the sound quality (correct reading data) because systems and corrective data will prevent this because they can repair damage to small portions of data (scratches across), but they cannot cope with damaged large portions of data (scratches along). Miszkurka2000 (talk) 21:59, 18 March 2024 (UTC)

 * The data on CD is recorded in a spiral. HDDs record data in concentric tracks. Wiping along the radius is the recommended cleaning procedure. ~Kvng (talk) 16:08, 23 March 2024 (UTC)

Broken ref
This edit by created a broken reference link (#29). I'm not sure how to fix this. ~Kvng (talk) 20:10, 25 April 2024 (UTC)
 * I found and added the missing source from CDDA article. InvisibleUp, please when adding a template:Excerpt, always fill in all sources so we don't have to search for it. Jirka.h23 (talk) 06:29, 26 April 2024 (UTC)
 * I added most of them, but that particular reference was being re-exported under the wrong refname and I had no idea how to fix that. Thanks for sorting that out, though. InvisibleUp (talk) 07:16, 26 April 2024 (UTC)

HeNe
As far as I know, the early CD players used HeNe gas lasers. I don't have a WP:RS, though. If so, when was the transition to semiconductor lasers? Gah4 (talk) 21:11, 7 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Compact disc


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Talk:Ikhthis

In modern English we transliterate upsilon as a U rather than an I. Modern Greek, whatever its grammatical and vocabulary similarity to ancient Greek, has changed considerably in pronunciation. This is not to say that the way Western Europeans and Anglo-Americans read classical Greek out loud is better than the way modern Greek speakers read it out loud, but they sure are different. MichaelTinkler

I am not sure of what you really mean. What is the connection with ιχθύς?

The standard English transliteration is Ichthus. Ikhthus would do. However, this entry seems to be a dictionary entry to me, and wikipedia is not a dictionary. MichaelTinkler

First: I do not have any objection to transliterating ιχθύς to Ichthus or Ikhthus -even though I have my doubts about the current transliteration system (because of lack of information). It was not my spelling. I just linked the word from the Greek language/Lexicon. If you feel that I should redirect it to another page with the different spelling I can do it.

Second: I agree as well that wikipedia is not a dictionary. If I had added a link saying simply that ιχθύς is the greek word for fish that would have been a dictionary entry. The current page, though, gives some specific information about the connection of the symbol and Christianity. Maybe it would have been better if I had a picture of some sort of the symbol used in catacombes or something but I don't. So I had to get by only with simply the name of the symbol.

Of course all of the above are simply my opinion and I would be very happy to discuss any objection. Eanorel

 * That sounds like it would make it better. MichaelTinkler

title: Talk:Ikhthis


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Cryostasis (clathrate hydrates)

The term cryostasis was introduced to name the reversible preservation technology for live biological objects which is based on using clathrate-forming gaseous substances under increased hydrostatic pressure and hypothermic temperatures.

Living tissues cooled below the freezing point of water are damaged by the dehydration of the cells as ice is formed between the cells. The mechanism of freezing damage in living biological tissues has been elucidated by Renfret. The vapor pressure of the ice is lower than the vapor pressure of the solute water in the surrounding cells and as heat is removed at the freezing point of the solutions, the ice crystals grow between the cells, extracting water from them. As the ice crystals grow, the volume of the cells shrinks, and the cells are crushed between the ice crystals. Additionally, as the cells shrink, the solutes inside the cells are concentrated in the remaining water, increasing the intracellular ionic strength and interfering with the organization of the proteins and other organized intercellular structures. Eventually, the solute concentration inside the cells reaches the eutectic and freezes. The final state of frozen tissues is pure ice in the former extracellular spaces, and inside the cell membranes a mixture of concentrated cellular components in ice and bound water. In general, this process is not reversible to the point of restoring the tissues to life.

Cryostasis utilizes clathrate-forming gases that penetrate and saturate the biological tissues causing clathrate hydrates formation (under specific pressure-temperature conditions) inside the cells and in the extracellular matrix. Clathrate hydrates are a class of solids in which gas molecules occupy "cages" made up of hydrogen-bonded water molecules. These "cages" are unstable when empty, collapsing into conventional ice crystal structure, but they are stabilised by the inclusion of the gas molecule within them. Most low molecular weight gases (including CH4, H2S, Ar, Kr, and Xe) will form a hydrate under some pressure-temperature conditions. Clathrates formation will prevent the biological tissues from dehydration which will cause irreversible inactivation of intracellular enzymes.

title: Cryostasis (clathrate hydrates)


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Detection

In general, detection is the action of accessing information without specific cooperation from with the sender.

In the history of radio communications, the term "detector" was first used for a device that detected the simple presence or absence of a radio signal, since all communications were in Morse code. The term is still in use today to describe a component that extracts a particular signal from all of the electromagnetic waves present. Detection is usually based on the frequency of the carrier signal, as in the familiar frequencies of radio broadcasting, but it may also involve filtering a faint signal from noise, as in radio astronomy, or reconstructing a hidden signal, as in steganography.

In optoelectronics, "detection" means converting a received optical input to an electrical output. For example, the light signal received through an optical fiber is converted to an electrical signal in a detector such as a photodiode.

In steganography, attempts to detect hidden signals in suspected carrier material is referred to as steganalysis. Steganalysis has an interesting difference from most other types of detection, in that it can often only determine the probability that a hidden message exists; this is in contrast to the detection of signals which are simply encrypted, as the ciphertext can often be identified with certainty, even if it cannot be decoded.

In the military, detection refers to the special discipline of reconnaissance with the aim to recognize the presence of an object in a location or ambiance.

Finally, the art of detection, also known as following clues, is the work of a detective in attempting to reconstruct a sequence of events by identifying the relevant information in a situation.

title: Detection


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Photodiode

A photodiode is a semiconductor diode sensitive to photon radiation, such as visible light, infrared or ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays. It produces an electrical current when it absorbs photons. This can be used for detection and measurement applications, or for the generation of electrical power in solar cells. Photodiodes are used in a wide range of applications throughout the electromagnetic spectrum from visible light photocells to gamma ray spectrometers.

Principle of operation
A photodiode is a PIN structure or p–n junction. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the diode, it creates an electron–hole pair. This mechanism is also known as the inner photoelectric effect. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in electric field of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced. The total current through the photodiode is the sum of the dark current (current that is passed in the absence of light) and the photocurrent, so the dark current must be minimized to maximize the sensitivity of the device.

To first order, for a given spectral distribution, the photocurrent is linearly proportional to the irradiance.

Photovoltaic mode

In photovoltaic mode (zero bias), photocurrent flows into the anode through a short circuit to the cathode. If the circuit is opened or has a load impedance, restricting the photocurrent out of the device, a voltage builds up in the direction that forward biases the diode, that is, anode positive with respect to cathode. If the circuit is shorted or the impedance is low, a forward current will consume all or some of the photocurrent. This mode exploits the photovoltaic effect, which is the basis for solar cells – a traditional solar cell is just a large area photodiode. For optimum power output, the photovoltaic cell will be operated at a voltage that causes only a small forward current compared to the photocurrent.

Photoconductive mode
In photoconductive mode the diode is reverse biased, that is, with the cathode driven positive with respect to the anode. This reduces the response time because the additional reverse bias increases the width of the depletion layer, which decreases the junction's capacitance and increases the region with an electric field that will cause electrons to be quickly collected. The reverse bias also creates dark current without much change in the photocurrent.

Although this mode is faster, the photoconductive mode can exhibit more electronic noise due to dark current or avalanche effects. The leakage current of a good PIN diode is so low (<1 nA) that the Johnson–Nyquist noise of the load resistance in a typical circuit often dominates.

Related devices
Avalanche photodiodes are photodiodes with structure optimized for operating with high reverse bias, approaching the reverse breakdown voltage. This allows each photo-generated carrier to be multiplied by avalanche breakdown, resulting in internal gain within the photodiode, which increases the effective responsivity of the device. A phototransistor is a light-sensitive transistor. A common type of phototransistor, the bipolar phototransistor, is in essence a bipolar transistor encased in a transparent case so that light can reach the base–collector junction. It was invented by John N. Shive (more famous for his wave machine) at Bell Labs in 1948 but it was not announced until 1950. The electrons that are generated by photons in the base–collector junction are injected into the base, and this photodiode current is amplified by the transistor's current gain β (or hfe). If the base and collector leads are used and the emitter is left unconnected, the phototransistor becomes a photodiode. While phototransistors have a higher responsivity for light they are not able to detect low levels of light any better than photodiodes. Phototransistors also have significantly longer response times. Another type of phototransistor, the field-effect phototransistor (also known as photoFET), is a light-sensitive field-effect transistor. Unlike photobipolar transistors, photoFETs control drain-source current by creating a gate voltage.

A solaristor is a two-terminal gate-less phototransistor. A compact class of two-terminal phototransistors or solaristors have been demonstrated in 2018 by ICN2 researchers. The novel concept is a two-in-one power source plus transistor device that runs on solar energy by exploiting a memresistive effect in the flow of photogenerated carriers.

Materials
The material used to make a photodiode is critical to defining its properties, because only photons with sufficient energy to excite electrons across the material's bandgap will produce significant photocurrents.

Materials commonly used to produce photodiodes are listed in the table below.

Because of their greater bandgap, silicon-based photodiodes generate less noise than germanium-based photodiodes.

Binary materials, such as MoS2, and graphene emerged as new materials for the production of photodiodes.

Unwanted and wanted photodiode effects
Any p–n junction, if illuminated, is potentially a photodiode. Semiconductor devices such as diodes, transistors and ICs contain p–n junctions, and will not function correctly if they are illuminated by unwanted light. This is avoided by encapsulating devices in opaque housings. If these housings are not completely opaque to high-energy radiation (ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays), diodes, transistors and ICs can malfunction due to induced photo-currents. Background radiation from the packaging is also significant. Radiation hardening mitigates these effects.

In some cases, the effect is actually wanted, for example to use LEDs as light-sensitive devices (see LED as light sensor) or even for energy harvesting, then sometimes called light-emitting and light-absorbing diodes (LEADs).

Features
Critical performance parameters of a photodiode include spectral responsivity, dark current, response time and noise-equivalent power.

 * Spectral responsivity: The spectral responsivity is a ratio of the generated photocurrent to incident light power, expressed in A/W when used in photoconductive mode. The wavelength-dependence may also be expressed as a quantum efficiency or the ratio of the number of photogenerated carriers to incident photons which is a unitless quantity.
 * Dark current: The dark current is the current through the photodiode in the absence of light, when it is operated in photoconductive mode. The dark current includes photocurrent generated by background radiation and the saturation current of the semiconductor junction. Dark current must be accounted for by calibration if a photodiode is used to make an accurate optical power measurement, and it is also a source of noise when a photodiode is used in an optical communication system.
 * Response time: The response time is the time required for the detector to respond to an optical input. A photon absorbed by the semiconducting material will generate an electron–hole pair which will in turn start moving in the material under the effect of the electric field and thus generate a current. The finite duration of this current is known as the transit-time spread and can be evaluated by using Ramo's theorem. One can also show with this theorem that the total charge generated in the external circuit is e and not 2e as one might expect by the presence of the two carriers. Indeed, the integral of the current due to both electron and hole over time must be equal to e. The resistance and capacitance of the photodiode and the external circuitry give rise to another response time known as RC time constant ($$\tau=RC$$). This combination of R and C integrates the photoresponse over time and thus lengthens the impulse response of the photodiode. When used in an optical communication system, the response time determines the bandwidth available for signal modulation and thus data transmission.
 * Noise-equivalent power: Noise-equivalent power (NEP) is the minimum input optical power to generate photocurrent, equal to the rms noise current in a 1 hertz bandwidth. NEP is essentially the minimum detectable power. The related characteristic detectivity ($$D$$) is the inverse of NEP (1/NEP) and the specific detectivity ($$D^\star$$) is the detectivity multiplied by the square root of the area ($$A$$) of the photodetector ($$D^\star=D\sqrt{A}$$) for a 1 Hz bandwidth.  The specific detectivity allows different systems to be compared independent of sensor area and system bandwidth; a higher detectivity value indicates a low-noise device or system. Although it is traditional to give ($$D^\star$$) in many catalogues as a measure of the diode's quality, in practice, it is hardly ever the key parameter.

When a photodiode is used in an optical communication system, all these parameters contribute to the sensitivity of the optical receiver which is the minimum input power required for the receiver to achieve a specified bit error rate.

Applications
P–n photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors, such as photoconductors, charge-coupled devices (CCD), and photomultiplier tubes. They may be used to generate an output which is dependent upon the illumination (analog for measurement), or to change the state of circuitry (digital, either for control and switching or for digital signal processing).

Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players, smoke detectors, medical devices and the receivers for infrared remote control devices used to control equipment from televisions to air conditioners. For many applications either photodiodes or photoconductors may be used. Either type of photosensor may be used for light measurement, as in camera light meters, or to respond to light levels, as in switching on street lighting after dark.

Photosensors of all types may be used to respond to incident light or to a source of light which is part of the same circuit or system. A photodiode is often combined into a single component with an emitter of light, usually a light-emitting diode (LED), either to detect the presence of a mechanical obstruction to the beam (slotted optical switch) or to couple two digital or analog circuits while maintaining extremely high electrical isolation between them, often for safety (optocoupler). The combination of LED and photodiode is also used in many sensor systems to characterize different types of products based on their optical absorbance.

Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science and industry. They generally have a more linear response than photoconductors.

They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors for computed tomography (coupled with scintillators), instruments to analyze samples (immunoassay), and pulse oximeters.

PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than p–n junction diodes, and hence are often used for optical communications and in lighting regulation.

P–n photodiodes are not used to measure extremely low light intensities. Instead, if high sensitivity is needed, avalanche photodiodes, intensified charge-coupled devices or photomultiplier tubes are used for applications such as astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision equipment and laser rangefinding.

Comparison with photomultipliers
Advantages compared to photomultipliers:

 * 1) Excellent linearity of output current as a function of incident light
 * 2) Spectral response from 190 nm to 1100 nm (silicon), longer wavelengths with other semiconductor materials
 * 3) Low noise
 * 4) Ruggedized to mechanical stress
 * 5) Low cost
 * 6) Compact and light weight
 * 7) Long lifetime
 * 8) High quantum efficiency, typically 60–80%
 * 9) No high voltage required

Disadvantages compared to photomultipliers:

 * 1) Small area
 * 2) No internal gain (except avalanche photodiodes, but their gain is typically 102–103 compared to 105-108 for the photomultiplier)
 * 3) Much lower overall sensitivity
 * 4) Photon counting only possible with specially designed, usually cooled photodiodes, with special electronic circuits
 * 5) Response time for many designs is slower
 * 6) Latent effect

Pinned photodiode
The pinned photodiode (PPD) has a shallow implant (P+ or N+) in N-type or P-type diffusion layer, respectively, over a P-type or N-type (respectively) substrate layer, such that the intermediate diffusion layer can be fully depleted of majority carriers, like the base region of a bipolar junction transistor. The PPD (usually PNP) is used in CMOS active-pixel sensors; a precursor NPNP triple junction variant with the MOS buffer capacitor and the back-light illumination scheme with complete charge transfer and no image lag was invented by Sony in 1975. This scheme was widely used in many applications of charge transfer devices.

Early charge-coupled device image sensors suffered from shutter lag. This was largely explained with the re-invention of the pinned photodiode. It was developed by Nobukazu Teranishi, Hiromitsu Shiraki and Yasuo Ishihara at NEC in 1980. Sony in 1975 recognized that lag can be eliminated if the signal carriers could be transferred from the photodiode to the CCD. This led to their invention of the pinned photodiode, a photodetector structure with low lag, low noise, high quantum efficiency and low dark current. It was first publicly reported by Teranishi and Ishihara with A. Kohono, E. Oda and K. Arai in 1982, with the addition of an anti-blooming structure. The new photodetector structure invented by Sony in 1975, developed by NEC in 1982 by Kodak in 1984 was given the name "pinned photodiode" (PPD) by B.C. Burkey at Kodak in 1984. In 1987, the PPD began to be incorporated into most CCD sensors, becoming a fixture in consumer electronic video cameras and then digital still cameras.

A CMOS image sensor with a low-voltage-PPD technology was first fabricated in 1995 by a joint JPL and Kodak team. The CMOS sensor with PPD technology was further advanced and refined by R.M. Guidash in 1997, K. Yonemoto and H. Sumi in 2000, and I. Inoue in 2003. This led to CMOS sensors achieve imaging performance on par with CCD sensors, and later exceeding CCD sensors.

Photodiode array

A one-dimensional array of hundreds or thousands of photodiodes can be used as a position sensor, for example as part of an angle sensor. A two-dimensional array is used in image sensors and optical mice.

In some applications, photodiode arrays allow for high-speed parallel readout, as opposed to integrating scanning electronics as in a charge-coupled device (CCD) or CMOS sensor. The optical mouse chip shown in the photo has parallel (not multiplexed) access to all 16 photodiodes in its 4 × 4 array.

Passive-pixel image sensor
The passive-pixel sensor (PPS) is a type of photodiode array. It was the precursor to the active-pixel sensor (APS). A passive-pixel sensor consists of passive pixels which are read out without amplification, with each pixel consisting of a photodiode and a MOSFET switch. In a photodiode array, pixels contain a p–n junction, integrated capacitor, and MOSFETs as selection transistors. A photodiode array was proposed by G. Weckler in 1968, predating the CCD. This was the basis for the PPS.

The noise of photodiode arrays is sometimes a limitation to performance. It was not possible to fabricate active pixel sensors with a practical pixel size in the 1970s, due to limited microlithography technology at the time.

title: Photodiode


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Talk:History of Java

I'm just adding notes in the history section. Perhaps the history section should go in its own page.

On the contrary; I think the history is quite helpful. I would like to see it up-to-date; there's at least 7 years in there that need to be added.

What's there is great, though. Radagast 03:03, Feb 3, 2004 (UTC)

Need a general Java Platform page
Now we have Groovy it would be very useful to point to a summary article like the Java section in the Sun Microsystems page. I'll make the same comment on the Java programming language page. User:webmink -
 * I am not sure why we need a history of Java in Java platform article. Webmink is right. We need some article that covers Java platform not just a platform for Java programming language but one for Groovy, Pizza, gj and

title: Talk:History of Java


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Autolysin

Autolysins are endogenous lytic enzymes that break down the peptidoglycan components of biological cells which enables the separation of daughter cells following cell division. They are involved in cell growth, cell wall metabolism, cell division and separation, as well as peptidoglycan turnover and have similar functions to lysozymes.

Autolysin is formed from the precursor gene, Atl. Amidases (EC 3.5.1.28), gametolysin (EC 3.4.24.38), and glucosaminidase are considered as types of autolysins.

Function and mechanisms
Autolysins exist in all bacteria containing peptidoglycan and are potentially considered as lethal enzymes when uncontrolled. They target the glycosidic bonds as well as the cross-linked peptides of the peptidoglycan matrix. The peptidoglycan matrix functions for cell wall stability to protect from turgor changes and carries out function for immunological defense. These enzymes break down the peptidoglycan matrix in small sections to allow for peptidoglycan biosynthesis. Autolysins breaks down old peptidoglycan which allows for the formation of newer peptidoglycan for cell growth and elongation. This is called cell wall turnover. Autolysins do this by hydrolyzing the β-(1,4) glycosidic bond of the peptidoglycan cell wall and the linkage between N-acetylmuramoyl residues and L-amino acid residues of certain cell-wall glycopeptides. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction:

 * Cleavage of the proline- and hydroxyproline-rich proteins of the Chlamydomonas cell wall; also cleaves azocasein, gelatin and Leu-Trp-Met-Arg-Phe-Ala

This glycoprotein is present in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii gametes.

Gram-positive bacteria regulate autolysins with teichoic acid molecules attached to the tetrapeptide of the peptidoglycan matrix.

The antibiotics complestatin and corbomycin prevent autolysin from remodeling the cell wall by binding to peptidoglycan, therefore stopping bacterial growth. The amide linkages between stem peptide and lactyl moiety of muramoyl residue are cleaved by N-acetylmuramoyl-l-alanine amidases and partakes in cell separation and the dissociation of the cell septum. There are 5 types of autolysins that contribute to cell separation of daughter cells, LytC, LytD, LytE, and LytF.

In a study conducted with mice, those that were immunized with autolysin were able to survive longer than the infected mice. This study was able to support as evidence autolysin's contribution in virulence and potential for vaccine antigen.

Lysis of mother cell
LytC and CwlC are two amidases from the LytC family that hydrolyze the peptidoglycan of the mother cell wall to allow for the release of the mature endospore. CwlC is directly found in the mother cell wall.

Motility
Expression of lytC, lytD, and lytF genes together leads to flagellar motility and is controlled by the activity of the chemotaxis sigma factor,  σD. The activity of this sigma factor peaks at the start of the stationary phase.

Potential lethality
Autolysins are naturally produced by peptidoglycan containing bacteria, but excessive amounts will degrade the peptidoglycan matrix and cause the cell to burst due to osmotic pressure. Previous studies have found that the byproducts of autolysin during cell wall breakdown are highly immunogenic. When observed in the bacteria, Bacillus subtilis, there were potentially lethal amounts of autolysin found in the cell walls. In Streptococcus pneumoniae it was found that N-acetylmuramoyl-l-alanine amidase, a cell wall autolysin, could assist in pathogenesis due to its ability to break down the wall or lyse a portion of the invading pneumococci and release potentially lethal toxins into the cell. Researchers studied the function, structure, and cloning ability through Escherichia coli and also determined its nucleotide sequence.

LytC
LytC as well as LytD are considered as two major autolysins that contribute to vegetative cell wall growth and account for 95% of the autolytic activity in B. subtilis. LytC is found in the cell wall. LytB, a non-autolysin, was found to enhance LytC activity. LytC and LytA interact and function together for lysis and cell death.

CwlC
CwlC is found in the mother cell wall and functions for the lysis of the mother cell wall. CwlC does not have a signal sequence but participates in late sporulation and is present in the cell wall. It was found in B. subtilis that CwlC is able to hydrolyze both vegetative cell walls and spore peptidoglycan.

LytD glucosaminidase family
This family of autolysin consist of only LytD itself. LytD functions for vegetative growth. Autolytic activity is found within the C-terminal region with catalytic domain homologous to the glucosaminidase domain. LytD is found in the cell wall. LytD activity was studied in B. subtilis and glucosaminidase activity was found in mature glycan strands due to the presence of MurNAc at the nonreducing ends.

title: Autolysin


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Biostasis

Biostasis is the ability of an organism to tolerate environmental changes without having to actively adapt to them. Biostasis is found in organisms that live in habitats that likely encounter unfavorable living conditions, such as drought, freezing temperatures, change in pH levels, pressure, or temperature. Insects undergo a type of dormancy to survive these conditions, called diapause. Diapause may be obligatory for these insects to survive. The insect may also be able to undergo change prior to the arrival of the initiating event.

Microorganisms
Biostasis in this context is also synonymous for viable but nonculturable state. In the past when bacteria were no longer growing on culture media it was assumed that they were dead. Now we can understand that there are many instances where bacteria cells may go into biostasis or suspended animation, fail to grow on media, and on resuscitation are again culturable. VBNC state differs from 'starvation survival state' (where a cell just reduces metabolism significantly). Bacteria cells may enter the VBNC state as a result of some outside stressor such as "starvation, incubation outside the temperature range of growth, elevated osmotic concentrations (seawater), oxygen concentrations, or exposure to white light". Any of these instances could very easily mean death for the bacteria if it was not able to enter this state of dormancy. It has also been observed that in may instances where it was thought that bacteria had been destroyed (pasteurization of milk) and later caused spoilage or harmful effects to consumers because the bacteria had entered the VBNC state.

Effects on cells entering the VBNC state include "dwarfing, changes in metabolic activity, reduced nutrient transport, respiration rates and macromolecular synthesis". Yet biosynthesis continues, and shock proteins are made. Most importantly has been observed that ATP levels and generation remain high, completely contrary to dying cells which show rapid decreases in generation and retention. Changes to the cell walls of bacteria in the VBNC state have also been observed. In Escherichia coli a large amount of cross-linking was observed in the peptidoglycan. The autolytic capability was also observed to be much higher in VBNC cells than those who were in the growth state.

It is far easier to induce bacteria to the VBNC state and once bacteria cells have entered the VBNC state it is very hard to return them to a culturable state. "They examined nonculturability and resuscitation in Legionella pneumophila and while entry into this state was easily induced by nutrient starvation, resuscitation could only be demonstrated following co-incubation of the VBNC cells with the amoeba, Acanthamoeba Castellani"

Fungistasis or mycostasis a naturally occurring VBNC (viable but nonculturable) state found in fungi in soil. Watson and Ford defined fungistasis as "when viable fungal propagules, which are not subject to endogenous or constitutive dormancy do not germinate in soil at their favorable temperature or moisture conditions or growth of fungal hyphae is retarded or terminated by conditions of the soil environment other than temperature or moisture". Essentially (and mostly observed naturally occurring in soil) several types of fungi have been found to enter the VBNC state resulting from outside stressors (temperature, available nutrients, oxygen availability etc.) or from no observable stressors at all.

Current research
On March 1, 2018, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) announced their new Biostasis program under the direction of Dr. Tristan McClure-Begley. The aim of the Biostasis program is to develop new possibilities for extending the golden hour in patients who suffered a traumatic injury by slowing down the human body at the cellular level, addressing the need for additional time in continuously operating biological systems faced with catastrophic, life-threatening events. By leveraging molecular biology, the program aims to control the speed at which living systems operate and figure out a way to "slow life to save life."

On March 20, 2018, the Biostasis team held a Webinar which, along with a Broad Agency Announcement (BAA), solicited five-year research proposals from outside organizations. The full proposals were due on May 22, 2018.

Possible approaches
In their Webinar, DARPA outlined a number of possible research approaches for the Biostasis project. These approaches are based on research into diapause in tardigrades and wood frogs which suggests that selective stabilization of intracellular machinery occurs at the protein level.

Protein chaperoning
In molecular biology, molecular chaperones are proteins that assist in the folding, unfolding, assembly, or disassembly of other macromolecular structures. Under typical conditions, molecular chaperones facilitate changes in shape (conformational change) of macromolecules in response to changes in environmental factors like temperature, pH, and voltage. By reducing conformational flexibility, scientists can constrain the function of certain proteins. Recent research has shown that proteins are promiscuous, or able to do jobs in addition to the ones they evolved to carry out. Additionally, protein promiscuity plays a key role in the adaptation of species to new environments. It is possible that finding a way to control conformational change in promiscuous proteins could allow scientists to induce biostasis in living organisms.

Intracellular crowding
The crowdedness of cells is a critical aspect of biological systems. Intracellular crowding refers to the fact that protein function and interaction with water is constrained when the interior of the cell is overcrowded. Intracellular organelles are either membrane-bound vesicles or membrane-less compartments that compartmentalize the cell and enable spatiotemporal control of biological reactions. By introducing these intracellular polymers to a biological system and manipulating the crowdedness of a cell, scientists may be able to slow down the rate of biological reactions in the system.

Tardigrade-disordered proteins
Tardigrades are microscopic animals that are able to enter a state of diapause and survive a remarkable array of environmental stressors, including freezing and desiccation. Research has shown that intrinsically disordered proteins in these organisms may work to stabilize cell function and protect against these extreme environmental stressors. By using peptide engineering, it is possible that scientists may be able to introduce intrinsically disordered proteins to the biological systems of larger animal organisms. This could allow larger animals to enter a state of biostasis similar to that of tardigrades under extreme biological stress.

title: Biostasis


text:
Chitinase

Chitinases (, chitodextrinase, 1,4-β-poly-N-acetylglucosaminidase, poly-β-glucosaminidase, β-1,4-poly-N-acetyl glucosamidinase, poly[1,4-(N-acetyl-β- D -glucosaminide)] glycanohydrolase, (1→4)-2-acetamido-2-deoxy-β- D -glucan glycanohydrolase; systematic name (1→4)-2-acetamido-2-deoxy-β- D -glucan glycanohydrolase) are hydrolytic enzymes that break down glycosidic bonds in chitin. They catalyse the following reaction:

 * Random endo-hydrolysis of N-acetyl-β- D -glucosaminide (1→4)-β-linkages in chitin and chitodextrins

As chitin is a component of the cell walls of fungi and exoskeletal elements of some animals (including mollusks and arthropods), chitinases are generally found in organisms that either need to reshape their own chitin or dissolve and digest the chitin of fungi or animals.

Species distribution
Chitinivorous organisms include many bacteria (Aeromonads, Bacillus, Vibrio, among others), which may be pathogenic or detritivorous. They attack living arthropods, zooplankton or fungi or they may degrade the remains of these organisms.

Fungi, such as Coccidioides immitis, also possess degradative chitinases related to their role as detritivores and also to their potential as arthropod pathogens.

Chitinases are also present in plants – for example barley seed chitinase:,. Barley seeds are found to produce clone 10 in Ignatius et al 1994(a). They find clone 10, a Class I chitinase, in the seed aleurone during development. Leaves produce several isozymes (as well as several of β-1,3-glucanase). Ignatius et al 1994(b) find these in the leaves, induced by powdery mildew. Ignatius et al also find these (seed and leaf isozymes) to differ from each other. Some of these are pathogenesis related (PR) proteins that are induced as part of systemic acquired resistance. Expression is mediated by the NPR1 gene and the salicylic acid pathway, both involved in resistance to fungal and insect attack. Other plant chitinases may be required for creating fungal symbioses.

Although mammals do not produce chitin, they have two functional chitinases, Chitotriosidase (CHIT1) and acidic mammalian chitinase (AMCase), as well as chitinase-like proteins (such as YKL-40) that have high sequence similarity but lack chitinase activity.

Classification
Chitinases were also classified based on the amino acid sequences, as that would be more helpful in understanding the evolutionary relationships of these enzymes to each other. Therefore, the chitinases were grouped into three families: 18, 19, and 20. Both families 18 and 19 consists of endochitinases from a variety of different organisms, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, insect, and plants. However, family 19 mainly comprises plant chitinases. Family 20 includes N-acetylglucosaminidase and a similar enzyme, N-acetylhexosaminidase.
 * 1) Endochitinases (EC 3.2.1.14) randomly split chitin at internal sites of the chitin microfibril, forming soluble, low molecular mass multimer products. The multimer products includes di-acetylchitobiose, chitotriose, and chitotetraose, with the dimer being the predominant product.
 * 2) Exochitinases have also been divided into two sub categories:
 * 3) Chitobiosidases  act on the non-reducing end of the chitin microfibril, releasing the dimer, di-acetylchitobiose, one by one from the chitin chain. Therefore, there is no release of monosaccharides or oligosaccharides in this reaction.
 * 4) β-1,4- N-acetylglucosaminidases  split the multimer products, such as di-acetylchitobiose, chitotriose, and chitotetraose, into monomers of N-acetylglucoseamine (GlcNAc).

And as the gene sequences of the chitinases were known, they were further classified into six classes based on their sequences. Characteristics that determined the classes of chitinases were the N-terminal sequence, localization of the enzyme, isoelectric pH, signal peptide, and inducers.

chitinases had a cysteine-rich N-terminal, leucine- or valine-rich signal peptide, and vacuolar localization. And then, Class I chitinases were further subdivided based on their acidic or basic nature into and, respectively. Class 1 chitinases were found to comprise only plant chitinases and mostly endochitinases.

chitinases did not have the cysteine-rich N-terminal but had a similar sequence to Class I chitinases. Class II chitinases were found in plants, fungi, and bacteria and mostly consisted of exochitinases.

chitinases did not have similar sequences to chitinases in Class I or Class II.

chitinases had similar characteristics, including the immunological properties, as Class I chitinases. However, Class IV chitinases were significantly smaller in size compared to Class I chitinases.

and chitinases are not well characterized. However, one example of a Class V chitinase showed two chitin binding domains in tandem, and based on the gene sequence, the cysteine-rich N-terminal seemed to have been lost during evolution, probably due to less selection pressure that caused the catalytic domain to lose its function.

Function
Like cellulose, chitin is an abundant biopolymer that is relatively resistant to degradation. Many mammals can digest chitin and the specific chitinase levels in vertebrate species are adapted to their feeding behaviours. Certain fish are able to digest chitin. Chitinases have been isolated from the stomachs of mammals, including humans.

Chitinase activity can also be detected in human blood and possibly cartilage. As in plant chitinases this may be related to pathogen resistance.

Clinical significance
Chitinases production in the human body (known as "human chitinases") may be in response to allergies, and asthma has been linked to enhanced chitinase expression levels.

Human chitinases may explain the link between some of the most common allergies (dust mites, mold spores—both of which contain chitin) and worm (helminth) infections, as part of one version of the hygiene hypothesis  (worms have chitinous mouthparts to hold the intestinal wall). Finally, the link between chitinases and salicylic acid in plants is well established—but there is a hypothetical link between salicylic acid and allergies in humans.

May be used to monitor enzymotherapy supplementation in Gaucher's disease.

Regulation in fungi
Regulation varies from species to species, and within an organism, chitinases with different physiological functions would be under different regulation mechanisms. For example, chitinases that are involved in maintenance, such as remodeling the cell wall, are constitutively expressed. However, chitinases that have specialized functions, such as degrading exogenous chitin or participating in cell division, need spatio-temporal regulation of the chitinase activity.

The regulation of an endochitinase in Trichoderma atroviride is dependent on a N-acetylglucosaminidase, and the data indicates a feedback-loop where the break down of chitin produces N-acetylglucosamine, which would be possibly taken up and triggers up-regulation of the chitinbiosidases.

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the regulation of ScCts1p (S. cerevisiae chitinase 1), one of the chitinases involved in cell separation after cytokinesis by degrading the chitin of the primary septum. As these types of chitinases are important in cell division, there must be tight regulation and activation. Specifically, Cts1 expression has to be activated in daughter cells during late mitosis and the protein has to localize at the daughter site of the septum. And to do this, there must be coordination with other networks controlling the different phases of the cell, such as Cdc14 Early Anaphase Release (FEAR), mitotic exit network (MEN), and regulation of Ace2p (transcription factor) and cellular morphogenesis (RAM) signalling networks. Overall, the integration of the different regulatory networks allows for the cell wall degrading chitinase to function dependent on the cell's stage in the cell cycle and at specific locations among the daughter cells.

Presence in food
Chitinases occur naturally in many common foods. Phaseolus vulgaris, bananas, chestnuts, kiwifruit, avocados, papaya, and tomatoes, for example, all contain significant levels of chitinase, as defense against fungal and invertebrate attack. Stress, or environmental signals like ethylene gas, may stimulate increased production of chitinase.

Some parts of chitinase molecules, almost identical in structure to hevein or other proteins in rubber latex due to their similar function in plant defense, may trigger an allergic cross-reaction known as latex-fruit syndrome.

Applications
Chitinases have a wealth of applications, some of which have already been realized by industry. This includes bio-conversion of chitin to useful products such as fertilizer, the production of non-allergenic, non-toxic, biocompatible, and biodegradable materials (contact lenses, artificial skin and sutures with these qualities are already being produced) and enhancement of insecticides and fungicides. Phaseolus vulgaris chitinase - bean chitinase, BCH - has been transgenically inserted as a pest deterrent into entirely unrelated crops.

Possible future applications of chitinases are as food additives to increase shelf life, therapeutic agent for asthma and chronic rhinosinusitis, as an anti-fungal remedy, an anti-tumor drug and as a general ingredient to be used in protein engineering.

title: Chitinase


text:
Talk:Azores

Africans and Moors - distortion of the sources
The "demographics" section was biased and distorted the sources. It was writen that "North African and Sephardic Jews settled on the islands in large numbers. Moorish (Muslim) prisoners and African slaves from Guinea Cape Verde, and São Tomé contributed to the population as well. Thus the Azorean population received a significant contribution from people with geographic backgrounds other than Portuguese."

However, what the source really claims is that ''"The Portuguese explorers, who discovered the archipelago in 1427, only started the settlement in 1439 through a long and difficult process. Historical data report a contribution from people with genetic backgrounds other than Portuguese, including Flemish, Spanish, French, Italian, German, Scottish, Jewish, and also from Moorish prisoners and black slaves from Guinea, Cape Verde and São Tomé." ''

A clear distortion of the source, which does not mention "large numbers", and do not even mention "Sephardic Jews", but only "Jews". Moreover, the source claims many other groups settled in the Azores, however only "North Africans and Sephardic Jews" were cherry-picked and included in the "demographics" section. This is biased, you have to cite all the groups mentioned in the source, not only 2 and ignore the others.

Another part of the text claimed that "Moorish and African genetic heritage, likely facilitated by the African slavery, and supported by historical reports, is supported by mtDNA genetic data. Contributions from Sephardic Jews and Northern Europe also are supported by the analysis of genetic data".

This is not what the source says. The source does not claim that Moors came to the Azores as slaves. This is original research.

Moreover, the source itself claims that "These studies report a high genetic variability and heterogeneity of the Azorean population, explained by the settling history of the islands, where a major contribution of mainland Portugal individuals is evident."

As one can see, the sources used are clear that most settlers in the Azores came from mainland Portugal, however the text written in the "demographics" section barely mentions the Portuguese, and gives too much attention to minor groups of "Africans", "Sephardic Jews" or "Moors", and clearly distorts what the sources claim. It is like talking about the demographics of Japan and only write about the minor Brazilian community there. Xuxo (talk) 14:42, 9 February 2023 (UTC)

 * So, there is a very simple solution: you modify the text, if necessary, to better reflect what the reference states. What you do not do is remove a perfectly valid reference from a reliable source, and certainly not without first seeking consensus, which is what I invited you to do in my original edit summary and which I have now repeated. --Technopat (talk) 15:40, 9 February 2023 (UTC)

 * I did modify the text to better reflect what the sources claim, in order to removed the original research pointed above, but you keep reverting me. What do you mean with "perfectly valid reference from a reliable source"? I am not discussing the realibity of the references, but the original research made using them as a disguise.

Could you please point the sentences I removed and why they should be in the article ? Because I already explained that the written text was not supported by the references.

Moreover, I did not remove any reference. The reference is still there. What I did was to include all the groups cited in the reference in a single paragraph, so that the text becomes less repetitive. Xuxo (talk) 16:17, 9 February 2023 (UTC)

 * Contrary to your repeated statement above, you have now removed the perfectly valid reference (Annals of Human Genetics) a third time, without making any attempt to seek consensus here. I have therefore restored it. You are welcome to modify the corresponding text accordingly, if indeed necessary. As you are clearly engaged in edit-warring, despite my invitation to seek consensus here, please note that if you remove said reference again without having reached consensus here I shall report your behaviour. I think that clears up any possible misunderstanding. --Technopat (talk) 00:49, 10 February 2023 (UTC)

 * Did you even read the sources? The link for "Annals of Human Genetics" is exactly the same for "BMC Research Notes". I just removed the duplication. Stop edit-warring. Xuxo (talk) 01:51, 10 February 2023 (UTC)

 * I opened a Dispute of resolution here Xuxo (talk) 02:26, 10 February 2023 (UTC)

US Armed Forces on Terceira
It should be noted that the US Army had the ships in Praia. The US Navy flew aircraft and the US Air Force refueled aircraft, and with the Portuguese airport, served as a landing strip for all aircraft. Supplies, food, autos, etc were received in container ships that offloaded at US Army TTU, transportation terminal unit. 72.84.70.46 (talk) 00:38, 17 August 2023 (UTC)

Previous coat of arms WAS WRONG
Please see official site https://portal.azores.gov.pt/web/comunicacao/brasao Skunkcrew (talk) 21:02, 7 September 2023 (UTC)

Not the farthest west point in the EU.
The copy indicates that the Azores represent the farthest West Point in the European Union. Not quite. That title goes to St Pierre and Miquelon, a group of islands off the south coast of Newfoundland (Canada) that are pert of France 2605:B100:135:5704:8C86:71EF:AAE5:4022 (talk) 05:28, 4 November 2023 (UTC)

EarthCheck Sustainable Destination
Would welcome some guidance on the edit. The Azores was factually the first archipeligo to be certified, it was endorsed by the Government. I edited this out to reflect just their Earthcheck certification. Its a government policy and something they publish publicly. Should I perhaps expand on it more and include their policy documents, action plans etc? Appreciate any guidance you can provide. 118.209.253.140 (talk) 21:52, 4 December 2023 (UTC)

 * Hey there. Thanks for the message. For anyone else reading, this message is in regards to and . The first diff was definitely a problem, it had a promotional tone. The second is better, but I still suspect it is WP:UNDUE. This minor certification doesn't seem like it belongs in an article about an Autonomous Region of Portugal. Got any links to newspapers or books that talk about the Azores receiving this certification? Third parties talking about something is a good way to see if this is WP:UNDUE or not, assuming that the newspaper articles are not obviously based on press releases. – Novem Linguae  (talk) 22:03, 4 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Azores


text:
Talk:Java API

I moved the original API specification to J2SE page as it appear to apply mostly to that page.

title: Talk:Java API


text:
Encyclopedia Astronautica

The Encyclopedia Astronautica is a reference web site on space travel. The encyclopedia includes 79,433 articles with 13,741 illustrations, a comprehensive catalog of missiles, spacecraft, space technology, astronauts, and spaceflight from most countries that have had an active rocket research program. It provides biographies of important pioneers of spaceflight such as Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, Hermann Oberth Robert Goddard. It outlines various concepts of space stations including the NASA Space Shuttle and the Soviet Buran programme.

Articles
In addition, the encyclopedia contains many comprehensive review articles on specific space topics, among them:
 * Germany incl. an extensive list of German missile specialists who worked for USA, USSR and France after World War II.
 * Russia - Early Ballistic Missiles with a history of the involvement of German rocket specialists in Soviet rocketry.
 * Russia: The Real Moon Landing Hoax about the Space Race.
 * Russia: What did the CIA know and when did they know it? with an overview of the CIA's knowledge and assessments of Soviet missile technology.
 * Historical data of space travel for each calendar day.

Since 2019, the site is no longer updated or maintained. Although it contains a great deal of information, not all of it is correct.

History
Founded in 1994 and maintained for most of its existence by space enthusiast and author Mark Wade. He has been collecting such information for most of his life. Between 1996 and 2000 the site was hosted by Friends and Partners in Space.

Reception and accolades
The American Astronautical Society gave the site the Ordway Award for Sustained Excellence in Spaceflight History which "recognizes exceptional, sustained efforts to inform and educate on spaceflight and its history through one or more media" in 2015, the award's initial year. The award is named for U.S. space engineer and author Frederick I. Ordway III (1927–2014).

Telepolis journalist Marcus Hammerschmitt warmly recommended the Encyclopedia Astronautic to anyone interested in space flight, and speculated that its articles might become valued material for future researcher of cultural history.

In 2006, the American space historian Stephen B. Johnson stated that Encyplopedia Astronautica "has become a popular Internet source for space history. Unfortunately, while it contains a great deal of information, not all of it is correct. Space historians have noticed a variety of factual problems, and unfortunately these problems have not been consistently repaired. Since this is not a peer-reviewed source and historical errors have not always been fixed, this cannot be considered a reliable source, despite its impressive appearance. Many other online sources have the same problem."

title: Encyclopedia Astronautica


text:
Lip piercing

A lip piercing is a type of body piercing that penetrates the lips or the area surrounding the lips, which can be pierced in a variety of ways.

Procedure and healing

Approximate healing time for most lip piercings is between 1 and 3 months; however, there is a possibility of serious infection if the piercing is not properly taken care of. After healing is complete, other jewelry may be used. After this time, some scar tissue may be present, but the fistula is normally fully developed and mostly healed. Aftercare consists of hot saline soaks two to three times daily. Soaking the wound for three to five minutes with a weak saline solution softens any blood and lymph discharge attached to the jewelry. Afterwards, taking a hot shower and using clean hands and a small amount of a mild soap such as castile soap removes excess matter from the site. Turning or otherwise moving jewelry on a fresh piercing is not advised, as it can irritate and lengthen swelling and healing time. Diluted mouthwash or salt water solution can also be used after meals along with toothbrushing to help remove debris and flush the piercing and is recommended by practitioners.

Initial jewelry is usually a labret stud or a captive bead ring, manufactured from implant-grade titanium or similar lightweight and inert metal. No matter which type of jewelry is used, the jewelry's diameter and length will be intentionally oversized to allow room for initial swelling. After healing, the jewelry can be replaced with a closer-fitting piece. A home-made saline solution made from non-iodized sea salt and hot distilled or filtered water is a common way to heal a lip piercing and avoid infection. This solution can be used to rinse out the mouth after eating (or the mouth can be rinsed with non-alcoholic, non-antimicrobial mouth wash) and to soak the outside of the piercing. Anything with alcohol, peroxide, iodine, or any strong soaps should be avoided because they may irritate the fresh piercing, and cause additional swelling and trauma during the healing process. Using peroxide, iodine, teatree oil, conventional antibacterial soap, or dish soap can damage or kill the skin in and around the piercing, extending the healing process. The use of Hydrogen peroxide can damage the piercing site more, resulting in irritation of the piercing. The ornament should be periodically cleansed to prevent bacterial plaque accumulation.

Types
[[File:Types of bites.jpg|thumb|Some piercings are called bites:1. Angel bites

2. Cyber bites

3. Spider bites

4. Snake bites

5. Vampire bites

6. Canine bites]] Lip piercings can be placed anywhere around the mouth, but the surface of the lip is not typically pierced itself, except for horizontal lip piercings and canine bites. Piercings in specific positions have certain names. Monroe piercings, for example, are labret studs worn on the upper lip where Marilyn Monroe had her famous beauty mark. Medusa piercings go through the center of the upper lip (the philtrum), perpendicular to the tissue. Labret piercings are pierced with a labret stud and can pierced in the center or off-center. A variation of this is the lowbret, a lower labret. Vertical labret piercings go through the center of the bottom lip, parallel to the tissue. The variation is called the vertical lowbret, which starts inside the mouth between the lower lip and the teeth and travels straight down, exiting on the lower edge of the jawline. Horizontal lip piercings are very rare, and include a horizontal bar on the lower lip that goes through the lip surface. Another variation of the labret is known as the dahlia piercing. The piercings, placed at or very near the corners of the mouth, are named in reference to the murder of Black Dahlia, in which the victim's mouth was cut along the same horizontal line along which these piercings are placed. (See Glasgow smile.)

History and culture
Precolumbian cultures of South America historically used lip piercing called Tembetá. Lip piercing continues to be practiced by many people, the most well-known of which are certain African tribes, who wear large decorative lip plates or discs, usually in the lower lip.

In contemporary society, lip piercings are relatively common. In a study among Israeli young-adults, 4.3% had present or past body piercing (not included earlobe, lip or intra-oral piercing), and 5.7%, 6.2% and 15.7% had present or past lip piercing, body tattooing and intra-oral piercing, respectively.

Health risks and complications
Studies have found people with lip piercings to have 4 to 7 times higher risk of gingival recession than people without piercing. Studies also found a higher percentage of dental trauma in people with lip piercings.

title: Lip piercing


text:
301

Year 301 (CCCI) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Postumius and Nepotianus (or, less frequently, year 1054 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 301 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Caesar Galerius begins a major war against the Carpi and Bastarnae and wins the first of several victories.
 * September: Emperor Diocletian issues a reform that revalues the Roman currency.
 * November: Diocletian issues his Edict on Maximum Prices, which, rather than halting rampant inflation, causes widespread panic and an increase in inflation. The measure is quickly abandoned.

Armenia

 * King Tiridates III (the Great) proclaims Christianity as the official state religion, making Armenia the first nation to adopt Christianity as its official religion (traditional date).    Construction of the original Etchmiadzin Cathedral by Gregory the Illuminator begins.

Europe

 * September 3 – The republic of San Marino is established (approximate date).

Asia

 * February 3 – May 30 – Sima Lun briefly usurps the Jin Dynasty.

Births

 * Xie Ai, Chinese general of the Former Liang state (d. 354)

Deaths

 * June 5 – Sima Lun, Chinese usurper (forced suicide)
 * Sun Xiu (or Junzhong), Chinese official and politician

title: 301


text:
302

Year 302 (CCCII) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Constantius and Valerius or, less frequently, year 1055 Ab urbe condita. The denomination 302 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Diocletian persecutes the Manichaeans, accusing them of being a Persian fifth column.
 * Caesar Galerius wins his second victory over the Carpi.
 * An invasion of Gaul by the Alemannic Lingones almost traps Caesar Constantius I between the enemy and the walls of a town. Constantius himself is carried onto the wall via a crane. However, within the same day, Constantius sallies forth from the walls and defeats the enemy in a major battle.

Persia

 * Narseh, ruler (Shahanshah) of the Sassanid Empire, dies after a 9-year reign. He is succeeded by his son Hormizd II.

Art and Science

 * Iamblichus of Chalcis writes a treatise on magic and the occult.

Religion

 * Gregory the Illuminator is consecrated as Patriarch of Armenia by Leontius of Caesarea.

Births

 * Sun Sheng (or Anguo), Chinese historian (d. 373)

Deaths

 * Cao Huan, Chinese emperor of the Cao Wei state (b. 246)
 * Narseh (or Narses), ruler of the Sassanid Empire
 * Sima Jiong (or Jingzhi), Chinese prince and regent

title: 302


text:
303

Year 303 (CCCIII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. It was known in the Roman Empire as the Year of the Consulship of Diocletian and Maximian (or, less frequently, year 1056 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 303 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Great Persecution: Emperor Diocletian launches the last and largest major persecution of Christians in the Empire. Caesar Galerius and Hierocles are said to have been the instigators. In a series of four edicts published from February 23, 303, to 304, the Christians are forbidden to worship in groups, are made to perform sacrifices, and must surrender sacred texts. Churches are destroyed, and the clergy are arrested en masse. The persecution lasts in some parts of the empire until 313, and thousands of Christians are killed. Those put to death include Agnes of Rome, a 12-year-old Christian girl who has refused marriage and consecrated her virginity to God. Hailed as a martyr, she will be honored as the patron saint of chastity, gardeners, rape victims and virgins.
 * September 25 – On a voyage preaching the gospel, Saint Fermin of Pamplona is beheaded in Amiens (Modern day France).
 * November 20 – The Augusti Diocletian and Maximian reunite in Rome to celebrate the 20th anniversary of Diocletian's accession, which is now treated as a joint anniversary for both emperors. A series of columns in the Roman Forum and a triumphal arch are dedicated to the emperors. The two emperors also agree on a plan of abdication.
 * Galerius wins his third victory over the Carpi and is perhaps joined on campaign by Diocletian. The Arch of Galerius is dedicated in Thessaloniki.
 * Caesar Constantius I wins a victory over Germanic invaders in the battle of Vindonissa.

Armenia

 * Etchmiadzin Cathedral is completed by Gregory the Illuminator and Tiridates III, king of Armenia.
 * January 6 – Baptism of Tiridates III of Armenia.

America

 * In Mexico, the civilization of Teotihuacan flourishes.

Religion

 * March 4 – Adrian and Natalia of Nicomedia are martyred.

Births

 * Magnentius, Roman usurper (d. 353)
 * Wang Xizhi, Chinese calligrapher (d. 361)
 * Xun Guan, Chinese warrior and general

Deaths

 * April 23 – George of Lydda, Roman soldier and martyr
 * Acacius of Byzantium, Roman centurion and martyr
 * Anthimus of Rome, Christian priest and martyr
 * Cao Huan, Chinese emperor of Cao Wei (b. 246)
 * Cessianus, Christian child martyr
 * Crescentinus, Roman soldier and martyr
 * Cyriacus, Roman nobleman and martyr
 * Devota, Corsican woman and martyr
 * Erasmus of Formiae, Christian martyr
 * Expeditus, Roman centurion and martyr
 * Felix and Adauctus, Christian martyrs
 * Fermin, Christian bishop and martyr
 * Lu Ji, Chinese general and writer (b. 261)
 * Li Liu, Chinese spiritual leader (b. 248)
 * Li Te (or Xuanxiu), Chinese general
 * Pantaleon, Christian wonderworker and martyr
 * Romanus of Caesarea, Christian martyr
 * Victor Maurus ("the Moor"), Christian martyr
 * Vitus (or Guido), Christian martyr

title: 303