text:
Talk:Electronic paper

Merge
I propose this merge because: So I propose that electronic paper be converted into a redirect.  Run! 14:36, 18 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 1) They describe the same technology
 * 2) The major company involved with its production is called "E ink" so 'E ink' is a more commonly used term in referring to the technology than 'E-paper'
 * 3) The Electronic paper article is a mess anyway ;)

 * I'm afraid I disagree. I'd always say electronic paper. ElliottHird 11:12, 25 February 2006 (UTC)

 * I also disagree, electronic ink would imply the use of an ink-like liquid, which Fujitsu's electronic paper does not use. Your company "E-Ink" displays in four-colour grayscale, Fujitsu displays in full colour, quite a fundamental difference. See Link:OverClockersClub.com

 * Having investigated google results, it does indeed seem electronic paper is the more prevalent term. Perhaps the electronic paper article could be deleted and this one moved to take its place under the same name? (so that history is conserved)  -- Run! 15:01, 25 February 2006 (UTC)

E Ink is the trade name of an electronic paper product and manufacturer. To suggest electronic paper should direct to electronic ink is somewhat similar to saying that the write-up for facial tissue should be directed to the write-up for Kleenex.

-

I also think electronic ink should be made into a redirect, with much of its information moving to the electronic paper section.

Merge away.

 * Merged Zeimusu | Talk page 13:05, 10 July 2006 (UTC)

How color e-ink displays work
I know how black and white e-ink display work using millions of tiny microcapsules each have positively charged white particles and negatively charged black particles or what ever. but how color e-ink display works?

state:

"This electronic paper color prototype achieves 12-bit color in a 400x300 pixel format with resolution of 83 pixels per inch, using a custom color filter from strategic partner Toppan. The color filter design has a high-brightness layout (RGBW) that preserves the paper-like whiteness of the background page while enabling deep blacks for text and a range of colors and tones for images. A smart algorithm uses color sub-pixels to smooth black and white text, for enhanced legibility equivalent to a printer. The display diagonal is 6 inches, similar to a paperback book in size. "

but how this "RGBW" filter work? can some one explain this one to me. any ideas. and why color e-ink is not in the page.
 * The "filter" is actually an array of red, green, blue and clear color filters (see color filter arrays). By laying this on top of an existing black and white display, each pixel becomes a "sub-pixel" dedicated to just one of the forementioned colors. Since these sub-pixels are so close together, light reflected off of nearby ones would blend together in the eye. This allows for a whole range of colors to be reproduced. This is my whole understanding anyways --AWriterWandering (talk) 21:58, 19 May 2008 (UTC)

the e-ink page should be merged into this, because e-paper is better known

Wow
This is cool. The only way it could be any better would be if the paper could go clear. CrossEyed7 18:53, 7 January 2006 (UTC)

 * And if it were more commonly available. I'd love a laptop or pocket computer with a display like this.  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.63.101.233 (talk) 00:45, 6 December 2007 (UTC)

Jinke's Reader
Since e ink products from both Sony and Irex are listed Jinke's readers probably should as well. As far as I know these are the only three companies making e ink based readers at this time. Links for Jinke are listed below:

HomePage

V8 Reader (shipping now)

V2 Reader (not yet available)

 * As long as the links direct the reader to a page with information on the technology (history, how it works, etc), then I don't see why not.  -- Run! 09:05, 12 July 2006 (UTC)

Picture
It would be nice if the article could have a picture of a prototype or something instead of just the diagram. I haven't looked around yet but there must be something. - raptor 04:28, 20 July 2006 (UTC)

 * there are lots of pics on the net but i'm not sure what licence they are, see here. Hamish (Talk) 12:24, 20 July 2006 (UTC)
 * I've put one on now :) Hamish (Talk) 12:33, 20 July 2006 (UTC)

Power Consumption
I read in a magazine that the power consumption needed to change the image on the screen is so tiny that the power from an RFID chip is enough, I imagine that this would mean that in the future credit cards etc could hold up-to-date information on the card surface. Any chance we could include something about this in the article? Hamish (Talk) 12:58, 20 July 2006 (UTC)

"E Ink" and "e-ink"
There is an IP who is removing "e-ink" as a term used to refer to electronic paper on the argument that it is a non-genericised trademark. Since "e-XYZ" is an obvious and typical contraction of "electronic XYZ", it doesn't make much sense to not mention the term in the lead since "electronic ink" is inevitably contracted to "e-ink". Other thoughts? — Saxifrage ✎ 17:35, 3 August 2006 (UTC)

I'm the contributor who has been making this change. I'm making it on the following basis. First, E Ink has been a trademark of E Ink Corporation since 1997, and as such should not be used as a generic term. Second, "electronic ink" is actually not a commonly-used term for "electronic paper" in the display industry -- the industry has stabilized on Electronic Paper Displays (EPD's) as a term for this class. — Rwzehner ✎ 19:50, 3 August 2006 (UTC)

 * I've been calling it "electronic ink" since I first heard about it, but then my personal experience isn't citable in an article. How about this compromise: obviously you are involved in the industry and have useful information to contribute, so can you possibly come up with a reference for what terms are used? Really, the statement that it's also called XYZ and ABC should be backed up by a reference anyway. Given such a reference, we can report only the terms that the reference says are in common use and we won't have to argue about trademarks and such.
 * (Note that not any reference will do. It has to actually talk about what terms are used, not just use the terms. This might be hard to dig up.) — Saxifrage ✎ 19:49, 3 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Doesn't matter whether it's trademark misuse or not. The fact of the matter is that the technology is sometimes referred to as e-ink. Just like "vacuum cleaner" is sometimes called a "hoover" (which is actually a brand of vacuum cleaner).  -- Run! 19:58, 3 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Sax, I'd be glad to put together some background information on this; it might take a couple of days -- I'll post back here. Run!, I would point you to the Wikipedia entries on Hoover, Xerox and Kleenex, which make a point of treading carefully on the underlying trademarks, even though these are well-known examples of tm's that have fallen into common usage.  As the Xerox article points out, respected style guides such as AP recommend that trademarks be respected.  I would have no problem with transferring some of this discussion into a section in the e-paper entry. — Rwzehner ✎ 21:54, 3 August 2006 (UTC)

OK, I'm back with some more information:

First, some Google searches: the first 30 or so links returned for the query "e-ink" refer strictly to the material produced by E Ink Corporation (even if not by name, they refer to particles moving in microcapsules, and technology developed at the MIT Media Lab, which indicates E Ink's material). The same is true for the first 30 or so links returned for the query "electronic ink", if you weed out the totally unrelated hits for things like graphics design services and digital signature software. A query on "electronic paper" returned similar items, but also included references to Fujitsu's cholesteric LCD technology and Hitachi/Bridgestone's air-gap particle system.

Second, I searched the on-line publication database at the Society for Information Display (http://sid.aip.org). Running queries on "e-ink" and "electronic ink" returned only references relating to the products developed by E Ink Corporation. A query for "electronic paper" returned articles on a wide variety of different display effects, as well as a review article by Makoto Omodani of Tokai University, a leading expert on electronic paper. In his article, he indicates that the term "electronic paper" is used because it is evocative of the properties required of such a display (thin, ultra-low power, paper-like appearance).

Finally, looking at my back-catalog of program information from Society for Information Display conferences, SID has standardized on "electronic paper" as the term for this kind of display, never using "electronic ink" or "e-ink".

My conclusion from reading through a large number of citations is that the term "electronic ink" appears to have derived primarily from its use by E Ink Corporation. The term "electronic paper" is much more generally applied to a wide variety of display technologies produced by different manufacturers, and is widely accepted by display industry professionals. Rwzehner 22:23, 7 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Well I'm convinced. Shall we remove the term "electronic ink" too, or is that still used a fair bit despite the standardisation?  -- Run! 08:42, 8 August 2006 (UTC)

References need fixing
The references seem to be messed up in this article. Footnote 1 doesn't have any text (only "backlinks") and 5 of the refs aren't associated with any statements in the article. Someone familiar with the sources should fix this. - dcljr (talk) 23:59, 6 August 2006 (UTC)

Iliad
The article should be updated to mention that the iliad has been released.

__________________________________________________________________

I would like to use Ebook readers or Electronic Paper Ebooks as a means to distribute my writings, and I would like to provide my input into the development of this wonderful product.

I am hoping companies that are producing Ebook Readers will provide a platform or operating system that can launch an executable load module, or ".EXE" filetype.

Or, if we could purchase a supported Ebook generating program, and copy our Ebooks from a computer to a Ebook Readers.

By the way, I love the size and design of this Ebook Reader. If this viewing area will be the standard size, the other Ebook generating programs could easily comply. There is a hugh potential world wide market for personal and business use of these devices.

Everyone will want to write books and give them to their friends as seasonal gifts, (e.g. Valentine's Day, Christmas, Birthday's, Holidays, any reason what so ever!) Companies could elimate paper and have employees download company Ebooks!

Thank you for listening,

- Chaplain Winston Tobias Muldrew, BBS C.P.E. www.chaplainwinston.com'''

Organzing Applications and Removing Advertising
The applications section was prety cluttered and it looked like a few of the products mentioned, specifically the iLiad, was trying to advertise itself here. I reorganized the data in a bulleted list format and removed product data that wasn't related to electronic paper. --Tamsco 13:36, 10 November 2006 (UTC)

 * I initially undid all those changes since it made the E Ink advertising-sounding stuff more prominent, but after reviewing it closer you're right that putting it in a list reduces the marketing-speak of the text. I reverted myself and then did some minor copyediting on the list. The leading paragraph about E Ink and Fujitsu needs some attention still, but that can wait. Thanks for tackling that! — Saxifrage ✎ 17:58, 10 November 2006 (UTC)

Are these the right patents?
A quick search revealed the following patents: --Dispenser 09:54, 16 December 2006 (UTC)
 * 5866284
 * 6045955

e paper's application
can't the technology used in monitors,pdas & cell phones to make them cheaper? can touch screen|multi touch -technologies be associated with this?
 * It could and in fact is being used in certain cellphone and PDA-like devices. The major limitation with most electronic paper technologies right now though is that their refresh rates aren't nearly fast enough for multimedia, which is a popular application for all three of the forementioned electronics. 66.82.9.99 (talk) 21:18, 19 May 2008 (UTC)

Applications
I just did a re-work of the applications section, it was a giant mess somewhere between an essay and a spam page. I'm still unhappy with the number of external links on the page to specific products, what do regular contributors think? WLU 01:34, 31 May 2007 (UTC)

IMHO the german Wikipedia has a better picture of the Motorola Motofone F3, "Motofone f3.jpg". --84.60.244.99 (talk) 17:29, 17 July 2012 (UTC)

Wafer-Thin Color Displays / Electronic paper display
Hi. I started an article entitled “Wafer-Thin Color Displays”. The idea was to document TV-like wafer thin displays. I have since realised I am basically talking about a specialisation of Electronic paper. However, when talking about wafer-thin TV-like displays, I believe “electronic paper” is somewhat misleading. Should I continue with the article? Or should it be renamed/redirected? Steve
 * If there is enough material to create an entire page, then a separate page is workable. If it could easily be merged into this article in an existing or newly created section, you'd be better off putting it here. As part of an established article, it'd get more traffic and attention, not to mention more wikilinks in other pages.  See how far you can expand it, and if you find by the time you've exhausted all sources and information it's still a stub, think about redirecting and merging.  From my quick look through, I'd say they look pretty different (though I'm a noob to the tech so am far from an expert).  Electronic paper is meant to be a paper substitute, but WTCDs are meant to be monitor-type displays, which seems enough of a distinction to have separate articles.  Also, if industry/sources separates them, it is WP:OR to say they are the same thing.  I'm going to be doing some work on the page by the way.  WLU 12:35, 2 June 2007 (UTC)

I have decided to rename the page "Electronic paper display" and I believe there is enough material out there to support it. I am hoping to get a chance tonight to do some more on it. Cheers Takenthesmeg 00:47, 4 June 2007 (UTC)

Ink-less Printing, Unrelated?
The section "Ink-less Printing" seems unrelated to me. Simply put, electronic paper is a critical component of a refreshable electronic display, while Ink-less Printing is heat-based and is just used for laying down a single-use pattern. I see little reason for the comparison, and wish to cull it from the electronic paper article. Austin Spafford 02:51, 24 July 2007 (UTC)

Electrophoretic section
Unless I'm missing something, the Electrophoretic section describes almost the same process three times with varying levels of quality. Can we get rid of two of the descriptions of how this works and generally clean it up? N Vale (talk) 16:42, 19 September 2008 (UTC)

Discussion page is messy
Also, can we clean up this page? There are a number of sections (i.e. the section titled `Wow' and the untitled section by Chaplain Winston Tobias Muldrew) that have only comments about how exciting electronic paper is without any relevance to the article. N Vale (talk) 16:47, 19 September 2008 (UTC)

Contrast ratio
I have only a single device (an iRex iLiad, whose Wikipedia page says it uses E Ink), but one of the most notable things about the display for me is the poor contrast, certainly worse than a year-old newspaper on my desk, and for that matter worse than a 220-year old book on my desk.

I've accordingly weakened the previous claim of “similar contrast ratio to newspaper”. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Pjrm (talk • contribs) 05:30, 5 November 2008 (UTC)

 * A [|Forbes.com article] claims that the upcoming successor to the iLiad (iRex Digitial Reader 1000 & 1000S) has “slightly brighter whites and darker blacks than the last generation of E-Ink devices” (presumably including the iLiad). Pjrm (talk) 01:59, 7 November 2008 (UTC)

Further Reading New Scientist Links 404
The links for the "New Scientist" articles in the further reading section are all outdated. The articles still exist, but it seems like you need a subscription to the website to view them. The links should therefore be removed. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 77.21.79.105 (talk) 17:25, 29 November 2008 (UTC)

Removed Speculative information
I removed the following speculative information from the article. Yes, these applications have certainly been suggested, many times, and I added an Other applications section to mention them. But, these sections go into a great deal of detail about what might happen in the future. Sans references, they don't belong.

Digital Photo Frame

 * In the future as electronic paper displays improve and full high quality color is possible, the technology may become incorporated in digital photo frame products. Existing digital photo frames require a constant power supply and have a limited viewing angle and physical thickness that is inferior to a conventional photograph. A digital photo frame using e-paper technology would address all of these shortcomings. A well-designed digital photo frame using an electronic ink display could, in theory, run for months or years from batteries, because such a device would require electricity only to briefly boot up to connect to a USB memory stick (or other storage device) and change the display before powering off all components.

Information Board

 * An extension of the Digital Photo Frame concept is to display other media such as webpages or other documents. Examples include web pages such as news sites or status pages such as stocks, timetables or other information.  The current days weather forecast would be a good example for installation in a domestic location such as near the front door in a hall way.  Such a device could also be connected wirelessly allowing remote or automatic updates without human intervention.  Such a product will have a low physical and energy footprint compared to older technology.  At present (Q4 2009) no such product is available on the market despite the technology already existing to manufacture it.  Unlike digital photo frames, digital information boards could run acceptably with greyscale epaper.

Applications
The applications section contained this line: "The ideal electronic paper product is a digital book that can typeset itself and could be read as if it were made of regular paper, yet programmed to download and display the text from any book. Another possible use is in the distribution of an electronic version of a daily paper." Which is obviously original research, unverifiable, biased, and any number of other ways unencyclopedic. I took the liberty of removing it. --24.168.240.243 (talk) 01:17, 3 January 2011 (UTC)

Electrophoretic
Sixth paragraph.
 * "Other than E-Ink's 0.04mm-diameter micro-capsule structure, Sipix's is 0.15mm-diameter microcup."

This is a sentence fragment, and not a good one, in that it's intended completion is not obvious.
 * "... Sipix's is 0.15mm-diameter microcup provides the best contrast ratio available"?
 * "... Sipix's is 0.15mm-diameter microcup has the highest resolution on the market"?
 * "... Sipix's is 0.15mm-diameter microcup is the suckiest, most overpriced product imaginable"?

Someone who knows what this was supposed to say needs to complete it, or it needs to be removed. Joe Avins (talk) 15:51, 7 February 2011 (UTC)

Merger proposal
I propose that E ink be merged into Electronic Paper. They are technically two sides of the same coin. There's a significant content overlap and not a clear distinction between which topics would be related to one article versus the other. Greg Comlish (talk) 15:55, 16 February 2011 (UTC)
 * I think it is clear that E ink is only one technology for electronic paper. IMO I can't see any reason to merge articles. --DixonD (talk) 23:27, 16 February 2011 (UTC)
 * I agree with DixonD, they are two completely different technologies and both have their own concepts, ideas etc. I don't see why you should merge articles which are not the same.  Such as these two.  Bencarroll (talk) 19:04, 27 May 2011 (GMT)

 * E-Ink is a new and fascinating technology which needs more attention and should have a separated space here and I personally do not need any reason for such merge. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 175.138.141.243 (talk) 19:09, 28 August 2011 (UTC)

 * Agree e-ink more or less has become a generic term for electronic paper. Electronic paper is more detailed, while there is little to be said about E ink specifically. --Bxj (talk) 14:08, 24 June 2011 (UTC)

I think there are a lot of misunderstand about e-ink. E ink is part of the bigger group what contain all of e-ink technologies. Infect the Gyricon is e-ink too. Maybe in this article should be make clear this different.

Here is a useful link: http://thefutureofthings.com/articles/1000/the-future-of-electronic-paper=.html

"... E-paper comprises two different parts: the first is electronic ink, sometimes referred to as the "frontplane"; and the second is the electronics required to generate the pattern of text and images on the e-ink page, called the "backplane".

Over the years, a number of methods for creating e-ink have been developed. The Gyricon e-ink developed in the 70s by Nick Sheridon at Xerox is based on a thin sheet of flexible plastic containing a layer of tiny plastic beads, each encapsulated in a little pocket of oil and thus able to freely rotate within the plastic sheet. Each hemisphere of a bead has a different color and a different electrical charge. When an electric field is applied by the backplane, the beads rotate, creating a two-colored pattern. This method of creating e-ink was dubbed bichromal frontplane. Originally, bichromal frontplane had a number of limitations, including relatively low brightness and resolution and a lack of color. Although these issues are still being tackled, other forms of e-ink, with improved properties compared to the original Gyricon, have been developed over the years.

One such technology is electrophoretic frontplane, developed by the E Ink Corporation. Electrophoretic frontplane consists of millions of tiny microcapsules..." --Szente (talk) 00:38, 26 October 2011 (UTC)

Refresh rates breakthrough
The disadvantage section mentions low refresh rates.

With the recent video playback demonstration by Bookeen, probably that should be changed?

Reference: short description and even shorter video

Another one: An engaged article

Klimov (talk) 13:08, 25 June 2011 (UTC)

Glass breakage
From one side the e-Ink displays are very often praised for their flexibility. On the other side there are plenty of complaints about e-Ink Book Readers' glass breakage. The obvious question is: why they do not make e-readers with flexible displays? BPK (talk) 18:03, 11 September 2011 (UTC)

Simple schematics
Hi, I made two new electronic paper schematic diagrams in a simple style:

Have a good week-end, Nclm (talk)

About Bistability
This article should take care of what is a bistable "ePaper" type screen, and what isn't.

For example the Sharp Memory LCD are NOT bistable screen as when it loose power the screen will blank, as the for the Mirasol screen or any standard LCD.

In the list of bistable product:
 * Plastic Logic: They are using eInk electrophoretic film for their screen production, it not a product by itself
 * Kent Displays: they are real bistable epaper screen
 * Nemoptic: they are defunct and they never release any production screen as they weren't able to stabilise the fabrication process.
 * TRED: never eared of them and the website is dead, it should be removed
 * Sharp Memory LCD: they are NOT bistable screen, only lower power LCDs

display manufacturers
I would like to add a new manufacturer: Etulipa. This is a start-up in the Netherlands. They develop reflective displays for outdoor use, based on electrowettingCarlaverweerden (talk) 14:32, 27 March 2017 (UTC)
 * Wikipedia is specifically not a place to make lists of manufacturers. - MrOllie (talk) 15:51, 27 March 2017 (UTC)

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Intro section dates
The introduction section to this discusses the state of the technology with explicit mention to 2008, with 2008 being considered recent. Should this be improved to either be more up to date or less specific? The particular sentence in question is:

"The contrast ratio in electronic displays available as of 2008 approaches newspaper, and newly (2008) developed displays are slightly better."

Felix.gif (talk) 05:02, 14 April 2019 (UTC)

Adding ZBD LCD Technology
Hello, I would like to propose adding the below information about ZBD LCD technology to this article. It is a type of electronic paper display that is not yet included. The company I work for, New Vision Display, recently purchased the technology from Displaydata and we believe it would be useful for people to learn about this other electronic paper technology within this article. Below is the text we would like to propose on the subject. We would like to propose the placement of the below content after the section on "Microencapsulated electrophoretic display" and prior to the section on "Electrowetting". Thank you in advance for your time, consideration and feedback.

ZBD LCD
In contrast to other LCDs, the ZBD LCD technology can be classed as an electronic paper display since it can be electrically written once and then maintain an image without degradation for many years with zero applied power. This technology is based on using a sub-micron grating to stabilize two different orientations of an adjacent nematic liquid crystal. These states lead to either high or low pretilt in the LC close to the surface and can thus allow two optically distinct states when the grating is used as one of the surfaces in an LC cell.

The bend and splay distortion of the LC material close to the grating leads to regions with macroscopic flexoelectric polarisation. It is possible to use the polarity of applied electrical pulses to couple to the flexoelectricity and thus select either the high or low tilt state. The technology is manufactured by replication of an inverse structure (on a polymer foil) into a UV curing resin coated onto the LCD glass. After UV cure and separation, the LCD glass is assembled as a standard LCD and filled with standard LC material.

The ZBD LCD offers ‘infinite multiplexibilty’. There is a distinct threshold between the two states which allows passive matrix addressing of many thousands of lines. This contrasts with many other low power display modes that require a TFT backplane (e.g. Eink EPD, Clearink EPD, electrowetting, electrochromic, phase change).

The technology has been widely deployed in low power electronic shelf edge label products. More recently, this technology has (like other reflective LCDs) incorporated novel light shaping diffusers in order to create a more lambertian ‘paperlike’ reflectivity similar to electrophoretic displays. Since 2019, the ZBD LCD technology has been exclusively owned, manufactured and marketed by New Vision Display.

Signed, Aubree Abernethy, Product Marketing Manager for New Vision DisplayAubsabs222 (talk) 03:00, 2 April 2020 (UTC)

 * Aubsabs222, I often implement suggestions by COI editors who follow the rules and make suggestions on the talk pages, but the above reads too much like a press release or advertisement. Could you please take a shot at making your suggested changes look like an encyclopedia?

 * Samples of what I am talking about:
 * Promotional: "Since 2019, the ZBD LCD technology has been exclusively owned, manufactured and marketed by New Vision Display"
 * Encyclopedic: "In 2019 New Vision Display introduced the ZBD LCD..."

 * Promotional: "The ZBD LCD offers ‘infinite multiplexibilty’. There is a distinct threshold between the two states which allows passive matrix addressing of many thousands of lines. This contrasts with many other low power display modes that require a TFT backplane (e.g. Eink EPD, Clearink EPD, electrowetting, electrochromic, phase change)."
 * Encyclopedic: "...which uses passive matrix addressing".
 * --Guy Macon (talk) 05:12, 19 June 2020 (UTC)

Suggested Changes From E Ink
I work for E Ink Corporation, the largest electronic ink manufacturer. This page sometimes refers to our patented/trademarked "E Ink" when it meant to refer to "electronic ink" generically, and vice versa. It also has a whole section for "Disadvantages" cited to blogs and E Ink's own website.

I put together some suggested improvements here that would make it more clear to readers when the page is referring E Ink's technology, versus electronic paper more generally, among other improvements. Thank you in advance for taking a look and considering the suggested edits. CDaignault1 (talk) 18:31, 8 May 2020 (UTC)

 * This was discussed previously at Talk:Electronic paper. I found multiple places where "E-ink" was used as a generic term for electronic ink, I am not convinced that the trademarked "E-ink" or "e-ink" has become a generic term for all electronic ink displays.

 * I also removed an unsourced criticism section. Even if the differences are true, we don't list "doesn't stay on when you remove power" as a disadvantage of passive LCDs or list "cannot be left on continuously without draining the battery" as a disadvantage of backlit LCD displays. Differences are not the same as disadvantages.

 * I need to do some research on the other suggestions.

 * CDaignault1, maybe you can do some legwork for me. Is there a reason to prefer electronic paper over e-paper or electronic reader over e-reader? My fist guess is that e-reader is pretty much a generic term. --Guy Macon (talk) 04:58, 19 June 2020 (UTC)

 * (...Sound of crickets...) --Guy Macon (talk) 07:24, 15 July 2020 (UTC)

Hi Guy – appreciate the question and I’m sorry for the delayed response, I didn’t realize you’d sent me a message.

Electronic paper and ePaper are generic terms holding the same meaning, are often used interchangeably. The same applies to electronic reader and eReader, though most in the industry happen to use eReader more frequently. These terms are most frequently written with a lowercase “e” followed by a capitalized second word – for example, ePaper and eReader – rather than with a dash or space between the two.

At E Ink, we tend to start by saying “electronic paper” and then “ePaper” in subsequent references. Usage is often based on sentence structure or flow, not technical meaning. But the industry as a whole is moving towards the term “digital paper” to replace “electronic paper,” stemming from a misconception that “electronic paper” must be plugged in. CDaignault1 (talk) 19:45, 2 October 2020 (UTC)

Hope this answers your question! Feel free to reach out with any others that may arise. — Preceding unsigned comment added by CDaignault1 (talk • contribs) 19:28, 2 October 2020 (UTC)

Update the lede?
I would like to learn about this technology. In high school in the early 80s, this was the stuff of fantasy, but they were thinking about it. But reading only the lede, it appears as though 2008 was the year when this technology peaked. Everything is new as of 2008. I know nothing about this subject, which is why I'm here. Can anyone who knows about this topic have a look and give the lede an overhaul that reflects the technology today? Is it dead? (I hope not!) Thanks! Dcs002 (talk) 21:56, 15 September 2021 (UTC)

 * i agree. this document is now 12 years out of date with its info. i can say the tech is not dead and there has been quite a body of new progress made with the concept of non light emitting screen tech. a lot of effort is being placed on refresh rates and color. i do not have the articles on me right now, i simply am advocating that this page be updated. 69.254.201.70 (talk) 10:20, 11 January 2023 (UTC)

Suggested Changes From E Ink
Actually, I, with no connection to E Ink Corporation, added the Edit request tag (above), so that this gets looked at in a timely fashion. David notMD (talk) 07:22, 6 September 2023 (UTC)

My name is Brandon and I work for E Ink Corporation. I would like to request the following changes to the electronic paper page:

1.	Remove "e-Ink" from the list of "also known as" synonyms in the first sentence. This was [|previously discussed] with @Guy Macon: who removed E Ink a while back. E Ink is a trademarked/branded term for E Ink Corporation's technology, not a synonym for electronic paper generally.

2.	Remove the [|History section], which focuses exclusively on the history of E Ink Corporation (or merge the section with [| E Ink Company History]). There is a separate page on us.

3.	I've prepared several suggested updates to the [|Microencapsulated Electrophoretic Display section] here, most importantly of which is to provide more content to bring the section up-to-date. It currently focuses exclusively on "early versions" from the '90s and modern electrophoretic displays are done differently.

4.	Two instances of E Ink trademark misuses (under the Microencapsulated Electrophoretic Display section and the Electronic Tags section).

Brandon E Ink (talk) 15:23, 5 September 2023 (UTC)

Reply 7-SEP-2023

 * 1) The links you've provided to Google docs are not useful for making suggestions here. The proposed text needs to be proposed here on the talk page.
 * 2) Discussions that you've had with other editors regarding removal of "also known as synonyms" need to be discussed with those editors outside of the COI edit request process. If those changes were made, and then reverted by another editor, that means the changes are controversial, and need to be discussed outside of the COI edit request review process.. Regards,  Spintendo  23:24, 7 September 2023 (UTC)

Reflect LCDs
According to °Unlike conventional flat panel displays that emit light, an electronic paper display reflects ambient light, like paper° reflective LCDs should be included. That is because of my edit.  ~  mcg (talk) 09:19, 11 March 2024 (UTC)

 * Transflective liquid-crystal display already has its own article. Unlike paper, the technology has significantly worse viewing angle, and consumes infinitely more power when displaying static content. Hansen033 (talk) 09:53, 8 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Electronic paper


text:
Standard enthalpy of formation

In chemistry and thermodynamics, the standard enthalpy of formation or standard heat of formation of a compound is the change of enthalpy during the formation of 1 mole of the substance from its constituent elements in their reference state, with all substances in their standard states. The standard pressure value $p⦵$ = 10$5$ Pa (= 100 kPa = 1 bar) is recommended by IUPAC, although prior to 1982 the value 1.00 atm (101.325 kPa) was used. There is no standard temperature. Its symbol is ΔfH⦵. The superscript Plimsoll on this symbol indicates that the process has occurred under standard conditions at the specified temperature (usually 25 °C or 298.15 K).

Standard states are defined for various types of substances. For a gas, it is the hypothetical state the gas would assume if it obeyed the ideal gas equation at a pressure of 1 bar. For a gaseous or solid solute present in a diluted ideal solution, the standard state is the hypothetical state of concentration of the solute of exactly one mole per liter (1 M) at a pressure of 1 bar extrapolated from infinite dilution. For a pure substance or a solvent in a condensed state (a liquid or a solid) the standard state is the pure liquid or solid under a pressure of 1 bar.

For elements that have multiple allotropes, the reference state usually is chosen to be the form in which the element is most stable under 1 bar of pressure. One exception is phosphorus, for which the most stable form at 1 bar is black phosphorus, but white phosphorus is chosen as the standard reference state for zero enthalpy of formation.

For example, the standard enthalpy of formation of carbon dioxide is the enthalpy of the following reaction under the above conditions:

All elements are written in their standard states, and one mole of product is formed. This is true for all enthalpies of formation.

The standard enthalpy of formation is measured in units of energy per amount of substance, usually stated in kilojoule per mole (kJ mol−1), but also in kilocalorie per mole, joule per mole or kilocalorie per gram (any combination of these units conforming to the energy per mass or amount guideline).

All elements in their reference states (oxygen gas, solid carbon in the form of graphite, etc.) have a standard enthalpy of formation of zero, as there is no change involved in their formation.

The formation reaction is a constant pressure and constant temperature process. Since the pressure of the standard formation reaction is fixed at 1 bar, the standard formation enthalpy or reaction heat is a function of temperature. For tabulation purposes, standard formation enthalpies are all given at a single temperature: 298 K, represented by the symbol $ΔfH⦵ 298 K$.

Hess's law
For many substances, the formation reaction may be considered as the sum of a number of simpler reactions, either real or fictitious. The enthalpy of reaction can then be analyzed by applying Hess's Law, which states that the sum of the enthalpy changes for a number of individual reaction steps equals the enthalpy change of the overall reaction. This is true because enthalpy is a state function, whose value for an overall process depends only on the initial and final states and not on any intermediate states. Examples are given in the following sections.

Ionic compounds: Born–Haber cycle
For ionic compounds, the standard enthalpy of formation is equivalent to the sum of several terms included in the Born–Haber cycle. For example, the formation of lithium fluoride,

may be considered as the sum of several steps, each with its own enthalpy (or energy, approximately):
 * 1) $ΔlattH$, the standard enthalpy of atomization (or sublimation) of solid lithium.
 * 2) $UL$, the first ionization energy of gaseous lithium.
 * 3) $–EAF$, the standard enthalpy of atomization (or bond energy) of fluorine gas.
 * 4) $EAF$, the electron affinity of a fluorine atom.
 * 5) $Hsub$, the lattice energy of lithium fluoride.

The sum of these enthalpies give the standard enthalpy of formation ($IELi$) of lithium fluoride:

 * $$\Delta H_\text{f} = \Delta H_\text{sub} + \text{IE}_\text{Li} + \frac{1}{2}\text{B(F–F)} - \text{EA}_\text{F} + \text{U}_\text{L}.$$

In practice, the enthalpy of formation of lithium fluoride can be determined experimentally, but the lattice energy cannot be measured directly. The equation is therefore rearranged to evaluate the lattice energy:

 * $$-U_\text{L} = \Delta H_\text{sub} + \text{IE}_\text{Li} + \frac{1}{2}\text{B(F–F)} - \text{EA}_\text{F} - \Delta H_\text{f}.$$

Organic compounds
The formation reactions for most organic compounds are hypothetical. For instance, carbon and hydrogen will not directly react to form methane (CH4), so that the standard enthalpy of formation cannot be measured directly. However the standard enthalpy of combustion is readily measurable using bomb calorimetry. The standard enthalpy of formation is then determined using Hess's law. The combustion of methane:

is equivalent to the sum of the hypothetical decomposition into elements followed by the combustion of the elements to form carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O):

Applying Hess's law,
 * $$\Delta_\text{comb} H^\ominus ( \text{CH}_4 ) = [ \Delta_\text{f} H^\ominus (\text{CO}_2) + 2 \Delta_\text{f} H^\ominus ( \text{H}_2 \text{O} ) ] - \Delta_\text{f} H^\ominus (\text{CH}_4).$$

Solving for the standard of enthalpy of formation,
 * $$\Delta_\text{f} H^\ominus (\text{CH}_4) = [ \Delta_\text{f} H^\ominus (\text{CO}_2) + 2 \Delta_\text{f} H^\ominus (\text{H}_2 \text{O})] - \Delta_\text{comb} H^\ominus (\text{CH}_4).$$

The value of $\Delta_\text{f} H^\ominus (\text{CH}_4)$ is determined to be −74.8 kJ/mol. The negative sign shows that the reaction, if it were to proceed, would be exothermic; that is, methane is enthalpically more stable than hydrogen gas and carbon.

It is possible to predict heats of formation for simple unstrained organic compounds with the heat of formation group additivity method.

Use in calculation for other reactions
The standard enthalpy change of any reaction can be calculated from the standard enthalpies of formation of reactants and products using Hess's law. A given reaction is considered as the decomposition of all reactants into elements in their standard states, followed by the formation of all products. The heat of reaction is then minus the sum of the standard enthalpies of formation of the reactants (each being multiplied by its respective stoichiometric coefficient, $ν$) plus the sum of the standard enthalpies of formation of the products (each also multiplied by its respective stoichiometric coefficient), as shown in the equation below:

 * $$\Delta_{\text{r}} H^{\ominus } = \sum \nu \Delta_{\text{f}} H^{\ominus }(\text{products}) - \sum \nu \Delta_{\text{f}} H^{\ominus}(\text{reactants}).$$

If the standard enthalpy of the products is less than the standard enthalpy of the reactants, the standard enthalpy of reaction is negative. This implies that the reaction is exothermic. The converse is also true; the standard enthalpy of reaction is positive for an endothermic reaction. This calculation has a tacit assumption of ideal solution between reactants and products where the enthalpy of mixing is zero.

For example, for the combustion of methane, :

 * $$\Delta_{\text{r}} H^{\ominus } = [\Delta_{\text{f}} H^{\ominus }(\text{CO}_2) + 2\Delta_{\text{f}} H^{\ominus } (\text{H}_2{}\text{O})] - [\Delta_{\text{f}} H^{\ominus }(\text{CH}_4) + 2\Delta_{\text{f}} H^{\ominus }(\text{O}_2)].$$

However is an element in its standard state, so that $$ \Delta_{\text{f}} H^{\ominus }(\text{O}_2) = 0$$, and the heat of reaction is simplified to
 * $$\Delta_{\text{r}} H^{\ominus } = [\Delta_{\text{f}} H^{\ominus }(\text{CO}_2) + 2\Delta_{\text{f}} H^{\ominus } (\text{H}_2{}\text{O})] - \Delta_{\text{f}} H^{\ominus }(\text{CH}_4),$$

which is the equation in the previous section for the enthalpy of combustion $$\Delta_{\text{comb}}H^{\ominus }$$.

Key concepts for enthalpy calculations

 * When a reaction is reversed, the magnitude of ΔH stays the same, but the sign changes.
 * When the balanced equation for a reaction is multiplied by an integer, the corresponding value of ΔH must be multiplied by that integer as well.
 * The change in enthalpy for a reaction can be calculated from the enthalpies of formation of the reactants and the products
 * Elements in their standard states make no contribution to the enthalpy calculations for the reaction, since the enthalpy of an element in its standard state is zero. Allotropes of an element other than the standard state generally have non-zero standard enthalpies of formation.

Examples: standard enthalpies of formation at 25 °C
Thermochemical properties of selected substances at 298.15 K and 1 atm

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Standard enthalpy of formation


text:
Talk:Human sexual activity

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 28 August 2019 and 12 December 2019. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Pmonstertruck.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 00:00, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Add my snap spam
Hey I am trying to edit this page as in the first line there is “add my snap” slipped in by some spammer. I tried making an account to edit the page but I’m locked from it. Could someone please fix this? Thanks Stalwars101 (talk) 02:37, 17 May 2020 (UTC)
 * ✅. Thank you for pointing it out. Cheers, gnu 57 02:41, 17 May 2020 (UTC)

"Sexual activity" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect Sexual activity and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. —  Red-tailed hawk (nest) 04:59, 6 January 2023 (UTC)

Offensive content
have any of you ever considered that some of the content in this article might be offensive to some people? CalfRaiser150 (talk) 11:07, 24 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Please read the notice at the top of this page entitld "Wikipedia is not censored." Meters (talk) 19:33, 24 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Okay thanks for showing me this. I personally find it very offensive. CalfRaiser150 (talk) 19:42, 24 March 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 29 May 2024
178.52.109.77 (talk) 20:47, 29 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate.  JTP (talk • contribs) 21:15, 29 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Human sexual activity


text:
Herring

Herring are forage fish, mostly belonging to the family of Clupeidae.

Herring often move in large schools around fishing banks and near the coast, found particularly in shallow, temperate waters of the North Pacific and North Atlantic Oceans, including the Baltic Sea, as well as off the west coast of South America. Three species of Clupea (the type genus of the herring family Clupeidae) are recognised, and comprise about 90% of all herrings captured in fisheries. The most abundant of these species is the Atlantic herring, which comprises over half of all herring capture. Fish called herring are also found in the Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean, and Bay of Bengal.

Herring played an important role in the history of marine fisheries in Europe, and early in the 20th century, their study was fundamental to the development of fisheries science. These oily fish also have a long history as an important food fish, and are often salted, smoked, or pickled.

Herring were also known as "silver darlings" in the United Kingdom.

Species
A number of different species, most belonging to the family Clupeidae, are commonly referred to as herrings. The origins of the term "herring" is somewhat unclear, though it may derive from the same source as the Old High German heri meaning a "host, multitude", in reference to the large schools they form.

The type genus of the herring family Clupeidae is Clupea. Clupea contains only two species: the Atlantic herring (the type species) found in the North Atlantic, and the Pacific herring mainly found in the North Pacific. Subspecific divisions have been suggested for both the Atlantic and Pacific herrings, but their biological basis remains unclear.

In addition, a number of related species, all in the Clupeidae, are commonly referred to as herrings. The table immediately below includes those members of the family Clupeidae referred to by FishBase as herrings which have been assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

Also, a number of other species are called herrings, which may be related to clupeids or just share some characteristics of herrings (such as the lake herring, which is a salmonid). Just which of these species are called herrings can vary with locality, so what might be called a herring in one locality might be called something else in another locality. Some examples:

Characteristics
The species of Clupea belong to the larger family Clupeidae (herrings, shads, sardines, menhadens), which comprises some 200 species that share similar features. These silvery-coloured fish have a single dorsal fin, which is soft, without spines. They have no lateral line and have a protruding lower jaw. Their size varies between subspecies: the Baltic herring (Clupea harengus membras) is small, 14 to 18 cm (about 5.5 to 7 inches); the proper Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus harengus) can grow to about 46 cm and weigh up 700 g; and Pacific herring grow to about 38 cm.

Life cycle

At least one stock of Atlantic herring spawns in every month of the year. Each spawns at a different time and place (spring, summer, autumn, and winter herrings). Greenland populations spawn in 0 - 5 m of water, while North Sea (bank) herrings spawn at down to 200 m in autumn. Eggs are laid on the sea bed, on rock, stones, gravel, sand or beds of algae. Females may deposit from 20,000 to 40,000 eggs, according to age and size, averaging about 30,000. In sexually mature herring, the genital organs grow before spawning, reaching about one-fifth of its total weight.

The eggs sink to the bottom, where they stick in layers or clumps to gravel, seaweed, or stones, by means of their mucous coating, or to any other objects on which they chance to settle.

If the egg layers are too thick they suffer from oxygen depletion and often die, entangled in a maze of mucus. They need substantial water microturbulence, generally provided by wave action or coastal currents. Survival is highest in crevices and behind solid structures, because predators feast on openly exposed eggs. The individual eggs are 1 to 1.4 mm in diameter, depending on the size of the parent fish and also on the local race. Incubation time is about 40 days at 3 C, 15 days at 7 C, or 11 days at 10 C. Eggs die at temperatures above 19 C.

The larvae are 5 to 6 mm long at hatching, with a small yolk sac that is absorbed by the time the larvae reach 10 mm. Only the eyes are well pigmented. The rest of the body is nearly transparent, virtually invisible under water and in natural lighting conditions.

The dorsal fin forms at 15 to 17 mm, the anal fin at about 30 mm—the ventral fins are visible and the tail becomes well forked at 30 to 35 mm— at about  40 mm, the larva begins to look like a herring.

Herring larvae are very slender and can easily be distinguished from all other young fish of their range by the location of the vent, which lies close to the base of the tail; however, distinguishing clupeoids one from another in their early stages requires critical examination, especially telling herring from sprats.

At one year, they are about 10 cm long, and they first spawn at three years.

Prey
Herrings consume copepods, arrow worms, pelagic amphipods, mysids, and krill in the pelagic zone. Conversely, they are a central prey item or forage fish for higher trophic levels. The reasons for this success are still enigmatic; one speculation attributes their dominance to the huge, extremely fast cruising schools they inhabit.

Herring feed on phytoplankton, and as they mature, they start to consume larger organisms. They also feed on zooplankton, tiny animals found in oceanic surface waters, and small fish and fish larvae. Copepods and other tiny crustaceans are the most common zooplankton eaten by herring. During daylight, herring stay in the safety of deep water, feeding at the surface only at night when the chance of being seen by predators is less. They swim along with their mouths open, filtering the plankton from the water as it passes through their gills. Young herring mostly hunt copepods individually, by means of "particulate feeding" or "raptorial feeding", a feeding method also used by adult herring on larger prey items like krill. If prey concentrations reach very high levels, as in microlayers, at fronts, or directly below the surface, herring become filter feeders, driving several meters forward with wide open mouth and far expanded opercula, then closing and cleaning the gill rakers for a few milliseconds.

Copepods, the primary zooplankton, are a major item on the forage fish menu. Copepods are typically 1-2 mm long, with a teardrop-shaped body. Some scientists say they form the largest animal biomass on the planet. Copepods are very alert and evasive. They have large antennae (see photo below left). When they spread their antennae, they can sense the pressure wave from an approaching fish and jump with great speed over a few centimetres. If copepod concentrations reach high levels, schooling herrings adopt a method called ram feeding. In the photo below, herring ram feed on a school of copepods. They swim with their mouths wide open and their operculae fully expanded.

The fish swim in a grid where the distance between them is the same as the jump length of their prey, as indicated in the animation above right. In the animation, juvenile herring hunt the copepods in this synchronised way. The copepods sense with their antennae the pressure wave of an approaching herring and react with a fast escape jump. The length of the jump is fairly constant. The fish align themselves in a grid with this characteristic jump length. A copepod can dart about 80 times before it tires. After a jump, it takes it 60 milliseconds to spread its antennae again, and this time delay becomes its undoing, as the almost endless stream of herring allows a herring to eventually snap up the copepod. A single juvenile herring could never catch a large copepod.

Other pelagic prey eaten by herring includes fish eggs, larval snails, diatoms by herring larvae below 20 mm, tintinnids by larvae below 45 mm, molluscan larvae, menhaden larvae, krill, mysids, smaller fishes, pteropods, annelids, Calanus spp., Centropagidae, and Meganyctiphanes norvegica.

Herrings, along with Atlantic cod and sprat, are the most important commercial species to humans in the Baltic Sea. The analysis of the stomach contents of these fish indicate Atlantic cod is the top predator, preying on the herring and sprat. Sprat are competitive with herring for the same food resources. This is evident in the two species' vertical migration in the Baltic Sea, where they compete for the limited zooplankton available and necessary for their survival. Sprat are highly selective in their diet and eat only zooplankton, while herring are more eclectic, adjusting their diet as they grow in size. In the Baltic, copepods of the genus Acartia can be present in large numbers. However, they are small in size with a high escape response, so herring and sprat avoid trying to catch them. These copepods also tend to dwell more in surface waters, whereas herring and sprat, especially during the day, tend to dwell in deeper waters.

Predators

Predators of herring include seabirds, marine mammals such as dolphins, porpoises, whales, seals, and sea lions, predatory fish such as sharks, billfish, tuna, salmon, striped bass, cod, and halibut. Fishermen also catch and eat herring.

The predators often cooperate in groups, using different techniques to panic or herd a school of herring into a tight bait ball. Different predatory species then use different techniques to pick the fish off in the bait ball. The sailfish raises its sail to make it appear much larger. Swordfish charge at high speed through the bait balls, slashing with their swords to kill or stun prey. They then turn and return to consume their "catch". Thresher sharks use their long tails to stun the shoaling fish. These sharks compact their prey school by swimming around them and splashing the water with their tails, often in pairs or small groups. They then strike them sharply with the upper lobe of their tails to stun them. Spinner sharks charge vertically through the school, spinning on their axes with their mouths open and snapping all around. The sharks' momentum at the end of these spiraling runs often carries them into the air.

Some whales lunge feed on bait balls. Lunge feeding is an extreme feeding method, where the whale accelerates from below the bait ball to a high velocity and then opens its mouth to a large gape angle. This generates the water pressure required to expand its mouth and engulf and filter a huge amount of water and fish. Lunge feeding by rorquals, a family of huge baleen whales that includes the blue whale, is said to be the largest biomechanical event on Earth.

Fisheries
Adult herring are harvested for their flesh and eggs, and they are often used as baitfish. The trade in herring is an important sector of many economies around the world. In Europe, the fish has been called the "silver of the sea", and its trade has been so significant to many countries that it has been regarded as the most commercially important fishery in history.

As food

Herring has been a staple food source since at least 3000 BC. The fish is served numerous ways, and many regional recipes are used: eaten raw, fermented, pickled, or cured by other techniques, such as being smoked as kippers.

Herring are very high in the long-chain omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA. They are a source of vitamin D.

Water pollution influences the amount of herring that may be safely consumed. For example, large Baltic herring slightly exceeds recommended limits with respect to PCB and dioxin, although some sources point out that the cancer-reducing effect of omega-3 fatty acids is statistically stronger than the carcinogenic effect of PCBs and dioxins. The contaminant levels depend on the age of the fish which can be inferred from their size. Baltic herrings larger than 17 cm may be eaten twice a month, while herrings smaller than 17 cm can be eaten freely. Mercury in fish also influences the amount of fish that women who are pregnant or planning to be pregnant within the next one or two years may safely eat.

History
The herring has played a highly significant role in history both socially and economically. During the Middle Ages, herring prompted the founding of Great Yarmouth and Copenhagen and played a critical role in the medieval development of Amsterdam. In 1274, while on his deathbed at the monastery of Fossanova (south of Rome, Italy), when encouraged to eat something to regain his strength, Thomas Aquinas asked for fresh herring.

title: Herring


text:
Socratic method

The Socratic method (also known as method of Elenchus or Socratic debate) is a form of argumentative dialogue between individuals, based on asking and answering questions.

In Plato's dialogue "Theaetetus", Socrates describes his method as a form of "midwifery" because it is employed to help his interlocutors develop their understanding in a way analogous to a child developing in the womb. The Socratic method begins with commonly held beliefs and scrutinizes them by way of questioning to determine their internal consistency and their coherence with other beliefs and so to bring everyone closer to the truth.

In modified forms, it is employed today in a variety of pedagogical contexts.

Development
In the second half of the 5th century BCE, sophists were teachers who specialized in using the tools of philosophy and rhetoric to entertain, impress, or persuade an audience to accept the speaker's point of view. Socrates promoted an alternative method of teaching, which came to be called the Socratic method.

Socrates began to engage in such discussions with his fellow Athenians after his friend from youth, Chaerephon, visited the Oracle of Delphi, which asserted that no man in Greece was wiser than Socrates. Socrates saw this as a paradox, and began using the Socratic method to answer his conundrum. Diogenes Laërtius, however, wrote that Protagoras invented the "Socratic" method.

Plato famously formalized the Socratic elenctic style in prose—presenting Socrates as the curious questioner of some prominent Athenian interlocutor—in some of his early dialogues, such as Euthyphro and Ion, and the method is most commonly found within the so-called "Socratic dialogues", which generally portray Socrates engaging in the method and questioning his fellow citizens about moral and epistemological issues. But in his later dialogues, such as Theaetetus or Sophist, Plato had a different method to philosophical discussions, namely dialectic.

Method
Elenchus (ἔλεγχος ) is the central technique of the Socratic method. The Latin form elenchus (plural elenchi) is used in English as the technical philosophical term. The most common adjectival form in English is ; and  are also current. This was also very important in Plato's early dialogues.

Socrates (as depicted by Plato) generally applied his method of examination to concepts such as the virtues of piety, wisdom, temperance, courage, and justice. Such an examination challenged the implicit moral beliefs of the interlocutors, bringing out inadequacies and inconsistencies in their beliefs, and usually resulting in aporia. In view of such inadequacies, Socrates himself professed ignorance. Socrates said that his awareness of his ignorance made him wiser than those who, though ignorant, still claimed knowledge. This claim was based on a reported Delphic oracular pronouncement that no man was wiser than Socrates. While this belief seems paradoxical at first glance, in fact it allowed Socrates to discover his own errors.

Socrates used this claim of wisdom as the basis of moral exhortation. He claimed that the chief goodness consists in the caring of the soul concerned with moral truth and moral understanding, that "wealth does not bring goodness, but goodness brings wealth and every other blessing, both to the individual and to the state", and that "life without examination [dialogue] is not worth living".

Socrates rarely used the method to actually develop consistent theories, and he even made frequent use of creative myths and allegories. The Parmenides dialogue shows Parmenides using the Socratic method to point out the flaws in the Platonic theory of forms, as presented by Socrates; it is not the only dialogue in which theories normally expounded by Plato's Socrates are broken down through dialectic. Instead of arriving at answers, the method breaks down the theories we hold, to go "beyond" the axioms and postulates we take for granted. Therefore, myth and the Socratic method are not meant by Plato to be incompatible; they have different purposes, and are often described as the "left hand" and "right hand" paths to good and wisdom.

Scholarly debate
In Plato's early dialogues, the elenchus is the technique Socrates uses to investigate, for example, the nature or definition of ethical concepts such as justice or virtue. According to Gregory Vlastos, it has the following steps:

 * 1) Socrates' interlocutor asserts a thesis, for example "Courage is endurance of the soul".
 * 2) Socrates decides whether the thesis is false and targets for refutation.
 * 3) Socrates secures his interlocutor's agreement to further premises, for example "Courage is a fine thing" and "Ignorant endurance is not a fine thing".
 * 4) Socrates then argues, and the interlocutor agrees, these further premises imply the contrary of the original thesis; in this case, it leads to: "courage is not endurance of the soul".
 * 5) Socrates then claims he has shown his interlocutor's thesis is false and its negation is true.

One elenctic examination can lead to a new, more refined, examination of the concept being considered, in this case it invites an examination of the claim: "Courage is endurance of the soul". Most Socratic inquiries consist of a series of and typically end in puzzlement known as aporia.

Michael Frede points out Vlastos' conclusion in step #5 above makes nonsense of the aporetic nature of the early dialogues. Having shown a proposed thesis is false is insufficient to conclude some other competing thesis must be true. Rather, the interlocutors have reached aporia, an improved state of still not knowing what to say about the subject under discussion.

The exact nature of the elenchus is subject to a great deal of debate, in particular concerning whether it is a positive method, leading to knowledge, or a negative method used solely to refute false claims to knowledge. Some qualitative research shows that the use of the Socratic method within a traditional Yeshiva education setting helps students succeed in law school, although it remains an open question as to whether that relationship is causal or merely correlative.

Yet, W. K. C. Guthrie in The Greek Philosophers sees it as an error to regard the Socratic method as a means by which one seeks the answer to a problem, or knowledge. Guthrie claims that the Socratic method actually aims to demonstrate one's ignorance. Socrates, unlike the Sophists, did believe that knowledge was possible, but believed that the first step to knowledge was recognition of one's ignorance. Guthrie writes, "[Socrates] was accustomed to say that he did not himself know anything, and that the only way in which he was wiser than other men was that he was conscious of his own ignorance, while they were not. The essence of the Socratic method is to convince the interlocutor that whereas he thought he knew something, in fact he does not."

Socratic seminar
A Socratic seminar (also known as a Socratic circle) is a pedagogical approach based on the Socratic method and uses a dialogic approach to understand information in a text. Its systematic procedure is used to examine a text through questions and answers founded on the beliefs that all new knowledge is connected to prior knowledge, that all thinking comes from asking questions, and that asking one question should lead to asking further questions. A Socratic seminar is not a debate. The goal of this activity is to have participants work together to construct meaning and arrive at an answer, not for one student or one group to "win the argument".

This approach is based on the belief that participants seek and gain deeper understanding of concepts in the text through thoughtful dialogue rather than memorizing information that has been provided for them. While Socratic seminars can differ in structure, and even in name, they typically involve a passage of text that students must read beforehand and facilitate dialogue. Sometimes, a facilitator will structure two concentric circles of students: an outer circle and an inner circle. The inner circle focuses on exploring and analysing the text through the act of questioning and answering. During this phase, the outer circle remains silent. Students in the outer circle are much like scientific observers watching and listening to the conversation of the inner circle. When the text has been fully discussed and the inner circle is finished talking, the outer circle provides feedback on the dialogue that took place. This process alternates with the inner circle students going to the outer circle for the next meeting and vice versa. The length of this process varies depending on the text used for the discussion. The teacher may decide to alternate groups within one meeting, or they may alternate at each separate meeting.

The most significant difference between this activity and most typical classroom activities involves the role of the teacher. In Socratic seminar, the students lead the discussion and questioning. The teacher's role is to ensure the discussion advances regardless of the particular direction the discussion takes.

Various approaches to Socratic seminar
Teachers use Socratic seminar in different ways. The structure it takes may look different in each classroom. While this is not an exhaustive list, teachers may use one of the following structures to administer Socratic seminar:

 * 1) Inner/outer circle or fishbowl: Students need to be arranged in inner and outer circles. The inner circle engages in discussion about the text. The outer circle observes the inner circle, while taking notes. The outer circle shares their observations and questions the inner circle with guidance from the teacher/facilitator. Students use constructive criticism as opposed to making judgements. The students on the outside keep track of topics they would like to discuss as part of the debrief. Participants in the outer circle can use an observation checklist or notes form to monitor the participants in the inner circle. These tools will provide structure for listening and give the outside members specific details to discuss later in the seminar.  The teacher may also sit in the circle but at the same height as the students.
 * 2) Triad: Students are arranged so that each participant (called a "pilot") in the inner circle has two "co-pilots" sitting behind them on either side. Pilots are the speakers because they are in the inner circle; co-pilots are in the outer circle and only speak during consultation. The seminar proceeds as any other seminar. At a point in the seminar, the facilitator pauses the discussion and instructs the triad to talk to each other. Conversation will be about topics that need more in-depth discussion or a question posed by the leader. Sometimes triads will be asked by the facilitator to come up with a new question. Any time during a triad conversation, group members can switch seats and one of the co-pilots can sit in the pilot's seat. Only during that time is the switching of seats allowed. This structure allows for students to speak, who may not yet have the confidence to speak in the large group. This type of seminar involves all students instead of just the students in the inner and outer circles.
 * 3) Simultaneous seminars: Students are arranged in multiple small groups and placed as far as possible from each other. Following the guidelines of the Socratic seminar, students engage in small group discussions. Simultaneous seminars are typically done with experienced students who need little guidance and can engage in a discussion without assistance from a teacher/facilitator. According to the literature, this type of seminar is beneficial for teachers who want students to explore a variety of texts around a main issue or topic. Each small group may have a different text to read/view and discuss. A larger Socratic seminar can then occur as a discussion about how each text corresponds with one another. Simultaneous Seminars can also be used for a particularly difficult text. Students can work through different issues and key passages from the text.

No matter what structure the teacher employs, the basic premise of the seminar/circles is to turn partial control and direction of the classroom over to the students. The seminars encourage students to work together, creating meaning from the text and to stay away from trying to find a correct interpretation. The emphasis is on critical and creative thinking.

Socratic seminar texts
A Socratic seminar text is a tangible document that creates a thought-provoking discussion. The text ought to be appropriate for the participants' current level of intellectual and social development. It provides the anchor for dialogue whereby the facilitator can bring the participants back to the text if they begin to digress. Furthermore, the seminar text enables the participants to create a level playing field – ensuring that the dialogical tone within the classroom remains consistent and pure to the subject or topic at hand. Some practitioners argue that "texts" do not have to be confined to printed texts, but can include artifacts such as objects, physical spaces, and the like.

Pertinent elements of an effective Socratic text
Socratic seminar texts are able to challenge participants' thinking skills by having these characteristics:

 * 1) Ideas and values: The text must introduce ideas and values that are complex and difficult to summarize. Powerful discussions arise from personal connections to abstract ideas and from implications to personal values.
 * 2) Complexity and challenge: The text must be rich in ideas and complexity and open to interpretation. Ideally it should require multiple readings, but should be neither far above the participants' intellectual level nor very long.
 * 3) Relevance to participants' curriculum: An effective text has identifiable themes that are recognizable and pertinent to the lives of the participants. Themes in the text should relate to the curriculum.
 * 4) Ambiguity: The text must be approachable from a variety of different perspectives, including perspectives that seem mutually exclusive, thus provoking critical thinking and raising important questions. The absence of right and wrong answers promotes a variety of discussion and encourages individual contributions.

Two different ways to select a text
Socratic texts can be divided into two main categories:

 * 1) Print texts (e.g., short stories, poems, and essays) and non-print texts (e.g. photographs, sculptures, and maps); and
 * 2) Subject area, which can draw from print or non-print artifacts. As examples, language arts can be approached through poems, history through written or oral historical speeches, science through policies on environmental issues, math through mathematical proofs, health through nutrition labels, and physical education through fitness guidelines.

Questioning methods
Socratic seminars are based upon the interaction of peers. The focus is to explore multiple perspectives on a given issue or topic. Socratic questioning is used to help students apply the activity to their learning. The pedagogy of Socratic questions is open-ended, focusing on broad, general ideas rather than specific, factual information. The questioning technique emphasizes a level of questioning and thinking where there is no single right answer.

Socratic seminars generally start with an open-ended question proposed either by the leader or by another participant. There is no designated first speaker; as individuals participate in Socratic dialogue, they gain experience that enables them to be effective in this role of initial questioner.

The leader keeps the topic focused by asking a variety of questions about the text itself, as well as questions to help clarify positions when arguments become confused. The leader also seeks to coax reluctant participants into the discussion, and to limit contributions from those who tend to dominate. She or he prompts participants to elaborate on their responses and to build on what others have said. The leader guides participants to deepen, clarify, and paraphrase, and to synthesize a variety of different views.

The participants share the responsibility with the leader to maintain the quality of the Socratic circle. They listen actively in order to respond effectively to what others have contributed. This teaches the participants to think and speak persuasively using the discussion to support their position. Participants must demonstrate respect for different ideas, thoughts and values, and must not interrupt each other.

Questions can be created individually or in small groups. All participants are given the opportunity to take part in the discussion. Socratic circles specify three types of questions to prepare:

 * 1) Opening questions generate discussion at the beginning of the seminar in order to elicit dominant themes.
 * 2) Guiding questions help deepen and elaborate the discussion, keeping contributions on topic and encouraging a positive atmosphere and consideration for others.
 * 3) Closing questions lead participants to summarize their thoughts and learning and personalize what they've discussed.

Challenges and disadvantages
Scholars such as Peter Boghossian suggest that although the method improves creative and critical thinking, there is a flip side to the method. He states that the teachers who use this method wait for the students to make mistakes, thus creating negative feelings in the class, exposing the student to possible ridicule and humiliation.

Some have countered this thought by stating that the humiliation and ridicule is not caused by the method, rather it is due to the lack of knowledge of the student. Boghossian mentions that even though the questions may be perplexing, they are not originally meant for it, in fact such questions provoke the students and can be countered by employing counterexamples.

Psychotherapy
The Socratic method, in the form of Socratic questioning, has been adapted for psychotherapy, most prominently in classical Adlerian psychotherapy, logotherapy, rational emotive behavior therapy, cognitive therapy and reality therapy. It can be used to clarify meaning, feeling, and consequences, as well as to gradually unfold insight, or explore alternative actions.

The Socratic method has also recently inspired a new form of applied philosophy: Socratic dialogue, also called philosophical counseling. In Europe Gerd B. Achenbach is probably the best known practitioner, and Michel Weber has also proposed another variant of the practice.

title: Socratic method


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Kenneth Arrow

Kenneth Joseph Arrow (August 23, 1921 – February 21, 2017) was an American economist, mathematician, writer, and political theorist. Along with John Hicks, he won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1972.

In economics, Arrow was a major figure in post-World War II neoclassical economic theory. Many of his former graduate students have gone on to win the Nobel Memorial Prize themselves. His most significant works are his contributions to social choice theory, notably "Arrow's impossibility theorem", and his work on general equilibrium analysis. He has also provided foundational work in many other areas of economics, including endogenous growth theory and the economics of information.

Education and early career
Arrow was born on August 23, 1921, in New York City. Arrow's mother, Lilian (Greenberg), was from Iași, Romania, and his father, Harry Arrow, was from nearby Podu Iloaiei. The Arrow family were Romanian Jews. His family was very supportive of his education. Growing up during the Great Depression, he embraced socialism in his youth. He would later move away from socialism, but his views retained a left-leaning philosophy.

He graduated from Townsend Harris High School and then earned a bachelor's degree in mathematics from the City College of New York in 1940, where he was a member of Sigma Phi Epsilon. He then attended Columbia University for graduate studies, obtaining a master's degree in mathematics in June 1941. At Columbia, Arrow studied under Harold Hotelling, who influenced him to switch fields to economics. He served as a weather officer in the United States Army Air Forces from 1942 to 1946.

Academic career
From 1946 to 1949 Arrow spent his time partly as a graduate student at Columbia and partly as a research associate at the Cowles Commission for Research in Economics, then at the University of Chicago. During that time he also held the rank of Assistant Professor in Economics at the University of Chicago and worked at the RAND Corporation in California. He left Chicago to take up the post of Acting Assistant Professor of Economics and Statistics at Stanford University. In 1951, he earned his PhD from Columbia. He served in the government on the staff of the Council of Economic Advisers in the 1960s with Robert Solow. In 1968, he left Stanford for the position of Professor of Economics at Harvard University. It was during his tenure there that he received the Nobel Prize in Economics.

Arrow returned to Stanford in 1979 and became the Joan Kenney Professor of Economics and Professor of Operations Research. He retired in 1991. As a Fulbright Distinguished Chair, in 1995 he taught economics at the University of Siena. He was also a founding member of the Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences and a member of the Science Board of Santa Fe Institute. At various stages in his career he was a Fellow of Churchill College, Cambridge. He was one of the founding editors of the Annual Review of Economics, which was first published in 2009.

Four of his former students have gone on to become Nobel Prize winners, namely John Harsanyi, Eric Maskin, Roger Myerson, and Michael Spence. A collection of Arrow's papers is housed at the Rubenstein Library at Duke University.

Arrow's impossibility theorem
Arrow's monograph Social Choice and Individual Values derives from his 1951 PhD thesis.

"If we exclude the possibility of interpersonal comparisons of utility, then the only methods of passing from individual tastes to social preferences which will be satisfactory and which will be defined for a wide range of sets of individual orderings are either imposed or dictatorial."

In what he named the General Impossibility Theorem, he theorized that, unless we accept to compare the levels of utility reached by different individuals, it is impossible to formulate a social preference ordering that satisfies all of the following conditions:

 * 1) Nondictatorship: The preferences of an individual should not become the group ranking without considering the preferences of others.
 * 2) Individual Sovereignty: each individual should be able to order the choices in any way and indicate ties
 * 3) Unanimity: If every individual prefers one choice to another, then the group ranking should do the same
 * 4) Freedom From Irrelevant Alternatives: If a choice is removed, then the others' order should not change
 * 5) Uniqueness of Group Rank: The method should yield the same result whenever applied to a set of preferences.  The group ranking should be transitive.

The theorem has implications for welfare economics and theories of justice, and for voting theory (it extends the Condorcet paradox). Following Arrow's logical framework, Amartya Sen formulated the liberal paradox which argued that given a status of "Minimal Liberty" there was no way to obtain Pareto optimality, nor to avoid the problem of social choice of neutral but unequal results.

General equilibrium theory
Work by Arrow and Gérard Debreu and simultaneous work by Lionel McKenzie offered the first rigorous proofs of the existence of a market clearing equilibrium. For this work and his other contributions, Debreu won the 1983 Nobel Prize in Economics. Arrow went on to extend the model and its analysis to include uncertainty, the stability. His contributions to the general equilibrium theory were influenced by Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations. Written in 1776, The Wealth of Nations is an examination of economic growth brought forward by the division of labor, by ensuring interdependence of individuals within society.

In 1974, The American Economic Association published the paper written by Kenneth Arrow, General Economic Equilibrium: Purpose, Analytic Techniques, Collective Choice, where he states:

"From the time of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations in 1776, one recurrent theme of economic analysis has been the remarkable degree of coherence among the vast numbers of individual and seemingly separate decisions about the buying and selling of commodities. In everyday, normal experience, there is something of a balance between the amounts of goods and services that some individuals want to supply and the amounts that other, different individuals want to sell. Would-be buyers ordinarily count correctly on being able to carry out their intentions, and would-be sellers do not ordinarily find themselves producing great amounts of goods that they cannot sell. This experience of balance is indeed so widespread that it raises no intellectual disquiet among laymen; they take it so much for granted that they are not disposed to understand the mechanism by which it occurs."

Fundamental theorems of welfare economics
In 1951, Arrow presented the first and second fundamental theorems of welfare economics and their proofs without requiring differentiability of utility, consumption, or technology, and including corner solutions.

Endogenous-growth theory
Arrow was one of the precursors of endogenous growth theory, which seeks to explain the source of technical change, which is a key driver of economic growth. Until this theory came to prominence, technical change was assumed to occur exogenously — that is, it was assumed to occur outside economic activities, and was outside (exogenous) to common economic models. At the same time there was no economic explanation for why it occurred. Endogenous-growth theory provided standard economic reasons for why firms innovate, leading economists to think of innovation and technical change as determined by economic actors, that is endogenously to economic activities, and thus belong inside the model. Endogenous growth theory started with Paul Romer's 1986 paper, borrowing from Arrow's 1962 "learning-by-doing" model which introduced a mechanism to eliminate diminishing returns in aggregate output. A literature on this theory has developed subsequently to Arrow's work.

Information economics
In other pioneering research, Arrow investigated the problems caused by asymmetric information in markets. In many transactions, one party (usually the seller) has more information about the product being sold than the other party. Asymmetric information creates incentives for the party with more information to cheat the party with less information; as a result, a number of market structures have developed, including warranties and third party authentication, which enable markets with asymmetric information to function. Arrow analysed this issue for medical care (a 1963 paper entitled "Uncertainty and the Welfare Economics of Medical Care", in the American Economic Review); later researchers investigated many other markets, particularly second-hand assets, online auctions and insurance.

Awards and honors
Arrow was awarded the John Bates Clark Medal in 1957 and was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1959. In 1968, he was elected to both the United States National Academy of Sciences and the American Philosophical Society. He was the joint winner of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with John Hicks in 1972 and the 1986 recipient of the von Neumann Theory Prize. He was one of the recipients of the 2004 National Medal of Science, the nation's highest scientific honor, presented by President George W. Bush for his contributions to research on the problem of making decisions using imperfect information and his research on bearing risk.

He has received honorary doctorates from the University of Chicago (1967), the University of Vienna (1971) the City University of New York (1972). On 2 June 1995 he received an honorary doctorate from the Faculty of Social Sciences at Uppsala University, Sweden. He was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 2006. He was elected to the 2002 class of Fellows of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences.

Personal life and death
Arrow was a brother to the economist Anita Summers, uncle to economist and former Treasury Secretary and Harvard President Larry Summers, and brother-in-law of the late economists Robert Summers and Paul Samuelson. In 1947, he married Selma Schweitzer, graduate in economics at the University of Chicago and psychotherapist, who died in 2015; they had two children, David Michael (b. 1962), an actor, and Andrew Seth (b. 1965), an actor/singer.

Arrow was well known for being a polymath, possessing prodigious knowledge of subjects far removed from economics. On one occasion (recounted by Eric Maskin), in an attempt to artificially test Arrow's knowledge, the junior faculty agreed to closely study the breeding habits of gray whales — a suitably obscure topic — and discuss it in his presence. To their surprise, Arrow already was familiar with the work they had studied and, in addition, thought it had been refuted by other research.

Arrow died in his Palo Alto, California, home on February 21, 2017, at the age of 95.

Publications

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title: Kenneth Arrow


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Piety

Piety is a virtue which may include religious devotion or spirituality. A common element in most conceptions of piety is a duty of respect. In a religious context, piety may be expressed through pious activities or devotions, which may vary among countries and cultures.

Etymology
The word piety comes from the Latin word pietas, the noun form of the adjective pius (which means "devout" or "dutiful"). English literature scholar Alan Jacobs has written about the origins and early meaning of the term: "It is not, in its origin, a Christian word. The Roman poet Virgil calls his hero pius Aeneas, says that he is a pietāte virum, but we might well mislead readers were we to say "pious Aeneas" or a "pious man." For his character is unmarked by the smarmy religiosity we typically associate with the word "pious." Aeneas is to his mission, is to the call of the gods on his life. He is willing to sacrifice his own interests to those greater interests, especially to the founding of the great city of Rome. He binds his will and his heart to that task. This is what it means to be pius."

Classical interpretation
Pietas in traditional Latin usage expressed a complex, highly valued Roman virtue; a man with pietas respected his responsibilities to gods, country, parents, and kin. In its strictest sense it was the sort of love a son ought to have for his father. Aeneas's consistent epithet in Virgil and other Latin authors is pius, a term which connotes reverence toward the gods and familial dutifulness. At the fall of Troy, Aeneas carries to safety his father, the lame Anchises, and the Lares and Penates, the statues of the household gods.

In addressing whether children have an obligation to provide support for their parents, Aquinas quotes, Cicero, "...piety gives both duty and homage": "duty" referring to service, and "homage" to reverence or honor." Filial piety is central to Confucian ethics; reverence for parents is considered in Chinese ethics the prime virtue and the basis of all right human relations.

As a virtue
In Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Lutheranism, and Anglicanism, piety is one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit. "It engenders in the soul a filial respect for God, a generous love toward him, and an affectionate obedience that wants to do what he commands because it loves the one who commands." Pope Gregory I, in demonstrating the interrelationship among the gifts, said "Through the fear of the Lord, we rise to piety, from piety then to knowledge..."

Aquinas spoke of piety in the context of one's parents and country, and given the obligation to accord each what is rightfully due them, related it to the cardinal virtue of justice. (By analogy, rendering to God what is due him, Aquinas identified as the virtue of religion, also related to justice. ) Professor Richard McBrien said piety "is a gift of the Holy Spirit by which we are motivated and enabled to be faithful and respectful to those—ultimately, God—who have had a positive, formative influence on our lives and to whom we owe a debt of gratitude," and requires one to acknowledge, to the extent possible, the sources of those many blessings through words and gestures great and small.

Piety belongs to the virtue of Religion, which theologians put among the moral virtues, as a part of the cardinal virtue Justice, since by it one tenders to God what is due to him. The gift of piety perfects the virtue of justice, enabling the individual to fulfill his obligations to God and neighbor, and to do so willingly and joyfully. By inspiring a person with a tender and filial confidence in God, the gift of piety makes them joyfully embrace all that pertains to His service.

John Calvin said, "I call ‘piety’ that reverence joined with love of God which the knowledge of his benefits induces. For until [people] recognize that they owe everything to God, that they are nourished by his fatherly care, that he is the Author of their every good, that they should seek nothing beyond him—they will never yield him willing service." Bishop Pierre Whalon says that "Piety, therefore, is the pursuit of an ever-greater sense of being in the presence of God."

The Gift of Piety is synonymous with of filial trust in God. Through piety, a person shows reverence for God as a loving Father, and respect for others as children of God.

Pope John Paul II defined piety as "the gift of reverence for what comes from God," and related it to his earlier lectures on the Theology of the Body. In a General Audience in June 2014, Pope Francis said, "When the Holy Spirit helps us sense the presence of the Lord and all of his love for us, it warms our heart and drives us almost naturally to prayer and celebration." "Piety", said Pope Francis, points up "our friendship with God." It is a gift that enables people to serve their neighbor "with gentleness and with a smile."

Piety and devotion
Expressions of piety vary according to country and local tradition. "Feast days", with their preparations for various religious celebrations and activities, have forged traditions peculiar to communities. Many pious exercises are part of the cultic patrimony of particular Churches or religious families. Devotions help incorporate faith into daily life.

"Popular piety "...manifests a thirst for God which only the simple and poor can know. It makes people capable of generosity and sacrifice even to the point of heroism, when it is a question of manifesting belief. It involves an acute awareness of profound attributes of God: fatherhood, providence, loving and constant presence. It engenders interior attitudes rarely observed to the same degree elsewhere: patience, the sense of the cross in daily life, detachment, openness to others, devotion. By reason of these aspects, we readily call it "popular piety," that is, religion of the people, rather than religiosity."

- Pope Paul VI

"They are the manifestation of a theological life nourished by the working of the Holy Spirit who has been poured into our hearts (cf. )."

- Pope Francis

While acknowledging that Anglican piety took the forms of more frequent communion and liturgical observances and customs, Bishop Ronald Williams spoke for increased reading of the Bible.

In the Methodist Church, works of piety are a means of grace. They can be personal, such as reading, prayer, and meditation; or communal, such as sharing in the sacraments or Bible study. For Presbyterians, piety refers to a whole realm of practices—such as worship, prayer, singing, and service—that help shape and guide the way one's reverence and love for God are expressed; and "the duty of the Christian to live a life of piety in accordance with God’s moral law".

The veneration of sacred images belongs to the nature of Catholic piety, with the understanding that "the honour rendered to the image is directed to the person represented".

title: Piety