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Congruence relation

In abstract algebra, a congruence relation (or simply congruence) is an equivalence relation on an algebraic structure (such as a group, ring, or vector space) that is compatible with the structure in the sense that algebraic operations done with equivalent elements will yield equivalent elements. Every congruence relation has a corresponding quotient structure, whose elements are the equivalence classes (or congruence classes) for the relation.

Definition
The definition of a congruence depends on the type of algebraic structure under consideration. Particular definitions of congruence can be made for groups, rings, vector spaces, modules, semigroups, lattices, and so forth. The common theme is that a congruence is an equivalence relation on an algebraic object that is compatible with the algebraic structure, in the sense that the operations are well-defined on the equivalence classes.

General
The general notion of a congruence relation can be formally defined in the context of universal algebra, a field which studies ideas common to all algebraic structures. In this setting, a relation $$R$$ on a given algebraic structure is called compatible if
 * for each $$n$$ and each $$n$$-ary operation $$\mu$$ defined on the structure: whenever $$a_1 \mathrel{R} a'_1$$ and ... and $$a_n \mathrel{R} a'_n$$, then $$\mu(a_1,\ldots,a_n) \mathrel{R} \mu(a'_1,\ldots,a'_n)$$.

A congruence relation on the structure is then defined as an equivalence relation that is also compatible.

Basic example
The prototypical example of a congruence relation is congruence modulo $$n$$ on the set of integers. For a given positive integer $$n$$, two integers $$a$$ and $$b$$ are called congruent modulo $$n$$, written
 * $$a \equiv b \pmod{n}$$

if $$a - b$$ is divisible by $$n$$ (or equivalently if $$a$$ and $$b$$ have the same remainder when divided by $$n$$).

For example, $$37$$ and $$57$$ are congruent modulo $$10$$,
 * $$37 \equiv 57 \pmod{10}$$

since $$37 - 57 = -20$$ is a multiple of 10, or equivalently since both $$37$$ and $$57$$ have a remainder of $$7$$ when divided by $$10$$.

Congruence modulo $$n$$ (for a fixed $$n$$) is compatible with both addition and multiplication on the integers. That is,

if
 * $$a_1 \equiv a_2 \pmod{n} $$ and $$ b_1 \equiv b_2 \pmod{n}$$

then
 * $$a_1 + b_1 \equiv a_2 + b_2 \pmod{n} $$ and  $$ a_1 b_1 \equiv a_2b_2 \pmod{n}$$

The corresponding addition and multiplication of equivalence classes is known as modular arithmetic. From the point of view of abstract algebra, congruence modulo $$n$$ is a congruence relation on the ring of integers, and arithmetic modulo $$n$$ occurs on the corresponding quotient ring.

Example: Groups
For example, a group is an algebraic object consisting of a set together with a single binary operation, satisfying certain axioms. If $$G$$ is a group with operation $$\ast$$, a congruence relation on $$G$$ is an equivalence relation $$\equiv$$ on the elements of $$G$$ satisfying
 * $$g_1 \equiv g_2 \ \ \,$$ and $$\ \ \, h_1 \equiv h_2 \implies g_1 \ast h_1 \equiv g_2 \ast h_2$$

for all $$g_1, g_2, h_1, h_2 \in G$$. For a congruence on a group, the equivalence class containing the identity element is always a normal subgroup, and the other equivalence classes are the other cosets of this subgroup. Together, these equivalence classes are the elements of a quotient group.

Example: Rings
When an algebraic structure includes more than one operation, congruence relations are required to be compatible with each operation. For example, a ring possesses both addition and multiplication, and a congruence relation on a ring must satisfy
 * $$r_1 + s_1 \equiv r_2 + s_2$$ and $$r_1 s_1 \equiv r_2 s_2$$

whenever $$r_1 \equiv r_2$$ and $$s_1 \equiv s_2$$. For a congruence on a ring, the equivalence class containing 0 is always a two-sided ideal, and the two operations on the set of equivalence classes define the corresponding quotient ring.

Relation with homomorphisms
If $$f:A\, \rightarrow B$$ is a homomorphism between two algebraic structures (such as homomorphism of groups, or a linear map between vector spaces), then the relation $$R$$ defined by
 * $$a_1\, R\, a_2$$ if and only if $$f(a_1) = f(a_2)$$

is a congruence relation on $$A$$. By the first isomorphism theorem, the image of A under $$f$$ is a substructure of B isomorphic to the quotient of A by this congruence.

On the other hand, the congruence relation $$R$$ induces a unique homomorphism $$f: A \rightarrow A/R$$ given by
 * $$f(x) = \{y \mid x \, R \, y\}$$.

Thus, there is a natural correspondence between the congruences and the homomorphisms of any given algebraic structure.

Congruences of groups, and normal subgroups and ideals
In the particular case of groups, congruence relations can be described in elementary terms as follows: If G is a group (with identity element e and operation *) and ~ is a binary relation on G, then ~ is a congruence whenever:
 * 1) Given any element a of G, a ~ a (reflexivity);
 * 2) Given any elements a and b of G, if a ~ b, then b ~ a (symmetry);
 * 3) Given any elements a, b, and c of G, if a ~ b and b ~ c, then a ~ c (transitivity);
 * 4) Given any elements a, a′, b, and b′ of G, if a ~ a′ and b ~ b′, then a * b ~ a′ * b′;
 * 5) Given any elements a and a′ of G, if a ~ a′, then a−1 ~ a′−1 (this is implied by the other four, so is strictly redundant).

Conditions 1, 2, and 3 say that ~ is an equivalence relation.

A congruence ~ is determined entirely by the set $\{a ∈ G | a ~ e\}$ of those elements of G that are congruent to the identity element, and this set is a normal subgroup. Specifically, a ~ b if and only if b−1 * a ~ e. So instead of talking about congruences on groups, people usually speak in terms of normal subgroups of them; in fact, every congruence corresponds uniquely to some normal subgroup of G.

Ideals of rings and the general case
A similar trick allows one to speak of kernels in ring theory as ideals instead of congruence relations, and in module theory as submodules instead of congruence relations.

A more general situation where this trick is possible is with Omega-groups (in the general sense allowing operators with multiple arity). But this cannot be done with, for example, monoids, so the study of congruence relations plays a more central role in monoid theory.

Universal algebra
The general notion of a congruence is particularly useful in universal algebra. An equivalent formulation in this context is the following:

A congruence relation on an algebra A is a subset of the direct product A × A that is both an equivalence relation on A and a subalgebra of A × A.

The kernel of a homomorphism is always a congruence. Indeed, every congruence arises as a kernel. For a given congruence ~ on A, the set A / ~ of equivalence classes can be given the structure of an algebra in a natural fashion, the quotient algebra. The function that maps every element of A to its equivalence class is a homomorphism, and the kernel of this homomorphism is ~.

The lattice Con(A) of all congruence relations on an algebra A is algebraic.

John M. Howie described how semigroup theory illustrates congruence relations in universal algebra:
 * In a group a congruence is determined if we know a single congruence class, in particular if we know the normal subgroup which is the class containing the identity. Similarly, in a ring a congruence is determined if we know the ideal which is the congruence class containing the zero. In semigroups there is no such fortunate occurrence, and we are therefore faced with the necessity of studying congruences as such. More than anything else, it is this necessity that gives semigroup theory its characteristic flavour. Semigroups are in fact the first and simplest type of algebra to which the methods of universal algebra must be applied ...

title: Congruence relation


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Talk:Gulliver's Travels

Straight Lines
like between an egg opening habit?

no, like vocals/vowels like 'e' are written, straightlined or so, also, softly language softening signals, well, that´s the major difference discussed violently ( heck, don´t ask ) currently — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2001:4DD7:F05:0:5019:B82A:5804:6DE9 (talk) 02:38, 26 March 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): AshMillette.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 22:01, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Zee-Elizabeth-Bee.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 22:51, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

The moons of Mars
And not a mention of the accurate description of the moons of Mars provided in the book? How odd. Has anyone writing this page actually read the book? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 49.195.150.128 (talk) 07:10, 11 July 2020 (UTC)
 * See the more specific article on Laputa. Goustien (talk) 22:39, 26 September 2020 (UTC)

 * utvee (utvy?) chayetye ? president.gov.ua/lustration/about from which side to open eggs? in whose command/auftragskommando? leute wir koennen zusammen singen, wir koennen versuchen, die diskussion auf die schlagzeilen der yellow press zu beschraenken, ich bin jenseits meiner optionen: was fuer ideen habt ihr? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2001:4DD7:FA81:0:55FC:A6DA:D408:2C93 (talk) 18:29, 1 May 2022 (UTC)

Neutral point of view?
The section on "misogyny" fails any reasonable test for neutrality.

The content in question is a politically biased, neo-feminist dissertation containing lengthy analyses and quotations by Nussbaum and Needleman Armintor, including this gem:

"male nausea can be used as a pathetic countermeasure against the perceived threat of female consumption."

The entire section in question is a political opinion. Moreover, as a political opinion, it is quite.

Whether or not you personally happen to agree with that particular political perspective is irrelevant. It's a deeply biased political perspective, intentionally expressed in terms that many will find offensive: and as such, it doesn't belong in the current article.

The section should be deleted, or at least moved to a separate article where such polarizing views would be more relevant.

Since that's probably too much to ask, I'm simply making an edit to the section in question.

Before you reflexively restore the text that I'm about to delete, ask yourself:

Is this really a "neutral" point of view? Really? Gonnasoakupthesun (talk) 06:05, 4 September 2023 (UTC)

 * I have just restored "the text that I'm about to delete". Whatever the merits of your arguments, your "Since that's probably too much to ask, I'm simply making an edit to the section in question." can hardly be considered a consensus-seeking attitude. Please do not engage in an edit war on this issue and focus on getting consensus on how to move forward on this. The existing version can obviously be improved, but introducing NPOV terms such as "modern feminist scholars", "coarse critique", "gender-focused" and "admit" are clearly not an improvement. Thank you. --Technopat (talk) 21:44, 4 September 2023 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Gulliver's Travels


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Adrienne Rich

Adrienne Cecile Rich (May 16, 1929 – March 27, 2012) was an American poet, essayist and feminist. She was called "one of the most widely read and influential poets of the second half of the 20th century", and was credited with bringing "the oppression of women and lesbians to the forefront of poetic discourse". Rich criticized rigid forms of feminist identities, and valorized what she coined the "lesbian continuum", which is a female continuum of solidarity and creativity that impacts and fills women's lives.

Her first collection of poetry, A Change of World, was selected by icon W. H. Auden for the Yale Series of Younger Poets Award. Auden went on to write the introduction to the book. Rich famously declined the National Medal of Arts to protest House Speaker Newt Gingrich's vote to end funding for the National Endowment for the Arts.

Early life and education
Adrienne Cecile Rich was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on May 16, 1929, the elder of two sisters. Her father, pathologist Arnold Rice Rich, was the chairman of pathology at The Johns Hopkins Medical School. Her mother, Helen Elizabeth (Jones) Rich, was a concert pianist and a composer. Her father was from a Jewish family, and her mother was a Southern Protestant; the girls were raised as Christians. Her paternal grandfather Samuel Rice was an Ashkenazi immigrant from Košice in the Austro-Hungarian Empire (present day Slovakia), while his mother was a Sephardic Jew from Vicksburg, Mississippi. Samuel Rice owned a successful shoe store in Birmingham.

Adrienne Rich's early poetic influence stemmed from her father, who encouraged her to read but also to write poetry. Her interest in literature was sparked within her father's library, where she read the work of writers such as Ibsen, Arnold, Blake, Keats, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, and Tennyson. Her father was ambitious for Adrienne and "planned to create a prodigy". Adrienne Rich and her younger sister were home schooled by their mother until Adrienne commenced public education in the fourth grade. The poems Sources and After Dark document her relationship with her father, describing how she worked hard to fulfill her parents' ambitions—moving into a world in which excellence was expected.

In later years, Rich went to Roland Park Country School, which she described as a "good old fashioned girls' school [that] gave us fine role models of single women who were intellectually impassioned." After graduating from high school, Rich earned her diploma at Radcliffe College of Harvard University, where she focused on poetry and learning the writing craft, encountering no women teachers at all.

In 1951, her senior year at college, Rich's first collection of poetry, A Change of World, was chosen by the poet W. H. Auden for the Yale Series of Younger Poets Award. He went on to write the introduction to the published volume. Following graduation, Rich received a Guggenheim Fellowship to study at Oxford for a year. After visiting Florence, she chose not to return to Oxford, and spent her remaining time in Europe writing and exploring Italy.

Early career: 1953–75
In 1953, Rich married Alfred Haskell Conrad, an economics professor at Harvard University she had met as an undergraduate. She said of the match: "I married in part because I knew no better way to disconnect from my first family. I wanted what I saw as a full woman's life, whatever was possible." They settled in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and had three sons. In 1955, she published her second volume, The Diamond Cutters, a collection she said she wished had not been published, saying "a lot of the poems are incredibly derivative," and citing a "pressure to produce again... to make sure I was still a poet." That year she also received the Ridgely Torrence Memorial Award from the Poetry Society of America. Her three children were born in 1955 (David), 1957 (Pablo) and 1959 (Jacob).

The 1960s began a period of change in Rich's life: she received the National Institute of Arts and Letters award (1960), her second Guggenheim Fellowship to work at the Netherlands Economic Institute (1961), and the Bollingen Foundation grant for the translation of Dutch poetry (1962).

In 1963, Rich published her third collection, Snapshots of a Daughter-in-Law, which was a much more personal work examining her female identity, reflecting the increasing tensions she experienced as a wife and mother in the 1950s, marking a substantial change in Rich's style and subject matter. In her 1982 essay "Split at the Root: An Essay on Jewish Identity", Rich states: "The experience of motherhood was eventually to radicalize me." The book met with harsh reviews. She comments, "I was seen as 'bitter' and 'personal'; and to be personal was to be disqualified, and that was very shaking because I'd really gone out on a limb ... I realised I'd gotten slapped over the wrist, and I didn't attempt that kind of thing again for a long time."

Moving her family to New York in 1966, Rich became involved with the New Left and became heavily involved in anti-war, civil rights, and feminist activism. Her husband took a teaching position at City College of New York.

In 1968, she signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War. Her collections from this period include Necessities of Life (1966), Leaflets (1969), and The Will to Change (1971), which reflect increasingly radical political content and interest in poetic form.

From 1967 to 1969, Rich lectured at Swarthmore College and taught at Columbia University School of the Arts as an adjunct professor in the Writing Division. Additionally, in 1968, she began teaching in the SEEK program in City College of New York, a position she continued until 1975. During this time, Rich also received the Eunice Tietjens Memorial Prize from Poetry Magazine. Rich and Conrad hosted anti-war and Black Panther fundraising parties at their apartment. Rising tensions began to split the marriage, and Rich moved out in mid-1970, getting herself a small studio apartment nearby. Shortly afterward, in October, Conrad drove into the woods and shot himself, widowing Rich.

In 1971, she was the recipient of the Shelley Memorial Award from the Poetry Society of America and spent the next year and a half teaching at Brandeis University as the Hurst visiting professor of creative writing. Diving into the Wreck, a collection of exploratory and often angry poems, split the 1974 National Book Award for Poetry with Allen Ginsberg, The Fall of America. Declining to accept it individually, Rich was joined by the two other feminist poets nominated, Alice Walker and Audre Lorde, to accept it on behalf of all women "whose voices have gone and still go unheard in a patriarchal world." The following year, Rich took up the position of the Lucy Martin Donnelly Fellow at Bryn Mawr College.

Later life: 1976–2012
In 1976, Rich began her partnership with Jamaican-born novelist and editor Michelle Cliff, which lasted until her death. In her controversial work Of Woman Born: Motherhood as Experience and Institution, published the same year, Rich acknowledged that, for her, lesbianism was a political as well as a personal issue, writing, "The suppressed lesbian I had been carrying in me since adolescence began to stretch her limbs." The pamphlet Twenty-One Love Poems (1977), which was incorporated into the following year's Dream of a Common Language (1978), marked the first direct treatment of lesbian desire and sexuality in her writing, themes which run throughout her work afterwards, especially in A Wild Patience Has Taken Me This Far (1981) and some of her late poems in The Fact of a Doorframe (2001). In her analytical work Adrienne Rich: the moment of change, Langdell suggests these works represent a central rite of passage for the poet, as she (Rich) crossed a threshold into a newly constellated life and a "new relationship with the universe". During this period, Rich also wrote a number of key socio-political essays, including "Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence", one of the first to address the theme of lesbian existence. In this essay, she asks "how and why women's choice of women as passionate comrades, life partners, co-workers, lovers, community, has been crushed, invalidated, forced into hiding". Some of the essays were republished in On Lies, Secrets and Silence: Selected Prose, 1966–1978 (1979). In integrating such pieces into her work, Rich claimed her sexuality and took a role in leadership for sexual equality.

From 1976 to 1979, Rich taught at City College and Rutgers University as an English professor. In 1979, she received an honorary doctorate from Smith College and moved with Cliff to Montague, MA. Ultimately, they moved to Santa Cruz, where Rich continued her career as a professor, lecturer, poet, and essayist. Rich and Cliff took over editorship of the lesbian arts journal Sinister Wisdom (1981–1983). Rich taught and lectured at UC Santa Cruz, Scripps College, San Jose State University, and Stanford University during the 1980s and 1990s. From 1981 to 1987, Rich served as an A.D. White Professor-At-Large for Cornell University. Rich published several volumes in the next few years: Your Native Land, Your Life (1986), Blood, Bread, and Poetry (1986), and Time's Power: Poems 1985–1988 (1989). She also was awarded the Ruth Paul Lilly Poetry Prize (1986), the Elmer Holmes Bobst Award in Arts and Letters from NYU, and the National Poetry Association Award for Distinguished Service to the Art of Poetry (1989).

In 1977, Rich became an associate of the Women's Institute for Freedom of the Press (WIFP). WIFP is an American nonprofit publishing organization. The organization works to increase communication between women and connect the public with forms of women-based media.

Janice Raymond, in the foreword of her 1979 book The Transsexual Empire, thanked Rich for "constant encouragement" and cited her in the book's chapter "Sappho by Surgery." "The Transsexual Empire" is considered by some LGBT and feminist critics to be transphobic,   and many have criticized Rich for her involvement in and support of its production. While Rich never explicitly disavowed her support for Raymond's work, Leslie Feinberg cites Rich as having been supportive during Feinberg's writing of Transgender Warriors.

By the early 1980s, Rich was using canes and wheelchairs due to rheumatoid arthritis. Diagnosed with the condition at age 22, Rich kept her disability quiet for decades. The cold air in New England motivated Rich and Cliff to settle in California. A 1992 spinal operation required Rich to wear a metal halo screwed into her head.

In June 1984, Rich presented a speech at the International Conference of Women, Feminist Identity, and Society in Utrecht, Netherlands titled Notes Toward a Politics of Location. Her keynote speech is a major document on politics of location and the birth of the concept of female "locatedness". In discussing the locations from which women speak, Rich attempts to reconnect female thought and speech with the female body, with an intent to reclaim the body through verbalizing self-representation. Rich begins the speech by noting that while she speaks the words in Europe, she has searched for them in the United States. By acknowledging her location in an essay on the progression of the women's movement, she expresses her concern for all women, not just women in Providence. Through widening her audience to women across the world Rich not only influences a larger movement but she invites all women to consider their existence. Through imagining geographical locations on a map as history and as places where women are created, and further focusing on those locations, Rich asks women to examine where they were created. In an attempt to try to find a sense of belonging in the world, Rich asks the audience not to begin with a continent, country, or house, but to start with the geography closest to themselves –which is their body. Rich, therefore, challenges members of the audience and readers to form their own identity by refusing to be defined by the parameters of government, religion, and home. The essay hypothesizes the women's movement at the end of the 20th century. In an encouraging call for the women's movement, Rich discusses how the movement for change is an evolution in itself. Through de-masculinizing and de-Westernizing itself, the movement becomes a critical mass of many different voices, languages and overall actions. She pleads for the movement to change in order to experience change. She further insists that women must change it. In her essay, Rich considers how one's background might influence their identity. She furthers this notion by noting her own exploration of the body, her body, as female, as white, as Jewish and as a body in a nation. Rich is careful to define the location in which her writing takes place. Throughout her essay, Rich refers back to the concept of location. She recounts her growth towards understanding how the women's movement grounded in Western culture and limited to the concerns of white women, then incorporated verbal and written expression of black United States citizens. Such professions have allowed her to experience the meaning of her whiteness as a point of location for which she needed to take responsibility. In 1986, she published the essay in her prose collection Blood, Bread, and Poetry.

Rich's work with the New Jewish Agenda led to the founding of Bridges: A Journal for Jewish Feminists and Our Friends in 1990, a journal for which Rich served as editor. This work explored the relationship between private and public histories, especially in the case of Jewish women's rights. Her next published piece, An Atlas of the Difficult World (1991), won both the Los Angeles Times Book Award in Poetry and the Lenore Marshall/Nation Award as well as the Poet's Prize in 1993 and Commonwealth Award in Literature in 1991. During the 1990s Rich joined advisory boards such as the Boston Woman's Fund, National Writers Union and Sisterhood in Support of Sisters in South Africa. On the role of the poet, she wrote, "We may feel bitterly how little our poems can do in the face of seemingly out-of-control technological power and seemingly limitless corporate greed, yet it has always been true that poetry can break isolation, show us to ourselves when we are outlawed or made invisible, remind us of beauty where no beauty seems possible, remind us of kinship where all is represented as separation." In July 1994, Rich won the MacArthur Fellowship, the "Genius Grant" for her work as a poet and writer. Also in 1992, Rich became a grandmother to Julia Arden Conrad and Charles Reddington Conrad.

In 1997, Rich declined the National Medal of Arts in protest against the House of Representatives' vote to end the National Endowment for the Arts as well as policies of the Clinton Administration regarding the arts generally, and literature in particular, stating that "I could not accept such an award from President Clinton or this White House because the very meaning of art, as I understand it, is incompatible with the cynical politics of this administration ... [Art] means nothing if it simply decorates the dinner table of the power which holds it hostage". Her next few volumes were a mix of poetry and essays: Midnight Salvage: Poems 1995–1998 (1999), The Art of the Possible: Essays and Conversations (2001), and Fox: Poems 1998–2000 (2001).

In the early 2000s, Rich participated in anti-war activities, protesting against the threat of war in Iraq, both through readings of her poetry and other activities. In 2002, she was appointed a chancellor of the newly augmented board of the Academy of American Poets, along with Yusef Komunyakaa, Lucille Clifton, Jay Wright (who declined the honor), Louise Glück, Heather McHugh, Rosanna Warren, Charles Wright, Robert Creeley, and Michael Palmer. She won the 2003 Yale Bollingen Prize for American Poetry and was applauded by the panel of judges for her "honesty at once ferocious, humane, her deep learning, and her continuous poetic exploration and awareness of multiple selves." In October 2006, Equality Forum honored Rich's work, featuring her as an icon of LGBT history.

In 2009, despite initially having reservations about the movement, Rich endorsed the call for a cultural and academic boycott of Israel, denouncing "the Occupation's denial of Palestinian humanity, destruction of Palestinian lives and livelihoods, the "settlements", the state's physical and psychological walls against dialogue."

Rich died on March 27, 2012, at the age of 82 in her Santa Cruz, California, home. Her son, Pablo Conrad, reported that her death resulted from long-term rheumatoid arthritis. Her last collection was published the year before her death. Rich was survived by her sons, two grandchildren and her partner Michelle Cliff.

On feminism
Adrienne Rich wrote several pieces that address the rights of women in society. In Snapshots of a Daughter-in-Law she offered a critical analysis of the life of being both a mother and a daughter-in-law, and the impact of their gender in their lives. Diving Into the Wreck was written in the early 'seventies, and the collection marks the start of her darkening tone as she wrote about feminism and other social issues. In particular, she wrote openly about her outrage at the patriarchal nature of the greater society. In doing so, she became an example for other women to follow in the hopes that continued proactive work against sexism would eventually counteract it.

Her poems are also famous for their feminist elements. One such poem is "Power", which was written about Marie Curie, one of the most important female icons of the 20th century. In this poem, she discussed the element of power and feminism. Curie was slowly succumbing to the radiation that she absorbed in her research, to which Rich refers in the poem as her source of power. The poem discusses the concept of power, particularly from a woman's point of view.

Besides poems and novels, Rich also wrote nonfiction books that tackled feminist issues. Some of them were: Of Woman Born, Motherhood as Experience and Institution, Blood, Bread and Poetry, etc. Especially, Bread and Poetry contains the famous feminist essay entitled "Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence", and ''Feminism and Community. ''

Her works, interviews, and documentaries demonstrated Rich's in-depth perspective on feminism and society.

For one, Rich had something to say about the use of the term itself. She preferred using the term "women's liberation" rather than feminism. She thought the latter term was more likely to induce resistance from women of the next generation. Also, she feared that the term would amount to nothing more than a label if used extensively. On the other hand, using the term women's liberation means that women can finally be free from factors that can be seen as oppressive to their rights.

Rich also wrote in depth about "white feminism" and the need for intersectionality within the feminist movement. In Blood, Bread, and Poetry, Rich wrote that "feminism became a political and spiritual base from which I could move to examine rather than try to hide my own racism, recognize that I have anti-racist work to do continuously within myself". She went on to write that "so long as [feminists] identify only with white women, we are still connected to that system of objectification and callousness and cruelty called racism". Rich implored white feminists to consider the fact that "[they], as victims of objectification, have objectified other women" through their role as the oppressor, and through the white privilege they inherently possess under a racist regime.

Rich's views on feminism are evident in her works. She says in Of Woman Born that "we need to understand the power and powerlessness embodied in motherhood in patriarchal culture." She also speaks regarding the need for women to unite in her book On Lies, Secrets and Silence. In this book, she wrote:

"Women have often felt insane when cleaving to the truth of our experience. Our future depends on the sanity of each of us, and we have a profound stake, beyond the personal, in the project of describing our reality as candidly and fully as we can to each other."

Given the feminist conditions during the 1950s–1970s, it can be said that Rich's works on feminism were revolutionary. Her views on equality and the need for women to maximize their potential can be seen as progressive for the time. Her views strongly coincided with feminist thinking during that period. According to Rich, society was founded on patriarchy and limits the rights of women. For equality to be achieved between the sexes, the prevailing notions must be readjusted to accommodate the female perspective.

On racism
Rich wrote at length on the topic of white feminism and intersectionality within the feminist movement. Citing such prominent black feminist activists and academics as Gloria T. Hull, Michele Russel, Lorraine Bethel, and Toni Morrison in her works, Rich dedicated several chapters of her book Blood, Bread, and Poetry to the subject of racism. Of her essay Of Woman Born, Rich wrote that it "could have been stronger had it drawn on more of the literature by Black women toward which Toni Morrison's Sula inevitably pointed me."

Touching on the privilege conferred to her as a white feminist author, Rich wrote in Blood, Bread, and Poetry that she "is probably going to be taken more seriously in some quarters than the Black woman scholar whose combined experience and research give her far more penetrating knowledge and awareness than mine. I will be taken more seriously because I am white, [..] and because the invisibility of the woman of color who is the scholar/critic or the poet or the novelist is part of the structure of my privilege, even my credibility."

In 1981, Rich co-presented the keynote address for the National Women's Studies Association Convention in Storrs, Connecticut, along with Audre Lorde, delivering her speech entitled "Disobedience is What NWSA is Potentially About." The theme of the convention was "Women Respond to Racism", and Rich noted the homophobia and racism that still existed "in the enclave of Women's studies itself, where lesbians are still feared and women of color are still ignored". Rich went on to say that "women of color who are found in the wrong place as defined at any given time by the white fathers will receive their retribution unseen: if they are beaten, raped, insulted, harassed, mutilated, murdered, these events will go unreported, unpunished, unconnected; and white women are not even supposed to know they occur, let alone identify with the sufferings endured." Rich asked the audience: "how disobedient will Women's Studies be in the 1980s; how will this Association address the racism, misogyny, homophobia of the university and of the corporate and militist society in which it is embedded; how will white feminist scholars and teachers and students practice disobedience to patriarchy?" Rich implored the audience to rid themselves of the idea that "by opposing racist violence, by doing anti-racist work, or by becoming feminists white women somehow cease to carry racism within them", asserting that white women are never absolved of their white privilege and must continually commit to anti-racist work while they are still in the role of the oppressor.

In 2009, Rich came forward with a statement in support of the U.S. Campaign for the Academic and Cultural Boycott of Israel (USACBI), criticizing Israeli occupation and expressing her “continued solidarity with the Palestinian people’s long resistance.”

Selected awards and honors
Each year links to its corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:
 * 1950: Yale Younger Poets Award for A Change of World.
 * 1952: Guggenheim Fellowship
 * 1960: National Institute of Arts and Letters Award
 * 1970: Shelley Memorial Award
 * 1974: National Book Award for Poetry (a split award) for Diving into the Wreck
 * 1979: Honorary Doctorate Smith College
 * 1986: Inaugural Ruth Lilly Poetry Prize
 * 1989: Honorary doctorate from Harvard University
 * 1989: National Poetry Association Award for Distinguished Service to the Art of Poetry
 * 1990: Bill Whitehead Award for Lifetime Achievement (for gay or lesbian writing)
 * 1991: Common Wealth Award of Distinguished Service
 * 1991: Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
 * 1992: Lenore Marshall Poetry Prize
 * 1992: Poets' Prize for Atlas of the Difficult World
 * 1992: Frost Medal
 * 1992: Academy of American Poets Fellowship
 * 1994: MacArthur Fellowship
 * 1996: Wallace Stevens Award
 * 1997: National Medal of Arts (refused)
 * 1999: Lifetime Achievement Award from the Lannan Foundation
 * 2006: National Book Foundation Medal for Distinguished Contribution to American Letters
 * 2006: David R Kessler Award for LGBTQ Studies, CLAGS: The Center for LGBTQ Studies
 * 2010: Lifetime Recognition Award from the Griffin Poetry Prize
 * 2017: Finalist, Pulitzer Prize for Poetry (posthumous)
 * 2019: In June 2019, Rich was one of the inaugural fifty American "pioneers, trailblazers, and heroes" inducted on the National LGBTQ Wall of Honor within the Stonewall National Monument (SNM) in New York City's Stonewall Inn. The SNM is the first U.S. national monument dedicated to LGBTQ rights and history, and the wall's unveiling was timed to take place during the 50th anniversary of the Stonewall riots.

Nonfiction

 * 1976:
 * 1979: On Lies, Secrets and Silence: Selected Prose, 1966–1978
 * 1986: Blood, Bread, and Poetry: Selected Prose, 1979–1985 (Includes the noted essay: "Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence")
 * 1993: What Is Found There: Notebooks on Poetry and Politics
 * 1995: If Not with Others, How? pp. 399–405 in
 * 2001:
 * 2007: Poetry and Commitment: An Essay
 * 2009: A Human Eye: Essays on Art in Society, 1997–2008
 * 2018: Essential Essays: Culture, Politics, and the Art of Poetry, W.W. Norton, 2018 ISBN 9780393652369

Collections

 * 1951:
 * 1955:
 * 1963:
 * 1966:
 * 1967:
 * 1969:
 * 1971:
 * 1973:
 * 1975:
 * 1976:
 * 1978:
 * 1982: (reprint 1993)
 * 1983:
 * 1984:
 * 1986:
 * 1989:
 * 1991:
 * 1993:
 * 1995:
 * 1996:
 * 1999:
 * 2001: (reprint 2003)
 * 2004:
 * 2007:
 * 2010:
 * 2016:

title: Adrienne Rich


text:
List of mental disorders

The following is a list of mental disorders as defined at any point by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) or the International Classification of Diseases (ICD). A mental disorder, also known as a mental illness, mental health condition, or psychiatric disorder, is characterized by a pattern of behavior or mental function that significantly impairs personal functioning or causes considerable distress.

The DSM, a classification and diagnostic guide published by the American Psychiatric Association, includes over 450 distinct definitions of mental disorders. Meanwhile, the ICD, published by the World Health Organization, stands as the international standard for categorizing all medical conditions, including sections on mental and behavioral disorders.

Revisions and updates are periodically made to the diagnostic criteria and descriptions in the DSM and ICD to reflect current understanding and consensus within the mental health field. The list includes conditions currently recognized as mental disorders according to these systems. There is ongoing debate among mental health professionals, including psychiatrists, about the definitions and criteria used to delineate mental disorders. There is particular concern over whether certain conditions should be classified as "mental illnesses" or might more accurately be described as neurological disorders or in other terms.

Anxiety disorders

 * Agoraphobia
 * Generalized anxiety disorder
 * Panic disorder
 * Selective mutism
 * Separation anxiety disorder
 * Specific phobias
 * Social anxiety disorder

Dissociative disorders

 * Dissociative identity disorder
 * Dissociative amnesia
 * Depersonalization-derealization disorder
 * Dissociative fugue
 * Dissociative neurological symptom disorder (this includes Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures)
 * Other specified dissociative disorder (OSDD)
 * Unspecified dissociative disorder
 * Ganser syndrome

Depressive disorders

 * Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
 * Major depressive disorder
 * Dysthymia
 * Premenstrual dysphoric disorder
 * Pervasive refusal syndrome
 * Unspecified depressive disorder

Bipolar disorders

 * Bipolar I disorder
 * Bipolar II disorder
 * Bipolar disorder not otherwise specified
 * Cyclothymia

Trauma and stressor related disorders

 * Reactive attachment disorder
 * Disinhibited social engagement disorder
 * Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
 * Post-traumatic embitterment disorder (PTED)
 * Acute stress disorder
 * Adjustment disorder
 * Complex post-traumatic stress disorder (C-PTSD)
 * Prolonged grief disorder

Neuro-developmental disorders

 * Intellectual disability
 * Language disorder
 * Sensory processing disorder
 * Speech sound disorder
 * Stuttering
 * Aphasia
 * Social communication disorder
 * Pervasive developmental disorder
 * Auditory processing disorder
 * Communication disorder
 * Autism spectrum disorder (formally a category that included Asperger syndrome, Classic autism and Rett syndrome)
 * Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
 * Developmental coordination disorder
 * Tourette syndrome
 * Down syndrome
 * Tic disorder
 * Dyslexia
 * Dyscalculia
 * Dysgraphia
 * Nonverbal learning Disorder (NVLD, NLD)

Sleep-wake disorders

 * Insomnia (including chronic insomnia and short-term insomnia)
 * Hypersomnia
 * Idiopathic hypersomnia
 * Kleine–Levin syndrome
 * Insufficient sleep syndrome
 * Narcolepsy
 * Restless legs syndrome
 * Sleep apnea
 * Night terrors (sleep terrors)
 * Exploding head syndrome

Parasomnias

 * Nightmare disorder
 * Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder
 * Confusional arousals
 * Sleepwalking
 * Hypnagogic hallucinations
 * Hypnopompic hallucinations

Circadian rhythm sleep disorder

 * Circadian rhythm sleep disorder
 * Delayed sleep phase disorder
 * Advanced sleep phase disorder
 * Irregular sleep–wake rhythm
 * Non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder
 * Circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorder caused by irregular work shifts
 * Jet lag

Neuro-cognitive disorders

 * Delirium
 * Dementia
 * Traumatic brain injury
 * HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND)
 * Amnesia
 * Chronic traumatic encephalopathy
 * Agnosia

Substance related disorders

 * Substance-induced disorder (Substance-induced psychosis, Substance-induced delirium, Substance-induced mood disorder)
 * Substance intoxication
 * Substance withdrawal
 * Substance dependence

Disorders due to use of alcohol

 * Alcohol use disorder
 * Alcoholic hallucinosis
 * Alcohol withdrawal
 * Harmful pattern of use of alcohol

Disorders due to use of cannabis

 * Cannabis use disorder
 * Cannabis dependence
 * Cannabis intoxication
 * Harmful pattern of use of cannabis
 * Cannabis withdrawal
 * Cannabis-induced delirium
 * Cannabis-induced psychosis
 * Cannabis-induced mood disorder
 * Cannabis-induced anxiety

Disorders due to use of synthetic cannabinoids

 * Episode of harmful use of synthetic cannabinoids
 * Harmful pattern of use of synthetic cannabinoids
 * Synthetic cannabinoid dependence
 * Synthetic cannabinoid intoxication
 * Synthetic cannabinoids withdrawal
 * Synthetic cannabinoids induced delirium
 * Synthetic cannabinoids induced psychotic disorder
 * Synthetic cannabinoids induced mood disorder
 * Synthetic cannabinoids induced anxiety

Disorders due to use of opioids

 * Episode of harmful use of Opioids
 * Harmful pattern of use of Opioids
 * Opioid dependence
 * Opioid intoxication
 * Opioids withdrawal
 * Opioids induced delirium
 * Opioids induced psychotic disorder
 * Opioids induced mood disorder
 * Opioids induced anxiety

Disorders due to use of sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic

 * Episode of harmful use of Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic
 * Harmful pattern of use of Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic
 * Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic dependence
 * Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic intoxication
 * Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic withdrawal
 * Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic induced delirium
 * Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic induced psychotic disorder
 * Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic induced mood disorder
 * Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic induced anxiety
 * Amnestic disorder due to use of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics
 * Dementia due to use of sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics

Disorders due to use of Cocaine

 * Episode of harmful use of Cocaine
 * Harmful pattern of use of Cocaine
 * Cocaine dependence
 * Cocaine intoxication
 * Cocaine withdrawal
 * Cocaine induced delirium
 * Cocaine induced psychotic disorder
 * Cocaine induced mood disorder
 * Cocaine induced anxiety
 * Cocaine induced OCD
 * Cocaine induced impulse control disorder

Disorders due to use of Amphetamines

 * Episode of harmful use of Amphetamines
 * Harmful pattern of use of Amphetamines
 * Amphetamines dependence
 * Amphetamines intoxication
 * Amphetamines withdrawal
 * Amphetamines induced delirium
 * Amphetamines induced psychotic disorder
 * Amphetamines induced mood disorder
 * Amphetamines induced anxiety
 * Amphetamines induced OCD
 * Amphetamines induced impulse control disorder

Disorders due to use of synthetic cathinone

 * Episode of harmful use of synthetic cathinone
 * Harmful pattern of use of synthetic cathinone
 * Synthetic cathinone dependence
 * Synthetic cathinone intoxication
 * Synthetic cathinone withdrawal
 * Synthetic cathinone induced delirium
 * Synthetic cathinone induced psychotic disorder
 * Synthetic cathinone induced mood disorder
 * Synthetic cathinone induced anxiety
 * Synthetic cathinone induced OCD
 * Synthetic cathinone induced impulse control disorder

Disorders due to use of caffeine

 * Episode of harmful use of caffeine
 * Harmful pattern of use of caffeine
 * Caffeine intoxication
 * Caffeine withdrawal
 * Caffeine induced anxiety disorder
 * Caffeine-induced sleep disorder

Disorders due to use of hallucinogens

 * Episode of harmful use of hallucinogens
 * Harmful pattern of use of hallucinogens
 * Hallucinogens dependence
 * Hallucinogen induced delirium
 * Hallucinogens induced psychotic disorder
 * Hallucinogens induced anxiety disorder
 * Hallucinogens induced mood disorder
 * Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder

Disorders due to use of nicotine

 * Episode of harmful use of nicotine
 * Harmful pattern of use of nicotine
 * nicotine intoxication
 * nicotine withdrawal
 * Nicotine dependence

Disorders due to use of volatile inhalants

 * Episode of harmful use of volatile inhalants
 * Harmful pattern of use of volatile inhalants
 * Opioid dependence
 * Opioid intoxication
 * Volatile inhalants withdrawal
 * Volatile inhalants induced delirium
 * Volatile inhalants induced psychotic disorder
 * Volatile inhalants induced mood disorder
 * Volatile inhalants induced anxiety

Disorders due to use of dissociative drugs including ketamine and phencyclidine (PCP)

 * Episode of harmful use of dissociative drugs including ketamine and phencyclidine [PCP]
 * Harmful pattern of use of dissociative drugs including ketamine and phencyclidine [PCP]
 * Dissociative drugs including ketamine and phencyclidine [PCP] dependence
 * Dissociative drugs including ketamine and phencyclidine [PCP] intoxication
 * Dissociative drugs including ketamine and phencyclidine [PCP] withdrawal
 * Dissociative drugs including ketamine and phencyclidine [PCP] induced delirium
 * Dissociative drugs including ketamine and phencyclidine [PCP] induced psychotic disorder
 * Dissociative drugs including ketamine and phencyclidine [PCP] induced mood disorder
 * Dissociative drugs including ketamine and phencyclidine [PCP] induced anxiety

Non-substance related disorder

 * Addictive personality
 * Gambling disorder
 * Video game addiction
 * Internet addiction disorder
 * Sexual addiction
 * Food addiction
 * Exercise addiction
 * Addiction to social media
 * Pornography addiction
 * Shopping addiction

Paraphilias

 * Voyeuristic disorder
 * Exhibitionistic disorder
 * Frotteuristic disorder
 * Pedophilia
 * Compulsive sexual behaviour disorder
 * Erotic target location error
 * Sexual masochism disorder
 * Sexual sadism disorder
 * Fetishistic disorder
 * Transvestic disorder
 * Other specified paraphilic disorder

Somatic symptom related disorders

 * Hypochondriasis
 * Cyberchondria
 * Somatization disorder
 * Conversion disorder (Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder)
 * Factitious disorder imposed on self (munchausen syndrome)
 * Factitious disorder imposed on another (munchausen by proxy)
 * Pain disorder
 * Medically unexplained physical symptoms

Sexual dysfunctions

 * Delayed ejaculation
 * Erectile dysfunction
 * Anorgasmia
 * Vaginismus
 * Male hypoactive sexual desire disorder
 * Female sexual arousal disorder
 * Persistent genital arousal disorder
 * Hypoactive sexual desire disorder
 * Sexual arousal disorder
 * Premature ejaculation
 * Dyspareunia
 * Sexual dysfunction

Elimination disorders

 * Enuresis (Involuntary urination)
 * Nocturnal enuresis
 * Encopresis (Involuntary defecation)

Feeding and eating disorders

 * Pica (disorder)
 * Rumination syndrome
 * Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder
 * Anorexia nervosa
 * Binge eating disorder
 * Bulimia nervosa
 * Purging disorder
 * Diabulimia
 * Night eating syndrome
 * Orthorexia nervosa
 * Atypical anorexia nervosa
 * Other specified feeding or eating disorder (OSFED)

Disruptive impulse-control, and conduct disorders

 * Intermittent explosive disorder
 * Oppositional defiant disorder
 * Conduct disorder
 * Antisocial personality disorder
 * Pyromania
 * Kleptomania
 * Mythomania
 * Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders

 * Obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD)
 * Body dysmorphic disorder
 * Body integrity dysphoria
 * Trichotillomania
 * Excoriation disorder (Skin picking disorder)
 * Body-focused repetitive behavior disorder
 * Olfactory reference syndrome
 * Phantom limb syndrome
 * Primarily obsessional obsessive-compulsive disorder
 * Hoarding disorder

Schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders

 * Brief psychotic disorder
 * Delusional disorder
 * Schizophrenia
 * Schizoaffective disorder
 * Schizophreniform disorder
 * Schizotypal personality disorder
 * Paraphrenia
 * Shared delusional disorder

Cluster A (Odd, Eccentric)

 * Paranoid personality disorder
 * Schizoid personality disorder
 * Schizotypal personality disorder

Cluster B (Dramatic, Erratic)

 * Antisocial personality disorder
 * Borderline personality disorder
 * Histrionic personality disorder
 * Narcissistic personality disorder

Cluster C (Fearful, Anxious)

 * Avoidant personality disorder
 * Dependent personality disorder
 * Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder

Not otherwise specified (PD-NOS)

 * Depressive personality disorder
 * Passive–aggressive personality disorder
 * Sadistic personality disorder
 * Self-defeating personality disorder

Other

 * Gender dysphoria (also known as gender integrity disorder or gender incongruence, there are different categorizations for children and non-children in the ICD-11)
 * Medication-induced movement disorders and other adverse effects of medication
 * Catatonia
 * Culture-bound syndrome

title: List of mental disorders


text:
List of national parks of the Netherlands

In the 1960s, national parks in the Netherlands were defined as areas of at least 10 km2 consisting of natural terrains, water and/or forests, with a special landscape and flora and fauna.

The first two national parks were founded in the 1930s by private organisations. The first official national park, Schiermonnikoog National Park, was not established until 1989. The most recent national park to have been established is the Nieuw Land National Park, which was established in 2018.

In 2011, the government decided to make the provinces responsible for the national parks.

As of 2021, there are 21 national parks.


text:
Manowar (disambiguation)

Manowar is an American heavy metal band.

Manowar may also refer to:

 * USCGC Manowar, a United States Coast Guard patrol boat
 * X-O Manowar, a comic book superhero
 * Manowar Island, Queensland, Australia, part of the Manowar and Rocky Islands Important Bird Area

title: Manowar (disambiguation)


text:
Chinook

Chinook may refer to:

Chinook peoples
The name derives from a settlement of Indigenous people in Oregon and Washington State.
 * Chinookan peoples, several groups of Indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest
 * Chinookan languages, small family of languages spoken in Oregon and Washington along the Columbia River by Chinook peoples
 * Chinook Jargon, a language originating as a pidgin trade language in the Pacific Northwest
 * Lower Chinook, a Chinookan language spoken at the mouth of the Columbia River
 * Upper Chinook language, a recently extinct language of the US Pacific Northwest

Places

 * Chinook, a Martian crater at 22.7°N 55.5°W
 * Chinook (provincial electoral district), a provincial electoral district in Alberta
 * Chinook, Alberta, a hamlet in Canada
 * Peregrino (previously Chinook), an oil field located offshore of Brazil, east of Rio de Janeiro

United States

 * Chinook, Montana, a city in and the county seat of Blaine County

Washington state

 * Chinook Pass, through the Cascade Range
 * Chinook Peak, a summit located on the eastern border of Mount Rainier National Park
 * Chinook, Washington, a census-designated place (CDP) in Pacific County
 * Washington State Route 410 (also the Chinook Scenic Byway), a 107.44-mile long state highway

Animals

 * Chinook (dog), a breed of sled dog
 * Chinook salmon the largest and most valuable species of Pacific salmon

Plants

 * Chinook cherry, a cross between Bing and Gil Peck cultivars
 * Chinook olives, urine-cured olives by Indigenous people of the Columbia river valley

Transport

 * Avro Canada Chinook, Canada's first turbojet engine
 * Chinook station, a CTrain light rail station in Manchester, Calgary, Alberta

Aircraft

 * Air-Sport Chinook, Polish single-place paraglider
 * Birdman Chinook, a family of single and two-place, pusher configuration, high-wing ultralight aircraft
 * Boeing CH-47 Chinook, a tandem-rotor helicopter
 * Hermanspann Chinook, an American mid-wing, two-seat, experimental research glider
 * Meadowcroft Chinook, a two-seat mid-winged American homebuilt aircraft
 * Wings of Change Chinhook Bi, an Austrian two-place paraglider

Watercraft

 * USS Chinook (PC-9), the ninth Cyclone-class patrol ship of the United States Navy
 * USS Chinook (SP-644), a United States Navy patrol vessel
 * MV Golden Gate (previously Chinook), a passenger-only fast ferry

Other

 * Chinook, the first Canadian exclusive geographic Beanie Baby
 * The Chinook, weekly newspaper in South Vancouver founded by George Matheson Murray
 * Chinook (computer program), draughts player
 * Chinook (newspaper), a counterculture underground newspaper published weekly in Denver, Colorado
 * Chinook Sciences, a technology company that specializes in waste to energy and metal recovery
 * Chinook wind, two types of prevailing warm, generally westerly winds in western North America
 * Chinook Wines, a Washington winery located in the Yakima Valley AVA
 * Billy Chinook (c. 1827 –1890), chief and member of the Wasco tribe
 * Lakeshore Chinooks, a baseball team based in Mequon, Wisconsin

title: Chinook


text:
PINO

The Open PINO Platform (or just PINO) is an open humanoid robot platform, with its mechanical and software design covered by the GNU Free Documentation License and GNU General Public License respectively.

The external housing design of the PINO is a proprietary registered design, and the term PINO is trademarked.

The intention of PINO's designers appears to be to create a Linux-like open platform for robotics.

A commercial version of PINO is being sold by ZMP INC. a Tokyo-based robotics company. The latest version is Version 3 (released in August 2006).

title: PINO


text:
Humanoid robot

A humanoid robot is a robot resembling the human body in shape. The design may be for functional purposes, such as interacting with human tools and environments, for experimental purposes, such as the study of bipedal locomotion, or for other purposes. In general, humanoid robots have a torso, a head, two arms, and two legs, though some humanoid robots may replicate only part of the body. Androids are humanoid robots built to aesthetically resemble humans.

History
The concept of a humanoid robot originated in many different cultures around the world. Some of the earliest accounts of the idea of humanoid automata date to the 4th century BCE in Greek mythologies and various religious and philosophical texts from China. Physical prototypes of humanoid automata were later created in the Middle East, Italy, Japan, and France.

Greece
The Greek god of blacksmiths, Hephaestus, created several different humanoid automata in various myths. In Homer's Iliad, Hephaestus created golden handmaidens and imbued them with human-like voices to serve as speaking tools or instruments. Another Greek myth details how Hephaestus crafted a giant bronze automaton named Talos to protect the island of Crete from invaders.

China
In the 3rd century BCE, a Taoist philosophical text called the Liezi, written by Chinese philosopher Lie Yukou, detailed the idea of a humanoid automaton. The text includes mention of an engineer named Yan Shi who created a life-size, human-like robot for the fifth king of the Chinese Zhou Dynasty, King Mu. The robot was primarily constructed of leather and wood. It was capable of walking, singing, and moving all parts of its body.

Middle East
In the 13th century, a Muslim engineer named Ismail al-Jazari designed various humanoid automata. He created a waitress robot that would dispense drinks from a liquid reservoir and appear out of an automatic door to serve them. Another automaton he created was used for hand washing to refill a basin with water after being drained.

Italy
In the 1400s, Leonardo da Vinci conceptualized a complex mechanical robot clad in a suit of armor, capable of sitting, standing, and independently moving its arms. The entire robot was operated by a system of pulleys and cables.

Japan
From the 17th to 19th centuries, the Japanese built humanoid automata called karakuri puppets. These puppets resembled dolls and were used for entertainment in theatre, homes, and religious festivals. Karakuri puppets that were used for theater plays were called butai karakuri. Small karakuri puppets found in homes, called zashiki kurakuri, were placed on tables to dance, beat drums, or serve drinks. The puppets used in religious festivals were known as Dashi karakuri, and they served to reenact myths and legends.

France
In the 18th century, French inventor Jacques de Vaucanson created a significant humanoid automaton called The Flute Player. This wooden, human-sized robot was capable of playing various melodies with the flute. It consisted of a system of bellows, pipes, weights, and other mechanical components to simulate to the muscles necessary to play the flute.

Applications
Humanoid robots are now used as research tools in several scientific areas. Researchers study the human body structure and behavior (biomechanics) to build humanoid robots. On the other side, the attempt to simulate the human body leads to a better understanding of it. Human cognition is a field of study which is focused on how humans learn from sensory information in order to acquire perceptual and motor skills. This knowledge is used to develop computational models of human behavior, and it has been improving over time.

It has been suggested that very advanced robotics will facilitate the enhancement of ordinary humans. See transhumanism.

Medical and research
Humanoid robots are a valuable resource in the world of medicine and biotechnology, as well as other fields of research such as biomechanics and cognitive science. Humanoid robots are being used to develop complex prosthetics for individuals with physical disabilities such as missing limbs. The WABIAN-2 is a new medical humanoid robot created to help patients in the rehabilitation of their lower limbs.

Although the initial aim of humanoid research was to build better orthosis and prosthesis for human beings, knowledge has been transferred between both disciplines. A few examples are powered leg prosthesis for the neuromuscularly impaired, ankle-foot orthosis, biological realistic leg prosthesis, and forearm prosthesis.

Humanoid robots can be used as test subjects for the practice and development of personalized healthcare aids, essentially performing as robotic nurses for demographics such as the elderly. Humanoids are also suitable for some procedurally-based vocations, such as reception-desk administrators and automotive manufacturing line workers. In essence, since they can use tools and operate equipment and vehicles designed for the human form, humanoids could theoretically perform any task a human being can, so long as they have the proper software. However, the complexity of doing so is immense.

Entertainment
Humanoid robots have had a long history in the realm of entertainment, from the conception and ideas in the story of Prometheus to the application and physical build of modern animatronics used for theme parks. Current uses and development of humanoid robots in theme parks are focused on creating stuntronics. Stuntronics are humanoid robots built for serving as stunt doubles, and are designed to simulate life-like, untethered, dynamic movement. Several Disney theme park shows utilize animatronic robots that look, move and speak much like human beings. Although these robots look realistic, they have no cognition or physical autonomy. Various humanoid robots and their possible applications in daily life are featured in an independent documentary film called Plug & Pray, which was released in 2010.

Demonstrative
Though many real-world applications for humanoid robots are unexplored, their primary use is to demonstrate up-and-coming technologies. Modern examples of humanoid robots, such as the Honda Asimo, are revealed to the public in order to demonstrate new technological advancements in motor skills, such as walking, climbing, and playing an instrument. Other humanoid robots have been developed for household purposes, however excel only in single purpose skills and are far from autonomous. Humanoid robots, especially those with artificial intelligence algorithms, could be useful for future dangerous and/or distant space exploration missions, without having the need to turn back around again and return to Earth once the mission is completed.

Sensors
A sensor is a device that measures some attribute of the world. Being one of the three primitives of robotics (besides planning and control), sensing plays an important role in robotic paradigms.

Sensors can be classified according to the physical process with which they work or according to the type of measurement information that they give as output. In this case, the second approach was used.

Proprioceptive
Proprioceptive sensors sense the position, orientation, and speed of the humanoid's body and joints, along with other internal values.

In human beings, the otoliths and semi-circular canals (in the inner ear) are used to maintain balance and orientation. Additionally, humans use their own proprioceptive sensors (e.g. touch, muscle extension, limb position) to help with their orientation. Humanoid robots use accelerometers to measure the acceleration, from which velocity can be calculated by integration; tilt sensors to measure inclination; force sensors placed in robot's hands and feet to measure contact force with environment; position sensors that indicate the actual position of the robot (from which the velocity can be calculated by derivation); and even speed sensors.

Exteroceptive

Arrays of tactels can be used to provide data on what has been touched. The Shadow Hand uses an array of 34 tactels arranged beneath its polyurethane skin on each finger tip. Tactile sensors also provide information about forces and torques transferred between the robot and other objects.

Vision refers to processing data from any modality which uses the electromagnetic spectrum to produce an image. In humanoid robots it is used to recognize objects and determine their properties. Vision sensors work most similarly to the eyes of human beings. Most humanoid robots use CCD cameras as vision sensors.

Sound sensors allow humanoid robots to hear speech and environmental sounds, akin to the ears of the human being. Microphones are usually used for the robots to convey speech.

Actuators
Actuators are the motors responsible for motion in the robot.

Humanoid robots are constructed in such a way that they mimic the human body. They use actuators that perform like muscles and joints, though with a different structure. The actuators of humanoid robots can be either electric, pneumatic, or hydraulic. It is ideal for these actuators to have high power, low mass, and small dimensions.

Electric
Electric actuators are the most popular types of actuators in humanoid robots. These actuators are smaller in size, and a single electric actuator may not produce enough power for a human-sized joint. Therefore, it is common to use multiple electric actuators for a single joint in a humanoid robot. An example of a humanoid robot using electric actuators is HRP-2.

Hydraulic
Hydraulic actuators produce higher power than electric actuators and pneumatic actuators, and they have the ability to control the torque they produce better than other types of actuators. However, they can become very bulky in size. One solution to counter the size issue is electro-hydrostatic actuators (EHA). The most popular example of a humanoid robot using hydraulic actuators is the ATLAS robot made by Boston Dynamics.

Pneumatic
Pneumatic actuators operate on the basis of gas compressibility. As they are inflated, they expand along the axis, and as they deflate, they contract. If one end is fixed, the other will move in a linear trajectory. A popular example of a pneumatic actuator is the Mac Kibben muscle.

Planning and control
Planning in robots is the process of planning out motions and trajectories for the robot to carry out. Control is the actual execution of these planned motions and trajectories. In humanoid robots, the planning must carry out biped motions, meaning that robots should plan motions similar to a human. Since one of the main uses of humanoid robots is to interact with humans, it is important for the planning and control mechanisms of humanoid robots to work in a variety of terrain and environments.

The question of walking biped robots stabilization on the surface is of great importance. Maintenance of the robot's gravity center over the center of bearing area for providing a stable position can be chosen as a goal of control.

To maintain dynamic balance during the walk, a robot needs information about contact force and its current and desired motion. The solution to this problem relies on a major concept, the Zero Moment Point (ZMP).

Another characteristic of humanoid robots is that they move, gather information (using sensors) on the "real world", and interact with it. They do not stay still like factory manipulators and other robots that work in highly structured environments. To allow humanoids to move in complex environments, planning and control must focus on self-collision detection, path planning and obstacle avoidance.

Humanoid robots do not yet have some features of the human body. They include structures with variable flexibility, which provide safety (to the robot itself and to the people), and redundancy of movements, i.e. more degrees of freedom and therefore wide task availability. Although these characteristics are desirable to humanoid robots, they will bring more complexity and new problems to planning and control. The field of whole-body control deals with these issues and addresses the proper coordination of numerous degrees of freedom, e.g. to realize several control tasks simultaneously while following a given order of priority.

In science fiction
A common theme for the depiction of humanoid robots in science fiction pertains to how they can help humans in society or serve as threats to humanity. This theme essentially questions whether artificial intelligence is a force of good or bad for mankind. Humanoid robots that are depicted as good for society and benefit humans are Commander Data in Star Trek and C-3PO in Star Wars. Opposite portrayals where humanoid robots are shown as scary and threatening to humans are the T-800 in Terminator and Megatron in Transformers. An Indian Tamil-language film which showed the pros and cons of a humanoid robot Chitti.

Another prominent theme found in science fiction regarding humanoid robots focuses on personhood. Certain films, particularly Blade Runner and Blade Runner 2049, explore whether or not a constructed, synthetic being should be considered a person. In the films, androids called "replicants" are created indistinguishably from human beings, yet they are shunned and do not possess the same rights as humans. This theme incites audience sympathy while also sparking unease at the idea of humanoid robots mimicking humans too closely.

title: Humanoid robot


text:
Liberation Army of Preševo, Medveđa and Bujanovac

The Liberation Army of Preševo, Medveđa and Bujanovac (LAPMB; Ushtria Çlirimtare e Preshevës, Medvegjës dhe Bujanocit, UÇPMB; Ослободилачка војска Прешева, Медвеђе и Бујановца, ОВПМБ, OVPMB) was an Albanian militant insurgent group fighting for separation from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia for three municipalities: Preševo, Medveđa, and Bujanovac, home to most of the Albanians in south Serbia, adjacent to Kosovo. Of the three municipalities, two have an ethnic Albanian majority, whilst Medveđa has a significant minority of them.

The UÇPMB's uniforms, procedures and tactics mirrored those of the then freshly disbanded Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA). The 1,500-strong paramilitary launched an insurgency in the Preševo Valley from 1999 to 2001, with the goal of joining these municipalities to Kosovo. The EU condemned what it described as the "extremism" and use of "illegal terrorist actions" by the group.

Background
In 1992–1993, ethnic Albanians created the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) which started attacking police forces and secret-service officials who abused Albanian civilians in 1995. Starting in 1998, the KLA was involved in frontal battle, with increasing numbers of Yugoslav security forces. Escalating tensions led to the Kosovo War in February 1998.

History
After the end of the Kosovo War in 1999, a three-mile "Ground Safety Zone" (GSZ) was established between Kosovo (governed by the UN) and inner Serbia and Montenegro. Yugoslav Forces (VJ) units were not permitted there, and only the lightly armed Serbian Ministry of Internal Affairs forces were left in the area.

The exclusion zone included the predominantly Albanian village of Dobrosin, but not Preševo. Serbian police had to stop patrolling the area to avoid being ambushed. Ethnic Albanian politicians opposed to the KLA were attacked, including Zemail Mustafi, the vice-president of the Bujanovac branch of Slobodan Milošević's Socialist Party of Serbia who was later assassinated.

Between 21 June 1999 and 12 November 2000, 294 attacks were recorded. 246 in Bujanovac, 44 in Medveđa and 6 in Preševo. These attacks resulted in 14 people killed (of which six were civilians and eight were policemen), 37 people wounded (two UN observers, three civilians and 34 policemen) and five civilians kidnapped. In their attacks, UÇPMB used mostly assault rifles, machine guns, mortars and sniper rifles, but occasionally also RPGs, hand grenades, and anti-tank and anti-personnel mines.

The UÇPMB included minors.

On 4 March 2000, around 500 UÇPMB fighters attacked the city of Dobrosin. The battle resulted in one UÇPMB and one Serb fighter killed, while another 175 were displaced. On 21 November 2000, members of the UÇPMB attacked the city of Dobrosin and the surrounding villages. Heavy fighting resulted in the VJ retreating to Končulj, Lučane, and Bujanovac. After four policemen were killed and two wounded by the UÇPMB, the VJ retreated back to the GSZ.

On 6 January 2001, the UÇPMB took control of Gornja Šušaja, and were well received by the locals. On 19 January, in command of Bardhyl Osmani, raided VJ positions near Crnotince. On 20 January, the VJ launched an attack against the UÇPMB stronghold. The battle lasted for four days when VJ forces were forced to withdraw.

On 13 May 2001, the VJ and Serbian police launched an attack on the UÇPMB in Oraovica before they entered Sector B. The fighting began at 6:10 am when Yugoslav troops entered the city. At 7:00 am, the UÇPMB attacked Serbian police and fired three rockets towards Oraovica and VJ positions. Attacks from the UÇPMB stopped at 8:00 am. On 14 May 2001, the Yugoslav troops captured the city after the UÇPMB attacked again at 2:15 pm.

On 21 May 2001, members of the UÇPMB signed the Končulj Agreement, which resulted in the full demilitarization, demobilization, and disarmament of the UÇPMB. The agreement stated that the VJ was allowed to enter the GSZ by 31 May 2001. At the same time, the Serbian side agreed to sign the Statement on conditional amnesty for members of the UÇPMB, which promised amnesty to UÇPMB fighters on 23 May 2001. After Shefket Musliu signed the Končulj Agreement, he stated:

"'I can tell you that we have handed over our weapons, and that the time has come to end the war. I hope now all children in the villages can go to school again ... I am ready at any moment to face justice, because I have always been convinced and continue to be so about my innocence and that of my ex-combatants.'"

As the situation escalated, NATO allowed the VJ to reclaim the GSZ on 24 May 2001, at the same time giving the UÇPMB the opportunity to turn themselves over to the Kosovo Force (KFOR), which promised to only take their weapons and note their names before releasing them. More than 450 UÇPMB members took advantage of KFOR's "screen and release" policy, among them commander Shefket Musliu, who turned himself over to KFOR at a checkpoint along the GSZ just after midnight of 26 May 2001.

Aftermath
With the signing of the Končulj Agreement in May 2001, the former KLA and UÇPMB fighters next moved to western Macedonia where they established the NLA, which fought against the Macedonian government in 2001. Ali Ahmeti organized the NLA from former KLA and UÇPMB fighters from Kosovo, Albanian insurgents from the UÇPMB in Serbia, young Albanian radicals, nationalists from Macedonia, and foreign mercenaries. The acronym was the same as the KLA's in Albanian.

In July 2001, former NLA fighters created the Albanian National Army (ANA, AKSh), and announced itself on 3 August 2001. The group is associated with FBKSh (National Front for Reunification of Albanians), its political wing. The group participated in attacks against Macedonian forces with the NLA. After the NLA disbanded, the ANA later went and operated in the Preševo Valley.

Organization
The UÇPMB was organized into five brigades, each with their own commanders:

 * 111th Brigade, commanded by Sami Haziju
 * 112th Brigade, commanded by Ridvan Qazimi
 * 113th Brigade, commanded by Bardhyl Osmani
 * 114th Brigade, commanded by Muhamet Xhemajli
 * 115th Brigade, commanded by Njazi Azemi

Notable people

 * Shefket Musliu (highest commander)
 * Muhamet Xhemajli (second commander)
 * Ridvan Qazimi (third commander)
 * Njazi Azemi (commander)
 * Bardhyl Osmani (commander)
 * Pacir Shicri (spokesman)
 * Tahir Dalipi (spokesman)
 * Lirim Jakupi (spokesman)
 * Jonuz Musliu
 * Avdil Jakupi
 * Tahir Sinani
 * Shaqir Shaqiri
 * Mustafa Shaqiri
 * Nagip Ali
 * Orhan Rexhepi
 * Arben Ramadani


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William Ramsay

Sir William Ramsay (2 October 1852 – 23 July 1916) was a Scottish chemist who discovered the noble gases and received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1904 "in recognition of his services in the discovery of the inert gaseous elements in air" along with his collaborator, John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh, who received the Nobel Prize in Physics that same year for their discovery of argon. After the two men identified argon, Ramsay investigated other atmospheric gases. His work in isolating argon, helium, neon, krypton, and xenon led to the development of a new section of the periodic table.

Early years
Ramsay was born at 2 Clifton Street in Glasgow on 2 October 1852, the son of civil engineer and surveyor, William C. Ramsay, and his wife, Catherine Robertson. The family lived at 2 Clifton Street in the city centre, a three-storey and basement Georgian townhouse. The family moved to 1 Oakvale Place in the Hillhead district in his youth. He was a nephew of the geologist Sir Andrew Ramsay.

He was educated at Glasgow Academy and then apprenticed to Robert Napier, a shipbuilder in Govan. However, he instead decided to study Chemistry at the University of Glasgow, matriculating in 1866 and graduating in 1869. He then undertook practical training with the chemist Thomas Anderson and then went to study in Germany at the University of Tübingen with Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig where his doctoral thesis was entitled Investigations in the Toluic and Nitrotoluic Acids.

Ramsay went back to Glasgow as Anderson's assistant at Anderson College. He was appointed as Professor of Chemistry at the University College of Bristol in 1879 and married Margaret Buchanan in 1881. In the same year he became the Principal of University College, Bristol, and somehow managed to combine that with active research both in organic chemistry and on gases.

Career

William Ramsay formed pyridine in 1876 from acetylene and hydrogen cyanide in an iron-tube furnace in what was the first synthesis of a heteroaromatic compound. In 1887, he succeeded Alexander Williamson as the chair of Chemistry at University College London (UCL). It was here at UCL that his most celebrated discoveries were made. As early as 1885–1890, he published several notable papers on the oxides of nitrogen, developing the skills that he needed for his subsequent work. On the evening of 19 April 1894, Ramsay attended a lecture given by Lord Rayleigh. Rayleigh had noticed a discrepancy between the density of nitrogen made by chemical synthesis and nitrogen isolated from the air by removal of the other known components. After a short conversation, he and Ramsay decided to investigate this. In August Ramsay told Rayleigh he had isolated a new, heavy component of air, which did not appear to have any chemical reactivity. He named this inert gas "argon", from the Greek word meaning "lazy". In the following years, working with Morris Travers, he discovered neon, krypton, and xenon. He also isolated helium, which had only been observed in the spectrum of the sun, and had not previously been found on earth. In 1910 he isolated and characterised radon.

During 1893–1902, Ramsay collaborated with Emily Aston, a British chemist, in experiments on mineral analysis and atomic weight determination. Their work included publications on the molecular surface energies of mixtures of non-associating liquids.

Ramsay was elected an International Member of the American Philosophical Society in 1899.

He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) in the 1902 Coronation Honours list published on 26 June 1902, and invested as such by King Edward VII at Buckingham Palace on 24 October 1902.

In 1904, Ramsay received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. That same year, he was elected an International Member of the United States National Academy of Sciences. Ramsay's standing among scientists led him to become an adviser to the Indian Institute of Science. He suggested Bangalore as the location for the institute.

Ramsay endorsed the Industrial and Engineering Trust Ltd., a company that claimed it could extract gold from seawater, in 1905. It bought property on the English coast to begin its secret process. The company never produced any gold.

Ramsay was the president of the British Association in 1911–1912.

Personal life
In 1881, Ramsay was married to Margaret Johnstone Marshall (née Buchanan), daughter of George Stevenson Buchanan. They had a daughter, Catherine Elizabeth (Elska) and a son, William George, who died at 40.

Ramsay lived in Hazlemere, Buckinghamshire, until his death. He died in High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, on 23 July 1916 from nasal cancer at the age of 63 and was buried in Hazlemere parish church.

Legacy
A blue plaque at number 12 Arundel Gardens, Notting Hill, commemorates his life and work.

The Sir William Ramsay School in Hazlemere and Ramsay grease are named after him.

There is a memorial to him by Charles Hartwell in the north aisle of the choir at Westminster Abbey.

In 1923, University College London named its new Chemical Engineering department and seat after Ramsay, which had been funded by the Ramsay Memorial Fund. One of Ramsay's former graduates, H. E. Watson was the third Ramsay professor of chemical engineering.

On 2 October 2019, Google celebrated his 167th birthday with a Google Doodle.

title: William Ramsay