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Fats Waller

Thomas Wright "Fats" Waller (May 21, 1904 – December 15, 1943) was an American jazz pianist, organist, composer, and singer. His innovations in the Harlem stride style laid much of the basis for modern jazz piano. A widely popular star in the jazz and swing eras, he toured internationally, achieving critical and commercial success in the United States and Europe. His best-known compositions, "Ain't Misbehavin'" and "Honeysuckle Rose", were inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1984 and 1999.

Waller copyrighted over 400 songs, many of them co-written with his closest collaborator, Andy Razaf. Razaf described his partner as "the soul of melody... a man who made the piano sing... both big in body and in mind... known for his generosity... a bubbling bundle of joy". It is likely that he composed many more popular songs than he has been credited with. When in financial difficulties, he had a habit of selling songs to other writers and performers who claimed them as their own. He died from pneumonia, aged 39.

Early life
Waller was the seventh child of 11 (five of whom survived childhood) born to Adeline Locket Waller, a musician, and Reverend Edward Martin Waller, a trucker and pastor in New York City. He started playing the piano when he was six and began playing the organ at his father's church four years later. His mother instructed him in his youth, and he attended other music lessons, paying for them by working in a grocery store. Waller attended DeWitt Clinton High School for one semester, but left school at 15 to work as an organist at the Lincoln Theater in Harlem, where he earned $32 a week. Within 12 months he had composed his first rag. He was the prize pupil and later the friend and colleague of the stride pianist James P. Johnson. Waller also studied composition at the Juilliard School with Carl Bohm and Leopold Godowsky. His mother died on November 10, 1920, from a stroke due to diabetes.

Waller's first recordings, "Muscle Shoals Blues" and "Birmingham Blues," were made in October 1922 for Okeh Records. That year, he also made his first player piano roll, "Got to Cool My Doggies Now". Waller's first published composition, "Squeeze Me", was published in 1924.

Career
Pianist and composer Oscar Levant called Waller "the black Horowitz". Working with his long-time songwriting partner, lyricist Andy Razaf, Fats also wrote the music and/or performed in several successful Broadway musicals, including 1928's Keep Shufflin', 1929's Hot Chocolates and (with lyricist George Marion Jr.) 1943's Early To Bed.

Waller is believed to have composed many novelty tunes in the 1920s and 1930s and sold them for small sums, attributed to another composer and lyricist.

Standards attributed to Waller, sometimes controversially, include "I Can't Give You Anything but Love, Baby". The song was made famous by Adelaide Hall in the Broadway show Blackbirds of 1928.

Biographer Barry Singer conjectured that this song was written by Waller and lyricist Andy Razaf and provided a description of the sale given by Waller to the New York Post in 1929 – he sold the song for $500 to a white songwriter for use in a financially successful show (consistent with Jimmy McHugh's contributions to Harry Delmar's Revels, 1927, and then to Blackbirds of 1928). He noted that early handwritten manuscripts in the Dana Library Institute of Jazz Studies of "Spreadin' Rhythm Around" (Jimmy McHugh 1935) are in Waller's hand. Jazz historian Paul S. Machlin commented that the Singer conjecture has "considerable [historical] justification". According to a biography by Waller's son Maurice, Waller told his son never to play the song within earshot because he had to sell it when he needed money. Maurice Waller wrote that his father objected to hearing "On the Sunny Side of the Street" on the radio.

The anonymous sleeve notes on the 1960 RCA Victor album Handful of Keys state that Waller copyrighted over 400 songs, many of them co-written with his closest collaborator, Andy Razaf. Razaf described his partner as "the soul of melody ... a man who made the piano sing ... both big in body and in mind ... known for his generosity ... a bubbling bundle of joy". In the same notes are comments by clarinetist Gene Sedric, who recorded with Waller in the 1930s. "Fats was the most relaxed man I ever saw in a studio, and so he made everybody else relaxed. After a balance had been taken, we'd just need one take to make a side, unless it was a kind of difficult number."

Waller played with Nathaniel Shilkret, Gene Austin, Erskine Tate, Fletcher Henderson, McKinney's Cotton Pickers, and Adelaide Hall.

According to Waller, he was kidnapped in Chicago while leaving a performance in 1926. Four men bundled him into a car and took him to the Hawthorne Inn, owned by Al Capone. Waller was ordered inside the building and found a party taking place. With a gun to his back, he was pushed towards a piano and told to play. A terrified Waller realized he was the "surprise guest" at Capone's birthday party and was relieved that the kidnappers had no intention of killing him.

In 1926, Waller began his recording association with the Victor Talking Machine Company/RCA Victor, his principal record company for the rest of his life, with the organ solos "St. Louis Blues" and his composition "Lenox Avenue Blues." Although he recorded with several groups, including Morris's Hot Babes (1927), Fats Waller's Buddies (1929) (one of the earliest multiracial groups to record), and McKinney's Cotton Pickers (1929), his most important contribution to the Harlem stride piano tradition was a series of solo recordings of his compositions: "Handful of Keys", "Smashing Thirds", "Numb Fumblin, and "Valentine Stomp" (1929). After sessions with Ted Lewis (1931), Jack Teagarden (1931), and Billy Banks' Rhythmakers (1932), he began in May 1934 the voluminous series of recordings with a small band known as Fats Waller and his Rhythm. This six-piece group usually included Herman Autrey (sometimes replaced by Bill Coleman or John "Bugs" Hamilton), Gene Sedric or Rudy Powell, and Al Casey.

Waller wrote "Squeeze Me" (1919), "Keepin' Out of Mischief Now," "Ain't Misbehavin'" (1929), "Blue Turning Grey Over You," "I've Got a Feeling I'm Falling" (1929), "Honeysuckle Rose" (1929) and "Jitterbug Waltz" (1942). He composed stride piano display pieces such as "Handful of Keys," "Valentine Stomp," and "Viper's Drag."

He enjoyed success touring the United Kingdom and Ireland in the 1930s, appearing on one of the first BBC television broadcasts on September 30, 1938, from the Alexandra Palace studios in London, performing "I'm Crazy 'Bout My Baby," "Honeysuckle Rose," "Neglected," "Hallelujah," and "Truckin. While in Britain, Waller also recorded a number of songs for EMI on their Compton Theatre organ located in their Abbey Road Studios in St John's Wood. He appeared in several feature films and short subject films, most notably Stormy Weather in 1943, which was released July 21, just months before his death. For the hit Broadway show Hot Chocolates, he and Razaf wrote "(What Did I Do to Be So) Black and Blue" (1929), which became a hit for Ethel Waters and Louis Armstrong.

Waller occasionally performed Bach organ pieces for small groups. He influenced many pre-bebop jazz pianists; Count Basie and Erroll Garner both revived his hit songs. In addition to his playing, Waller was known for his humorous quips during his performances.

Between 1926 and the end of 1927, Waller recorded a series of pipe organ solo records. These represent the first time syncopated jazz compositions were performed on a full-sized church organ. In April 1927, Waller played the organ at the Vendome in Chicago for movies alongside Louis Armstrong, where his organ playing was praised for "witty cueing" and "eccentric stop coupling."

Waller's Victor recording of "A Little Bit Independent," written by Joe Burke and Edgar Leslie, was No. 1 on Your Hit Parade for two weeks in 1935. He also charted with "Whose Honey Are You?", "Lulu's Back in Town," "Sweet and Low," "Truckin, "Rhythm and Romance," "Sing an Old Fashioned Song to a Young Sophisticated Lady," "West Wind," "All My Life," "It's a Sin to Tell a Lie," "Let's Sing Again," "Cross Patch," "You're Not the Kind," "Bye Bye Baby," "You're Laughing at Me," "I Love to Whistle," "Good for Nothing," "Two Sleepy People", and "Little Curly Hair in a Highchair."

Soundies
Today's audiences can see and hear Waller performing his own works in Soundies musical films. These three-minute selections were filmed in 1941 in New York, by producer Fred Waller (no relation) and director Warren Murray. Waller filmed four songs: "Ain't Misbehavin, "Honeysuckle Rose," "Your Feet's Too Big," and "The Joint Is Jumpin. The films originally played in coin-operated movie jukeboxes and were later reprinted for home movies, television, and video.

Broadway musicals
Later in Waller's career, he had the distinction of becoming the first African-American songwriter to compose a hit Broadway musical that was seen by a mostly white audience. Broadway producer Richard Kollmar's hiring of Waller to create the 1943 musical Early to Bed was recalled in a 2016 essay about Waller by John McWhorter. Even as late as 1943, the idea of a black composer writing the score for a standard-issue white show was unheard of. When Broadway performer and producer Richard Kollmar began planning Early to Bed, his original idea was for Waller to perform in it as a comic character, not to write the music. Waller was, after all, as much a comedian as a musician. Comedy rarely dates well, but almost 80 years later, his comments and timing during "Your Feet's Too Big" are as funny as anything on Comedy Central, and he nearly walks away with the movie Stormy Weather with just one musical scene and a bit of mugging later on, despite the competition of Bill "Bojangles" Robinson, Lena Horne, and the Nicholas Brothers.

Kollmar's original choice for composer [of Early to Bed] was Ferde Grofé, best known as the orchestrator of George Gershwin's "Rhapsody in Blue," whose signature compositions were portentous concert suites. But Grofé withdrew, and it is to Kollmar's credit that he realized that he had a top-rate pop-song composer available in Waller. Waller's double duty as composer and performer was short-lived. During a cash crisis and in an advanced state of intoxication, Waller threatened to leave the production unless Kollmar bought the rights to his Early to Bed music for $1,000. (This was typical of Waller, who often sold melodies for quick cash when in his cups. The evidence suggests, for example, that the standards "I Can't Give You Anything but Love" and "On the Sunny Side of the Street" were Waller tunes.) Waller came to his senses the next day, but Kollmar decided that his drinking habits made him too risky a proposition for eight performances a week. From then on, Waller was the show's composer only, with lyrics by George Marion, whose best-remembered work today is the script for the Astaire-Rogers film The Gay Divorcée.

Six months after the premiere of Early to Bed, it was still playing in a Broadway theater; at that point, newspapers reported Waller's premature death.

Personal life
In 1920, Waller married Edith Hatch, with whom he had a son, Thomas Waller Jr., in 1921. In 1923, Hatch divorced Waller. Waller married Anita Rutherford in 1926. Together, they had a son, Maurice Thomas Waller, born on September 10, 1927. In 1928, Waller and Rutherford had their second son, Ronald Waller.

In 1938, Waller was one of the first African Americans to purchase a home in the Addisleigh Park section of St. Albans, Queens, a New York City community with racially restrictive covenants. After his purchase, and litigation in the New York State courts, many prosperous African Americans followed, including many jazz artists, such as Count Basie, Lena Horne, Ella Fitzgerald, and Milt Hinton.

Death and descendants
Waller contracted pneumonia and died on December 15, 1943, while traveling aboard the famous cross-country Los Angeles–Chicago train the Super Chief near Kansas City, Missouri. Waller was returning to New York City from Los Angeles, after the smash success of Stormy Weather, and a successful engagement at the Zanzibar Room in Santa Monica, California, during which he had fallen ill. More than 4,200 people were estimated to have attended his funeral at Abyssinian Baptist Church in Harlem, which prompted Adam Clayton Powell Jr., who delivered the eulogy, to say that Waller "always played to a packed house." Afterwards, he was cremated and his ashes were scattered over Harlem from an airplane piloted by an unidentified African-American World War I aviator.

American football player Darren Waller is his great-grandson.

Tribute artists
Waller had many admirers, during and after his heyday. In 1939, while nightclubbing in Harlem, Waller discovered a white stride pianist playing Waller tunes – the young Harry Gibson. Waller tipped him handsomely and then hired him to be his relief pianist during his own performances.

Waller also had contemporaries in recording studios. Waller recorded for Victor, so Decca Records hired singer-pianist Bob Howard for recordings aimed at Waller's audience, and Columbia Records followed suit with Putney Dandridge.

Probably the most talented pianist to keep the music of Waller alive in the years after his death was Ralph Sutton, who focused his career on playing stride piano. Sutton was a great admirer of Waller, saying, "I've never heard a piano man swing any better than Fats – or swing a band better than he could. I never get tired of him. Fats has been with me from the first, and he'll be with me as long as I live."

Actor and bandleader Conrad Janis also did a lot to keep the stride piano music of Waller and James P. Johnson alive. In 1949, as an 18-year-old, Janis put together a band of aging jazz greats, consisting of James P. Johnson (piano), Henry Goodwin (trumpet), Edmond Hall (clarinet), Pops Foster (bass), and Baby Dodds (drums), with Janis on trombone.

A Broadway musical showcasing Waller tunes entitled Ain't Misbehavin' was produced in 1978 and featured Nell Carter, Andre de Shields, Armelia McQueen, Ken Page, and Charlaine Woodard. (The show and Nell Carter won Tony Awards.) The show opened at the Longacre Theatre and ran for more than 1600 performances. It was revived on Broadway in 1988 at the Ambassador Theatre with the original Broadway Cast. Performed by five African-American actors, the show included such songs as "Honeysuckle Rose," "This Joint Is Jumpin, and "Ain't Misbehavin'."

In 1981, Thin Lizzy released the album Renegade, which contained the song "Fats", co-written by Phil Lynott and Snowy White as a tribute to Waller.

Recognition and awards
Waller's recordings were inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, a special Grammy Award established in 1973 to honour recordings that are at least 25 years old and that have "qualitative or historical significance."

In popular culture

 * Waller is the subject of the Irish poet Michael Longley's "Elegy for Fats Waller".
 * Waller's version of "Louisiana Fairytale" was used for many years as the theme song to the American television series This Old House.
 * Waller's church organ music featured prominently in David Lynch's film Eraserhead in 1977.
 * In Michel Gondry's 2008 film Be Kind Rewind, the character Elroy Fletcher (portrayed by Danny Glover) tried to find proof that Fats Waller was born in Passaic, New Jersey at the site of his titular video rental store. He was unable to find any proof of it. Later on in the film, after the "Sweded" videos were destroyed because of copyright violations, his employer Mike (portrayed by Mos Def) led him and some people in their neighborhood in making an alternate history documentary about Fats Waller with Mike portraying Fats Waller.
 * The story of Fats Waller's performance at Al Capone's birthday party was told in the Mysteries at the Museum Season 21 episode "Columbus and the Mermaid, Skyscraper Snafu and Stealing the Show".
 * In 1950, the story of Fats Waller was retold as "The Shy Boy" in the weekly Destination Freedom radio drama, written by Richard Durham.
 * ”Ain't Misbehavin'” by Fats Waller is featured in Diamond City Radio, a virtual station in the video game, Fallout 4, and likewise in its successor, Fallout 76, in its virtual Appalachia Radio. Included in the games' soundtracks, the composition enhances the retro post-apocalyptic atmosphere, receiving positive player reception for its nostalgic and immersive contribution to the experience. Fats Waller's "Jitterbug Waltz" also stars in 2007's BioShock.

Key recordings
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Filmography
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title: Fats Waller


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Slave rebellion

A slave rebellion is an armed uprising by slaves, as a way of fighting for their freedom. Rebellions of slaves have occurred in nearly all societies that practice slavery or have practiced slavery in the past. A desire for freedom and the dream of successful rebellion is often the greatest object of song, art, and culture amongst the enslaved population. These events, however, are often violently opposed and suppressed by slaveholders.

Ancient Sparta had a special type of serf called helots who were often treated harshly, leading them to rebel. According to Herodotus (IX, 28–29), helots were seven times as numerous as Spartans. Every autumn, according to Plutarch (Life of Lycurgus, 28, 3–7), the Spartan ephors would pro forma declare war on the helot population so that any Spartan citizen could kill a helot without fear of blood or guilt in order to keep them in line (crypteia). In the Roman Empire, though the heterogeneous nature of the slave population worked against a strong sense of solidarity, slave revolts did occur and were severely punished. The most famous slave rebellion in Europe was led by Spartacus in Roman Italy, the Third Servile War. This war resulted in the 6,000 surviving rebel slaves being crucified along the main roads leading into Rome. This was the third in a series of unrelated Servile Wars fought by slaves against the Romans.

The Mamluk Sultanate reigned for centuries out of a slave rebellion in Egypt. It gave birth to both the Bahri dynasty and Burji dynasty and their countless artistic and scientific achievements. Among many accomplishments, the Mamluks were responsible for turning back the Mongol conquest. In Russia, the slaves were usually classified as kholops. A kholop's master had unlimited power over his life. Slavery remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter the Great converted the household slaves into house serfs. Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into serfs earlier in 1679. During the 16th and 17th centuries, runaway serfs and kholops known as Cossacks, ("outlaws") formed autonomous communities in the southern steppes. There were numerous rebellions against slavery and serfdom, most often in conjunction with Cossack uprisings, such as the uprisings of Ivan Bolotnikov (1606–1607), Stenka Razin (1667–1671), Kondraty Bulavin (1707–1709), and Yemelyan Pugachev (1773–1775), often involving hundreds of thousands and sometimes millions. Between the end of the Pugachev rebellion and the beginning of the 19th century, there were hundreds of outbreaks across Russia.

One of the most successful slave rebellions in history was the Haitian Revolution, which saw self-emancipated slaves in the French colony of Saint-Domingue overthrow the colonial government and repulse invasion attempts by the French, Spanish and British to establish the independent state of Haiti. Another famous slave rebellion, the Third Servile War, was led by the slave Spartacus. In the 9th century, the poet Ali bin Muhammad led imported East African slaves against the Abbasid Caliphate in Iraq during the Zanj Rebellion. The Nanny of the Maroons was an 18th-century leader of the Jamaican Maroons who led them to victory in the First Maroon War. The Quilombo dos Palmares of Brazil flourished under Ganga Zumba. In the United States, the 1811 German Coast Uprising in the Territory of Orleans was the largest rebellion in the continental United States; Denmark Vesey and Madison Washington both launched slave rebellions in the U.S. as well.

Africa
In 1808 and 1825, there were slave rebellions in the Cape Colony, newly acquired by the British. Although the slave trade was officially abolished in the British Empire by the Slave Trade Act of 1807, and slavery itself a generation later with the Slavery Abolition Act 1833, it took until 1850 to be halted in the territories which were to become South Africa.

São Tomé and Príncipe
On 9 July 1595, Rei Amador, and his people, the Angolars, allied with other enslaved Africans of its plantations, marched into the interior woods and battled against the Portuguese. It is said that day, Rei Amador and his followers raised a flag in front of the settlers and proclaimed Rei Amador as king of São Tomé and Príncipe, making himself as "Rei Amador, liberator of all the black people".

Between 1595 and 1596, part of the island of São Tomé was ruled by the Angolars, under the command of Rei Amador. On 4 January 1596, he was captured, sent to prison and was later executed by the Portuguese. Still today, they remember him fondly and consider him a national hero of the islands.

In the first decades of the 17th century, there were frequent slave revolts in the Portuguese colony of São Tomé and Príncipe, off the African shore, which damaged the sugar crop cultivation there.

Asia
The Zanj Rebellion against the slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate was the culmination of a series of small revolts. It took place near the city of Basra, in southern Iraq over fifteen years (869−883 AD). It grew to involve over 500,100 slaves, who were imported from across the Muslim empire.

The Mamluk Sultanate reigned for centuries out of a slave rebellion in Egypt. It gave birth to both the Bahri dynasty and Burji dynasty and their countless artistic and scientific achievements. Among many accomplishments, the Mamluks were responsible for turning back the Mongol conquest.

When the Russian general Konstantin Petrovich von Kaufmann and his army approached the city of Khiva during the Khivan campaign of 1873, the Khan Muhammad Rahim Khan II of Khiva fled to hide among the Yomuts, and the slaves in Khiva rebelled, informed about the eminent downfall of the city, resulting in the Khivan slave uprising. When Kaufmann's Russian army entered Khiva on 28 March, he was approached by Khivans who begged him to put down the ongoing slave uprising, during which slaves avenged themselves on their former enslavers. When the Khan returned to his capital after the Russian conquest, the Russian General Kaufmann presented him with a demand to abolish the Khivan slave trade and slavery, which he did.

Europe
In the 3rd century BCE, Drimakos (or Drimachus) led a slave revolt on the slave entrepot of Chios, took to the hills and directed a band of runaways in operations against their ex-masters.

The Servile Wars (135 to 71 BCE) were a series of slave revolts within the Roman Republic.
 * The First and Second Servile War occurred in Sicily.
 * The Third Servile War (73 to 71 BCE) occurred in mainland Italy. Spartacus, an escaped gladiator supposedly from Thrace, became the most prominent of the rebel leaders; Marcus Licinius Crassus suppressed the insurgents. Many modern rebels (such as the Spartacus League) have since regarded Spartacus as a heroic figure.

Other slave revolts occurred elsewhere.
 * In Swedish semi-legend, circa 500 AD a slave uprising led by the slave Tunni or Eofor was taking place. Where the thralls successfully deposed the king of Sweden and freed themselves from ownership. Choosing Tunni a former slave as their king. Tunni apparently killed Ongentheow the Swedish king threw a stab in the head. After the Thralls defeated the Swedish army in eight battles.
 * Vestmannaeyjar, 875

A number of slave revolts occurred in the Mediterranean area during the early modern period:
 * 1748: Hungarian, Georgian and Maltese slaves on board an Ottoman galley named Lupa revolted against Ottoman slavery and sailed the ship to Malta.
 * 1749: Conspiracy of the Slaves – Muslim slaves in Malta planned to rebel and take over the island, but plans leaked out beforehand and the would-be rebels were arrested and many were executed.
 * 1760: Christian slaves on board the Ottoman ship Corona Ottomana revolted and sailed the ship to Malta.

North America
Numerous slave rebellions and insurrections took place in North America during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. There is documentary evidence of more than 250 uprisings or attempted uprisings involving ten or more slaves. One of the first was at San Miguel de Gualdape, the first European settlement in what would become the United States. Three of the best known in the United States during the 19th century are the revolts by Gabriel Prosser in Virginia in 1800, Denmark Vesey in Charleston, South Carolina in 1822, and Nat Turner's Rebellion in Southampton County, Virginia, in 1831.

Drapetomania was a supposed mental illness invented by American physician Samuel A. Cartwright in 1851 that allegedly caused black slaves to run away. Today, drapetomania is considered an example of pseudoscience, and part of the edifice of scientific racism.

Slave resistance in the antebellum South did not gain the attention of academic historians until the 1940s, when historian Herbert Aptheker started publishing the first serious scholarly work on the subject. Aptheker stressed how rebellions were rooted in the exploitative conditions of the Southern slave system. He traversed libraries and archives throughout the South, managing to uncover roughly 250 similar instances.

The 1811 German Coast Uprising, which took place in rural southeast Louisiana, at that time the Territory of Orleans, early in 1811, involved up to 500 insurgent slaves. It was suppressed by local militias and a detachment of the United States Army. In retaliation for the deaths of two white men and the destruction of property, the authorities killed at least 40 black men in a violent confrontation (the numbers cited are inconsistent); at least 29 more were executed (combined figures from two jurisdictions, St. Charles Parish and Orleans Parish). There was a third jurisdiction for a tribunal and what amounted to summary judgments against the accused, St. John the Baptist Parish. Fewer than 20 men are said to have escaped; some of those were later caught and killed, on their way to freedom.

Although only involving about seventy slaves and free blacks, Turner's 1831 rebellion is considered to be a significant event in American history. The rebellion caused the slave-holding South to go into a panic. Fifty-five men, women, and children were killed, and enslaved blacks were freed on multiple plantations in Southampton County, Virginia, as Turner and his fellow rebels attacked the white institution of plantation slavery. Turner and the other rebels were eventually stopped by state militias. The rebellion resulted in the hanging of about 56 slaves, including Nat Turner himself. Up to 200 other blacks were killed during the hysteria that followed, few of whom likely had anything to do with the uprising. White fear led to new legislation passed by Southern states prohibiting the movement, assembly, and education of slaves, and reducing the rights of free people of color. In 1831–32, the Virginia legislature considered a gradual emancipation law to prevent future rebellions. In a close vote, however, the state decided to keep slaves.

The abolitionist John Brown had already fought against pro-slavery forces in Bleeding Kansas for several years when he decided to lead a raid on a Federal arsenal in Harpers Ferry, Virginia. This raid was a joint attack by freed blacks and white men who had corresponded with slaves on plantations in order to create a general uprising among slaves. Brown carried hundreds of copies of the constitution for a new republic of former slaves in the Appalachians. But they were never distributed, and the slave uprisings that were to have helped Brown did not happen. Some believe that he knew the raid was doomed but went ahead anyway, because of the support for abolition it would (and did) generate. The U.S. military, led by Lieutenant Colonel Robert E. Lee, easily overwhelmed Brown's forces. But directly following this, slave disobedience and the number of runaways increased markedly in Virginia.

The historian Steven Hahn proposes that the self-organized involvement of slaves in the Union Army during the American Civil War composed a slave rebellion that dwarfed all others. Similarly, tens of thousands of slaves joined British forces or escaped to British lines during the American Revolution, sometimes using the disruption of war to gain freedom. For instance, when the British evacuated from Charleston and Savannah, they took 10,000 freed slaves with them. They also evacuated slaves from New York, taking more than 3,000 for resettlement to Nova Scotia, where they were recorded as Black Loyalists and given land grants.

North America

 * Santo Domingo Slave Revolt (1521)
 * San Miguel de Gualdape Rebellion (1526)
 * Bayano Wars (1548)
 * Gaspar Yanga's Revolt (c. 1570) near the Mexican city of Veracruz; the group escaped to the highlands and built a free colony
 * Gloucester County Conspiracy (1663)
 * New York Slave Revolt of 1712
 * Samba Rebellion (1731)
 * Stono Rebellion (1739)
 * New York Conspiracy of 1741 (alleged)
 * During the American Revolutionary War, slaves reacted to Dunmore's Proclamation and the Philipsburg Proclamation, fleeing and sometimes taking up arms in the British military against their former masters (for example in the Ethiopian Regiment)
 * Pointe Coupée Slave Conspiracy of 1791
 * Pointe Coupée Slave Conspiracy of 1795
 * Gabriel's Rebellion (1800)
 * Rebellions in a dozen North Carolina counties (May and June, 1802)
 * Chatham Manor Rebellion (1805)
 * Slaves in three North Carolina counties conspire to poison their owners, in some cases successfully (1805)
 * German Coast uprising (1811)
 * Aponte Conspiracy (1812)
 * George Boxley Rebellion (1815)
 * Denmark Vesey's Rebellion (1822)
 * Nat Turner's Rebellion (1831)
 * Baptist War (1831)
 * Black Seminole Slave Rebellion (1835–1838)
 * Amistad seizure (1839)
 * Creole case (1841) (the most successful slave revolt in US history)
 * 1842 Slave Revolt in the Cherokee Nation
 * Charleston Workhouse Slave Rebellion (1849)
 * John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry (1859) (failed attempt to organize a slave rebellion)

Slave ship revolts
There are 485 recorded instances of slaves revolting on board slave ships. A few of these ships endured more than one uprising during their career.

Most accounts of revolts aboard slave ships are given by Europeans. There are few examples of accounts by slaves themselves. William Snelgrave reported that the slaves who revolted on the British ship Henry in 1721 claimed that those who had captured them were "Rogues to buy them" and that they were bent on regaining their liberty. Another example that Richardson gives is that of James Towne who gives the account of slaves stating that Europeans did not have the right to enslave and take them away from their homeland and "wives and children".

Richardson compares several factors that contributed to slave revolts on board ships: conditions on the ships, geographical location, and proximity to the shore. He suggests that revolts were more likely to occur when a ship was still in sight of the shore. The threat of attack from the shore by other Africans was also a concern. If the ship was hit by disease and a large portion of the crew had been killed, the chances of insurrection were higher. Where the slaves were captured also had an effect on the number of insurrections. In many places, such as the Bight of Benin and the Bight of Biafra, the percentage of revolts and the percentage of the slave trade match up. Yet ships taking slaves from Senegambia experienced 22 percent of shipboard revolts while only contributing to four and a half percent of the slave trade. Slaves coming from West Central Africa accounted for 44 percent of the trade while only experiencing 11 percent of total revolts. Lorenzo J. Greene gives many accounts of slave revolts on ships coming out of New England. These ships belonged to Puritans who controlled much of the slave trade in New England. Most revolts on board ships were unsuccessful. The crews of these ships, while outnumbered, were disciplined, well fed, and armed with muskets, swords, and sometimes cannons, and they were always on guard for resistance. The slaves on the other hand were the opposite, armed only with bits of wood and the chains that bound them.

However, some captives were able to take over the ships that were their prisons and regain their freedom. On October 5, 1764 the New Hampshire ship Adventure captained by John Millar was successfully taken by the enslaved aboard. The slaves on board revolted while the ship was anchored off the coast and all but two of the crew, including Captain Millar, had succumbed to disease. Another successful slave revolt occurred six days after the ship Little George had left the Guinea coast. The ship carried ninety-six slaves, thirty-five of which were male. The slaves attacked in the early hours of the morning, easily overpowering the two men on guard. The slaves were able to load one of the cannons on board and fire it at the crew. After taking control of the ship they sailed it up the Sierra Leone River and escaped. After having defended themselves with muskets for several days below decks the crew lowered a small boat into the river to escape. After nine days of living on raw rice they were rescued.

Mariana P. Candido notes that enslaved Africans worked on the ships that transported other Africans into slavery. These men, 230 in all, were used onboard slave ships for their ability to communicate with the slaves being brought on board and to translate between Captain and slaver. Enslaved sailors were able to alleviate some of the fears that newly boarded slaves had, such as fear of being eaten. This was a double-edged sword. The enslaved sailors sometimes joined other slaves in the revolts against the captain they served. In 1812 enslaved sailors joined a revolt on board the Portuguese ship Feliz Eugenia just off the coast of Benguela. The revolt took place below decks. The sailors, along with many of the children who were on board, were able to escape using small boats.

South America and the Caribbean
December 25, 1521 rebellion in Diego Colón de Toledo's plantation in what is known today as Dominican Republic is the first known slave rebellion of the region. Despite the suppression of this revolt, many of the slaves successfully escaped, which led to the establishment of the first Maroon communities of the Americas. It would also open the doors for more slave revolts to transpire in the region. In 1532, Sebastián Lemba, of the Lemba tribe, rebelled against the Spanish colonists and for the next 15 years, attacked various other villages on the island liberating other slaves and ransacking from the Spaniards. Other leaders such as Juan Vaquero, Diego del Guzmán, Fernando Montoro, Juan Criollo, and Diego del Campo followed in Lemba's footsteps. Dominican slave revolts continued throughout the 18th and 19th century such as the slave insurrections of Hincha and Samaná in the spring of 1795, the revolt of Nigua in 1796, the Gambia revolt of 1802, and the revolt led by José Leocadio, Pedro de Seda, and Pedro Henríquez in 1812.

In 1552 Miguel de Buría a former slave in San Juan, Puerto Rico, reigned as the King of Buría Golden mines in the modern-day state of Lara, Venezuela, after leading the first African rebellion in the country's history. His incumbency began in 1552 and lasted until 1554 after a failled attempt to take Barquisimeto city was killed by Spanish forces.

Between 1538 and 1542, a Guaraní slave from present-day Paraguay named Juliana killed her Spanish master and urged other indigenous women to do the same, ending up executed by order of Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca. Her rebellion is regarded as one of the earliest recorded indigenous uprisings against the Spanish colonization of the Americas.

Quilombo dos Palmares in Brazil, 1605 to 1694, led by Zumbi dos Palmarés.

San Basilio de Palenque in Colombia, 16th century to the present, led by Benkos Biohó.

St. John, 1733, in what was then the Danish West Indies. The St. John's Slave Rebellion is one of the earliest and longest lasting slave rebellions in the Americas. It ended with defeat, however, and many rebels, including one of the leaders Breffu, committed suicide rather than being recaptured.

The most successful slave uprising was the Haitian Revolution, which began in 1791 and was eventually led by Toussaint L'Ouverture, culminating in the independent black republic of Haiti.

Panama also has an extensive history of slave rebellions going back to the 16th century. Slaves were brought to the isthmus from many regions in Africa, including the modern day countries of the Congo, Senegal, Guinea, and Mozambique. Immediately before their arrival on shore, or very soon after, many enslaved Africans revolted against their captors or participated in mass maroonage or desertion. The freed Africans founded communities in the forests and mountains, organized guerrilla bands known as Cimarrones. They began a long guerrilla war against the Spanish Conquistadores, sometimes in conjunction with nearby indigenous communities like the Kuna and the Guaymí. Despite massacres by the Spanish, the rebels fought until the Spanish crown was forced to concede to treaties that granted the Africans a life without Spanish violence and incursions. The leaders of the guerrilla revolts included Felipillo, Bayano, Juan de Dioso, Domingo Congo, Antón Mandinga, and Luis de Mozambique.

In the 1730s, the militias of the Colony of Jamaica fought the Jamaican Maroons for a decade, before agreeing to sign peace treaties in 1739 and 1740, which recognised their freedom in five separate Maroon Towns.

Tacky's War (1760) was a slave uprising in Jamaica, which ran from May to July before it was put down by the British colonial government.

The Suriname slave rebellion was marked by constant guerrilla warfare by Maroons and in 1765-1793 by the Aluku. This rebellion was led by Boni.

The Berbice Slave Rebellion in Guyana in 1763 was led by Cuffy.

Cuba had slave revolts in 1795, 1798, 1802, 1805, 1812 (the Aponte revolt), 1825, 1827, 1829, 1833, 1834, 1835, 1838, 1839–43 and 1844 (the La Escalera conspiracy and revolt).

Revolts on the Caribbean Islands

Vincent Brown, a professor of History and of African and African-American Studies at Harvard, has made a study of the Transatlantic Slave Trade. In 2013, Brown teamed up with Axis Maps to create an interactive map of Jamaican slave uprisings in the 18th century called, "Slave Revolt in Jamaica, 1760-1761, A Cartographic Narrative". Brown's efforts have shown that the slave insurrection in Jamaica in 1760-61 was a carefully planned affair and not a spontaneous, chaotic eruption, as was often argued (due in large part to the lack of written records produced by the insurgents). Tacky's War was a widespread slave uprising across Jamaica in the 1760s.

Later, in 1795, several slave rebellions broke out across the Caribbean, influenced by the Haitian Revolution :

 * In Jamaica, the descendants of Africans who fought and escaped from slavery and established free communities in the mountainous interior of Jamaica (Maroons), fought to preserve their freedom from British colonialists, in what came to be known as the Second Maroon War. However, this featured just one of the five Maroon towns in Jamaica.
 * In Dominica there was the Colihault Uprising.
 * In Saint Lucia there was the Bush War in 1795.
 * In the Saint Vincent islands the Second Carib War broke out.
 * In Grenada there was the Fedon Rebellion.
 * Curaçao had a slave revolt in 1795, led by Tula.
 * In Venezuela, the insurrection led by José Leonardo Chirino occurred in 1795.
 * In Barbados, a slave revolt occurred in 1816, led by Bussa.
 * In Guyana there was the Demerara Rebellion of 1795.
 * In the British Virgin Islands, minor slave revolts occurred in 1790, 1823 and 1830.
 * In Cuba, there were several revolts starting in 1825 with an uprising in Guamacaro and ending with the revolts of 1843 in Matanzas. These revolts have been widely studied by scholars such as Robert L. Paquette, Gloria García, Manuel Barcia, Aisha K. Finch and Michele Reid-Vazquez.
 * In the Danish West Indies an 1848 slave revolt led to emancipation of all slaves in the Danish West Indies.
 * In Puerto Rico in 1821, Marcos Xiorro planned and conspired to lead a slave revolt against the sugar plantation owners and the Spanish Colonial government. Even though the conspiracy was unsuccessful, Xiorro achieved legendary status among the slaves and is part of Puerto Rico's folklore.
 * The St. Joseph Mutiny of 1837 in Trinidad, which was led by mutineers from the British Army's 1st West India Regiment (many of whom had been liberated from illegal slave ships by the Royal Navy).

Brazil
Many slave rebellions occurred in Brazil, most famously the Malê Revolt of 1835 by the predominantly Muslim West African slaves at the time. The term malê was commonly used to refer to Muslims at the time from the Yoruba word imale.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Slave rebellion


text:
Nat Turner

Nat Turner (October 2, 1800 – November 11, 1831) was an enslaved African-American carpenter and preacher who led a four-day rebellion of both enslaved and free Black people in Southampton County, Virginia in August 1831.

Nat Turner's Rebellion resulted in the death of approximately sixty White men, women, and children before state militias suppressed the uprising. Turner was captured in October 1831 and was executed after a trial in November. Before his execution, he told his story to attorney Thomas Ruffin Grey, who published The Confessions of Nat Turner in November 1831.

In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante included Nat Turner on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans. He has been depicted in films, literature, and plays, as well as many scholarly works.

Early life
Turner was born into slavery around October 2, 1800, in Southampton County, Virginia. Southampton County was a rural plantation area with more Black people than White. Benjamin Turner, the man who held Nat and his family as slaves, called the infant Nat in his records. Even when grown, the slave was known simply as Nat; but after the 1831 rebellion, he was widely referred to as Nat Turner.

Turner knew little about the background of his father, who was believed to have escaped from slavery when Turner was a child. However, Turner grew up "much attached to his grandmother."

Turner learned how to read and write at a young age. He was identified as having "natural intelligence and quickness of apprehension, surpassed by few." He grew up deeply religious and was often seen fasting, praying, or immersed in reading the stories of the Bible.

Benjamin Turner died in 1810, and his son Samuel inherited Nat. When he was 21, Nat Turner escaped from Samuel Turner; but he returned a month later, after becoming delirious from hunger and receiving a vision that told him to "return to the service of my earthly master". In 1830, Joseph Travis purchased Turner; Turner later recalled that Travis was "a kind master" who "placed the greatest confidence" in him.

An 1831 reward notice described Turner as:"5 feet 6 or 8 inches [168–173 cm] high, weighs between 150 and 160 pounds [68–73 kg], rather 'bright' [light-colored] complexion, but not a mulatto, broad shoulders, larger flat nose, large eyes, broad flat feet, rather knockneed [sic], walks brisk and active, hair on the top of the head very thin, no beard, except on the upper lip and the top of the chin, a scar on one of his temples, also one on the back of his neck, a large knot on one of the bones of his right arm, near the wrist, produced by a blow."

Visions and religious activities
Turner was deeply religious and was often seen fasting, praying, or immersed in reading the stories of the Bible. He had visions that he interpreted as messages from God, and which influenced his life. The historian Patrick Breen states that "Nat Turner thought that God used the natural world as a backdrop in front of which he placed signs and omens." Breen further states that Nat Turner claimed he possessed a gift of prophecy and that he could interpret these divine revelations.

Turner often conducted religious services, preaching the Bible to his fellow slaves, who dubbed him "The Prophet". In addition to Blacks, Turner garnered some White followers such as Ethelred T. Brantley, whom Turner baptized after convincing him to "cease from his wickedness".

When he was 21, Nat Turner escaped but returned a month later, after receiving a vision that told him to "return to the service of my earthly master". In 1824, Turner had a second vision while working in the fields for Thomas Moore: "The Saviour was about to lay down the yoke he had borne for the sins of men, and the great day of judgment was at hand".

Historian David Allmendinger notes that Turner had ten different supernatural experiences between 1822 and 1828. These included appearances of both the Spirit communicating through a religious language and scripture along with the visions of the Holy Ghost. By the spring of 1828, Turner was convinced that he "was ordained for some great purpose in the hands of the Almighty".

Turner said he "heard a loud noise in the heavens" while working in Moore's fields on May 12th "and the Spirit instantly appeared to me and said the Serpent was loosened, and Christ had laid down the yoke he had borne for the sins of men, and that I should take it on and fight against the Serpent, for the time was fast approaching when the first should be last and the last should be first". Historian and theologian Joseph Dreis says, "In connecting this vision to the motivation for his rebellion, Turner makes it clear that he sees himself as participating in the confrontation between God's Kingdom and the anti-Kingdom that characterized his social-historical context."

During the 1820s, Turner was motivated by strong convictions, at least partly inspired by his religious beliefs, to organize his fellow slaves against enslavement. His deep spiritual commitment served as a significant influence on slaves within the surrounding plantations in Virginia. After Turner viewed the eclipse in 1831, he was certain that God wanted the revolt to commence.

Rebellion
Over approximately a decade, Turner built up support for his cause, culminating in an anti-slavery uprising that served as a source of inspiration for later abolitionist organizers and rebels. The four-day rebellion started on August 21, 1831.

Nat Turner's Rebellion resulted in the death of 55 White men, women, and children. This is considered the "most deadly slave revolt" in United States history. The state militia and local troops quickly suppressed the uprising; between 36 and 120 Black men, women, and children, many of whom were not involved in the revolt, were killed by soldiers and local mobs in retaliation.

Turner eluded capture but remained hidden in Southampton County. On October 30, a farmer named Benjamin Phipps discovered Turner hiding in a depression in the earth, created by a large, fallen tree covered with fence rails. This was referred to locally as Nat Turner's cave although it was not a natural cave. Around 1 p.m. on October 31, Turner arrived at the prison in the county seat of Jerusalem, Virginia (now Courtland).

Trial and execution
Turner was tried on November 5, 1831, for "conspiring to rebel and making insurrection" and was convicted and sentenced to death. His attorney was James Strange French. Before his execution, he told his story to attorney Thomas R. Grey, who published The Confessions of Nat Turner in November 1831. James Trezvant served on the jury for Turner's trial.

Asked if he regretted what he had done, Turner responded, "Was Christ not crucified?" Turner was hanged on November 11, 1831, in Jerusalem. According to some sources, he was beheaded as an example to frighten other would-be rebels.

After his execution, Turner's body was dissected and flayed, with his skin being used to make souvenir purses. In October 1897, Virginia newspapers ran a story about Nat Turner's skeleton being used as a medical specimen by Dr. H. U. Stephenson of Toana, Virginia. Stephenson acquired the skeleton from a son of Dr. S. B. Kellar; Dr. Kellar claimed to have paid Turner $10 for his body while he was in jail. After the execution, Kellar had Turner's bones scraped and hung as a medical specimen.

In 2002, a skull said to have been Turner's was given to Richard G. Hatcher, the former mayor of Gary, Indiana, for the collection of a civil rights museum he planned to build there. In 2016, Hatcher returned the skull to two of Turner's descendants. Since receiving the skull, the family has temporarily placed it with the Smithsonian Institution, where DNA testing will be done to determine whether it is the authentic remains of Nat Turner. If the test renders positive results, the family plans to bury his remains next to his descendants.

Another skull said to have been Turner's was contributed to the College of Wooster in Ohio upon its incorporation in 1866. When the school's only academic building burned down in 1901, the skull was saved by Dr. H. N. Mateer. Visitors recalled seeing a certificate, signed by a physician in Southampton County in 1866, that attested to the authenticity of the skull. The skull was eventually misplaced.

Marriage and children
Turner married an enslaved woman named Cherry, also spelled Chary (however, historians still dispute exactly who Nat Turner's wife was). It is thought that Turner and Cherry met and were married at Samuel Turner's plantation in the early 1820s. The couple had children; although historians vary in believing that there were one, two, or three children -- a daughter and one or two sons, including a son named Riddick.

The family was separated after Samuel Turner died in 1823, when Turner was sold to Thomas Moore and his family were sold to Giles Reese. By 1831, his son was enslaved by Piety Reese and lived on a farm that was near the Travis farm where Turner was enslaved. However, in February 1831, Reese's son John used Turner's son as collateral for a family debt. One historian notes that Turner approached his conspirators for the rebellion days after his son was used as collateral.

After the rebellion, the authorities beat and tortured Cherry Turner in hopes of finding her husband. On September 26, 1831, the Richmond Constitutional Whig published a story about the raiding of Reese plantation stating that, "some papers [were] given up by his wife, under the lash."

Legacy

 * In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Nat Turner as one of the 100 Greatest African Americans.
 * In 2009, in Newark, New Jersey, the largest city-owned park was named Nat Turner Park. The facility cost $12 million to construct.
 * In 2012, the small Bible that belonged to Turner was donated to the National Museum of African American History and Culture by the Person family of Southampton County, Virginia.
 * In 2017, it was announced that Turner was to be honored with others with an Emancipation and Freedom Monument in Richmond, Virginia. Created by Thomas Jay Warren, the state-funded bronze sculpture was dedicated in September 2021.
 * Nat Turner's Rebellion is celebrated as part of Black August.

Film

 * In 2003, Charles Burnett released the documentary Nat Turner: A Troublesome Property.
 * The Birth of a Nation, the 2016 film written and directed by Nate Parker, is based on the story of Nat Turner.

Literature

 * In 1884, The Cleveland Gazette published the poem "Nat Turner" by Timothy Thomas Fortune.
 * Sterling Allen Brown, the first Poet Laureate of the District of Columbia, wrote the poem, "Remembering Nat Turner" in 1932.
 * The Confessions of Nat Turner (1967), a novel by William Styron, won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1968. Styron's work was controversial, with some criticizing the White author for writing about such an important black figure and calling him racist for portraying Turner as lusting for a white woman.
 * In response to Styron's novel, ten Black scholars and authors published a collection of essays, William Styron's The Confessions of Nat Turner: Ten Black Writers Respond (1968).
 * In 2006, Kyle Baker's graphic novel, Nat Turner, received the Eisner Award for Best Reality-Based Work and the Glyph Comic Award for Best Story of the Year.
 * Sharon Ewell Foster published her novel, The Resurrection of Nat Turner, Part One, The Witness, A Novel in 2011.

Music

 * The 1960s funk-soul band Nat Turner Rebellion was named after Turner's slave revolt.
 * Chance The Rapper's song "How Great" refers to Turner's rebellion in the line, "Hosanna Santa invoked and woke up enslaved people from Southampton to Chatham Manor."
 * In the early 1990s, hip hop artist Tupac Shakur spoke in interviews about Nat Turner and his admiration for his spirit against oppression. Shakur also honored Turner with a cross tattoo on his back, "EXODUS 1831", referring to the year Turner led the rebellion.

Theater

 * African American theater educator Randolph Edmonds included Nat Turner: A Play in One Act in his Six Plays for the Negro Theatre, published in 1934 for schools and colleges.

 * In 1940, Paul Peter's play, Nat Turner, was produced by the People's Drama Theater in New York City.
 * In 2011, Following Faith: A Nat Turner Story, a play by Paula Neiman, was produced in Los Angeles.
 * In 2016, the play Nat Turner in Jerusalem, by Nathan Alan Davis was produced at the New York Theatre Workshop, and in 2018 at the Forum Theatre in Washington, D.C.
 * In 2021, the Conejo Players Theatre streamed a live production of Nat's Last Struggle by playwright P. A. Wray. The play was also performed virtually by the Virginia Stage Company in August 2020.

title: Nat Turner


text:
Gin rummy

Gin rummy, or simply gin, is a two-player card game variant of rummy. It has enjoyed widespread popularity as both a social and a gambling game, especially during the mid twentieth century, and remains today one of the most widely played two-player card games.

History
Gin rummy was created in 1909 by Elwood T. Baker and his son C. Graham Baker. The game remained local to New York until 1941, when it was publicized throughout the United States after becoming a Hollywood fad. In 1947, a survey by an association of U.S. playing card manufacturers concluded that the number of people who learned gin rummy during World War II was equal to the number that learned to play pinochle, cribbage, poker, and bridge combined.

Magician and writer John Scarne believed gin rummy to have evolved from 19th-century whiskey poker (a game similar to Commerce, with players forming poker combinations ) and to have been created with the intention of being faster than standard rummy but less spontaneous than knock rummy. Card game historian David Parlett finds Scarne's theory to be "highly implausible", and considers the game of Conquian to be gin rummy's forerunner.

Deck
Gin rummy is played using a standard deck of 52 cards. The ranking from high to low is King, Queen, Jack, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, Ace.

Objective
The objective in gin rummy is to be the first to reach an agreed-upon score, usually 100 points.

The basic game strategy is to improve one's hand by melds and eliminating deadwood. Gin has two types of meld: Sets of three or four cards sharing the same rank, e.g. ; and runs or sequences of three or more cards in the same suit, such as or more. Deadwood cards are those not in any meld. Aces are considered low—they can form a set with other aces but only the low end of runs ( is a legal run but is not). A player can form any combination of melds within their hand; all sets, all runs, or some sets and some runs.

Deal
Dealership alternates from round to round, with the first dealer chosen by any agreed upon method. The dealer deals ten cards to each player one at a time starting with their opponent, and then places the next card in the deck face up. This begins the discard pile. The face down pile is known as the stock pile.

Play
On the first turn of the round, the non-dealer has first option of taking the upcard on the discard pile or passing. If the non-dealer takes the upcard, they must then discard a different card to the discard pile. The player acting second can take the top card from the pile of their choice. However, if the non-dealer passes the upcard, the dealer is given the opportunity to take the upcard or pass. If the dealer also passes, the non-dealer must draw from the stock pile, then the next turn and after, players can draw from the pile of their choice.

On each subsequent turn, a player must draw either the (face-up) top card of the discard pile, or the (face-down) top card from the stock pile, and discard one card from their hand onto the discard pile. If a player chooses to draw face-up card (from the discard pile) he cannot discard the same card he just took.

Players alternate taking turns until one player ends the round by declaring the hand over (knocking), or until only two cards remain in the stock pile, in which case the round ends in a draw and no points are awarded. The game ends when a player reaches 100 or more points (or another established amount). In tournament rules the game is played in best of five with 250 points per game.

Knocking
In standard gin, a player with 10 or fewer points of deadwood may knock, immediately ending the hand without giving the opponent a chance to play. Knocking with no deadwood is known as going Gin or having a Gin hand, while knocking with deadwood points is known as going down.

When discarding to end a turn, a player who wishes to knock must clearly indicate their intent; this is generally shown by laying the discard face down, but can also be done through a verbal declaration or by tapping the playing surface. The player then lays out their hand, organized into melds and with any deadwood separated from them. The opponent, or "defending" player, shows their melds and is entitled to lay off any deadwood cards that fit into the knocking player's melds, provided that the knocking player does not go gin.

The deadwood count is the sum of the point values of the deadwood cards. Aces are scored at one point, face cards at 10, and others according to their numerical values. Intersecting melds are not allowed; if a player has a three-card set and a three-card run sharing a common card, only one of the melds counts, and the other two cards count as deadwood. For example; within the five cards, the seven of diamonds can be included in the set or included in the run , but it cannot be included in both.

For example, suppose that the knocking player has a meld of three Kings. If the defending player is holding the fourth King as deadwood, they may lay it off by adding it to the meld and thus reduce their deadwood count by 10.

The difference in the two players' deadwood counts determines the score for the hand as follows.

 * If the knocking player has the lower count, they score points equal to the difference.
 * The defending player can undercut the knocking player by having a lower or equal count. In this case, the defending player scores the difference plus a bonus (usually 15 points). An undercut may occur either before or after the defending player has laid off any deadwood.

The knocking player can never lay off their deadwood into the defending player's melds.

A player who goes gin (i.e. has no deadwood) gets a bonus (typically 25 points).

Big Gin
A player holding a gin hand may also choose to continue the round instead of revealing it, in hopes of attaining an 11-card Big Gin hand as follows.

If a player draws or takes a card that can be used to form melds with the 10 cards already held, the player declares Big Gin and the hand ends. That player scores a Big Gin bonus (typically 31 points) plus the defending player's deadwood count; that player may not lay off any cards.

Scoring
Aces are scored at 1 point, face cards at 10, and all other cards are scored at their numerical values. The number of points awarded for bonuses may vary from region to region. No matter what the bonus amounts are.

 * Knock points :After a player knocks, and the layoffs are made, the knocking player receives a score equal to the difference between the two hands. For example, if a player knocks with 8, and the defender has 10 deadwood points in their hand after laying off, the knocking player receives 2 points for the hand. If a player is able to knock before any cards are accepted, it is considered a misdeal.
 * Gin bonus : After going gin, a player receives a bonus of 25 points plus the entire count of deadwood in the opponent's hand. There is no chance to lay off when a player goes gin.  In early official rules, the gin bonus was 20 points.
 * Undercut (or underknocking) : Occurs when the defending player has a deadwood count lower than or equal to that of the knocking player (this can occur either naturally or by laying off after a knock). In this case, the defender scores an undercut bonus of 25 points plus the difference in deadwood in the knocking player's hand. In other rule sets, the bonus is 20. In early official rules, the bonus was only 10 points, and was not awarded in case of a tie.
 * Game bonus :Once a player has acquired 100 points (200, 500 or some other agreed-upon number) the game is over, and that player receives a game bonus of 100 points.
 * Line bonus or box bonus :Added at the end of the game. For every hand a player won during the game, 25 points is added to their score.
 * Big gin : Prior to knocking, if all 11 cards in a player's hand form a legal gin, the player can retain the extra card as part of their hand, and is awarded 31 points plus entire count of deadwood in their opponent's hand. (In some rule sets players may be awarded 50 points or another established amount plus the entire count of deadwood in the opponent's hand)
 * Shutout bonus : If a game is completed with the winner having won every hand, the points for each hand are doubled before adding the line bonus.

In some variations, if a match ends with one player in the lead by exactly 50 points, that player automatically loses.

Straight gin
In straight gin, players are required to play until one of them can go gin. Knocking is not allowed. Scoring and rules remain the same as standard gin rummy.

Mahjong gin
Similar to straight gin, knocking is not allowed. However, more than one card may be taken, in order, from the top of the discard pile. If more than one card is taken, the lowest position card taken must be used in a hand: e.g.    is the lowest position card and must be used in a hand; continue with one discard. Cards are shown to the table, with opponents being able to add on to straights of the same suit or finish a three of a kind with the fourth card for points. After a player has gin, points are added, with cards on the table being added up and cards in hand being subtracted. The player who gins receives 25 additional points, 2 through 9 = 5 points, 10 through K = 10 points, A = 15 points.

Oklahoma gin
In this version of gin rummy, the value of the first upcard is used to determine the maximum count at which players can knock. If the upcard is a spade, the hand will count double. So if the first upcard was a 4, you can knock and go out with only 4 or fewer points in your hand; and if the card was, you would get double points that hand. In this variation it is possible to knock any of cards from the discard pile so as long as you put down a suit or pair.

Another version in this variation (mostly in match play) and in Hollywood gin (see below), a second deck of cards will be used to determine the knock value of a hand. The knock value card will be dealt from the bottom and turned over on top. Above rules apply but both players are dealt ten cards with the last hand winner picking first from the deck.

Hollywood gin
In the 1942 laws of gin rummy published in New York by Ely Culbertson's Bridge World and prepared by a rules committee of bridge players, the scoring format for Hollywood gin was published as a way to play "simultaneous games". This is a scoring style, not a rules change to the game of gin.

In Hollywood gin, scoring is kept for three different games at the same time. A player's first win will be recorded in their column in Game One. A player's second win will be recorded in their columns for both Game One and Game Two. Their third win will be recorded in their column for all three games. Every game after that is scored in all three columns after that Game 1, Game 2 & Game 3. Once a game (column) is finished bonus are added to that game and hands are played until all three games are finished. Once all three games are finished the totals are added together for a total score.

Tedesco gin
Similar to Oklahoma gin, except aces can be used high or low, and runs can be formed "around the corner" (such as ). If you are caught with an unmelded ace, it counts as 15 points against you. Hollywood scoring of three games to 200 when playing head-to-head or with two-person teams. Three-person teams play to 300, 25 points extra if all three teammates win. 50 points for four-person team, etc. This is a more complex gin game for all levels of player.

Single match
When a single match is to be played, the players will continue to play rounds until one player has 100 points or more. This player wins the match.

Multi-match
In multi-match games, match scores are reset to zero with the start of each match, while game scores accumulate until a predetermined winning score is reached, perhaps 500 or higher. Each individual match ends when one player scores 100 match points. At the end of the match, players' match scores are credited toward their game scores, as well as:
 * 25 game points for each individual round won,
 * 100 game points to the winner of the match, and
 * 100 bonus game points to the match winner if the loser won no rounds.

Notable players

 * Stu Ungar, widely regarded as the greatest gin rummy player of all time, was described by many as having a near clairvoyant ability to see his opponents' hands. Ungar's almost total dominance of the game during the 1970s and 1980s is thought to have been a factor in the decline of gin rummy as a tournament game in Las Vegas and other gambling venues. (Ungar eventually switched to poker.)
 * Oswald Jacoby, best known as a contract bridge and backgammon champion, also played high-stakes gin rummy and wrote several books on the game.
 * Ernie Kovacs, the comedian and television pioneer, published a book in 1962 called How to Talk at Gin.
 * Fictional characters
 * The villain Auric Goldfinger cheats at gin rummy in the key introduction scene of the James Bond film Goldfinger (1964), with the help of an accomplice looking at the opponent's cards through binoculars. The film script changed the game to gin rummy from two-handed Canasta in the source novel by Ian Fleming.
 * In The Golden Girls, Sophia Petrillo and her daughter, Dorothy Zbornak, spend the entire night playing gin rummy, with Dorothy trying to beat her mother's endless winning streak, but to no avail.
 * In Episode 7 of Season 4 of Downton Abbey, the Dowager Lady Grantham and Isobel Crawley play this game, following a bout of bronchitis in Lady Grantham through which Mrs. Crawley nursed her. Lady Grantham seems to enjoy the game, and Mrs. Crawley remarks that it can go on for ages.

title: Gin rummy


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Geophysics

Geophysics is a subject of natural science concerned with the physical processes and physical properties of the Earth and its surrounding space environment, and the use of quantitative methods for their analysis. Geophysicists, who usually study geophysics, physics, or one of the Earth sciences at the graduate level, complete investigations across a wide range of scientific disciplines. The term geophysics classically refers to solid earth applications: Earth's shape; its gravitational, magnetic fields, and electromagnetic fields ; its internal structure and composition; its dynamics and their surface expression in plate tectonics, the generation of magmas, volcanism and rock formation. However, modern geophysics organizations and pure scientists use a broader definition that includes the water cycle including snow and ice; fluid dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere; electricity and magnetism in the ionosphere and magnetosphere and solar-terrestrial physics; and analogous problems associated with the Moon and other planets.

Although geophysics was only recognized as a separate discipline in the 19th century, its origins date back to ancient times. The first magnetic compasses were made from lodestones, while more modern magnetic compasses played an important role in the history of navigation. The first seismic instrument was built in 132 AD. Isaac Newton applied his theory of mechanics to the tides and the precession of the equinox; and instruments were developed to measure the Earth's shape, density and gravity field, as well as the components of the water cycle. In the 20th century, geophysical methods were developed for remote exploration of the solid Earth and the ocean, and geophysics played an essential role in the development of the theory of plate tectonics.

Geophysics is applied to societal needs, such as mineral resources, mitigation of natural hazards and environmental protection. In exploration geophysics, geophysical survey data are used to analyze potential petroleum reservoirs and mineral deposits, locate groundwater, find archaeological relics, determine the thickness of glaciers and soils, and assess sites for environmental remediation.

Physical phenomena
Geophysics is a highly interdisciplinary subject, and geophysicists contribute to every area of the Earth sciences, while some geophysicists conduct research in the planetary sciences. To provide a more clear idea on what constitutes geophysics, this section describes phenomena that are studied in physics and how they relate to the Earth and its surroundings. Geophysicists also investigate the physical processes and properties of the Earth, its fluid layers, and magnetic field along with the near-Earth environment in the Solar System, which includes other planetary bodies.

Gravity

The gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun gives rise to two high tides and two low tides every lunar day, or every 24 hours and 50 minutes. Therefore, there is a gap of 12 hours and 25 minutes between every high tide and between every low tide.

Gravitational forces make rocks press down on deeper rocks, increasing their density as the depth increases. Measurements of gravitational acceleration and gravitational potential at the Earth's surface and above it can be used to look for mineral deposits (see gravity anomaly and gravimetry). The surface gravitational field provides information on the dynamics of tectonic plates. The geopotential surface called the geoid is one definition of the shape of the Earth. The geoid would be the global mean sea level if the oceans were in equilibrium and could be extended through the continents (such as with very narrow canals).

Heat flow
The Earth is cooling, and the resulting heat flow generates the Earth's magnetic field through the geodynamo and plate tectonics through mantle convection. The main sources of heat are: primordial heat due to Earth's cooling and radioactivity in the planets upper crust. There is also some contributions from phase transitions. Heat is mostly carried to the surface by thermal convection, although there are two thermal boundary layers – the core–mantle boundary and the lithosphere – in which heat is transported by conduction. Some heat is carried up from the bottom of the mantle by mantle plumes. The heat flow at the Earth's surface is about $4.2 × 10^{13} W$, and it is a potential source of geothermal energy.

Vibrations
Seismic waves are vibrations that travel through the Earth's interior or along its surface. The entire Earth can also oscillate in forms that are called normal modes or free oscillations of the Earth. Ground motions from waves or normal modes are measured using seismographs. If the waves come from a localized source such as an earthquake or explosion, measurements at more than one location can be used to locate the source. The locations of earthquakes provide information on plate tectonics and mantle convection.

Recording of seismic waves from controlled sources provides information on the region that the waves travel through. If the density or composition of the rock changes, waves are reflected. Reflections recorded using Reflection Seismology can provide a wealth of information on the structure of the earth up to several kilometers deep and are used to increase our understanding of the geology as well as to explore for oil and gas. Changes in the travel direction, called refraction, can be used to infer the deep structure of the Earth.

Earthquakes pose a risk to humans. Understanding their mechanisms, which depend on the type of earthquake (e.g., intraplate or deep focus), can lead to better estimates of earthquake risk and improvements in earthquake engineering.

Electricity
Although we mainly notice electricity during thunderstorms, there is always a downward electric field near the surface that averages 120 volts per meter. Relative to the solid Earth, the ionization of the planet's atmosphere is a result of the galactic cosmic rays penetrating it, which leaves it with a net positive charge. A current of about 1800 amperes flows in the global circuit. It flows downward from the ionosphere over most of the Earth and back upwards through thunderstorms. The flow is manifested by lightning below the clouds and sprites above.

A variety of electric methods are used in geophysical survey. Some measure spontaneous potential, a potential that arises in the ground because of human-made or natural disturbances. Telluric currents flow in Earth and the oceans. They have two causes: electromagnetic induction by the time-varying, external-origin geomagnetic field and motion of conducting bodies (such as seawater) across the Earth's permanent magnetic field. The distribution of telluric current density can be used to detect variations in electrical resistivity of underground structures. Geophysicists can also provide the electric current themselves (see induced polarization and electrical resistivity tomography).

Electromagnetic waves
Electromagnetic waves occur in the ionosphere and magnetosphere as well as in Earth's outer core. Dawn chorus is believed to be caused by high-energy electrons that get caught in the Van Allen radiation belt. Whistlers are produced by lightning strikes. Hiss may be generated by both. Electromagnetic waves may also be generated by earthquakes (see seismo-electromagnetics).

In the highly conductive liquid iron of the outer core, magnetic fields are generated by electric currents through electromagnetic induction. Alfvén waves are magnetohydrodynamic waves in the magnetosphere or the Earth's core. In the core, they probably have little observable effect on the Earth's magnetic field, but slower waves such as magnetic Rossby waves may be one source of geomagnetic secular variation.

Electromagnetic methods that are used for geophysical survey include transient electromagnetics, magnetotellurics, surface nuclear magnetic resonance and electromagnetic seabed logging.

Magnetism
The Earth's magnetic field protects the Earth from the deadly solar wind and has long been used for navigation. It originates in the fluid motions of the outer core. The magnetic field in the upper atmosphere gives rise to the auroras.

The Earth's field is roughly like a tilted dipole, but it changes over time (a phenomenon called geomagnetic secular variation). Mostly the geomagnetic pole stays near the geographic pole, but at random intervals averaging 440,000 to a million years or so, the polarity of the Earth's field reverses. These geomagnetic reversals, analyzed within a Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale, contain 184 polarity intervals in the last 83 million years, with change in frequency over time, with the most recent brief complete reversal of the Laschamp event occurring 41,000 years ago during the last glacial period. Geologists observed geomagnetic reversal recorded in volcanic rocks, through magnetostratigraphy correlation (see natural remanent magnetization) and their signature can be seen as parallel linear magnetic anomaly stripes on the seafloor. These stripes provide quantitative information on seafloor spreading, a part of plate tectonics. They are the basis of magnetostratigraphy, which correlates magnetic reversals with other stratigraphies to construct geologic time scales. In addition, the magnetization in rocks can be used to measure the motion of continents.

Radioactivity
Radioactive decay accounts for about 80% of the Earth's internal heat, powering the geodynamo and plate tectonics. The main heat-producing isotopes are potassium-40, uranium-238, uranium-235, and thorium-232. Radioactive elements are used for radiometric dating, the primary method for establishing an absolute time scale in geochronology.

Unstable isotopes decay at predictable rates, and the decay rates of different isotopes cover several orders of magnitude, so radioactive decay can be used to accurately date both recent events and events in past geologic eras. Radiometric mapping using ground and airborne gamma spectrometry can be used to map the concentration and distribution of radioisotopes near the Earth's surface, which is useful for mapping lithology and alteration.

Fluid dynamics
Fluid motions occur in the magnetosphere, atmosphere, ocean, mantle and core. Even the mantle, though it has an enormous viscosity, flows like a fluid over long time intervals. This flow is reflected in phenomena such as isostasy, post-glacial rebound and mantle plumes. The mantle flow drives plate tectonics and the flow in the Earth's core drives the geodynamo.

Geophysical fluid dynamics is a primary tool in physical oceanography and meteorology. The rotation of the Earth has profound effects on the Earth's fluid dynamics, often due to the Coriolis effect. In the atmosphere, it gives rise to large-scale patterns like Rossby waves and determines the basic circulation patterns of storms. In the ocean, they drive large-scale circulation patterns as well as Kelvin waves and Ekman spirals at the ocean surface. In the Earth's core, the circulation of the molten iron is structured by Taylor columns.

Waves and other phenomena in the magnetosphere can be modeled using magnetohydrodynamics.

Mineral physics
The physical properties of minerals must be understood to infer the composition of the Earth's interior from seismology, the geothermal gradient and other sources of information. Mineral physicists study the elastic properties of minerals; their high-pressure phase diagrams, melting points and equations of state at high pressure; and the rheological properties of rocks, or their ability to flow. Deformation of rocks by creep make flow possible, although over short times the rocks are brittle. The viscosity of rocks is affected by temperature and pressure, and in turn, determines the rates at which tectonic plates move.

Water is a very complex substance and its unique properties are essential for life. Its physical properties shape the hydrosphere and are an essential part of the water cycle and climate. Its thermodynamic properties determine evaporation and the thermal gradient in the atmosphere. The many types of precipitation involve a complex mixture of processes such as coalescence, supercooling and supersaturation. Some precipitated water becomes groundwater, and groundwater flow includes phenomena such as percolation, while the conductivity of water makes electrical and electromagnetic methods useful for tracking groundwater flow. Physical properties of water such as salinity have a large effect on its motion in the oceans.

The many phases of ice form the cryosphere and come in forms like ice sheets, glaciers, sea ice, freshwater ice, snow, and frozen ground (or permafrost).

Size and form of the Earth
Contrary to popular belief, the earth is not entirely spherical but instead generally exhibits an ellipsoid shape- which is a result of the centrifugal forces the planet generates due to its constant motion. These forces cause the planets diameter to bulge towards the Equator and results in the ellipsoid shape. Earth's shape is constantly changing, and different factors including glacial isostatic rebound (large ice sheets melting causing the Earth's crust to the rebound due to the release of the pressure ), geological features such as mountains or ocean trenches, tectonic plate dynamics, and natural disasters can further distort the planet's shape.

Structure of the interior
Evidence from seismology, heat flow at the surface, and mineral physics is combined with the Earth's mass and moment of inertia to infer models of the Earth's interior – its composition, density, temperature, pressure. For example, the Earth's mean specific gravity ($5.515$) is far higher than the typical specific gravity of rocks at the surface ($2.7–3.3$), implying that the deeper material is denser. This is also implied by its low moment of inertia ($0.33 M R ^{2}$, compared to $0.4 M R ^{2}$ for a sphere of constant density). However, some of the density increase is compression under the enormous pressures inside the Earth. The effect of pressure can be calculated using the Adams–Williamson equation. The conclusion is that pressure alone cannot account for the increase in density. Instead, we know that the Earth's core is composed of an alloy of iron and other minerals.

Reconstructions of seismic waves in the deep interior of the Earth show that there are no S-waves in the outer core. This indicates that the outer core is liquid, because liquids cannot support shear. The outer core is liquid, and the motion of this highly conductive fluid generates the Earth's field. Earth's inner core, however, is solid because of the enormous pressure.

Reconstruction of seismic reflections in the deep interior indicates some major discontinuities in seismic velocities that demarcate the major zones of the Earth: inner core, outer core, mantle, lithosphere and crust. The mantle itself is divided into the upper mantle, transition zone, lower mantle and D′′ layer. Between the crust and the mantle is the Mohorovičić discontinuity.

The seismic model of the Earth does not by itself determine the composition of the layers. For a complete model of the Earth, mineral physics is needed to interpret seismic velocities in terms of composition. The mineral properties are temperature-dependent, so the geotherm must also be determined. This requires physical theory for thermal conduction and convection and the heat contribution of radioactive elements. The main model for the radial structure of the interior of the Earth is the preliminary reference Earth model (PREM). Some parts of this model have been updated by recent findings in mineral physics (see post-perovskite) and supplemented by seismic tomography. The mantle is mainly composed of silicates, and the boundaries between layers of the mantle are consistent with phase transitions.

The mantle acts as a solid for seismic waves, but under high pressures and temperatures, it deforms so that over millions of years it acts like a liquid. This makes plate tectonics possible.

Magnetosphere
If a planet's magnetic field is strong enough, its interaction with the solar wind forms a magnetosphere. Early space probes mapped out the gross dimensions of the Earth's magnetic field, which extends about 10 Earth radii towards the Sun. The solar wind, a stream of charged particles, streams out and around the terrestrial magnetic field, and continues behind the magnetic tail, hundreds of Earth radii downstream. Inside the magnetosphere, there are relatively dense regions of solar wind particles called the Van Allen radiation belts.

Geodesy
Geophysical measurements are generally at a particular time and place. Accurate measurements of position, along with earth deformation and gravity, are the province of geodesy. While geodesy and geophysics are separate fields, the two are so closely connected that many scientific organizations such as the American Geophysical Union, the Canadian Geophysical Union and the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics encompass both.

Absolute positions are most frequently determined using the global positioning system (GPS). A three-dimensional position is calculated using messages from four or more visible satellites and referred to the 1980 Geodetic Reference System. An alternative, optical astronomy, combines astronomical coordinates and the local gravity vector to get geodetic coordinates. This method only provides the position in two coordinates and is more difficult to use than GPS. However, it is useful for measuring motions of the Earth such as nutation and Chandler wobble. Relative positions of two or more points can be determined using very-long-baseline interferometry.

Gravity measurements became part of geodesy because they were needed to related measurements at the surface of the Earth to the reference coordinate system. Gravity measurements on land can be made using gravimeters deployed either on the surface or in helicopter flyovers. Since the 1960s, the Earth's gravity field has been measured by analyzing the motion of satellites. Sea level can also be measured by satellites using radar altimetry, contributing to a more accurate geoid. In 2002, NASA launched the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE), wherein two twin satellites map variations in Earth's gravity field by making measurements of the distance between the two satellites using GPS and a microwave ranging system. Gravity variations detected by GRACE include those caused by changes in ocean currents; runoff and ground water depletion; melting ice sheets and glaciers.

Satellites and space probes
Satellites in space have made it possible to collect data from not only the visible light region, but in other areas of the electromagnetic spectrum. The planets can be characterized by their force fields: gravity and their magnetic fields, which are studied through geophysics and space physics.

Measuring the changes in acceleration experienced by spacecraft as they orbit has allowed fine details of the gravity fields of the planets to be mapped. For example, in the 1970s, the gravity field disturbances above lunar maria were measured through lunar orbiters, which led to the discovery of concentrations of mass, mascons, beneath the Imbrium, Serenitatis, Crisium, Nectaris and Humorum basins.

Global positioning systems (GPS) and geographical information systems (GIS)
Since geophysics is concerned with the shape of the Earth, and by extension the mapping of features around and in the planet, geophysical measurements include high accuracy GPS measurements. These measurements are processed to increase their accuracy through differential GPS processing. Once the geophysical measurements have been processed and inverted, the interpreted results are plotted using GIS. Programs such as ArcGIS and Geosoft were built to meet these needs and include many geophysical functions that are built-in, such as upward continuation, and the calculation of the measurement derivative such as the first-vertical derivative. Many geophysics companies have designed in-house geophysics programs that pre-date ArcGIS and GeoSoft in order to meet the visualization requirements of a geophysical dataset.

Remote sensing
Exploration geophysics is a branch of applied geophysics that involves the development and utilization of different seismic or electromagnetic methods which the aim of investigating different energy, mineral and water resources. This is done through the uses of various remote sensing platforms such as; satellites, aircraft, boats, drones, borehole sensing equipment and seismic receivers. These equipment are often used in conjunction with different geophysical methods such as magnetic, gravimetry, electromagnetic, radiometric, barometry methods in order to gather the data. The remote sensing platforms used in exploration geophysics are not perfect and need adjustments done on them in order to accurately account for the effects that the platform itself may have on the collected data. For example, when gathering aeromagnetic data (aircraft gathered magnetic data) using a conventional fixed-wing aircraft- the platform has to be adjusted to account for the electromagnetic currents that it may generate as it passes through Earth's magnetic field. There are also corrections related to changes in measured potential field intensity as the Earth rotates, as the Earth orbits the Sun, and as the moon orbits the Earth.

Signal processing
Geophysical measurements are often recorded as time-series with GPS location. Signal processing involves the correction of time-series data for unwanted noise or errors introduced by the measurement platform, such as aircraft vibrations in gravity data. It also involves the reduction of sources of noise, such as diurnal corrections in magnetic data. In seismic data, electromagnetic data, and gravity data, processing continues after error corrections to include computational geophysics which result in the final interpretation of the geophysical data into a geological interpretation of the geophysical measurements

History
Geophysics emerged as a separate discipline only in the 19th century, from the intersection of physical geography, geology, astronomy, meteorology, and physics. The first known use of the word geophysics was in German ("Geophysik") by Julius Fröbel in 1834. However, many geophysical phenomena – such as the Earth's magnetic field and earthquakes – have been investigated since the ancient era.

Ancient and classical eras
The magnetic compass existed in China back as far as the fourth century BC. It was used as much for feng shui as for navigation on land. It was not until good steel needles could be forged that compasses were used for navigation at sea; before that, they could not retain their magnetism long enough to be useful. The first mention of a compass in Europe was in 1190 AD.

In circa 240 BC, Eratosthenes of Cyrene deduced that the Earth was round and measured the circumference of Earth with great precision. He developed a system of latitude and longitude.

Perhaps the earliest contribution to seismology was the invention of a seismoscope by the prolific inventor Zhang Heng in 132 AD. This instrument was designed to drop a bronze ball from the mouth of a dragon into the mouth of a toad. By looking at which of eight toads had the ball, one could determine the direction of the earthquake. It was 1571 years before the first design for a seismoscope was published in Europe, by Jean de la Hautefeuille. It was never built.

Beginnings of modern science
The 17th century had major milestones that marked the beginning of modern science. In 1600, William Gilbert release a publication titled De Magnete (1600) where he conducted series of experiments on both natural magnets  (called 'loadstones') and artificially magnetized iron. His experiments lead to observations involving a small compass needle (versorium) which replicated magnetic behaviours when subjected to a spherical magnet, along with it experiencing 'magnetic dips' when it was pivoted on a horizontal axis. HIs findings led to the deduction that compasses point north due to the Earth itself being a giant magnet.

In 1687 Isaac Newton published his work titled Principia which was pivotal in the development of modern scientific fields such as astronomy and physics. In it, Newton both laid the foundations for classical mechanics and gravitation, as well as explained different geophysical phenomena such as the precession of the equinox (the orbit of whole star patterns along an ecliptic axis. Newton's theory of gravity had gained so much success, that it resulted in changing the main objective of physics in that era to unravel natures fundamental forces, and their characterizations in laws.

The first seismometer, an instrument capable of keeping a continuous record of seismic activity, was built by James Forbes in 1844.

title: Geophysics


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Meld

Meld or MELD may refer to:

Science, technology and engineering

 * Molding (process), the process of manufacturing by shaping the material using a rigid frame
 * Melting, the phase transition of a substance from a solid to a liquid
 * Welding, a fabrication process that joins materials by fusion
 * Meld (software), a computer program for viewing the differences between files
 * Model for End-Stage Liver Disease, a scoring system
 * Meld, a British Rail Class 55 locomotive

Arts and entertainment

 * Meld (cards), a set of matching cards in card games
 * Vulcan mind meld, in In Star Trek
 * "Meld" (Star Trek: Voyager), an episode of the television series Star Trek: Voyager

Other uses

 * Meld (horse), a thoroughbred racehorse

title: Meld


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Savannah (disambiguation)

Savannah or Savanna is a type of grassland.

Savannah or Savanna may also refer to:

Film and television

 * Savannah (film), a 2013 family history drama film
 * Savannah (TV series), a television soap opera
 * Savannah, a character in Jay Jay the Jet Plane

Military operations

 * Operation Savanna, a World War II Operation
 * Operation Savannah (Angola), a South African military operation into Angola

Music

 * Savanna, a UK jazz/funk band featuring Orphy Robinson
 * "Savanna", a 2010 song by The Thrillseekers
 * "Savannah", a song by Relient K from Forget and Not Slow Down

People

 * Savannah (given name)
 * Savannah (actress) (1970–1994), American pornographic actress
 * Angela Fong or Savannah (born 1985), wrestler

Places

 * Savannah, Queensland, a locality in the Shire of Carpentaria, Queensland, Australia
 * Savanna-la-Mar, the capital of Westmoreland Parish, Jamaica
 * Savana, a town and commune in Madagascar
 * Savannah, Georgia, United States
 * Savannah River, a river and natural border between Georgia and South Carolina, United States
 * Savannah River Site, a nuclear facility in South Carolina located near Augusta, Georgia
 * Port of Savannah, a seaport
 * Savannah station (Amtrak), a rail facility
 * Savannah, California, a former town and neighborhood of Camp El Monte, a rebel base in the Civil War
 * Savanna School District
 * Savanna High School, a high school in Orange County
 * Savanna, Illinois
 * Palo Alto, Mississippi or Savannah
 * Savannah, Missouri
 * Savannah, Nebraska
 * Savannah, New York, a town in Wayne County, New York
 * Savannah (CDP), New York, a hamlet and census-designated place in Wayne County, New York
 * Savannah, North Carolina
 * Savannah, Ohio
 * Savannah Town, South Carolina, a historic settlement near Augusta, Georgia
 * Savannah, Tennessee
 * Savannah, Texas
 * Savannah Mine, a nickel-copper-cobalt mine in Western Australia

Ships

 * SS Savannah, the first steamship to cross the Atlantic Ocean, in 1819
 * CSS Savannah (gunboat), a sidewheel steamer converted to a gunboat in 1861
 * CSS Savannah (ironclad), an ironclad ram launched in 1863
 * NS Savannah, a nuclear-powered merchant ship
 * USS Savannah (AOR-4), a US Navy Wichita-class replenishment oiler
 * USS Savannah (CL-42), a US Navy Brooklyn-class light cruiser

Other uses

 * Tropical savanna climate, climate type characterized by mild temperatures, and a dry season
 * Savannah (given name), a feminine given name
 * Savanna (owarai), a Japanese comedic duo
 * GNU Savannah, an aggregation of software development projects affiliated with the GNU project
 * GMC Savana, a large van
 * ICP Savannah, an ultralight aircraft manufactured in Italy
 * Mazda Savanna, the Japanese market name for the Mazda RX-3, and the Mazda RX-7 car
 * Savanna, a private game reserve in Sabi Sabi, South Africa
 * Savanna, a doll in the Groovy Girls doll line by Manhattan toy
 * Cyclone Savannah, a strong tropical cyclone in the Indian Ocean in 2018
 * Savannah palm (Sabal mauritiiformis), a palm tree species

title: Savannah (disambiguation)