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Native American trade

The Native American Trade refers to the historic trade between the Indigenous people of North America, First Nations in Canada, and European settlers. The period begins before the colonial period, continuing through the 19th century and declining around 1937.

The term Native American Trade in this context describes the people involved in the trade. The products involved varied by region and era. In most of Canada, the term is synonymous with the fur trade, since fur for making beaver hats was by far the most valuable product of the trade, from the European point of view. Demand for other products resulted in trade in those items: Europeans asked for deerskin on the Southeast coast of the United States, and buffalo skins and meat, and pemmican on the Great Plains. In turn, Native American demand influenced the trade of goods brought by Europeans.

Economic contact between Native Americans and European colonists began in the early stages of European settlement. From the 17th to the 19th century, the English and French mainly traded for animal pelts and fur with Native Americans. In the late 1700s, Spanish explorers started settling in Southern California and initiated the establishment of missions. These missions served as focal points for interactions between Native Americans and Spanish settlers, encompassing cultural exchanges, political negotiations, trade activities, and economic developments. Evidence of these exchanges and developments were kept by the Spanish who maintained detailed ledgers documenting items that were traded in Santa Barbara between them and the Chumash natives that lived in the missions. Eventually, wars, the dwindling of Native American populations, and the westward expansion of the United States led to the confinement of tribes to reservations and the end of this kind of economic relations between Indians and European Americans.

Other economic relations continued, especially in the alcohol trade around many reservations, and for Native American arts and crafts that are now shown for everyone to see. Today, many Native Americans satisfy a different kind of demand with the associated trades of their gaming casinos on reservations. These have been developed as entertainment and conference resorts, serving a wide market of customers, and generating very little revenues for tribes to use for economic development, as well as welfare and education of their people.

The first explorers to conduct trade with Native Americans were Giovanni da Verrazzano and Jacques Cartier in the 1520s-1540s. Verrazzano noted in his book, "If we wanted to trade with them for some of their things, they would come to the seashore on some rocks where the breakers were most violent while we remained on the little boat, and they sent us what they wanted to give on a rope, continually shouting to us not to approach the land." As visits from Europeans became more frequent and some Europeans began to settle in North America, Natives began to establish regular trade relations with these new colonists. The ideal locations for fur trading were near harbors where ships could come in.

Trade between Native Tribes
Trade between tribes, or also known as the Pre-Columbian era, Native American Tribes often traded between themselves, and outside bands. Throughout the Americas, Native American tribes had been trading for thousands of years using different material goods and/or currency.

Shell Beads
Shell beads (also referred to as Shell Money) have been used for around 9,000-10,000 years in the Americas, both pre-contact and post-contact. It was most commonly used as a form of trade, either as a material to be exchanged, or as a form of currency.

The Olivella biplicata, or the purple olive shell was used during the early Holocene period, around 200-1835 CE, spanning around 1,500 years. Typically used by the Chumash (located in the central and southern coastal regions of California), it was crafted and shaped into 160 different variations of shell beads, which were used as a form of currency and status. Some examples of these variant styles include; needle-drilled disks, lipped beads, cupped beads, thin rectangles (pendant), thin rectangles (sequin). Made in the Santa Barbara Channel, they were distributed throughout Chumash territory and was used throughout different areas as currency, allowing for trade between different bands, making its way up California, the Great Basin, and in Western North America.

The Cahuilla  (located in Palm springs) used beads traded from the Serrano (who had received them from the Gabrieleno/Tongva) to create their own form of shell bead currency. Specific lengths were assigned for different amounts of money. An example of this is a Witchu, a string of shell beads from the forehead to the ground, then multiplied by 4 equal to 50 United States cents. Another example is  the Napanaa, measured by wrapping around the wrists and fingers, equal to 20 cents.

Basketry
Trade played a central role in spreading basket designs among California tribes through active exchange networks involving ceremonial events, visits, and intermarriages. This facilitated the advertising of design styles across neighboring communities, resulting in highly similar systems among tribes in close proximity. This uniformity in basket weaving shows a strong trade network, contrasting with the variability observed in tribes like the Pomo, who lived in more isolated communities in Northern California. However, tribes such as the Yurok, Karok, and Hupa, located along the Northwestern California coast and in the Klamath Mountains, exhibited nearly identical basketry.

The intertribal commerce of Native American tribes across California and adjacent regions was characterized by the exchange of baskets as valuable commodities. Tribes engaged in the exchange of baskets to obtain goods, forge alliances, and foster social connections. For instance, the Yokuts tribes, located in the Central Valley and Sierra Nevada foothills, engaged in extensive trade networks with neighboring tribes such as Miwok, Coast Miwok, and Tubatulabal. Similarly, the Salinan people, residing along the Central Coast of California, participated in basket trade with the Yokuts and Chumash tribes  from the coastal regions. Tribes engaged in trade also obtained a variety of goods in return. These included natural resources such as obsidian, fish, salt, acorns, pine nuts, and manzanita berries. Maidu baskets originate primarily from northeastern California, the native territory of the Maidu people. The Maidu are indigenous to the Sierra Nevada foothills and adjacent valleys, including areas such as the Sacramento Valley, the northern Sierra Nevada, and the Cascade Range. The Maidu had access to a variety of natural resources, influencing the materials used in their basketry. These baskets are crafted using traditional techniques passed down through generations and are made from locally sourced materials such as willow, maple, redbud, and ferns, abundant in the surrounding forests and valleys. Maidu's skill in crafting high-quality baskets made them desirable trade partners, attracting interest from other tribes seeking their goods. Additionally, engaging in trade allowed the Maidu to acquire resources not readily available in their own territory. Trade served as a means of fostering alliances and maintaining social connections with neighboring groups, contributing to the cohesion and stability of the region. Through trade, the Maidu could also access items of ceremonial significance or prestige, enhancing their cultural practices and status within the broader network of Native American tribes in the region.

Fur Trade in California
Rabbit-skin blankets were a textile category that was often traded among California groups. Great Basin and other desert groups fringing California, with a good supply of hares and cottontails, were important sources for trade. The Surprise Valley Northern Paiute traded them to the Central and Southern Miwok but also received them, especially from the Tübatulabal.

Great Plains trading networks
The trading networks encountered by the first Europeans on the Great Plains were built on a number of trading centers acting as hubs in an advanced system of exchange over great distances. The primary centers were found at the villages of the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara, with a surplus of agricultural produce that could be exchanged. Secondary centers were found at the villages of the Pawnee, Kansa, and Osage on the central great plains, and at the Caddo villages on the southern plains. The Dakota rendezvous was an important annual trading fair among the Sioux. European demand for fur changed the relations of the plains, increased the occurrence of war, and displaced several Indian nations that were forced away by the Sioux coming from the east. On the northern plains, European trade lay in the hands of the Hudson's Bay Company, although most of the territory belonged to France, and later Spain. European trade on the central plains was controlled by French merchants, first from New Orleans, later from St. Louis. From the mid-1700s', the Comanche became an increasingly important military and commercial factor on the southern plains, forcing the Apaches into the mountains, and exchanging goods and spoils with the Southwestern trading networks hubs in New Mexico.

Plymouth and Jamestown
To set up a thriving colony, settlers in the New World needed the five factors of production that contribute to the creation of wealth: land (natural resources), labor, capital, entrepreneurship, and knowledge. Often, trading with Native Americans resulted in colonists gaining needed knowledge and natural resources. Examples of this can be seen in the English settlements of Plymouth Bay and Jamestown. Massasoit, a sachem of the Wampanoag people, and Squanto, a Patuxet who acted as a diplomat, helped the Pilgrims of Plymouth Bay establish their colony by teaching them skills in cultivating this land and hunting. In return for weapons and tools, these Native Americans provided the colonists with important natural resources, including food. In 1621 Massasoit established one of the earliest trading pacts between Europeans and Natives by signing a treaty with the Plymouth Colony to engage in peaceful trade. However, as the colonial population in New England began to increase, the Wampanoag became uneasy about being displaced by the colonists. Gradually, tensions escalated, leading to King Philip's War, an armed conflict between the Pilgrims and the Native Americans in the area. The war ended with the defeat of the Native tribe, causing a serious fracture amongst relations between the Pilgrims and Native Americans.

Relations between settlers in the Jamestown area and Native Americans ended similarly. Initially, the Powhatan aided the English settlers with food and clothing, helping them survive the early difficult years. However, relations between the two groups deteriorated after three years, resulting in a war.

Fur trading posts
Fur trading was one of the main economic activities in Northern America from the late 16th century to the mid-19th century. At the time, the demand for fur was surging in Europe as it was used to make cloth and fancy hats. Data collected from England in the 18th-century highlights that the years from 1746 to 1763 saw an increase of 12 shillings per pelt. It has been calculated that over 20 million beaver hats were exported from England alone from 1700 to 1770. Both trading partners, Native Americans, and Europeans, provided the other a comparative advantage in the fur trade industry. The opportunity cost of hunting beavers in Europe was extremely high: by the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Eurasian beaver was near extinction in England and France. On the other hand, traders and trappers thought the wildlife in the New World was essentially limitless. Native Americans made use of the trade goods received, particularly knives, axes, and guns. The fur trade provided a stable source of income for many Native Americans until the mid-19th century when changing fashion trends in Europe and a decline in the beaver population in North America brought about a collapse in demand for fur.

Obsidian
Archeological evidence from missions in Northern California conclude that Native Americans rerouted obsidian exchange networks through Spanish missions such as Mission San Jose which existed from 1797 into the 1840s. Mission San Jose was located in Ohlone territory, where stone tool technologies were prevalent. Despite the constraints of colonialism, Native Americans who lived at the mission were able to trade obsidian through direct geological sources such as the Cascade Range in modern-day Northern California and Oregon or through evolving trade networks, which involved interactions with other tribes as well as the Spanish.

Trade with the Spanish
Trading between Spanish settlers and Native Americans was rare and occurred in parts of New Mexico and California. The Spanish mainly intended to spread the Christian faith to Natives and to establish the encomienda system. The most significant effect of trading with the Spanish was the introduction of the horse to the Ute in New Mexico. Gradually, horses bred and their use was adopted across the Great Plains, dramatically altering the lifestyles and customs of many Native American tribes. Many Natives switched from a hunter-gatherer economy to a nomadic lifestyle after they began using horses for transportation. They had a greater range for hunting bison and trading with other tribes. Native Americans used obsidian for thousands of years pre-contact with Europeans. As Native Americans began to settle at centralized mission establishments, they brought in obsidian items such as projectile points. The maintenance of resources such as obsidian originated from far distances such as Napa Valley, CA indicates that indigenous stone tools were traded with people at Spanish missions.

Ceramic Trade within Spanish Missions
The majority of imported ceramics arrived in Alta, California, via annual supply ships from the Naval Department of San Blas. San Blas was established in 1768 for the express purpose of facilitating the Manila Galleon trade and serving as a supply depot for Alta, California, colonial settlements. Local ceramics were produced within each mission community rather than vessels obtained in trade from autonomous Indigenous potters. The San Diego presidio, table service at the four missions San Carlos, San Antonio, San Juan Bautista, and Santa Clara likely included both locally produced wares and imported wares because several typical tableware forms such as cups and plates are not present in ware assemblages.

Relationship between Europeans and Natives
It took time for Europeans and Native Americans to learn the customs of the other side. When Europeans first encountered a tribe, they would often be offered fur, food, or other items as gifts. The Europeans did not understand they were supposed to take on an alliance with the natives, including helping them against their enemies. Native American tribes regularly practice gift-giving as part of their social relations. Because the Europeans did not (or most of them), they were considered to be rude and crude.

After observing that Europeans wanted to trade goods for the skins and other items, Native Americans entered into that. Both sides became involved in the conflicts of the other. In New France, in Carolina, Virginia, and New England, and New Netherland, the Europeans became drawn into the endemic warfare of their trading partners. As Native Americans were pressed into alliances by the Europeans for Queen Anne's War, the Seven Years' War, the Nine Years' War, and other standing competitions among the European powers: France, Great Britain, and Spain, with whom they were dealing in North America, they felt drawn into the Europeans' endemic warfare.

Late 18th century to present
After the United States became independent, it enacted legislation to regulate trading with the Indians/Native Americans, under the Indian Intercourse Act, first passed on July 22, 1790. Later the Bureau of Indian Affairs, which was then part of the War Department, issued licenses to traders in the Native Territory. Under removal, the largest tribes from the Southeast and north of Ohio were moved west of the Mississippi River. By 1834 Native Territory had been designated as what was then most of the United States west of the Mississippi, primarily what became Arkansas, Kansas, and Oklahoma. Territories of the upper West were still occupied by native tribes as well. Mountain men and traders from Mexico freely operated there independently of the US.

After the formation of the United States, the commerce clause of the Constitution gave Congress the power to "regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Native tribes." In the 19th century, the American government passed legislation to support the relocation of tribes to reservations to extinguish their title to lands that could be sold to European Americans. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 forced tribes such as the Cherokee and the Choctaw to move out of their homelands. Resistance by Native Americans to relocate resulted in conflicts such as the Second Seminole War, that caused the deaths of 3000 Native Americans. Forcing tribes to relocate and to adjust to isolated reservations often unsuitable for the subsistence farming they were encouraged to undertake, made many of them dependent on the U.S. government for annuities and supplies. They had difficulty trying to develop economic systems of their own.

As outlined by Kalt and Cornell in their book, ''What Can Tribes Do? Strategies and Institutions in American Native Economic Development,'' on reservations, tribes lacked access to capital, were assigned to areas with poor natural resources (or had their resources stolen or kept from their control), and did not possess skilled labor.

Today, many programs, such as the Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development, exist to foster conditions that will help reservations become independent and financially stable communities. Since the late 20th century, many tribes have established gaming casinos. The most successful ones use part of the revenues for the economic development of their nations, as well as for welfare and education for all their tribal members.

title: Native American trade


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Meantone temperament

Meantone temperaments are musical temperaments, that is a variety of tuning systems, obtained by narrowing the fifths so that their ratio is slightly less than 3:2 (making them narrower than a perfect fifth), in order to push the thirds closer to pure. Meantone temperaments are constructed similarly to Pythagorean tuning, as a stack of equal fifths, but they are temperaments in that the fifths are not pure.

Notable meantone temperaments
Twelve-tone equal temperament, obtained by making all semitones the same size, each equal to one-twelfth of an octave (with ratio the 12th root of $2$ to one ( $\sqrt{2$ ), narrows the fifths by about 2 cents or $1⁄12$ of a Pythagorean comma, and produces out-of-tune thirds that are only slightly better than in Pythagorean tuning. Twelve-tone equal temperament is roughly the same as $1⁄11$ comma meantone tuning.

Quarter-comma meantone, which tempers each of the twelve fifths by $1⁄4$ of a syntonic comma, is the best known type of meantone temperament, and the term meantone temperament is often used to refer to it specifically. Four ascending fifths (as ) tempered by $1⁄4$ comma produce a perfect major third, one syntonic comma narrower than the Pythagorean third that would result from four perfect fifths. Quarter-comma meantone has been practiced from the early 16th century to the end of the 19th. Nowadays it is standardised and extended by a division of the octave into 31 equal steps.

This proceeds in the same way as Pythagorean tuning; i.e., it takes the fundamental (say, ) and goes up by six successive fifths (always adjusting by dividing by powers of $2$ to remain within the octave above the fundamental), and similarly down, by six successive fifths (adjusting back to the octave by multiplying by powers of $2$ ). However, instead of using the $3⁄2$ ratio, which gives "perfect" fifths, this must be multiplied by the fourth root of $81⁄80$. ($81⁄80$ is the "syntonic comma": the ratio of a just major third ($5⁄4$) to a Pythagorean third ($81⁄64$).) Equivalently, one can use $\sqrt{5$ instead of $3⁄2$, to produce slightly reduced fifths. This results in the interval being a "perfect third" ($5⁄4$), and the intermediate seconds  dividing  uniformly, so  and  are equal ratios, whose square is $5⁄4$. The same is true of the major second sequences and. However, there is still a "comma" in meantone tuning (i.e. the ♯ and the ♭ have different pitches; they are not the same as in 12 ). The meantone comma is actually larger than the Pythagorean one, and in the opposite pitch direction (sharp vs. flat).

In third-comma meantone, the fifths are tempered by $1⁄3$ comma, and three descending fifths (such as ) produce a perfect minor third one syntonic comma wider than the Pythagorean comma that would result from three perfect fifths. Third-comma meantone can be approximated extremely well by a division of the octave in 19 equal steps.

The tone as a mean
The name "meantone temperament" derives from the fact that all such temperaments have only one size of the tone, between the major tone (9:8) and minor tone (10:9) of just intonation, which differ by a syntonic comma. In any regular system (i.e. with all but one of the fifths the same size) the whole tone (as ) is reached after two fifths (as ), while the major third is reached after four fifths : The mean tone therefore is exactly half of the meantone temperament's major third (in cents, or equivalently the square root in frequency).

This is one sense in which the tone is a mean; it is a median or intermediate value between $xi$ and $10⁄9$. Specifically, it is their geometric mean: $$\ \sqrt{ \tfrac{ 10 }{\ 9\ } \cdot \tfrac{\ 9\ }{ 8 }\ } = \sqrt{ \tfrac{\ 5\ }{ 4 }\ } = \tfrac{\ 1\ }{ 2 }\sqrt{ 5\ }\ $$ $= 1.1180340$ as a frequency frequency ratio, equivalent to 193.156 cents – the quarter-comma whole-tone size. However, any intermediate tone qualifies as a "mean" in the sense of being intermediate, and hence a valid choice for some meantone system.

In the case of quarter-comma meantone, in addition, where the major third is made narrower by a syntonic comma, the whole tone is consequently made half a comma narrower than the major tone of just intonation (9:8), or half a comma wider than the minor tone (10:9). This is another sense in which the whole tone in quarter-tone temperament may be considered "the" mean tone; it explains why quarter-comma meantone is often considered the exemplary meantone temperament, since it lies midway (in cents) between its possible extremes.

Meantone temperaments
"Meantone" can receive the following equivalent definitions:
 * The meantone is the geometric mean between the major whole tone (9:8 in just intonation) and the minor whole tone (10:9 in just intonation).
 * The meantone is the mean of its major third (for instance the square root of 5:4 in quarter-comma meantone).

The family of meantone temperaments share the common characteristic that they form a stack of identical fifths, the whole tone (major second) being the result of two fifths minus one octave, the major third of four fifths minus two octaves. Meantone temperaments are often described by the fraction of the syntonic comma by which the fifths are tempered: quarter-comma meantone, the most common type, tempers the fifths by $9⁄8$ of a syntonic comma, with the result that four fifths produce a just major third, a syntonic comma lower than a Pythagorean major third; third-comma meantone tempers by $685 5⁄7$ of a syntonic comma, three fifths producing a just major sixth (and hence a just minor 3rd), a syntonic comma lower than a Pythagorean one.

A meantone temperament is a linear temperament, distinguished by the width of its generator (the fifth, often measured in cents). Historically notable meantone temperaments, discussed below, occupy a narrow portion of this tuning continuum, with fifths ranging from approximately 695 to 699 cents.

Meantone temperaments can be specified in various ways: By what fraction (logarithmically) of a syntonic comma the fifth is being flattened (as above), what equal temperament has the meantone fifth in question, the width of the tempered perfect fifth in cents, or the ratio of the whole tone to the diatonic semitone. This last ratio was termed " $1⁄4$ " by American composer, pianist and theoretician Easley Blackwood, but in effect has been in use for much longer than that. The ratio is useful because it gives an idea of the melodic qualities of the tuning, and if $1⁄3$ happens to be a rational number $R$, then so is $x$ or $3 R + 1⁄5 R + 2$, which gives an idea of the size of fifth, in terms of logarithms base 2, and which immediately tells us what division of the octave we will have.

If we multiply by 1200 ¢, we have the size of fifth in cents.

In these terms, some historically notable meantone tunings are listed below. The second and fourth column are corresponding approximations to the first column. The third column shows how close the second column's approximation is to the actual size of the fifth interval in the given meantone tuning from the first column.

Equal temperaments
Neither the just fifth nor the quarter-comma meantone fifth is a rational fraction of the octave, but several tunings exist which approximate the fifth by such an interval; these are a subset of the equal temperaments ( "$R$ " ), in which the octave is divided into some number ($N⁄D$) of equally wide intervals.

Equal temperaments useful as meantone tunings include (in order of increasing generator width) 19 ($R$ comma), 50 ($1⁄315$ comma), 31 ($3311 × 5⁄2495$ comma), 43 ($3⁄2$ comma), and 55 ($31⁄53$ comma). The farther the tuning gets away from quarter-comma meantone, however, the less related the tuning is to harmonic timbres, which can be overcome by tempering the partials to match the tuning – which is possible, however, only on electronic synthesizers.

Approximation of just intervals in meantone temperaments

Wolf intervals
A whole number of just perfect fifths will never add up to a whole number of octaves, because $3 N + D⁄5 N + 2 D$ is an irrational number. If a stacked-up whole number of perfect fifths is too close with the octave, then one of the intervals that is enharmonically equivalent to a fifth must have a different width than the other fifths. For example, to make a 12 note chromatic scale in Pythagorean tuning close at the octave, one of the fifth intervals must be lowered ("out-of-tune") by the Pythagorean comma; this altered fifth is called a "wolf fifth" because it sounds similar to a fifth in its interval size and seems like an out-of-tune fifth, but is actually a diminished sixth (e.g. between ♯ and ♭). Likewise, 11 of the 12 perfect fourths are also in tune, but the remaining fourth is an augmented third (rather than a true fourth).

Wolf intervals are an artifact of keyboard design, and keyboard players using a key that is actually in-tune with a different pitch than intended. This can be shown most easily using an isomorphic keyboard, such as that shown in Figure 2. On an isomorphic keyboard, any given musical interval has the same shape wherever it appears, except at the edges. Here's an example. On the keyboard shown in figure 2, from any given note, the note that's a perfect fifth higher is always upward-and-rightward adjacent to the given note. There are no wolf intervals within the note-span of this keyboard. The problem is at the edge, on the note ♯. The note that's a perfect fifth higher than ♯ is ♯, which is not included on the keyboard shown (although it could be included in a larger keyboard, placed just to the right of ♯, hence maintaining the keyboard's consistent note-pattern). Because there is no ♯ button, when playing an ♯ power chord (open fifth chord), one must choose some other note, such as, to play instead of the missing ♯.

Even edge conditions produce wolf intervals only if the isomorphic keyboard has fewer buttons per octave than the tuning has enharmonically-distinct notes. For example, the isomorphic keyboard in figure 2 has 19 buttons per octave, so the above-cited edge-condition, from ♯ to, is not a wolf interval in 12 tone equal temperament , 17 , or 19 ; however, it is a wolf interval in 26 , 31 , and 50 ET. In these latter tunings, using electronic transposition could keep the current key's notes on the isomorphic keyboard's white buttons, such that these wolf intervals would very rarely be encountered in tonal music, despite modulation to exotic keys.

Isomorphic keyboards expose the invariant properties of the meantone tunings of the syntonic temperament isomorphically (that is, for example, by exposing a given interval with a single consistent inter-button shape in every octave, key, and tuning) because both the isomorphic keyboard and temperament are two-dimensional (i.e., rank 2) entities. One-dimensional $9⁄4$ key keyboards (where $1⁄11$ is some number) can expose accurately the invariant properties of only a single one-dimensional tuning in $1⁄12$ ; hence, the one-dimensional piano-style keyboard, with 12 keys per octave, can expose the invariant properties of only one tuning: 12.

When the perfect fifth is exactly 700 cents wide (that is, tempered by approximately $16384⁄10935$ of a syntonic comma, or exactly $214⁄37 × 5$ of a Pythagorean comma) then the tuning is identical to the familiar 12 tone equal temperament. This appears in the table above when $log2 3$.

Because of the compromises (and wolf intervals) forced on meantone tunings by the one-dimensional piano-style keyboard, well temperaments and eventually equal temperament became more popular.

Using standard interval names, twelve fifths equal six octaves plus one augmented seventh; seven octaves are equal to eleven fifths plus one diminished sixth. Given this, three "minor thirds" are actually augmented seconds (for example, ♭ to ♯), and four "major thirds" are actually diminished fourths (for example, to ♭). Several triads (like ♭ ♯ and ♭ ♯ ) contain both these intervals and have normal fifths.

Extended meantones
All meantone tunings fall into the valid tuning range of the syntonic temperament, so all meantone tunings are syntonic tunings. All syntonic tunings, including the meantones and the various just intonations, conceivably have an infinite number of notes in each octave, that is, seven natural notes, seven sharp notes (♯ to ♯), seven flat notes (♭ to ♭) (which is the limit of the orchestral harp, which allows 21 pitches in an octve); then double sharp notes, double flat notes, triple sharps and flats, and so on. In fact, double sharps and flats are uncommon, but still needed; triple sharps and flats are almost never seen. In any syntonic tuning that happens to divide the octave into a small number of equally wide smallest intervals (such as 12, 19, or 31), this infinity of notes still exists, although some notes will be equivalent. For example, in 19 ET, ♯ and ♭ are the same pitch; and in just intonation for C major, ♯ 𝄫 are within 8.1 ¢, and so can be tempered to be identical.

Many musical instruments are capable of very fine distinctions of pitch, such as the human voice, the trombone, unfretted strings such as the violin, and lutes with tied frets. These instruments are well-suited to the use of meantone tunings.

On the other hand, the piano keyboard has only twelve physical note-controlling devices per octave, making it poorly suited to any tunings other than 12 ET. Almost all of the historic problems with the meantone temperament are caused by the attempt to map meantone's infinite number of notes per octave to a finite number of piano keys. This is, for example, the source of the "wolf fifth" discussed above. When choosing which notes to map to the piano's black keys, it is convenient to choose those notes that are common to a small number of closely related keys, but this will only work up to the edge of the octave; when wrapping around to the next octave, one must use a "wolf fifth" that is not as wide as the others, as discussed above.

The existence of the "wolf fifth" is one of the reasons why, before the introduction of well temperament, instrumental music generally stayed in a number of "safe" tonalities that did not involve the "wolf fifth" (which was generally put between ♯ and ♭).

Throughout the Renaissance and Enlightenment, theorists as varied as Nicola Vicentino, Francisco de Salinas, Fabio Colonna, Marin Mersenne, Christiaan Huygens, and Isaac Newton advocated the use of meantone tunings that were extended beyond the keyboard's twelve notes,  and hence have come to be called "extended" meantone tunings. These efforts required a corresponding extension of keyboard instruments to offer means of controlling more than 12 notes per octave, including Vincento's Archicembalo, Mersenne's 19 ET harpsichord, Colonna's 31 ET sambuca, and Huygens's 31 ET harpsichord. Other instruments extended the keyboard by only a few notes. Some period harpsichords and organs have split ♯ / ♭ keys, such that both E major / C♯ minor (4 sharps) and E♭ major / C minor (3 flats) can be played with no wolf fifths. Many of those instruments also have split ♯ / ♭ keys, and a few have all the five accidental keys split.

All of these alternative instruments were "complicated" and "cumbersome", due to
 * (a) not being isomorphic, and
 * (b) not having a transposing mechanism,

which can significantly reduce the number of note-controlling buttons needed on an isomorphic keyboard. Both of these criticisms could be addressed by electronic isomorphic keyboard instruments (such as the open-source hardware jammer keyboard), which could be simpler, less cumbersome, and more expressive than existing keyboard instruments.

Use of meantone temperament
References to tuning systems that could possibly refer to meantone were published as early as 1496 (Gaffurius). Aron (1523) was unmistakably discussing quarter-comma meantone, however, the first mathematically precise meantone tuning descriptions are found in late 16th century treatises by Zarlino and de Salinas. These authors both described the $7⁄12$ comma, $2⁄1$ comma, and $1⁄6$ comma meantone systems. Fogliano mentioned the quarter-comma system, but offered no discussion of it.

Of course, the quarter comma meantone system (or any other meantone system) could not have been implemented with complete accuracy until much later, since devices that could accurately measure pitch frequencies didn't exist until the mid-19th century. But tuners could use precisely the same method that "by ear" tuners have used until recently: Go up by fifths, and down by octaves, or down by fifths, and up by octaves, and "temper" the fifths so they are "slightly" smaller than just $45⁄32$ ratios.

For 12 tone equally-tempered tuning, they would have to be tempered by a little less than a "$64⁄45$ comma", since they must form a perfect cycle, with no comma at the end, whereas the meantone tuning still has a residual comma.

How tuners could identify a "quarter comma" reliably by ear is a bit more subtle. Since this amounts to about 0.3% of the frequency which, near middle (~264 Hz), is about one hertz, they could do it by using perfect fifths as a reference and adjusting the tempered note to produce beats at this rate. However, the frequency of the beats would have to be slightly adjusted, proportionately to the frequency of the note.

In the past, meantone temperaments were sometimes used or referred to under other names or descriptions. For example, in 1691 Huygens introduced what he believed to be a new division of the octave. He referred several times, in a comparative way, to a conventional tuning arrangement, which he indicated variously as "temperament ordinaire", or "the one that everyone uses". But Huygens' description of that conventional arrangement was quite precise, and is clearly what is now called quarter-comma meantone temperament.

Although meantone is best known as a tuning environment associated with earlier music of the Renaissance and Baroque, there is evidence of continuous usage of meantone as a keyboard temperament well into the middle of the 19th century.
 * "The mode of tuning which prevailed before the introduction of equal temperament, is called the Meantone System. It has hardly yet died out in England, for it may still be heard on a few organs in country churches. According to Don B. Yñiguez, organist of Seville Cathedral, the meantone system is generally maintained on Spanish organs, even at the present day." — G. Grove (1890)

Meantone temperament has had considerable revival for early music performance in the late 20th century and in newly composed works specifically demanding meantone by composers including Adams, Ligeti, and Leedy.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Meantone temperament


text:
Suva

Suva is the capital and largest city of Fiji. It is the home of the country's largest metropolitan area and serves as its major port. The city is located on the southeast coast of the island of Viti Levu, in Rewa Province, Central Division.

In 1877, the capital of Fiji was moved to Suva from Levuka, the main European colonial settlement at the time, due to its restrictive geography and environs. The administration of the colony was transferred from Levuka to Suva in 1882.

As of the 2017 census, the city of Suva had a population of 93,970, and Suva's metropolitan area, which includes its independent suburbs, had a population of 185,913. The combined urban population of Suva and the towns of Lami, Nasinu, and Nausori that border it was around 330,000: over a third of the nation's population. (This urban complex, excluding Lami, is also known as the Suva-Nausori corridor.)

Suva is the political, economic, and cultural centre of Fiji. It is also the economic and cultural capital of the South Pacific, hosting the majority of the regional headquarters of major international corporations, international agencies, and diplomatic missions. The city also has a thriving arts and performance scene, and a growing reputation as the region's fashion capital.

History
In 1868, when Suva was still a small village, the Bauan chieftain, Seru Epenisa Cakobau, granted 5000 km2 of land to the Australian-based Polynesia Company, in exchange for the company's promise to pay off debts owed to the United States. More than a tenth of this land area, 575 km2, was located near Suva. The company's original intention was to develop a cotton farming industry, but the land and climate proved unsuitable.

In 1874, control of the Fiji Islands was ceded to the United Kingdom. In 1877, the colonial authorities decided to move the capital to Suva from Levuka, Ovalau, Lomaiviti, because Levuka's location between a steep mountain and the sea made any expansion of the town impractical. Colonel F. E. Pratt of the Royal Engineers was appointed Surveyor-General in 1875 and designed the new capital in Suva, assisted by W. Stephens and Colonel R. W. Stewart. The transfer to Suva was made official in 1882.

In 1910, Suva acquired the status of a municipality, under the Municipal Constitution Ordinance of 1909. Its area remained one square mile until 1952 when Suva annexed the Muanikau and Samabula wards, expanding its territory to 13 km2. In October of that year, Suva was officially designated a city – Fiji's first. Suva later annexed Tamavua. Most recently, Suva further extended its boundaries by incorporating the Cunningham area at its northern edge. Since then, urban sprawl has led to the growth of a number of suburbs that remain outside the city limits. Together with the city, they form the metropolitan area known as the Greater Suva Area.

Suva hosted the South Pacific Games in 2003 for the third time in the event's 40-year history. In preparation for hosting the event, the Fijian government, with the help of a $16 million aid package from the People's Republic of China, funded the construction of a new gymnasium, indoor sports centre, swimming pool, stadium, field hockey pitch, and grandstands in the area around Suva.

Geography and physical characteristics
In addition to being the capital of Fiji, Suva is also its commercial and political centre (though not necessarily its cultural centre), and its main port city. It has a mix of modern buildings and colonial-period architecture.

Suva is located around a harbour on a hilly peninsula in the southeast corner of Viti Levu Island, between Laucala Bay and Suva Harbour. The mountains to its north and west catch the southeast trade winds, producing year-round moist conditions.

Although Suva is on a peninsula, and almost surrounded by sea, its coast is lined with mangroves - the nearest beach is 40 kilometres (25 mi) away, at Pacific Harbour. A significant part of the city centre, including the Parliament buildings, is built on reclaimed mangrove swampland.

City wards
Below is a list of the city's five wards, beginning with the city centre, followed by the northwesternmost ward, and then in clockwise order:

 * 1) Central: city centre; mostly commercial, central business district
 * 2) Tamavua: urban; mostly residential
 * 3) Extension: semi-urban; residential
 * 4) Samabula: urban; residential, industrial, and commercial; has its own separate town centre; includes a university
 * 5) Muanikau: urban; mostly industrial and residential; includes large sporting venues, a university, and recreational areas

Suva–Nausori Corridor
Suva sits in the middle of a metropolitan area, sometimes known as the Suva Urban Complex, and sometimes informally known as Suva, even though it encompasses a total of four areas with their own town or city names and their own separate local governments. This conurbation stretches from Lami (immediately west of the city of Suva) along the Queens Highway, through Nasinu (immediately east of the city of Suva), to the Rewa River, along the Kings Highway, and then to Nausori across the river. To the north and northeast are the rainforest-park areas of Colo-i-Suva and Sawani, along the Princes Road, which connect at the Rewa River Bridge. This whole area (excluding Lami) is also formally referred to as the Suva–Nausori Corridor. It is the most populous area in Fiji, with over 330,000 inhabitants.

Climate
Suva has a tropical rainforest climate, according to the Köppen climate classification system. But because of its trade winds and occasional cyclones, it is not an equatorial climate. The city sees a copious amount of precipitation throughout the year, with no true dry season; no month has an average rainfall below 60 mm. Suva averages 3000 mm of precipitation annually. Its driest month, July, averages 125 mm. As in many other cities with a tropical rainforest climate, temperatures are relatively constant throughout the year, with an average high of about 28 °C and an average low of about 22 °C.

Suva has a markedly higher rainfall than Nadi or the western side of Viti Levu (known to Suva inhabitants as "the burning west"). The second governor of Fiji, Sir Arthur Gordon, is said to have remarked that he had never seen it rain anywhere the way it rains in Suva and that there was hardly a day without rain. The most copious rainfall is observed from November to May, while the slightly cooler months from June to October see considerably more moderate rainfall.

Demographics
Suva is a multiracial and multicultural city. Indigenous Fijians and Indo-Fijians, the two principal ethnic groups of Fiji, comprise the bulk of Suva's population, and the city is home to most of Fiji's ethnic minority populations, which include Rotumans, Lauans, Rambians, Europeans (known as Kaivalagi), part-Europeans (of European and Fijian descent, known as “Kailoma") and Chinese, among others. The most widely spoken language is English, but Fijian, Fiji Hindi, and other languages are also spoken by their respective communities.

Suva's inhabitants are representative of all the major indigenous Pacific groups: it is sometimes referred to as the “New York of the Pacific". The city has a reputation as a major economic centre in the region and is the site of University of the South Pacific's main campus. This has led to an influx of Pacific migrants, who study, work, and live in the city and its boroughs.

Municipal government
Suva has municipal status and, until 2009, was governed by a lord mayor and a 20-member city council. The Suva City Council was the municipal law-making body of the city of Suva, Fiji's capital. It consisted of 20 councillors, elected for three-year terms from four multi-member constituencies, called wards. Councillors were elected by residents, landowners, and representatives of corporations owning or occupying taxable property in Suva councillors in turn elect, from among their own members, a lord mayor and deputy lord mayor, who served one-year terms and were eligible for re-election.

However, in 2009, the military-backed interim Fijian government dismissed all municipal government officials throughout Fiji and appointed special administrators to run the urban areas. , elected municipal government had not been restored. The special administrator of Suva, along with nearby Nasinu, is Chandu Umaria, a former lord mayor of Suva.

Landmarks

A well-known landmark is the Suva City Carnegie Library, which was built in 1909. It is one of many colonial-period buildings in the city.

Another landmark is Suva's governmental building complex. It sits on what was once the flowing waters of a creek. In 1935, the creek was drained, and the complex's foundations were created by driving more than five kilometres of reinforced concrete pilings into its bed. The foundation stone was laid in 1937, the building complex was completed in 1939, and a new wing was completed in 1967. However, in 1992, the seat of Fiji's parliament was moved out of that complex and into a new one on Ratu Sukuna Road.

Government House was formerly the residence of Fiji's colonial governors and, after Fijian independence in 1970, governors-general. Today, it is the official residence of Fiji's president. The original house on the site was built in 1882, but a fire caused by a lightning strike destroyed it in 1921. It was rebuilt in 1928.

The Suva campus of the University of the South Pacific (USP) occupies what was originally a New Zealand military base. It is the largest of the many USP campuses dotted throughout the South Pacific. USP is the largest university in the Pacific Islands outside Hawaii, and its courses are internationally recognised and endorsed.

The Fiji Museum, now located in Thurston Gardens, was founded in 1904, and originally occupied the old town hall. It was moved to its present location in 1954. The museum houses the most extensive collection of Fijian artifacts in the world, and is also a research and educational institution, specialising in archaeology, the preservation of Fiji's oral tradition, and the publication of material on Fiji's language and culture.

Suva has about 78 parks. The new Takashi Suzuki Garden, in Apted Park at Suva Point, is a popular spot for viewing sunrise and sunset. Thurston Gardens, which opened in 1913, features flora from throughout the South Pacific.

Suva has many shopping and retail areas, notably Cumming Street, which has been a vibrant and colourful shopping area since colonial times. The Cumming Street area features original colonial buildings and narrow roads. Suva also has modern shopping malls, such as the Suva Central Shopping Mall, the Mid-City Mall, and MHCC, along with other developments give much of the city a modern and sophisticated look.

TappooCity is one of Fiji's shopping mall, and the largest in the South Pacific outside of Australia and New Zealand. This low-rise (six-storey) building was constructed in December 2009 in a joint venture by FNPF and the Tappoo Group of Companies. It is valued at US$25.7 million (FJD50 million).

Construction work began in January 2011 for a FJD30 -million mini-mall complex at Grantham Road, behind the Sports-City Complex and close to the Suva campus of the University of the South Pacific. It was scheduled to be completed in 2012, and to house restaurants, retail outlets, and cinemas.

Economy

Unlike most cities and towns in Fiji, and many around the world, Suva did not grow up around a single industry. It has gradually developed to become the largest and most sophisticated city in the Pacific Islands, and a regional hub. Fijians of Indian descent have largely shaped the economy of Fiji, contributing immensely to the growth of Suva and to its status as the economic and political capital of Fiji. Suva is the commercial center of Fiji: Most international banks have their Pacific headquarters here, including ANZ and the Westpac. In addition, most Fijian financial institutions, non-governmental organisations, and government ministries and departments are headquartered here. At one point, both Air Pacific (now Fiji Airways) and Air Fiji were headquartered in Suva.

A large part of Fiji's international shipping, as well as the docking of international cruise ships, takes place at Suva's Kings Wharf. This has led to the growth of Suva's tourism industry.

The largest of Suva's several industrial areas is Walu Bay, which is home to factories, warehouses, import-export companies, shipyards, container yards, a brewery, and many printeries. Other notable industrial areas are Vatuwaqa, Raiwaqa, and Laucala Beach.

Suva boasts many thriving markets and shopping complexes. Among the most popular areas for shopping and commerce are Cumming Street and Victoria Parade.

Institutions

Suva is host to more international and regional intergovernmental agencies and NGOs than any other Pacific Island capital. Some of the bodies with a presence in Suva are:

 * The TRAFFIC Oceania South Pacific Programme – funded by the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office, is in Suva, in the offices of the WWF South Pacific Programme. The programme assists in the implementation of CITES and strengthens collaboration with the World Wide Fund for Nature.
 * The Fiji School of Medicine – which is now classed as a regional agency and a member of the Council of Regional Organisations in the Pacific.
 * The University of Fiji.
 * The Fiji School of Nursing.
 * The University of the South Pacific which operates a campus in Suva as well as at other South Pacific locations.
 * The Fiji National University which is a major polytechnic in Fiji and caters to students from many small Pacific Island nations. It has centres in other Fiji towns of Nadi, Ba and Labasa.
 * The Fiji College of Advanced Learning.
 * TPAF (The Training and Productivity Authority of Fiji).
 * The Pacific Community (SPC).
 * The Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat.
 * The South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC).
 * St John's Theological College, Suva.
 * The Pacific Regional Seminary (PRS).
 * The Pacific Theological College (PTC).
 * Femmus School of Hospitality.
 * Yat Sen School.
 * Alliance Française.
 * Greenpeace Pacific.
 * UNDP Headquarters (Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, Cook Islands, Palau, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Tuvalu, Kiribati, Niue, Nauru).
 * Asian Development Bank Headquarters Pacific
 * World Bank Headquarters

Entertainment and culture
Suva is the cultural and entertainment capital of Oceania and is host to many regional, national, and local events. The city has a very developed and advanced entertainment and event infrastructure and hosts a busy calendar of events every year.

Venues
Suva has many multipurpose venues, the main ones being the Vodafone Arena, which can seat up to 5,000 people, the HFC Bank Stadium, which can seat up to 30,000 people, the FMF National Gymnasium Suva, which can seat up to 2,000 people, and the Civic Auditorium, which can seat up to 1,000 people.

Parks and gardens
Suva has a number of parks and a few gardens. Albert Park, in the City centre, is famous as the stage for many national-historical events such as the Independence of Fiji, the landing by Kingsford Smith on the Southern Cross and many parades and carnivals. Sukuna Park, also in the CBD is a popular recreational park and has many performances and events on a weekly basis. Thurston Gardens (named for Governor of Fiji John Bates Thurston) is the city's main botanical garden and the location of the Fiji Museum. Queen Elizabeth Drive is popular as a scenic walk along Suva's foreshore. Many city residents go to the Colo-i-Suva Forest Reserve, a short drive from the city centre, to swim under the waterfalls.

Music
Many concerts are held in Suva, some coming from other countries to enjoy world-class performances. Concerts and shows are usually staged at one of the above-mentioned venues on a monthly basis. Some of the famous music artists to hold shows in Suva include UB40, Lucky Dube, O'Yaba, Sean Kingston and many others. Due to a favoured interest in Bollywood by all, some prominent singers and actors have held shows in the capital which include singers like Shaan, Sonu Nigam, Sunidhi Chauhan and movie artists like Shah Rukh Khan, Priyanka Chopra, Johnny Lever, Dino Morea, Rajpal Yadav, Sunny Leone and the like.

Food
Suva offers a varied and interesting culinary experience where almost every if not all major cuisines are represented. Particularly popular cuisines are Fijian, Indian, Chinese, American and foods from other cultural and ethnic backgrounds. Fijians of Indian descent have influenced Fiji's cuisine, in the process creating the uniquely Fiji Indian curry. Indentured labourers brought with them spices, chilies, and other herbs and vegetables which now are part of the Fijian culinary experience.

Festivals
During the course of the year, arts, music and trade festivals are held in Suva, albeit on a small scale. There are a few large and notable festivals that occur annually and these include the Hibiscus Festival (largest carnival in the South Pacific islands), the New Years Street Party, and the Fiji Show Case tradeshow that includes carnival rides, food as well as magic and circus performances.

Sports
Suva plays host to many regional and national sporting events, most notably at the HFC Bank Stadium. A special highlight is the Coca-Cola Games, the largest secondary school athletics meet in the world. The Capital City is represented in major sporting events by its respective rugby, netball and football teams.

Suva was the host of the first Pacific Games, in 1963. Forty years later in 2003 the Games returned to Fiji's capital, with a full program of 32 sports introduced for the first time. Suva held the games for the second time in 1979. Having hosted the event three times, Suva has held the Pacific Games more often than any other city.

Mass media
Headquartered in Suva are the three main national television stations, Fiji One, FBC TV and MAI TV along with the Fiji Ministry of Information, which produces government programs as well as national news and current affairs bulletins. Fiji One produces and airs its evening 'National News' bulletin from its studios in Gladstone Road in Central; FBC TV airs its 'FBC News' bulletin from its studios, also on Gladstone Road. Sky Pacific and Pacific Broadcasting Services Fiji are the two pay satellite television company headquartered here.

Suva is home to the national radio broadcasters Fiji Broadcasting Corporation (FBC) and Communications Fiji Limited (CFL), between them providing 12 national radio stations.

The two dailies, The Fiji Times and The Fiji Sun are printed here (and, formerly, the Fiji Post). Many other weekly newspapers are headquartered and published in Suva, including Inside Fiji, Nai Lalakai (iTaukei language weekly), Shanti Dut (Fiji Hindi weekly), national magazines such as Repúblika and Mai Life as well as regional magazines such as Islands Business.

Shopping and fashion
Suva is one of the most shopper-friendly cities in the Pacific. The city offers its shops in a cluster that is referred to as Suva Central. Areas like Cumming Street and Marks Street are for clothing, jewellery, food, electronics, pharmaceuticals and more. Terry Walk and the Flea Market offer handicrafts and local ware. Close by, huge, new shopping complexes dominate the canal area, such as MHCC (Morris Hedstrom City Center), Tappoo City and Suva Central. There are telecommunication and electronic stores, as well as sporting gear stores in the outer areas of this radius.

Suva also hosts the headquarters of the Fashion Council of Fiji, the region's most significant fashion organisation. The Fijian Fashion Festival, the region's largest trade and consumer fashion platform, occurs annually at the Grand Pacific Hotel in Suva.

Transportation
Nausori International Airport caters mainly to the domestic market, connecting Suva with Fiji's other international airport, Nadi International Airport. Fiji Airways operates a sole flight to Sydney, with the main operator out of the airport being Fiji Link. Fiji Link provides services to domestic locations within Fiji such as Savusavu and Rotuma.

Suva has a public transport system consisting of buses (Central Transport Co.) and taxis servicing the metropolitan area as well as the cities of Nasinu, Nausori, and Lami town. There are bus services connecting Suva with other towns and cities on Viti Levu by way of either the Kings, Queens, or Princes highways, all originating within Suva, although the latter terminates at Rewa Bridge in Nausori.

There is a domestic ferry service from the Princess Wharf to the outer islands of Fiji as well as Vanua Levu. International ships and cruise liners dock at Suva's Kings Wharf.

Notable residents
This is a list of famous people who are either living in, or are originally from Suva.

 * Petero Civoniceva (born in Suva), Australian rugby league player
 * Noor Dean, a Fiji Indian lawyer and politician, Suva City Council, and House of Representatives
 * Josua Koroibulu, plays rugby league for the Fiji national rugby league team
 * Nalini Krishan, Star Wars film actress
 * Craig Parker, New Zealand actor
 * Paulini (born in Suva), Australian singer and songwriter
 * Don Dunstan, Premier of South Australia 1967 - 1968 and 1970 - 1979
 * Semi Radradra, Parramatta Eels player and plays for the Fiji national rugby league team
 * Waisale Serevi, Fiji Rugby Team
 * Devanesh Sharma, leading Suva lawyer and former President of the Fiji Law Society
 * Jimmy Snuka, professional wrestler between 1968 and 2015
 * Sitiveni Sivivatu, All Black Chiefs (Super rugby franchise)
 * Semi Tadulala, plays rugby union for Gloucester Rugby in England and Fiji in rugby union previously a professional rugby league footballer for Melbourne Storm, Bradford Bulls and the Fiji national rugby league team
 * Lote Tuqiri, played rugby union for the Australian national rugby union team
 * Tarisi Vunidilo, Fijian archaeologist and curator
 * Marques Whippy, professional basketball player
 * Veniana Tuibulia, bronze medalist in the 2003 Oceania Judo Championship in the -52 kg category

Twin towns – sister cities
Suva is twinned with:

 * 🇨🇳 Beihai, China
 * 🇦🇺 Brighton, Australia
 * 🇨🇳 Guangdong, China
 * 🇦🇺 Frankston, Australia
 * 🇵🇬 Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea
 * 🇨🇳 Shaoxing, China
 * 🇰🇷 Yongsan, Seoul, South Korea

 * 🇵🇭 Virac, Catanduanes, Philippines

title: Suva


text:
NORAD

North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD ), known until March 1981 as the North American Air Defense Command, is a combined organization of the United States and Canada department, that provides aerospace warning, air sovereignty, and protection for Canada and the continental United States.

Headquarters for NORAD and the NORAD/United States Northern Command (USNORTHCOM) center are located at Peterson Space Force Base in El Paso County, near Colorado Springs, Colorado. The nearby Cheyenne Mountain Complex has the Alternate Command Center. The NORAD commander and deputy commander are, respectively, a United States four-star general or equivalent and a Canadian lieutenant-general or equivalent.

Command
NORAD is headed by its commander, who is a four-star general or admiral in the United States Armed Forces. The deputy commander is a Royal Canadian Air Force lieutenant general. Prior to the 1968 unification of the Canadian Forces, the deputy commander was an RCAF air marshal.

The commander is responsible to the Government of Canada (the Crown-in-Council), through the chief of the Defence Staff, and to the Government of the United States, via the chairman of the joint chiefs of staff. The commander and deputy are each subject to their respective country's laws, policies, and directives. Per the Canadian National Defence Act, the chief of the Defence Staff relays orders from the Crown-in-Council, collectively, or guidance from the minister of national defence, alone, to the officers of the Canadian Armed Forces.

Regions
NORAD maintains a headquarters at Peterson Space Force Base near Colorado Springs, Colorado. The NORAD and USNORTHCOM Command Center at Peterson SFB serves as a central collection and coordination facility for a worldwide system of sensors designed to provide the commander and the leadership of Canada and the U.S. with an accurate picture of any aerospace or maritime threat. NORAD has administratively divided the North American landmass into three regions:
 * Alaska NORAD (ANR) Region – Eleventh Air Force (11 AF)
 * Canadian NORAD (CANR) Region – 1 Canadian Air Division (1 Cdn Air Div)
 * Continental U.S. (CONR) Region – First Air Force (1 AF/CONR-AFNORTH)

Both the CONR and CANR regions are divided into eastern and western sectors.

Alaskan
The Alaskan NORAD Region (ANR) maintains continuous capability to detect, validate and warn off any atmospheric threat in its area of operations from its Regional Operations Control Center (ROCC) at Joint Base Elmendorf–Richardson, Alaska.

ANR maintains the readiness to conduct a continuum of aerospace control missions, which include daily air sovereignty in peacetime, contingency and deterrence in time of tension, and active air defense against manned and unmanned air-breathing atmospheric vehicles in times of crisis.

ANR is supported by both active duty and reserve units. Active duty forces are provided by 11 AF and the Canadian Armed Forces (CAF), and reserve forces provided by the Alaska Air National Guard. Both 11 AF and the CAF provide active duty personnel to the ROCC to maintain continuous surveillance of Alaskan airspace.

Canadian
Canadian NORAD Region Headquarters is at CFB Winnipeg, Manitoba. It was established on 22 April 1983. It is responsible for providing surveillance and control of Canadian airspace. The Royal Canadian Air Force provides alert assets to NORAD. CANR is divided into two sectors, the Canada East Sector and Canada West Sector. Both Sector Operations Control Centers (SOCCs) are co-located at CFB North Bay, Ontario. The routine operation of the SOCCs includes reporting track data, sensor status and aircraft alert status to NORAD headquarters. In 1996, CANR was renamed 1 Canadian Air Division and moved to CFB Winnipeg.

Canadian air defense forces assigned to NORAD include 409 Tactical Fighter Squadron at CFB Cold Lake, Alberta and 425 Tactical Fighter Squadron at CFB Bagotville, Quebec. All squadrons fly the McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet fighter aircraft.

To monitor for drug trafficking, the Canadian NORAD Region monitors all air traffic approaching the coast of Canada, in cooperation with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the United States drug law enforcement agencies. Any aircraft that has not filed a flight plan may be directed to land and be inspected by RCMP and Canada Border Services Agency.

Continental U.S.
The Continental NORAD Region (CONR) is the component of NORAD that provides airspace surveillance and control and directs air sovereignty activities for the Contiguous United States (CONUS). Since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, CONR has been the lead agency for Operation Noble Eagle, an ongoing mission to protect the continental United States from airborne attacks.

CONR is the NORAD designation of the United States Air Force First Air Force/AFNORTH. Its headquarters is located at Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida. The First Air Force (1 AF) became responsible for the USAF air defense mission in September 1990. AFNORTH is the United States Air Force component of United States Northern Command (NORTHCOM).

1 AF/CONR-AFNORTH comprises Air National Guard Fighter Wings assigned an air defense mission to 1 AF/CONR-AFNORTH on federal orders, made up primarily of citizen Airmen. The primary weapons systems are the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle and General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon aircraft.

It plans, conducts, controls, coordinates and ensures air sovereignty and provides for the unilateral defense of the United States. A combined First Air Force command post is at Tyndall Air Force Base. The US East ROCC (Eastern Air Defense Sector), Sector Operations Control Center (SOCC) is at Rome, New York. The US West ROCC (Western Air Defense Sector) control center is at McChord Field, Washington. Both maintain continuous surveillance of CONUS airspace.

In its role as the CONUS NORAD Region, 1 AF/CONR-AFNORTH also performs counter-drug surveillance operations.

History
The North American Air Defense Command was recommended by the Joint Canadian–U.S. Military Group in late 1956, approved by the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff in February 1957, and announced in August 1957. NORAD's command headquarters was established on 12 September 1957 at Ent Air Force Base's 1954 blockhouse. In 1958, Canada and the United States agreed that the NORAD commander would always be a United States officer, with a Canadian vice commander. Canada "agreed the command's primary purpose would be ... early warning and defense for the Strategic Air Command's (SAC)'s retaliatory forces".

In late 1958, Canada and the United States started the Continental Air Defense Integration North (CADIN) for the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment air defense network. The initial CADIN cost-sharing agreement between the two countries was signed in January 1959. Two December 1958 plans submitted by NORAD had "average yearly expenditure of around five and one half billions", including "cost of the accelerated Nike Zeus program" and three Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS) sites.

Canada's NORAD bunker at CFB North Bay with a SAGE AN/FSQ-7 Combat Direction Central computer was constructed from 1959 to 1963. Each of the USAF's eight smaller AN/FSQ-8 Combat Control Central systems provided NORAD with data and could command the entire United States air defense. The RCAF's 1950 "ground observer system, the Long Range Air Raid Warning System", was discontinued. In January 1959, the United States Ground Observer Corps was deactivated.

The Cheyenne Mountain nuclear bunker's planned mission was expanded in August 1960 to "a hardened center from which CINCNORAD would supervise and direct operations against space attack as well as air attack". In October 1960, the Secretary of Defense assigned, "operational command of all space surveillance to Continental Air Defense Command (CONAD) and operational control to North American Air Defense Command (NORAD)".

In December 1960, the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) placed the Ent Air Force Base Space Detection and Tracking System (496L System with Philco 2000 Model 212 computer) "under the operational control of CINCNORAD ", during the Cheyenne Mountain nuclear bunker excavation, and the joint SAC-NORAD exercise "Sky Shield II". In September 1962—"Sky Shield III" were conducted for mock penetration of NORAD sectors.

In 1963, NORAD command center operations moved from Ent Air Force Base to the partially underground "Combined Operations Center" for Aerospace Defense Command and NORAD at the Chidlaw Building. President John F. Kennedy visited "NORAD headquarters" after the 5 June 1963 United States Air Force Academy graduation. On 30 October 1964, "NORAD began manning" the Combat Operations Center in the Cheyenne Mountain Complex.

In 1965, about 250,000 United States and Canadian personnel were involved in the operation of NORAD, On 1 January 1966, Air Force Systems Command turned the COC over to NORAD. The NORAD Cheyenne Mountain Complex was accepted on 8 February 1966.

1968 reorganization
United States Department of Defense realignments for the NORAD command organization began on 15 November 1968 (e.g., Army Air Defense Command (ARADCOM)). By 1972, there were eight NORAD "regional areas ... for all air defense". The NORAD Cheyenne Mountain Complex Improvements Program (427M System) became operational in 1979.

False alarms
On at least three occasions, NORAD systems failed, such as on 9 November 1979, when a technician in NORAD loaded a test tape, but failed to switch the system status to "test", causing a stream of constant false warnings to spread to two "continuity of government" bunkers as well as command posts worldwide. On 3 June 1980, and again on 6 June 1980, a computer communications device failure caused warning messages to sporadically flash in U.S. Air Force command posts around the world that a nuclear attack was taking place.

During these incidents, Pacific Air Forces (PACAF) properly had their planes loaded with nuclear bombs in the air. Strategic Air Command (SAC) did not and received criticism, because they did not follow procedure, even though the SAC command knew these were almost certainly false alarms, as did PACAF. Both command posts had recently begun receiving and processing direct reports from the various radar, satellite, and other missile attack detection systems, and those direct reports simply did not match the erroneous data received from NORAD.

1980 reorganization

Following the 1979 Joint US-Canada Air Defense Study, the command structure for aerospace defense was changed, e.g., "SAC assumed control of ballistic missile warning and space surveillance facilities" on 1 December 1979 from ADCOM. The Aerospace Defense Command major command ended 31 March 1980. Its organizations in Cheyenne Mountain became the "ADCOM" specified command under the same commander as NORAD, e.g., HQ NORAD/ADCOM J31 manned the Space Surveillance Center.

In 1982, a NORAD Off-site Test Facility was located at Peterson AFB. The DEW Line was to be replaced with the North Warning System (NWS), the Over-the-Horizon Backscatter (OTH-B) radar was to be deployed, more advanced fighters were deployed, and E-3 Sentry AWACS aircraft were planned for greater use. These recommendations were accepted by the governments in 1985. The United States Space Command was formed in September 1985 as an adjunct, but not a component of NORAD.

NORAD was renamed North American Aerospace Defense Command in March 1981.

Post–Cold War
In 1989, NORAD operations expanded to cover counter-drug operations, for example, tracking of small aircraft entering and operating within the United States and Canada. DEW line sites were replaced between 1986 and 1995 by the North Warning System. The Cheyenne Mountain site was upgraded, but none of the proposed OTH-B radars are currently in operation.

After the September 11 attacks, the NORAD Air Warning Center's mission included the interior airspace of North America.

The Cheyenne Mountain Realignment was announced in July 2006, to consolidate NORAD's day-to-day operations at Peterson Air Force Base. Cheyenne Mountain remains on "warm standby", staffed with support personnel.

In film and television
The NORAD command center located under Cheyenne Mountain, Colorado is a setting of the 1983 film WarGames and the television series Jeremiah and Stargate SG-1. In the 2014 film Interstellar, NORAD dissolves and its headquarters is converted for NASA.

In season 25 episode 4 of the TV series South Park, NORAD is hacked into by Mr Mackey using late 1980s computer hardware.

Santa tracker
As a publicity move on 24 December 1955, NORAD's predecessor, the Continental Air Defense Command (CONAD), informed the press that CONAD was tracking Santa Claus's sleigh, adding that "CONAD, Army, Navy and Marine Air Forces will continue to track and guard Santa and his sleigh on his trip to and from the U.S. against possible attack from those who do not believe in Christmas". A Christmas Eve tradition was born, known as the "NORAD Tracks Santa" program. Every year on Christmas Eve, "NORAD Tracks Santa" purports to track Santa Claus as he leaves the North Pole and delivers presents to children around the world. Today, NORAD relies on volunteers to make the program possible.

title: NORAD


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The Queen of the Damned

The Queen of the Damned (1988) is a vampire novel by American writer Anne Rice, the third in her The Vampire Chronicles series. It follows Interview with the Vampire and The Vampire Lestat. This novel is a continuation of the story that ends in a cliffhanger in The Vampire Lestat and explores the rich history and mythology of the origin of the vampires, which dates back to Ancient Egypt.

In March 2014, a new installment of Rice's series was announced  titled Prince Lestat, which Rice's son, novelist Christopher Rice, called "a true sequel to The Queen of the Damned".

Plot summary
Part One follows several people over the same period of several days. Several of the characters from the two previous books appear, including Armand, Daniel Molloy (the "boy reporter" of Interview with the Vampire), Marius de Romanus, Louis de Pointe du Lac, Gabrielle de Lioncourt and Santino. Each of the six chapters in Part One tells a different story about a different person or group of people. Two things unify these chapters: a series of dreams about red-haired twin sisters, and the fact that a powerful being is killing vampires around the world by means of spontaneous combustion.

Pandora and Santino rescue Marius, having answered his telepathic call for help. Marius informs his rescuers that Akasha has been awakened by Lestat de Lioncourt, or rather his rock music, for he has joined a rock band with mortals Alex, Larry and Tough Cookie. Having been awakened by Lestat's rebellious music, Akasha destroys her husband Enkil and plots to rule the world. She is also revealed as the source of the attacks on other vampires.

Part Two takes place at Lestat's concert. Jesse Reeves, a member of the secret Talamasca and relative of Maharet, is mortally injured while attending the concert, and is taken to be made into a vampire at Maharet's compound in California's Sonoma Mountains. The vampires from Part One later congregate in the compound. Meanwhile, Akasha abducts Lestat and takes him as an unwilling consort to various locations in the world, inciting women to rise up and kill the men who have oppressed them.

Part Three takes place at Maharet's compound, where Maharet tells the story of Akasha and the red-haired twins, Maharet and Mekare, to the other characters. Also present are Mael and Khayman, who already know the story.

In Part Four, Akasha confronts the gathered vampires, explaining that she plans to kill 90 percent of the world's human men and establish a new Eden in which women will worship Akasha as a goddess. If the assembled vampires refuse to follow her, she will destroy them. The vampires refuse, but Mekare enters and kills Akasha by severing her head and consuming her brain and heart. Amel passes into Mekare, thereby saving the lives of the remaining vampires. She becomes the new Queen of the Damned.

In Part Five, the vampires leave the compound and assemble at Armand's island resort in Florida to recover. They eventually go their separate ways. Lestat takes Louis to see David Talbot in London. After their brief visit with Talbot they depart into the night, an incensed Louis and his angry words filling Lestat with glee.

Origin of vampires
The Queen of the Damned deals with the origins of vampires themselves. The mother of all vampires, Akasha, begins as a pre-Egyptian queen, in a land called Kemet (which will become Egypt), many thousands of years ago. During this time two powerful witches (twins Maharet and Mekare) live in the mountains close to Nineveh. The witches are able to communicate with invisible spirits and gain simple favors from them. During this period there is a bloodthirsty, invisible spirit known as Amel who continually asks the two witches if they need his assistance, although they prudently decline the offer. The witches' village is destroyed and they are incarcerated by the king and queen, who desire their knowledge. When the witches offend Akasha, the queen condemns the twins. Enkil then orders his chief steward (who is Khayman as a mortal man) to rape the twins in his stead, which would prove their lack of power, before the eyes of the court. Afterward the witches are cast out into the desert. While making her way back home with a pregnant Maharet, Mekare curses the king and queen secretly with Amel. Eventually Amel inflicts such torment on Akasha and Enkil that they demand advice and help from the two witches.

Unhappy with the young king's policies, conspirators attempt to assassinate the royal couple in Khayman's house while they are attempting to exorcise Amel, who had also been tormenting Khayman. While the king and queen lie dying, the evil spirit sees its chance to ensnare the soul of the dying queen and pulls it back into her body. The spirit combines itself with the flesh and blood of the queen, transforming her into a vampire. Akasha allows the king to drink her blood, which saves his life. In desperation, she orders Khayman to find the witches and bring them back to Egypt, hoping the twins will use their knowledge of spirits to help the couple, as they are overwhelmed by their thirst for blood. However, when the witches admit that they cannot help the monarchs, Akasha orders the mutilation of the witches: Maharet loses her eyes and Mekare her tongue. Afterward, Khayman, who had been turned into a vampire by Akasha, comes to the witches' cell and turns them too. The three flee together, but are caught by Akasha's soldiers. Khayman escapes, but Maharet and Mekare are further punished. The witches are put into two separate coffins which are then set afloat on two separate bodies of water. They are only reunited near the end of the novel Queen of the Damned.

In Mekare's absence, Maharet returns to watch over her daughter and her descendants. Maharet's descendants become what she calls the Great Family. A maternal line, the Great Family includes every culture, religion, ethnicity, and race. The Great Family represents all humanity and shows the vampires what Akasha would destroy with the creation of her New World Order.

As the source of all vampires, Akasha is connected to all vampires by the blood and spirit they collectively share. In an experiment by the first Keeper, Akasha and Enkil are exposed to sunlight when they are several thousand years old. This merely darkens their skin. However, the result on all other vampires is extreme, and many of the weakest vampires die, thus confirming the legend that anything that harms Akasha will also directly affect all of her progeny.

Adaptations

 * Queen of the Damned (2002), film directed by Michael Rymer, based on novels The Vampire Lestat and The Queen of the Damned

title: The Queen of the Damned


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Talk:The Queen of the Damned

Older postings
Does anybody know this movie (at least, I think that is what is meant with 'moving') and can give a summary of it, rather than this unstructured piece of prose? -- JHeijmans

 * I will gladly improve this article, especially if you give me some ideas as to what you think should go in here. I fully expected people who are even more devoted to Anne Rice or have more experience with layout of articles than I am to edit and add to this article. Currently, I am just trying to fill out her list of books and complete the skeleton of articles for her work in the vampire series and witch series. Thanks. --Jpittman 23:22, 22 Sep 2004 (UTC)

I will edit this page mercilessly. However, if the original author reads this, welcome to Wikipedia! There are a few articles that you might find interesting to read before contributing next...Check the special:Recentchanges for links :-) --Anders Törlind

Mekare eats Akasha's heart and brain, not Maharet. Updating...

The part about telepathy, I believe, is incorrect. Rather than Rice's vampires gaining telepathy and becoming able to contact their children, progenitor and progeny become completely and totally unable to communicate with each other by means of telepathy upon the transformation. This causes problems for some of the vampires, one of them being, if I remember correctly, Marius being unable to call out to Pandora when he's trapped under ice, because he was her maker. -- Jeff

Why not have this page split into a movie plot summary and a book plot summary? The two are very different... And Mekare ate Akasha's heart while Maharet ate her heart if I remember correctly...---Nahte
 * I actually came to this page hoping that they would be two separate articles (one for (book), one for (movie) because the plots are so distinctly different. I remember following the development of this movie back when it came out, and many fans were greatly upset because it left out the twins, the major part of the story. FallenAngelEyes 03:13, 4 March 2006 (UTC)

Vulnerability to the Sun: Typo
There appears to be a grammatical typo in the article that I'm not sure how to properly correct (it's been a while since I've watched the film or read the book). It is as follows:

"Book - Vampires cannot go out into the sun without being destroyed, in the case of younger or weaker vampires, or very severely burned and crippled, in the case of the older or more powerful vampires." Ricojonah 08:04, 16 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Fixed. :) Hbackman 19:10, 16 January 2006 (UTC)

Childe?
I've only seen part of the movie, does it actually use the word "childe", or was this a a V:TM fan borrowing? If its not from the movie, it may confuse non-role players.

Or maybe not.

Liastnir 06:06, 11 December 2005 (UTC)

Vampiric powers?
I'm not sure that a list of vampiric powers belongs in this particular article, since it pertains to the entirety of the Vampire Chronicles series and vampiric powers are not a specifically addressed topic in Queen of the Damned (as the origin of Ricean vampires is). However, I'm loath to just delete the section entirely. I suggest moving it to the article on The Vampire Chronicles. Any thoughts/objections? Hbackman 17:55, 4 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I concur,and actually quite a bit of the "differences" content falls into that same boat. Gaijin42 15:09, 6 July 2006 (UTC)

Akasha and Lestat Sex Thing
Regarding the part where it says: "Akasha and Lestat have sex. 	Vampires are incapable of having sex." This should be changed, but I'm not completly sure how. Akasha and Lestat (in the book) never have sex, they just ingage in a large ammount of blood sharing. In the movie it is not shown that they have sex, but it is mearly implied.

On the "vampires can't have sex" issue. Vampires CAN have sex, but they don't get pleasure from it, for vampires sharing blood gives them more pleasure. (This is shown in Pandora)

 * Can you show a specific quote from Pandora that says this? I read Pandora, and don't remember that, and it pretty much directly contradicts what Lestat says in Queen of Damned. As for blood sharing giving sexual pleasure, that is obvious from the books, but I don't recall it being because it is more pleasurable than sex (although it may be more pleasureable than mortal sex was for them). Lestat clearly talks about his non-functioning penis, and talks about Osiris and how his penis was not recovered, and this being an allegory for vampires. Lestat does go down on someone (forget her name) in Memnoch, which gave an emotional bond, and he got her blood (as she was menstrating). Gaijin42 15:53, 9 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Vampires CAN have sex as it is decribed n Blackwood Farm. When the vampire who seeks Lestat - Quinn - to help him with Goblin is made, there is a description of a Vampire with an erection...the one who lives near the Farm {unsigned}

 * As for the Osiris thng,in The Vampire Lestat, Lestat only sais that that means Vampires can´t breed...he never mentions having or not having an erection {unsigned}

 * Can you provide a specific quote? Or a chapter or something? Gaijin42 17:08, 16 June 2006 (UTC)

 * I don't know these later books but that seems to be a contradiction to what Lestat is saying in either Vampire Lestat, QOTD or Body Thief. This might be taken into consideration but the IMHO the book on which the movie is based is of primary importance to the film. However, since the movie never shows or claims any vampires to have had sex, I don't see where the contradiction lies. What we see in the film doesn't contradict the book and the implication is ambiguous. Str1977 (smile back) 10:11, 2 October 2006 (UTC)

 * in the book Akasha and lestat are never together the movie is a combo of two stories from 2 books.

Akasha isn't Iraqi either but a creole or mullato girl from New Orleans. her lover being somebody other than lestat. I would imagine they used lestat because the fame from the previous movie. just as feast of all saints had nothing to do with lestat. imagine a remake and he's in the movie just so more people will watch it. how confusing -Juno —Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.32.30.67 (talk) 18:58, 4 January 2009 (UTC)

The Soundtrack
The Queen of Damned's Soundtrack is missing.. pl3ase, create a page that contain a media information about their singles.. Thankz from Cuba. June 26 2006

I could, but I have the Portuguese version (I'm from Portugal) of the book, so even if I translate it, probably won't match rice's words, page number etc... but if you have Blackwood Farm it's easy to reach it, it's when Quinn's transformation takes place in his tale to Lestat... he states he was beaten up in some kind of ritual...in Sugar Devil near the Farm
 * You know, the movie was (poorly) based on a novel of the same name. This is the page for that novel. You might want to check the movie page instead.JanderVK (talk) 14:25, 3 April 2009 (UTC)

Time for a fork?
I'm working on splitting this article (and Interview with the Vampire) into separate articles for the books and the films. This one will stay as the book article, and the film article will be at Queen of the Damned (film) (the film title omits the 'The'). I've compiled plenty more material for both articles, and think they will be much better and clearer. Let me know if any objections or suggestions. --Canley 05:32, 24 January 2007 (UTC)

Rape of the Twins
The sentence describing the rape of the twins was completely f***** sorry for my language but their is no better way to put it. It was completely wrong, but I fixed it. And judge anyone who has seen this article for not catching the mistake sooner. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 70.77.12.103 (talk) 02:09, 25 April 2007 (UTC).

date published
I have added the date published next to the book title as it was missing 207.166.7.210 20:08, 5 September 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Queen of the Damned


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User:Anders Törlind

Bone Erosion River Norse Mythology Stockholm Martial arts Magic Live-action roleplaying games comedian Ghost Undead Wing Fin Hero Sword Wheel Fat Friction Forest Military tactics Barge Railroad Air Fire River Soul Spirit Loa Priest Shaman Baldric Wind Armour Gunpowder Cavalry Knot Armoured fighting vehicle Trousers Gate Siege tower Medieval warfare War hammer Pole weapon Dagger Flint Combat

title: User:Anders Törlind


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Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff

Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff Jr. (30 August 1852 – 1 March 1911) was a Dutch physical chemist. A highly influential theoretical chemist of his time, van 't Hoff was the first winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. His pioneering work helped found the modern theory of chemical affinity, chemical equilibrium, chemical kinetics, and chemical thermodynamics. In his 1874 pamphlet, van 't Hoff formulated the theory of the tetrahedral carbon atom and laid the foundations of stereochemistry. In 1875, he predicted the correct structures of allenes and cumulenes as well as their axial chirality. He is also widely considered one of the founders of physical chemistry as the discipline is known today.

Biography
The third of seven children, van 't Hoff was born in Rotterdam, Netherlands, 30 August 1852. His father was Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff Sr., a physician, and his mother was Alida Kolff van 't Hoff. From a young age, he was interested in science and nature, and frequently took part in botanical excursions. In his early school years, he showed a strong interest in poetry and philosophy. He considered Lord Byron to be his idol.

Against the wishes of his father, van 't Hoff chose to study chemistry. First, he enrolled at Delft University of Technology in September 1869, and studied until 1871, when he passed his final exam on 8 July and obtained a degree of chemical technologist. He passed all his courses in two years, although the time assigned to study was three years. Then he enrolled at University of Leiden to study chemistry. He then studied in Bonn, Germany, with August Kekulé and in Paris with Adolphe Wurtz. He received his doctorate under Eduard Mulder at the University of Utrecht in 1874.

In 1878, van 't Hoff married Johanna Francina Mees. They had two daughters, Johanna Francina (1880–1964) and Aleida Jacoba (1882–1971), and two sons, Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff III (1883–1943) and Govert Jacob (1889–1918). Van 't Hoff died at the age of 58, on 1 March 1911, at Steglitz, near Berlin, of tuberculosis.

Organic chemistry
Van 't Hoff earned his earliest reputation in the field of organic chemistry. In 1874, he accounted for the phenomenon of optical activity by assuming that the chemical bonds between carbon atoms and their neighbors were directed towards the corners of a regular tetrahedron. This three-dimensional structure accounted for the isomers found in nature. He shares credit for this with the French chemist Joseph Le Bel, who independently came up with the same idea.

Three months before his doctoral degree was awarded, van 't Hoff published this theory, which today is regarded as the foundation of stereochemistry, first in a Dutch pamphlet in the fall of 1874, and then in the following May in a small French book entitled La chimie dans l'espace. A German translation appeared in 1877, at a time when the only job van 't Hoff could find was at the Veterinary School in Utrecht. In these early years his theory was largely ignored by the scientific community, and was sharply criticized by one prominent chemist, Hermann Kolbe. Kolbe wrote: "'A Dr. J. H. van 't Hoff of the Veterinary School at Utrecht has no liking, apparently, for exact chemical investigation. He has considered it more convenient to mount Pegasus (apparently borrowed from the Veterinary School) and to proclaim in his ‘La chimie dans l’espace’ how, in his bold flight to the top of the chemical Parnassus, the atoms appeared to him to be arranged in cosmic space.'" However, by about 1880, support for van 't Hoff's theory by such important chemists as Johannes Wislicenus and Viktor Meyer brought recognition.

Physical chemistry
In 1884, van 't Hoff published his research on chemical kinetics, titled Études de Dynamique chimique ("Studies in Chemical Dynamics"), in which he described a new method for determining the order of a reaction using graphics and applied the laws of thermodynamics to chemical equilibria. He also introduced the modern concept of chemical affinity. In 1886, he showed a similarity between the behaviour of dilute solutions and gases. In 1887, he and German chemist Wilhelm Ostwald founded an influential scientific magazine named Zeitschrift für physikalische Chemie ("Journal of Physical Chemistry"). He worked on Svante Arrhenius's theory of the dissociation of electrolytes and in 1889 provided physical justification for the Arrhenius equation. In 1896, he became a professor at the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin. His studies of the salt deposits at Stassfurt were an important contribution to Prussia's chemical industry.

Van 't Hoff became a lecturer in chemistry and physics at the Veterinary College in Utrecht. He then worked as a professor of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology at the University of Amsterdam for almost 18 years before eventually becoming the chairman of the chemistry department. In 1896, van 't Hoff moved to Germany, where he finished his career at the University of Berlin in 1911. In 1901, he received the first Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work with solutions. His work showed that very dilute solutions follow mathematical laws that closely resemble the laws describing the behavior of gases.

Honours and awards
In 1885, van 't Hoff was appointed as a Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1904, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society. Other distinctions include honorary doctorates from Harvard and Yale (1901), Victoria University, the University of Manchester (1903), and University of Heidelberg (1908). He was awarded the Davy Medal of the Royal Society in 1893 (along with Le Bel), and elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1897. He was awarded the Helmholtz Medal of the Prussian Academy of Sciences (1911), and appointed Knight of the French Legion of Honour (1894) and Senator in the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft (1911). Van 't Hoff became an Honorary Member of the British Chemical Society in London, the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (1892), American Chemical Society (1898), the Académie des Sciences in Paris (1905), and the Netherlands Chemical Society (1908). Of his numerous distinctions, van 't Hoff regarded winning the first Nobel Prize in Chemistry as the culmination of his career. The following are named after him: On 14 May 2021, asteroid 34978 van 't Hoff, discovered by astronomers with the Palomar–Leiden survey in 1977, was in his memory.
 * Van 't Hoff factor
 * Van 't Hoff equation
 * Le Bel–Van 't Hoff rule

title: Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff