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Battle of Covadonga

The Battle of Covadonga took place in 722 between the army of Pelagius the Visigoth and the army of the Umayyad Caliphate. Fought near Covadonga, in the Picos de Europa, it resulted in a victory for the Christian forces of Pelagius. It is traditionally regarded as the foundational event of the Kingdom of Asturias and thus the initial point of the Christian Reconquista ("reconquest") of Spain after the Umayyad conquest of 711.

Prelude
According to texts written by Mozarabs in northern Hispania during the late ninth century, the Visigoths in 718 elected a nobleman named Pelagius (c.685–737) as their princeps, or leader. Pelagius, the first monarch of the Asturian Kingdom, son of Favila, who had been a dignitary at the court of the Visigoth King Egica (687–700), established his headquarters at Cangas de Onís, Asturias and incited an uprising against the Umayyad Muslims.

From the beginning of the Muslim invasion of Hispania, refugees and combatants from the south of the peninsula had been moving north to avoid Islamic authority. Some had taken refuge in the remote mountains of Asturias in the northwestern part of the Iberian Peninsula. There, from among the dispossessed of the south, Pelagius recruited his band of fighters.

Historian Joseph F. O'Callaghan says the remnants of the Hispano-Gothic aristocracy still played an important role in the society of Hispania. At the end of Visigothic rule, the assimilation of Hispano-Romans and Visigoths was occurring at a fast pace. Their nobility had begun to think of themselves as constituting one people, the gens Gothorum or the Hispani. An unknown number of them fled and took refuge in Asturias or Septimania. In Asturias they supported Pelagius's uprising, and joining with the indigenous leaders, formed a new aristocracy. The population of the mountain region consisted of native Astures, Galicians, Cantabri, Basques and other groups unassimilated into Hispano-Gothic society.

Pelagius's first acts were to refuse to pay the jizya (tax on non-Muslims) to the Muslims any longer and to assault the small Umayyad garrisons that had been stationed in the area. Eventually, he managed to expel a provincial governor named Munuza from Asturias. He held the territory against a number of attempts to re-establish Muslim control, and soon founded the Kingdom of Asturias, which became a Christian stronghold against further Muslim expansion.

For the first few years, this rebellion posed no threat to the new masters of Hispania, whose seat of power had been established at Córdoba. Consequently, there was only a minor perfunctory reaction. Pelagius was not always able to keep the Muslims out of Asturias but neither could they defeat him, and as soon as the Moors left, he would always re-establish control. Islamic forces were focused on raiding Narbonne and Gaul, and there was a shortage of manpower for putting down an inconsequential insurrection in the mountains. Pelagius never attempted to force the issue, and it was an Umayyad defeat elsewhere that probably set the stage for the Battle of Covadonga. On July 9, 721, a Muslim force that had crossed the Pyrenees and invaded Francia was defeated by them in the Battle of Toulouse (721) (now France). This was the first serious setback in the Muslim campaign in southwestern Europe. Reluctant to return to Córdoba with such unalloyed bad news, the Umayyad wāli, Anbasa ibn Suhaym al-Kalbi, decided that putting down the rebellion in Asturias on his way home would afford his troops an easy victory and raise their flagging morale.

Battle
In 722, forces commanded by the Umayyad commanders Alqama and Munuza, and (according to legend) accompanied by Bishop Oppas of Seville, were sent to Asturias. As Alqama overran much of the region, folklore suggests that Oppas attempted to broker the surrender of his fellow Christians, but he failed in the effort. Pelagius and his force retreated deep into the mountains of Asturias, eventually retiring into a narrow valley flanked by mountains, which was easily defensible due to the impossibility of launching a broad-fronted attack. Pelagius may have had as few as three hundred men with him.

Alqama eventually arrived at Covadonga, and sent forward an envoy to convince Pelagius to surrender. He refused, so Alqama ordered his best troops into the valley to fight. The Asturians shot arrows and stones from the slopes of the mountains, and then, at the climactic moment, Pelagius personally led some of his soldiers out into the valley. They had been hiding in a cave, unseen by the Muslims. The Christian accounts of the battle claim that the slaughter among the Muslims was horrific, while Umayyad accounts describe it as a mere skirmish. Alqama himself fell in the battle, and his soldiers withdrew from the battlefield.

In the aftermath of Pelagius's victory, the people of the conquered villages of Asturias now emerged with their weapons, and killed hundreds of Alqama's retreating troops. Munuza, learning of the defeat, organized another force, and gathered what was left of the survivors of Covadonga. At some later date, he confronted Pelagius and his now greatly augmented force, near the modern town of Proaza. Again Pelagius won, and Munuza was killed in the fighting. The battle is commemorated at the shrine of Our Lady of Covadonga.

title: Battle of Covadonga


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Triangle wave

A triangular wave or triangle wave is a non-sinusoidal waveform named for its triangular shape. It is a periodic, piecewise linear, continuous real function.

Like a square wave, the triangle wave contains only odd harmonics. However, the higher harmonics roll off much faster than in a square wave (proportional to the inverse square of the harmonic number as opposed to just the inverse).

Definition
A triangle wave of period p that spans the range [0, 1] is defined as $$x(t) = 2 \left| \frac{t}{p} - \left\lfloor \frac{t}{p} + \frac{1}{2} \right\rfloor \right|,$$ where $$\lfloor\ \rfloor$$ is the floor function. This can be seen to be the absolute value of a shifted sawtooth wave.

For a triangle wave spanning the range $[−1, 1]$ the expression becomes $$x(t)= 2 \left | 2 \left( \frac{t}{p} - \left\lfloor \frac{t}{p} + \frac{1}{2} \right\rfloor \right) \right| - 1.$$

A more general equation for a triangle wave with amplitude $$a$$ and period $$p$$ using the modulo operation and absolute value is $$y(x) = \frac{4a}{p} \left| \left( \left(x - \frac{p}{4}\right) \bmod p \right) - \frac{p}{2} \right| - a.$$

For example, for a triangle wave with amplitude 5 and period 4: $$y(x) = 5 \left| \bigl( (x - 1) \bmod 4 \bigr) - 2 \right| - 5.$$

A phase shift can be obtained by altering the value of the $$-p/4$$ term, and the vertical offset can be adjusted by altering the value of the $$-a$$ term.

As this only uses the modulo operation and absolute value, it can be used to simply implement a triangle wave on hardware electronics.

Note that in many programming languages, the  operator is a remainder operator (with result the same sign as the dividend), not a modulo operator; the modulo operation can be obtained by using   in place of. In e.g. JavaScript, this results in an equation of the form.

Relation to the square wave
The triangle wave can also be expressed as the integral of the square wave: $$x(t) = \int_0^t \sgn\left(\sin\frac{u}{p}\right)\,du.$$

Expression in trigonometric functions
A triangle wave with period p and amplitude a can be expressed in terms of sine and arcsine (whose value ranges from −π/2 to π/2): $$y(x) = \frac{2a}{\pi} \arcsin\left(\sin\left(\frac{2\pi}{p}x\right)\right).$$ The identity $\cos{x} = \sin\left(\frac{p}{4}-x\right)$ can be used to convert from a triangle "sine" wave to a triangular "cosine" wave. This phase-shifted triangle wave can also be expressed with cosine and arccosine: $$y(x) = a - \frac{2a}{\pi} \arccos\left(\cos\left(\frac{2\pi}{p}x\right)\right).$$

Expressed as alternating linear functions
Another definition of the triangle wave, with range from −1 to 1 and period p, is $$x(t) = \frac{4}{p} \left(t - \frac{p}{2} \left\lfloor\frac{2t}{p} + \frac{1}{2} \right\rfloor \right)(-1)^\left\lfloor\frac{2 t}{p} + \frac{1}{2} \right\rfloor.$$

Harmonics

It is possible to approximate a triangle wave with additive synthesis by summing odd harmonics of the fundamental while multiplying every other odd harmonic by −1 (or, equivalently, changing its phase by $\pi$) and multiplying the amplitude of the harmonics by one over the square of their mode number, $n$ (which is equivalent to one over the square of their relative frequency to the fundamental).

The above can be summarised mathematically as follows: $$ x_\text{triangle}(t) = \frac8{\pi^2} \sum_{i=0}^{N - 1} (-1)^i n^{-2} \sin(2\pi f_0 n t), $$ where $N$ is the number of harmonics to include in the approximation, $t$ is the independent variable (e.g. time for sound waves), $$f_0$$ is the fundamental frequency, and $i$ is the harmonic label which is related to its mode number by $$n = 2i + 1$$.

This infinite Fourier series converges quickly to the triangle wave as $N$ tends to infinity, as shown in the animation.

Arc length
The arc length per period for a triangle wave, denoted by s, is given in terms of the amplitude a and period length p by $$s = \sqrt{(4a)^2 + p^2}.$$

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Triangle wave


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Cree language

Cree (also known as Cree–Montagnais–Naskapi) is a dialect continuum of Algonquian languages spoken by approximately 86,475 indigenous people across Canada in 2021, from the Northwest Territories to Alberta to Labrador. If considered one language, it is the aboriginal language with the highest number of speakers in Canada. The only region where Cree has any official status is in the Northwest Territories, alongside eight other aboriginal languages. There, Cree is spoken mainly in Fort Smith and Hay River.

Names
Endonyms are:
 * nêhiyawêwin ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ (Plains Cree)
 * nīhithawīwin ᓃᐦᐃᖬᐑᐏᐣ (Woods Cree)
 * nêhinawêwin ᓀᐦᐃᓇᐌᐎᐣ (Western Swampy Cree)
 * ininîmowin ᐃᓂᓃᒧᐎᓐ (Eastern Swampy Cree)
 * ililîmowin ᐃᓕᓖᒧᐎᓐ (Moose Cree)
 * iyiniu-Ayamiwin ᐄᓅ ᐊᔨᒨᓐ (Southern East Cree)
 * iyiyiu-Ayamiwin ᐄᔨᔫ ᐊᔨᒨᓐ (Northern East Cree)
 * nehirâmowin (Atikamekw)
 * nehlueun (Western Montagnais, Piyekwâkamî dialect)
 * ilnu-Aimûn (Western Montagnais, Betsiamites dialect)
 * innu-Aimûn (Eastern Montagnais)

Origin and diffusion
Cree is believed to have begun as a dialect of the Proto-Algonquian language spoken between 2,500 and 3,000 years ago in the original Algonquian homeland, an undetermined area thought to be near the Great Lakes. The speakers of the proto-Cree language are thought to have moved north, and diverged rather quickly into two different groups on each side of James Bay. The eastern group then began to diverge into separate dialects, whereas the western grouping probably broke into distinct dialects much later. After this point it is very difficult to make definite statements about how different groups emerged and moved around, because there are no written works in the languages to compare, and descriptions by Europeans are not systematic; as well, Algonquian people have a tradition of bilingualism and even of outright adopting a new language from neighbours.

A traditional view among 20th-century anthropologists and historians of the fur trade posits that the Western Woods Cree and the Plains Cree (and therefore their dialects) did not diverge from other Cree peoples before 1670, when the Cree expanded out of their homeland near James Bay because of access to European firearms. By contrast, James Smith of the Museum of the American Indian stated, in 1987, that the weight of archeological and linguistic evidence puts the Cree as far west as the Peace River Region of Alberta before European contact.

Dialect criteria
The Cree dialect continuum can be divided by many criteria. Dialects spoken in northern Ontario and the southern James Bay, Lanaudière, and Mauricie regions of Quebec differentiate (sh as in she) and, while those to the west have merged the two phonemes as  and in the east the phonemes are merged as either  or. In several dialects, including northern Plains Cree and Woods Cree, the long vowels and  have merged into a single vowel,. In the Quebec communities of Chisasibi, Whapmagoostui, and Kawawachikamach, the long vowel has merged with.

However, the most transparent phonological variation between different Cree dialects are the reflexes of Proto-Algonquian *l in the modern dialects, as shown below:

The Plains Cree, speakers of the y dialect, refer to their language as nēhiyawēwin, whereas Woods Cree speakers say nīhithawīwin, and Swampy Cree speakers say nēhinawēwin.

Another important phonological variation among the Cree dialects involves the palatalisation of Proto-Algonquian *k: East of the Ontario–Quebec border (except for Atikamekw), Proto-Algonquian *k has changed into or  before front vowels. See the table above for examples in the * column.

Very often the Cree dialect continuum is divided into two languages: Cree and Montagnais. Cree includes all dialects which have not undergone the *k > sound change (BC–QC) while Montagnais encompasses the territory where this sound change has occurred (QC–NL). These labels are very useful from a linguistic perspective but are confusing as East Cree then qualifies as Montagnais. For practical purposes, Cree usually covers the dialects which use syllabics as their orthography (including Atikamekw but excluding Kawawachikamach Naskapi), the term Montagnais then applies to those dialects using the Latin script (excluding Atikamekw and including Kawawachikamach Naskapi). The term Naskapi typically refers to Kawawachikamach (y-dialect) and Natuashish (n-dialect).

Dialect groups
The Cree dialects can be broadly classified into nine groups. Roughly from west to east:

Phonology
This table shows the possible consonant phonemes in the Cree language or one of its varieties.

In dictionaries focused on Eastern Swampy Cree, Western Swampy Cree may readily substitute $⟨m⟩$ with $⟨n/ñ/ń⟩$, while Lowland Moose Cree may readily substitute $⟨p⟩$ with their $⟨t⟩$. In dictionaries focused on Southern Plains Cree, Northern Plains Cree may readily substitute $⟨c⟩$ with $⟨ch/tc/č⟩$, while materials accommodating Rocky Cree will indicate the Plains Cree that is  in Rocky Cree as $⟨k⟩$. Similarly, in dictionaries focused on Western Swampy Cree, Woods Cree may readily substitute $⟨th⟩$ with $⟨s⟩$, while materials accommodating Woods Cree will indicate the Western Swampy Cree that is  in Woods Cree as $⟨sh/c/š⟩$. Atikamekw uses $⟨h⟩$ [], $⟨r⟩$ [], and $⟨y/i/ý⟩$ [] (which also serves as $⟨w⟩$ []). Eastern James Bay Cree prefers to indicate long vowels (other than ) by doubling the vowel, while the western Cree use either a macron or circumflex diacritic; as is always long, often it is written as just $⟨l⟩$ without doubling or using a diacritic. While Western Cree dialects make use of $⟨i⟩$ and either $⟨ii/ī/î⟩$ or $⟨u\o⟩$, Eastern Cree dialects instead make use of $⟨uu/ū/û                                                     \ ō/ô⟩$ and either $⟨e/ē/ê⟩$, $⟨a⟩$, or $⟨aa/ā/â⟩$.

Syntax
Cree features a complex polysynthetic morphosyntax. A common grammatical feature in Cree dialects, in terms of sentence structure, is non-regulated word order. Word order is not governed by a specific set of rules or structure; instead, "subjects and objects are expressed by means of inflection on the verb". Subject, Verb, and Object (SVO) in a sentence can vary in order, for example, SVO, VOS, OVS, and SOV.

Obviation is also a key aspect of the Cree language(s). In a sense, the obviative can be defined as any third-person ranked lower on a hierarchy of discourse salience than some other (proximate) discourse-participant. "Obviative animate nouns, [in the Plains Cree dialect for instance], are marked by [a suffix] ending –a, and are used to refer to third persons who are more peripheral in the discourse than the proximate third person". For example:

Sam wâpam-ew Susan-a

Sam see-3SG Susan-3OBV

"Sam sees Susan."

The suffix -a marks Susan as the obviative, or 'fourth' person, the person furthest away from the discourse.

The Cree language has grammatical gender in a system that classifies nouns as animate or inanimate. The distribution of nouns between animate or inanimate is not phonologically transparent, which means gender must be learned along with the noun.

As is common in polysynthetic languages, a Cree word can be very long, and express something that takes a series of words in English. For example:

kiskinohamātowikamikw

know.CAUS.APPL.RECP.place

'school' (lit. 'knowing-it-together-by-example place')

This means that changing the word order in Cree can place emphasis on different pieces of the sentence. Wolfart and Carroll give the following example by transposing the two Cree words:

 * kakwēcimēw kisēýiniwa → 'He asked the old man.'
 * kisēýiniwa kakwēcimēw → 'It was the old man he asked.'

Writing
Cree dialects, except for those spoken in eastern Quebec and Labrador, are traditionally written using Cree syllabics, a variant of Canadian Aboriginal syllabics, but can be written with the Latin script as well. Both writing systems represent the language phonetically. Cree is always written from left to right horizontally. The easternmost dialects are written using the Latin script exclusively. The dialects of Plains Cree, Woods Cree, and western Swampy Cree use Western Cree syllabics and the dialects of eastern Swampy Cree, East Cree, Moose Cree, and Naskapi use Eastern Cree syllabics.

Syllabics
In Cree syllabics, each symbol, which represents a consonant, can be written four ways, each direction representing its corresponding vowel. Some dialects of Cree have up to seven vowels, so additional diacritics are placed after the syllabic to represent the corresponding vowels. Finals represent stand-alone consonants. The Cree language also has two semivowels. The semivowels may follow other consonants or be on their own in a word.

The following tables show the syllabaries of Eastern and Western Cree dialects, respectively:

Speakers of various Cree dialects have begun creating dictionaries to serve their communities. Some projects, such as the Cree Language Resource Project, are developing an online bilingual Cree dictionary for the Cree language.

Cree syllabics has not commonly or traditionally used the period. Instead, either a full-stop glyph or a double em-width space has been used between words to signal the transition from one sentence to the next.

Romanization
For Plains Cree and Swampy Cree, Standard Roman Orthography (SRO) uses fourteen letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet to denote the dialect's ten consonants (,, , , , , , , and ) and seven vowels (, , , , ,  and ). Upper case letters are not used. For more details on the phonetic values of these letters or variant orthographies, see the § Phonology section above.

The sound of Woods Cree is written, or  in more recent material. Plains and Swampy material written to be cross-dialectical often modify to  and  to  when those are pronounced  in Swampy. is used in Eastern dialects where s and š are distinct phonemes. In other dialects, s is used even when pronounced like.

and are used natively in Moose and Attikamek Cree, but in other dialects only for loanwords.

The stops, p, t, k, and the affricate, c, can be pronounced either voiced or unvoiced, but the symbols used for writing these sounds all correspond to the unvoiced pronunciation, e.g. not,  not , etc. The phoneme is represented by, as it is in various other languages.

Long vowels are denoted with either a macron, as in, or a circumflex, as in. Use of either the macron or circumflex is acceptable, but usage should be consistent within a work. The vowel ē, used in southern Plains Cree, is always long and the grapheme is never used. In northern Plains Cree the sound has merged with ī, and thus is not used at all.

The use of unmarked and marked  for the phonemes  and  emphasizes the relationship that can exist between these two vowels. There are situations where o can be lengthened to ō, as for example in ᓂᑲᒧ! nikamo! 'sing (now)!' and ᓂᑲᒨᐦᑲᐣ! nikamōhkan! 'sing (later)!'.

In alphabetic writing, the use of punctuation has been inconsistent. For instance, in the Plains Cree dialect, the interrogative enclitic cî can be included in the sentence to mark a yes–no question such that this is sometimes considered to be sufficient without including a question mark (?). However, in many modern publications and text collections (cf. The Counselling Speeches of Jim Kâ-Nîpitêhtêw (1998) ) full punctuation is used.

John cî kî-mîciso-w

John Q PST-eat-3SG

"Did John eat?"

Additionally, other interrogatives (where, when, what, why, who) can be used, as in other languages, and questions marks can thus be used for such questions in Cree as well.

Hyphenation can be used to separate a particle from the root word that it prefixes, especially particles that precede verbs ("preverbs" or "indeclinable preverbs") or nouns ("prenouns" or "indeclinable prenouns"). One example is māci-pīkiskwē ('start speaking!'), derived from pīkiskwē. Note that māci- can neither stand alone as a separate word, nor is it an essential part of a stem. There are some more complex situations where it is difficult to determine whether an element is a particle. Some frequently used compound words can be written as unhyphenated. Stress can be predicted in some cases based on hyphenation.

Vowel reduction or vowel dropping, as is common of unstressed short i, is not denoted in order to be more cross-dialectal—instead of using apostrophes, the full unreduced vowels are written.

Representation of sandhi (such as oski-aya → osk-āya) can be written or not written, as sandhi representation introduces greater complexity. There are additional rules regarding h and iy that may not match a given speaker's speech, to enable a standardized transcription.

Contact languages
Cree is also a component language in at least five contact languages: Michif, Northern Michif, Bungi, Oji-Cree, and Nehipwat. Michif and Bungi are spoken by members of the Métis, and historically by some Voyageurs and European settlers of Western Canada and in parts of the Northern United States. Nehipwat and Oji-Cree are blends of Cree with Assiniboine (Nehipwat) and Ojibwe (Oji-Cree).

Michif is a mixed language which combines Cree with French. For the most part, Michif uses Cree verbs, question words, and demonstratives while using French nouns. Michif is unique to the Canadian prairie provinces as well as to North Dakota and Montana in the United States. Michif is still spoken in central Canada and in North Dakota.

Bungi is a creole based on Scottish English, Scots, Scottish Gaelic, Cree, and Ojibwe. Some French words have also been incorporated into its lexicon. This language flourished at and around the Red River Settlement (the modern-day location of Winnipeg, Manitoba) by the mid- to late-1800s. Bungi is now virtually extinct, as its features are being abandoned in favor of standard English.

Cree has also been incorporated into another mixed language within Canada, Nehipwat, which is a blending of Cree with Assiniboine. Nehipwat is found only in a few southern Saskatchewan reserves and is now nearing extinction. Nothing is known of its structure.

Loss of language
Doug Cuthand argues three reasons for the loss of the Cree language among many speakers over the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. First, residential schools cultivated the prejudice that their language was inferior. While students were still speaking their native language at home, their learning stopped at school. When they left residential schools as adults, they went home and their vocabulary and knowledge of language did not include concepts or forms that an adult speaker who had not been taken to a residential school would have.

Cuthand also argues that the loss of the Cree language can be attributed to the migration of native families away from the reserve, voluntarily or not. Oftentimes, the elders are left on the reserve. This breaks up the traditional intergenerational flow of lingual knowledge from elder to youth.

The third point Cuthand argues is that Cree language loss was adopted by the speakers. Parents stopped teaching their children their native language in the belief that doing so would help their children find economic success or avoid discrimination.

Legal status
The social and legal status of Cree varies across Canada. Cree is one of the eleven official languages of the Northwest Territories, but is only spoken by a small number of people there in the area around the town of Fort Smith. It is also one of two principal languages of the regional government of Eeyou Istchee James Bay in Northern Quebec, the other being French.

Robert Falcon Ouellette, A Cree Member of Parliament, played a pivotal role in promoting Indigenous languages especially Cree within the Canadian Parliament and Canadian House of Commons. He was instrumental in obtaining unanimous consent from all political parties to change the standing orders to allow Indigenous languages to be spoken in the House of Commons, with full translation services provided. This historic change enabled Ouellette to deliver a speech in Cree with interpretation supported by language educator Kevin Lewis, marking the first use of an Indigenous language in the House of Commons on Jan 28, 2019.

Furthermore, Bill C-91, the Indigenous Languages Act passed in 2019, was enacted to support and revitalize Indigenous languages across Canada. This legislation, aims to reclaim, revitalize, and maintain Indigenous languages through sustainable funding and the establishment of the Office of the Commissioner of Indigenous Languages. Ouellette was the chair of the Indigenous caucus in the House of Commons and helped ensure it passage before the election of 2019.

Support and revitalization
As of 2017, Cree had about 117,000 documented speakers. They are still a minority language given the dominance of English and French in Canada. There are programs in place to maintain and revitalize the language, though. In the Quebec James Bay Cree community, a resolution was put into action in 1988 that made Cree the language of education in primary schools and eventually elementary schools.

The Mistissini council decided to require their employees to learn Cree syllabics in 1991.

The Cree School Board now has its annual report available in both English and Cree.

There is a push to increase the availability of Cree stations on the radio.

In 2013, free Cree language electronic books for beginners became available for Alberta language teachers.

The Government of the Northwest Territories releases an annual report on First Nations languages. The 2016–2017 report features successes they have had in revitalizing and supporting and projects they are working on. For example, they released a Medicinal Plant Guide that had information in both Cree and English. An important part of making the guide was input from the elders. Another accomplishment was the dubbing of a movie in Cree. They are working on broadcasting a radio station that "will give listeners music and a voice for our languages".

Joshua Whitehead is one writer who has used the Cree language as part of his poetry.

Lessons

 * Nehinawe: Speak Cree
 * Cree Language Lessons
 * The East Cree language web
 * Cree on-line Spelling Lessons

Dictionaries

 * Proto-Cree dictionary
 * Moose Cree dictionary
 * Online Eastern James Bay Cree dictionary (covers both Northern and Southern dialects)
 * Online Cree dictionary
 * Wasaho Ininiwimowin (Wasaho Cree) Dictionary at Kwayaciiwin Education Resource Centre

E-books

 * Little Cree Books

title: Cree language


text:
Slater (disambiguation)

A slater is a tradesperson who works with slate.

Slater may also refer to:

Companies

 * Slater Brothers, a British, and later American, motorcycle dealer and importer
 * Slater & Gordon, an Australian law firm
 * Slater Menswear, a men's clothing retailer in the United Kingdom
 * Slater Walker, a British industrial conglomerate turned bank

Surname

 * Slater (surname), a list of people and fictional characters with the surname

Given name

 * Slater Bradley (born 1975), an American conceptual and cross-disciplinary artist
 * Slater Jewell-Kemker (born 1992), American-Canadian filmmaker and climate activist
 * Slater Koekkoek (born 1994), Canadian ice hockey player
 * Slater Martin (1925–2012), American basketball player and coach
 * Slater Rhea (born 1987), American singer, songwriter and TV personality on national TV in China
 * Slater B. Stubbs (died 1867), American politician from Maryland
 * Slater Young (born 1983), Filipino television personality, actor, and entrepreneur

Communities
All in the United States; listed alphabetically by state
 * Slater, Colorado, an unincorporated community
 * Slater, Iowa, a city
 * Slater, Kentucky, an unincorporated community
 * Slater Township, Cass County, Minnesota, a township
 * Slater, Missouri, a city
 * Slater, Ohio, an unincorporated community
 * Slater-Marietta, South Carolina, a census-designated place
 * Slater, Wyoming, a census-designated place

Geographical features

 * Slater (crater), an impact crater near the south pole of the Moon
 * Slater Branch, a stream in Madison County, Missouri, U.S.
 * Slater Rocks, a cluster of rock outcrops near Marie Byrd Land, Antarctica

Published content

 * "Slater", a song on the 2013 album Wolf by artist Tyler, the Creator
 * Slater & Charlie Go Camping, an interactive storybook published in 1993
 * The Slater Field Guide to Australian Birds, used by Australian birders, published in 1986

Science
Named after American physicist John C. Slater
 * Slater determinant, an expression in quantum mechanics
 * Slater integrals, used in mathematics and mathematical physics
 * Slater-type orbitals, functions used in computational chemistry
 * Slater–Condon rules, used in computational chemistry
 * Slater–Pauling rule, used in condensed matter physics

Structures
All in the United States
 * Slater Building (Worcester, Massachusetts), a historic building in Worcester, Massachusetts
 * Slater Cigar Company buildings, historic buildings in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania
 * Slater Family Ice Arena, a hockey arena in Bowling Green, Ohio
 * Slater Library, a historic public library in Griswold, Connecticut
 * Slater Memorial Museum, a historic building in Norwich, Connecticut
 * Slater Mill, a historic mill complex in Pawtucket, Rhode Island

Other uses

 * Slater Cup, a trophy awarded in Premiership Rugby in England
 * Slater and Devil fires, fires during the 2020 California wildfire season
 * Slater Fund, a financial endowment for education of African Americans in the Southern United States
 * Slater Park, a historic public park in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, U.S.
 * Slater Park Zoo, a former zoo in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, U.S.
 * USS Slater (DE-766), a Cannon-class destroyer escort of the United States Navy
 * Woodlouse, a crustacean commonly found in old wood and known as a "slater" in some countries

title: Slater (disambiguation)


text:
1230s BC

The 1230s BC is a decade which lasted from 1239 BC to 1230 BC.

Events and trends

 * 1230 BC – Battle of Nihriya
 * 1234 BC – Theseus of Athens begins his 30-year reign (if the end of his reign is agreed to have ended in 1204 BC).

title: 1230s BC


text:
720s BC

This article concerns the period 729 BC – 720 BC.

Events and trends

 * 728 BC—Piye invades Egypt, conquering Memphis, and receives the submission of the rulers of the Nile Delta. He founds the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt.
 * 728 BC—Diocles of Corinth wins the stadion race at the 13th Olympic Games.
 * 727 BC—Babylonia makes itself independent of Assyria, upon the death of Tiglath-Pileser III.
 * 725 BC—Shalmaneser V starts a 3-year siege of Israel.
 * 725 BC—Sparta conquers the neighboring region of Messenia and takes over the land.
 * 724 BC—The Assyrians start a four-year siege of Tyre.
 * 724 BC—The diaulos footrace is first introduced at the Olympics.
 * 724 BC—Desmon of Corinth wins the stadion race at the 14th Olympic Games.
 * 722 BC—In the fifth month of the year during the summer, Duke Zhuang of Zheng defeats his younger brother Gongshu Duan (共叔段) north of present-day Yanling County.
 * 722 BC—Northern Kingdom of Israel is conquered by Assyrian king Sargon II.
 * 722 BC—Duke Yin accedes to the throne of Lu in China, the first event recorded in the Spring and Autumn Annals.
 * 721 BC—The Assyrians conquer the tribes of northern Israel.
 * 721 BC—Sargon II starts to rule. He builds a new capital at Dur Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad).
 * 720 BC—End of the Assyrian siege of Tyre.
 * 720 BC—Orsippus of Megara wins the stadion race at the 15th Olympic Games.
 * 720 BC—The "dolichos" footrace is introduced at the Olympics.
 * 720 BC—Guardian figure (pictured, right), from the entrance to the throne room at palace of Sargon II is made. It is now kept in the Oriental Institute, Chicago.

Significant People

 * 729 BC—Tiglath-Pileser III officially crowned sovereign of Asia in Babylon.
 * 729 BC—Hezekiah succeeds Ahaz as king of Judah (or 726 BC).
 * 729 BC—Luli succeeds Mattan II as king of Tyre.
 * 728 BC—Death of Tiglath-Pileser III, king of Assyria (or 727 BC).
 * 727 BC—Shalmaneser V becomes king of Assyria (dies 722 BC).
 * 727 BC—Tefnakhte founds the Twenty-fourth dynasty of Egypt.
 * 726 BC—Hezekiah succeeds Ahaz as king of Judah (or 729 BC).
 * 725 BC—Bakenranef (also known as Bocchoris) succeeds his father Tefnakhte as king of the Twenty-fourth dynasty of Egypt.
 * 724 BC—Ahaz, king of Judah (740 BC–726 BC) dies.
 * 722 BC—Shalmaneser V, king of Assyria, dies.
 * 722 BC—Sargon succeeds Shalmaneser V as king of Assyria.
 * 721 BC—Shabaka succeeds his father Piye as king of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt.
 * 720 BC—Shabaka kills Bakenranef (Bocchoris), ending the Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt
 * 720 BC—Death of King Ping of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
 * 720 BC—Birth of Guan Zhong, political adviser of Qi in eastern Ancient China.

title: 720s BC


text:
10 BC

Year 10 BC was either a common year starting on Tuesday, Wednesday or Thursday or a leap year starting on Tuesday or Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar (the sources differ, see leap year error for further information) and a common year starting on Sunday of the Proleptic Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Maximus and Antonius (or, less frequently, year 744 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 10 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * The Obelisk of Montecitorio is brought from Egypt to Rome by Emperor Augustus to be erected as a sundial gnomon of the Solarium Augusti. It is now in the Piazza Montecitorio.
 * The Romans build a bridge across the Rhine near Bonn (approximate date).
 * A Roman military camp is established at Speyer (Germany).

Births

 * August 1 – Claudius, Roman emperor (d. AD 54)
 * Agrippa I, king of Judea (d. AD 44)
 * Antonia Tryphaena, Thracian princess
 * Domitia Lepida, daughter of Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and Antonia Major (d. AD 54)
 * Thusnelda, Germanic noblewoman (approximate date)

Deaths

 * Tryphon, Greek grammarian (b. c. 60 BC)

title: 10 BC


text:
11 BC

Year 11 BC was either a common year starting on Monday or Tuesday or a leap year starting on Sunday, Monday or Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar (the sources differ, see leap year error for further information) and a common year starting on Saturday of the Proleptic Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Tubero and Maximus (or, less frequently, year 743 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 11 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Quintus Aelius Tubero and Paullus Fabius Maximus are Roman Consuls.
 * Battle of the Lupia River: Roman forces under Augustus's stepson Nero Claudius Drusus win a victory in Germania.
 * Battle of Arbalo: Roman forces under Augustus's stepson Nero Claudius Drusus beat off a Germanian ambush.
 * May – Drusus secures the Rhine frontier and builds Roman fortresses near Bonn, Dorsten, Haltern, and Oberaden.

Births

 * Herod Agrippa, king of Judea (d. AD 44)

Deaths

 * Octavia the Younger, sister of Augustus (b. 69 BC)

title: 11 BC


text:
13 BC

Year 13 BC was either a common year starting on Friday, Saturday or Sunday or a leap year starting on Friday or Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar (the sources differ, see leap year error for further information) and a leap year starting on Wednesday of the Proleptic Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Nero and Varus (or, less frequently, year 741 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 13 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Tiberius Claudius Nero and Publius Quinctilius Varus are Roman Consuls.
 * The Roman general Nero Claudius Drusus builds the stronghold of castrum Moguntiacum in the location of the modern-day city of Mainz, Germany.
 * Drusus is granted governor of Gaul and mobilises a Roman army to beat the Germans back across the Rhine. He travels to the North Sea and pays tribute to the Frisii.
 * The Ara Pacis Augustae ("Altar of Augustan Peace") is commissioned by the Roman Senate to honor the triumphal return of Emperor Augustus from Hispania and Gaul.
 * Revolt in Thrace against Roman rule led by Vologases.

Births

 * Artaxias III, Roman client king of Armenia (d. AD 34)
 * Livilla, daughter of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor (d. AD 31)

Deaths

 * Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Roman consul (b. c. 90 BC)
 * Paullus Aemilius Lepidus, Roman consul (b. c. 77 BC)
 * Rhescuporis II, king of the Odrysian Kingdom

title: 13 BC


text:
Grook

A grook (gruk) is a form of short aphoristic poem or rhyming aphorism created by the Danish poet, designer, inventor, and scientist Piet Hein. He wrote over 7,000 of them from 1939 until his death in 1996, mostly in Danish. The grooks are multi-faceted and characterized by irony, paradox, brevity, precise use of language, rhythm and rhyme, and an often satiric nature. Many of the grooks have an accompanying line drawing, which provides additional meaning. This webpage contains many volumes of gruks in Danish. There is also a CD, in which Piet Hein reads some gruks.

Some say that the name "gruk" is short for "grin & suk" (lit. 'laugh & sigh'), but Piet Hein said he felt that the word had come out of thin air. The contemporary "Hunden Grog" ("Grog the Dog") stories by fellow cartoonist Storm P. have, in public opinion, been regarded as an inspiration.

A Grook as passive resistance
Piet Hein was president of the Anti-Nazi Union when the Germans invaded Denmark in 1940. He became an underground passive resister. He found a way to encourage resistance through the use of poems, which he called "gruks" ("grooks" in English), and began publishing them in the daily newspaper "Politiken" under the pseudonym "Kumbel Kumbell".

Grooks in English
Beginning in the 1960s, seven volumes of English translations of 53 grooks each were published and became popular in the U.S. counterculture of the time: Grooks (1966), Grooks 2 (1968), Grooks 3 (1970), Grooks 4 (1972), Grooks 5 (1973), Grooks VI (1978), and Grooks VII (1984).

The following books of grooks are available on this subpage of the website
 * Collected Grooks I
 * Collected Grooks II
 * Runaway Runes: Short Grooks I
 * Viking Vistas: Short Grooks II

title: Grook


text:
1280s BC

The 1280s BC was a decade which lasted from 1289 BC to 1280 BC.

Events and trends

 * 1290 BC—Seti I becomes pharaoh of Egypt. During his reign he leads his armies into Asia, asserting Egyptian imperial authority. Seti recaptures the traitorous vassals of Kadesh and Amurru, and even defeats a Hittite force. Later, he is unable to maintain control over the territories in the Levant and eventually concludes peace with the Hittite king Muwatalli II.
 * c. 1285 BC—Judgement of Hunefer before Osiris, illustration from a Book of the Dead is painted (19th Dynasty). It is now in the British Museum at London.
 * 1282 BC—Pandion II, legendary King of Athens, dies after a nominal reign of 25 years. He reportedly only reigned in Megara, while Athens and the rest of Attica were under the control of an alliance of Nobles led by his uncle Metion (son of Erechtheus of Athens) and his sons (including in some accounts Daedalus). His four sons lead a successful military campaign to regain the throne. Aegeus becomes King of Athens, Nisos reigns in Megara, Lykos in Euboea and Pallas in southern Attica.
 * c. 1280 BC—The Torah is believed to have been fully composed around this time. (Assuming the Exodus from Egypt took place c. 1450 BCE)
 * The walls of Troy VII/Wilusa are constructed.

Significant people

 * Seti I, pharaoh of Egypt (1290 BC–1279 BC) (19th Dynasty)
 * Alaksandu of Wilusa, some believe would be the same Paris of Troy

title: 1280s BC


text:
730s BC

This article concerns the period 739 BC – 730 BC.

Events and trends

 * 739 BC—Hiram II succeeds Ithobaal II as king of Tyre.
 * 738 BC—King Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria invades Israel, forcing it to pay tribute.
 * 738 BC—The Biskupin settlement northeast of Poznań (Poland) is built.
 * 737 and 736 BC—King Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria invades Iran, conquering the Medes and Persians and slaughtering, enslaving or deporting many.
 * 736 BC—Leochares of Messenia wins the stadion race at the eleventh Olympic Games.
 * 735 BC—Naxos in Sicily founded as a colony of Chalcis in Euboea. (traditional date)
 * 734 BC—Syracuse founded in Sicily as a joint colony of Corinth and Tenea, under the leadership of Archias of Corinth.
 * 733 BC—King Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria conquers the Northern Kingdom of Israel (Samaria), and exiles its inhabitants.
 * 732 BC—King Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria seizes Damascus, executes Rezin, King of the Arameans, and deports the Aramaean inhabitants to Kir of Moab. (probable date)
 * 732 BC—King Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria defeats the Arab queen Samsi in battle and forces her to pay tribute to him.
 * 732 BC—Hoshea becomes the last king of Israel.
 * 732 BC—Oxythemis of Cleonae/Coroneia wins the stadion race at the twelfth Olympic Games.
 * 730 BC—Northern Egypt ceases to be ruled by Libyan pharaohs.
 * 730 BC—Osorkon IV succeeds Pedubast II as king of the Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt. (approximate date)
 * 730 BC—Piye succeeds his father, Kashta, as king of the Nubian kingdom of Napata.
 * 730 BC—Mattan II succeeds Hiram II as king of Tyre.
 * 730 BC—Leontini in Sicily is founded by colonists from Naxos.

Significant People

 * Xuan Jiang, Chinese Duchess.

title: 730s BC


text:
Dendrobranchiata

Dendrobranchiata is a suborder of decapods, commonly known as prawns. There are 540 extant species in seven families, and a fossil record extending back to the Devonian. They differ from related animals, such as Caridea and Stenopodidea, by the branching form of the gills and by the fact that they do not brood their eggs, but release them directly into the water. They may reach a length of over 330 mm and a mass of 450 g, and are widely fished and farmed for human consumption.

Shrimp and prawns
While Dendrobranchiata and Caridea belong to different suborders of Decapoda, they are very similar in appearance, and in many contexts such as commercial farming and fisheries, they are both often referred to as "shrimp" and "prawn" interchangeably. In the United Kingdom, Australia and some other Commonwealth, the word "prawn" is used almost exclusively, while the opposite is the case in North America. The term "prawn" is also loosely used to describe any large shrimp, especially those that come 15 (or fewer) to the pound (such as "king prawns", yet sometimes known as "jumbo shrimp").

Description
Together with other swimming Decapoda, Dendrobranchiata show the "caridoid facies", or shrimp-like form. The body is typically robust, and can be divided into a cephalothorax (head and thorax fused together) and a pleon (abdomen). The body is generally slightly flattened side-to-side. The largest species, Penaeus monodon, can reach a mass of 450 g and a length of 336 mm.

Head
The most conspicuous appendages arising from the head are the antennae. The first pair are biramous (having two flagella), except in Luciferidae, and are relatively small. The second pair can be 2–3 times the length of the body and are always uniramous (having a single flagellum). The mouthparts comprise pairs of mandibles, maxillules and maxillae, arising from the head, and three pairs of maxillipeds, arising from the thorax. A pair of stalked eyes points forwards from the head.

Thorax
The carapace grows from the thorax to cover the cephalothorax, and extends forwards between the eyes into a rostrum. This is only as long as the stalked eyes in Benthesicymidae, Luciferidae and Sergestidae, but considerably longer in Aristeidae.

As well as the three pairs of maxillipeds, the thorax also bears five pairs of pereiopods, or walking legs; the first three of these end in small chelae (pincers). The last two pereiopods are absent in Luciferidae and Acetes, but much longer than the preceding pereiopods in Hymenopenaeus and Xiphopenaeus.

The thoracic appendages carry gills, which are protected beneath the carapace. The gills are typically branched, and so resemble trees, lending the group its scientific name, Dendrobranchiata, from the Greek words δένδρον (dendron, tree) and βράγχια (branchia, gills).

Pleon
The pleon, or abdomen, is similar in length to the cephalothorax. It has six segments, the first five bearing lamellar pleopods, and the last one bearing uropods. The pleopods are biramous, except in Sicyoniidae, where they are uniramous. The uropods and telson collectively form the tail fan; the uropods are not divided by a diaeresis, as they are in many other decapods. The telson is pointed and is usually armed with four pairs of setae or spines.

Internal anatomy
Most of the musculature of a prawn is used for bending the pleon, and almost all the space in the pleon is filled by muscle. More than 17 muscles operate each of the pleopods, and a further 16 power the tail fan in the rapid backward movement of the caridoid escape reaction. These muscles, collectively, are the meat for which prawns are commercially fished and farmed.

The nervous system of prawns comprises a dorsal brain, and a ventral nerve cord, connected by two commissures around the oesophagus. The chief sensory inputs are visual input from the eyes, chemoreceptors on the antennae and in the mouth, and mechanoreceptors on the antennae and elsewhere.

The digestive system comprises a foregut, a midgut and a hindgut, and is situated dorsally. The foregut begins at the mouth, passes through the oesophagus, and opens into a sac that contains the grinding apparatus of the gastric mill. The hepatopancreas feeds into the midgut, where digestive enzymes are released, and nutrients taken up. The hindgut forms faecal pellets, which are then passed out through the muscular anus.

The circulatory system is based around a compact, triangular heart, which pumps blood into three main arteries. Excretion is carried out through the gills, and by specialised glands located at the base of the antennae, and is mostly in the form of ammonia.

Life cycle
Prawns may be divided into two groups: those with an open thelycum (female genitalia) and those with a closed thelycum. In the open–thelycum species, mating takes place towards the end of the moulting cycle, and usually at sunset. In closed–thelycum species, mating takes place shortly after moulting, when the exoskeleton is still soft, and usually occurs in the night. Courtship and mating may take up to 3 hours in Penaeus monodon, while in Farfantepenaeus paulensis, mating lasts just 4–5 seconds. Spawning may occur several times during the moulting cycle, and usually occurs at night.

With the exception of Luciferidae, the eggs of prawns are shed directly into the water, rather than being brooded. The eggs hatch into nauplius larvae, which are followed by zoea larvae (initially protozoea, and later mysis) and then a postlarva, before reaching adulthood. The changes between moults are gradual, and so the development is anamorphic rather than metamorphic.

Uniquely among the Decapoda, the nauplii of Dendrobranchiata are free-swimming. There are five to eight naupliar stages. The earlier stages have three pairs of appendages that are used for locomotion – two pairs of antennae and the mandibles. Later stages also have rudiments of other mouthparts, but the nauplius is unable to feed, and only lasts 24 to 68 hours. The body ends at a two-lobed telson, and the beginnings of a carapace emerge at this stage.

There are typically 5 or 6 zoea stages in Dendrobranchiata, divided into protozoea and mysis. In the protozoea larvae, the antennae are still used for locomotion, but the mandibles become specialised for mastication. All the thoracic somites (body segments) have formed, and a carapace is present, covering part of the thorax. It is smooth in the family Penaeidae, but bears many spines in the family Solenoceridae. The pleon (abdomen) is unsegmented in the first protozoea, and ends in a bilobed telson, which may be used for cleaning other appendages, or for steering. By the second protozoea, segmentation appears on the pleon, and by the third protozoea, which may also be called the metazoea, the uropods have appeared.

By the mysis stages, the pereiopods (thoracic appendages) start to be used instead of the antennae for locomotion. The larva swims backwards, with its tail upwards, spinning slowly as it goes. The carapace covers most of the segments of the thorax, and claws appear on the first three pereiopods. By the last mysis stage, the beginnings of pleopods have appeared on the first five segments of the abdomen.

The post-larva or juvenile stage is characterised by the use of the pleopods for locomotion. The claws become functional, but the gills are still rudimentary. The telson is narrower and only retains traces of its two-lobed development. Through a series of gradual changes over following moults, the animal takes on its adult form.

Systematics
Dendrobranchiata were traditionally grouped together with Caridea as "Natantia" (the swimming decapoda), as opposed to the Reptantia (the walking decapods). In 1888, Charles Spence Bate recognised the differences in gill morphology, and separated Natantia into Dendrobranchiata, Phyllobranchiata and Trichobranchiata. Recent analyses using cladistics and molecular phylogenetics recognise Dendrobranchiata as the sister group to all other Decapoda, collectively called Pleocyemata.

The cladogram below shows Dendrobranchiata's placement within the larger order Decapoda, from analysis by Wolfe et al., 2019.

Before 2010, the earliest known fossil prawns come from rocks in Madagascar of Permo-Triassic age,. In 2010, however, the discovery of Aciculopoda from Famennian–stage rocks in Oklahoma extended the group's fossil record back to. The best known fossil prawns are from the Jurassic Solnhofen limestones from Germany.

Living prawns are divided among seven families, five in the superfamily Penaeoidea, and two in the Sergestoidea, although molecular evidence disagrees with some aspects of the current classifications. Collectively, these include 540 extant species, and nearly 100 exclusively fossil species. A further two families are known only from fossils.

The cladogram below shows Dendrobranchiata's internal relationships of extant families (excluding Solenoceridae):

Dendrobranchiata comprises the following superfamilies and families:
 * Superfamily Penaeoidea Rafinesque-Schmaltz, 1815
 * † Aciculopodidae Feldmann & Schweitzer, 2010 – a single Famennian species, Aciculopoda mapesi
 * † Aegeridae Burkenroad, 1963 – two Mesozoic genera: Aeger and Acanthochirana
 * Aristeidae Wood-Mason, 1891 – 26 extant species in 9 genera, and one fossil genus
 * Benthesicymidae Wood-Mason, 1891 – 41 species in 4 genera
 * † Carpopenaeidae Garassino, 1994 – two Cretaceous species of Carpopenaeus
 * Penaeidae Rafinesque-Schmaltz, 1815 – 216 extant species in 26 genera, and several extinct genera, mostly Mesozoic
 * Sicyoniidae Ortmann, 1898 – 43 species of Sicyonia
 * Solenoceridae Wood-Mason, 1891 – 81 species in 9 genera
 * Superfamily Sergestoidea Dana, 1852
 * Luciferidae De Haan, 1849 – 7 species in 2 genera
 * Sergestidae Dana, 1852 – 90 extant species in six genera, and two extinct monotypic genera

Distribution
The biodiversity of Dendrobranchiata decreases markedly at increasing latitudes; most species are only found in a region between 40° north and 40° south. Some species may occur at higher latitudes. For instance, Bentheogennema borealis is abundant at 57° north in the Pacific Ocean, while collections of Gennadas kempi have been made as far south as 61° south in the Antarctic Ocean.

Ecology and behaviour
There is a great deal of ecological variation within the suborder Dendrobranchiata. Some species of Sergestidae live in fresh water, but most prawns are exclusively marine. Species of Sergestidae and Benthesicymidae mostly live in deep water, and Solenoceridae species live offshore, while most Penaeidae species live in shallow inshore waters, and Lucifer is planktonic. Some species burrow in mud on the sea floor during the day and emerge at night to feed.

Prawns are "opportunistic omnivores", and their diet can include a range of food items from fine particles to large organisms. These may include fish, chaetognaths, krill, copepods, radiolarians, phytoplankton, nematocysts, ostracods and detritus. Prawns eat less around the time of ecdysis (moulting), probably because of the softness of the mouthparts, and must eat more than usual to compensate, once ecdysis is complete.

Prawns are an attractive food for predators, with a higher energy content than most other invertebrates. The larvae are prey to comb jellies, jellyfish, chaetognaths, fish and other crustaceans (such as mantis shrimp and crabs), and only a tiny proportion survive. Juveniles are targeted by a number of fish, cephalopods and birds; Litopenaeus vannamei juveniles experience 90% mortality in the 6–12 weeks they spend in Mexican lagoons, and this is thought to be due almost entirely to predation. Adult prawns are less susceptible to predation, but can fall prey to some fish.

Economic importance
Dendrobranchiata are of huge economic importance. While in some countries, such as the United States, production is almost entirely through fisheries, other countries have concentrated on aquaculture (shrimp farms), including Ecuador where 95% of production is farmed; some countries produce similar amounts from fisheries and aquaculture, including Mexico, China, India and Indonesia.

Species from the family Aristeidae are important to deep-water fisheries, particularly in the Mediterranean Sea, where Aristaeomorpha foliacea is caught by trawlers. In Brazil, Aristaeomorpha foliacea, Aristaeopsis edwardsiana and Aristeus antillensis are of commercial importance. The shallow-water Penaeidae are of greater importance, however, and the most important species for fisheries is Fenneropenaeus chinensis, with a catch in 2005 of over 100,000 tons.

The most important species for aquaculture are Marsupenaeus japonicus (Kuruma prawn), Fenneropenaeus chinensis (Chinese prawn), Penaeus monodon (giant tiger prawn) and Litopenaeus vannamei (whiteleg prawn).

title: Dendrobranchiata


text:
Natantia

Natantia (Boas, 1880) is an obsolete taxon of decapod crustaceans, comprising those families that move predominantly by swimming – the shrimp (comprising Caridea and Procarididea), prawns (Dendrobranchiata) and boxer shrimp. The remaining Decapoda were placed in the Reptantia, and consisted of crabs, lobsters and other large animals that move chiefly by walking along the bottom. The division between Natantia and Reptantia was replaced in 1963, when Martin Burkenroad erected the suborder Pleocyemata for those animals that brood their eggs on the pleopods, leaving Dendrobranchiata for the prawns. Under this system, Natantia is a paraphyletic group. Burkenroad's primary division of Decapoda into Dendrobranchiata and Pleocyemata has since been corroborated by molecular analyses.

The name Natantia Owen, 1851 was utilized in a phylogenetic context by Madzia and Cau (2017) as the most exclusive mosasaurid clade including Mosasaurus and Tylosaurus but not Halisaurus.

title: Natantia


text:
740s BC

This article concerns the period 749 BC – 740 BC.

Events and trends

 * 748 BC—Anticles of Messenia wins the stadion race at the eighth Olympic Games.
 * 747 BC—February 26 – Nabonassar becomes king of Babylon.
 * 747 BC—Meles becomes king of Lydia.
 * c. 744 BC—Piye starts to rule in parts of Ancient Egypt.
 * 745 BC—The crown of Assyria seized by Pul, who takes the name Tiglath-Pileser III.
 * 745 BC—Legendary death of Titus Tatius Roman King (Diarchy with Romulus ).
 * 744 BC—Xenocles of Messenia wins the stadion race at the ninth Olympic Games.
 * 743 BC—Duke Zhuang of the Chinese state of Zheng comes to power.
 * 743 BC—Beginning of the First Messenian War.
 * 740 BC—Tiglath-Pileser III conquers the city of Arpad in Syria after two years of siege.
 * 740 BC—Start of Ahaz's reign of Judah.
 * 740 BC—Dotades of Messenia wins the stadion race at the tenth Olympic Games.

title: 740s BC


text:
1290s BC

The 1290s BC is a decade which lasted from 1299 BC to 1290 BC.

Events and trends

 * c. 1295 BC–1186 BC–Great Temple of Amun, Karnak, is built in the New Kingdom of Egypt.
 * c. 1294 BC–Egyptian–Hittite Wars.
 * 1292 BC—Coronation of Pharaoh Ramesses I of Egypt marks the end of the Eighteenth Dynsasty and start of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt.

Significant people

 * Ramesses I, Egyptian pharaoh, crowned.
 * Shalmaneser I, king of Assyria, born (approximate date).
 * Ramesses II ("the Great"), Egyptian pharaoh, born (approximate date).

title: 1290s BC


text:
1300s BC (decade)

The 1300s BC is a decade which lasted from 1309 BC to 1300 BC.

Events and trends

 * Cecrops II, legendary King of Athens, dies after a reign of 40 years and is succeeded by his son Pandion II. Pandion II was later driven into exile from Athens by the sons of Cecrops II's brother (or possibly nephew) Metion, so that Metion could take power. Pandion II fled to Megara, where he married the King's daughter and eventually inherited the throne. After his death, Pandion II's sons returned to Athens and drove out the sons of Metion.
 * c. 1307 BC—Adad-nirari I becomes king of Assyria.
 * 1306 BC (or 1319 BC)—Horemheb becomes pharaoh of Ancient Egypt.
 * 1300 BC—Pangeng moved the capital of Shang dynasty to Yin.
 * c. 1300 BC—Some people of "Eastern Woodlands" begin to build massive earthworks, mounds of earth and stone. Poverty Point, Louisiana is the earliest one.
 * c. 1300 BC – 1200 BC—Treasury of Atreus, Mycenae, Greece, is built. Excavated by Christos Stamatakis in 1878.
 * c. 1300 BC – 1200 BC—The palace at Pylos is built.
 * c. 1300 BC – 1100 BC—Warrior Vase, from Mycenae, Ancient Greece, is made. It is now at National Archaeological Museum of Athens.
 * c. 1300 BC – 1200 BC—Tollense valley battlefield takes place.
 * c. 1700 BC – 1110 BC—Indo-Aryan migration to South Asia from Central Asia, partly causing Harappans to migrate south.
 * c. 1300 BC – 1250 BC—Around this time, birth of king Rama may have taken place in kingdom of Kosala.

Significant people

 * Pangeng of China

title: 1300s BC (decade)


text:
750s BC

This article concerns the period 759 BC – 750 BC.

Events and trends

 * 756 BCE—Founding of Cyzicus.
 * 755 BC—Ashur-nirari V succeeds Ashur-Dan III as king of Assyria
 * 755 BC—Aeschylus, King of Athens, dies after a reign of 23 years and is succeeded by Alcmaeon.
 * 753 BC—Alcmaeon, King of Athens, dies after a reign of 2 years. He is replaced by Charops, elected Archon for a ten-year term.
 * 753 BC—The city of Rome and the Roman Kingdom were thought to be founded, according to Roman tradition, and is ruled by Rome's first king, Romulus. Beginning of the Roman 'Ab urbe condita' calendar. Rome adopts the Etruscan alphabet, which the Etruscans themselves had adopted from the Greeks. Set by Varro, this was the most common date used.
 * 752 BC—Romulus, first king of Rome, celebrates the first Roman triumph after his victory over the Caeninenses, following the Rape of the Sabine Women. He celebrates a further triumph later in the year over the Antemnates.
 * c. 750 BC—Man and Centaur, perhaps from Olympia, is made. It is now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
 * c. 750 BC—Greeks establish colonies in Italy and Sicily.
 * c. 750 BC – 700 BC—Funerary Vase (Krater), from the Dipylon Cemetery, Athens, is made. Attributed to the Hirschfield workshop. It is now at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

Significant People

 * Shoshenq V, Pharaoh of the Twenty-second dynasty of Egypt (767–730 BC)
 * Osorkon III, Pharaoh of the Twenty-third dynasty of Egypt (787–759 BC)
 * Takelot III, Pharaoh of the Twenty-third dynasty of Egypt (764–757 BC)
 * Rudamun, Pharaoh of the Twenty-third dynasty of Egypt (757–754 BC)
 * Ini, Pharaoh of the Twenty-third dynasty of Egypt (754–715 BC)
 * Niumateped, chief of the Libu (775–750 BC)
 * Titaru, chief of the Libu (758–750 BC)
 * Ker, chief of the Libu (750–745 BC)
 * Manava, author of the Indian geometric text of Sulba Sutras. (b. 750 BC)
 * Uzziah, King of Judah (791-740 BC)
 * 759 BC—Alexander king of Corinth killed by his successor Telestes.
 * 757 BC—Birth of Duke Zhuang of Zheng

title: 750s BC


text:
760s BC

This article concerns the period 769 BC – 760 BC.

Events and trends

 * 763 BC—June 15—A solar eclipse at this date (in month Sivan) is used to fix the chronology of the Ancient Near East.

 * Amaziah, king of Judah, dies and is succeeded by his son Uzziah.

Significant People

 * Argishtis I of Urartu (r. 786-764 BC)
 * Amaziah of Judah (co-ruled Judah with Uzziah c. 792-768 BC, according to Edwin R. Thiele)
 * Archilaus, king of Sparta
 * Marduk-apla-usur, king of Babylon (r. c. 780-769 BC)
 * Eriba-Marduk, king of Babylon (r. c. 769-761 BC)
 * Rivallo (legendary king of the Britons)
 * Alara of Nubia, King of Kuch (r. 795-c. 765 BC
 * Uzziah, king of Judah (ruled Judah solely until c. 751 BC)

title: 760s BC


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770s BC

This article concerns the period 779 BC – 770 BC.

Events and trends

 * 778 BC—Agamestor, Archon of Athens, dies after a reign of 17 years and is succeeded by his son Aeschylus.
 * 777 BC—Death of Pārśva or Pārśvanātha (c. 877–777 BCE), the twenty-third Tirthankara of Jainism.
 * 776 BC–394 AD—Era of the ancient Greek Olympic Games.
 * 776 BC—First Olympic Games, according to Diodorus Siculus (of the 1st century BC).

 * 773 BC—Ashur-Dan III succeeds his brother Shalmaneser IV as king of Assyria.
 * 771 BC—Spring and Autumn period of China's history begins with the decline of the Zhou Dynasty as Haojing is sacked by Quanrong nomads, King You is killed and his successor, King Ping is forced to move the capital to Chengzhou. End of the Western Zhou Dynasty. Beginning of Eastern Zhou Dynasty.
 * 771 BC—Traditional Birthdate of Romulus and Remus, Romulus as the traditional founder of Rome.
 * 770 BC—Beginning of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty in China as King Ping of Zhou becomes the first King of the Zhou to rule from the new capital of Chengzhou (later known as Luoyang).

title: 770s BC


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780s BC

This article concerns the period 789 BC – 780 BC.

Events and trends

 * 783 BC—Shalmaneser IV succeeds his father Adad-nirari III as king of Assyria.
 * 782 BC—Founding of Erebuni (Էրեբունի) by the orders of King Argishtis I at the site of current-day Yerevan.
 * 782 BC—Death of Zhou xuan wang, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
 * 781 BC—Zhou you wang becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
 * 780 BC - 560 BC—The Establishment of The Greek Colonies.

title: 780s BC


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790s BC

This article concerns the period 799 BC – 790 BC.

Events and trends

 * 799 BC— According to the Vayu Purana, the Pradyota dynasty conquers Magadha, starting a rule that lasts 138 years.
 * 797 BC— Thespieus, Archon of Athens, dies after a reign of 27 years and is succeeded by his son Agamestor.
 * 796 BC— Adad-Nirari III captures Damascus after a siege against King Ben-Hadad III.
 * c.790 BC— Adad-Nirari III conducts a raid against the Chaldeans.

Significant People

 * Hazael, King of Aramaean Damascus, r. 842–796 BC
 * Pygmalion, Legendary King (formerly joint ruler with his sister, Dido) of Tyre, r. 831–785 BC
 * Shoshenq III, Pharaoh of Egypt (Twenty-Second Dynasty), r. 837–798 BC, died in 798 BC
 * Jehoash of Judah, King of Judah, r. c.836–797 BC
 * Xuan, King of Zhou dynasty China, r. 827–782 BC
 * Thespieus, Archon of Athens, in office 824–797 BC
 * Jehoahaz, King of Israel, r. c.814–798 BC
 * Dido, Legendary Queen (and founder) of Carthage, r. 814–c.760 BC
 * Adad-Nirari III, King of Assyria, r. 811–783 BC
 * Utupurshi, King of Diauehi, r. 810 BC–770 BC
 * Menuas, King of Urartu, r. 810–785
 * Caranus, King of Macedon, r. 808–778 BC
 * Shoshenq VI, Pharaoh of Egypt (Twenty-Third Dynasty), r. 801–795 BC
 * Agesilaus I, Archilaus (Agiad Kings, r. 820–790 BC and 790–760 BC respectively) and Eunomus (Eurypontid King r. 800–780 BC), Co-Kings of Sparta
 * Lycurgus of Sparta (800 BC?–730 BC?), legendary lawgiver
 * Ninurta-apla-X (full name unknown), King of Babylon, r. c.800–790 BC
 * Jehoash of Israel, King of Israel, r. c.798–782 BC
 * Shoshenq IV, Pharaoh of Egypt (Twenty-Second Dynasty), r. 798–785 BC
 * Amaziah, King of Judah, r. c.797–768 BC
 * Agamestor, Archon of Athens, in office 797–778 BC
 * Ben-Hadad III, King of Aramaean Damascus, r. c.796–792 BC
 * Osorkon III, Pharaoh of Egypt (Twenty-Third Dynasty), r. 795–767 BC
 * Alara, King of Kush, r. 795 – c.765 BC
 * Rezin, King of Aramaean Damascus, r. 792-732 BC
 * Marduk-bel-zeri, King of Babylon, r. c.790–780 BC
 * Homer of Chios, Legendary Greek Poet
 * Jeroboam, Israelite Prince, regent, and future king

Contemporaries of future importance

 * Jonah of Israel, future prophet (according to Bible)
 * Amos of Israel, future prophet and author of the Book of Amos (according to Bible)

title: 790s BC


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800s BC (decade)

This article concerns the period 809 BC – 800 BC.

Events and trends

 * 804 BC—Adad-nirari III of Assyria conquers Damascus.
 * c. 800 BC—Greek Dark Ages end.
 * c. 800 BC—Archaic period in Greece begins. (It ends in 480 BC with the invasion of Xerxes.)
 * From c. 800 BC – The Upanishads are composed.
 * c. 800 BC–700 BC—Pre-Etruscan period in Italy.
 * Etruscan civilization.
 * The Olmecs build pyramids.

title: 800s BC (decade)


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20th century BC

The 20th century BC was a century that lasted from the year 2000 BC to 1901 BC.

Events

 * c. 2000 BC:
 * Farmers and herders traveled south from Ethiopia and settled in Kenya.
 * Dawn of the Capacha Culture in modern-day Colima, Mexico.
 * Humans settle in Matanchén, modern day Nayarit, Mexico
 * Arrival of the ancestors of the Latins in Italy.
 * Town of Mantua was founded.
 * First of the Minoan palaces on Crete. Site of palace complex Knossos started to become occupied.
 * Bronze Age began in north Ancient China.
 * Middle Jōmon period ended in Japan.
 * Decline of Harappan civilization began.
 * The Harappa Torso was sculpted by a member of the Indus Valley culture.
 * Vessel, from Asahi Mound, Toyama Prefecture, was made. Jōmon period. It is now kept at Collection of Tokyo University.
 * Dogū, from Kurokoma, Yamanashi Prefecture, was made. Jōmon period. It is now kept at Tokyo National Museum.
 * Stonehenge construction largely completed.
 * Dawn of the Lal-lo and Gattaran Shell Middens pilings in the Philippines.
 * Horses were tamed and used for transport.
 * The last woolly mammoth goes extinct on Wrangel island.
 * c. 2000 BC – 1900 BC: the "Priest-king torso" was sculpted at Mohenjo-Daro, part of the Indus Valley civilization.
 * c. 1995 BC: Pharaoh Mentuhotep II, Eleventh dynasty of Egypt dies.
 * c. 1995 BC: Egypt: Pharaoh Mentuhotep IV died. End of Eleventh Dynasty. Pharaoh Amenemhat I started to rule. Start of Twelfth Dynasty.
 * c. 1985 BC: Political authority became less centralized in Ancient Egypt.
 * c. 1985 BC – 1795 BC:
 * Rock-cut tombs at Beni Hasan were made. Twelfth Dynasty.
 * "Hippopotamus", from the tomb of Senbi (governor) (Tomb B.3) at Meir was made. Twelfth Dynasty. It is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
 * 1974 BC: Erishum I became the thirty-third ruler of Assyria.
 * 1953 BC: Senusret I launches a military campaign against Lower Nubia and conquers the region down to the Second Cataract.
 * February 27, 1953 BC: A very close alignment of the naked-eye planets took place in which these planets are together in a span of 4.3 degrees.
 * March 5, 1953 BC: A computer calculated alignment of the naked-eye planets took place in a new moon, and in spring season, and is believed by researchers from NASA, to be the starting event for the Chinese calendar, as they followed descriptions from a 1st Century B.C. Chinese passage "Hong Fan Zhuan" by 'Liu Xiang', to search for this astronomical event being described to have happened about 2000 BC at Pegasus constellation (Yingshi).
 * c. 1942 BC: The so-called king of Leubingen (today part of Sömmerda) was buried in a large barrow within a 66 ft stone cairn inside a ring ditch.
 * 1932 BC: Amorite conquest of Ur.
 * c. 1928 BC – 1895 BC: "Harvest scene", tempera facsimile by Nina de Garis Davies of wall painting in the tomb of Khnumhotep II, Beni Hasan. Twelfth Dynasty.
 * c. 1920 BC: Jishi Gorge flood. It may have sparked the beginning of the first Chinese dynasty (Xia, Erlitou culture)
 * 1913 BC – 1903 BC: Egyptian-Nubian war.
 * 1910 BC - Call of Abraham according to The Bible.
 * c. 1900 BC: Shalim-ahum and his son Ilu-shuma began to rule the city of Assur at around this time.

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

 * c. 2000 BC: Glass appears.
 * 2000 BC: In the Old Assyrian Empire, the Sumerian cuneiform had evolved into Old Assyrian cuneiform, with many modifications to Sumerian orthography.
 * c. 1900 BC: Cacao is domesticated by the Mokaya in Guatemala.

title: 20th century BC


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User:Merphant

A merphant is a mermaid-elephant. It has the head and torso of an elephant, with a fish tail. Note that "ele-maid" would be incorrect, since this would be a lady with an elephant's behind.

Merphant can usually be found editing articles on the topics of art, music, computers, and other random silly articles on things like noodles and doodles.

Merphant has written some tools for Wikipedia, including the [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~merphant/cgi-bin/wikiholic.cgi automated "Are you a Wikipediholic?" test] and a wikicode to HTML converter.

title: User:Merphant


text:
Perfect square

A perfect square is an element of algebraic structure that is equal to the square of another element.
 * Square number, a perfect square integer.

Entertainment

 * Perfect Square, a live recording by the band R.E.M.
 * Perfect Square (publisher), a children's imprint label by Viz Media.

title: Perfect square