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The Wheel of Time

The Wheel of Time is a series of high fantasy novels by American author Robert Jordan, with Brandon Sanderson as a co-author for the final three installments. Originally planned as a six-book series with the publication of The Eye of the World in 1990, The Wheel of Time came to span 14 volumes, in addition to a prequel novel and three companion books. Jordan died in 2007 while working on what was planned to be the twelfth and final volume in the series. He prepared extensive notes, which enabled fellow fantasy author Sanderson to complete the final book, which grew into three volumes: The Gathering Storm (2009), Towers of Midnight (2010), and A Memory of Light (2013).

The series draws on numerous elements of both European and Asian mythology, most notably the cyclical nature of time found in Buddhism and Hinduism; the metaphysical concepts of balance, duality, and a respect for nature found in Taoism; and the dualistic concepts of God and Satan.

The Wheel of Time is notable for its length, detailed imaginary world, magic system, and its large cast of characters. The eighth through fourteenth books each reached number one on the New York Times Best Seller list. After its completion, the series was nominated for a Hugo Award. , the series has sold over 90 million copies worldwide, making it one of the best-selling epic fantasy series since The Lord of the Rings. Its popularity has spawned comic book adaptations, a collectible card game, a video game, a roleplaying game, and a soundtrack album. A television series adaptation produced by Sony Pictures and Amazon Studios premiered in 2021.

The One Power and the Aes Sedai
The series is set in the Third Age of a fantasy world in which the pattern of human existence is determined and maintained by the Wheel of Time, a cosmic embodiment of eternal return. The Wheel spins the Pattern of the Ages, manifest in both the physical world and human destiny, using the lives of men and women as its threads, and individuals with the power to influence and change the Pattern are called ta'veren. The Wheel is rotated by a magical force called the One Power. The ability to access and wield the One Power is known as channeling, and only women can do this safely. Artifacts called angreal amplify the One Power, with sa'angreal being the most potent, and ter'angreal limited to specific functions.

A matriarchal order called the Aes Sedai, made up of female channelers, are both respected and feared across the world. Their stated goal is to use their skills to serve and protect humanity, but they are also preparing for the inevitable, prophesized return of a malevolent entity they call the Dark One. The leader of the Aes Sedai, known as the Amyrlin Seat, rules from the White Tower in the city of Tar Valon. The order is divided into seven disciplines, or Ajahs: the Blue Ajah are dedicated to the pursuit of justice and inevitably intrigue, possessing extensive spy networks; the Brown Ajah are dedicated to the preservation of knowledge and history; the Gray Ajah are dedicated to mediation and politics; the Green Ajah are warriors trained in battle and strategy; the Red Ajah monitor the use of the One Power by outsiders; the White Ajah are concerned with logic and truth; the Yellow Ajah are mistresses of healing; and a secret eighth faction, the Black Ajah, pose as members of other Ajahs but serve the Dark One. The few men born with the ability to channel ultimately go mad, so the Red Ajah hunt male channelers and "gentle" them, or cut them off permanently from the One Power, ever aware of the danger they represent. With the exception of the Red Ajah, the Aes Sedai each bond magically with a Warder, a male protector. The link bestows the Warder with heightened senses, strength, stamina and resistance to injury.

Geography and cultures
The primary continent depicted in the series consists of three regions: the Westlands, Shara far to the east, and the Aiel Waste in between. Connecting these three areas in the north is the eastern part of the Great Blight, a once-verdant land mass that has been corrupted by the Dark One's influence. It stretches far west across the Aryth Ocean and borders the north of the continent of Seanchan. South of the Westlands is the Sea of Storms, and the small continent known as the Land of the Madmen. The Westlands contain 14 nations, including Andor, Cairhien, Illian, Shienar and Tear, as well as four major city-states: Falme, Far Madding, Mayene and Tar Valon. Other notable cities include Caemlyn, the capital of Andor, and Fal Dara, the northernmost city in Shienar. Two Rivers is a region in Andor which includes the village Emond's Field, home of five of the series' main characters. Shara, which extends much further south than either the Westlands or the Aiel Waste, is separated from the rest of the continent by the Cliffs of the Dawn and the Great Rift. Shara remains mysterious to outsiders, who are only allowed to enter walled-off towns to trade. The world in which the series is set is sometimes called "Randland" by fans, referring to lead character Rand al'Thor.

The Seanchan are a vast and powerful empire whose civilization has developed at a distance from the primary continent of the series. Their culture enslaves female channelers, who they believe are too dangerous to be free. Such channelers, known as damane, are collared with a ter'angreal called an a'dam, which allows women known as sul'dam to harness and control their channeling power. As the Seanchan invade, they use the a'dam to enslave any Aes Sedai they can. Also opposing the Aes Sedai are the Children of the Light, or Whitecloaks, a quasi-religious, militarized order bent on destroying anyone who channels the One Power, believing they are servants of the Shadow. In Shara, channelers are known as Ayyad, and isolate themselves in special communities. The females, who secretly control the monarchy, cultivate a bloodline of channelers by using male Ayyad as uneducated breeding stock and executing them by age 21.

The Aiel are a fierce warrior race who live in the Three-fold Land, called the Aiel Waste by outsiders, an inhospitable desert region located between the Westlands and Shara. They are tall, with characteristic pale eyes, and red or blond hair. There are 12 Aiel clans, plus the extinct Jenn Aiel, who built the city of Rhuidean, a repository of Aiel history and culture. The Maidens of the Spear are an all-female warrior society among the Aiel. Female Aiel who can channel the One Power or navigate Tel'aran'rhiod, the World of Dreams, do not join the Aes Sedai, instead becoming known as Wise Ones. The Aiel await a prophesied "Chief of Chiefs", whom they call the Car'a'carn, who will unite and rule all the clans.

The Ogier are a hirsute, wide-featured and immensely tall and strong species of humanoid known for their proficiency in woodwork and masonry. Though physically intimidating, they are peaceful, intelligent and interested in historical and genealogical study. The Ogier also possess a unique ability called treesinging, whereby they stimulate the growth and healing of trees and plants by singing to them. They live in sanctuaries called steddings, in which the One Power is inaccessible. After the Breaking of the World, male channelers who sought sanctuary with the Ogier thanked them by creating the Ways, a series of paths through an alternate dimension that connected Ogier communities. Stone doorways called Waygates, placed outside each stedding, were used to travel long distances quickly. In the millennia that followed, however, the Ways were corrupted by a malevolent force known as the Machin Shin, or Black Wind, which attacks travelers.

The Tinkers, or Tuatha'an, are a nomadic group of people who travel continuously and widely in brightly colored wagons, believing this is the only way to remain safe. They follow the pacifistic Way of the Leaf, which eschews violence. The Tuatha'an's main purpose has evolved to searching for "The Song", lost during the Breaking of the World, which they claim they will know when they find it. The Sea Folk, or Atha'an Miere, are dark-skinned people with complex customs who live on ships and on islands in the Sea of Storms. They only appear on the mainland to trade goods, and Sea Folk porcelain sculptures, delicate and graceful objects of art, are highly prized by mainlanders. Unknown to any but the Atha'an Miere, the fabled porcelain is created by the Amayar, a group of island dwelling people protected by the Sea Folk as a solemn duty since the Breaking of the World. The Amayar adhere to the Water Way, a pacifistic way of life akin to the Way of the Leaf practiced by the Tuatha'an.

The Dark One
Humans seduced by promises of power and immortality to serve the Dark One are known as Darkfriends. The increasing influence of the Dark One has also introduced an array of creatures called Shadowspawn. Trollocs are brutal, humanoid monsters with animal senses who kill with pleasure and eat all meat, including humans. They are led by the Myrddraal, or Fades, terrifying and deadly creatures without eyes who can disappear in shadow but will not cross running water. Appearing human and designed to target channelers, gholam are constructs which possess superhuman strength, are impervious to harm and immune to the One Power, and feed on blood. Grey Men, or the Soulless, are humans who have sacrificed their souls to become drab assassins with the ability to pass completely unnoticed. Draghkar are flying, vampiric creatures that devour the souls of their prey. Darkhounds are otherworldly, doglike beasts the size of small horses, with acidic, poison saliva. They regenerate when wounded or dismembered, and can only be destroyed by balefire, a weapon of the One Power which erases the target from existence, retroactively through time.

The most significant minions of the Shadow are the Forsaken, a group of male and female channelers from the Second Age, or the Age of Legends, who are among the most powerful to have ever lived. Calling themselves "Those Chosen to Rule the World Forever", they pledged their loyalty to the Dark One in exchange for power and immortality. In turn, the Dark One granted them access to the True Power, his exclusive equivalent of the One Power which is not divided by gender, and is more chaotic. Use of the True Power manifests as saa, black flecks moving across the eyes of the channeler, increasing in number in tandem with increased channeling. The more powerful among the Forsaken vie to be raised above the others to the position of nae'blis, the Dark One's second-in-command. The thirteen Forsaken—Aginor, Asmodean, Balthamel, Be'lal, Demandred, Graendal, Ishamael, Lanfear, Mesaana, Moghedien, Rahvin, Sammael and Semirhage—were imprisoned with the Dark One at Shayol Ghul at the end of the Second Age. Three thousand years later near the end of the Third Age, the Aes Sedai learn that the prophesied channeler known as the Dragon has been reborn, signaling that a final battle with the Dark One is coming. The Seven Seals of the Dark One's prison have weakened, and the Forsaken begin to reenter the world, presenting a new threat and paving the way for their master.

Backstory
In the backstory of the series, the Wheel of Time and the universe were forged at the dawn of time by a deity known as the Creator, simultaneously imprisoning its antithesis, the Dark One. The One Power itself is divided into both male (saidin) and female (saidar) halves, and originally both genders could wield it. In the Age of Legends, the Aes Sedai was made up of both men and women who could channel. An Aes Sedai experiment inadvertently drilled what would become known as the Bore into the Dark One's prison, and his influence began to seep out into the world. In response to the threat of his eventual release, the Wheel produced the Dragon, Lews Therin Telamon, a channeler of immense power. Lews eventually rose to command the Aes Sedai and their allies in the struggle against the Dark One's forces. Seven Seals were created, made of an unbreakable substance called cuendillar, to be used as focus points to reseal the Dark One's prison for good. Lews and a host of 99 male channelers managed to imprison the Forsaken with their master, but at the moment of victory, the Dark One was able to taint saidin, driving male channelers insane. Lews killed his friends and family, and then himself. Other male channelers devastated the world with earthquakes and tidal waves, an event called the Breaking of the World, before destroying themselves. The female Aes Sedai guided humanity out of this dark time, living in the shadow of a prophecy that the Dark One would break free from his prison and the Dragon would be reborn to fight him once more. And though the Dragon Reborn is humanity's only hope against the Dark One, he would break the world a second time in the process.

Plot
In The Eye of the World (1990), the arrival of a mysterious noblewoman to the remote village of Emond's Field in the Two Rivers precedes an attack on the town by a force of humanoid monsters called Trollocs. The woman reveals herself to be Moiraine Damodred, one of the Aes Sedai, and warns that the servants of the Dark One are seeking one of three young men from the village: Rand al'Thor, Perrin Aybara and Matrim Cauthon. They leave with Moiraine and her companion, the Warder Lan Mandragoran, and are joined by Egwene al'Vere, in whom Moiraine sees a potential Aes Sedai; the gleeman Thom Merrilin; and later the Wisdom Nynaeve al'Meara, a healer who learns she can also channel the One Power. They are pursued by increasing numbers of Trollocs, led by deadly, eyeless Fades, and are separated fleeing the cursed, abandoned city of Shadar Logoth. At the Eye of the World, a sacred pool of untainted saidin, Rand's defeat of the Forsaken Aginor and Ba'alzamon convinces Moiraine that he is the prophesied Dragon Reborn.

From then, the story expands and protagonist Rand, as well as the other characters, are frequently split into different groups, pursuing different missions or agendas aimed at furthering the cause of the Dragon Reborn, sometimes thousands of miles apart. Broadly speaking, the original group of characters from the Two Rivers make new allies, gain experience, and become figures of some influence and authority. As they struggle to unite the western kingdoms against the Dark One's forces, their task is complicated by rulers of the nations who refuse to give up their authority and by factions such as the Children of the Light, who do not believe in the prophecies, and the Seanchan, the people of a long-lost colony of Artur Hawkwing's empire across the western ocean who have returned, believing it is their destiny to conquer the world. The Aes Sedai also become divided between those who believe the Dragon Reborn should be strictly controlled and those who believe he must lead them into battle as he did in the earlier war. As the story expands, new characters representing different factions are introduced; although this expansion of the narrative allows the sheer scale of the growing struggle to be effectively depicted, it has been criticized for slowing the pace of the novels and sometimes reducing the appearances of the original or main cast to extended cameos.

By the sixth novel, Lord of Chaos (1994), it has become clear that the Last Battle, triggered when the Dark One is able to exert its influence directly on the world once more, is imminent, as only three Seals (keys to the Dark One's prison) are intact. Once the remaining Seals break, the Dark One will be free to touch the world. The Last Battle, Tarmon Gai'don, is depicted in the fourteenth and final novel in the series, A Memory of Light (2013).

Novels
In 2002, The Eye of the World was repackaged as two volumes with new illustrations for younger readers: From the Two Rivers, including an extra chapter (Ravens) before the existing prologue; and To the Blight with an expanded glossary. In 2004, the same was done with The Great Hunt, with the two parts being The Hunt Begins and New Threads in the Pattern.

Writing and conception
Jordan started writing The Eye of the World in 1984 and did not finish it until late 1988 or early 1989, with characters and storylines changing considerably during the writing process. One early version of the story centered on an older man who discovered relatively late in life that he was the 'chosen one' who had to save the world. However, Jordan deliberately decided to move closer to the tone and style of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Fellowship of the Ring and made the characters younger and less experienced. Once this decision had been made, writing proceeded much more easily and Jordan completed the second volume, The Great Hunt, at roughly the same time the first book was published.

Jordan wrote full-time at breakneck speed for the next several years until he completed the seventh volume, A Crown of Swords, at which point he slowed down, delivering a book every two years. Fans objected when he took some time off to expand a short story into a prequel novel called New Spring, so he decided to shelve his plans for additional prequels in favor of finishing off the last two volumes in the series. He rejected criticisms of the later volumes of the series slowing down in pace in order to concentrate on minor secondary characters at the expense of the main characters from the opening volumes but acknowledged that his structure for the tenth volume, Crossroads of Twilight (where he showed a major scene from the prior book, Winter's Heart, from the perspective of the main characters that were not involved in the scene), had not worked out as he had planned. Knife of Dreams, the eleventh volume, had a much more positive reception from critics and fans alike and Jordan announced the twelfth volume, which he had previously announced would have the working title A Memory of Light, would conclude the series. According to Forbes, Jordan had intended for it to be the final book "even if it reaches 2,000 pages."

Jordan's death, and completion by Sanderson
Jordan was diagnosed with the terminal heart disease primary amyloidosis with cardiomyopathy in December 2005, and while he intended to finish at least A Memory of Light even if the "worse comes to worst," he made preparations in case he was not able to complete the book: "I'm getting out notes, so if the worst actually happens, someone could finish A Memory of Light and have it end the way I want it to end."

With Jordan's death on 16 September 2007, the conclusion of the series was in question. On 7 December of that year, the publisher Tor Books announced that fantasy author Brandon Sanderson was to finish A Memory of Light. Sanderson, a longtime fan of the series, was chosen by Jordan's widow Harriet McDougal partly because she liked Sanderson's novels and partly because of a eulogy he had written for Jordan. Jordan had prepared extensive notes, which enabled Sanderson to complete the final book.

On 30 March 2009, Tor Books announced that A Memory of Light would be split into three volumes, with Brandon Sanderson citing timing and continuity reasons. By his estimate in early 2009, the book would have taken several years to write and would have reached 800,000 words. McDougal doubted that Jordan could have concluded it in a single volume. The three volumes were published from 2009 to 2013, as The Gathering Storm, Towers of Midnight, and A Memory of Light, with the last book using Jordan's title.

After A Memory of Light
Prior to his death, Jordan had often discussed adding an additional two prequels and an 'outrigger' sequel trilogy. In a Q&A following the release of A Memory of Light, Sanderson ruled out the completion of these works; Jordan had left very little in the way of notes for these additional novels – only two sentences in the case of the sequel trilogy. Sanderson addressed the subject again in a 2023 blog post, and stated that writing additional Wheel of Time works would have gone against the wishes of Robert Jordan.

Two cut portions of A Memory of Light were released as short stories in the years following the release of the main book. These were published in Unfettered anthologies, part of a charitable endeavour to support authors and artists with medical debt. River of Souls, a canonical segment removed from the published book due to pacing, was released in the first volume in 2013. A Fire in the Ways, a non-canon alternate sequence of events around the climax of the final book, was included in the third volume in 2019. A glossary to the series, The Wheel of Time Companion was released in 2015.

Themes and influences
The Wheel of Time is a novel from the modern fantasy genre, specifically high fantasy. The book is set in a world that is simultaneously the distant past and distant future of the real world, as a result of time being cyclical rather than linear. The opening of the first book establishes the concept:
 * The Wheel of Time turns, and Ages come and pass, leaving memories that become legend. Legend fades to myth, and even myth is long forgotten when the Age that gave it birth comes again. In one Age, called the Third Age by some, an Age yet to come, an Age long past, a wind rose...

Jordan acknowledged the influence of J. R. R. Tolkien, including deliberately modelling the setting of the first chapters on the Shire in The Lord of the Rings. Concepts drawn from monotheistic religions include the duality between good and evil and between "Creator" (Light) and Shai'tan, "The Dark One" (Shaitan is an Arabic word that, in Islamic contexts, is used as a name for the Devil or Satan). Other influences include Arthurian legends, Norse mythology and Irish mythology, as well as real life history. In addition, Jordan also drew influences from Eastern mythology, which was rare for a Western fantasy series. The concept of a wheel of time was drawn from Hinduism. Versions of the concept include the Yuga cycle in Hinduism and Kalachakra in Buddhism. The series was also influenced by the concepts of reincarnation and balance, and the symbol of the Aes Sedai resembles the yin and yang. The series also draws inspiration from Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace.

Fate is an important theme to the series. The series explores in great detail the implications of a common fantasy premise, in which an ordinary boy on the verge of adulthood discovers he is fated to lead a major struggle. It also deals with the divide between fate and free will. Some major characters are ta'veren, who have exceptional abilities to influence the course of history in a tumultuous period, but even they can only go so far as permitted by "The Pattern" that is being set by the Wheel of Time.

The series also featured alternative portrayals of the role of gender in society. The nature of magic in its world means that only women can safely use it. This disparity influences the power dynamics at multiple levels of its societies, including familial, communal and political levels; many of its societies are ruled by women.

Short stories
Jordan wrote two short stories within the franchise in the late 1990s. The first, "The Strike at Shayol Ghul", predates the main series by several thousand years. It was made available on the Internet and was later published in The World of Robert Jordan's The Wheel of Time. Jordan also wrote a short story entitled "New Spring", for the 1998 anthology Legends edited by Robert Silverberg. Jordan later expanded this into the stand-alone novel New Spring that was published in January 2004.

During Brandon Sanderson's work on A Memory of Light, two sections of the book were cut and later published as short stories in anthologies. The first, "River of Souls", was published in Unfettered: Tales by Masters of Fantasy (2013). The second, "A Fire Within the Ways" was published in Unfettered III in 2019. Unlike "River of Souls", "A Fire Within the Ways" is not considered canon.

Companion books
Tor Books published a companion book to the series, entitled The World of Robert Jordan's The Wheel of Time, in November 1997, which contains much hitherto unrevealed background information about the series including the first maps of the entire world and the Seanchan home continent. Jordan co-authored the book with Teresa Patterson. Jordan ruled the book broadly canonical but stated that it was written from the perspective of an historian within The Wheel of Time universe and was prone to errors of bias and guesswork.

On 3 November 2015, The Wheel of Time Companion: The People, Places, and History of the Bestselling Series was released in hardback format, written by Harriet McDougal, Alan Romanczuk, and Maria Simons from Tor Books. Alan Romanczuk and Maria Simons were Robert Jordan's editorial assistants. The book is an encapsulating glossary of the entire series. The authors began compiling material for the volume as early as 2005, and the final book was released after the series' conclusion.

Origins of The Wheel of Time by Michael Livingston was released on 8 November 2022.

Comic books
In 2004, Jordan sold the film, television, video game, and comic rights to the series to production company Red Eagle Entertainment. Dabel Brothers began adapting the series in comic book form, starting with the prequel New Spring in July 2005. The series initially ran on a monthly schedule, but then went on a three-year hiatus after the fifth issue. Red Eagle cited delays and changes to the creative team on the DB Pro end. The final three issues were ultimately completed and published in 2009–10. In 2009 Dabel moved on to their adaptation of the first book of the series proper, The Eye of the World. On March 17, 2009, they showcased ten pages of art from the prelude to the series "The Wheel of Time: Eye of the World #0 – Dragonmount" on their website. Dynamite Entertainment published 35 issues of Robert Jordan's The Wheel of Time: The Eye of the World comic book series, which concluded in March 2013.

When asked in a 2013 interview about whether the comics would continue their run, Harriet McDougal replied "Well, eventually, [we'll] do the whole thing, unless it stops selling in a dreadful way. In other words, I don't really know." The 43 New Spring and Eye of the World comics were later collected together and released as a series of six graphic novels, the last of which was released in February 2015.

Dynamite began publishing the comic adaptation Robert Jordan's The Wheel of Time: The Great Hunt in November 2023.

Games
There is a Wheel of Time MUD, identified as such or by the initialism WoTMUD, which is based on a world like that of the Wheel of Time but set in a time frame around 30 world years prior. It has been in operation almost continuously since 1993. Notably, the WoTMUD had gained written permission from the author to use his creation including all but major characters.

A computer game named The Wheel of Time was released in 1999. Over the course of the game, Aes Sedai must track down a robber following an assault on the White Tower, and prevent the Dark One from being released prematurely. She eventually learns of and executes a long-forgotten ritual at Shayol Ghul to ensure the Dark Lord remains sealed within the prison. While Jordan was consulted in the creation of the game, he did not write the storyline himself.

Starting in 1999, Precedence Entertainment released three sets of The Wheel of Time Collectible Card Game.

The Wheel of Time Roleplaying Game was released in 2001 from Wizards of the Coast using the d20 rules developed for the third edition of the Dungeons & Dragons game. The game had a single adventure module published in 2002, Prophecies of the Dragon. Shortly after the release of the adventure book Wizards of the Coast announced they would not be releasing any further products for the game. Robert Jordan cited some problems with the roleplaying game, such as storyline details in the adventure module that contradicted the books.

In early 2009 EA Games announced that they had bought the rights for a MMORPG, with the plan to publish it through the EA Partners-Program. The following year Obsidian Entertainment announced that they would be working on the project, for a PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and PC release. However, the project was seemingly dropped around 2014.

Early attempts
In a 2000 chat on CNN.com, Robert Jordan mentioned that NBC had purchased an option to do a miniseries of The Eye of the World. But he expressed doubts that the series would be made stating "key people involved in getting that contract together have left NBC." The series was optioned by Universal Pictures in 2008 for film adaptations, with plans to adapt The Eye of the World as the first film. Neither project ultimately emerged.

In February 2015, Red Eagle Entertainment paid air time to cable network FXX to air Winter Dragon, a low-budget 22-minute pilot for a potential The Wheel of Time series that allowed Red Eagle to hold on to the rights to the series. The pilot, based on the prologue to The Eye of the World, starred Max Ryan as Lews Therin Thelamon and Billy Zane as Ishamael and aired after Midnight with no announcements or publicity. Harriet McDougal initially stated she was unaware of the show ahead of time, and that the film rights to The Wheel of Time were set to revert to the Bandersnatch Group, her company, a few days later on 11 February 2015. Her comments triggered a slander lawsuit with Red Eagle, which was ultimately dismissed during settlement talks that July. In an interview with io9, Red Eagle Entertainment's CEO Rick Selvage stated "it was more of an [issue of] getting it on the air." A spokesman for FXX stated that the channel was paid to air the show, but Selvage hinted that it was indeed produced with a future series in mind. "We think there's huge demand for the television series internationally, and we're looking forward to producing it and getting it out in the marketplace." On 29 April 2016, Harriet McDougal confirmed that the legal issues had been resolved and that a TV series was in development.

Amazon Prime Video series
A new adaptation of the series was announced on April 20, 2017, produced by Sony Pictures Television in association with Red Eagle Entertainment and Radar Pictures, with Rafe Judkins as showrunner and executive producer. In February 2018, Amazon Studios announced a deal with Sony Pictures Television to co-develop the series for distribution on its streaming service Amazon Prime Video. The series was formally greenlit in October 2018. Principal photography for the first season began on 16 September 2019, was halted in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, but had resumed by April 2021 and concluded in May 2021. On May 20, 2021, Amazon renewed the series for a second season ahead of the series premiere. The Wheel of Time premiered on 19 November 2021. Filming for the second season began on 19 July 2021, and concluded in February 2022. On 21 July 2022, ahead of the second-season premiere, Amazon renewed the series for a third season. The second season premiered on 1 September 2023, and combined elements from both The Great Hunt (1990) and The Dragon Reborn (1991), the second and third books in the series. The third season will cover the fourth and fifth books, The Shadow Rising (1992) and The Fires of Heaven (1993).

Reception
The eighth through fourteenth novels in the series each reached number one on the New York Times Best Seller list. After its completion, the series was nominated for a Hugo Award. , the series has sold over 90 million copies worldwide, making it one of the best-selling epic fantasy series since The Lord of the Rings.

Fan culture
Many fans of The Wheel of Time attend Dragon Con, which had an exclusive Wheel of Time content track from 2001 through 2012. The Wheel of Time now has its own annual convention, JordanCon, which has been held annually in Atlanta, Georgia, since 2009. The 2020 convention was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Instead, it took place over the Internet, some aspects being held through the use of the Zoom platform. The 2023 convention in April was the 15th anniversary of the founding of JordanCon.

A new convention titled WoTCon took place from July 8–10, 2022, in Dublin, OH. This convention was created to be dedicated to the world of The Wheel of Time in all media aspects: novels, social media, and the television series. The second convention took place July 14–16, 2023.

title: The Wheel of Time


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The Eye of the World

The Eye of the World is a high fantasy novel by American writer Robert Jordan, the first book of The Wheel of Time series. It was published by Tor Books and released on 15 January 1990. The original unabridged audiobook is read by Michael Kramer and Kate Reading. A later unabridged edition is read by Rosamund Pike. Upon first publication, The Eye of the World consisted of one prologue and 53 chapters, with an additional prologue authored upon re-release. The book was a critical and commercial success. Critics praised the tone, the themes, and the similarity to Lord of the Rings (although some criticized it for that).

On 2 January 2002, The Eye of the World was re-released as two separate books aimed at a young adult market, with larger text and a handful of illustrations. These were From the Two Rivers and To the Blight. The former included an additional prologue entitled "Ravens", focusing on Egwene al'Vere. The American Library Association put The Eye of the World on its 2003 list of Popular Paperbacks for Young Adults.

After the release of The Wheel of Time television series, The Eye of the World made the January 2022 The New York Times Best Seller list in the mass market category and was number one on the audio fiction list.

Plot
The arrival of a mysterious noblewoman to the remote village of Emond's Field in the Two Rivers precedes an attack on the town by a force of humanoid monsters called Trollocs. The woman reveals herself to be Moiraine Damodred, one of the Aes Sedai, and warns that the servants of the Dark One are seeking one of three young men from the village: Rand al'Thor, Perrin Aybara and Matrim Cauthon. They leave with Moiraine and her companion, the Warder Lan Mandragoran, and are joined by Egwene al'Vere, in whom Moiraine sees a potential Aes Sedai; the gleeman Thom Merrilin; and later the Wisdom Nynaeve al'Meara, a healer who learns she can also channel the One Power. Pursued by increasing numbers of Trollocs, the travellers take refuge in the abandoned city of Shadar Logoth, where Mat steals a cursed dagger, thus becoming infected by the malevolent Mashadar.

While escaping the city the travelers are separated; Rand, Mat, and Thom travel by boat to Whitebridge, where Thom is lost allowing Rand and Mat to escape a Myrddraal, the deadly, eyeless creatures who lead the Trollocs. In Caemlyn, Rand befriends an Ogier named Loial. Trying to catch a glimpse of the recently captured False Dragon, Rand befriends Elayne Trakand, heir apparent to the throne of Andor, and her brothers Gawyn Trakand and Galad Damodred. Rand is then taken before Queen Morgase, her Aes Sedai advisor, Elaida; and Captain-General of the Queen's Guard Gareth Bryne, and released without charge, in spite of Elaida's grave pronouncements regarding Rand.

Egwene and Perrin are guided separately to Caemlyn by Elyas Machera, a man who can communicate telepathically with wolves and who claims that Perrin can do the same. The three run afoul of the Children of the Light, where Perrin kills two for the death of a wolf at their hands and is sentenced to death. Moiraine, Lan, and Nynaeve rescue Egwene and Perrin, and all are reunited with Rand and Mat. Thereafter Moiraine determines that Mat must travel to Tar Valon, the Aes Sedai's center of power, to overcome the influence of Shadar Logoth.

Loial warns Moiraine of a threat to the Eye of the World, a pool of Saidin untouched by the Dark One's influence, which is confirmed by vivid and disturbing dreams Mat, Rand, and Perrin have had. The Eye of the World is protected by Someshta (the Green Man) and contains one of the seven seals on the Dark One's prison, the Dragon banner of Lews Therin Telamon, and the Horn of Valere. At the civilized world's border, the group enters the Blight (the polluted region under the Dark One's control) to protect the Eye. After a pursuit, they meet the Green Man and he reveals the Eye. The group is then confronted by the Forsaken Aginor and Balthamel. As the battle ensues, Balthamel and the Green Man slay each other. Soon after, Rand defeats Aginor and uses the Eye to decimate the Trolloc army and defeat Ba'alzamon. As a result, Moiraine concludes that Rand is the Dragon Reborn, but her opinion and all other details of the final battle are kept from all the male members of the group except Lan.

Characters

 * Rand al'Thor: A shepherd from the Two Rivers, and, unbeknownst to him, the Dragon Reborn. He was one of the three boys Moiraine deduced might be the Dragon Reborn. He, Mat, and Perrin are considered ta'veren. He can channel saidin, and demonstrated that by unconsciously healing Bela (his horse) when they were fleeing from Myrddraal and Trollocs. He also saved the forces of Fal Dara through his dreams. He is the (adopted) son of Tam and Kari al'Thor. He and Mat were separated from the rest of the group during the novel. He is described as having grey eyes and "reddish" hair and being extremely stubborn.
 * Matrim Cauthon: A shepherd from the Two Rivers, a prankster, considered by most to be untrustworthy, except for his friends. He was one of the three boys Moiriaine deduced might be the Dragon Reborn. He, Rand, and Perrin are considered ta'veren. He steals a dagger from the cursed city Shadar Logoth, and is thus tainted by the evil that dwells there. His ta'veren functions in a way as to provide him luck.
 * Perrin Aybara: A blacksmith from the Two Rivers. He was one of the three boys Moiraine deduced might be the Dragon Reborn. He is a "Wolfbrother", someone who can communicate with wolves, as becoming more wolf-like in his abilities and demeanor. He, Rand, and Mat are considered ta'veren. He and Egwene were separated from the rest of the group during the novel, but later meet up with them again. Due to him being a Wolfbrother, he has "burnished golden" eyes that are luminous in the dark.
 * Egwene al'Vere: A woman from the Two Rivers, the apprentice to Nynaeve al'Meara, the Wisdom, and having a close relationship with Rand al'Thor, Matrim Cauthon, and Perrin Aybara. She is chosen by Moiraine to train in Tar Valon because she has the "spark" that allows her to channel. She and Perrin were separated from the rest of the group during the novel, but later meet up with them again. She is described as having "huge brown eyes", and dark hair.
 * Nynaeve al'Meara: A woman from the Two Rivers, the "Wisdom" of Emond's Field, the youngest ever chosen. She leaves to return Rand, Perrin, Mat, and Egwene to the village, but journeys with them once she realizes she cannot convince them, and that she can channel. She, Moiraine, and Lan are separated from the rest of the group. During this time, she begins developing feelings for Lan. She is described as having a temper and being especially headstrong.

Themes and allusions
Robert Jordan has stated that he consciously intended the early chapters of The Eye of the World to evoke the Shire of Middle-earth in J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings. Despite their similarities, these two works also differ in themes. For instance, both Jordan and Tolkien created narratives that explored power. However, The Eye of the World discussed how it can be deployed whereas The Lord of the Rings was more focused on its renunciation. Rand needed to wield his power so he could successfully fight an emerging war with the Dark One. This theme is antithetical to Frodo's quest to destroy the ring of Sauron, a source of immense power that also corrupted its wearer.

Reception
PBS's The Great American Read named The Eye of the World "one of America's best-loved novels," coming in at #62 on their top 100 list.

First printing

 * 1990 (February), paperback. Tor Books, United States. ISBN 0-8125-0048-2
 * 1990 (15 January), hardcover. Saint Martin's Press, United States. ISBN 0-312-85009-3
 * 1990 (12 July), hardcover. Little, Brown, United Kingdom. ISBN 0-356-19068-4
 * 1990 (12 July), hardcover. Orbit, United Kingdom. ISBN 1-85723-353-0
 * 1992 (15 July), paperback. Orbit, United Kingdom. ISBN 1-85723-076-0

Reprinting

 * 1993 (October), paperback. Tom Doherty Associates, United States. ISBN 0-812-51181-6
 * 1995 (December), audio book. Gallant / Publishing Mills, United States. ISBN 1-879371-52-9
 * 1999 (October), hardcover with library binding. Sagebrush, United States. ISBN 0-613-17634-0
 * 2000 (September), paperback. Tor Books, United States. ISBN 0-8125-7995-X

Divided printing
In January 2002, Starscape Books released The Eye of the World in two separate volumes. The first was titled From the Two Rivers (ISBN 0-7653-4184-0), the second To the Blight (ISBN 0-7653-4221-9). ATOM, a British publishing house, printed both volumes (ISBN 1-904233-20-1 and ISBN 1-904233-19-8) the following March.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Eye of the World


text:
The Great Hunt

The Great Hunt is a fantasy novel by American author Robert Jordan, the second book of The Wheel of Time series. It was published by Tor Books and released on November 15, 1990. The Great Hunt consists of a prologue and 50 chapters. In 2004 The Great Hunt was re-released as two separate books, The Hunt Begins and New Threads in the Pattern.

The story features young heroes Rand al'Thor, Mat Cauthon, and Perrin Aybara, who join Shienaren soldiers in a quest to retrieve the Horn of Valere. At the same time, Egwene al'Vere, Nynaeve al'Meara, and Elayne Trakand go to the White Tower in Tar Valon to learn Aes Sedai ways. Finally, an exotic army invades the western coast.

Prologue
The Forsaken Ba'alzamon presides over a clandestine meeting. In addition to Forsaken and Darkfriends, Ba'alzamon's known subordinates, the meeting includes two Aes Sedai.

The Hunt Begins
At Fal Dara in Shienar, following the events in The Eye of the World, Lan Mandragoran instructs Rand in sword fighting. Mat Cauthon's condition worsens through his psychic attachment to a parasitic dagger from Shadar Logoth. Darkfriend Padan Fain is imprisoned. The Amyrlin Seat, Siuan Sanche, arrives, and identifies Rand al'Thor as the Dragon Reborn. Fain is subsequently freed by Darkforces, stealing the Horn of Valere and the tainted dagger.

Rand, Perrin Aybara, and Mat accompany a Shienaran party southbound in pursuit, under the leadership of Lord Ingtar Shinowa and guided by a tracker named Hurin who can literally smell past violence. The Amyrlin departs for Tar Valon, taking Nynaeve al'Meara and Egwene al'Vere for Aes Sedai training. Moiraine Damodred breaks off, unbidden, to seek answers. In Tar Valon, Nynaeve and Egwene befriend daughter-heir Elayne Trakand and the clairvoyant Min Farshaw. Nynaeve passes the test to become Accepted, a rank in the White Tower below Aes Sedai and above Novice.

Rand, the Ogier Loial, and Hurin sleep near a stone. They awaken, separated from the Shienaran party, and transported to an alternate world similar to their own, but deserted and distorted. Rand suspects that he activated the stone by unconsciously channeling saidin in his sleep. (Rand's struggle to accept his channeling ability is a recurring element in the novel.) However, Egwene dreams of a woman standing over Rand while he slept, whose "eyes seemed to shine like the moon".

In this alternate world, Rand meets Ba'alzamon and has a heron's image (the crest of his sword) branded into his palm in a fight. Rand and Hurin rescue the mysterious but beautiful Selene from monsters, and return by a different portal stone to their own world, ahead of Fain's and Ingtar's groups. When Fain does arrive, Rand and Loial sneak into his camp and retrieve the Horn and dagger. Still behind, and at a loss to explain Rand's disappearance, Lord Ingtar's group pursue Fain with the aid of Perrin, who uses his telepathic ability to communicate with wolves, which in turn can track Fain's Trollocs (the Dark One's bestial foot-soldiers).

Rand's party journeys to Cairhien, where Rand finds gleeman Thom Merrilin, whom he thought dead after the events in The Eye of the World. Rand and Loial are attacked by trollocs and, during their escape, damage the Chapter House of the Illuminator's Guild, a society retaining knowledge of fireworks.

Rand receives unwanted, high-profile invitations from House Damodred and from the King. Hurin is attacked at the inn by Fain's forces, and the Horn and dagger are again stolen. Ingtar's group arrives in Cairhien. Hurin traces the Darkfriends to Barthanes Damodred's manor. Using the now-valuable invitation, the path is traced further to a Waygate in the premises. However, they are prevented from pursuit by Machin Shin. Via Barthanes, Padan Fain tells them that he is taking the Horn to the port city of Falme in Toman Head. Thom's apprentice Dena is murdered for Thom's involvement with Rand.

To Toman Head
The invading Seanchan and their exotic beasts have occupied Falme. Fain gives the Horn to High Lord Turak of the Seanchan. Geofram Bornhald, leader of the zealous religious group Children of the Light, also known as the Whitecloaks, is preparing to attack the Seanchan.

Ingtar's group tries a different Waygate in a nearby Ogier stedding, but they find Machin Shin there too. Rand takes them via a portal stone instead, but they lose months of time. At the White Tower, Liandrin Guirale lures Egwene and Nynaeve, along with an accompanying Elayne and Min, to Toman Head via the Ways, handing them over to the Seanchan. Egwene is collared with an a'dam, a device used by the Seanchan to control channelers, while Min is held hostage. Nynaeve and Elayne escape.

Elayne and Nynaeve rescue Egwene from the Seanchan and attempt to flee the city. Meanwhile, Ingtar, Rand, Hurin, Mat, and Perrin enter Falme and retrieve the Horn and dagger, Rand slaying Turak. Ingtar reveals himself as a Darkfriend, but redeems himself when he dies fighting. However, the Whitecloaks attack the Seanchan, leaving Rand's group trapped perilously between the advancing lines. Mat blows the Horn of Valere, summoning dead heroes, including Artur Hawkwing. The banner of the Dragon Reborn is unfurled, and they ride to battle against the Seanchan.

Ba'alzamon appears, and he and Rand fight, the duel projected into the air above Falme. Rand allows himself to be stabbed with Ba'alzamon's staff, giving him an opening to stab Ba'alzamon through the heart with his heron-mark sword.

The battle over and the Seanchan defeated, Rand is found by Min and hauled into a bed to recuperate. Selene arrives, touches the sleeping Rand, reveals herself to be the Forsaken Lanfear, and disappears. When Rand awakens, he finds Ingtar's army under the dragon's banner, and they ask to pledge to him.

title: The Great Hunt


text:
A Crown of Swords

A Crown of Swords is a fantasy novel by American author Robert Jordan, the seventh book of The Wheel of Time. It was published by Tor Books and released on May 15, 1996. A Crown of Swords consists of a prologue and 41 chapters.

Plot summary
A Crown of Swords has three primary plotlines:

 * Rand al'Thor, the Dragon Reborn, prepares to attack the Forsaken Sammael in Illian while enjoying life with his friend, Min Farshaw, and attempting to quell the rebellion by nobles in Cairhien, during which Padan Fain severely injures him. After recovering, Rand, accompanied by Asha'man, defeats Sammael in Shadar Logoth, where Sammael is destroyed by Mashadar. Rand then takes the crown of Illian: formerly the Laurel Crown, but now called the 'Crown of Swords'.
 * Egwene al'Vere and Siuan Sanche attempt to manipulate the Aes Sedai in Salidar against Elaida's Aes Sedai in the White Tower. Investigating Myrelle Berengari, Egwene exploits the transfer of Lan Mandragoran's Warder bond from Moiraine to Myrelle, to force Myrelle and Nisao to swear fealty to her.
 * In the city of Ebou Dar in Altara, Elayne Trakand, Nynaeve al'Meara, Aviendha, and Mat Cauthon search for a ter'angreal, the Bowl of the Winds, to break the unnatural heat brought by the Dark One's manipulation of climate. They find it and enlist the help of the Kin and the Atha'an Miere. They also confront a Gholam. Mat is left behind and caught in the fighting as the Seanchan invade Ebou Dar.

title: A Crown of Swords


text:
Winter's Heart

Winter's Heart is a fantasy novel by American author Robert Jordan, the ninth book of his series Wheel of Time. It was published by Tor Books and released on November 7, 2000. Upon its release, it immediately rose to the #1 position on the New York Times hardcover fiction bestseller list, making it the second Wheel of Time book to reach the #1 position on that list. It remained on the list for the next two months. Winter's Heart consists of a prologue and 35 chapters.

The book's title is a reference to the increasing coldness of Rand al'Thor's personality and to the return of winter following the reversal in the previous book, The Path of Daggers, of the unnatural heat caused by the Dark One's manipulation of the climate.

Winter's Heart was the first Wheel of Time book for which the prologue, entitled "Snow", was first sold as an ebook in advance of the physical release of the book. "Snow" was released by the Scribner imprint of Simon & Schuster in September 2000, two months before the publication of Winter's Heart.

Plot summary
Many of the events of Winter's Heart take place simultaneously with the events of the next book, Crossroads of Twilight. Perrin Aybara and his followers pursue the Shaido Aiel who kidnapped his wife, Faile Bashere, while Elayne Trakand attempts to suppress rebellious nobles.

Mat Cauthon is trapped in the city of Ebou Dar in Altara, under Seanchan occupation. His escape is disrupted by a Seanchan noblewoman named Tuon, the heir to the Seanchan Crystal Throne; and Mat, having heard a prophecy of his own marriage to the Daughter of the Nine Moons, referring to Tuon herself, kidnaps her during his and his men's escape from the city.

Rand al'Thor is appointed a Warder by Elayne Trakand, Aviendha, and Min Farshaw; and later kills most of the Asha'man traitors in Far Madding. Lan also kills Toram Riatin in a duel. Caught by guards, Rand is imprisoned for a short time but is set free by Cadsuane and the other Aes Sedai. Rand and Nynaeve al'Meara Travel to Shadar Logoth. There, defended by Cadsuane Melaidhrin's Aes Sedai and loyal Asha'man against the Forsaken, Rand and Nynaeve use the Choedan Kal, two giant sa'angreal, to cleanse saidin of the Dark One's influence. In the process, both Shadar Logoth, the access key to the female Choedan Kal, and the female Choedan Kal itself are destroyed.

Release details

 * 2000, U.S., Tor Books (ISBN 0-312-86425-6), Pub date November 7, 2000, hardcover (First edition)
 * 2000, UK, Orbit (ISBN 1-85723-984-9), Pub date November 9, 2000, hardcover
 * 2001, U.S., Tor Books (ISBN 0-312-87775-7), Pub date February ?, 2001, hardcover
 * 2001, UK, Orbit (ISBN 1-84149-071-7), Pub date November 1, 2001, paperback
 * 2002, U.S., Tor Books (ISBN 0-8125-7558-X), Pub date January ?, 2002, paperback
 * 2003, U.S., Rebound by Sagebrush (ISBN 0-613-61150-0), Pub date July ?, 2003, hardcover (Library binding)

Critical reception
For the Centre Daily Times, Jacob W. Michaels noted that, by this book, the series is "beginning to drag" due to the complexity of the story and the number of main characters. Despite entire chapters dedicated to backstory, one of the primary characters, rebel leader Egwene, is almost entirely ignored and separated from the plot, which Michaels complained was an ongoing trend of at least one overlooked character in each book in the series. He did say that the final scene of the book, which changed and recontextualized much of the prior works, was worth its entry in the series, but only for those already invested from reading the rest of the books.

title: Winter's Heart


text:
Mrs. Miniver (character)

Mrs. Miniver is a fictional character created by Jan Struther in 1937 for a series of newspaper columns for The Times, later adapted into a film of the same name.

Origin
In the 1930s Jan Struther started to write for Punch magazine, and this brought her to the attention of The Times newspaper, where Peter Fleming asked her to write a series of columns for the paper, about "an ordinary sort of woman who leads an ordinary sort of life – rather like yourself". The resulting character that she created, Mrs. Kay Miniver, proved a huge success from the character's inception in 1937, and the columns were subsequently published in book form in 1939. On the outbreak of war, this book became the basis for a patriotic and sentimental American film, Mrs. Miniver, released in 1942, which won six Academy Awards, including Best Picture.

The Times columns were short reflections on everyday life, based in part on Struther's own family and experiences. While the columns started out as lighthearted domestic scenes where the outside world barely intruded, the approach of World War II slowly brought darker global concerns into Mrs. Miniver's world. One of the more memorable pieces appears near the middle of the series, where the Minivers get gas masks.

Book publication
The columns were first published in book form in 1939, shortly after the outbreak of World War II. Struther stopped the regular newspaper columns that year, but wrote a series of letters from Mrs. Miniver, expanding on the character's wartime experiences. These were published in later editions.

The book became an enormous success, especially in the United States, where Struther went on a lecture tour shortly after the book's release.

The U.S. was still officially neutral, but as war with Nazi Germany intensified in Europe, the tribulations of the Miniver family engaged the sympathy of the American public sufficiently that President Franklin D. Roosevelt credited it for hastening America's involvement in the war. Winston Churchill is said to have claimed that it had done more for the Allied cause than a flotilla of battleships. Churchill is further quoted by Bernard Wasserstein in his book, "Barbarism and Civilization," as saying that the book (and later the film) was worth "six divisions of war effort."

In 1942, when the film came out, Roosevelt ordered it rushed to theaters.

Film
The film adaptation of Mrs. Miniver was produced by MGM in 1942 with Greer Garson in the leading role and William Wyler directing. Under the influence of the American Office of War Information, the film attempted to undermine Hollywood's prewar depiction of Britain as a glamorous bastion of social privilege, anachronistic habits and snobbery in favour of more democratic, modern images. To this end, the social status enjoyed by the Miniver family in the print version was downgraded and increased attention was given to the erosion of class barriers under the pressures of wartime. In 1942, the film won an Oscar in the Best Picture category and both Greer Garson and Teresa Wright won an Oscar in the Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress categories, respectively. The film grossed $5,358,000 in North America (the highest for any MGM film at the time) and $3,520,000 abroad. In Britain, it was named the top box office attraction of 1942. 555 of the 592 film critics polled by American magazine Film Daily named it the best film of 1942.

A sequel to Mrs. Miniver, The Miniver Story was made by the same studio in 1950 with Greer Garson and Walter Pidgeon reprising their original roles. The characters were based on those in the original film, but their creator, Jan Struther, did not participate in the sequel.

Radio
In 1944, CBS Radio presented a Friday-night series named Mrs. Miniver starring Judith Evelyn and Karl Swenson. They were soon replaced by Gertrude Warner and John Moore. But the show only lasted 9 months.

Television
In 1960, CBS Television presented Mrs. Miniver starring Maureen O'Hara as Mrs Miniver, Leo Genn as Clem Miniver, Juliet Mills and Keir Dullea. The adaptation was by George Bart and was directed by Marc Daniels.

title: Mrs. Miniver (character)


text:
User talk:Cable Hills

Well hello there. Welcome to the 'pedia! It appears that you have made some positive changes to the place. Hope you like us wikipedians and decide to stay. Cheers! --maveric149

title: User talk:Cable Hills


text:
Leopoldo Galtieri

Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri Castelli (15 July 1926 – 12 January 2003) was an Argentine general who served as President of Argentina from December 1981 to June 1982. Galtieri exercised his control over Argentina as a military ruler during the National Reorganization Process as leader of the Third Junta with Jorge Anaya and Basilio Lami Dozo.

Galtieri was chief combat engineer of the Argentine Army and a supporter of the 1976 military coup d'état which helped him become commander-in-chief of the army in 1980. Galtieri overthrew Roberto Viola and was appointed President and established Argentina as a strong Cold War ally of NATO and the United States, while introducing fiscally conservative economic reforms, and increasing Argentine covert support for the anti-communist Contras guerrillas during the Nicaraguan civil war. In domestic policy, General Galtieri continued the Dirty War with the 601 Intelligence Battalion death squad reporting directly to him.

Galtieri's declining popularity due to his human rights abuses and the worsening economic stagnation caused him to order an invasion of the Falkland Islands in April 1982. Galtieri was removed from power after Argentina’s defeat by the British armed forces in the Falklands War in June, which led to the restoration of democracy and, in 1986, his court martial prosecution and conviction for war crimes and other offenses. Galtieri was pardoned by Carlos Menem in 1989 and lived in obscurity until his arrest for new charges shortly before his death in 2003.

Early life
Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri was born on 15 July 1926 in Caseros, Buenos Aires Province to working-class Italian Argentine parents Francisco Rosario Galtieri and Nélida Victoria Castelli. In 1943, at 17 years-old, he enrolled at the National Military Academy to study civil engineering, and his early military career was as an officer in the engineering branch of the Argentine Army. As well as rising through the ranks of the military, he continued his studies in engineering until the mid-1950s. In 1949 he graduated from the US Army School of the Americas. In 1958, he became a professor of engineering at the Senior War College.

Galtieri was married to Lucía Noemí Gentili, and the couple had one son and two daughters.

Rise to power
In 1975, after more than 25 years as a combat engineer, Galtieri became commander of the Argentine engineering corps. He was an enthusiastic supporter of the March 1976 coup d'état that overthrew President Isabel Perón and started the self-styled National Reorganisation Process, the establishment of a right-wing military junta government in Argentina. This helped him rise through the ranks, becoming a major general in 1977, and commander-in-chief of the army in 1980 with the rank of lieutenant general. During the junta's rule, Congress was suspended, trade unions, political parties, and provincial governments were banned, and in what became known as the Dirty War, between 9,000 and 30,000 people deemed left-wing subversives disappeared from society with torture and mass executions being commonplace. Argentina's economy had been in dire condition prior to the coup and recovered for a short time. An impending economic collapse was one of the main justifications for the overthrow of Perón and the civilian government.

In March 1981, Galtieri visited the United States and was warmly received, as the Reagan administration viewed the regime as a bulwark against communism. National Security Advisor Richard V. Allen described him as a "majestic general". An adherent to the Argentine military's Cold War-era doctrine of "ideological frontiers", Galtieri secured his country's support for Contra rebel groups opposing the Socialist Sandinista government in Nicaragua during the Nicaraguan Revolution. In August, he sent advisers to help organize the Nicaraguan Democratic Force (FDN, for a time the principal Contra group), as well as training FDN leaders in Argentine bases. His support for this initiative allowed Galtieri to remove a number of rival generals.

Presidency
On 22 December 1981, Galtieri was appointed President of Argentina one week after ousting General Roberto Viola, who had been in power since March. Officially Viola resigned due to a health issue and designated Interior Minister Horacio Liendo as his successor. In reality, Viola was removed from power due to his regime's inability to reverse the economic crisis which caused infighting within the military.

Galtieri retained direct control of the army whilst President of the governing Military Junta and did not appoint a new commander-in-chief.

Political policy
Galtieri instituted limited political reforms which allowed the expression of dissent, and anti-junta demonstrations soon became common, as did agitation for a return to democracy.

Economic policy
Galtieri appointed conservative economist and publisher Roberto Alemann as Economy Minister. Alemann inherited an economy in deep recession in the aftermath of José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz's economic policies of the late 1970s. Alemann slashed spending, began selling off government-owned industries (with only minor success), enacted a tight monetary policy, and ordered salaries frozen (amid 130% inflation).

The Central Bank Circular 1050, which tied mortgage rates to the value of the US dollar locally, was maintained, however, leading to further deepening of the crisis; GDP fell by 5%, and business investment by 20% over the weakened levels of 1981.

One of Galtieri's closest allies, the head of the First Army Corps, General Guillermo Suárez Mason, was named Chairman of Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales (YPF), at the time the state petroleum concern, and the largest company of any type in Argentina. Suárez Mason's role would contribute to a US$6 billion loss for the company, the largest recorded corporate loss in the world, up to that point.

Foreign policy
Galtieri supported the Central Intelligence Agency in its fight against the Sandinistas in Nicaragua, while he was warmly welcomed during his visit to the White House. Argentina support became the principal source of funds and training for the Contras during Galtieri's tenure.

Argentine military and intelligence cooperation with the Reagan Administration ended in 1982 when Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands.

Falklands War

By April 1982, Galtieri had been in office for four months and his popularity was low. On 2 April, on his orders, Argentine forces invaded the Falkland Islands, a United Kingdom territory subject to a long-standing Argentine claim.

Initially the invasion was popular in Argentina, and the anti-junta demonstrations were replaced by patriotic demonstrations in support of Galtieri.

Galtieri and most of his government mistakenly believed the United Kingdom would not respond militarily.

The British government led by the prime minister, Margaret Thatcher, dispatched a naval task force to retake the islands militarily if Argentina refused to comply with a United Nations resolution demanding an immediate Argentine withdrawal. Argentina did not comply with the resolution which resulted in a surrender to British forces on 14 June 1982.

Defeat, fall from power, trial and prison
On 14 June 1982, the Falklands' capital, Stanley, was retaken by British forces. The fact that an administration ruled by military figures failed to contain the British armed response provoked an unprecedented crisis inside the Junta. Galtieri was blamed for the defeat and was removed from power, and he spent the next 18 months at a well-protected country retreat while democracy was restored to Argentina. Along with other members of the former junta, he was arrested in late 1983 and charged in a military court with human rights violations during the Dirty War and with mismanaging the Falklands War. The Argentine Army's internal investigation, known as the Rattenbach report after the general who led it, recommended that those responsible for the misconduct of the war be prosecuted under the Code of Military Justice. In 1986 he was sentenced to twelve years in prison.

Galtieri was cleared of the civil rights charges in December 1985, but (together with the Air Force and Navy commanders-in-chief) in May 1986 he was found guilty of mishandling the war and sentenced to prison. All three appealed in a civil court, and the prosecution appealed for heavier sentences. In November 1988 the original sentences were confirmed, and all three commanders were stripped of their rank. In 1989, Galtieri and 39 other officers of the dictatorship received President Carlos Menem's pardon.

Later life, further accusations
Galtieri was heavily blamed for Argentina's defeat in the Falklands War. Following his release from prison, he moved to the Villa Devoto suburb of Buenos Aires, and lived modestly with his wife Lucía. He became a recluse and refused most requests for interviews by journalists, though in a rare interview he stated he had "no regrets" over anything he had done during the Dirty War. He lived on an army pension of 9,000 pesos per month, and attempted to claim a Presidential pension, but a judge denied it. In her ruling, the judge stated that his presidency had been illegal due to his never having been elected, and she also ordered him to pay court costs. In May 2002, he was invited to the military parade of the Argentine Army for the celebrations of Argentine Army Day (Día del Ejército Argentino): the presence of the former "president de facto" caused a huge controversy in public opinion after he was confronted and questioned by the journalist Martín Ciccioli in the television programme Kaos en la Ciudad.

In July 2002, new civil charges were brought concerning the kidnapping of children and the disappearance of 18 leftist sympathizers in the late 1970s (while Galtieri was commander of the Second Army Corps), and the disappearance or death of three Spanish citizens at about the same time. Galtieri faced prosecution with 28 other officials, but due to his poor health, he was allowed to remain at home.

Death
Leopoldo Galtieri underwent surgery for pancreatic cancer on 16 August 2002 at a hospital in Buenos Aires. He died there of a heart attack on 12 January 2003, aged 76. His body was interred in a small mausoleum at La Chacarita Cemetery.

title: Leopoldo Galtieri


text:
Sigismund I the Old

Sigismund I the Old (Zygmunt I Stary, Žygimantas II Senasis; 1 January 1467 – 1 April 1548) was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1506 until his death in 1548. Sigismund I was a member of the Jagiellonian dynasty, the son of Casimir IV and younger brother of Kings John I Albert and Alexander I Jagiellon. He was nicknamed "the Old" in later historiography to distinguish him from his son and successor, Sigismund II Augustus. Before ascending to the Polish and Lithuanian thrones, he was Duke of Głogów from 1499, Duke of Opava from 1501, and governor of Silesia from 1504 on behalf of his brother, King Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary.

Sigismund was born in the town of Kozienice in 1467 as the fifth son of Casimir IV and his wife Elizabeth of Austria. He was one of thirteen children and was not expected to assume the throne after his father. Sigismund's eldest brother and rightful heir Vladislaus II instead became the King of Bohemia, Hungary and Croatia as the successor to George of Poděbrady in Bohemia and then to Matthias Corvinus in Hungary, thus temporarily uniting these kingdoms. When Casimir died, the Polish-Lithuanian realm was divided between the remaining two older sons, with John Albert being crowned King of Poland, and Alexander as Grand Duke of Lithuania. Alexander inherited Poland following John Albert's sudden death in 1501. Hence, Sigismund's reign only began when he succeeded Alexander to both titles in 1506 at the age of 39.

A capable monarch and a patron of arts, Sigismund established Polish rule over Ducal Prussia and annexed the Duchy of Mazovia with Warsaw, while retaining the nation's wealth and prominence in the region. He made sure that his nephew Albert, Duke of Prussia, and Albert's Protestant successors would pay feudal homage or tribute to Polish monarchs as a sign of political and diplomatic dependence. This was observed until the Treaty of Bromberg in 1657 when Prussia gained its sovereignty. Sigismund and his commander Jan Amor Tarnowski also defeated Moldavia at Obertyn in 1531, and Muscovy in 1535, thereby strengthening the country's eastern borders. His 42-year reign was further marked by decisive contributions to Polish architecture, cuisine, language, and customs, especially at the behest of his second wife, the Italian-born Bona Sforza. Italian styles and fashions dominated at the height of the Polish Renaissance and Polish Golden Age, which developed the Catholic identity of Poland. He was commemorated on a contemporary 200-złoty banknote.

Sigismund was married twice, first to noblewoman Barbara Zápolya from Hungary and then to Bona Sforza, the daughter of Gian Galeazzo Sforza, Duke of Milan. Their only son and the last Jagiellon king, Sigismund Augustus, was co-crowned vivente rege in 1529 and formally assumed throne when Sigismund the Old died in 1548.

Early life and coronation
The son of King Casimir IV Jagiellon and Elisabeth Habsburg of Austria, Sigismund followed his brothers John Albert and Alexander to the Polish throne. Their eldest brother Vladislaus became king of Bohemia, Hungary, and Croatia. Sigismund was christened as the namesake of his maternal great-grandfather, Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund.

When Casimir died in 1492, Sigismund was his only son without any titles or land. From 1495 to 1496, he petitioned his brother Alexander to provide him with land, and Elisabeth of Austria attempted to install him on the Austrian throne. Both efforts failed. In 1497, King John I Albert, his older brother, led an invasion of Moldavia that was intended to place Sigismund on its throne. This, too, was a disastrous failure. Finally, his eldest brother Vladislaus II, King of Bohemia and Hungary, granted him the duchies of Głogów (1499) and Opava (1501), and in 1504 Sigismund became governor of Silesia and Lower Lusatia.

John I Albert died suddenly in 1501, and was succeeded by Alexander I, who died in 1506. After his death, Sigismund arrived in Vilnius, where he was elected by the Lithuanian Ducal Council on 13 September 1506 as Grand Duke of Lithuania, contrary to the Union of Mielnik (1501), which proposed a joint Polish-Lithuanian election of a monarch. On 8 December 1506, during the session of the Polish Senate in Piotrków, Sigismund was elected King of Poland. He arrived in Kraków on 20 January 1507 and was crowned four days later in Wawel Cathedral by Primate Andrzej Boryszewski.

Crown of the Kingdom of Poland

The internal situation in Poland was characterised by broad authorisation of the Chamber of Deputies, confirmed and extended in the constitution of Nihil novi. During Alexander's reign, the law of Nihil novi had been instituted, which forbade kings of Poland from enacting laws without the consent of the Sejm. Sigismund had little control over the act, unlike the senators, whom he personally appointed. Eventually, during his reign, Sigismund benefited from the advice of the local nobility, competent ministers in charge of the royal judiciary system, and the wealthy influential treasurers of Kraków. Although he was reluctant to the parliamentary system and political independence of the nobility, he recognised the authority of legal norms, supported legalism and summoned annual sessions of the Sejm, usually obtaining funds on state defence. However he was unsuccessful at attempting to create a permanent fund for defence from the annual income tax. Despite this, in 1527 he established a conscript army and the bureaucracy needed to finance it. He set up the legal codes that formalised serfdom in Poland, placing the peasants into the private estates of nobles.

Likely related to tax matters was an unsuccessful attempt on the life of the king, made on 5 May 1523. The identity of the would-be assassin - who shot the ruler while he was strolling in the evening around the cloisters of the Wawel castle - and his potential supporters was never established. Unclear motives remained after the assassination attempt. Three weeks before the event, Sigismund I introduced a new edict that was very unfavourable and somewhat hostile to the high-ranking nobles and their interests.

Sigismund I achieved several economic successes, including partial debt reduction, separation of accounts of public taxation from the royal treasury, strengthening of the activities of the mint operating in Kraków, and the attempt to organise the processing of income from operating salt mines. Furthermore, he issued a statute for the Armenians (1519) and strongly intended to harmonise the judicial system across the country.

Between 1530 and 1538 the king issued two statutes defining the rules for the selection of the monarch, which permanently established the election viritim. The laws held that all social groups, regardless of their wealth, could watch the election process (unusquisque qui vellet), and the election was to be free (electio Regis libera).

Sigismund successfully organised the agricultural economy, looked after the development of the royal cities and recovered numerous goods of the treasury belonging to the crown that were under lien. During the financial activities, the King received full support of his wife, Queen Bona, who aimed to expand the royal estates by purchasing and improving economic efficiency. In 1514 he set up the Council of Four Lands and put Abraham of Bohemia in charge of it.

Chicken War Rebellion
At the start of his reign, King Sigismund I the Old inherited a Kingdom of Poland with a century-long tradition of liberties of the nobility, confirmed in numerous privileges. A rebellion in Lwów widely known as the Chicken War (Wojna kokosza) was an anti-royalist and anti-absolutist rokosz (revolt) by the Polish nobility that occurred in 1537. The derisive name was coined by the magnates, who for the most part supported the King and claimed that the "war's" only effect was the near-extinction of the local chickens, eaten by the nobles gathered for the rebellion at Lwów in eastern part of Lesser Poland.

To strengthen his power, Sigismund initiated a set of reforms, establishing a permanent conscription army in 1527 and extending the bureaucratic apparatus necessary to govern the state and finance the army. Supported by his Italian consort Bona Sforza, he began buying up land and issue agriculture reformas to enlarge the royal treasury. He initiated a process of restitution of royal properties, previously pawned or rented to the nobles.

The nobility gathered near the city to meet to a levée en masse and called for a military campaign against Moldavia. However, the lesser and middle strata of the nobility organised a revolt to force the King to abandon his risky reforms. The nobles presented him with 36 demands, most notably a cessation of further land acquisitions by Queen Bona, exemption of the nobility from the tithe, confirmation and extension of privileges for nobles and adoption of a law concerning Incompatibilitas — an individual wouldn't be able to hold two or more official administrative positions in the country. The role of the Incompatibilitas was to prevent wealthy magnates from usurping too much power at the expense of lesser nobles.

However, the revolt soon transpired that the nobility's leaders were divided and that achieving a settlement was almost impossible. Too weak to start a civil war against the King, the protesters finally agreed to what was thought a compromise. Sigismund rejected most of their demands, while accepting the principle of Incompatibilitas the following year and agreeing not to force the election of the future king in vivente rege. Thereupon, the nobility returned to their homes having achieved little.

War with Moscow
Sigismund was intermittently at war with Vasili III of Muscovy beginning in 1507, before the Polish army was fully under his command. Further tensions escalated when Vasili also discovered that Sigismund was bribing Khan Meñli I Giray to attack the Grand Duchy of Moscow. In December 1512, Muscovite forces marched into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania seeking to capture Smolensk, a major trading center between Russia and Europe. The initial six- and four-week sieges in 1513 were a failure, but the city fell to the Muscovites in July 1514.

Russia subsequently suffered a series of disastrous defeats in the field. In 1512, Grand Hetman of Lithuania, Konstanty Ostrogski, ransacked the region of Severia and vanquished a Russian force of approximately 6,000 men. On 8 September 1514, Muscovy suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Orsha, which prevented the Russians to place all the former Kievan Rus' lands under their lordship. Poland exploited the battle for propaganda purposes with strong anti-Russian sentiment. A letter sent to Rome stated that "Muscovites are not Christians; they are cruel and barbaric; they are Asians and not Europeans; they are in league with Turks and the Tatars to destroy Christendom". Regardless of victory, the Polish–Lithuanian troops were incapable of moving quickly enough to retake Smolensk. In 1518, Russian forces were again beaten during the siege of Polotsk, when according to legend the Lithuanian forces were inspired by the sight of their patron saint, Saint Casimir, the older brother of Sigismund. However, this was dubbed by historians as a folk tale. In 1522, a truce was signed between Lithuania and Muscovy which extended until 1534.

In 1534, when Grand Hetman Jerzy Radziwiłł and the Tatars pillaged western Russia, the Muscovites in retaliation invaded Lithuania once more. They were eventually stopped by Polish commander Jan Amor Tarnowski and allies at Starodub in 1535. Their defeat strengthened the Polish-Lithuanian union's eastern flank until the beginning of the Livonian War in 1558.

Europe

In 1515 Sigismund entered into an alliance with the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I. In return for Maximilian lending weight to the provisions of the Second Peace of Thorn (1466), Sigismund consented to the marriage of the children of Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary, his brother, to the grandchildren of Maximilian. Through this double marriage contract, Bohemia and Hungary passed to the House of Habsburg in 1526, on the death of Sigismund's nephew, Louis II, who led his forces against Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire in the disastrous Battle of Mohács.

Worried about the growing ties between the Habsburgs and Russia, in 1524 Sigismund signed a Franco-Polish alliance with King Francis I of France to avoid a possible war on two fronts. Francis I himself was looking for allies in Central Europe to curtail the increasing power of Habsburg Emperor Charles V, whose realms were labelled "the empire on which the sun never sets". Furthermore, Queen Bona was instrumental in establishing an alliance between Poland and France, with the objective of recovering Milan. The official negotiations were conducted by Antonio Rincon in 1524, who was then followed by Jerome Laski. Through the agreement, the son of Francis, Henry, Duke of Orléans, was to marry one of Sigismund's daughters, and Sigismund's eldest son was to marry a daughter of Francis I.

The negotiations came to an end and the alliance was disbanded when Francis' troops were defeated by Charles V at the Battle of Pavia in 1525. Disturbed by the failure of his campaign, Francis turned to Hungary instead and formed a Franco-Hungarian alliance with King John Zápolya in 1528.

After the death of Janusz III of Masovia in 1526, Sigismund succeeded in uniting the Duchy of Masovia and Warsaw with the Kingdom of Poland. There was speculation whether Janusz and his younger brother Stanisław were poisoned by a subject of Queen Bona. The accusations were so pervasive and rampant that Sigismund ordered an investigation, as a result of which a special edict was declared on 9 February 1528 confirming that the Masovian princes died naturally or due to related illness. According to chronicler Jan Długosz, the real cause of the death of both princes could have been inherited tuberculosis.

In other matters of policy, Sigismund sought peaceful coexistence with the Khanate of Crimea, but was unable to completely end border skirmishes.

Teutonic Knights

Over two centuries of wars against the Teutonic Knights ended in 1525 with the Treaty of Kraków after the final Polish–Teutonic War (1519–1521). Previously, the Second Peace of Thorn (1466) placed the Teutonic Order under Polish suzerainty and interfered with German interests in Livonia, Pomerania, Warmia and Masuria. The Order attempted to avoid paying tribute to Polish monarchs which was a demonstration of weakness and dependence.

In accordance with the new Treaty of Kraków, the Order was abruptly secularized and turned de facto into a puppet state of Poland which lasted until the Treaty of Bromberg in 1655. Sigismund's nephew Albert, Duke of Prussia, converted to Lutheranism under the persuasion of Martin Luther, and paid a feudal homage to Sigismund. In return he was granted the domains of the Order as the First Duke of Prussia. This became known in Polish and Lithuanian history as the "Prussian Homage", which was often featured in arts. The Prussian Landtag and parliament assembled in Königsberg, where envoys embraced both the new Duke and the Protestant Reformation. Thereupon, the Teutonic Order lost its importance as a military order in Prussia and retreated to the Holy Roman Empire where it became secluded.

Renaissance and legacy
Sigismund had a profound interest in Renaissance humanism and the revival of classical antiquity. His second consort Bona Sforza, daughter of Gian Galeazzo Sforza of Milan, was also instrumental in developing the Polish Renaissance and brought renowned Italian artists, architects and sculptors from her native country. It was under Sigismund's reign that Renaissance began to flourish in Poland and in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Sigismund II Augustus later continued his father's legacy.

Among the illustrious figures that guested or lived in Poland at the time were Bartholommeo Berecci, Francesco Fiorentino, Santi and Mateo Gucci, Bernardo Morando, Giovanni Battista di Quadro and Hans Dürer. Most of the decorators working for the court were foreigners, especially Italians and Germans who had a profound impact on Poland's architecture as a whole. The centrepiece of their work is Wawel Castle in Kraków, the seat of Polish monarchs as well as one of the largest castles in Central Europe. Situated on a hill overlooking Old Town, the fortified residence was extensively reconstructed in the Renaissance style and to the personal needs of the royal family. The Italian cloistered courtyard in the shape of a quadrangle, corridors, archways and portals were designed by Fiorentino with the help of Benedykt from Sandomierz. A similar design was undertaken in Niepołomice Castle, the hunting retreat of the Jagiellons.

The most prominent example of Sigismund's architectural legacy is a funerary monument in the form of a chapel at Wawel Cathedral. It was constructed between 1519 and 1533 according to plans by Bartolomeo Berrecci of Florence, and serves as a mausoleum of the last Jagiellons. The exterior dome is gold-plated and interior tombs made of marble were designed by Santi Gucci. Historians, experts and architects unanimously voted the chapel as "the most beautiful example of the Tuscan Renaissance north of the Alps". The monarch also commissioned a 12.6-tonne bell which was named in his honour. The Royal Sigismund Bell was installed 13 July 1521 on Wawel Cathedral's northernmost tower. Apart from religious and national holidays, the bell rung on some of the most significant moments in Polish history and is one of Poland's national symbols.

Death and succession
Sigismund suffered from numerous illnesses and diseases, especially towards the end of his life. Most notably, he was tormented by constant fevers since youth as well as gout and acute rheumatism in the autumn of 1528. The condition, which severely affected his joints and right leg, was repetitive and continued in 1529 and 1534. It is likely that Sigismund Augustus was co-crowned vivente rege in 1529 as a result of these pervasive pains and in case his father died unexpectedly. Furthermore, bad eating habits and a poor diet contributed to the king's ailing health, in particular large amounts of beer and mead. Eventually, the king's inability to walk forced him to be carried in a litter. However, despite his age, Sigismund was of sound mind throughout and remained active in politics until death. In 1543, he recovered from an influenza which spread in Kraków and in 1545 he enjoyed a last hunting excursion to Niepołomice.

Sigismund died on 1 April 1548, Easter day at the age of 81 and was buried on 7 July at Wawel Cathedral in Kraków. He was succeeded by his only legitimate son, Sigismund II Augustus, who became the last Jagiellon king of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. In 1587 Sigismund the Old's grandson, Sigismund III from the House of Vasa, was elected King of Poland. He was the son of Catherine Jagiellon and her husband John III Vasa of Sweden. Hence, Sigismund III could not belong to the Jagiellonian dynasty by his mother, but the Jagiellon bloodline of Polish monarchs continued until the death of Sigismund Vasa's second son John II Casimir.

Marriages and issue
In 1512, Sigismund married Barbara Zápolya (d. 1515), a Hungarian noblewoman, with whom he had two daughters:

 * Electress Hedwig of Brandenburg (15 March 1513 – 7 February 1573), wed 1535 Joachim II Hector, Elector of Brandenburg;
 * Anna (1 July 1515 – 8 May 1520).

In 1517, Sigismund married Bona Sforza, with whom he had two sons and four daughters:

 * Queen Isabella of Hungary (18 January 1519 – 15 September 1559), wed 1539 John Zápolya (d. 1540);
 * Sigismund II Augustus (1 August 1520 – 7 July 1572);
 * Sophia, Duchess of Brunswick-Lüneburg (13 July 1522 – 28 May 1575), wed 22/25 February 1556 Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneberg (d. 11 June 1568);
 * Queen Anna of Poland (18 October 1523 – 9 September 1596), wed 1 May 1576 Stephen Báthory (d. 12 December 1586);
 * Queen Catherine of Sweden (1 November 1526 – 16 September 1583), wed 4 October 1562 John, Duke of Finland (later John III of Sweden) (d. 17 November 1592);
 * Wojciech Olbracht (b. and d. 20 September 1527).

By his mistress, Katarzyna Telniczanka (d. 1528), he also fathered three children prior to his first marriage:
 * Jan (8 January 1499 – 18 February 1538), Bishop of Wilno (1519–1536) and of Poznań (1536–1538);
 * Regina (1500/1 – 20 May 1526), wed c. 20 October 1518 Hieronim Szafraniec, Starost of Cieszyn (d. 1556/59);
 * Katarzyna (1503 – before 9 September 1548), wed after 1522 George II Count von Montfort in Pfannberg (d. 1544).

Cited sources

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title: Sigismund I the Old