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Arts and Crafts movement

The Arts and Crafts movement was an international trend in the decorative and fine arts that developed earliest and most fully in the British Isles and subsequently spread across the British Empire and to the rest of Europe and America.

Initiated in reaction against the perceived impoverishment of the decorative arts and the conditions in which they were produced, the movement flourished in Europe and North America between about 1880 and 1920. Some consider that it is the root of the Modern Style, a British expression of what later came to be called the Art Nouveau movement. Others consider that it is the incarnation of Art Nouveau in England.

Others consider Art and Crafts to be in opposition to Art Nouveau. Arts and Crafts indeed criticized Art Nouveau for its use of industrial materials such as iron. And as for Art Nouveau artists, the Arts and Crafts utopia was intrinsically contradictory: "the paradoxical confinement of the Arts & Crafts movement in an artisanal practice was completely out of step with the evolution of the status of the artist-decorator, but also with the democratic will of an art 'for the people and by the people' proclaimed by William Morris". For example, while Henry van de Velde understood the social discourse of Arts and Crafts, he was not an unconditional disciple of the movement and ended up turning away from it, considering it as anachronistic and tinged with quixotism.

In Japan, it emerged in the 1920s as the Mingei movement. It stood for traditional craftsmanship, and often used medieval, romantic, or folk styles of decoration. It advocated economic and social reform and was anti-industrial in its orientation. It had a strong influence on the arts in Europe until it was displaced by Modernism in the 1930s, and its influence continued among craft makers, designers, and town planners long afterwards.

The term was first used by T. J. Cobden-Sanderson at a meeting of the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society in 1887, although the principles and style on which it was based had been developing in England for at least 20 years. It was inspired by the ideas of historian Thomas Carlyle, art critic John Ruskin, and designer William Morris. In Scotland, it is associated with key figures such as Charles Rennie Mackintosh. Viollet le Duc's books on nature and Gothique art also play an essential part in the esthetics of the Arts and Crafts movement.

Design reform
The Arts and Crafts movement emerged from the attempt to reform design and decoration in mid-19th century Britain. It was a reaction against a perceived decline in standards that the reformers associated with machinery and factory production. Their critique was sharpened by the items that they saw in the Great Exhibition of 1851, which they considered to be excessively ornate, artificial, and ignorant of the qualities of the materials used. Art historian Nikolaus Pevsner writes that the exhibits showed "ignorance of that basic need in creating patterns, the integrity of the surface", as well as displaying "vulgarity in detail".

Design reform began with Exhibition organizers Henry Cole (1808–1882), Owen Jones (1809–1874), Matthew Digby Wyatt (1820–1877), and Richard Redgrave (1804–1888), all of whom deprecated excessive ornament and impractical or badly-made things. The organizers were "unanimous in their condemnation of the exhibits." Owen Jones, for example, complained that "the architect, the upholsterer, the paper-stainer, the weaver, the calico-printer, and the potter" produced "novelty without beauty, or beauty without intelligence." From these criticisms of manufactured goods emerged several publications that set out what the writers considered to be the correct principles of design. Richard Redgrave's Supplementary Report on Design (1852) analysed the principles of design and ornament and pleaded for "more logic in the application of decoration."

Other works followed in a similar vein, such as Wyatt's Industrial Arts of the Nineteenth Century (1853), Gottfried Semper's Wissenschaft, Industrie und Kunst ("Science, Industry and Art") (1852), Ralph Wornum's Analysis of Ornament (1856), Redgrave's Manual of Design (1876), and Jones's Grammar of Ornament (1856). The Grammar of Ornament was particularly influential, liberally distributed as a student prize and running into nine reprints by 1910.

Jones declared that ornament "must be secondary to the thing decorated", that there must be "fitness in the ornament to the thing ornamented", and that wallpapers and carpets must not have any patterns "suggestive of anything but a level or plain". A fabric or wallpaper in the Great Exhibition might be decorated with a natural motif made to look as real as possible, whereas these writers advocated flat and simplified natural motifs. Redgrave insisted that "style" demanded sound construction before ornamentation, and a proper awareness of the quality of materials used. "Utility must have precedence over ornamentation."

However, the design reformers of the mid-19th century did not go as far as the designers of the Arts and Crafts movement. They were more concerned with ornamentation than construction, they had an incomplete understanding of methods of manufacture, and they did not criticise industrial methods as such. By contrast, the Arts and Crafts movement was as much a movement of social reform as design reform, and its leading practitioners did not separate the two.

A. W. N. Pugin

Some of the ideas of the movement were anticipated by Augustus Pugin (1812–1852), a leader in the Gothic revival in architecture. For example, he advocated truth to material, structure, and function, as did the Arts and Crafts artists. Pugin articulated the tendency of social critics to compare the faults of modern society with the Middle Ages, such as the sprawling growth of cities and the treatment of the poor – a tendency that became routine with Ruskin, Morris, and the Arts and Crafts movement. His book Contrasts (1836) drew examples of bad modern buildings and town planning in contrast with good medieval examples, and his biographer Rosemary Hill notes that he "reached conclusions, almost in passing, about the importance of craftsmanship and tradition in architecture that it would take the rest of the century and the combined efforts of Ruskin and Morris to work out in detail." She describes the spare furnishings which he specified for a building in 1841, "rush chairs, oak tables", as "the Arts and Crafts interior in embryo."

John Ruskin
The Arts and Crafts philosophy was derived in large measure from John Ruskin's social criticism, deeply influenced by the work of Thomas Carlyle. Ruskin related the moral and social health of a nation to the qualities of its architecture and to the nature of its work. Ruskin considered the sort of mechanized production and division of labour that had been created in the industrial revolution to be "servile labour", and he thought that a healthy and moral society required independent workers who designed the things that they made. He believed factory-made works to be "dishonest," and that handwork and craftsmanship merged dignity with labour.

On the artistic side Ruskin was influenced by his contemporary Viollet le Duc whom he taught to all of his pupils. In a letter to one of his pupils Ruskin writes : "There is only one book of any value and that is the Dictionnary of Viollet le Duc. Everyone should learn French". And according to some Ruskin's influence on Arts and Crafts was supplanted in 1860 by that of Viollet le Duc.

His followers favoured craft production over industrial manufacture and were concerned about the loss of traditional skills, but they were more troubled by the effects of the factory system than by machinery itself. William Morris's idea of "handicraft" was essentially work without any division of labour rather than work without any sort of machinery. Morris admired Ruskin's The Seven Lamps of Architecture and The Stones of Venice but was uninterested in his writings on painting, such as Modern Painters. On his side, Ruskin dissented firmly from the idea that became Arts-and-Crafts orthodoxy, that decoration should be flat and should not represent three-dimensional forms.

William Morris
William Morris (1834–1896) was the towering figure in late 19th-century design and the main influence on the Arts and Crafts movement. The aesthetic and social vision of the movement grew out of ideas that he developed in the 1850s with the Birmingham Set – a group of students at the University of Oxford including Edward Burne-Jones, who combined a love of Romantic literature with a commitment to social reform. John William Mackail notes that "Carlyle's Past and Present stood alongside of [Ruskin's] Modern Painters as inspired and absolute truth." The medievalism of Malory's Morte d'Arthur set the standard for their early style. In Burne-Jones' words, they intended to "wage Holy warfare against the age".

Morris began experimenting with various crafts and designing furniture and interiors. He was personally involved in manufacture as well as design, which was the hallmark of the Arts and Crafts movement. Ruskin had argued that the separation of the intellectual act of design from the manual act of physical creation was both socially and aesthetically damaging. Morris further developed this idea, insisting that no work should be carried out in his workshops before he had personally mastered the appropriate techniques and materials, arguing that "without dignified, creative human occupation people became disconnected from life".

In 1861, Morris began making furniture and decorative objects commercially, modelling his designs on medieval styles and using bold forms and strong colours. His patterns were based on flora and fauna, and his products were inspired by the vernacular or domestic traditions of the British countryside. Some were deliberately left unfinished in order to display the beauty of the materials and the work of the craftsman, thus creating a rustic appearance. Morris strove to unite all the arts within the decoration of the home, emphasizing nature and simplicity of form.

Critique of industry
William Morris shared Ruskin's critique of industrial society and at one time or another attacked the modern factory, the use of machinery, the division of labor, capitalism and the loss of traditional craft methods. But his attitude to machinery was inconsistent. He said at one point that production by machinery was "altogether an evil", but at others times, he was willing to commission work from manufacturers who were able to meet his standards with the aid of machines. Morris said that in a "true society", where neither luxuries nor cheap trash were made, machinery could be improved and used to reduce the hours of labor. Fiona McCarthy says that "unlike later zealots like Gandhi, William Morris had no practical objections to the use of machinery per se so long as the machines produced the quality he needed."

Morris insisted that the artist should be a craftsman-designer working by hand and advocated a society of free craftspeople, such as he believed had existed during the Middle Ages. "Because craftsmen took pleasure in their work", he wrote, "the Middle Ages was a period of greatness in the art of the common people. ... The treasures in our museums now are only the common utensils used in households of that age, when hundreds of medieval churches – each one a masterpiece – were built by unsophisticated peasants." Medieval art was the model for much of Arts and Crafts design, and medieval life, literature and building was idealized by the movement.

Morris's followers also had differing views about machinery and the factory system. For example, C. R. Ashbee, a central figure in the Arts and Crafts movement, said in 1888, that, "We do not reject the machine, we welcome it. But we would desire to see it mastered." After unsuccessfully pitting his Guild and School of Handicraft guild against modern methods of manufacture, he acknowledged that "Modern civilisation rests on machinery", but he continued to criticise the deleterious effects of what he called "mechanism", saying that "the production of certain mechanical commodities is as bad for the national health as is the production of slave-grown cane or child-sweated wares." William Arthur Smith Benson, on the other hand, had no qualms about adapting the Arts and Crafts style to metalwork produced under industrial conditions. (See quotation box.)

Morris and his followers believed the division of labour on which modern industry depended was undesirable, but the extent to which every design should be carried out by the designer was a matter for debate and disagreement. Not all Arts and Crafts artists carried out every stage in the making of goods themselves, and it was only in the twentieth century that that became essential to the definition of craftsmanship. Although Morris was famous for getting hands-on experience himself of many crafts (including weaving, dying, printing, calligraphy and embroidery), he did not regard the separation of designer and executant in his factory as problematic. Walter Crane, a close political associate of Morris's, took an unsympathetic view of the division of labour on both moral and artistic grounds, and strongly advocated that designing and making should come from the same hand. Lewis Foreman Day, a friend and contemporary of Crane's, as unstinting as Crane in his admiration of Morris, disagreed strongly with Crane. He thought that the separation of design and execution was not only inevitable in the modern world, but also that only that sort of specialisation allowed the best in design and the best in making.

Few of the founders of the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society insisted that the designer should also be the maker. Peter Floud, writing in the 1950s, said that "The founders of the Society ... never executed their own designs, but invariably turned them over to commercial firms." The idea that the designer should be the maker and the maker the designer derived "not from Morris or early Arts and Crafts teaching, but rather from the second-generation elaboration doctrine worked out in the first decade of [the twentieth] century by men such as W. R. Lethaby".

Socialism
Many of the Arts and Crafts movement designers were socialists, including Morris, T. J. Cobden Sanderson, Walter Crane, C.R. Ashbee, Philip Webb, Charles Faulkner, and A. H. Mackmurdo. In the early 1880s, Morris was spending more of his time on promoting socialism than on designing and making. Ashbee established a community of craftsmen called the Guild of Handicraft in east London, later moving to Chipping Campden. Those adherents who were not socialists, such as Alfred Hoare Powell, advocated a more humane and personal relationship between employer and employee. Lewis Foreman Day was another successful and influential Arts and Crafts designer who was not a socialist, despite his long friendship with Crane.

Association with other reform movements
In Britain, the movement was associated with dress reform, ruralism, the garden city movement and the folk-song revival. All were linked, in some degree, by the ideal of "the Simple Life". In continental Europe the movement was associated with the preservation of national traditions in building, the applied arts, domestic design and costume.

Development
Morris's designs quickly became popular, attracting interest when his company's work was exhibited at the 1862 International Exhibition in London. Much of this work is directly inspired from the Dictionnaire of Viollet le Duc. Most of Morris & Co's early work was for churches and Morris won important interior design commissions at St James's Palace and the South Kensington Museum (now the Victoria and Albert Museum). Later his work became popular with the middle and upper classes, despite his wish to create a democratic art, and by the end of the 19th century, Arts and Crafts design in houses and domestic interiors was the dominant style in Britain, copied in products made by conventional industrial methods.

The spread of Arts and Crafts ideas during the late 19th and early 20th centuries resulted in the establishment of many associations and craft communities, although Morris had little to do with them because of his preoccupation with socialism at the time. A hundred and thirty Arts and Crafts organisations were formed in Britain, most between 1895 and 1905.

In 1881, Eglantyne Louisa Jebb, Mary Fraser Tytler and others initiated the Home Arts and Industries Association to encourage the working classes, especially those in rural areas, to take up handicrafts under supervision, not for profit, but in order to provide them with useful occupations and to improve their taste. By 1889 it had 450 classes, 1,000 teachers and 5,000 students.

In 1882, architect A.H.Mackmurdo formed the Century Guild, a partnership of designers including Selwyn Image, Herbert Horne, Clement Heaton and Benjamin Creswick.

In 1884, the Art Workers Guild was initiated by five young architects, William Lethaby, Edward Prior, Ernest Newton, Mervyn Macartney and Gerald C. Horsley, with the goal of bringing together fine and applied arts and raising the status of the latter. It was directed originally by George Blackall Simonds. By 1890 the Guild had 150 members, representing the increasing number of practitioners of the Arts and Crafts style. It still exists.

The London department store Liberty & Co., founded in 1875, was a prominent retailer of goods in the style and of the "artistic dress" favoured by followers of the Arts and Crafts movement.

In 1887 the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, which gave its name to the movement, was formed with Walter Crane as president, holding its first exhibition in the New Gallery, London, in November 1888. It was the first show of contemporary decorative arts in London since the Grosvenor Gallery's Winter Exhibition of 1881. Morris & Co. was well represented in the exhibition with furniture, fabrics, carpets and embroideries. Edward Burne-Jones observed, "here for the first time one can measure a bit the change that has happened in the last twenty years". The society still exists as the Society of Designer Craftsmen.

In 1888, C.R. Ashbee, a major late practitioner of the style in England, founded the Guild and School of Handicraft in the East End of London. The guild was a craft co-operative modelled on the medieval guilds and intended to give working men satisfaction in their craftsmanship. Skilled craftsmen, working on the principles of Ruskin and Morris, were to produce hand-crafted goods and manage a school for apprentices. The idea was greeted with enthusiasm by almost everyone except Morris, who was by now involved with promoting socialism and thought Ashbee's scheme trivial. From 1888 to 1902 the guild prospered, employing about 50 men. In 1902 Ashbee relocated the guild out of London to begin an experimental community in Chipping Campden in the Cotswolds. The guild's work is characterised by plain surfaces of hammered silver, flowing wirework and colored stones in simple settings. Ashbee designed jewellery and silver tableware. The guild flourished at Chipping Camden but did not prosper and was liquidated in 1908. Some craftsmen stayed, contributing to the tradition of modern craftsmanship in the area.

C.F.A. Voysey (1857–1941) was an Arts and Crafts architect who also designed fabrics, tiles, ceramics, furniture and metalwork. His style combined simplicity with sophistication. His wallpapers and textiles, featuring stylised bird and plant forms in bold outlines with flat colors, were used widely.

Morris's thought influenced the distributism of G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc.

By the end of the nineteenth century, Arts and Crafts ideals had influenced architecture, painting, sculpture, graphics, illustration, book making and photography, domestic design and the decorative arts, including furniture and woodwork, stained glass, leatherwork, lacemaking, embroidery, rug making and weaving, jewelry and metalwork, enameling and ceramics. By 1910, there was a fashion for "Arts and Crafts" and all things hand-made. There was a proliferation of amateur handicrafts of variable quality and of incompetent imitators who caused the public to regard Arts and Crafts as "something less, instead of more, competent and fit for purpose than an ordinary mass produced article."

The Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society held eleven exhibitions between 1888 and 1916. By the outbreak of war in 1914 it was in decline and faced a crisis. Its 1912 exhibition had been a financial failure. While designers in continental Europe were making innovations in design and alliances with industry through initiatives such as the Deutsche Werkbund and new initiatives were being taken in Britain by the Omega Workshops and the Design in Industries Association, the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, now under the control of an old guard, was withdrawing from commerce and collaboration with manufacturers into purist handwork and what Tania Harrod describes as "decommoditisation" Its rejection of a commercial role has been seen as a turning point in its fortunes. Nikolaus Pevsner in his book Pioneers of Modern Design presents the Arts and Crafts movement as design radicals who influenced the modern movement, but failed to change and were eventually superseded by it.

Later influences
The British artist potter Bernard Leach brought to England many ideas he had developed in Japan with the social critic Yanagi Soetsu about the moral and social value of simple crafts; both were enthusiastic readers of Ruskin. Leach was an active propagandist for these ideas, which struck a chord with practitioners of the crafts in the inter-war years, and he expounded them in A Potter's Book, published in 1940, which denounced industrial society in terms as vehement as those of Ruskin and Morris. Thus the Arts and Crafts philosophy was perpetuated among British craft workers in the 1950s and 1960s, long after the demise of the Arts and Crafts movement and at the high tide of Modernism. British Utility furniture of the 1940s also derived from Arts and Crafts principles.

One of its main promoters, Gordon Russell, chairman of the Utility Furniture Design Panel, was imbued with Arts and Crafts ideas. He manufactured furniture in the Cotswold Hills, a region of Arts and Crafts furniture-making since Ashbee, and he was a member of the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society. William Morris's biographer, Fiona MacCarthy, detected the Arts and Crafts philosophy even behind the Festival of Britain (1951), the work of the designer Terence Conran (1931–2020) and the founding of the British Crafts Council in the 1970s.

Scotland
The beginnings of the Arts and Crafts movement in Scotland were in the stained glass revival of the 1850s, pioneered by James Ballantine (1806–1877). His major works included the great west window of Dunfermline Abbey and the scheme for St. Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh. In Glasgow it was pioneered by Daniel Cottier (1838–1891), who had probably studied with Ballantine, and was directly influenced by William Morris, Ford Madox Brown and John Ruskin. His key works included the Baptism of Christ in Paisley Abbey, (c. 1880). His followers included Stephen Adam and his son of the same name.

The Glasgow-born designer and theorist Christopher Dresser (1834–1904) was one of the first, and most important, independent designers, a pivotal figure in the Aesthetic Movement and a major contributor to the allied Anglo-Japanese movement. The movement had an "extraordinary flowering" in Scotland where it was represented by the development of the 'Glasgow Style' which was based on the talent of the Glasgow School of Art. Celtic revival took hold here, and motifs such as the Glasgow rose became popularised. Charles Rennie Mackintosh (1868–1928) and the Glasgow School of Art were to influence others worldwide.

Wales
The situation in Wales was different from elsewhere in the UK. Insofar as craftsmanship was concerned, Arts and Crafts was a revivalist campaign. But in Wales, at least until World War I, a genuine craft tradition still existed. Local materials, stone or clay, continued to be used as a matter of course.

Scotland become known in the Arts and Crafts movement for its stained glass; Wales would become known for its pottery. By the mid 19th century, the heavy, salt glazes used for generations by local craftsmen had gone out of fashion, not least as mass-produced ceramics undercut prices. But the Arts and Crafts Movement brought new appreciation to their work. Horace W Elliot, an English gallerist, visited the Ewenny Pottery (which dated back to the 17th century) in 1885, to both find local pieces and encourage a style compatible with the movement. The pieces he brought back to London for the next twenty years revivified interest in Welsh pottery work.

A key promoter of the Arts and Crafts movement in Wales was Owen Morgan Edwards. Edwards was a reforming politician dedicated to renewing Welsh pride by exposing its people to their own language and history. For Edwards, "There is nothing that Wales requires more than an education in the arts and crafts." – though Edwards was more inclined to resurrecting Welsh Nationalism than admiring glazes or rustic integrity.

In architecture, Clough Williams-Ellis sought to renew interest in ancient building, reviving "rammed earth" or pisé construction in Britain.

Ireland
The movement spread to Ireland, representing an important time for the nation's cultural development, a visual counterpart to the literary revival of the same time and was a publication of Irish nationalism. The Arts and Crafts use of stained glass was popular in Ireland, with Harry Clarke the best-known artist and also with Evie Hone. The architecture of the style is represented by the Honan Chapel (1916) in Cork city in the grounds of University College Cork. Other architects practicing in Ireland included Sir Edwin Lutyens (Heywood House in Co. Laois, Lambay Island and the Irish National War Memorial Gardens in Dublin) and Frederick 'Pa' Hicks (Malahide Castle estate buildings and round tower). Irish Celtic motifs were popular with the movement in silvercraft, carpet design, book illustrations, and hand-carved furniture.

Continental Europe
In continental Europe, the revival and preservation of national styles was an important motive of Arts and Crafts designers; for example, in Germany, after unification in 1871 under the encouragement of the Bund für Heimatschutz (1897) and the Vereinigte Werkstätten für Kunst im Handwerk founded in 1898 by Karl Schmidt; and in Hungary Károly Kós revived the vernacular style of Transylvanian building. In central Europe, where several diverse nationalities lived under powerful empires (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia), the discovery of the vernacular was associated with the assertion of national pride and the striving for independence, and, whereas for Arts and Crafts practitioners in Britain the ideal style was to be found in the medieval, in central Europe it was sought in remote peasant villages.

Widely exhibited in Europe, the Arts and Crafts style's simplicity inspired designers like Henry van de Velde and styles such as Art Nouveau, the Dutch De Stijl group, Vienna Secession, and eventually the Bauhaus style. Pevsner regarded the style as a prelude to Modernism, which used simple forms without ornamentation.

The earliest Arts and Crafts activity in continental Europe was in Belgium in about 1890, where the English style inspired artists and architects including Henry Van de Velde, Gabriel Van Dievoet, Gustave Serrurier-Bovy, and a group known as La Libre Esthétique (Free Aesthetic).

Arts and Crafts products were admired in Austria and Germany in the early 20th century, and under their inspiration design moved rapidly forward while it stagnated in Britain. The Wiener Werkstätte, founded in 1903 by Josef Hoffmann and Koloman Moser, was influenced by the Arts and Crafts principles of the "unity of the arts" and the hand-made. The Deutscher Werkbund (German Association of Craftsmen) was formed in 1907 as an association of artists, architects, designers, and industrialists to improve the global competitiveness of German businesses and became an important element in the development of modern architecture and industrial design through its advocacy of standardized production. However, its leading members, van de Velde and Hermann Muthesius, had conflicting opinions about standardization. Muthesius believed that it was essential were Germany to become a leading nation in trade and culture. Van de Velde, representing a more traditional Arts and Crafts attitude, believed that artists would forever "protest against the imposition of orders or standardization," and that "The artist ... will never, of his own accord, submit to a discipline which imposes on him a canon or a type."

In Finland, an idealistic artists' colony in Helsinki was designed by Herman Gesellius, Armas Lindgren, and Eliel Saarinen, who worked in the National Romantic style, akin to the British Gothic Revival.

In Hungary, under the influence of Ruskin and Morris, a group of artists and architects, including Károly Kós, Aladár Körösfői-Kriesch, and Ede Toroczkai Wigand, discovered the folk art and vernacular architecture of Transylvania. Many of Kós's buildings, including those in the Budapest zoo and the Wekerle estate in the same city, show this influence.

In Russia, Viktor Hartmann, Viktor Vasnetsov, Yelena Polenova, and other artists associated with Abramtsevo Colony sought to revive the quality of medieval Russian decorative arts quite independently from the movement in Great Britain.

In Iceland, Sölvi Helgason's work shows Arts and Crafts influence.

North America

In the United States, the Arts and Crafts style initiated a variety of attempts to reinterpret European Arts and Crafts ideals for Americans. These included the "Craftsman"-style architecture, furniture, and other decorative arts such as designs promoted by Gustav Stickley in his magazine, The Craftsman and designs produced on the Roycroft campus as publicized in Elbert Hubbard's The Fra. Both men used their magazines as a vehicle to promote the goods produced with the Craftsman workshop in Eastwood, NY and Elbert Hubbard's Roycroft campus in East Aurora, NY. A host of imitators of Stickley's furniture (the designs of which are often mislabelled the "Mission Style") included three companies established by his brothers.

The terms American Craftsman or Craftsman style are often used to denote the style of architecture, interior design, and decorative arts that prevailed between the dominant eras of Art Nouveau and Art Deco in the US, or approximately the period from 1910 to 1925. The movement was particularly notable for the professional opportunities it opened up for women as artisans, designers and entrepreneurs who founded and ran, or were employed by, such successful enterprises as the Kalo Shops, Pewabic Pottery, Rookwood Pottery, and Tiffany Studios. In Canada, the term Arts and Crafts predominates, but Craftsman is also recognized.

While the Europeans tried to recreate the virtuous crafts being replaced by industrialisation, Americans tried to establish a new type of virtue to replace heroic craft production: well-decorated middle-class homes. They claimed that the simple but refined aesthetics of Arts and Crafts decorative arts would ennoble the new experience of industrial consumerism, making individuals more rational and society more harmonious. The American Arts and Crafts movement was the aesthetic counterpart of its contemporary political philosophy, progressivism. Characteristically, when the Arts and Crafts Society began in October 1897 in Chicago, it was at Hull House, one of the first American settlement houses for social reform.

Arts and Crafts ideals disseminated in America through journal and newspaper writing were supplemented by societies that sponsored lectures. The first was organized in Boston in the late 1890s, when a group of influential architects, designers, and educators determined to bring to America the design reforms begun in Britain by William Morris; they met to organize an exhibition of contemporary craft objects. The first meeting was held on January 4, 1897, at the Museum of Fine Arts (MFA) in Boston to organize an exhibition of contemporary crafts. When craftsmen, consumers, and manufacturers realised the aesthetic and technical potential of the applied arts, the process of design reform in Boston started. Present at this meeting were General Charles Loring, Chairman of the Trustees of the MFA; William Sturgis Bigelow and Denman Ross, collectors, writers and MFA trustees; Ross Turner, painter; Sylvester Baxter, art critic for the Boston Transcript; Howard Baker, A.W. Longfellow Jr.; and Ralph Clipson Sturgis, architect.

The first American Arts and Crafts Exhibition began on April 5, 1897, at Copley Hall, Boston featuring more than 1000 objects made by 160 craftsmen, half of whom were women. Some of the advocates of the exhibit were Langford Warren, founder of Harvard's School of Architecture; Mrs. Richard Morris Hunt; Arthur Astor Carey and Edwin Mead, social reformers; and Will H. Bradley, graphic designer. The success of this exhibition resulted in the incorporation of The Society of Arts and Crafts (SAC), on June 28, 1897, with a mandate to "develop and encourage higher standards in the handicrafts." The 21 founders claimed to be interested in more than sales, and emphasized encouragement of artists to produce work with the best quality of workmanship and design. This mandate was soon expanded into a credo, possibly written by the SAC's first president, Charles Eliot Norton, which read:

"This Society was incorporated for the purpose of promoting artistic work in all branches of handicraft. It hopes to bring Designers and Workmen into mutually helpful relations, and to encourage workmen to execute designs of their own. It endeavors to stimulate in workmen an appreciation of the dignity and value of good design; to counteract the popular impatience of Law and Form, and the desire for over-ornamentation and specious originality. It will insist upon the necessity of sobriety and restraint, or ordered arrangement, of due regard for the relation between the form of an object and its use, and of harmony and fitness in the decoration put upon it."

Built in 1913–14 by the Boston architect J. Williams Beal in the Ossipee Mountains of New Hampshire, Tom and Olive Plant's mountaintop estate, Castle in the Clouds also known as Lucknow, is an excellent example of the American Craftsman style in New England.

Also influential were the Roycroft community initiated by Elbert Hubbard in Buffalo and East Aurora, New York, Joseph Marbella, utopian communities like Byrdcliffe Colony in Woodstock, New York, and Rose Valley, Pennsylvania, developments such as Mountain Lakes, New Jersey, featuring clusters of bungalow and chateau homes built by Herbert J. Hapgood, and the contemporary studio craft style. Studio pottery – exemplified by the Grueby Faience Company, Newcomb Pottery in New Orleans, Marblehead Pottery, Teco pottery, Overbeck and Rookwood pottery and Mary Chase Perry Stratton's Pewabic Pottery in Detroit, the Van Briggle Pottery company in Colorado Springs, Colorado, as well as the art tiles made by Ernest A. Batchelder in Pasadena, California, and idiosyncratic furniture of Charles Rohlfs all demonstrate the influence of Arts and Crafts.

Architecture and art
The "Prairie School" of Frank Lloyd Wright, George Washington Maher, and other architects in Chicago, the Country Day School movement, the bungalow and ultimate bungalow style of houses popularized by Greene and Greene, Julia Morgan, and Bernard Maybeck are some examples of the American Arts and Crafts and American Craftsman style of architecture. Restored and landmark-protected examples are still present in America, especially in California in Berkeley and Pasadena, and the sections of other towns originally developed during the era and not experiencing post-war urban renewal. Mission Revival, Prairie School, and the 'California bungalow' styles of residential building remain popular in the United States today.

As theoreticians, educators, and prolific artists in mediums from printmaking to pottery and pastel, two of the most influential figures were Arthur Wesley Dow (1857–1922) on the East Coast and Pedro Joseph de Lemos (1882–1954) in California. Dow, who taught at Columbia University and founded the Ipswich Summer School of Art, published in 1899 his landmark Composition, which distilled into a distinctly American approach the essence of Japanese composition, combining into a decorative harmonious amalgam three elements: simplicity of line, "notan" (the balance of light and dark areas), and symmetry of color.

His purpose was to create objects that were finely crafted and beautifully rendered. His student de Lemos, who became head of the San Francisco Art Institute, Director of the Stanford University Museum and Art Gallery, and Editor-in-Chief of the School Arts Magazine, expanded and substantially revised Dow's ideas in over 150 monographs and articles for art schools in the United States and Britain. Among his many unorthodox teachings was his belief that manufactured products could express "the sublime beauty" and that great insight was to be found in the abstract "design forms" of pre-Columbian civilizations.

Museums
The Museum of the American Arts and Crafts Movement in St. Petersburg, Florida, opened its doors in 2021.

Asia
In Japan, Yanagi Sōetsu, creator of the Mingei movement which promoted folk art from the 1920s onwards, was influenced by the writings of Morris and Ruskin. Like the Arts and Crafts movement in Europe, Mingei sought to preserve traditional crafts in the face of modernising industry.

Architecture
Many of the leaders of the Arts and Crafts movement were trained as architects (e.g. William Morris, A. H. Mackmurdo, C. R. Ashbee, W. R. Lethaby) and it was on building that the movement had its most visible and lasting influence.

Red House, in Bexleyheath, London, designed for Morris in 1859 by architect Philip Webb, exemplifies the early Arts and Crafts style, with its well-proportioned solid forms, wide porches, steep roof, pointed window arches, brick fireplaces and wooden fittings. Webb rejected classical and other revivals of historical styles based on grand buildings, and based his design on British vernacular architecture, expressing the texture of ordinary materials, such as stone and tiles, with an asymmetrical and picturesque building composition.

The London suburb of Bedford Park, built mainly in the 1880s and 1890s, has about 360 Arts and Crafts style houses and was once famous for its Aesthetic residents. Several Almshouses were built in the Arts and Crafts style, for example, Whiteley Village, Surrey, built between 1914 and 1917, with over 280 buildings, and the Dyers Almshouses, Sussex, built between 1939 and 1971. Letchworth Garden City, the first garden city, was inspired by Arts and Crafts ideals.

The first houses were designed by Barry Parker and Raymond Unwin in the vernacular style popularized by the movement and the town became associated with high-mindedness and simple living. The sandal-making workshop set up by Edward Carpenter moved from Yorkshire to Letchworth Garden City and George Orwell's jibe about "every fruit-juice drinker, nudist, sandal-wearer, sex-maniac, Quaker, 'Nature Cure' quack, pacifist, and feminist in England" going to a socialist conference in Letchworth has become famous.

Architectural examples

 * Red House – Bexleyheath, London – 1859
 * David Parr House – Cambridge, England – 1886–1926
 * Wightwick Manor – Wolverhampton, England – 1887–93
 * Inglewood – Leicester, England – 1892
 * Standen – East Grinstead, England – 1894
 * Swedenborgian Church – San Francisco, California – 1895
 * Mary Ward House – Bloomsbury, London – 1896–98
 * Blackwell – Lake District, England – 1898
 * Derwent House – Chislehurst, Bromley, London – 1899
 * Stoneywell – Ulverscroft, Leicestershire – 1899
 * The Arts & Crafts Church (Long Street Methodist Church and School) – Manchester, England – 1900
 * Spade House – Sandgate, Kent – 1900
 * Caledonian Estate – Islington, London – 1900–1907
 * Horniman Museum – Forest Hill, London – 1901
 * All Saints' Church, Brockhampton – 1901–02
 * Shaw's Corner – Ayot St Lawrence, Hertfordshire – 1902
 * Pierre P. Ferry House – Seattle, Washington – 1903–1906
 * Winterbourne House – Birmingham, England – 1904
 * The Black Friar – Blackfriars, London – 1905
 * Marston House – San Diego, California – 1905
 * Edgar Wood Centre – Manchester, England – 1905
 * Debenham House – Holland Park, London – 1905–07
 * Belrock - Greater Sudbury, Ontario - 1907
 * Robert R. Blacker House – Pasadena, California – 1907
 * Stotfold, Bickley, Kent – 1907
 * Gamble House – Pasadena, California – 1908
 * Oregon Public Library – Oregon, Illinois – 1909
 * Thorsen House – Berkeley, California – 1909
 * Rodmarton Manor – Rodmarton, near Cirencester, Gloucestershire – 1909–29
 * Whare Ra – Havelock North, New Zealand – 1912
 * Sutton Garden Suburb – Benhilton, Sutton, London – 1912–14
 * Castle in the Clouds – Ossipee Mountains at Lake Winnipesaukee, New Hampshire – 1913-4
 * Honan Chapel – University College Cork, Ireland – c.1916
 * St Francis Xavier's Cathedral – Geraldton Western Australia 1916–1938
 * Bedales School Memorial Library – near Petersfield, Hampshire – 1919–21

Garden design
Gertrude Jekyll applied Arts and Crafts principles to garden design. She worked with the English architect, Sir Edwin Lutyens, for whose projects she created numerous landscapes, and who designed her home Munstead Wood, near Godalming in Surrey. Jekyll created the gardens for Bishopsbarns, the home of York architect Walter Brierley, an exponent of the Arts and Crafts movement and known as the "Lutyens of the North". The garden for Brierley's final project, Goddards in York, was the work of George Dillistone, a gardener who worked with Lutyens and Jekyll at Castle Drogo. At Goddards the garden incorporated a number of features that reflected the arts and crafts style of the house, such as the use of hedges and herbaceous borders to divide the garden into a series of outdoor rooms.

Another notable Arts and Crafts garden is Hidcote Manor Garden designed by Lawrence Johnston which is also laid out in a series of outdoor rooms and where, like Goddards, the landscaping becomes less formal further away from the house. Other examples of Arts and Crafts gardens include Hestercombe Gardens, Lytes Cary Manor and the gardens of some of the architectural examples of arts and crafts buildings (listed above).

Art education
Morris's ideas were adopted by the New Education Movement in the late 1880s, which incorporated handicraft teaching in schools at Abbotsholme (1889) and Bedales (1892), and his influence has been noted in the social experiments of Dartington Hall during the mid-20th century.

Arts and Crafts practitioners in Britain were critical of the government system of art education based on design in the abstract with little teaching of practical craft. This lack of craft training also caused concern in industrial and official circles, and in 1884 a Royal Commission (accepting the advice of William Morris) recommended that art education should pay more attention to the suitability of design to the material in which it was to be executed. The first school to make this change was the Birmingham School of Arts and Crafts, which "led the way in introducing executed design to the teaching of art and design nationally (working in the material for which the design was intended rather than designing on paper). In his external examiner's report of 1889, Walter Crane praised Birmingham School of Art in that it 'considered design in relationship to materials and usage. Under the direction of Edward Taylor, its headmaster from 1877 to 1903, and with the help of Henry Payne and Joseph Southall, the Birmingham School became a leading Arts-and-Crafts centre.

Other local authority schools also began to introduce more practical teaching of crafts, and by the 1890s Arts and Crafts ideals were being disseminated by members of the Art Workers Guild into art schools throughout the country. Members of the Guild held influential positions: Walter Crane was director of the Manchester School of Art and subsequently the Royal College of Art; F.M. Simpson, Robert Anning Bell and C.J.Allen were respectively professor of architecture, instructor in painting and design, and instructor in sculpture at Liverpool School of Art; Robert Catterson-Smith, the headmaster of the Birmingham Art School from 1902 to 1920, was also an AWG member; W. R. Lethaby and George Frampton were inspectors and advisors to the London County Council's (LCC) education board and in 1896, largely as a result of their work, the LCC set up the Central School of Arts and Crafts and made them joint principals. Until the formation of the Bauhaus in Germany, the Central School was regarded as the most progressive art school in Europe. Shortly after its foundation, the Camberwell School of Arts and Crafts was set up on Arts and Crafts lines by the local borough council.

As head of the Royal College of Art in 1898, Crane tried to reform it along more practical lines, but resigned after a year, defeated by the bureaucracy of the Board of Education, who then appointed Augustus Spencer to implement his plan. Spencer brought in Lethaby to head its school of design and several members of the Art Workers' Guild as teachers. Ten years after reform, a committee of inquiry reviewed the RCA and found that it was still not adequately training students for industry.

In the debate that followed the publication of the committee's report, C.R.Ashbee published a highly critical essay, Should We Stop Teaching Art, in which he called for the system of art education to be completely dismantled and for the crafts to be learned in state-subsidised workshops instead. Lewis Foreman Day, an important figure in the Arts and Crafts movement, took a different view in his dissenting report to the committee of inquiry, arguing for greater emphasis on principles of design against the growing orthodoxy of teaching design by direct working in materials. Nevertheless, the Arts and Crafts ethos thoroughly pervaded British art schools and persisted, in the view of the historian of art education, Stuart MacDonald, until after the Second World War.

Leading practitioners
• Charles Robert Ashbee

• William Swinden Barber

• Barnsley brothers

• Detmar Blow

• Herbert Tudor Buckland

• Rowland Wilfred William Carter

• T. J. Cobden-Sanderson

• Walter Crane

• Nelson Dawson

• Lewis Foreman Day

• Christopher Dresser

• Dirk van Erp

• Thomas Phillips Figgis

• Eric Gill

• Ernest Gimson

• Greene & Greene

• Elbert Hubbard

• Norman Jewson

• Ralph Johonnot

• Florence Koehler

• Frederick Leach

• William Lethaby

• Edwin Lutyens

• Charles Rennie Mackintosh

• A.H. Mackmurdo

• Samuel Maclure

• George Washington Maher

• Bernard Maybeck

• Henry Chapman Mercer

• Julia Morgan

• William De Morgan

• William Morris

• Karl Parsons

• Alfred Hoare Powell

• Edward Schroeder Prior

• Hugh C. Robertson

• William Robinson

• Charles Rohlfs

• Baillie Scott

• Norman Shaw

• Ellen Gates Starr

• Gustav Stickley

• Phoebe Anna Traquair

• C.F.A. Voysey

• Margaret Ely Webb

• Philip Webb

• Christopher Whall

• Edgar Wood

Bibliography and further reading

 * online review
 * Cormack, Peter. Arts & crafts stained glass (Yale UP, 2015).
 * Danahay, Martin. "Arts and Crafts as a Transatlantic Movement: CR Ashbee in the United States, 1896–1915." Journal of Victorian Culture 20.1 (2015): 65–86.
 * Greensted, Mary. The arts and crafts movement in Britain (Shire, 2010).
 * Kreisman, Lawrence, and Glenn Mason. The Arts & Craft Movement in the Pacific Northwest (Timber Press, 2007).
 * Krugh, Michele. "Joy in labour: The politicization of craft from the arts and crafts movement to Etsy." Canadian Review of American Studies 44.2 (2014): 281–301. online
 * Luckman, Susan. "Precarious labour then and now: The British arts and crafts movement and cultural work revisited." Theorizing Cultural Work (Routledge, 2014) pp. 33–43 online.
 * Mascia-Lees, Frances E. "American Beauty: The Middle Class Arts and Crafts Revival in the United States." in Critical Craft (Routledge, 2020) pp. 57–77.
 * Meister, Maureen. Arts and Crafts Architecture: History and Heritage in New England (UP of New England, 2014).
 * Penick, Monica, Christopher Long, and Harry Ransom Center, eds. The rise of everyday design: The arts and crafts movement in Britain and America (Yale UP, 2019).
 * Richardson, Margaret. Architects of the arts and crafts movement (1983)
 * Tankard, Judith B. Gardens of the Arts and Crafts Movement (Timber Press, 2018)
 * Thomas, Zoë. "Between Art and Commerce: Women, Business Ownership, and the Arts and Crafts Movement." Past & Present 247.1 (2020): 151–196. online
 * Triggs, Oscar Lovell. The arts & crafts movement (Parkstone International, 2014).
 * Kreisman, Lawrence, and Glenn Mason. The Arts & Craft Movement in the Pacific Northwest (Timber Press, 2007).
 * Krugh, Michele. "Joy in labour: The politicization of craft from the arts and crafts movement to Etsy." Canadian Review of American Studies 44.2 (2014): 281–301. online
 * Luckman, Susan. "Precarious labour then and now: The British arts and crafts movement and cultural work revisited." Theorizing Cultural Work (Routledge, 2014) pp. 33–43 online.
 * Mascia-Lees, Frances E. "American Beauty: The Middle Class Arts and Crafts Revival in the United States." in Critical Craft (Routledge, 2020) pp. 57–77.
 * Meister, Maureen. Arts and Crafts Architecture: History and Heritage in New England (UP of New England, 2014).
 * Penick, Monica, Christopher Long, and Harry Ransom Center, eds. The rise of everyday design: The arts and crafts movement in Britain and America (Yale UP, 2019).
 * Richardson, Margaret. Architects of the arts and crafts movement (1983)
 * Tankard, Judith B. Gardens of the Arts and Crafts Movement (Timber Press, 2018)
 * Thomas, Zoë. "Between Art and Commerce: Women, Business Ownership, and the Arts and Crafts Movement." Past & Present 247.1 (2020): 151–196. online
 * Triggs, Oscar Lovell. The arts & crafts movement (Parkstone International, 2014).
 * Richardson, Margaret. Architects of the arts and crafts movement (1983)
 * Tankard, Judith B. Gardens of the Arts and Crafts Movement (Timber Press, 2018)
 * Thomas, Zoë. "Between Art and Commerce: Women, Business Ownership, and the Arts and Crafts Movement." Past & Present 247.1 (2020): 151–196. online
 * Triggs, Oscar Lovell. The arts & crafts movement (Parkstone International, 2014).
 * Triggs, Oscar Lovell. The arts & crafts movement (Parkstone International, 2014).

title: Arts and Crafts movement


text:
Quiz bowl

Quiz bowl (quizbowl, scholars' bowl, scholastic bowl, academic bowl, academic team, academic challenge, etc.) is a family of quiz-based competitions that test players on a wide variety of academic subjects. Standardized quiz bowl formats are played by lower school, middle school, high school, and university students throughout North America, Asia, Europe, Australia, and Africa.

Quiz bowl competitions are typically played with a lockout buzzer system between at least two teams, usually consisting of four players each. A moderator reads questions to the players, who try to score points for their team by buzzing first and responding with the correct answer.

Quiz bowl is most commonly played in a toss-up/bonus format, which consists of a series of two different types of questions. Other formats, particularly in local competitions, may deviate from the above rules, with additions like lightning rounds or category choice.

History
Most forms of modern quiz bowl are modeled after game shows. College Bowl, which was created by Don Reid as a USO activity for U.S. service men during World War II, was an influential early quiz bowl program. Also known as "The College Quiz Bowl," it started on radio in 1953 and then aired on national television in the U.S. from 1959 to 1970.

In the first half of the 20th century, many other quiz-bowl-like competitions were also created. Delco Hi-Q began in 1948 as a radio quiz competition sponsored by the Scott Paper Company for high school students in Delaware County, Pennsylvania. It claims to be the oldest continuously running student quiz contest in the United States. The It's Academic televised student quiz show program has been run for high school teams in the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area since 1961 and is recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records as the longest-running quiz program in television history. It's Academic has been spun off in many other U.S. media markets and has inspired many other televised high school competitions.

In 1977, College Bowl was revived as an activity on college campuses in the U.S. by College Bowl Company Inc. (CBCI). In September 1990, the Academic Competition Federation (ACF) was founded as the first major alternative to The College Bowl Company. National Academic Quiz Tournaments (NAQT) was founded in 1996 and currently organizes national competitions at all levels in the United States and supplies tournament questions for grade school and college teams across North America and other parts of the world. In 2008, the College Bowl program abruptly ended in the U.S., although the company itself continues to operate the Honda Campus All-Star Challenge (HCASC) for historically black colleges and universities.

Gameplay

During a quiz bowl game, two teams of usually up to four or five players are read questions by a moderator. When there are more than four players on a team, the team has to substitute its players for different games. Each player usually has an electronic buzzer to signal in ("buzz") at any time during the question to give an answer. In most forms of quiz bowl, there are two types of questions: toss-ups and bonuses. Toss-ups are questions that any individual player can attempt to answer by buzzing in, and players are generally not allowed to confer with each other before answering. If the answer given is incorrect, then no other member of that team may give an answer, and the moderator continues reading the question to the other team. If a toss-up is successfully answered, the team who answered correctly is given an opportunity to answer a bonus question. Bonuses are usually worth a total of 30 points and consist of three individual questions worth ten points each. Team members are generally permitted to confer with each other before answering these questions.

Regional or local tournaments may dispose of any number of standard rules entirely. Some may only have toss-ups and not use bonuses at all, especially to prevent cheating at tournaments played online.

Some formats include a lightning round during which a team attempts to answer multiple questions as fast as possible under a given time limit, usually sixty seconds. Other formats include a written worksheet round, where teams work together for 2–5 minutes to agree on their written answers.

Match length is determined by either a game clock or the number of questions in a packet. In most formats, a game ends once the moderator has finished reading every question in a packet, usually 20. Tie-breaking procedures may include reading extra toss-ups until the tie is broken or sudden-death toss-ups.

Quiz bowl tests players in a variety of academic subjects including literature, science, history, and fine arts. Additionally, some quiz bowl events may feature small amounts of popular culture content like sports, popular music, and other non-academic general knowledge subjects, although their inclusion is generally kept to a minimum.

In most quiz bowl competitions, players and coaches may protest the moderator's decision if they believe their answer was incorrectly rejected, or an opponent's answer was incorrectly accepted. Invalid protests or unnecessary protests can result in additional loss of points or an expulsion from the game.

Timeouts may be called by a player or coach (if the coach is not reading tossups.) These temporarily pause the game and players and coaches can talk. These may differ from improvement, point check or categories that are coming up.

Substitutions may be done at halftime (tossup 10 or 12 depending on tossups in match) or at a team's timeout. These involve removing one or more of the four playing members on a team to switch with a waiting player. These are usually done if player's categories have been used up or if they are taking turns if there are many players on a team. These rules about timeouts and subs may vary from different rule sets but are generally accepted in NAQT matches.

Timed matches may also be in play. These are usually done by 9 minute halves and at the end of the first half, if not at tossup 12 or beyond it, the moderator will automatically skip to it. If past tossup 12 after the first half, they will just start where they ended. These often require players to stall or go faster. Skipping bonuses may be used if players are uncomfortable with the bonus but it will completely skip it and not just one part. These tactics are mostly accepted in different matches.

Toss-ups
Two common types of toss-ups include buzzer-beaters and pyramidal tossups, with the latter being more common than the former. Buzzer-beaters (also known as speed checks or quick-recall questions) are relatively short, rarely being more than two sentences long, and contain few clues. This type of question is written specifically to test players' quick recall skills without discriminating between the different levels of knowledge on a topic that the players possess. Buzzer-beaters are not included in major state or national tournaments.

Pyramidal or pyramid-style tossups include multiple clues and are written so that each question starts with more difficult clues and moves toward easier clues. This way, players with the most knowledge of the subject have the best opportunity to answer first. Pyramidal toss-ups are considered standard for competitive quiz bowl, especially at the collegiate level.

In most formats, correctly answering a toss-up earns a team 10 points. Extra points, usually for a total of 15 or 20 points, may be awarded if a question is answered prior to a certain clue-providing keyword in the question, usually marked by an asterisk, an action known as "powering." Buzzing in before the entire question has been read and answering incorrectly is called "negging" and may incur a 5-point penalty for a team. After a neg occurs, the moderator continues reading the rest of the question for the other team. There are usually no further penalties after one team has already negged.

Bonuses
Bonuses usually have multiple parts, related by a common thread but not necessarily related to the tossup that was answered. Bonuses are also typically introduced with a theme or fact that connects them before the questions themselves are read. A team is usually rewarded with 10 points for each correct answer in a bonus. Bonuses are the only types of questions that allow conferral among team members, with 5 seconds typically being given after the question to confer before an answer is required. Usually, only the team that answered the tossup correctly can answer the bonus, though some formats allow the opposing team to answer those parts of the bonus not correctly answered by the team that earned the bonus, a gameplay element known as a "bounceback" or "rebound." Less-used types of bonus questions include multiple-choice bonuses (sometimes seen in Science Bowl), list bonuses (which require answers from a given list), and "30-20-10" bonuses (which give small sets of clues for a single answer in order of decreasing difficulty, with more points being awarded for giving the correct answer on an earlier clue. The 30-20-10 bonus was officially banned from ACF in 2008 and NAQT in 2009. Most programs now use a bonus of easy, medium and hard but in different orders.

Variations
Several variations on the game of quiz bowl exist that affect question structure and content, rules of play, and round format. One standardized format is the pyramidal tossup/bonus format, which is used in NAQT and ACF (or mACF, referring to question sets produced in a similar style to those of ACF) competitions.

Most quiz bowl question producers, including ACF and NAQT, publish a distribution of the number of tossups and bonuses per round that will feature material from a given area of study.

ACF/mACF tossups are written in pyramidal style and are generally much longer than College Bowl and NAQT questions. Games are usually untimed and last until a total of 20 tossups are read. The published distribution of ACF quiz bowl emphasizes academic subjects, with very little popular culture. However, many "housewrites", or question sets written by schools themselves, may choose to modify the category distribution.

NAQT is another common variation on the tossup/bonus format that balances academic rigor with a wider variety of subjects, including popular culture and an increased amount of current events and geography content. Unlike many mACF events, most questions used in this format are written and sold by NAQT themselves. NAQT also uses "power marks" in their tossups, which reward players with 15 points instead of 10 for a tossup answered before a predetermined point. Games played on NAQT rules consist of two nine-minute halves and a total of 24 tossups. NAQT tossups are typically shorter than most other pyramidal tossups because of shorter character limits on its questions. The format used for the now-defunct College Bowl tournament uses comparatively shorter questions. Gameplay is relatively quick as it is played in eight-minute halves, to a usual total of 22–24 tossups read.

The Honda Campus All Star Challenge and University Challenge in the U.K. use similar formats.

Matches played at the National Academic Championship and its affiliated tournaments are split into four quarters, with differing styles of gameplay in each phase. Individual tournaments may use worksheet rounds, lightning rounds, or tossups without accompanying bonuses.

The 2020–2021 quiz bowl season saw a dramatic increase in the number of large online quiz bowl competitions due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In-person quiz bowl tournaments were cancelled, including all NAQT National Championships. Online competitions, often using the platforms Zoom or Discord, were widely used by tournament directors, including state championship organizers in 2020-21, as well as for the NAQT HSNCT and PACE NSC high school nationals tournaments. This allowed competition in spite of national and international lockdown requirements. These matches and tournaments were run in a similar manner to in-person competition, although some tournaments switched to tossup-only formats.

Preparation
Since questions are generally derived from an unofficial "canon" of topics, players commonly review, and practice with, questions from past competition to prepare for upcoming tournaments. Several websites exist for this purpose, the most commonly used being QB Reader, a single-player quiz bowl simulator that also includes a navigable database of past questions; Protobowl, a multiplayer real-time quiz bowl simulator; and QuizBug 2, a single-player quiz bowl simulator.

Players often research and write their own questions to prepare for quiz bowl. Active participation in academic coursework also helps to prepare for quiz bowl. Blind memorization of high-frequency out-of-context facts, often referred to as "stock" clues, is a common method of quiz bowl preparation, but is generally discouraged, because the memorization generally has little academic utility. Players benefit from exposure to a broad range of school, cultural subjects, memorization, and study skills, as well as an improved ability to cooperate and work in teams.

NAQT also sells lists of topics that are frequently asked about in their questions.

Competitions
Quiz bowl is primarily played at single-day tournaments. Some events have eligibility rules that dictate who may participate, such as allowing only freshman and sophomore players or excluding graduate students. Additionally, most tournaments allow multiple teams from a single school to compete.

Some schools hold intramural tournaments where any team formed from students can play. High school quiz bowl is often played over an extended period of time by schools within a local area or pre-existing athletic conference, or in single matches against other schools.

Some regional variants organized for grade school students include Knowledge Bowl, Ohio Academic Competition (OAC), Florida's Commissioner's Academic Challenge (CAC), and various television quiz competitions such as It's Academic. Athletic and activities associations in some US states also organize quiz bowl competitions, including Missouri's MSHSAA, Illinois's IHSA, Kansas's KSHSAA, Kentucky's Governor's Cup and Virginia's VHSL. Additionally, various formats have been developed to test knowledge in specific areas like the Bible, classics, science, and agricultural science. DECA runs quiz bowl events at their competitions that tests knowledge on business and market topics. Gallaudet University sponsors a National Academic Bowl for deaf high school students. Tournaments designated as "trash" focus on pop culture and sports trivia questions.

National tournaments
There are several collegiate-level national championship tournaments, for which teams usually qualify through regional competitions. They include:
 * NAQT's Intercollegiate Championship Tournament (ICT)
 * NAQT's Community College Championship Tournament (CCCT)
 * ACF Nationals
 * Honda Campus All-Star Challenge (HCASC)

Several national competitions are conducted in the United States every year for high school students. Compared to the college level, there are usually more tournaments that allow teams to qualify. National tournaments include:
 * NAQT's High School National Championship Tournament (HSNCT)
 * Partnership for Academic Competition Excellence's National Scholastic Championship (PACE NSC)
 * The National Academic Association and Question Unlimited's National Academic Championship (NAC)
 * JROTC Leadership and Academic Bowl (JLAB)

The following high school tournaments are for single all-star teams from each U.S. state or other political subdivision: There is also a tournament for middle school students:
 * National All-Star Academic Tournament (NASAT)
 * National Tournament of Academic Excellence (NTAE) (formerly known as the Panasonic Academic Challenge)

 * Middle School National Championship Tournament (MSNCT)

Beginning in 2018, NAQT has organized the Individual Player National Championship Tournament (IPNCT). Since 2019, IPNCT has been separated into high school and middle school divisions.

Educational value
Some proponents of reform seek to increase the educational value and fairness of quiz bowl, primarily by using pyramidal questions. Many competitions below the college level are criticized for their use of speed-check questions, which encourage participants to rely more on their ability to buzz in quickly than on knowledge of the subjects tested. Some tournaments, such as College Bowl, are criticized for being insufficiently academic, including using superfluous clues in their questions, and for recycling questions from previous years. The use of "hoses," misleading clues that discourage players from buzzing in too early, is also considered a mark of "bad" quiz bowl.

The use of mathematical computation problems in tossups is criticized by some for rewarding fast problem-solving skills over conceptual knowledge and for being non-pyramidal by nature.

Broadcasting
Quiz bowl shows have been on television for many decades in some areas and usually feature competitors from local high schools. Many of these competitions may have rules and formats that differ slightly from standardized quiz bowl.

College Bowl was broadcast on NBC radio from 1953 to 1955. The program moved to television as General Electric College Bowl and was broadcast from 1959 to 1970, first on CBS and later on NBC. College Bowl would return to CBS radio from 1979 to 1982, and HCASC was broadcast on BET from 1990 to 1995. The Texaco Star National Academic Championship ran from 1989 to 1991 on Discovery Channel and was hosted by Chip Beall and Mark L. Walberg. In 1994, it was syndicated as the Star Challenge and hosted by Mark L. Walberg. University Challenge is licensed from CBCI by Granada TV Ltd. and still broadcast in the United Kingdom. Reach for the Top, a Canadian competition with a quiz bowl-like format, has been broadcast on the CBC in the past.

Game show contestants
Quiz bowl has received media coverage due to the number of highly successful game show contestants with backgrounds in the activity. NAQT maintains a list of current and former quiz bowl players at any level who have appeared on TV game shows. Several of the top dollar winners in the history of Jeopardy! include former players such as Ken Jennings, Matt Jackson, David Madden, and Brad Rutter. Such is the correlation between success on Jeopardy! and quiz bowl experience that Jennings described the competition as a "minor league" for the show and for other televised quiz show competitions.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Quiz bowl


text:
Limerick (poetry)

A limerick is a form of verse that appeared in England in the early years of the 18th century. In combination with a refrain, it forms a limerick song, a traditional humorous drinking song often with obscene verses. It is written in five-line, predominantly anapestic and amphibrach trimeter with a strict rhyme scheme of AABBA, in which the first, second and fifth line rhyme, while the third and fourth lines are shorter and share a different rhyme.

It was popularized by Edward Lear in the 19th century, although he did not use the term. From a folkloric point of view, the form is essentially transgressive; violation of taboo is part of its function. According to Gershon Legman, who compiled the largest and most scholarly anthology, this folk form is always obscene and the exchange of limericks is almost exclusive to comparatively well-educated men. Women are figuring in limericks almost exclusively as "villains or victims". Legman dismissed the "clean" limerick as a "periodic fad and object of magazine contests, rarely rising above mediocrity". Its humour is not in the "punch line" ending but rather in the tension between meaning and its lack.

The following example is a limerick of unknown origin: "The limerick packs laughs anatomical Into space that is quite economical.
 * But the good ones I've seen
 * So seldom are clean

And the clean ones so seldom are comical."

Form

The standard form of a limerick is a stanza of five lines, with the first, second and fifth rhyming with one another and having three feet of three syllables each; and the shorter third and fourth lines also rhyming with each other, but having only two feet of three syllables. The third and fourth lines are usually anapaestic, or one iamb followed by one anapaest. The first, second and fifth are usually either anapaests or amphibrachs.

The first line traditionally introduces a person and a place, with the place appearing at the end of the first line and establishing the rhyme scheme for the second and fifth lines. In early limericks, the last line was often essentially a repeat of the first line, although this is no longer customary.

Within the genre, ordinary speech stress is often distorted in the first line, and may be regarded as a feature of the form: "There was a young man from the coast"; "There once was a girl from Detroit..." Legman takes this as a convention whereby prosody is violated simultaneously with propriety. Exploitation of geographical names, especially exotic ones, is also common, and has been seen as invoking memories of geography lessons in order to subvert the decorum taught in the schoolroom.

The most prized limericks incorporate a kind of twist, which may be revealed in the final line or lie in the way the rhymes are often intentionally tortured, or both. Many limericks show some form of internal rhyme, alliteration or assonance, or some element of word play. Verses in limerick form are sometimes combined with a refrain to form a limerick song, a traditional humorous drinking song often with obscene verses.

David Abercrombie, a phonetician, takes a different view of the limerick. It is this: Lines one, two, and five have three feet, that is to say three stressed syllables, while lines three and four have two stressed syllables. The number and placement of the unstressed syllables is rather flexible. There is at least one unstressed syllable between the stresses but there may be more – as long as there are not so many as to make it impossible to keep the equal spacing of the stresses.

Etymology
The origin of the name limerick for this type of poem is debated. The name is generally taken to be a reference to the City or County of Limerick in Ireland sometimes particularly to the Maigue Poets, and may derive from an earlier form of nonsense verse parlour game that traditionally included a refrain that included "Will [or won't] you come (up) to Limerick?"

Although the New English Dictionary records the first usage of the word limerick for this type of poem in England in 1898 and in the United States in 1902, in recent years several earlier examples have been documented, the earliest being an 1880 reference, in a Saint John, New Brunswick newspaper, to an apparently well-known tune, "There was a young rustic named Mallory, who drew but a very small salary.
 * When he went to the show,
 * his purse made him go

to a seat in the uppermost gallery. Tune: Won't you come to Limerick."

Edward Lear

The limerick form was popularized by Edward Lear in his first A Book of Nonsense (1846) and a later work, More Nonsense Pictures, Rhymes, Botany, etc. (1872). Lear wrote 212 limericks, mostly considered nonsense literature. It was customary at the time for limericks to accompany an absurd illustration of the same subject, and for the final line of the limerick to be a variant of the first line ending in the same word, but with slight differences that create a nonsensical, circular effect. The humour is not in the "punch line" ending but rather in the tension between meaning and its lack.

The following is an example of one of Edward Lear's limericks. "There was a Young Person of Smyrna Whose grandmother threatened to burn her.
 * But she seized on the cat,
 * and said 'Granny, burn that!

You incongruous old woman of Smyrna!'"

Lear's limericks were often typeset in three or four lines, according to the space available under the accompanying picture.

Variations
The limerick form is so well known that it has been parodied in many ways. The following example is of unknown origin: "There was a young man from Japan Whose limericks never would scan.
 * And when they asked why,
 * He said 'I do try!

But when I get to the last line I try to fit in as many words as I can.'"

Other parodies deliberately break the rhyme scheme, like the following example, attributed to W.S. Gilbert: "There was an old man of St. Bees, Who was stung in the arm by a wasp,
 * When asked, 'Does it hurt?'
 * He replied, 'No, it doesn't,

I'm so glad it wasn't a hornet.'"

Comedian John Clarke also parodied Lear's style: "There was an old man with a beard, A funny old man with a beard
 * He had a big beard
 * A great big old beard

That amusing old man with a beard."

The American film reviewer Ezra Haber Glenn has blended the limerick form with reviews of popular films, creating so-called "filmericks". For example, on Vittorio De Sica's Italian neorealist Bicycle Thieves: "De Sica shoots Rome neo-real, The poor have been dealt a raw deal.
 * A bike is required
 * Or Ricci gets fired:

All men must eventually steal."

The British wordplay and recreational mathematics expert Leigh Mercer (1893–1977) devised the following mathematical limerick:

$12 + 144 + 20 + 3\sqrt{4}⁄7 + (5 × 11) = 9^{2} + 0$

This is read as follows: "A dozen, a gross, and a score Plus three times the square root of four
 * Divided by seven
 * Plus five times eleven

Is nine squared and not a bit more."

Limerick bibliographies

 * Deex, Arthur, Arthur Deex's comprehensive annotated Limerick Bibliography
 * Dilcher, Karl, The Karl Dilcher bibliography of limerick books.
 * "Limerick Poems and Civil Wars" (on the origin of the name)
 * "The Curious Story of the Limerick" Dr Matthew Potter published by Limerick Writers' Centre Publishing www.limerickwriterscentre.com

title: Limerick (poetry)