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Illative case

In grammar, the illative case (abbreviated ; from illatus "brought in") is a grammatical case used in the Finnish, Estonian, Lithuanian, Latvian and Hungarian languages. It is one of the locative cases, and has the basic meaning of "into (the inside of)". An example from Hungarian is a házba ('into the house', with a ház meaning 'the house'). An example from Estonian is majasse and majja ('into the house'), formed from maja ('house'). An example from Finnish is taloon ('into the house'), formed from talo ('a house'), another from Lithuanian is laivan ('into the boat') formed from laivas ('boat'), and from Latvian laivā ('into the boat') formed from laiva ('boat').

In Finnish
The case is formed by adding -hVn, where 'V' represents the last vowel, and then removing the 'h' if a simple long vowel would result. For example, talo + Vn becomes taloon with a simple long 'oo'; cf. maa + hVn becomes maahan, without the elision of 'h'. This unusually complex way of adding a suffix can be explained by its reconstructed origin: a voiced palatal fricative. (Modern Finnish has lost palatalization and fricatives other than 'h' or 's'.) In some dialects spoken in Ostrobothnia, notably South Ostrobothnia, the 'h' is not removed; one says talohon. Some dialects of Finland Proper and Kymenlaakso also have a similar feature. In some instances -seen is added, e.g. huone (room) and Lontoo (London) thus huoneeseen and Lontooseen respectively.

The other locative cases in Finnish, Estonian and Hungarian are:
 * Inessive case ("(to be) in")
 * Elative case ("out of")
 * Adessive case ("(to be) on")
 * Allative case ("onto")
 * Ablative case ("from, off")

In Lithuanian
The illative case, denoting direction of movement, is now less common in the standard language but is common in the spoken language, especially in certain dialects. Its singular form, heard more often than the plural, appears in books, newspapers, etc. Most Lithuanian nouns can take the illative ending, indicating that from the descriptive point of view the illative still can be treated as a case in Lithuanian. Since the beginning of the 20th century it isn't included in the lists of standard Lithuanian cases in most grammar books and textbooks, and the prepositional construction į+accusative is more frequently used today to denote direction. The illative case was used extensively in older Lithuanian; the first Lithuanian grammar book, by Daniel Klein, mentions both illative and į+accusative but calls the usage of the illative "more elegant". Later, it has often appeared in the written texts of the authors who grew up in Dzūkija or Eastern Aukštaitija, such as Vincas Krėvė-Mickevičius.

The illative case in Lithuanian has its own endings, which are different for each declension paradigm, although quite regular, compared with some other Lithuanian cases. An ending of the illative always ends with -n in the singular, and -sna is the final part of an ending of the illative in the plural.

Certain fixed phrases in the standard language are illatives, such as patraukti atsakomybėn ("to arraign"), dešinėn! ("turn right"), vardan ("for the sake of" or "in the name of", e.g., in the name of the political party "Vardan Lietuvos", "For Lithuania").

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Adessive case

An adessive case (abbreviated ; from Latin adesse "to be present (at)": ad "at" + esse "to be") is a grammatical case generally denoting location at, upon, or adjacent to the referent of the noun; the term is used most frequently for Uralic studies. For Uralic languages, such as Finnish, Estonian and Hungarian, it is the fourth of the locative cases, with the basic meaning of "on"—for example, Estonian laud (table) and laual (on the table), Hungarian asztal and asztalnál (at the table). It is also used as an instrumental case in Finnish.

For Finnish, the suffix is -lla/-llä, e.g. pöytä (table) and pöydällä (on the table). In addition, it can specify "being around the place", as in koululla (at the school including the schoolyard), as contrasted with the inessive koulussa (in the school, inside the building).

In Estonian, the ending -l is added to the genitive case, e.g. laud (table) - laual (on the table). Besides the meaning "on", this case is also used to indicate ownership. For example, "mehel on auto" means "the man owns a car".

As the Uralic languages don't possess the verb "to have", the concept is expressed as a subject in the adessive case + on (for example, minulla on, "I have", literally "at me is").

The other locative cases in Finnish, Estonian, and Hungarian are:
 * Inessive case ("in")
 * Elative case ("out of")
 * Illative case ("into")
 * Allative case ("onto")
 * Ablative case ("off")
 * Superessive case ("on top of, or on the surface of")

Finnish
The Finnish adessive case has the word ending -lla or -llä (according to the rules of vowel harmony). It is usually added to nouns and associated adjectives.

It is used in the following ways.

 * Expressing the static state of being on the surface of something.
 * Possible English meanings of on, on top of, or atop
 * Kynä on pöydällä - The pen is on the table.

 * As an existential clause with the verb olla (to be) to express possession
 * This is the Finnish way to express the English verb to have
 * Meillä on koira. = We have a dog. ('on our (possession, responsibility, etc.) is dog')

 * Expressing the instrumental use of something
 * Possible English meanings of with, by or using
 * Hän meni Helsinkiin junalla. - He went to Helsinki by train.
 * Hän osti sen eurolla. - He bought it for a Euro.

 * In certain time expressions expressing the time at which events occur
 * Possible English meanings of during, in or over
 * Aamulla.'' - In the morning.
 * Keväällä. - During Spring.

 * Expressing the general proximity in space or time at which something occurs (where the more specific proximity case would be the inessive)
 * Possible English meaning of at
 * Poikani on koululla - My son is at school.
 * (c.f. inessive case: Poikani on koulussa - My son is inside the school.)
 * Hän on ruokatunnilla. - He is at lunch. - literally "on the lunch hour".
 * (This proximity difference corresponds to adverbial forms such as täällä - "around here" and tässä - "right here",

though they are not strictly a use of the adessive case).

Non-Uralic
Other languages which employ an adessive case or case function include archaic varieties of Lithuanian (which likely developed by the influence of Uralic), some Northeast Caucasian languages such as Lezgian and Hunzib, and the Ossetic languages, both ancient and modern.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Allative case

The allative case (abbreviated ; from Latin allāt-, afferre "to bring to") is a type of locative grammatical case. The term allative is generally used for the lative case for the majority of languages that do not make finer distinctions.

Finnish
For the Finnish language (a Uralic language), the allative is the fifth of the locative cases, with the basic meaning of "onto". Its ending is -lle, for example pöytä (table) and pöydälle (onto the top of the table). In addition, it is the logical complement of the adessive case for referring to "being around the place". For example, koululle means "to the vicinity of the school". With time, the use is the same: ruokatunti (lunch break) and ... lähti ruokatunnille ("... left to the lunch break"). Some actions require the case, e.g. kävely - mennä kävelylle "a walk - go for a walk". It also means "to" or "for", for example minä (me) and minulle (to/for me).

The other locative cases in Finnish and Estonian are these:
 * Inessive case ("in")
 * Elative case ("out of")
 * Illative case ("into")
 * Adessive case ("on")
 * Ablative case ("from off")

Baltic languages
For the Lithuanian and Latvian languages, the allative had been used dialectally as an innovation since Proto-Indo-European, but it is almost out of use in modern times. Its ending in Lithuanian is -op which was shortened from -opi, whereas its ending in Latvian is -up. For the modern languages the remains of the allative can be found in certain fixed expressions that have become adverbs, such as Lithuanian išėjo Dievop ("gone to God", i.e. died), velniop! ("to hell!"), nuteisti myriop ("sentence to death"), rudeniop ("towards autumn"), vakarop ("towards the evening"), Latvian mājup ("towards home"), kalnup ("uphill"), lejup ("downhill").

Greek
For Mycenaean Greek, an ending -de is used to denote an allative, when it is not being used as an enclitic, e.g. te-qa-de, *Tʰēgʷasde, "to Thebes" (Linear B: 𐀳𐀣𐀆). This ending survives into Ancient Greek in words such as Athḗnaze, from accusative Athḗnās + -de.

Latin
The Latin accusative case is used for motion towards towns and small islands in a manner that is analogous to the allative case.

Udmurt
For the Udmurt language, words inflected with the allative (often termed "approximative" for Permic languages) case ending "-лань" /ɫɑɲ/ express the direction of a movement.

Hebrew
In Biblical Hebrew (more common in Classical Biblical Hebrew than in Late Biblical Hebrew) the "directional he", "locative he" or he locale, in the form of /-ɔh/ suffixed to nouns (often place names) also functions as an allative marker, usually translated as 'to' or 'toward'. The directional he appears in later phases of the Hebrew language in expressions such as (upwards) and  (homeward).

Wanyi
Wanyi, an endangered Australian language, has the allative suffixes -kurru/wurru.

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Talk:Adessive case

Merging
I wonder if all these cases in Finnish need separate pages. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Danny (talk • contribs).

Why not? --The Cunctator

Why not indeed. A bit more info on each would be useful, I think. (I can't write it, my total knowledge of Finnish is the name "Suomi.") Vicki Rosenzweig
 * Maybe "Sauna"? One of the few words borrowed from finnish into international usage. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 195.198.149.24 (talk • contribs).

Ok, so let's imagine we merged the pages. Creating a huge text including ALL the cases in the case list would be pointless. Classifying according to language, such as Finnish, would create the problem that which language do we choose? Finnish, Estonian and Hungarian share some, but not all their cases; and certainly they don't use them in the same way. For example, the Estonian -ga often used where Finnish would use -lla, not -n kanssa. So, not merging. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Vuo (talk • contribs).

This contains a gross inaccuracy - the "on" case in Hungarian is the suppressive, not addessive
This contains a gross inaccuracy - the "on" case in Hungarian is the suppressive, not addessive. Or, conversely, the addessive case in Hungarian is expressed with -nál/nél and not -n.

I vounteer to rewrite this article.

Please let me have your comments.

Daniel Clarke Dc197 (talk) 21:05, 6 February 2008 (UTC)

 * I'm Hungarian and you're right. This article needs correction. On the other hand, I don't understand why all of these would be considered grammatical cases at all. They're just postpositions that became suffixes over time. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Rklz (talk • contribs) 07:27, 17 March 2008 (UTC)
 * Agreed, that needs to be corrected: what's they're writing about here is superessive, not adessive, and while don't know much Finnish and certainly no Estonian, I'm pretty sure that the examples given here are of the superessive case, as they're "on" something, not "at" something. A rewrite is definitely needed.

 * Also, to the poster above me, I believe that what makes something a case is that it declines a word, regardless if it developed from a preposition or not. Though I could he wrong. Nederbörd 212.214.132.3 (talk) 14:35, 1 March 2010 (UTC)

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238

Year 238 (CCXXXVIII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Pius and Pontianus (or, less frequently, year 991 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 238 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Maximinus Thrax campaigns against the Carpians on the Danube in Moesia (Balkans). In spite of the payment of a tribute, the Romans fail to persuade the Goths and the Germanic tribes.
 * c. March – Roman subjects in Africa revolt against Maximinus. The elderly Gordian yields to public demand that he succeed Maximinus and rules jointly with his 46-year-old son Gordian II.
 * c. April – Battle of Carthage: Numidian forces loyal to Maximinus invade Africa with support of Legio III Augusta. Gordian II is killed  and after a siege, Gordian I commits suicide by hanging himself with his belt.
 * c. May – The Senate outlaws Maximinus for his bloodthirsty proscriptions in Ancient Rome and nominates two of its members, Pupienus and Balbinus, to the throne.
 * Maximinus advances to the town Aquileia in northern Italy; his army suffers from famine and disease, while the city is besieged. Soldiers of Legio II Parthica kill him in his tent, along with his son Maximinus (who is appointed co-emperor). Their corpses are decapitated and their heads carried to Rome.
 * c. August – The Praetorian Guard storms the palace and captures Pupienus and Balbinus. They are dragged naked through the streets of Rome and executed. On the same day Gordian III, age 13, is proclaimed the new emperor. Timesitheus becomes his tutor and advisor.
 * Future Emperor Valerian becomes princeps senatus.
 * The Colosseum is restored after being damaged.
 * The Goths, coming from Ukraine, cross the Danube and devastate the Roman Empire up to the border with Anatolia.
 * In North Africa, Legio III Augusta is dissolved. Until its reconstitution in 253, Africa is defended by auxiliary forces only.

China

 * Sima Yi, a Chinese general of the Cao Wei state, destroys the outlying northeastern warlord Gongsun Yuan in the Liaodong campaign.

Commerce

 * The silver content of the Roman denarius falls to 28 percent under Emperor Gordian III, down from 35 percent under Alexander Severus.

Births

 * Wen Yang (or Ciqian), Chinese general (d. 291)
 * Yang Yan (or Wuyuan), Chinese empress (d. 274)

Deaths

 * April 10 – Han Ji (or Gongzhi), Chinese politician
 * April 12
 * Gordian I, Roman emperor (b. 159)
 * Gordian II, Roman emperor (b. 192)
 * July 29
 * Pupienus, Roman emperor (b. 165)
 * Balbinus, Roman emperor (b. 178)
 * Bu Lianshi, Chinese noblewoman and concubine
 * Gongsun Yuan (or Wenyi), Chinese warlord
 * Maximinus Thrax, Roman emperor (b. 173)
 * Maximinus the Younger, Roman emperor
 * Zhu Huan (or Xiumu), Chinese general (b. 177)

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Essive case

In grammar, the essive case, or similaris case, (abbreviated ) is a grammatical case. The essive case on a noun can express it as a definite period of time during which something happens or during which a continuous action was completed. It can also denote a form as a temporary location, state of being, or character in which the subject was at a given time. The latter meaning is often described as the equivalent of the English phrase "as a __".

Finnish
In Finnish, it is marked by adding "-na/-nä" (depending on the vowel harmony) to the stem of the noun.
 * Examples:
 * lapsi "child" → lapsena "as a child", "when (I) was a child".

 * Veljeni on säveltäjänä "My brother is a composer (at somewhere or a certain kind of)."
 * cf: Veljeni on säveltäjä (Nom) (My brother is a composer) vs. Veljeni on säveltäjänä (Ess) (My brother works/acts as a composer (somewhere))
 * säveltäjä "composer" → säveltäjänä "state of being a composer (the given time is the present)"
 * Example: 'Veljeni on säveltäjänä orkesterissa "My brother is a composer in an orchestra".
 * Example: 'Veljeni on säveltäjänä ainutlaatuinen "As a composer my brother is unique".

In Finnish, the essive case is technically categorized as an old locative case, a case that, in some way, indicates spatial location. However, in the present language, the case has lost the majority of its spatial meaning. The case instead typically denotes a state that is temporary or inclined to change.

Some fixed expressions retain the essive in its ancient locative meaning, however: "at home" is kotona.
 * Example: Luen lehtiä kotona. "I read newspapers at home."

If the inessive were used, kodissani, it would distinguish the activity from reading the papers, such as in the garage or in the garden (of the home).
 * Minulla on kylpyhuone kodissani. "I have a bathroom in my home" (not in the garage or garden).

The essive case is also used in a temporal sense with certain nouns, notably the names of weekdays, and vuosi (year), aamu (morning), ilta (evening), and yö (night), as well as dates.
 * viime maanantaina "(on) last Monday."
 * kuudentena joulukuuta "on 6 December".
 * tänä päivänä "on this day"
 * viime vuonna "(during) last year"

When marking something that cannot literally change states, the essive case can implicate the presence of alternative states, even two individual, differing "worlds". That can be seen in the following example:

 * Example: Ostin helmen aitona. "I bought the pearl thinking it was genuine [but later found out that it was not]."

The example above illustrates the process by which marking of the essive case can be seen as creating two differing "worlds": one real and one illusionary. The "temporary" component of the meaning encoded by marking of the essive case on the Finnish word for "genuine" (aito) makes a distinction between the perceived state of the subject, as genuine at the time of purchase, and the actual state of subject, as not genuine as it is now perceived or at the time of the moment of speech.

Estonian
In Estonian, it is marked by adding "-na" to the genitive stem. Marking of the case in Estonian denotes the capacity in which the subject acts. The essive case is used for indicating "states of being" but not of "becoming", which is instead marked by the translative case, the elative case, or the nominative case.

 * Examples:

laps → lapse → lapsena

"child" {} {"of child"} {} {"as a child", "when (I) was a child"}

 * ''Ta töötab insenerina "He works as an engineer."

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237

Year 237 (CCXXXVII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Perpetuus and Felix (or, less frequently, year 990 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 237 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Maximinus Thrax campaigns on the rivers Danube and Rhine in Germania, defeating the Alemanni, and never visits Rome. He is accepted by the Roman Senate, but taxes the rich aristocracy heavily, and engenders such hostility among them, that they plot against him.

Persia

 * King Ardashir I of Persia renews his attacks on the Roman province of Mesopotamia.

Religion

 * Patriarch Eugenius I succeeds Patriarch Castinus as Patriarch of Constantinople.
 * Saint Babylas becomes Patriarch of Antioch.

Births

 * Alexander of Constantinople, patriarch of Constantinople
 * Guo Huai (or Yuhuang), Chinese noblewoman (d. 296)
 * Philip II (the Younger), Roman emperor (d. 249)

Deaths

 * February 7 – Chen Qun, Chinese official and politician
 * September 22 – Mingdao (or Mao), Chinese empress
 * Wu Yi (or Ziyuan), Chinese general of the Shu Han state
 * Zhang (or Jing'ai), Chinese empress of the Shu Han state

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Translative case

In grammar, the translative case (abbreviated ) is a grammatical case that indicates a change in state of a noun, with the general sense of "becoming X" or "change to X".

In Finnish, it is the counterpart of the essive case, with the basic meaning of a change of state. It is also used for expressing "in (a language)", "considering it is a (status)" and "by (a time)". Its ending is -ksi:
 * pitkä "long", venyi pitkäksi "(it) stretched long"
 * englanti "English", En osaa sanoa tätä englanniksi "I can't say this in English"
 * pentu "cub", Se on pennuksi iso "For a cub, it is big"
 * musta aukko "black hole", (muuttui) mustaksi aukoksi "(turned into) a black hole"
 * kello kuusi "(at) six o' clock", kello kuudeksi "by six o' clock"

Examples in Estonian, where the ending is -ks: In Estonian, translative can also express a temporary or random state. E.g. while a nominative construction would indicate working in a job or profession, as olen koolis õpetaja "I'm a teacher in a school", a similar sentence using translative olen koolis õpetajaks "I work as a teacher in a school" hints at it either being a temporary position, the speaker not being fully qualified, or some other factor of impermanency.
 * pikk "long", venis pikaks "(it) stretched long"
 * must auk "black hole", (muutus/muundus) mustaks auguks "(turned into) a black hole"
 * kell kuus "(at) six o' clock", kella kuueks "by six o' clock"

In Hungarian, the ending is -vá / -vé after a vowel; it assimilates to the final consonant otherwise:

 * só "salt", Lót felesége sóvá változott "Lot's wife turned into salt"
 * fiú "boy; son" fiává fogad "adopt as one's son"
 * bolond "fool" bolonddá tett engem "He made a fool out of me."

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Instructive case

In grammar, the instructive case is a grammatical case used in Finnish, Estonian, and the Turkic languages.

Uralic languages
In Finnish, the instructive case is used to indicate means, manner, instrument, location, or time. It is almost exclusively used in fixed expressions, such as in omin silmin 'with one's own eyes'. However, the instructive is productive for infinitive verbal constructions to indicate manner, as in nauraen 'laughing': He astuivat nauraen sisään 'They stepped in through the door laughing '.

In modern Finnish, many of its instrumental uses are being superseded by the adessive case, as in minä matkustin junalla  'I travelled by train '.

The instructive case is only marginally present in Estonian in lexicalized expressions. Language reformers of the 20th century did try to revive it, but with little success.

Turkish
In Turkish, the suffix -le is used for this purpose; for example, Trenle geldim 'I came via train'.

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Abessive case

In linguistics, abessive (abbreviated or ), caritive (abbreviated ) and privative (abbreviated ) is the grammatical case expressing the lack or absence of the marked noun. In English, the corresponding function is expressed by the preposition without or by the suffix -less.

The name abessive is derived from abesse "to be away/absent", and is especially used in reference to Uralic languages. The name caritive is derived from carere "to lack", and is especially used in reference to Caucasian languages. The name privative is derived from privare "to deprive".

Somali
In the Somali language, the abessive case is marked by -la' For example:
 * magac "name"
 * magacla' "nameless"
 * dhar "clothes"
 * dharla' "clothesless," i.e., naked

Martuthunira
In Martuthunira, the privative case is formed with either -wirriwa or -wirraa.

Parla-wirraa nganarna.

money-PRIV 1PL.EX

We've got no money.

Finnish
In the Finnish language, the abessive case is marked by -tta for back vowels and -ttä for front vowels according to vowel harmony. For example:
 * raha "money"
 * rahatta "without money"

An equivalent construction exists using the word ilman and the partitive:
 * ilman rahaa "without money"

or, less commonly:
 * rahaa ilman "without money"

The abessive case of nouns is rarely used in writing and even less in speech, although some abessive forms are more common than their equivalent ilman forms:
 * tuloksetta "unsuccessfully, fruitlessly"
 * Itkin syyttä. "I cried for no reason."

The abessive is, however, commonly used in nominal forms of verbs (formed with the affix -ma- / -mä-):
 * puhu-ma-tta "without speaking"
 * osta-ma-tta "without buying"
 * välittä-mä-ttä "without caring"
 * Juna jäi tulematta. "The train didn't show up."

This form can often be replaced by using the negative form of the verb:
 * Juna ei tullut. "The train didn't show up."

It is possible to occasionally hear what is considered wrong usage of the abessive in Finnish, where the abessive and ilman forms are combined:
 * ilman rahatta

There is debate as to whether this is interference from Estonian.

Estonian
Estonian also uses the abessive, which is marked by -ta in both the singular and the plural:
 * (ilma) autota "without a car" (the preposition ilma "without" is optional)

Unlike in Finnish, the abessive is commonly used in both written and spoken Estonian.

The nominal forms of verbs are marked with the affix -ma- and the abessive marker -ta:
 * Rong jäi tulemata. "The train didn't show up."

Tallinn has a pair of bars that play on the use of the comitative and abessive, the Nimeta baar (the nameless bar) and the Nimega baar (the bar with a name).

Skolt Sami
The abessive marker for nouns in Skolt Sámi is -tää or -taa in both the singular and the plural:
 * Riâkkum veäʹrtää. "I cried for no reason."

The abessive-like non-finite verb form (converb) is -ǩâni or -kani:
 * Son vuõʹlji domoi mainsteǩâni mõʹnt leäi puättam. "He/she went home without saying why he/she had come."

Unlike Finnish, the Skolt Sámi abessive has no competing expression for lack of an item.

Inari Sami
The abessive marker for nouns in Inari Sámi is -táá. The corresponding non-finite verb form is -hánnáá, -hinnáá or -hennáá.

Other Sami languages
The abessive is not used productively in the Western Sámi languages, although it may occur as a cranberry morpheme.

Hungarian
In Hungarian, the abessive case is marked by -talan for back vowels and -telen for front vowels according to vowel harmony. Sometimes, with certain roots, the suffix becomes -tlan or -tlen. For example:
 * pénz "money"
 * pénztelen "without money"
 * haza "home(land)"
 * hazátlan "(one) without a homeland"

There is also the postposition nélkül, which also means without, but is not meant for physical locations.
 * Cukor nélkül iszom a teát. "I drink tea without sugar."
 * Testvér nélkül éltem. "I lived without siblings."
 * Eljöttél Magyarországra a testvéred nélkül? "Did you come to Hungary without your sibling?"

Bashkir
In Bashkir the suffix is -һыҙ/-һеҙ (-hïð/-hĭð).

Turkish
The suffix -siz (variations: -sız, -suz, -süz) is used in Turkish.

Ex: evsiz (ev = house, houseless/homeless), barksız, görgüsüz (görgü = good manners, ill-bred), yurtsuz.

Azerbaijani
The same suffix is used in the Azerbaijani language.

Chuvash
In Chuvash the suffix is -сӑр/-сӗр.

Kyrgyz
In Kyrgyz the suffix is -сIз.

Mongolian
In Mongolian, the privative suffix is -гүй. It is not universally considered to be a case, because the suffix does not conform to vowel harmony or undergo any stem-dependent orthographical variation. However, its grammatical function is the precise inverse of the comitative case, and the two form a pair of complementary case forms.

Russian
In Russian, the abessive (лиши́тельный) is a marginal case, used with the negation of verbs: не знать пра́вды (not know the truth) – знать пра́вду (know the truth). When differentiated, this case is identical to the genitive, otherwise it resembles the accusative.

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Comitative case

In grammar, the comitative case is a grammatical case that denotes accompaniment. In English, the preposition "with", in the sense of "in company with" or "together with", plays a substantially similar role. Other uses of "with", like in the meaning of "using" or "by means of" (I cut bread with a knife), correspond to the instrumental case or related cases.

Core meaning
The comitative case encodes a relationship of "accompaniment" between two participants in an event, called the "accompanier" and the "companion". In addition, there is a "relator" (which can be of multiple lexical categories, but is most commonly an affix or adposition). Use of the comitative case gives prominence to the accompanier. This Italian sentence is an example:

 * [ il professore ] accompanier entra nell'aula [ con ] relator [ i suoi studenti ] companion
 * 'the professor enters the lecture-hall (together) with his students'.

In this case, il professore is the accompanier, i suoi studenti is the companion, and con is the relator. As the accompanier, il professore is the most prominent.

Animacy also plays a major role in most languages with a comitative case. One group of languages requires both the accompanier and the companion to be either human or animate. Another group requires both to be in the same category: both human or both animate. A third group requires an animate accompanier and an inanimate companion. Other languages have no restrictions based on animacy.

Comparison to similar cases
The comitative case is often conflated or confused with other similar cases, especially the instrumental case and the associative case.

The comitative relates to an accompanier and a companion, and the instrumental relates to an agent, an object, and a patient. Enrique Palancar defines the role of Instrumental case as 'the role played by the object the Agent manipulates to achieve a change of state of the Patient.' Even though the difference is straightforward, because the instrumental and the comitative are expressed the same way in many languages, including English, it is often difficult to separate them.

Russian is one of many languages that differentiate morphologically between instrumental and comitative:

In Russian, the comitative is marked by adding a preposition с and by declining the companion in the instrumental case; the design с мамой as a whole becomes comitative. In the instrumental case, the object is declined, but no preposition is added.

The comitative case is often confused with the associative case. Before the term comitative was applied to the accompanier-companion relationship, the relationship was often called associative case, a term still used by some linguists.

It is important to distinguish between the comitative and the associative because the associative also refers to a specific variety of the comitative case that is used in Hungarian.

Expressions of comitative semantic relation
Grammatical case is a category of inflectional morphology. The comitative case is an expression of the comitative semantic relation through inflectional affixation, by prefixes, suffixes and circumfixes. Although all three major types of affixes are used in at least a few languages, suffixes are the most common expression. Languages which use affixation to express the comitative include Hungarian, which uses suffixes; Totonac, which uses prefixes; and Chukchi, which uses circumfixes.

Comitative relations are also commonly expressed by using adpositions: prepositions, postpositions and circumpositions. Examples of languages that use adpositional constructions to express comitative relations are French, which uses prepositions; Wayãpi, which uses postpositions; and Bambara, which uses circumpositions.

Adverbial constructions can also mark comitative relations, but they act very similarly to adpositions. One language that uses adverbs to mark the comitative case is Latvian.

The final way in which comitative relations can be expressed is by serial-verb constructions. In these languages, the comitative marker is usually a verb whose basic meaning is "to follow". A language which marks comitative relations with serial-verb constructions is Chinese.

Latvian
In Latvian, both instrumental and comitative are expressed with the preposition ar However, it is used only when the companion is in accusative and singular or when it is in dative and plural. Otherwise the co-ordinating conjunction un is used.

un Nelda ar Rudolfu ļoti nozīmīgi pa-skatījās uz Ernestīni

and Nelda.NOM COM Rudolf.ACC very significantly at-look.PRET.REFL.3 on Ernestine.ACC

'And Nelda and Rudolf looked very knowingly at Ernestine.'

In the example above, ar is used because Rudolf, the companion, is in accusative and singular. Below, it is used in the other case that it is allowed, with a dative plural companion.

jo ne-bija ne-kāda prieka dzīvot zem sveša jumta un vēl ar vis-iem zirg-iem un rat-iem

because NEG-be.PAST.3 NEG-some.GEN fun.GEN live.INF under foreign.GEN roof.GEN and still COM all-DAT.PL horse-DAT.PL and cart-DAT.PL

'Because it was no fun to live under someone else's roof, especially with all the horses and the cart'.

Estonian
In Estonian, the comitative (kaasaütlev) marker is the suffix -ga.

ja Barber rüüpa-b koos Balthasari-ga sügava sõõmu

and Barber drink-3SG together Balthasar-COM deep.GEN mouthful.GEN

'And Barber takes a sip together with Balthasar.'

Finnish
In Finnish, the comitative case (komitatiivi) consists of the suffix -ne with adjectives and -ne- + a mandatory possessive suffix with the main noun. There is no singular-plural distinction; only the plural of the comitative exists and is used in both singular and plural senses, and thus it always appears as -ine-. For instance, "with their big ships" is

suuri-ne laivo-i-ne-en

big-COM ship-OBL-PL-COM-POS.3PL

while "with his/her big ships" is

suuri-ne laivo-i-ne-nsa

big-COM ship-OBL-PL-COM-POS.3SG

It is rarely used and is mainly a feature of formal literary language, appearing very rarely in everyday speech.

The much more common, less formal way of expressing "with" is with the postposition kanssa, e.g., suurten laivojensa kanssa with their big ships. The two forms may contrast, however, since the comitative always comes with the possessive suffix and thus can only be used when the agent has some sort of possession of the thing expressed by the main noun. For instance, Ulkoministeri jatkaa kollegoineen neuvotteluja sissien kanssa, The foreign minister, with [assistance from] his colleagues, is continuing the negotiations with the guerrillas, has kollegoineen with his colleagues contrasted with sissien kanssa with the guerrillas, the former "possessed", the latter not.

Colloquial Finnish also has the postposition kaa, derived from kanssa and cognate with the Estonian -ga. With pronouns it is written as a suffix, -kaa. Compare also Ingrian -nka/-nkä, e.g., talonka with a house.

mun-kaa

1SG.GEN-with

'with me'

mun kavereitten kaa

1SG-GEN friend-GEN-PL with

'with my friends'

Sami languages
As there are many Sami languages there are variations between them. In the largest Sami language, Northern Sami, the comitative case means either communion, fellowship, connection - or instrument, tool. It can be used either as an object or as an adverbial.

It is expressed through the suffix -in in the singular and -iguin in the plural.

An example of the object use in Northern Sami is Dat láve álo riidalit isidiin She always argues with her husband. An example of the adverbial use is Mun čálán bleahkain I write with ink.

Hungarian
In Hungarian, comitative case is marked by the suffix -stul/-stül, as shown in the example below.

ruhá-stul és cipő-stül feküd-t-em az ágy-ban

clothes-COM and shoe-COM lie-PAST-INDEF.1SG the bed-INE

'I was lying in bed with my clothes and shoes on.'

However, the comitative case marker cannot be used if the companion has a plural marker. So when the comitative marker is added to a noun, it obscures whether that noun is singular or plural.

gyerek-estül men-t-ek nyaral-ni

child-COM go-PAST-INDEF.3PL vacation-INF

'They went on vacation with their child/children.'

Chukchi
Chukchi uses a circumfix to express comitative case.

In the example, the circumfix га⟩...⟨ма is attached to the root мэлгар gun to express comitative.

Drehu
In Drehu, there are two prepositions which can be used to mark comitative. Which of the prepositions is used is determined by the classes of the accompanier and companion.

ɑngeic ɑ tro me eni

3SG PRES go COM 1SG

'He goes with me.'

eni ɑ ixelë memin lɑ jɑjiny

1SG PRES meet COM ART girl

'I met (with) the girl.'

Hausa
The comitative marker in Hausa is the preposition dà. In Hausa, a prepositional phrase marked for comitative can be moved to the front of the sentence for emphasis, as shown in the examples below.

(tàare) dà yâara-n-shì fa, yaa zoo nannìyà

(together) with children-of-3SG.M indeed 3SG.M.PFV come here

'With his children indeed, he came here.'

(tàare) dà Bàlaa née na jee kàasuwaa

(together) with Bala COP 1SG.RP go market

'It is with Bala that I went to the market.'

In Hausa it is ungrammatical to do the same with coordinating conjunctions. For example, if the companions were "dog and cat", it would be ungrammatical to move either "dog" or "cat" to the front of the sentence for emphasis, while it is grammatical to do so when there is a comitative marker rather than a conjunction.

title: Comitative case


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234

Year 234 (CCXXXIV) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Pupienus and Sulla (or, less frequently, year 987 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 234 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Alexander Severus and his mother Julia Mamaea move to Moguntiacum (modern Mainz), the capital of Germania Superior. His generals have planned a military offensive and built a bridge across the Rhine. Alexander prefers to negotiate for peace by buying off the Alemanni. This policy outrages the Roman legions and he loses the trust of the troops.

China

 * Battle of Wuzhang Plains between the Chinese states of Shu Han and Cao Wei: The army of Shu Han retreats, following an inconclusive result.

Korea

 * Saban becomes king of the Korean kingdom of Baekje. He is succeeded by Goi of Baekje later in the same year.

Births

 * Porphyry, Phoenician Neoplatonic philosopher (d. c. 305)
 * Wang Rong, Chinese general and politician (d. 305)

Deaths

 * April 21 – Xian of Han, Chinese emperor of the Han Dynasty (b. 181)
 * Li Miao (or Hannan), Chinese official and politician
 * Li Yan (or Li Ping), Chinese general and politician
 * Liu Yan (or Weishuo), Chinese general and politician
 * Liu Ye (or Ziyang), Chinese court adviser and politician
 * Pan Zhang (or Wengui), Chinese general and politician
 * Sun Huan (or Jiming), Chinese nobleman and general
 * Wei Yan (or Wenchang), Chinese general and politician
 * Xiahou Hui (or Yuanrong), Chinese noblewoman (b. 211)
 * Zhuge Liang, Chinese statesman and strategist (b. 181)

title: 234


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Prolative case

In grammar, the prolative case (abbreviated ), also called the vialis case (abbreviated ), prosecutive case (abbreviated ), traversal case, mediative case, or translative case, is a grammatical case of a noun or pronoun that has the basic meaning of "by way of" or "via".

In Finnish, the prolative case follows an established application in a number of fossilized expressions to indicate "by (medium of transaction)". It can be used in other constructions, but then it does not sound "natural". Examples would be "postitse" ("by post"), "puhelimitse" ("by telephone"), "meritse" ("by sea"), "netitse" ("over the Internet"). A number of Finnish grammarians classify the prolative form as an adverb because it does not require agreement with adjectives like other Finnish cases. This claim is not true, however, because an adjective will agree with the prolative: "Hän hoiti asian pitkitse kirjeitse" ("He/she dealt with the matter by way of a long letter").

The prolative exists in a similar state in the Estonian language.

The vialis case in Eskimo–Aleut languages has a similar interpretation, used to express movement using a surface or way. For example, in the Greenlandic language umiarsuakkut 'by ship' or in Central Alaskan Yup'ik kuigkun 'by river' or ikamrakun 'by sled'.

Basque grammars frequently list the nortzat / nortako case (suffix -tzat or -tako) as "prolative" (prolatiboa). However, the meaning of this case is unrelated to the one just described above for other languages and alternatively has been called "essive / translative", as it means "for [something else], as (being) [something else]"; e.g., hiltzat eman "to give up for dead", lelotzat hartu zuten "they took him for a fool". The meaning "by way of" of the case labelled prolative in the above languages is expressed in Basque by means of the instrumental (suffix -[e]z).

This case is also called the prosecutive case in some languages. It is found under this name in Tundra Nenets, in Old Basque and, with spatial nouns, in Mongolian.

title: Prolative case


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233

Year 233 (CCXXXIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Claudius and Paternus (or, less frequently, year 986 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 233 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Alexander Severus celebrates a triumph in Rome to observe his "victory" the previous year over the Persians (in reality, Severus Alexander advanced towards Ctesiphon in 233, but as corroborated by Herodian, his armies suffered a humiliating defeat against Ardashir I).  He is soon summoned to the Rhine frontier, where the Alamanni invade what is now modern-day Swabia. German tribes destroy Roman forts, and plunder the countryside at the Limes Germanicus.

Births

 * Chen Shou, Chinese historian and writer of the Records of the Three Kingdoms (d. 297)

Deaths

 * June 13 – Cao Rui, Chinese imperial prince of the Cao Wei state
 * Liu Ji, Chinese official and politician of the Eastern Wu state (b. 185)
 * Yu Fan, Chinese official and politician of the Eastern Wu state (b. 164)

title: 233


text:
232

Year 232 (CCXXXII) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Lupus and Maximus (or, less frequently, year 985 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 232 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Roman–Persian Wars: Emperor Alexander Severus launches a three-pronged counterattack against the Persian forces of King Ardashir I, who have invaded Mesopotamia. However, the Roman army advancing through Armenia is halted. Alexander gives the order to march to the capital at Ctesiphon, but the Romans are defeated, and withdraw to Syria. The result is an acceptance of the status quo, and after heavy losses on both sides, a truce is signed.

Religion

 * Relics of St. Thomas are brought to Edessa from India.
 * Origen founds a school of Christian theology in Palestine.
 * Pope Heraclas of Alexandria is the first Bishop of Alexandria to use the appellation of "Pope".

Births

 * August 19 – Marcus Aurelius Probus, Roman emperor (d. 282)
 * Cao Fang, Chinese emperor of the Cao Wei state (d. 274)
 * Sun Chen (or Zitong), Chinese general and regent (d. 259)
 * Zhang Hua, Chinese official, scholar and poet (d. 300)

Deaths

 * January 30 – Hua Xin, Chinese official and politician (b. 157)
 * October 22 – Demetrius I, patriarch of Alexandria (b. 127)
 * December 27 – Cao Zhi, Chinese prince and poet (b. 192)
 * Cao Hong, Chinese general of the Cao Wei state
 * Sun Lü, Chinese general of the Cao Wei state
 * Tiberius Julius Sauromates III, Roman client king

title: 232


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Radio frequency

Radio frequency (RF) is the oscillation rate of an alternating electric current or voltage or of a magnetic, electric or electromagnetic field or mechanical system in the frequency range from around $20 kHz$ to around $300 GHz$. This is roughly between the upper limit of audio frequencies and the lower limit of infrared frequencies, and also encompasses the microwave range, though other definitions treat microwaves as a separate band from RF. These are the frequencies at which energy from an oscillating current can radiate off a conductor into space as radio waves, so they are used in radio technology, among other uses. Different sources specify different upper and lower bounds for the frequency range.

Electric current
Electric currents that oscillate at radio frequencies (RF currents) have special properties not shared by direct current or lower audio frequency alternating current, such as the 50 or 60 Hz current used in electrical power distribution.
 * Energy from RF currents in conductors can radiate into space as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). This is the basis of radio technology.
 * RF current does not penetrate deeply into electrical conductors but tends to flow along their surfaces; this is known as the skin effect.
 * RF currents applied to the body often do not cause the painful sensation and muscular contraction of electric shock that lower frequency currents produce. This is because the current changes direction too quickly to trigger depolarization of nerve membranes. However, this does not mean RF currents are harmless; they can cause internal injury as well as serious superficial burns called RF burns.
 * RF current can easily ionize air, creating a conductive path through it. This property is exploited by "high frequency" units used in electric arc welding, which use currents at higher frequencies than power distribution uses.
 * Another property is the ability to appear to flow through paths that contain insulating material, like the dielectric insulator of a capacitor. This is because capacitive reactance in a circuit decreases with increasing frequency.
 * In contrast, RF current can be blocked by a coil of wire, or even a single turn or bend in a wire. This is because the inductive reactance of a circuit increases with increasing frequency.
 * When conducted by an ordinary electric cable, RF current has a tendency to reflect from discontinuities in the cable, such as connectors, and travel back down the cable toward the source, causing a condition called standing waves. RF current may be carried efficiently over transmission lines such as coaxial cables.

Frequency bands
The radio spectrum of frequencies is divided into bands with conventional names designated by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU):
 * {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right"

! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Frequency range !! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Wavelength range !! scope="col" colspan="2" | ITU designation !! scope="col" rowspan="2" | IEEE bands ! scope="col" | Full name ! scope="col" | Abbreviation ! scope="row" Rh2 | Below 3 Hz ! scope="row" Rh2 | 3–30 Hz ! scope="row" Rh2 | 30–300 Hz ! scope="row" Rh2 | 300–3000 Hz ! scope="row" Rh2 | 3–30 kHz ! scope="row" Rh2 | 30–300 kHz ! scope="row" Rh2 | 300 kHz – 3 MHz ! scope="row" Rh2 | 3–30 MHz ! scope="row" Rh2 | 30–300 MHz ! scope="row" Rh2 | 300 MHz – 3 GHz ! scope="row" Rh2 | 3–30 GHz ! scope="row" Rh2 | 30–300 GHz ! scope="row" Rh2 | 300 GHz – 3 THz
 * >105 km || || style="text-align:center" | || N/A
 * 105–104 km|| Extremely low frequency || style="text-align:center" | ELF || N/A
 * 104–103 km|| Super low frequency || style="text-align:center" | SLF || N/A
 * 103–100 km|| Ultra low frequency || style="text-align:center" | ULF || N/A
 * 100–10 km|| Very low frequency || style="text-align:center" | VLF || N/A
 * 10–1 km|| Low frequency || style="text-align:center" | LF || N/A
 * 1 km – 100 m|| Medium frequency || style="text-align:center" | MF || N/A
 * 100–10 m|| High frequency || style="text-align:center" | HF || style="text-align:center" | HF
 * 10–1 m|| Very high frequency || style="text-align:center" | VHF || style="text-align:center" | VHF
 * 1 m – 100 mm|| Ultra high frequency || style="text-align:center" | UHF || style="text-align:center" | UHF, L, S
 * 100–10 mm|| Super high frequency || style="text-align:center" | SHF || style="text-align:center" | S, C, X, Ku, K, Ka
 * 10–1 mm|| Extremely high frequency || style="text-align:center" | EHF || style="text-align:center" | Ka, V, W, mm
 * 1 mm – 0.1 mm|| Tremendously high frequency || style="text-align:center" | THF || N/A
 * }

Frequencies of 1 GHz and above are conventionally called microwave, while frequencies of 30 GHz and above are designated millimeter wave. More detailed band designations are given by the standard IEEE letter- band frequency designations and the 	EU/NATO frequency designations.

Communications
Radio frequencies are used in communication devices such as transmitters, receivers, computers, televisions, and mobile phones, to name a few. Radio frequencies are also applied in carrier current systems including telephony and control circuits. The MOS integrated circuit is the technology behind the current proliferation of radio frequency wireless telecommunications devices such as cellphones.

Medicine
Medical applications of radio frequency (RF) energy, in the form of electromagnetic waves (radio waves) or electrical currents, have existed for over 125 years, and now include diathermy, hyperthermy treatment of cancer, electrosurgery scalpels used to cut and cauterize in operations, and radiofrequency ablation. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses radio frequency fields to generate images of the human body.

Non-surgical weight loss equipment
Radio Frequency or RF energy is also being used in devices that are being advertised for weight loss and fat removal. The possible effects RF might have on the body and whether RF can lead to fat reduction needs further study. Currently, there are devices such as trusculpt ID, Venus Bliss and many others utilizing this type of energy alongside heat to target fat pockets in certain areas of the body. That being said, there is limited studies on how effective these devices are.

Measurement
Test apparatus for radio frequencies can include standard instruments at the lower end of the range, but at higher frequencies, the test equipment becomes more specialized.

Mechanical oscillations
While RF usually refers to electrical oscillations, mechanical RF systems are not uncommon: see mechanical filter and RF MEMS.

title: Radio frequency


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Partitive case

The partitive case (abbreviated, , or more ambiguously ) is a grammatical case which denotes "partialness", "without result", or "without specific identity". It is also used in contexts where a subgroup is selected from a larger group, or with numbers.

Finnic languages
In Finnic languages, such as Finnish and Estonian, this case is often used to express unknown identities and irresultative actions. For example, it is found in the following circumstances, with the characteristic ending of -a or -ta:

 * After numbers, in singular: "kolme taloa" → "three                                           houses" (cf. plural, where both are used, e.g. sadat kirjat "the hundreds of books", sata kirjaa "hundred books" as an irresultative object.)
 * For atelic actions (possibly incomplete) and ongoing processes: "luen kirjaa" → "I'm reading a book"
 * Compare with telic actions in accusative case: "luen kirjan" → "I will read the (entire) book"
 * With atelic verbs, particularly those indicating emotions: "rakastan tätä taloa" → "I love this house"
 * For tentative inquiries: "saanko lainata kirjaa?" → "can I borrow the book?"
 * For uncountables: "lasissa on maitoa" → "there is (some) milk in the glass"
 * Compositions: "pala juustoa" → "a piece of cheese"
 * In places where English would use "some" or "any": "onko teillä kirjoja?" → "do you have any books?"
 * Compare with nominative case: "onko teillä kirjat?" → "do you have the (specific) books?"
 * For negative statements: "talossa ei ole kirjaa" → "in the house, [there] is not [a] book"
 * Comparisons
 * Without "kuin" ("than"): "saamista parempaa on antaminen" → "what is better than receiving is giving"
 * The more common form "antaminen on parempaa kuin saaminen" "giving is better than receiving" places only the comparative adverb in the partitive.

Where not mentioned, the accusative case would be ungrammatical. For example, the partitive must always be used after singular numerals.

As an example of the irresultative meaning of the partitive, ammuin karhun (accusative) means "I shot the bear (dead)", whereas ammuin karhua (partitive) means "I shot (at) the bear" without specifying if it was even hit. Notice that Finnish has no native future tense, so that the partitive provides an important reference to the present as opposed to the future. Thus luen kirjaa means "I am reading a/the book" whereas luen kirjan means "I will read a/the book". Thus "luen" can mean "I read", "I am reading" or "I will read" depending on the case form of the word that follows. The partitive form kirjaa indicates incompleted action and hence the meaning of the verb form is present tense. The accusative form kirjan indicates completed action when used with the past tense verb but indicates planned future action when used with a verb in the present tense. Hence luen kirjan means "I will read the book". The case with an unspecified identity is onko teillä kirjoja, which uses the partitive, because it refers to unspecified books, as contrasted to nominative onko teillä (ne) kirjat?, which means "do you have (those) books?"

The partitive case comes from the older ablative case. This meaning is preserved e.g. in kotoa (from home), takaa (from behind), where it means "from".

A Western Finnish dialectal phenomenon seen in some dialects is the assimilation of the final -a into a preceding vowel, thus making the chroneme the partitive marker. For example, suurii → suuria "some big --".

In Estonian, the system is generally similar. In Estonian grammatical tradition, the term "accusative" is not used, since like in Finnish, the total object form coincides with the genitive in the singular, and the nominative in the plural.

In many Estonian words, the difference between the full and partial object cases is only in vowel or consonant quantity (long vs overlong), which is not marked in writing, except for stop consonants. Thus, the distinction between a total and partial object may be apparent in speech but not in writing. For example, the sentence Linn ehitab kooli would mean "The city will build a/the school" when pronounced with a long vowel "o" in kooli "school (genitive case)", and "The city is building a/the school" with an overlong "o" (partitive case).

For many verbs in Estonian, an additional adverb is almost always added when a completed action is meant - for example, ma söön leiba "I'm eating bread", vs ma söön leiva ära "I will eat the (whole) bread". Since Estonian, unlike Finnish, has words where the genitive and partitive singular are identical even in pronunciation, this can provide disambiguation in those cases - e.g ma söön kala "I'm eating fish", vs ma söön kala ära "I will eat (all of) the fish".

Sámi
Of the Sámi languages, Inari and Skolt Sámi still have a partitive, although it is slowly disappearing and its function is being taken over by other cases.

Skolt Sámi
The partitive is used only in the singular and can always be replaced by the genitive. The partitive marker is -d.

 * 1) It appears after numbers larger than 6:
 * kääuʹc čâustõkkâd: eight lassos
 * This can be replaced with kääʹuc čâustõõǥǥ.
 * 1) It is also used with certain postpositions:
 * kuäʹtted vuâstta: against a kota
 * This can be replaced with kuäʹđ vuâstta.
 * 1) It can be used with the comparative to express that which is being compared:
 * Kåʹlled pueʹrab : better than gold
 * This would nowadays more than likely be replaced by pueʹrab ko kåʹll

Russian
The Russian language usually uses the genitive case to express partialness. However, some Russian mass nouns have developed a distinct partitive case, also referred to as the "second genitive case". The partitive arose from the merger of the declensions of *-ŏ and *-ŭ stem nouns in Old East Slavic, which left the former *-ŭ stem genitive suffix available for a specialized use.

In modern Russian, use of the partitive case is often facultative. In many situations, the partitive and the genitive can be used almost synonymously: чашка чаю, cháshka cháyu (partitive) and чашка чая cháshka cháya (genitive) both mean "a cup of tea"; много дыму, mnógo dýmu (partitive) and много дыма mnógo dýma (genitive) both mean "lots of smoke". The partitive variant is preferred with verbs: выпить чаю, výpit' cháyu, "to have a drink of tea". The genitive variant is used more frequently when the mass noun is modified by an adjective: чашка горячего чая cháshka goryáchevo cháya, "a cup of hot tea".

title: Partitive case


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Absolutive case

In grammar, the absolutive case (abbreviated ) is the case of nouns in ergative–absolutive languages that would generally be the subjects of intransitive verbs or the objects of transitive verbs in the translational equivalents of nominative–accusative languages such as English.

In ergative–absolutive languages
In languages with ergative–absolutive alignment, the absolutive is the case used to mark both the subject of an intransitive verb and the object of a transitive verb in addition to being used for the citation form of a noun. It contrasts with the marked ergative case, which marks the subject of a transitive verb.

For example, in Basque the noun mutil boy takes the bare singular article -a both as the subject of the intransitive clause mutila etorri da (the boy came) and as the object of the transitive clause Irakasleak mutila ikusi du (the teacher has seen the boy) in which the agent bears the ergative ending -a-k.

In a very few cases, a marked absolutive has been reported, including in Nias and Sochiapam Chinantec.

Other uses
Occasionally, the term 'absolutive case' (or also: 'absolute case') is used for the unmarked case form in languages with other alignment types. This is especially common in the tradition of descriptive linguistics of African languages. In marked nominative languages, where the nominative has case inflection, the accusative is unmarked and also serves as citation form. In these languages, the unmarked accusative/citation form is thus often called 'absolutive'. On the other hand, in certain nominative–accusative languages, it is the accusative which is explicitly marked for case, whereas the nominative is unmarked and serves as citation form. In such situations, the term 'absolutive' is occasionally used to describe the unmarked nominative/citation form.

In tripartite languages
In tripartite languages, both the agent and object of a transitive clause have case forms, ergative and accusative, and the agent of an intransitive clause is the unmarked citation form. It is occasionally called the intransitive case, but absolutive is also used and is perhaps more accurate since it is not limited to core agents of intransitive verbs.

title: Absolutive case


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The Bridge on the River Kwai

The Bridge on the River Kwai is a 1957 epic war film directed by David Lean and based on the 1952 novel written by Pierre Boulle.

Boulle's novel and the film's screenplay are almost entirely fictional, but use the construction of the Burma Railway, in 1942–1943, as their historical setting. The cast includes William Holden, Alec Guinness, Jack Hawkins, and Sessue Hayakawa.

It was initially scripted by screenwriter Carl Foreman, who was later replaced by Michael Wilson. Both writers had to work in secret, as they were on the Hollywood blacklist and had fled to the UK in order to continue working. As a result, Boulle, who did not speak English, was credited and received the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay; many years later, Foreman and Wilson posthumously received the Academy Award.

The Bridge on the River Kwai is now widely recognized as one of the greatest films ever made. It was the highest-grossing film of 1957 and received overwhelmingly positive reviews from critics. The film won seven Academy Awards (including Best Picture) at the 30th Academy Awards. In 1997, the film was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress. It has been included on the American Film Institute's list of best American films ever made. In 1999, the British Film Institute voted The Bridge on the River Kwai the 11th greatest British film of the 20th century.

Plot
In 1943, a contingent of British prisoners of war, led by Colonel Nicholson, arrive at a Japanese prison camp in Thailand. U.S. Navy Commander Shears tells Nicholson that the camp conditions are horrific. Nicholson forbids any escape attempts because headquarters ordered them to surrender. Also, the dense surrounding jungle renders escape virtually impossible.

Colonel Saito, the camp commandant, informs the new prisoners they will construct a railway bridge over the River Kwai connecting Bangkok and Rangoon. Nicholson objects, citing the Geneva Convention exempting officers from manual labour. Saito threatens to have the officers shot, until Major Clipton, the British medical officer, warns there are too many witnesses. The officers are left standing in the intense heat until evening when Saito then confines them to a punishment hut. Nicholson is beaten and locked in an iron box.

Meanwhile, Shears and two other prisoners escape. Shears is wounded and wanders into a Siamese village, where he is nursed back to health. He eventually reaches the British colony of Ceylon.

The bridge construction proceeds badly due to faulty Japanese engineering and the prisoners' slow pace and sabotage. Saito is required to commit ritual suicide if the completion deadline is unmet. Desperate, he releases Nicholson and his officers, exempting them from manual labour. Nicholson, shocked by the poor job his men have done, orders building a proper bridge. He considers it a tribute to the British Army's ingenuity but Clipton argues it is collaboration with the enemy. Nicholson's obsession with the bridge drives him to allow officers to voluntarily work on the project.

Shears is convalescing in Ceylon near a commando school referred to as "Force 316". Major Warden wants to recruit Shears for a commando mission to destroy the bridge. Shears refuses only to discover he has been temporarily transferred to the British military and has no choice.

Warden, Shears, and two other commandos—Chapman and Joyce—parachute into Thailand. Chapman is killed during the jump, and Warden is wounded in an encounter with a Japanese patrol. Khun Yai, a village chief, and a group of Siamese women lead Warden, Shears, and Joyce to the river. Under cover of darkness, Shears and Joyce plant explosives on the bridge towers. The first train to cross the bridge is scheduled for the following day, and Warden wants to destroy both the train and the bridge. By daybreak, however, the river level has dropped, exposing the wire leading to the detonator.

Nicholson spots the wire, and he and Saito investigate the riverbank as the train approaches. Nicholson pulls up the wire on the riverbank, leading them toward Joyce, who is manning the detonator. Joyce breaks cover and stabs Saito to death. Nicholson inexplicably calls to Japanese soldiers for help and attempts to stop Joyce from reaching the detonator. Joyce is shot and Shears swims across the river to detonate the explosives, but he is wounded. Recognizing Shears, Nicholson comes to his senses and realizes what he has done.

Warden fires a mortar, killing Shears and Joyce and fatally wounding Nicholson. Nicholson falls on the plunger, blowing up the bridge, and the train hurtles into the river. Warden leaves with the Siamese women. Witnessing the carnage, Clipton exclaims, "Madness! ... Madness!"

Screenplay
The screenwriters, Carl Foreman and Michael Wilson, were on the Hollywood blacklist and, even though living in exile in England, could only work on the film in secret. The two did not collaborate on the script; Wilson took over after Lean was dissatisfied with Foreman's work. The official credit was given to Pierre Boulle (who did not speak English), and the resulting Oscar for Best Screenplay (Adaptation) was awarded to him. Only in 1984 did the Academy rectify the situation by retroactively awarding the Oscar to Foreman and Wilson, posthumously in both cases. Subsequent releases of the film finally gave them proper screen credit. David Lean himself also claimed that producer Sam Spiegel cheated him out of his rightful part in the credits since he had had a major hand in the script.

The film was relatively faithful to the novel, with two major exceptions. Shears, who is a British commando officer like Warden in the novel, becomes an American sailor who escapes from the POW camp. Also, in the novel, the bridge is not destroyed: the train plummets into the river from a secondary charge placed by Warden, but Nicholson (never realising "what have I done?") does not fall onto the plunger, and the bridge suffers only minor damage. Boulle nonetheless enjoyed the film version though he disagreed with its climax.

Casting
Although Lean later denied it, Charles Laughton was his first choice for the role of Nicholson. Laughton was in his habitually overweight state, and was either denied insurance coverage, or was simply not keen on filming in a tropical location. Guinness admitted that Lean "didn't particularly want me" for the role, and thought about immediately returning to England when he arrived in Ceylon and Lean reminded him that he wasn't the first choice.

William Holden's deal was considered one of the best ever for an actor at the time, with him receiving $300,000 plus 10% of the film's gross receipts.

Filming
Many directors were considered for the project, among them John Ford, William Wyler, Howard Hawks, Fred Zinnemann, and Orson Welles (who was also offered a starring role).

The film was an international co-production between companies in Britain and the United States.

Director David Lean clashed repeatedly with his cast members, particularly Guinness and James Donald, who thought the novel was anti-British. Lean had a lengthy row with Guinness over how to play the role of Nicholson; the actor wanted to play the part with a sense of humour and sympathy, while Lean thought Nicholson should be "a bore." On another occasion, they argued over the scene where Nicholson reflects on his career in the army. Lean filmed the scene from behind Guinness and angrily exploded when Guinness asked him why he was doing this. After Guinness was done with the scene, Lean said, "Now you can all fuck off and go home, you English actors. Thank God that I'm starting work tomorrow with an American actor (William Holden)."

The film was made in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). The bridge in the film was near Kitulgala. The Mount Lavinia Hotel was used as a location for the hospital.

Guinness later said that he subconsciously based his walk while emerging from "the Oven" on that of his eleven-year-old son Matthew, who was recovering from polio at the time, a disease that left him temporarily paralyzed from the waist down. Guinness later reflected on the scene, calling it the "finest piece of work" he had ever done.

Lean nearly drowned when he was swept away by the river current during a break from filming.

In a 1988 interview with Barry Norman, Lean confirmed that Columbia almost stopped filming after three weeks because there was no white woman in the film, forcing him to add what he called "a very terrible scene" between Holden and a nurse on the beach.

The filming of the bridge explosion was to be done on 10 March 1957, in the presence of S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike, then Prime Minister of Ceylon, and a team of government dignitaries. However, cameraman Freddy Ford was unable to get out of the way of the explosion in time, and Lean had to stop filming. The train crashed into a generator on the other side of the bridge and was wrecked. It was repaired in time to be blown up the next morning, with Bandaranaike and his entourage present.

Music and soundtrack
British composer Malcolm Arnold recalled that he had "ten days to write around forty-five minutes worth of music"—much less time than he was used to. He described the music for The Bridge on the River Kwai as the "worst job I ever had in my life" from the point of view of time. Despite this, he won an Oscar and a Grammy. The film's soundtrack was released on LP soon after the film (Columbia CL 1100). In 1990, Christopher Palmer arranged a concert suite for large orchestra for Arnold's 70th birthday.

A memorable feature of the film is the tune that is whistled by the POWs—the first strain of the "Colonel Bogey March"—when they enter the camp. Gavin Young recounts meeting Donald Wise, a former prisoner of the Japanese who had worked on the Burma Railway. Young: "Donald, did anyone whistle Colonel Bogey ... as they did in the film?" Wise: "I never heard it in Thailand. We hadn't much breath left for whistling. But in Bangkok I was told that David Lean, the film's director, became mad at the extras who played the prisoners—us—because they couldn't march in time. Lean shouted at them, 'For God's sake, whistle a march to keep time to.' And a bloke called George Siegatz ... —an expert whistler—began to whistle Colonel Bogey, and a hit was born."

The march was written in 1914 by Kenneth J. Alford, a pseudonym of British Bandmaster Frederick J. Ricketts. For the film, Arnold wrote an accompanying counter-melody to the Colonel Bogey strain using the same chord progressions, then continued with his own "The River Kwai March," played by the off-screen orchestra taking over from the whistlers, though Arnold's march was not heard in completion on the soundtrack (apparently for copyright reasons ). Mitch Miller had a hit with a recording of both marches.

In many tense, dramatic scenes, only the sounds of nature are used. An example of this is when commandos Warden and Joyce hunt a fleeing Japanese soldier through the jungle, desperate to prevent him from alerting other troops.

Historical accuracy

The plot and characters of Boulle's novel and the screenplay were almost entirely fictional. Since it was not a documentary, there are many historical inaccuracies in the film, as noted by eyewitnesses to the building of the real Burma Railway by historians.

The conditions to which POW and civilian labourers were subjected were far worse than the film depicted. According to the Commonwealth War Graves Commission:

"The notorious Burma-Siam railway, built by Commonwealth, Dutch and American prisoners of war, was a Japanese project driven by the need for improved communications to support the large Japanese army in Burma. During its construction, approximately 13,000 prisoners of war died and were buried along the railway. An estimated 80,000 to 100,000 civilians also died in the course of the project, chiefly forced labour brought from Malaya and the Dutch East Indies, or conscripted in Siam (Thailand) and Burma. Two labour forces, one based in Siam and the other in Burma, worked from opposite ends of the line towards the centre."

Lieutenant Colonel Philip Toosey of the British Army was the real senior Allied officer at the bridge in question. Toosey was very different from Nicholson and was certainly not a collaborator who felt obliged to work with the Japanese. In fact Toosey strove to delay construction. While Nicholson disapproves of acts of sabotage and other deliberate attempts to delay progress, Toosey encouraged this: termites were collected in large numbers to eat the wooden structures, and the concrete was badly mixed. Some consider the film to be an insulting parody of Toosey.

On a BBC Timewatch programme, a former prisoner at the camp states that it is unlikely that a man like the fictional Nicholson could have risen to the rank of lieutenant colonel, and, if he had, due to his collaboration he would have been "quietly eliminated" by the other prisoners.

Julie Summers, in her book The Colonel of Tamarkan, writes that Boulle, who had been a prisoner of war in Thailand, created the fictional Nicholson character as an amalgam of his memories of collaborating French officers. He strongly denied the claim that the book was anti-British, although many involved in the film itself (including Alec Guinness) felt otherwise.

Ernest Gordon, a survivor of the railway construction and POW camps described in the novel/film, stated in his 1962 book, Through the Valley of the Kwai: "In Pierre Boulle's book The Bridge over the River Kwai and the film which was based on it, the impression was given that British officers not only took part in building the bridge willingly, but finished in record time to demonstrate to the enemy their superior efficiency. This was an entertaining story. But I am writing a factual account, and in justice to these men—living and dead—who worked on that bridge, I must make it clear that we never did so willingly. We worked at bayonet point and under bamboo lash, taking any risk to sabotage the operation whenever the opportunity arose."

A 1969 BBC television documentary, Return to the River Kwai, made by former POW John Coast, sought to highlight the real history behind the film (partly through getting ex-POWs to question its factual basis, for example Dr Hugh de Wardener and Lt-Col Alfred Knights), which angered many former POWs. The documentary itself was described by one newspaper reviewer when it was shown on Boxing Day 1974 (The Bridge on the River Kwai had been shown on BBC1 on Christmas Day 1974) as "Following the movie, this is a rerun of the antidote."

Some of the characters in the film use the names of real people who were involved in the Burma Railway. Their roles and characters, however, are fictionalised. For example, a Sergeant-Major Risaburo Saito was in real life second in command at the camp. In the film, a Colonel Saito is camp commandant. In reality, Risaburo Saito was respected by his prisoners for being comparatively merciful and fair towards them. Toosey later defended him in his war crimes trial after the war, and the two became friends.

Some Japanese viewers resented the movie's depiction of their engineers' capabilities as inferior and less advanced than they were in reality. Japanese engineers had been surveying and planning the route of the railway since 1937, and they had demonstrated considerable skill during their construction efforts across South-East Asia. Some Japanese viewers also disliked the film for portraying the Allied prisoners of war as more capable of constructing the bridge than the Japanese engineers themselves were, accusing the filmmakers of being unfairly biased and unfamiliar with the realities of the bridge construction, a sentiment echoed by surviving prisoners of war who saw the film in cinemas.

The major railway bridge described in the novel and film did not actually cross the river known at the time as the Kwai. However, in 1943 a railway bridge was built by Allied POWs over the Mae Klong river—renamed Khwae Yai in the 1960s as a result of the film—at Tha Ma Kham, five kilometres from Kanchanaburi, Thailand. Boulle had never been to the bridge. He knew that the railway ran parallel to the Kwae for many miles, and he therefore assumed that it was the Kwae which it crossed just north of Kanchanaburi. This was an incorrect assumption. The destruction of the bridge as depicted in the film is also entirely fictional. In fact, two bridges were built: a temporary wooden bridge and a permanent steel/concrete bridge a few months later. Both bridges were used for two years, until they were destroyed by Allied bombing. The steel bridge was repaired and is still in use today.

Box office

The Bridge on the River Kwai was a massive commercial success. It was the highest-grossing film of 1957 in the United States and Canada and was also the most popular film at the British box office that year. According to Variety, the film earned estimated domestic box office revenues of $18,000,000 although this was revised downwards the following year to $15,000,000, which was still the biggest for 1958 and Columbia's highest-grossing film at the time. By October 1960, the film had earned worldwide box office revenues of $30 million.

The film was re-released in 1964 and earned a further estimated $2.6 million at the box office in the United States and Canada but the following year its revised total US and Canadian revenues were reported by Variety as $17,195,000.

Critical response
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film received an approval rating of 96% based on 105 reviews, with an average rating of 9.4/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "This complex war epic asks hard questions, resists easy answers, and boasts career-defining work from star Alec Guinness and director David Lean." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 88 out of 100 based on 15 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".

Bosley Crowther of The New York Times praised the film as "a towering entertainment of rich variety and revelation of the ways of men". Mike Kaplan, reviewing for Variety, described it as "a gripping drama, expertly put together and handled with skill in all departments." Kaplan further praised the actors, especially Alec Guinness, later writing "the film is unquestionably" his. William Holden was also credited for his acting for giving a solid characterization that was "easy, credible and always likeable in a role that is the pivot point of the story". Edwin Schallert of the Los Angeles Times claimed the film's strongest points were for being "excellently produced in virtually all respects and that it also offers an especially outstanding and different performance by Alec Guinness. Highly competent work is also done by William Holden, Jack Hawkins and Sessue Hayakawa". Time magazine praised Lean's directing, noting he demonstrates "a dazzlingly musical sense and control of the many and involving rhythms of a vast composition. He shows a rare sense of humor and a feeling for the poetry of situation; and he shows the even rarer ability to express these things, not in lines but in lives." Harrison's Reports described the film as an "excellent World War II adventure melodrama" in which the "production values are first-rate and so is the photography."

Among retrospective reviews, Roger Ebert gave the film four out of four stars, noting that it is one of the few war movies that "focuses not on larger rights and wrongs but on individuals", but commented that the viewer is not certain what is intended by the final dialogue due to the film's shifting points of view. Slant magazine gave the film four out of five stars. Slant stated that "the 1957 epic subtly develops its themes about the irrationality of honor and the hypocrisy of Britain's class system without ever compromising its thrilling war narrative", and in comparing to other films of the time said that Bridge on the River Kwai "carefully builds its psychological tension until it erupts in a blinding flash of sulfur and flame."

Balu Mahendra, the Tamil film director, observed the shooting of this film at Kitulgala, Sri Lanka during his school trip and was inspired to become a film director. Warren Buffett said it was his favorite movie. In an interview, he said that "[t]here were a lot of lessons in that... The ending of that was sort of the story of life. He created the railroad. Did he really want the enemy to come in across it?"

Accolades
American Film Institute lists:
 * 1998 — AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies — #13
 * 2001 — AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills — #58
 * 2006 — AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers — #14
 * 2007 — AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) — #36

The film has been selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.

The British Film Institute placed The Bridge on the River Kwai as the 11th greatest British film.

First TV broadcast
ABC, sponsored by Ford, paid a record $1.8 million for the television rights for two screenings in the United States. The 167-minute film was first telecast, uncut, in colour, on the evening of 25 September 1966, as a three hours-plus ABC Movie Special. The telecast of the film lasted more than three hours because of the commercial breaks. It was still highly unusual at that time for a television network to show such a long film in one evening; most films of that length were still generally split into two parts and shown over two evenings. But the unusual move paid off for ABC—the telecast drew huge ratings with a record audience of 72 million and a Nielsen rating of 38.3 and an audience share of 61%.

Restorations and home video releases
In 1972, the movie was among the first selection of films released on the early Cartrivision video format, alongside classics such as The Jazz Singer and Sands of Iwo Jima.

The film was restored in 1985 by Columbia Pictures. The separate dialogue, music and effects were located and remixed with newly recorded "atmospheric" sound effects. The image was restored by OCS, Freeze Frame, and Pixel Magic with George Hively editing.

On 2 November 2010 Columbia Pictures released a newly restored The Bridge on the River Kwai for the first time on Blu-ray. According to Columbia Pictures, they followed an all-new 4K digital restoration from the original negative with newly restored 5.1 audio. The original negative for the feature was scanned at 4K (four times the resolution in High Definition), and the colour correction and digital restoration were also completed at 4K. The negative itself manifested many of the kinds of issues one would expect from a film of this vintage: torn frames, embedded emulsion dirt, scratches through every reel, colour fading. Unique to this film, in some ways, were other issues related to poorly made optical dissolves, the original camera lens and a malfunctioning camera. These problems resulted in a number of anomalies that were very difficult to correct, like a ghosting effect in many scenes that resembles colour mis-registration, and a tick-like effect with the image jumping or jerking side-to-side. These issues, running throughout the film, were addressed to a lesser extent on various previous DVD releases of the film and might not have been so obvious in standard definition.

In popular culture

 * In 1962, Spike Milligan and Peter Sellers, with Peter Cook and Jonathan Miller, released the LP record Bridge on the River Wye (Parlophone LP PMC 1190, PCS 3036 (November 1962)). This spoof of the film was based on the script for the 1957 Goon Show episode "An African Incident". Shortly before its release, for legal reasons, producer George Martin edited out the 'K' every time the word 'Kwai' was spoken.
 * The comedy team of Wayne and Shuster performed a sketch titled "Kwai Me a River" on their 27 March 1967 TV show, in which an officer in the British Dental Corps (Wayne) is captured by the Japanese and, despite being comically unintimidated by any abuse the commander of the POW camp (Shuster) inflicts on him, is forced to build a (dental) "bridge on the river Kwai" for the commander and plans to include an explosive in the appliance to detonate in his mouth. The commander survives the explosion, attributed to a toothpaste commercial punchline in 1960s commercials.
 * In season 1, episode 1 of The Wire, Detective Jimmy McNulty laments, "I feel like that motherfucker at the end of Bridge over the River Kwai, like what the fuck did I do?"

title: The Bridge on the River Kwai


text:
Talk:Java Database Connectivity

NOT an acronym
JDBC does not stand for "Java Database Connectivity". This is a backronym. See http://java.sun.com/j2se/1.5.0/docs/guide/jdbc/getstart/intro.html#1018464, first paragraph. The main page should be titled JDBC, with Java Database Connectivity redirecting to it. --Nambio 00:11, 29 May 2006 (UTC)
 * And from the same site, http://java.sun.com/javase/technologies/database/. Sun seems to be contradicting itself for some reason. WP:NAME "[p]refer[s] spelled-out phrases to abbreviations", so even though JDBC is overwhelmingly more popular, the fact that Sun has referred to it as "Java Database Connectivity" mitigates against using the acronym as the page title (see ODBC as a parallel). --DeLarge 23:29, 25 March 2007 (UTC)
 * I heard it was a trademark issue. In some jurisdictions, you can't trademark an acronym so they had to make JDBC its name, not its acronym. (Northernhenge (talk) 22:37, 5 April 2008 (UTC))

Example is dated
Class.forName("some string"); is back from 1.0 days and while it still works for backwards compatiblity is not preferred. Jon 13:58, 30 March 2007 (UTC)

Type 5
Deleted section on "type 5". There is no clear definition of what a type 5 architecture is, unlike types 1-4. This is not officially terminology adopted through the JCP. It seems to be to be mostly an invention of Progress Software's marketing department.--SJK (talk) 10:51, 30 October 2010 (UTC)

Possible Original Research

 * ===Bad Examples===
 * The Internet is full of wrong JDBC examples, even Oracle and the acquired SUN keep wrong examples where they clearly show they do not know Java has exceptions and resources must be closed in a finally clause.

 * What is the problem with referencing wrong examples? Do you mean every time I add a reference there is original research? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.218.251.115 (talk) 13:37, 7 April 2011 (UTC)

This statement appears to come from an analysis of the reference code, which is original research. While well-intentioned, I'm afraid that either this section should be either deleted or better references should be used. --Sbluen (talk) 06:17, 3 April 2011 (UTC)

 * Seconded, also i think this article reads far too much like a howto SmackEater (talk) 09:08, 4 April 2011 (UTC)

The closing of statements is recommended here. Properly releasing ressouces that were allocated previously is programming basics, no special citations needed here imho. Failure to do so leads to leaks. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.7.230.226 (talk) 17:45, 24 January 2013 (UTC)

Should extend connection pool examples
Now: "Examples of connection pools include BoneCP, C3P0 and DBCP" Should add https://github.com/brettwooldridge/HikariCP and maybe deprecate C3PO (and DBCP?), — Preceding unsigned comment added by 84.48.115.70 (talk) 12:04, 1 April 2015 (UTC)

Please please do NOT catch Throwable.
To an anonymous 194.176.105.142. While your link in diff 698792584 contains a moderately bad advice to catch a general Exception, which is only suitable for simplistic examples and not for production, catching Throwable is a huge mistake. Please read: http://stackoverflow.com/questions/2274102/difference-between-using-throwable-and-exception-in-a-try-catch — Preceding unsigned comment added by VictorSergienko (talk • contribs) 11:32, 21 September 2016 (UTC)

 * Please, see: http://stackoverflow.com/questions/34664936/should-i-catch-all-exceptions-or-just-sqlexception-when-closing-jdbc-resources-o and https://github.com/spring-projects/spring-framework/blob/master/spring-jdbc/src/main/java/org/springframework/jdbc/support/JdbcUtils.java Jsmithgeorge (talk) 19:36, 8 December 2016 (UTC)

 * Please note that a) the answer you refer to has 0 upvotes; b) it catches Exception, not Throwable; c) even that answer says "Just make sure to pass along everything you don't know how to handle (so the caller has to)". CAN you really handle OutOfMemoryError in your catch (Throwable)? InternalError? UnknownError? d) I don't even think that Spring code knows what it is doing. Looking forward to a better code example from you, which does handle these. DOES this example need to handle IllegalClassFormatException? I highly doubt. Please don't teach people to catch what they don't know how to handle. The rule is: you ONLY catch those that you know what to do with. A reference to Oracle docs: "This feature can reduce code duplication and lessen the temptation to catch an overly broad exception." VictorSergienko (talk)  —Preceding undated comment added 17:51, 15 December 2016 (UTC)

 * Also read: Java API documentation: "An Error is a subclass of Throwable that indicates serious problems that a reasonable application should not try to catch." — Preceding unsigned comment added by VictorSergienko (talk • contribs) 18:13, 15 December 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Java Database Connectivity