text:
Goldie

Clifford Joseph Price MBE (born 19 September 1965), better known as Goldie, is an English music producer and DJ.

Initially gaining exposure for his work as a graffiti artist, Goldie became well known for his pioneering role as a musician in the 1990s UK jungle, drum and bass and breakbeat hardcore scenes. He released a variety of singles under the pseudonym Rufige Kru and co-founded the label Metalheadz. He later released several albums under his own name, including the 1995 album Timeless, which entered the UK charts at number 7.

Goldie's acting credits include the 1999 James Bond film The World Is Not Enough, Guy Ritchie's Snatch (2000) and the BBC soap opera EastEnders (2001–2002). He has also appeared in a number of celebrity reality television shows, including Celebrity Big Brother 2 (UK), Strictly Come Dancing, Come Dine with Me and Maestro.

Early life
Born in Walsall, England, but raised in Wolverhampton, Price is of Jamaican and Scottish heritage. He was put up for adoption at the age of three, and raised in childcare homes and by several foster parents. According to his 2002 autobiography, he was physically and sexually abused during this time. Price was a member of the breakdance crew Westside, based in the Whitmore Reans and Heath Town areas of Wolverhampton, in the 1980s. He later joined a breakdance crew called the Birmingham Bboys, and made his name as a graffiti artist in the West Midlands.

His artwork around Birmingham and Wolverhampton was featured heavily in Dick Fontaine's documentary Bombin'. He is mentioned for his graffiti in the book Spraycan Art by Henry Chalfant and James Prigoff, which contains several examples of his art.

He moved to the United States owing to graffiti projects, and also started selling grills (gold teeth jewellery) in New York and Miami; he continued this business after his return to the UK in 1988. His nickname stems from "Goldielocks", an earlier nickname given to him during his Bboys days and subsequently shortened when he no longer wore dreadlocks.

Music
By 1991, Price had become fascinated by the British breakbeat music scene when his girlfriend, DJ Kemistry, introduced him to the pioneering jungle and drum and bass producers Dennis "Dego" McFarlane and Mark "Marc Mac" Clair, known as 4hero. He went on to execute some design and A&R work for 4hero's Reinforced Records label.

In 1992, Price made his first record appearance by contributing to an EP by Icelandic group Ajax Project that included the track Ruffige.

His releases Killa Muffin b/w Krisp Biscuit and the Dark Rider EP were released under the alias "Rufige Cru" His track "Terminator", released under the name "Metalheads" in 1992, was a hit in the jungle scene and is noted for pioneering the use of time stretching. In 1993, he released Angel, another 12" on the Synthetic Hardcore Phonography label. 1994 saw him setting up his own record label, Metalheadz.

His first studio album, Timeless, followed in 1995. Timeless entered the UK Albums Chart at number seven. The album fused the breakbeats and basslines common in jungle with orchestral textures and soul vocals by Diane Charlemagne. The album's title track was a 21-minute symphonic piece. "Inner City Life", a track from the album, reached number 39 in the UK Singles Chart. Timeless helped to popularise drum and bass as a form of musical expression. The music critic Simon Reynolds noted that Price's credentials as a musical innovator—and particularly as one of the key driving forces of innovation in the jungle/breakbeat scene—were exceptional. "Goldie revolutionised jungle not once but thrice", he noted in The Wire magazine, continuing, "First there was 'Terminator' (pioneering the use of time stretching), then 'Angel' (fusing Diane Charlemagne's live vocal with David Byrne/Brian Eno samples to prove that hardcore could be more 'conventionally' musical), now there's 'Timeless', a 22-minute hardcore symphony."

In 1996, he released the Toasted Both Sides Please remix of the Bush song "Swallowed", which topped charts in the US and Canada.

Price released his second album, Saturnz Return, in 1998. The album's opening track, "Mother", is an hour-long orchestral drum and bass piece. The album featured appearances by David Bowie, Noel Gallagher and KRS-One. The album met with mixed reviews. David Brown of Entertainment Weekly called the album "ambitious but monotonous and overlong—Pink Floyd with a gold tooth".

In 2002, Price said that he had been working for three years on a film called Sine Tempus, described as a coming-of-age story of a young paintbrush artist. In 2006, he announced the soundtrack as his new album. The album was released via the Metalheadz website in 2008, but the film has not been released.

Price is known for his work as the leader of Rufige Kru. The group has no fixed members and has included drum and bass producers such as Technical Itch, Heist, Cujo, Agzilla Da Ice, Danny J, Doc Scott and Rob Playford.

March 2013 saw the release of The Alchemist: The Best of Goldie 1992–2012, featuring prominent tracks from throughout Price's musical career. A subsequent compilation, the three-CD Masterpiece set released by Ministry of Sound in 2014, brought together tracks that influenced him (Soul II Soul's "Back To Life", Roy Ayers' "Everybody Loves The Sunshine") with cuts that soundtracked his entry into the rave scene and key moments from the drum'n'bass scene.

In 2017, the Goldie album The Journey Man was released, which Price described as his "magnum opus" and "the most important thing that I've ever made."

In 2020, Goldie launched his new record label, Fallen Tree 1Hundred.

A 25th anniversary edition of Timeless was released by London Records the following year. The new release included a triple gold vinyl version and a compact disc version. The release brought the number of versions of the iconic drum'n'bass album (including reissues and global pressings) to 44.

Acting
Price has appeared in Guy Ritchie's Snatch and several other films, most notably the James Bond film, The World Is Not Enough. He also played gangster Angel Hudson in the British soap opera EastEnders (2001–2002). Price starred in Everybody Loves Sunshine (1999) (aka B.U.S.T.E.D. – United States title) with David Bowie.

Television appearances
Price appeared on BBC1's Daytime Live in October 1987 to discuss the rise of urban art across the United Kingdom. Price also appeared on Central Weekend, a Friday evening topical debate show on Central TV, promoting graffiti as an art form. He had a small documentary made about his own art on Central TV's Here and Now programme featuring Pogus Caesar's photographs of New York. He has appeared on various young people's TV shows as part of a breakdance crew, the Bboys from Wolverhampton. In 1995, he appeared on Passengers, and in a Channel 4 documentary about himself in 1998.

His next TV appearance was hosting Crime Business on the digital TV channels Bravo and Ftn. He presented the documentary series The World's Deadliest Gangs on Bravo in 2002.

Price appeared on the second series of Celebrity Big Brother in 2002. He was the first celebrity to be "evicted". In 2006, he was scheduled to appear in The Games, a UK reality TV show on Channel 4, but during training for the water-ski jump event he fractured his femur and was unable to take part in the show. He was replaced by Adam Rickitt. In 2009, he was reported to be suing the producers of the show for damages as a result of the injury.

During August and September 2008, the BBC broadcast Maestro, a reality television show in which eight celebrities, including Price, learned to conduct a concert orchestra. Price was placed second, behind Sue Perkins.

On 31 July 2009, the first of a two-part television programme Classic Goldie was broadcast, showing how in the wake of his success in the Maestro programme he learns to write a score for a large orchestra and choir. The resulting composition, commissioned by the BBC and entitled Sine Tempore (Timeless), was performed at two children's Promenade concerts in the Royal Albert Hall on 1 and 2 August 2009, which featured music connected with Charles Darwin and the creation and evolution of the world.

He appeared on Celebrity Mastermind on 27 December 2009 and came fourth behind Paul O'Grady, Gail Emms and Loyd Grossman. On 11 September 2010, he was announced as part of the line-up in Strictly Come Dancing, staying in the competition for two weeks.

On 22 December 2010, he appeared in a Celebrity Come Dine with Me Christmas special.

On 26 March 2011, he appeared in a three-part reality television series, Goldie's Band: By Royal Appointment in which he led a group of music experts as they conducted a nationwide search for young talented musicians and then selected and coached 12 of them, who collaborated to create some musical pieces for a performance at Buckingham Palace.

In 2014, he appeared on the telethon BBC Children in Need.

Art
In 2007, Price returned to the art world with an art exhibition, "Love Over Gold", which was held at the Leonard Street Gallery, London. In 2008, he teamed up with Pete Tong to provide much of the artwork for Tong's new Wonderland club night at Eden nightclub in San Antonio, Ibiza.

There was an exhibition of Price's art in Berlin from 13 to 26 June 2008. In April 2009, a retrospective exhibition titled "Kids Are All Riot" took place in Shoreditch, London, coinciding with the release of his screenprint "Apocalypse Angel".

Around 2008, Price's art work was displayed on the London Underground by the arts company Art Below.

In 2021, he modeled for Louis Vuitton Menswear Spring / Summer collection and contributed a song.

Books
The innovative nature of Goldie's art (both sonic and visual) was a consistent theme in Kodwo Eshun's acclaimed book 'More Brilliant Than The Sun' (published in 1998) which has long been seen as a landmark text on Afro-futurism. Among the works that Eshun referenced were Goldie's 1986 graffiti piece Future World Machine and his 1992 single 'Terminator' single. Noting the links between the multi-dimensionality in both painting and sound, Eshun noted: "There's a big interface between graffiti and the break."

In 2002, Goldie's autobiography 'Nine Lives' was published by Hodder & Stoughton. Written with London-based writer Paul Gorman, the book traced his life story from childhood in care and foster homes through to the first flush of his success as a groundbreaking musical artist.

A second autobiography 'All Things Remembered' was published in November 2017 by Faber & Faber. Written when Goldie was 52, it covers a more comprehensive span than the earlier book but is more philosophic in tone. While incidents from his extraordinary childhood are recounted, it also includes his ruminations on musical heroes such as Pat Metheny and a conversation with "my left-hand man" Doc Scott as well as memories of his work in TV and film. The book includes pictures of Goldie on set with David Bowie. Co-written with Ben Thompson, 'All Things Remembered' was chosen by Nicola Barker as one of The Guardian's Books Of The Year. She described it as "a fabulous, whirling kaleidoscope of music, memory and trauma . . . magical and cautionary."

Personal life
In the early 1990s, Price had a relationship with drum and bass artist Kemistry, who died in a car accident in 1999. He was romantically involved with Icelandic singer Björk in 1996. His relationship with Björk, and her previous relationship that year with Massive Attack member Tricky, upset Ricardo Lopez, an obsessed Björk fan, who was angered by the fact that Björk was in a relationship with a black man (in both Price’s and Tricky’s case) and, on September 12, 1996, sent an explosive device to Björk, disguised as a book, which was designed to spray sulfuric acid on her face, disfiguring her or killing her. Lopez then went back to his apartment, shaved off all the hair on his head, and painted his face and head red and green, before shooting himself, all of which he filmed. The device failed to reach Björk because Lopez’s body, and his plans, were discovered before the package was delivered, and the device was defused by Scotland Yard.

In 1998, Price bought a country house in Bovingdon, Hertfordshire.

Price married model Sonjia Ashby in 2002. They divorced in 2005. As of 2003, he had five children, including social content creator Danny Price, who has appeared on Channel 4 reality show Make Me Prime Minister.

In 2007, Goldie began a relationship with Mika Wassenaar, a Canadian. The couple appeared in the 20 June 2009 episode of ITV's All Star Mr & Mrs with Phillip Schofield and Fern Britton. Mika and Price married in 2010.

On 29 April 2010, Price opened the William Tyndale Primary School Sports Pitch in Islington, London.

In July 2010, Price received an honorary doctorate in Social Sciences from Brunel University, Uxbridge. On 3 September 2010, he received an honorary degree of Doctor of Design from the University of Wolverhampton.

On 7 September 2010, Price's 23-year-old son Jamie Price was sentenced to life imprisonment, with a minimum sentence of 21 years, for murder. He was convicted of stabbing a rival gang member to death in Wolverhampton town centre on 24 August 2008.

As of 2017, Price and his wife were living in Thailand, having moved there in 2015.

Price was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2016 New Year Honours awards, for services to music and young people.

Price was accused of assaulting a security guard at the 2017 Glastonbury festival after the guard had refused to let Price's daughter, Chance, backstage; Price later emailed a response which read, "Yep, guilty as charged", but in March 2018, district judge Lynn Matthews at Bristol Magistrates' Court rejected Price's emailed response and in a video call Price later admitted to assault by beating. On 30 May Bristol Magistrates' Court ordered Goldie to pay almost £2,500 as a fine.

In 2017, Price appeared to reveal the first name of pseudonymous graffiti artist Banksy as "Rob" on Scroobius Pip's weekly Distraction Pieces Podcast (Episode #156). When discussing the rise of commercialism in street art, Price said, "Give me a bubble letter and put it on a T-shirt and write Banksy on it and we're sorted. We can sell it now... No disrespect to Rob, I think he is a brilliant artist. I think he has flipped the world of art over."

Albums
Studio albums
 * Timeless (1995)
 * Saturnz Return (1998)
 * The Journey Man (2017)

as Rufige Kru
 * Malice in Wonderland (2007)
 * Memoirs of an Afterlife (2009)

Soundtrack albums
 * Sine Tempus – The Soundtrack (2008)

Collaboration albums
 * Subject One – Music for Inanimate Objects (2019) with James Davidson as Subjective
 * The Start of No Regret (2022) with James Davidson as Subjective

Selected singles/EPs

 * "Kris Biscuit / Killer Muffin" (as Rufige Cru) (Reinforced Records, 1992)
 * Darkrider EP (as Rufige Cru) (Reinforced Records, 1992)
 * Terminator EP (as Metal Heads) (Synthetic Hardcore Phonography, 1992)
 * "Ghosts of My Life / Terminator 2" (as Rufige Kru) (Reinforced Records, 1993)
 * "Angel / You and Me" (as Metal Heads) (Synthetic Hardcore Phonography, 1993)
 * Internal Affairs EP (as Internal Affairs with 4hero) (Reinforced Records, 1993)
 * "VIP Riders Ghost" (as Rufige Kru) (Metalheadz, 1993)
 * "Inner City Life" (as Goldie presents Metalheadz) (FFRR, 1994) – UK No. 39 (UK Singles Chart)
 * "Angel" (FFRR, 1995) – UK No. 41
 * "Jah / Deadly Deep Subs" (Remixes) (Razors Edge, 1996)
 * "State of Mind" (FFRR, 1996)
 * "Digital" (feat. KRS-One) (FFRR, 1997) – UK No. 13
 * "The Shadow" (as Rob & Goldie) (Moving Shadow, 1997) – UK No. 82
 * "Kemistry V.I.P. / Your Sound" (Remixes) (Razors Edge, 1997)
 * Ring of Saturn (FFRR, 1998)
 * "Temper Temper" (featuring Noel Gallagher) (FFRR, 1998) – UK No. 13
 * "Believe" (FFRR, 1998) – UK No. 36
 * "Beachdrifta / Stormtrooper VIP" (Metalheadz, 2001)
 * "Say You Love Me" (Metalheadz, 2005)
 * "Monkey Boy / Special Request" (Metalheadz, 2007)
 * "Vanilla" (Metalheadz, 2007)
 * "Freedom" (feat. Natalie Duncan) (Metalheadz, 2012)
 * "I Adore You" feat. Ulterior Motive (2017)
 * "Upstart" feat. Skepta (2018)
 * "Breakout" feat. LaMeduza (as Subjective) (2022)

Selected mixes

 * INCredible Sound of Drum'n'Bass (1999)
 * Goldie.co.uk (2001)
 * MDZ.04 (2004)
 * Drum & Bass Arena: The Classics (2006)
 * Watch the Ride (2008)
 * FabricLive.58 (2011)

Filmography

 * Everybody Loves Sunshine (1999) – Terry
 * The World Is Not Enough (1999) – Mr. Bullion
 * Snatch (2000) – Bad Boy Lincoln
 * The Price of Air (2000) – The Greaser
 * The Case (2002) – DJ Gabriel

title: Goldie


text:
Talk:Codex Manesse

Untitled
Of course, the actual name in English for this manuscript among literary and art historians is 'Manesse Codex' or even "Manasseh Codex". This is not such a 'special' ms, by the way - most of the poems are separately preserved. This is just the one with pictures, which is why I have prints from it, but then I'm an art historian. I think some library in Switzerland owns it, now. MichaelTinkler

-- Posting here original names from the Codex Manesse, which have been removed from article.

Hartman von Ouwe (Aue) Heinrich von Morungen (Mohrungen) Henrik von Veldeke Kuonrat von Wuerzeburc (Konrad von Wuerzburg) Nithart von Reuental Reinmar von Hagenouwe (Hagenaue) Walther von der Vogelweide Wolfram von Eschenbach

Included in the codex are poems by emperor Henry VI, king Conrad, king Wenceslas of Bohemia (Wenzel von Behem), duke Henry of Bresslau (Heinrich von Presselau) Silesia, margrave Otto IV of Brandenburg and many more. user:H.J.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Codex Manesse


text:
Winter sports

Winter sports or winter activities are competitive sports or non-competitive recreational activities which are played on snow or ice. Most are variations of skiing, ice skating and sledding. Traditionally, such games were only played in cold areas during winter, but artificial snow and artificial ice allow more flexibility. Playing areas and fields consist of either snow or ice.

Artificial ice can be used to provide ice rinks for ice skating, ice hockey, para ice hockey, ringette, broomball, bandy, rink bandy, rinkball, and spongee in a milder climate. The sport of speed skating uses a frozen circular track of ice, but in some facilities the track is combined in an enclosed area used for sports requiring an ice rink or the rink itself is used. Alternatively, ice cross downhill uses a track with various levels of elevation and a combination of bends. Long distance skating (a.k.a. "marathon skating") such as tour skating is only performed outdoors and uses the available natural ice from frozen lakes, ponds, and marshes. Tour skating at times includes speed skaters, though tour skates are more common.

Common individual sports include cross-country skiing, alpine skiing, snowboarding, ski jumping, speed skating, figure skating, luge, skeleton, bobsleigh, ski orienteering and snowmobiling.

Common team sports include ice hockey, ringette, broomball (on either an indoor ice rink, or an outdoor ice rink or field of snow), curling, rinkball, and bandy. Based on the number of participants, ice hockey is the world's most popular winter team sport, followed by bandy.

Winter sports at times have their own multi-sport events, such as the Winter Olympic Games and the Winter Universiade.

History
Snow and ice during the winter time has enabled sliding as a means of transportation, using sledges, skis and skates. This also led to different pastimes and sports being developed in the winter season as compared to other times of the year. Naturally, winter sports are more popular in countries with longer winter seasons. In the European Alps, St. Moritz became a popular winter resort in 1864.

In the early days of the Olympics there was not much differentiation between the summer and winter games. These confusions would span from around the late 1890s until the early to mid 1900s. During this time, some sports considered to be winter sports and played or performed during the Olympic Winter Games today, would be held during the Olympic Summer Games. It was originally wanted to keep all of the Olympic sports together under one event and program, but due to environmental demands of some sports, it had to be separated.

While most winter sports are played outside, ice hockey, speed skating and to some extent bandy have moved indoors starting in the mid-20th century. Indoor ice rinks with artificial ice allow ice skating and hockey to be played in hot climates.

Outdoor winter sports will likely be severely impacted because of climate change in the next century.

List of winter sports
Note: the Olympic rings next to a sport indicates that this particular sport is included in the Winter Olympic Games, as of the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. The Paralympic logo indicates the same for a sport not in the Olympics but in the Winter Paralympic Games.

Ice skating

 * Figure skating Olympic rings with white rims.svg
 * Short-track speed skating Olympic rings with white rims.svg
 * Speed skating Olympic rings with white rims.svg

Skiing

 * Acroski (no longer part of the Winter Olympics) Olympic rings with white rims.svg
 * Alpine skiing Olympic rings with white rims.svg
 * Biathlon Olympic rings with white rims.svg
 * Cross-country skiing Olympic rings with white rims.svg
 * Downhill skiing
 * Freestyle skiing Olympic rings with white rims.svg
 * Jack Jumping
 * Mogul skiing Olympic rings with white rims.svg
 * Monoskiing
 * Newschool skiing
 * Nordic combined Olympic rings with white rims.svg
 * Ski archery
 * Skiboarding
 * Skibob
 * Skijoring
 * Ski jumping Olympic rings with white rims.svg
 * Ski mountaineering Olympic rings with white rims.svg
 * Ski orienteering
 * Snowkiting
 * Speed skiing
 * Speed riding
 * Telemark skiing
 * Winter pentathlon
 * Ski-BASE Jumping

Sledding
Sports that use sleds going down ice tracks or pulled by something:
 * Bobsled Olympic rings with white rims.svg
 * Dogsled racing
 * Ice blocking
 * Luge Olympic rings with white rims.svg
 * Skeleton Olympic rings with white rims.svg
 * Wok racing

Snowboarding

 * Alpine snowboarding Olympic rings with white rims.svg
 * Boardercross Olympic rings with white rims.svg
 * Slalom Olympic rings with white rims.svg
 * Snowskating
 * Slopestyle Olympic rings with white rims.svg
 * Snowshoeing

Snowmobiling

 * Free style
 * Snocross
 * Recreation
 * Cross-country
 * Hill climbing

Team sports

 * Bandy
 * Broomball
 * Curling Olympic rings with white rims.svg
 * Ice hockey Olympic rings with white rims.svg
 * Ice sledge hockey IPC logo (2004).svg
 * Ice stock sport
 * Military patrol
 * Moscow broomball
 * Para ice hockey
 * Ringette
 * Rinkball
 * Rink bandy
 * Snow baseball
 * Snow rugby
 * Snow snake
 * Snow volleyball
 * Spongee a.k.a. Sponge hockey
 * Synchronized skating
 * Yukigassen (competitive snowball fight)

Other sports

 * Cold-weather biking
 * Barrel jumping - (discipline of speed skating)
 * Ice canoeing
 * Ice climbing
 * Ice cricket
 * Ice cross downhill
 * Ice racing
 * Ice speedway
 * Snowbiking
 * Snowshoeing
 * Tour skating
 * Snow drifting
 * Snow golf (not to be confused with Crackgar, indigenous Kalash snow golf)
 * Snow Bike (Cycling)
 * Snow Cross (Moto Cycling)
 * Snowboard Cross
 * Snocross
 * Snow Polo
 * Snow Volleyball

Recreational sports
Some sports are competed in (or simply enjoyed) on a more casual basis, often by children:
 * Crackgar (indigenous Kalash snow golf)
 * Ice boating or ice sailing
 * Ice fishing
 * SheenAab Jung (Jammu and Kashmir Snow Fighting)
 * Tobogganing
 * Snow bowling

Notable winter sporting events

 * Winter Olympic Games
 * Nordic Games
 * World Cup
 * Arctic Winter Games
 * Asian Winter Games
 * Winter Paralympic Games
 * Winter Universiade
 * Winter Dew Tour
 * Winter X Games
 * Winter X Games Europe

World Cup

 * Bandy World Cup
 * Biathlon World Cup
 * Bobsleigh World Cup
 * FIS Alpine Ski World Cup
 * FIS Cross-Country World Cup
 * FIS Freestyle Skiing World Cup
 * FIS Nordic Combined World Cup
 * FIS Ski Jumping World Cup
 * FIS Snowboard World Cup
 * Luge World Cup
 * Short Track Speed Skating World Cup
 * Skeleton World Cup (toboggan)
 * Speed Skating World Cup
 * World Cup in Ski Orienteering

World championships

 * Ice Hockey World Championships
 * Curling World Championships
 * Bandy World Championships
 * Biathlon World Championships
 * Bobsleigh World Championships
 * FIS Alpine World Ski Championships
 * FIS Freestyle World Ski Championships
 * FIS Nordic World Ski Championships (cross-country skiing, ski jumping, and nordic combined)
 * FIS Snowboarding World Championships
 * FIL World Luge Artificial Track Championships
 * FIL World Luge Natural Track Championships
 * FIS Ski Flying World Championships
 * World Figure Skating Championships
 * World Ringette Championships
 * World Long Track Speed Skating Championships
 * World Short Track Speed Skating Championships
 * Skeleton World Championships (toboggan)
 * World Ski Orienteering Championships
 * FIM Snowcross World Championship
 * UCI Snow Bike World Championships
 * World Championship Snowmobile Derby

title: Winter sports


text:
Talk:Zingiberales

I've made the change from "Muscaceae" to "Musaceae". Musa = Banana; Musca = Common house fly 64.180.177.244 (talk) 11:43, 25 February 2002

title: Talk:Zingiberales


text:
Roberto Rossellini

Roberto Gastone Zeffiro Rossellini (8 May 1906 – 3 June 1977) was an Italian film director, screenwriter and producer. He was one of the most prominent directors of the Italian neorealist cinema, contributing to the movement with films such as Rome, Open City (1945), Paisan (1946), and Germany, Year Zero (1948). He is also known for his films starring Ingrid Bergman, Stromboli (1950), Europe '51 (1952), Journey to Italy (1954), Fear (1954) and Joan of Arc at the Stake (1954).

Early life
Rossellini was born in Rome. His mother, Elettra (née Bellan), was a housewife born in Rovigo, Veneto, and his father, Angiolo Giuseppe "Peppino" Rossellini, who owned a construction firm, was born in Rome from a family originally from Pisa, Tuscany. His mother was of partial French descent, from immigrants who had arrived in Italy during the Napoleonic Wars. He lived on the Via Ludovisi, where Benito Mussolini had his first Roman hotel in 1922 when Fascism obtained power in Italy.

Rossellini's father built the first cinema in Rome, the "Barberini", a theatre where movies could be projected, granting his son an unlimited free pass; the young Rossellini started frequenting the cinema at an early age. When his father died, he worked in film sound-making and for a certain time, he experienced all the ancillary jobs related to the creation of a film, gaining competence in each field. Rossellini had a younger brother, Renzo, who later scored many of his films.

Although he was not personally religious, he had a strong interest in Christian values in the contemporary world; he appreciated Catholic ethics and religious sentiment—things which he saw as being neglected in the materialist world.

Career
In 1937, Rossellini shot his first film, Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune, which was possibly unreleased and later lost. After this film, he was called to work as assistant director on Goffredo Alessandrini's in making Luciano Serra pilota, one of the most successful Italian films of the first half of the 20th century, and later worked on Francesco De Robertis's 1940 film Uomini sul Fondo. His close friendship with Vittorio Mussolini, son of Benito Mussolini, has been interpreted as a possible reason for having been preferred to other apprentices.

Some writers have described the first part of his career as a sequence of trilogies. His first feature film, The White Ship (1941) was sponsored by the audiovisual propaganda centre of Navy Department and is the first work in Rossellini's "Fascist Trilogy", together with A Pilot Returns (1942) and The Man with a Cross (1943). During this period he developed relationships with Federico Fellini and Aldo Fabrizi. The Fascist regime collapsed in 1943, and two months after the liberation of Rome (4 June 1944), Rossellini began preparing the anti-fascist Roma città aperta (Rome, Open City, 1945), with Fellini assisting on the script. Fabrizi played the role of the priest, while Rossellini self-produced, filming commencing in January 1945. Most of the money came from credits and loans, and film had to be found on the black market. This dramatic film was an immediate success. It has been called the first film of the Neorealist Trilogy, the second title of which was Paisà (1946), produced with non-professional actors, and the third, Germany, Year Zero (1948), was sponsored by a French producer and filmed in Berlin's French sector. In Berlin also, Rossellini preferred non-actors, but he was unable to find a face he found "interesting"; he placed his camera in the centre of a town square, as he did for Paisà, but was surprised when nobody came to watch.

As he declared in an interview "in order to really create the character that one has in mind, it is necessary for the director to engage in a battle with his actor which usually ends with submitting to the actor's wish. Since I do not have the desire to waste my energy in a battle like this, I only use professional actors occasionally". One of the reasons for success is supposed to be Rossellini's rewriting of the scripts according to the non-professional actors' feelings and histories. Regional accent, dialect and costumes were shown in the film as they were in real life.

After his Neorealist Trilogy, Rossellini produced two films now classified as the 'Transitional films': L'Amore (1948) (with Anna Magnani) and La macchina ammazzacattivi (1952), on the capability of cinema to portray reality and truth (with recalls of commedia dell'arte). In 1948, Rossellini received a letter from a famous foreign actress proposing a collaboration:
 * Dear Mr. Rossellini,
 * I saw your films Open City and Paisan, and enjoyed them very much. If you need a Swedish actress who speaks English very well, who has not forgotten her German, who is not very understandable in French, and who in Italian knows only "ti amo," I am ready to come and make a film with you.
 * Ingrid Bergman

With this letter began one of the best-known love stories in film history, with Bergman and Rossellini both at the peak of their careers. Their first collaboration was Stromboli terra di Dio (1950) (in the island of Stromboli, and its volcano quite conveniently erupted during filming). This affair caused a great scandal in some countries (Bergman and Rossellini were married to other people); the scandal intensified when Bergman became pregnant with Renato Roberto Ranaldo Giusto Giuseppe ("Robin") Rossellini. Rossellini and Bergman had two more children, Isabella Rossellini (actress & model) and her twin, Ingrid Isotta. Europa '51 (1952), Siamo Donne (1953), Journey to Italy (1954), La paura (1954) and Giovanna d'Arco al rogo (1954) were the other films on which they worked together.

In 1957, Jawaharlal Nehru, the prime minister of India at the time, invited him to India to make the documentary India and put some life into the floundering Indian Films Division. Though married to Bergman, he had an affair with Sonali Senroy Dasgupta, a screenwriter, herself married to local filmmaker Harisadhan Dasgupta, who was helping develop vignettes for the film. Given the climate of the 1950s, this led to a huge scandal in India as well as in Hollywood. Nehru had to ask Rossellini to leave. Soon after, Bergman and Rossellini separated.

In 1971, Rice University in Houston, Texas, invited Rossellini to help establish a Media Center, where in 1970 he had begun planning a film on science with Rice professor Donald D. Clayton. They worked daily for two weeks in Rome in summer 1970, but financing was insufficient for filming to begin. In 1973, he was invited to teach at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, where he taught a one-semester course titled "The Essential Image."

Rossellini's final project was the documentary Beaubourg, filmed in 1977 and first premiered in 1983.

Personal life
In 1934, Rossellini married Assia Noris, a Russian actress who worked in Italian films; the marriage was annulled in 1936. On 26 September 1936, he married Marcella De Marchis (17 January 1916, Rome – 25 February 2009, Sarteano), a costume designer with whom he collaborated even after their marriage was over. De Marchis and Rossellini had two sons: Marco Romano (born 3 July 1937 and died of appendicitis in 1946), and Renzo (born 24 August 1941). Rossellini and De Marchis divorced in 1950.

While filming Stromboli, Rossellini had an affair with Ingrid Bergman (who was at the time married to Petter Lindström) in 1949. In the same month the film was released, Bergman gave birth to a boy, Renato Roberto Ranaldo Giusto Giuseppe ("Robin") Rossellini (born 2 February 1950). A week after their son was born, Bergman divorced Lindström and married Rossellini in Mexico. On 18 June 1952, she gave birth to their twin daughters Isotta Ingrid Rossellini and Isabella Rossellini.

In 1957, Rossellini had an affair with Bengali screenwriter Sonali Dasgupta (née Senroy), and soon after, Bergman and Rossellini separated. Rossellini eloped with Dasgupta in 1957 when she was 27 years old. He adopted her young son Arjun, renamed Gil Rossellini (23 October 1956 – 3 October 2010), who became a New York-based film producer. Rossellini and Dasgupta had a daughter together, Raffaella Rossellini (born 1958), who is an actress and model.

In 1973, Rossellini left Dasgupta for producer Silvia D'Amico Bendicò, but he remained married to Dasgupta until his death of a heart attack at age 71 in 1977.

Global policy
Along with Albert Einstein, Rossellini was one of the sponsors of the Peoples' World Convention (PWC), also known as Peoples' World Constituent Assembly (PWCA), which took place in 1950-51 at Palais Electoral, Geneva, Switzerland.

Legacy
Rossellini's films after his early Neo-Realist films—particularly his films with Ingrid Bergman—were commercially unsuccessful, though Journey to Italy is well regarded in some quarters. He was an acknowledged master for the critics of Cahiers du Cinéma in general and André Bazin, François Truffaut, and Jean-Luc Godard in particular. Truffaut noted in his 1963 essay, Roberto Rossellini Prefers Real Life (available in The Films in My Life) that Rossellini's influence among the directors who became part of the nouvelle vague was so great that he was in every sense "the father of the French New Wave".

His posthumous ex-son-in-law Martin Scorsese has acknowledged Rossellini's seminal influence in his documentary My Voyage to Italy (the title itself a take on Rossellini's Voyage to Italy). Among works from Italian directors Fellini, Visconti, De Sica and Antonioni, Rossellini's films form at least half of the films Scorsese discusses, highlighting Rossellini's monumental role in Italian and world cinema. The films covered include his Neo-Realist films and films with Ingrid Bergman, as well as The Flowers of St. Francis, about St. Francis of Assisi. Scorsese notes that in contrast to directors who often become stylistically restrained and conservative as their careers advanced, Rossellini became more unconventional as his career advanced, and was constantly experimenting with new styles and technical challenges. Scorsese particularly highlights the series of biographies Rossellini made in the 60s of historical figures and singles out La Prise de pouvoir par Louis XIV for praise.

Certain of Rossellini's film-related material and personal papers are contained in the Wesleyan University Cinema Archives to which scholars and media experts from around the world may have full access. Rossellini's son Renzo is producing the Audiovisual Encyclopedia of History by Roberto Rossellini, a multi-media collection containing all of Rossellini's works, interviews, and other material from the Rossellini archive. The Encyclopedia existed in prototype form in 2011.

Filmography

 * La Vispa Teresa (1939) - short
 * Il Tacchino prepotente (1939) - short
 * Fantasia sottomarina (1940) - short
 * Il Ruscello di Ripasottile (1941) - short
 * The White Ship (1941)
 * A Pilot Returns (1942)
 * The Man with a Cross (1943)
 * Rome, Open City (1945)
 * Paisà (1946)
 * L'Amore (1948)
 * Germany, Year Zero (1948)
 * Stromboli terra di Dio (1950)
 * Francesco, giullare di Dio (1950)
 * "Envie, L'Envy" (segment of Les Sept péchés capitaux) (1952)
 * The Machine to Kill Bad People (1952)
 * Europa '51 (1952)
 * "Ingrid Bergman" (segment from Siamo donne) (1953)
 * "Napoli 1943" (segment from Amori di mezzo secolo) (1954)
 * Dov'è la libertà...? (1954) - abandoned, completed by studio
 * Viaggio in Italia (1954)
 * La Paura (1954)
 * Giovanna d'Arco al rogo (1954)
 * India: Matri Bhumi (1959)
 * Il generale Della Rovere (1959)
 * Era Notte a Roma (1960)
 * Viva l'Italia! (1961)
 * Vanina Vanini (1961)
 * Anima nera (1962)
 * "Illibatezza" (segment from Ro.Go.Pa.G.) (1963)
 * The Night of Counting the Years (1969) - producer
 * Da Gerusalemme a Damasco (1970)
 * Anno uno (1974)
 * Il messia (1975)
 * Beaubourg, centre d'art et de culture Georges Pompidou (1977)

Other work

 * Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune (1937) - lost project
 * Desire (1946) - based on incomplete film Freight Yard
 * L'Invasore (1949) - supervisor
 * Rivalità (1953) - supervisor
 * Benito Mussolini (1962) - producer
 * Les Carabiniers (1963) - co-screenwriter
 * Intervista a Salvador Allende: La forza e la ragione (1971) - interviewer

Television
Following the critical failure of Anima nera and his participation in the various artists film Ro.Go.Pa.G., Rossellini began directing films for TV in 1966 with La Prise de pouvoir par Louis XIV, and continued predominately in the medium until the end of his career in 1977.

TV films

 * La Prise de pouvoir par Louis XIV (1966)
 * Idea di un'isola (1967)
 * Socrates (The Philosophers, 1971)
 * Rice University (1971) - with Beppe Cino
 * Pascal (The Philosophers, 1972)
 * Agostino d'Ippona (The Philosophers, 1972)
 * Cartesius (The Philosophers, 1974)
 * The World Population (1974) - with Renzo Rossellini
 * Concerto per Michelangelo (1977)

In addition to his TV movies, he was involved with a number of TV series, as either writer or director.

TV series

 * L'India vista da Rossellini (1959) - director, mini-series
 * L'Età del ferro (1964) - director, mini-series
 * Atti degli apostoli (1969) - director, mini-series
 * La lotta dell'uomo per la sua sopravvivenza (1970) - writer
 * L'Età di Cosimo de' Medici (1973) - director, mini-series

Some sources associate Rossellini with the 1961 Torino nei cent'anni, but the status and completion of the project is unconfirmed.

title: Roberto Rossellini


text:
Inclined plane

An inclined plane, also known as a ramp, is a flat supporting surface tilted at an angle from the vertical direction, with one end higher than the other, used as an aid for raising or lowering a load. The inclined plane is one of the six classical simple machines defined by Renaissance scientists. Inclined planes are used to move heavy loads over vertical obstacles. Examples vary from a ramp used to load goods into a truck, to a person walking up a pedestrian ramp, to an automobile or railroad train climbing a grade.

Moving an object up an inclined plane requires less force than lifting it straight up, at a cost of an increase in the distance moved. The mechanical advantage of an inclined plane, the factor by which the force is reduced, is equal to the ratio of the length of the sloped surface to the height it spans. Owing to conservation of energy, the same amount of mechanical energy (work) is required to lift a given object by a given vertical distance, disregarding losses from friction, but the inclined plane allows the same work to be done with a smaller force exerted over a greater distance.

The angle of friction, also sometimes called the angle of repose, is the maximum angle at which a load can rest motionless on an inclined plane due to friction without sliding down. This angle is equal to the arctangent of the coefficient of static friction μs between the surfaces.

Two other simple machines are often considered to be derived from the inclined plane. The wedge can be considered a moving inclined plane or two inclined planes connected at the base. The screw consists of a narrow inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder.

The term may also refer to a specific implementation; a straight ramp cut into a steep hillside for transporting goods up and down the hill. This may include cars on rails or pulled up by a cable system; a funicular or cable railway, such as the Johnstown Inclined Plane.

Uses
Inclined planes are widely used in the form of loading ramps to load and unload goods on trucks, ships and planes. Wheelchair ramps are used to allow people in wheelchairs to get over vertical obstacles without exceeding their strength. Escalators and slanted conveyor belts are also forms of an inclined plane. In a funicular or cable railway a railroad car is pulled up a steep inclined plane using cables. Inclined planes also allow heavy fragile objects, including humans, to be safely lowered down a vertical distance by using the normal force of the plane to reduce the gravitational force. Aircraft evacuation slides allow people to rapidly and safely reach the ground from the height of a passenger airliner.

Other inclined planes are built into permanent structures. Roads for vehicles and railroads have inclined planes in the form of gradual slopes, ramps, and causeways to allow vehicles to surmount vertical obstacles such as hills without losing traction on the road surface. Similarly, pedestrian paths and sidewalks have gentle ramps to limit their slope, to ensure that pedestrians can keep traction. Inclined planes are also used as entertainment for people to slide down in a controlled way, in playground slides, water slides, ski slopes and skateboard parks.

History
Inclined planes have been used by people since prehistoric times to move heavy objects. The sloping roads and causeways built by ancient civilizations such as the Romans are examples of early inclined planes that have survived, and show that they understood the value of this device for moving things uphill. The heavy stones used in ancient stone structures such as Stonehenge are believed to have been moved and set in place using inclined planes made of earth, although it is hard to find evidence of such temporary building ramps. The Egyptian pyramids were constructed using inclined planes,  Siege ramps enabled ancient armies to surmount fortress walls. The ancient Greeks constructed a paved ramp 6 km (3.7 miles) long, the Diolkos, to drag ships overland across the Isthmus of Corinth.

However the inclined plane was the last of the six classic simple machines to be recognised as a machine. This is probably because it is a passive and motionless device (the load is the moving part), and also because it is found in nature in the form of slopes and hills. Although they understood its use in lifting heavy objects, the ancient Greek philosophers who defined the other five simple machines did not include the inclined plane as a machine. This view persisted among a few later scientists; as late as 1826 Karl von Langsdorf wrote that an inclined plane "...is no more a machine than is the slope of a mountain". The problem of calculating the force required to push a weight up an inclined plane (its mechanical advantage) was attempted by Greek philosophers Heron of Alexandria (c. 10 - 60 CE) and Pappus of Alexandria (c. 290 - 350 CE), but their solutions were incorrect.

It was not until the Renaissance that the inclined plane was solved mathematically and classed with the other simple machines. The first correct analysis of the inclined plane appeared in the work of 13th century author Jordanus de Nemore, however his solution was apparently not communicated to other philosophers of the time. Girolamo Cardano (1570) proposed the incorrect solution that the input force is proportional to the angle of the plane. Then at the end of the 16th century, three correct solutions were published within ten years, by Michael Varro (1584), Simon Stevin (1586), and Galileo Galilei (1592). Although it was not the first, the derivation of Flemish engineer Simon Stevin is the most well-known, because of its originality and use of a string of beads (see box). In 1600, Italian scientist Galileo Galilei included the inclined plane in his analysis of simple machines in Le Meccaniche ("On Mechanics"), showing its underlying similarity to the other machines as a force amplifier.

The first elementary rules of sliding friction on an inclined plane were discovered by Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), but remained unpublished in his notebooks. They were rediscovered by Guillaume Amontons (1699) and were further developed by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1785). Leonhard Euler (1750) showed that the tangent of the angle of repose on an inclined plane is equal to the coefficient of friction.

Slope
The mechanical advantage of an inclined plane depends on its slope, meaning its gradient or steepness. The smaller the slope, the larger the mechanical advantage, and the smaller the force needed to raise a given weight. A plane's slope s is equal to the difference in height between its two ends, or "rise", divided by its horizontal length, or "run". It can also be expressed by the angle the plane makes with the horizontal, $$\theta$$.

 * $$\theta = \tan^{-1} \bigg( \frac {\text{Rise}}{\text{Run}} \bigg)  \,$$

Mechanical advantage
The mechanical advantage $$\mathrm{MA}$$ of a simple machine as defined as the ratio of the output force exerted on the load to the input force applied.The inclined plane the output load force is just the gravitational force of the load object on the plane, its weight  $$F_\text{w}$$. The input force is the force $$F_\text{i}$$ exerted on the object, parallel to the plane, to move it up the plane. The mechanical advantage is

 * $$\mathrm{MA} = \frac {F_\text{w}}{F_\text{i}} \,$$

The $$\mathrm{MA}$$ of an ideal inclined plane without friction is sometimes called ideal mechanical advantage $$\mathrm{IMA}$$ while the MA when friction is included is called the actual mechanical advantage $$\mathrm{AMA}$$.

Frictionless inclined plane

If there is no friction between the object being moved and the plane, the device is called an ideal inclined plane. This condition might be approached if the object is rolling like a barrel, or supported on wheels or casters. Due to conservation of energy, for a frictionless inclined plane the work done on the load lifting it, $$W_\text{out}$$, is equal to the work done by the input force, $$W_\text{in}$$

 * $$W_{\rm out} = W_{\rm in} \,$$

Work is defined as the force multiplied by the displacement an object moves. The work done on the load is equal to its weight multiplied by the vertical displacement it rises, which is the "rise" of the inclined plane
 * $$W_{\rm out} = F_{\rm w} \cdot \text{Rise} \,$$

The input work is equal to the force $$F_\text{i}$$ on the object times the diagonal length of the inclined plane.
 * $$W_{\rm in} = F_{\rm i} \cdot \text{Length} \,$$

Substituting these values into the conservation of energy equation above and rearranging

 * $$\text{MA} = \frac{F_{\rm w}}{F_{\rm i}} = \frac {\text{Length}}{\text{Rise}} \,$$

To express the mechanical advantage by the angle $$\theta$$ of the plane, it can be seen from the diagram (above) that
 * $$\sin \theta = \frac {\text{Rise}}{\text{Length}} \,$$

So
 * $$\text{MA} = \frac{F_{\rm w}}{F_{\rm i}} = \frac {1}{\sin \theta} \,$$

So the mechanical advantage of a frictionless inclined plane is equal to the reciprocal of the sine of the slope angle. The input force $$F_{\rm i}$$ from this equation is the force needed to hold the load motionless on the inclined plane, or push it up at a constant velocity. If the input force is greater than this, the load will accelerate up the plane. If the force is less, it will accelerate down the plane.

Inclined plane with friction
Where there is friction between the plane and the load, as for example with a heavy box being slid up a ramp, some of the work applied by the input force is dissipated as heat by friction, $$W_\text{fric}$$, so less work is done on the load. Due to conservation of energy, the sum of the output work and the frictional energy losses is equal to the input work
 * $$W_\text{in} = W_\text{fric} + W_\text{out} \,$$

Therefore, more input force is required, and the mechanical advantage is lower, than if friction were not present. With friction, the load will only move if the net force parallel to the surface is greater than the frictional force $$F_\text{f}$$ opposing it. The maximum friction force is given by
 * $$F_f = \mu F_n \,$$

where $$F_\text{n}$$ is the normal force between the load and the plane, directed normal to the surface, and $$\mu$$ is the coefficient of static friction between the two surfaces, which varies with the material. When no input force is applied, if the inclination angle $$\theta$$ of the plane is less than some maximum value $$\phi$$ the component of gravitational force parallel to the plane will be too small to overcome friction, and the load will remain motionless. This angle is called the angle of repose and depends on the composition of the surfaces, but is independent of the load weight. It is shown below that the tangent of the angle of repose $$\phi$$ is equal to $$\mu$$
 * $$\phi = \tan^{-1} \mu \,$$

With friction, there is always some range of input force $$F_\text{i}$$ for which the load is stationary, neither sliding up or down the plane, whereas with a frictionless inclined plane there is only one particular value of input force for which the load is stationary.

Analysis

A load resting on an inclined plane, when considered as a free body has three forces acting on it: Using Newton's second law of motion the load will be stationary or in steady motion if the sum of the forces on it is zero. Since the direction of the frictional force is opposite for the case of uphill and downhill motion, these two cases must be considered separately:
 * The applied force, $$F_\text{i}$$ exerted on the load to move it, which acts parallel to the inclined plane.
 * The weight of the load, $$F_\text{w}$$, which acts vertically downwards
 * The force of the plane on the load. This can be resolved into two components:
 * The normal force $$F_\text{n}$$ of the inclined plane on the load, supporting it.  This is directed perpendicular (normal) to the surface.
 * The frictional force, $$F_\text{f}$$ of the plane on the load acts parallel to the surface, and is always in a direction opposite to the motion of the object. It is equal to the normal force multiplied by the coefficient of static friction μ between the two surfaces.
 * Uphill motion: The total force on the load is toward the uphill side, so the frictional force is directed down the plane, opposing the input force.
 * The mechanical advantage is
 * $$\mathrm{MA} = \frac {F_w}{F_i} = \frac {\cos \phi} { \sin (\theta + \phi ) } \, $$

 * where $$\phi = \tan^{-1} \mu \,$$. This is the condition for impending motion up the inclined plane.  If the applied force Fi is greater than given by this equation, the load will move up the plane.

 * Downhill motion: The total force on the load is toward the downhill side, so the frictional force is directed up the plane.

 * The mechanical advantage is
 * $$\mathrm{MA} = \frac {F_w}{F_i} = \frac {\cos \phi} { \sin (\theta - \phi ) } \,$$
 * This is the condition for impending motion down the plane; if the applied force Fi is less than given in this equation, the load will slide down the plane. There are three cases:
 * $$\theta < \phi\,$$: The mechanical advantage is negative. In the absence of applied force the load will remain motionless, and requires some negative (downhill) applied force to slide down.
 * $$\theta = \phi\,$$: The 'angle of repose'. The mechanical advantage is infinite. With no applied force, load will not slide, but the slightest negative (downhill) force will cause it to slide.
 * $$\theta > \phi\,$$: The mechanical advantage is positive. In the absence of applied force the load will slide down the plane, and requires some positive (uphill) force to hold it motionless

Mechanical advantage using power
The mechanical advantage of an inclined plane is the ratio of the weight of the load on the ramp to the force required to pull it up the ramp. If energy is not dissipated or stored in the movement of the load, then this mechanical advantage can be computed from the dimensions of the ramp.

In order to show this, let the position r of a rail car on along the ramp with an angle, θ, above the horizontal be given by
 * $$\mathbf{r} = R (\cos\theta, \sin\theta),$$

where R is the distance along the ramp. The velocity of the car up the ramp is now

 * $$\mathbf{v} = V (\cos\theta, \sin\theta).$$

Because there are no losses, the power used by force F to move the load up the ramp equals the power out, which is the vertical lift of the weight W of the load.

The input power pulling the car up the ramp is given by

 * $$P_{\mathrm{in}} = F V,\!$$

and the power out is

 * $$P_{\mathrm{out}} = \mathbf{W}\cdot\mathbf{v} = (0, W)\cdot V (\cos\theta, \sin\theta) = WV\sin\theta.$$

Equate the power in to the power out to obtain the mechanical advantage as

 * $$ \mathrm{MA} = \frac{W}{F} = \frac{1}{\sin\theta}.$$

The mechanical advantage of an inclined plane can also be calculated from the ratio of length of the ramp L to its height H, because the sine of the angle of the ramp is given by
 * $$ \sin\theta = \frac{H}{L},$$

therefore,
 * $$ \mathrm{MA} = \frac{W}{F} = \frac{L}{H}.$$

Example: If the height of a ramp is H = 1 meter and its length is L = 5 meters, then the mechanical advantage is
 * $$ \mathrm{MA} = \frac{W}{F} = 5,$$

which means that a 20 lb force will lift a 100 lb load.

The Liverpool Minard inclined plane has the dimensions 1804 meters by 37.50 meters, which provides a mechanical advantage of
 * $$ \mathrm{MA} = \frac{W}{F} = 1804/37.50 = 48.1,$$

so a 100 lb tension force on the cable will lift a 4810 lb load. The grade of this incline is 2%, which means the angle θ is small enough that sin θ≈tan θ.

title: Inclined plane


text:
Snowboarding

Snowboarding is a recreational and competitive activity that involves descending a snow-covered surface while standing on a snowboard that is almost always attached to a rider's feet. It features in the Winter Olympic Games and Winter Paralympic Games.

Snowboarding was developed in the United States, inspired by skateboarding, sledding, surfing, and skiing. It became popular around the world and was introduced as a Winter Olympic Sport at Nagano in 1998 and featured in the Winter Paralympics at Sochi in 2014. , its popularity (as measured by equipment sales) in the United States peaked in 2007 and has been in a decline since.

History

The first snowboards were developed in 1965 when Sherm Poppen, an engineer in Muskegon, Michigan, invented a toy for his daughters by fastening two skis together and attaching a rope to one end so he would have some control as they stood on the board and glided downhill. Dubbed the "snurfer" (combining snow and surfer) by his wife Nancy, the toy proved so popular among his daughters' friends that Poppen licensed the idea to a manufacturer, Brunswick Corporation, that sold about a million snurfers over the next decade. And, in 1966 alone, over half a million snurfers were sold.

Modern snowboarding was pioneered by Tom Sims and Jake Burton Carpenter, who both contributed significant innovations and started influential companies. In February 1968, Poppen organized the first snurfing competition at a Michigan ski resort that attracted enthusiasts from all over the country. One of those early pioneers was Tom Sims, a devotee of skateboarding (a sport born in the 1950s when kids attached roller skate wheels to small boards that they steered by shifting their weight). In the 1960s, as an eighth grader in Haddonfield, New Jersey, Sims crafted a snowboard in his school shop class by gluing carpet to the top of a piece of wood and attaching aluminum sheeting to the bottom. He produced commercial snowboards in the mid-70s including the Skiboard (also known as the Lonnie Toft flying banana) a molded polyethylene bottom with a Lonnie Toft signature skateboard deck attached to the top. Others experimented with board-on-snow configurations at this time, including Welsh skateboard enthusiasts Jon Roberts and Pete Matthews developed their own snowboards to use at their local dry ski slope.

Also during this same period, in 1977, Jake Burton Carpenter, a Vermont native who had enjoyed snurfing since the age of 14, impressed the crowd at a Michigan snurfing competition with bindings he had designed to secure his feet to the board. That same year, he founded Burton Snowboards in Londonderry, Vermont. The "snowboards" were made of wooden planks that were flexible and had water ski foot traps. Very few people picked up snowboarding because the price of the board was considered too high at $38 and were not allowed on many ski hills, but eventually Burton would become the biggest snowboarding company in the business. Burton's early designs for boards with bindings became the dominant features in snowboarding.

The first competitions to offer prize money were the National Snurfing Championship, held at Muskegon State Park in Muskegon, Michigan. In 1979, Jake Burton Carpenter came from Vermont to compete with a snowboard of his own design. There were protests about Jake entering with a non-snurfer board. Paul Graves, and others, advocated that Jake be allowed to race. A "modified" "Open" division was created and won by Jake as the sole entrant. That race was considered the first competition for snowboarding and is the start of what became competitive snowboarding. Ken Kampenga, John Asmussen and Jim Trim placed first, second and third respectively in the Standard competition with best two combined times of 24.71, 25.02 and 25.41; and Jake Carpenter won prize money as the sole entrant in the "open" division with a time of 26.35. In 1980 the event moved to Pando Winter Sports Park near Grand Rapids, Michigan because of a lack of snow that year at the original venue.

In the early 1980s, Aleksey Ostatnigrosh and Alexei Melnikov, two Snurfers from the Soviet Union, patented design changes to the Snurfer to allow jumping by attaching a bungee cord, a single footed binding to the Snurfer tail, and a two-foot binding design for improved control.

As snowboarding became more popular in the 1970s and 1980s, pioneers such as Dimitrije Milovich (founder of Winterstick out of Salt Lake City, UT), Jake Burton Carpenter (founder of Burton Snowboards from Londonderry, Vermont), Tom Sims (founder of Sims Snowboards), David Kemper (founder of Kemper Snowboards) and Mike Olson (founder of Gnu Snowboards) came up with new designs for boards and mechanisms that slowly developed into the snowboards and other related equipment. From these developments, modern snowboarding equipment usually consists of a snowboard with specialized bindings and boots.

In April 1981, the "King of the Mountain" Snowboard competition was held at Ski Cooper in Colorado. Tom Sims along with an assortment of other snowboarders of the time were present. One entrant showed up on a homemade snowboard with a formica bottom that turned out to not slide so well on the snow.

In 1982, the first USA National Snowboard race was held near Woodstock, Vermont, at Suicide Six. The race, organized by Graves, was won by Burton's first team rider Doug Bouton.

In 1983, the first World Championship halfpipe competition was held at Soda Springs, California. Tom Sims, founder of Sims Snowboards, organized the event with the help of Mike Chantry, a snowboard instructor at Soda Springs.

In 1985, the first World Cup was held in Zürs, Austria, further cementing snowboarding's recognition as an official international competitive sport.

In 1990, the International Snowboard Federation (ISF) was founded to provide universal contest regulations. In addition, the United States of America Snowboard Association (USASA) provides instructing guidelines and runs snowboard competitions in the U.S. today, high-profile snowboarding events like the Winter X Games, Air & Style, US Open, Olympic Games and other events are broadcast worldwide. Many alpine resorts have terrain parks.

At the 1998 Winter Olympic Games in Nagano, Japan, Snowboarding became an official Olympic event. France's Karine Ruby was the first ever to win an Olympic gold medal for Woman's Snowboarding at the 1998 Olympics, while Canadian Ross Rebagliati was the first ever to win an Olympic gold medal for Men's Snowboarding.

Initially, ski areas adopted the sport at a much slower pace than the winter sports public. Indeed, for many years, there was animosity between skiers and snowboarders, which led to an ongoing skier vs snowboarder feud. Early snowboards were banned from the slopes by park officials. For several years snowboarders would have to take a small skills assessment prior to being allowed to ride the chairlifts. It was thought that an unskilled snowboarder would wipe the snow off the mountain. In 1985, only seven percent of U.S. ski areas allowed snowboarding, with a similar proportion in Europe. As equipment and skills improved, gradually snowboarding became more accepted. In 1990, most major ski areas had separate slopes for snowboarders. Now, approximately 97% of all ski areas in North America and Europe allow snowboarding, and more than half have jumps, rails and half pipes.

In 2004, snowboarding had 6.6 million active participants. An industry spokesman said that "twelve year-olds are out-riding adults." The same article said that most snowboarders are 18–24 years old and that women constitute 25% of participants.

There were 8.2 million snowboarders in the US and Canada for the 2009–2010 season. There was a 10% increase over the previous season, accounting for more than 30% of all snow sports participants.

On 2 May 2012, the International Paralympic Committee announced that adaptive snowboarding (dubbed "para-snowboarding") would debut as a men's and women's medal event in the 2014 Paralympic Winter Games taking place in Sochi, Russia.

Styles
Since snowboarding's inception as an established winter sport, it has developed various styles, each with its own specialized equipment and technique. The most common styles today are: freeride, freestyle, and freecarve/race. These styles are used for both recreational and professional snowboarding. While each style is unique, there is overlap between them.

Jibbing
"Jibbing" is the term for technical riding on non-standard surfaces. The word "jib" is both a noun and a verb, depending on the usage of the word. As a noun: a jib includes metal rails, boxes, benches, concrete ledges, walls, vehicles, rocks and logs. As a verb: to jib is referring to the action of jumping, sliding, or riding on top of objects other than snow. It is directly influenced by grinding a skateboard. Jibbing is a freestyle snowboarding technique of riding. Typically jibbing occurs in a snowboard resort park but can also be done in urban environments.

Freeriding
Freeriding is a style without a set of governing rules or set course, typically on natural, un-groomed terrain. The basic allows for various snowboarding styles in a fluid motion and spontaneity through naturally rugged terrain. It can be like freestyle with the exception that no man-made features are utilized. See also Backcountry snowboarding.

Freestyle
Freestyle snowboarding is any riding that includes performing tricks. In freestyle, the rider utilizes natural and man-made features such as rails, jumps, boxes, and innumerable others to perform tricks. It is a popular all-inclusive concept that distinguishes the creative aspects of snowboarding, in contrast to a style like alpine snowboarding.

Alpine snowboarding
Alpine snowboarding is a discipline within the sport of snowboarding. It is practiced on groomed pistes. It has been an Olympic event since 1998. Sometimes called freecarving or hardbooting (due to the equipment used), this discipline usually takes place on hard packed snow or groomed runs (although it can be practiced in any and all conditions) and focuses on carving linked turns, much like surfing or longboarding. Little or no jumping takes place in this discipline. Alpine Snowboarding consists of a small portion of the general snowboard population, that has a well connected social community and its own specific board manufacturers, most situated in Europe. Alpine Snowboard equipment includes a ski-like hardshell boot and plate binding system with a true directional snowboard that is stiffer and narrower to manage linking turns with greater forces and speed. Shaped skis can thank these "freecarve" snowboards for the cutting-edge technology leading to their creation. A skilled alpine snowboarder can link numerous turns into a run placing their body very close to the ground each turn, similar to a motocross turn or waterski carve. Depending on factors including stiffness, turning radius and personality this can be done slowly or fast. Carvers make perfect half-circles out of each turn, changing edges when the snowboard is perpendicular to the fall line and starting every turn on the downhill edge. Carving on a snowboard is like riding a roller coaster, because the board will lock into a turn radius and provide what feels like multiple Gs of acceleration.

Alpine snowboarding shares more visual similarities with skiing equipment than it does with snowboarding equipment. Compared to freestyle snowboarding gear:
 * boards are narrower, longer, and stiffer to improve carving performance
 * boots are made from a hard plastic shell, making it flex differently from a regular snowboard boot and is designed differently to ski boots although they look similar.
 * bindings have a bail or step-in design and are sometimes placed on suspension plates to provide a layer of isolation between an alpine snowboarder and the board, to decrease the level of vibrations felt by the rider, creating a better overall experience when carving, and to give extra weight to the board among other uses.

Slopestyle
Competitors perform tricks while descending a course, moving around, over, across, up, or down terrain features. The course is full of obstacles including boxes, rails, jumps, jibs, or anything else the board or rider can slide across. Slopestyle is a judged event and winning a slopestyle contest usually comes from successfully executing the most difficult line in the terrain park while having a smooth flowing line of difficult, mistake-free tricks performed on the obstacles. However, overall impression and style can play a factor in winning a slopestyle contest and the rider who lands the hardest tricks will not always win over the rider who lands easier tricks on more difficult paths.

Big air
Big air competitions are contests where riders perform tricks after launching off a man-made jump built specifically for the event. Competitors perform tricks in the air, aiming to attain sizable height and distance, all while securing a clean landing. Many competitions also require the rider to do a complex trick. Not all competitions call for a trick to win the gold; some intermittent competitions are based solely on height and distance of the launch of the snowboarder. Some competitions also require the rider to do a specific trick to win the major prize. One of the first snowboard competitions where Travis Rice attempted and landed a "double back flip backside 180" took place at the 2006 Red Bull Gap Session.

Half-pipe
The half-pipe is a semi-circular ditch dug into the mountain or purpose-built ramp made up of snow, with walls between 8 and 23 ft. Competitors perform tricks while going from one side to the other and while in the air above the sides of the pipe.

Snowboard cross
Snowboard cross, also known as "boardercross", "boarder X", or "snowboard X", and commonly abbreviated as "SBX", or just "BX", is a snowboarding discipline consisting of several (typically 4 to 6) riders racing head-to-head down a course with jumps, berms and other obstacles constructed out of snow. Snowboard cross began in the 1980s, earning its place as an official Winter Olympic event in the 2006 Turin games. Unlike other snowboard racing disciplines such as parallel giant slalom, competitors race on a single course together.

Snowboard racing
In snowboard racing, riders must complete a downhill course constructed of a series of turning color indicators (gates) placed in the snow at prescribed distances apart. A gate consists of a tall pole and a short pole, connected by a triangular panel. The racer must pass around the short side of the gate, passing the long side of the gate doesn't count. There are 3 main formats used in snowboard racing including single person, parallel courses or multiple people on the course at the same time (SBX).

Competitions
Snowboarding contests are held throughout the world and range from grassroots competitions to professional events contested worldwide.

Some of the larger snowboarding contests include: the European Air & Style, the Japanese X-Trail Jam, Burton Global Open Series, Shakedown, FIS World Championships, the annual FIS World Cup, the Winter X Games, Freeride World Tour and the Winter Dew Tour.

Snowboarding has been a Winter Olympic sport since 1998 Winter Olympics. Since its inauguration, Olympic snowboarding has seen many additions and removals of events. During the 2018 Winter Olympics, snowboarding events contested included big air, halfpipe, parallel giant slalom, slopestyle and snowboard cross.

Snowboarder Magazine's Superpark event was created in 1996. Over 150 of the World's top pros are invited to advance freestyle snowboarding on the most progressive terrain parks.

Part of the snowboarding approach is to ensure maximum fun, friendship and event quality. Reflecting this perspective of snowboarding, you can find "Anti Contests" which are an important part of its identity including The Holy Oly Revival at The Summit at Snoqualmie, The Nate Chute Hawaiian Classic at Whitefish, the original anti-contest, the World Quarterpipe Championships and the Grenade Games.

The United States of America Snowboarding and Freeski Association (USASA) features grassroots-level competitions designed to be a stepping stone for aspiring athletes looking to progress up the competition pipeline. The USASA consists of 36 regional series in which anyone can compete against athletes in a multitude of classes. For snowboarding, USASA contests regional events in six primary disciplines (Slalom, Giant Slalom, Slopestyle, Halfpipe, Boardercross, and Rail Jam), where competitors earn points towards a national ranking and qualify to compete at the USASA National Championships.

Subculture
The snowboarding way of life came about as a natural response to the culture from which it emerged. Early on, there was a rebellion against skiing culture and the view that snowboarders were inferior. Skiers did not easily accept this new culture on their slopes. The two cultures contrasted each other in several ways including how they spoke, acted, and their entire style of clothing. Snowboarders first embraced the punk and later the hip-hop look into their style. Words such as "dude", "gnarly", and "Shred the Gnar" are some examples of words used in the snowboarding culture. Snowboarding subculture became a crossover between the urban and suburban styles on snow, which made an easy transition from surfing and skateboarding culture over to snowboarding culture. In fact many skateboarders and surfers in the winter months snowboarded and were the early snowboarders.

The early stereotypes of snowboarding included "lazy", "grungy", "punk", "stoners", "troublemakers", and numerous others, many of which are associated with skateboarding and surfing as well. However, these stereotypes may be considered out of style. Snowboarding has become a sport that encompasses a very diverse international based crowd and fanbase of many millions, so much so that it is no longer possible to stereotype such a large community. Reasons for these dying stereotypes include how mainstream and popular the sport has become, with the shock factor of snowboarding's quick take off on the slopes wearing off. Skiers and snowboarders are becoming used to each other, showing more respect to each other on the mountain. "The typical stereotype of the sport is changing as the demographics change". While these two subcultures are now becoming accustomed to each other, there are still three resorts, in the United States, which do not allow snowboarding. Alta, Deer Valley, and Mad River Glen are the last skiing only resorts in North America and have become a focal point over time for the remaining animosity between snowboarding and skiing.

Common injuries
Common injuries in snowboarding differ between professional and recreational groups. The most common type of injury for snowboarders is injury to the upper body. In recreational snowboarding, wrist injuries are more likely to occur. Among professional snowboarders, injuries to the lower half, specifically the knee joint, are more likely to occur. When injured, snowboarders are twice as likely to get a fracture as skiers. Other minor injuries that happen are "wrist injuries, shoulder soft tissue injuries, ankle injuries, concussions, and clavicle fractures, were seen injuries are very common when snowboarding". In recreational and inexperienced "Most Injuries to snowboarders occurred more often while they were traveling at reckless speed on moderate slopes". Another way injuries happen is because they try sticking with someone that is a higher skill level, which they are not capable of handling because of the lack of skill they possess. Some major injuries that occur during snowboarding are head, and spinal Injuries, "The main cause of spinal fractures in snowboarders was Jump landing failure and Compression type fractures occur in about 80% of snowboarders with vertebral fractures because they frequently fall backwards, and this can cause axial loading and anterior compression fractures". Injuries to the upper body are much less common among professional snowboarders. "Most of the professionals and elite snowboarders frequently sustain injuries when trying to execute challenging tricks at high speeds and with increased levels of force to the lower limbs".

Safety and precautions
Like some other winter sports, snowboarding comes with a certain level of risk.

The average snowboarder is a male in their early twenties, and there are three times as many men as there are women in the sport. Snowboarders have a 2.4 times greater risk of fractures than skiers, particularly in the upper extremities. Conversely, snowboarders have a lower risk of knee injuries than skiers. The injury rate for snowboarding is about four to six per thousand persons per day, which is around double the injury rate for alpine skiing. Injuries are more likely amongst beginners, especially those who do not take lessons with professional instructors. A quarter of all injuries occur to first-time riders and half of all injuries occur to those with less than a year of experience. Experienced riders are less likely to suffer injury, but the injuries that do occur tend to be more severe.

Two-thirds of injuries occur to the upper body and one-third to the lower body. This contrasts with alpine skiing, where two-thirds of injuries are to the lower body. The most common types of injuries are sprains, which account for around 40% of injuries. The most common point of injury is the wrists – 40% of all snowboard injuries are to the wrists and 24% of all snowboard injuries are wrist fractures. There are around 100,000 wrist fractures worldwide among snowboarders each year. For this reason the use of wrist guards, either separate or built into gloves, is very strongly recommended. They are often compulsory in beginner's classes and their use reduces the likelihood of wrist injury by half. In addition it is important for snow boarders to learn how to fall without stopping the fall with their hand by trying to "push" the slope away, as landing a wrist which is bent at a 90-degree angle increase the chance of it breaking. Rather, landing with the arms stretched out (like a wing) and slapping the slope with the entire arm is an effective way to break a fall. This is the method used by practitioners of judo and other martial arts to break a fall when they are thrown against the floor by a training partner.

The risk of head injury is two to six times greater for snowboarders than for skiers and injuries follow the pattern of being rarer, but more severe, with experienced riders. Head injuries can occur both because of a collision and when failing to carry out a heel-side turn. The latter can result in the rider landing on his or her back and slamming the back of his or her head onto the ground, resulting in an occipital head injury. For this reason, helmets are widely recommended. Protective eyewear is also recommended as eye injury can be caused by impact and snow blindness can be a result of exposure to strong ultra-violet light in snow-covered areas. The wearing of ultra-violet-absorbing goggles is recommended even on hazy or cloudy days as ultra-violet light can penetrate clouds.

Unlike ski bindings, snowboard bindings are not designed to release automatically in a fall. The mechanical support provided by the feet being locked to the board has the effect of reducing the likelihood of knee injury – 15% of snowboard injuries are to the knee, compared with 45% of all skiing injuries. Such injuries are typically to the knee ligaments, bone fractures are rare. Fractures to the lower leg are also rare but 20% of injuries are to the foot and ankle. Fractures of the talus bone are rare in other sports but account for 2% of snowboard injuries – a lateral process talus fracture is sometimes called "snowboarder's ankle" by medical staff. This injury results in persistent lateral pain in the affected ankle yet is difficult to spot in a plain X-ray image. It may be misdiagnosed as just a sprain, with possibly serious consequences as not treating the fracture can result in serious long-term damage to the ankle. The use of portable ultrasound for mountainside diagnostics has been reviewed and appears to be a plausible tool for diagnosing some of the common injuries associated with the sport.

Four to eight percent of snowboarding injuries take place while the person is waiting in ski-lift lines or entering and exiting ski lifts. Snowboarders push themselves forward with a free foot while in the ski-lift line, leaving the other foot (usually that of the lead leg) locked on the board at a 9–27 degree angle, placing a large torque force on this leg and predisposing the person to knee injury if a fall occurs. Snowboard binding rotating devices are designed to minimize the torque force, Quick Stance being the first developed in 1995. They allow snowboarders to turn the locked foot straight into the direction of the tip of the snowboard without removing the boot from the boot binding.

Avalanches are a clear danger when on snowy mountain slopes. It is best to learn the different kinds of avalanches, how to prevent causing one and how to react when one is going to happen. Also when going out onto the snow, all who practice an activity with increased chances of injury should have a basic First Aid knowledge and know how to deal with injuries that may occur.

Snowboarding boots should be well-fitted, with toes snug in the end of the boot when standing upright and slightly away from the end when in the snowboarding position. Padding or "armor" is recommended on other body parts such as hips, knees, spine, and shoulders. To further help avoid injury to body parts, especially knees, it is recommended to use the right technique. To acquire the right technique, one should be taught by a qualified instructor. Also, when snowboarding alone, precaution should be taken to avoid tree wells, a particularly dangerous area of loose snow that may form at the base of trees.

Some care is also required when waxing a board as fluorocarbon waxes emit toxic fumes when overheated. Waxing is best performed in a ventilated area with care being taken to use the wax at the correct temperature – the wax should be melted but not smoking or smoldering.

In a study conducted to examine the types of snowboarding injuries and changes in injury patterns over time, data was collected on injured snowboarders and skiers in a base-lodge clinic of a ski resort in Vermont over 18 seasons (1988–2006) and included extensive information about injury patterns, demographics, and experience. In conclusion of the study, the highest rate of injury was among young, inexperienced, female snowboarders. Injury rates in snowboarders have fluctuated over time but still remain higher than skiers. No evidence was found that those who spend more time in terrain parks are over represented in the injury population.

Stance Terminology
The way in which a snowboarder normally rides most on their snowboard as determined by the placement of their feet and direction of travel.

Goofy Stance: The stance of a snowboarder that normally rides with their right foot first. Regular Stance: The stance of a snowboarder that normally rides with their left foot first. Switch Stance: The opposite stance of what a snowboarder normally rides.

Parts of a snowboard
Binding: The portion of the board that attaches the riders' feet to the snowboard. Heel Edge: The edge of the snowboard that the riders' heels rest on. Nose Edge: The forward edge of the snowboard. Tail Edge: The trailing edge of the snowboard. Toe Edge: The edge that the riders' toes rest on

Rotation Terminology
Backside Rotation: A flat rotation in which the back of the person's body is the first to intersect with the direction of travel; after 90 degrees of rotation, the person's back will be facing the direction of travel.

Frontside Rotation: A flat rotation in which the front of the person's body is the first to intersect with the direction of travel; after 90 degrees of rotation, the person's front will be facing the direction of travel.

Flip Terminology
Back Flip: A backwards summersault over the heel edge of the board.

Front Flip: A forwards summersault (i.e. face first) over the toe edge of the board.

Tamedog: A cartwheel over the nose edge of the board.

Wildcat: A cartwheel over the tail edge of the board.

Off-Axis Rotation Terminology
Off-Axis rotations combine flips and rotations; the naming convention is to first describe the horizontal rotation, followed by the number of off-axis rotations, terminated by the degree of total rotation (i.e. Backside Triple-Cork 1440).

Cork: A rotation in which the snowboard leads through the air in the direction of travel. Rodeo: A rotation in which the person's head leads through the air in the direction of travel.

Films
Snowboarding films have become a main part of progression in the sport. Each season, many films are released, usually in autumn. These are made by many snowboard-specific video production companies as well as manufacturing companies that use these films as a form of advertisement. Snowboarding videos usually contain video footage of professional riders sponsored by companies. An example of commercial use of snowboarding films would be The White Album, a film by snowboarding legend and filmmaker Dave Seoane about Shaun White, that includes cameos by Tony Hawk and was sponsored by PlayStation, Mountain Dew and Burton Snowboards. Snowboarding films are also used as documentation of snowboarding and showcasing of current trends and styles of the sport. In addition, the 2011 movie The Art of Flight showcased snowboarders such as Travis Rice attempting to attain greater feats in the sport of snowboarding.

However, sometimes the snowboarding industry is not supportive of all snowboarding-themed films. In 2013, The Crash Reel, a feature-length documentary by filmmaker Lucy Walker about former Shaun White rival Kevin Pearce, premiered on the film festival circuit to critical acclaim and was subsequently broadcast on HBO. Using Pearce's career-ending traumatic brain injury and subsequent recovery as a backdrop, the film examines the physical dangers inherent to pro snowboarders and other extreme sports professional athletes under pressure by sponsors and the media to perform increasingly spectacular feats. Although there are significant references to various brands in the film, Walker is "adamant" that the snowboarding industry did not sponsor the film in any way and in fact has been unsupportive, despite the film's mainstream media success.

Magazines
Snowboard magazines are integral in promoting the sport, although less so with the advent of the internet age. Photo incentives are written into many professional riders' sponsorship contracts giving professionals not only a publicity but a financial incentive to have a photo published in a magazine. Snowboard magazine staff travel with professional riders throughout the winter season and cover travel, contests, lifestyle, rider and company profiles, and product reviews. Snowboard magazines have recently made a push to expand their brands to the online market, and there has also been a growth in online-only publications. Popular magazines include Transworld Snowboarding (USA), Snowboarder Magazine (USA), Snowboard Magazine (USA), and Whitelines (UK).

Video games
Snowboarding video games provide interactive entertainment on and off season. Most games for this genre have been made for consoles, such as the Xbox and PlayStation. A plethora of online casual snowboarding games also exist along with games for mobile phone.

Notable people

 * Callan Chythlook-Sifsof (born 1989), American snowboarder
 * Rosey Fletcher (born 1975), American snowboarder
 * Peter Foley (born 1965 or 1966), American former snowboarding coach; suspended for 10 years for sexual misconduct
 * Ayumu Hirano (born 1998), Japanese snowboarder
 * Chloe Kim (born 2000), American snowboarder
 * Max Parrot (born 1994), Canadian snowboarder
 * Zoi Sadowski-Synnott (born 2001), New Zealand snowboarder
 * Shaun White (born 1986), American snowboarder and skateboarder
 * Su Yiming (born 2004), Chinese snowboarder
 * Scotty James (born 1994), Australian snowboarder

title: Snowboarding


text:
Talk:Church (building)

Older messages
What I miss here is a distinction between religion/belief (which can be a private matter, or at least a loosely organized one) and church life (which is by definition a social and well-organized matter). I don't know if this should be within Religion or Church or within the description of each specific religion, e.g. Christianity.

It struck me that there is no entry on Sermon or even Liturgy. Some other acts or events of church life are probably also missing. The entry on Christianity is preoccupied with various branches of the Christian church, and almost only that.

The page on Prayer starts with "Prayer is the religious act of communicating with ...". Would it make sense to create an entry on religious act? That would make it easy just to link those words already there in the Prayer article.

(BTW, isn't Church Talk the name of a Saturday Night Live sketch? :-) No, sorry, that is Church Lady, of course.)

 * You raise some good points, whoever you are. :-) Whether Christian religion/belief can be a private matter depends on your particular ecclesiology, or theology of the church. There many people that say it can be private, and many who say it can't. I think the Church article doesn't need to focus much on individual belief, since, well, it's about churches. Sermon and Liturgy could certainly use articles. In fact, there could easily be articles for Eastern Orthodox liturgy, Catholic Latin Rite liturgy, Catholic Eastern Rite liturgy, and others.
 * Do you think that the Christianity article's material on the different branches should be moved to a subtopic so it doesn't distract as much from any other material there? Wesley

-- mystery and morality plays were a big attraction to early churches and plays a large part of much of today's theatrical rocking evangelical churches today. theater church and drama are very much linked esp. if you've visited a high mass lately. I'm interested in hearing the relation can be so easily shunt aside...dgd

 * morality plays didn't show up until sometime in the Middle Ages, after the Church had been around for over 1,000 years. Yes, theatre and drama appear to play a role in some evangelical churches; haven't visited a high mass lately, so I don't know about that. But it doesn't play a role in every church everywhere, or even in most churches, especially over the last 2,000 year span. Listing them generically implies that it does. Perhaps more specific mention could be made of the role drama does play and has played historically; I just want the scope to be clearly delineated. Wesley
 * You seem more emotionally attached to this subject Wesley. why don't you find a way to work in the history of theater in the church. Consider as well the greek church/ theater connection as well. cheers. dgd

 * This is an interesting angle. It brings to my mind the roots of opera in the oratorio, and the links between oratorio and the sacred music and liturgical chant of the Mass.  However, although I know mystery and morality plays were a big attraction to early Christians, I think that there is a difference there, between early Christians and early churches.  Half a dozen vaguely remembered homilies come to mind, from Chrysostom and others, which put a great distance between Christian attitudes toward theater, and the Church's attitude toward it. Mkmcconn

 * Yes, you're right about the slant about early Christians. The idea though that keeps eating at me are the big Nativity and Easter plays that people in the Bible Belt of the United States swarm too, this is definitely Religious Drama or Religious Theater and it's taking places in large churches throughout the world. The Easter plays on google [Society > Religion and Spirituality > Christianity > Arts > Performing Arts ] is long and certainly points to the use of American churches to use entertainment as a vehicle for proselytizing (sp?) and deserves mention so as to better understand the phenomenon and origins of Religion of pre and post Puritanical america.-- User:DennisDaniels

 * You're onto something important, there. Even the liturgical renewal movement seems to have aesthetics and drama at the center of why traditional forms need to be recovered. From bible-belt Passion plays to [Hell House], there is a definite tie-in with theater in modern ideas of "church".  I've visited evangelical churches that have nothing recognizably churchy about them - pure entertainment (movies, football games, mime, concerts, just about anything but rites or sermons) - and it's quite intentional; and I've heard that similar things are happening in trendy Roman catholic churches although I have no experience with that.  Personally, it's repugnant. But, it is fact that this is happening and, it's not a fringe phenomenon. Mkmcconn But there is no pope in a church

 * It is true that western theater has roots in part in ecclesiastical drama, but is it necessary to include this information in this article? A brief mention with a link to a larger article would be more useful. For what it's worth some day, real soon now, I will be working on a Medieval Drama or Medieval Theater page. David Stapleton 11:48, 13 Oct 2003 (UTC)

True. I think a lot of it is done in the name of being "seeker friendly", and "culturally relevant"; a couple of flagship evangelical churches that get mentioned a lot in connection with this are Willow Creek in Chicago and Saddleback, I think somewhere in Ohio. I forget their full names. I think it's also one product of a lot of the "church growth" sociological studies done in the last few decades. These studies examine a range of parishes and try to correlate sociological and demographic factors with the rate of church growth (or decline). When they find a correlation, they then try to duplicate that church growth by duplicating the sociological and demographic factors. You see something vaguely similar being done when the Salvation Army denomination was founded, in their use of brass bands and avoidance of baptism and communion, for generally similar reasons.

Perhaps this topic should be written up as a subsection of the Church article, both to deal with it in greater detail and also to place it in its historical context. Wesley

I removed the word 'sanctuary' from the first definition of a church, because in Eastern Orthodoxy, 'sanctuary' refers very specifically to the area behind the iconostasis around the altar, and not to the entire building. I'd rather keep the definitions in the beginning as simple and general as possible, rather than discuss the many nuances and usages in different Christian traditions. Is that alright with everyone? Wesley

I'd love to write a little piece on Religious Drama to cover some of this, but a) it will have to be from the Christian viewpoint only and b) I won't get time to add much to it for a week or two. Have to look out some reference books. I'll add some stubs. DJ Clayworth 15:24, 1 Aug 2003 (UTC)

To those who care, I changed "Used by those in Christendom" to "Used in Christian theology" in the introduction because the word Christendom traditionally caries with it a connotation of being those regions where the Christian religion holds secular power as well as spiritual influence, and the word Church is used in this sense in pretty much all of Christian theology, not merely by those who live in what remains of what once was Christendom. Shimmin 04:02, 27 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Removed: ''"Church" is the Latin word for "congregation" or "assembly."  This is a false claim; in fact, the word "church" comes to English and other languages ultimately from the Greek kriakon doma'' meaning "house of the Lord" according to the American Heritage Dictionary.

Any support for the following statement, either reference or example of a fertility god whose temple used a spire or spires? Another common feature is the spire, taken from the model of ancient temples of fertility gods and goddesses. Wesley 16:11, 17 Sep 2003 (UTC)

Church Spires
Another common feature is the spire, taken from the model of ancient temples of fertility gods and goddesses.

I do not think that this statement can be supported. Early christian basillicas such as Old St. Peters and Santa Constanza, both in Rome and Sant' Apollinaire in Classe, in Ravenna do not have spires. Towers did not begin to apear until hundreds of years later. The tradition of the "Westwork" began in the 9th century, and became firmly established in the Romanesque and Gothic period. The spire over the crossing is mostly an English Gothic thing. By these late dates there were no "ancient temples of fertility gods and goddesses" around to serve as models.

I am deleting the clause beginning with "taken". David Stapleton 11:09, 13 Oct 2003 (UTC)

bless store
you can add my book store look in heisrisen.spreadtheword.com

This article quotes the christian bible as history? JesusCantSave

Actually, whether you believe that Jesus can save or no, the Bible is a historical document and is supported by several other historical documents. Ancient Near Eastern literature from many different nations is helpful in determining the truth of history.

Caption needs work
The caption of the illustration needs attention. If a church can be a Christian building of worship then it also can not be a Christian building of worship. Moriori 07:50, Mar 4, 2004 (UTC)

Terminology
Some interesting bit of trivia: "traditional" French protestant churches (i.e. those installed early on, as opposed to Christian denominations imported in the 19th or 20th centuries from the United States) call their places of worship "temple", not churches; I think that the idea was to distinguish themselves from the Roman Catholic Church. Similarly, they don't say messe (mass), but office. David.Monniaux 16:19, 15 Apr 2005 (UTC)

"كنيسة" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%D9%83%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%A9&redirect=no كنيسة] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Readers of this page are welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. Steel1943 (talk) 01:01, 23 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Church (building)


text:
Picometre

The picometre (international spelling as used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures; SI symbol: pm) or picometer (American spelling) is a unit of length in the International System of Units (SI), equal to $1 m$, or one trillionth ($6.188$) of a metre, which is the SI base unit of length.

The picometre is one thousand femtometres, one thousandth of a nanometre ($1.89$ nm), one millionth of a micrometre (also known as a micron), one billionth of a millimetre, and one trillionth of a metre. The symbol μμ was once used for it. It is also one hundredth of an ångström, an internationally known (but non-SI) unit of length.

Use
The picometre's length is of an order so small that its application is almost entirely confined to particle physics, quantum physics, chemistry, and acoustics. Atoms are between 62 and 520 pm in diameter, and the typical length of a carbon–carbon single bond is 154 pm. Smaller units still may be used to describe smaller particles (some of which are the components of atoms themselves), such as hadrons and the upper limits of possible size for fermion point particles.

The Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) probe is planned for launch in 2034 to directly detect gravitational waves and will measure relative displacements with a resolution of 20 picometres over a distance of 2.5 gigametres, yielding a strain sensitivity of better than 1 part in 1020.

title: Picometre