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Io (mythology)

In Greek mythology, Io (Ἰώ ) was one of the mortal lovers of Zeus. An Argive princess, she was an ancestor of many kings and heroes, such as Perseus, Cadmus, Heracles, Minos, Lynceus, Cepheus, and Danaus. The astronomer Simon Marius named a moon of Jupiter after Io in 1614.

Because her brother was Phoroneus, Io is also known as Phoronis (an adjective form of Phoroneus: "Phoronean"). She was sometimes compared to the Egyptian goddess Isis, whereas her Egyptian husband Telegonus was Osiris.

Family
In most versions of the legend, Io was the daughter of Inachus, though various other purported genealogies are also known. If her father was Inachus, then her mother would presumably have been Inachus' wife (and sister), the Oceanid nymph Melia, daughter of Oceanus.

Io's father was called Peiren in the Catalogue of Women, and by Acusilaus, possibly a son of the elder Argus, also known as Peiras, Peiranthus or Peirasus. Io may therefore be identical to Callithyia, daughter of Peiranthus, as is suggested by Hesychius of Alexandria.

The 2nd century AD geographer Pausanias mentions another, later Io, descendant of Phoroneus, daughter of Iasus, who himself was the son of Argus and Ismene, the daughter of Asopus, or of Triopas and Sosis; Io's mother in the latter case was Leucane.

Io and Zeus
Io was a priestess of the goddess Hera in Argos, whose cult her father Inachus was supposed to have introduced to Argos. Zeus noticed Io, a mortal woman, and lusted after her. In the version of the myth told in Prometheus Bound she initially rejected Zeus' advances, until her father threw her out of his house on the advice of oracles. According to some stories, Zeus then turned Io into a heifer in order to hide her from his wife; others maintain that Hera herself transformed Io.

In the version of the story in which Zeus transformed Io, the deception failed, and Hera begged Zeus to give her the heifer as a present, which, having no reason to refuse, he did. Pitying the unfortunate girl, Gaia, the goddess of the earth, created the violet (ἴον), so the cow could eat, thus growing "from her from whom it has its name", based on incorrect folk etymology. The various colours of the violet (red, purple, white) changed on account of Io's life, red for the blushing maiden, purple for the cow, white for the stars. Hera then sent Argus Panoptes, a giant who had 100 eyes, to watch Io and prevent Zeus from visiting her, and so Zeus sent Hermes to distract and eventually slay Argus. According to Ovid, he did so by first lulling him to sleep by playing the panpipes and telling stories. Zeus freed Io, still in the form of a heifer. In some myths, Hera uses Argus' eyes to decorate her peacock's feathers to thank the giant for his help.

In order to exact her revenge, Hera sent a gadfly to sting Io continuously, driving her to wander the world without rest. Io eventually crossed the path between the Propontis and the Black Sea, which thus acquired the name Bosporus (meaning ox passage), where she met Prometheus, who had been chained on Mt. Caucasus by Zeus. Prometheus comforted Io with the information that she would be restored to human form and become the ancestress of the greatest of all heroes, Heracles (Hercules). Io escaped across the Ionian Sea to Egypt, where she was restored to human form by Zeus. There, she gave birth to Zeus's son Epaphus, and a daughter as well, Keroessa. She later married Egyptian king Telegonus. Their grandson, Danaus, eventually returned to Greece with his fifty daughters (the Danaids), as recalled in Aeschylus' play The Suppliants.

The myth of Io must have been well known to Homer, who often calls Hermes Argeiphontes, which is often translated as "Argus-slayer", though this interpretation is disputed by Robert Beekes. Walter Burkert notes that the story of Io was told in the ancient epic tradition at least four times of which we have traces: in the Danais, in the Phoronis—Phoroneus founded the cult of Hera, according to Hyginus' Fabulae 274 and 143—in a fragment of the Hesiodic Aigimios, as well as in similarly fragmentary Hesiodic Catalogue of Women. A mourning commemoration of Io was observed at the Heraion of Argos into classical times.

The ancients connected Io with the Moon, and in Aeschylus' Prometheus Bound, where Io encounters Prometheus, she refers to herself as "the horned virgin". From her relationship with Phoroneus, as sister (or descendant), Io is sometimes called Phoronis.

Io at some point landed at Damalis, and the Chalcedonians erected a bronze cow on the spot.

Io as Isis
Lygdus and his wife, Telethusa, were a poor couple living in Crete. When Telethusa became pregnant, her husband told her that they can't afford having a daughter, and that they have no other option than to kill the child if it would be a daughter. 8 months later Io, later in the story mentioned as Isis, came in a vision to Telethusa telling her that she should keep her daughter when it's born and must tell her husband that it's a boy named Iphis.

Later in the story, Isis (Io) changes Iphis' sex when she is supposed to marry her fiancée, Ianthe.

title: Io (mythology)


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253 Mathilde

Mathilde (minor planet designation: 253 Mathilde) is an asteroid in the intermediate asteroid belt, approximately 50 kilometers in diameter, that was discovered by Austrian astronomer Johann Palisa at Vienna Observatory on 12 November 1885. It has a relatively elliptical orbit that requires more than four years to circle the Sun. This tumbling asteroid has an unusually slow rate of rotation, requiring 17.4 days to complete a 360° revolution about its axis. It is a primitive C-type asteroid, which means the surface has a high proportion of carbon; giving it a dark surface that reflects only 4% of the light that falls on it.

Mathilde was visited by the NEAR Shoemaker spacecraft during June 1997, on its way to asteroid 433 Eros. During the little flyby, the spacecraft imaged a hemisphere of the asteroid, revealing many large craters that had gouged out depressions in the surface. It was the first carbonaceous asteroid to be explored and, until 21 Lutetia was visited in 2010, it was the largest asteroid to be visited by a spacecraft.

Observation history
[[File:Animation of NEAR Shoemaker trajectory.gif|thumb|left|Animation of NEAR Shoemaker trajectory from February 19, 1996 to February 12, 2001.
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In 1880, Johann Palisa, the director of the Austrian Naval Observatory, was offered a position as an assistant at the newly completed Vienna Observatory. Although the job represented a demotion for Johann, it gave him access to the new 27 in refractor, the largest telescope in the world at that time. By this point Johann had already discovered 27 asteroids, and he would employ the Vienna 27 in and 12 in instruments to find an additional 94 asteroids before he retired.

Among his discoveries was the asteroid 253 Mathilde, found on November 12, 1885. The initial orbital elements of the asteroid were then computed by V. A. Lebeuf, another Austrian astronomer working at the Paris Observatory. The name of the asteroid was suggested by Lebeuf, after Mathilde, the wife of Moritz Loewy—who was the vice director of the observatory in Paris.

In 1995, ground-based observations determined that Mathilde is a C-type asteroid. It was also found to have an unusually long period of rotation of 418 hours.

On June 27, 1997, the NEAR Shoemaker spacecraft passed within 1,212 km of Mathilde while moving at a velocity of 9.93 km/s. This close approach allowed the spacecraft to capture over 500 images of the surface, and provided data for more accurate determinations of the asteroid's dimensions and mass (based on gravitational perturbation of the spacecraft). However, only one hemisphere of Mathilde was imaged during the fly-by. This was only the third asteroid to be imaged from a nearby distance, following 951 Gaspra and 243 Ida.

Characteristics

Mathilde is very dark, with an albedo comparable to fresh asphalt, and is thought to share the same composition as CI1 or CM2 carbonaceous chondrite meteorites, with a surface dominated by phyllosilicate minerals. The asteroid has a number of extremely large craters, with the individual craters being named for coal fields and basins around the world. The two largest craters, Ishikari (29.3 km) and Karoo (33.4 km), are as wide as the asteroid's average radius. The impacts appear to have spalled large volumes off the asteroid, as suggested by the angular edges of the craters. Uniformity in brightness and colour were visible in the craters and there was no appearance of layering, so the asteroid's interior must be very homogeneous. There are indications of material movement along the downslope direction.

The density measured by NEAR Shoemaker, 1,300 kg/m3, is less than half that of a typical carbonaceous chondrite; this may indicate that the asteroid is very loosely packed rubble pile. The same is true of several C-type asteroids studied by ground-based telescopes equipped with adaptive optics systems (45 Eugenia, 90 Antiope, 87 Sylvia and 121 Hermione). Up to 50% of the interior volume of Mathilde consists of open space. However, the existence of a 20-km-long scarp may indicate that the asteroid does have some structural strength, so it could contain some large internal components. The low interior density is an inefficient transmitter of impact shock through the asteroid, which also helps to preserve the surface features to a high degree.

Mathilde's orbit is eccentric, taking it to the outer reaches of the belt. Nonetheless, the orbit lies entirely between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter; it does not cross the planetary orbits. It also has one of the slowest rotation periods of the known asteroids—most asteroids have a rotation period in the range of 2–24 hours. Because of the slow rotation rate, NEAR Shoemaker was sadly only able to photograph 60% of the asteroid's surface. The slow rate of rotation may be accounted for by a satellite orbiting the asteroid, but a search of the NEAR images revealed none larger than 10 km in diameter out to 20 times the radius of Mathilde.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 253 Mathilde


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16 Psyche

16 Psyche is a large M-type asteroid, which was discovered by the Italian astronomer Annibale de Gasparis, on 17 March 1852 and named after the Greek goddess Psyche. The prefix "16" signifies that it was the sixteenth minor planet in order of discovery. It is the largest and most massive of the M-type asteroids, and one of the dozen most massive asteroids. It has a mean diameter of approximately 220 km and contains about one percent of the mass of the asteroid belt. It was thought to be the exposed core of a protoplanet, but recent observations cast doubt on that hypothesis. Psyche will be explored by NASA, with a spacecraft of the same name, marking the first time a manmade object will journey to a metallic asteroid, launched on 13 October 2023, with an expected arrival in 2029.

Symbol
Astronomers created icon-like symbols for the first fifteen asteroids to be discovered, as a type of shorthand notation consistent with older notation for the classical planets. Psyche was given an iconic symbol, as were a few other asteroids discovered after 16 Psyche. The symbol was a butterfly's wing topped by a star ( or ), as the butterfly was a Greek symbol of the soul (psyche being the Greek word for both "butterfly" and "soul"). This symbol may have influenced the design of the official insignia for the NASA Psyche mission to this asteroid. It is in the pipeline for Unicode 17.0 as U+1CEC9 𜻉.

However, the iconic symbols for all asteroids were superseded before Psyche's symbol ever came into use. With more than a dozen asteroids discovered, remembering all their individual emblems became increasingly cumbersome, and, in 1851, German astronomer J.F. Encke suggested using a circled number instead: ⑯. The first asteroid designated with the new scheme was ⑯ Psyche, when American astronomer J. Ferguson published his observations in 1852.

Size
The first size estimate of Psyche was 253 km and came from IRAS thermal infrared emission observations. This is 15% larger than the currently accepted mean value, but was later found to be an accurate estimate for the IRAS viewing aspect because Psyche was viewed pole-on at the time of the measurement.

Psyche has been observed to occult a star on nine occasions. Four of these, 2004, 2010, 2014, and 2019, generated multi-chord data sets and have been used along with adaptive optics imaging and three-dimensional modeling to estimate Psyche's mean diameter, with recent models all converging to an equivalent-volume mean diameter of $278$ km.

Mass and bulk density
Psyche is massive enough that its gravity observably perturbs other asteroids' orbits, which can be used to calculate a mass estimate. Historical values for Psyche's mass have ranged from $232$ to $164$. However, most recent estimates have begun to converge on values near $277 km$. Assuming the mean volume of $278$, this equates to a bulk density of $238$, which is considerably higher than most small Solar System bodies.

Shape and spin pole
The first published three-dimensional shape model for Psyche was derived from an analysis of numerous light curves. Since then, additional refinements to the shape have been made based on the inversion of lightcurves, adaptive optics observations, radar observations, thermal imaging, and occultations. The most recent models show that Psyche has a shape consistent with a Jacobi ellipsoid and dimensions within a few km of 278 km x 238 km x 171 km.

Each shape model provides an estimate of the direction of the north pole (spin axis). All recent models for Psyche suggest it rotates about a pole pointed towards the ecliptic coordinates (long, lat), , with a 3° uncertainty. This means that it is essentially tilted toward the ecliptic, with an axial tilt of 98°.

Features

Many features have been reported on Psyche. The largest of these are regions of mass-deficits relative to its nominal ellipsoid shape and are reminiscent of the Rheasilvia basin on 4 Vesta.

In addition to the large-scale regions of mass-deficit, several apparent craters have been reported. Observers using the Very Large Telescope's adaptive optics SPHERE imager reported two large craters, on the order of 90 km across, which were provisionally named Meroe and Panthia, after the twin witches in the Roman novel Metamorphoses by Apuleius. Observers using the Arecibo Radar Telescope reported craters at the south pole (referred to as Delta), southern midlatitudes (referred to as Eros), and the north pole (referred to as Foxtrot). An analysis of the features present in several independent shape models suggests that craters Panthia and Eros are almost certainly real and Foxtrot is likely to be real. However, there is uncertainty over the existence of Meroe and Delta.

Early lightcurve studies suggested that Psyche has large variations in its surface brightness. These variations became more evident when attempts were made to invert lightcurves to generate shape models. The most recent shape models based on lightcurve inversions simultaneously solve for surface albedo variations, and the resulting maps show regions where local albedo differs from the mean albedo by more than 20% in either direction. Notably, the Meroe crater coincides with an area much darker than the mean, and the Panthia crater coincides with an area much brighter than the mean.

Radar observations with the Arecibo Radar Telescope revealed that Psyche's "background" radar albedo is $$\hat{\sigma}_{OC}=0.26 $$, comparable to other M-type asteroids like 21 Lutetia. This value is consistent with a silicate (rocky) regolith enriched in metal phases. However, in at least three locations, Psyche's radar albedo is nearly twice this value, suggesting high concentrations of metal phases in these regions. One of these locations corresponds with the optically bright Panthia crater, while the other two correspond with regions that have been reported as optically bright. This apparent correlation between optical and radar albedos on Psyche has led to the hypothesis that there is a link between the process(es) that create regions of high metal content and brighter terrain.

Composition
The bulk density of Psyche ($171$) places constraints on its overall composition. The iron-nickel found in most iron meteorites has a bulk density of $223 km$. If Psyche were the remnant core of an early planetesimal, it would have to have an overall porosity of 50%. Given Psyche's size, this is considered highly improbable. However, there are other metal-rich meteorite types that have been suggested as Psyche analogs, each of which have bulk densities that are similar to Psyche's, including enstatite chondrites, bencubbinites, and mesosiderites.

Several observers have reported the presence of silicate minerals on the surface of Psyche. Spectra taken in October 2016 at the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility at the Mauna Kea Observatories showed evidence (~3 μm absorption feature) of hydroxyl ions on the asteroid that may suggest the presence of hydrated silicates. Since Psyche is thought to have formed under dry conditions without the presence of water, the hydroxyl may have reached Psyche via past impacts from smaller carbonaceous asteroids.

Psyche's radar albedo varies considerably over the surface, ranging from 0.22 to 0.52, values that are two to four times as high as most main-belt asteroids. Models of radar reflection equate this range of values with regolith bulk densities of 2.6 to 4.7 $222 km$. This range is consistent with most of the metal-rich meteorite classes noted above and the spectroscopic detection of silicate minerals. It is inconsistent with a pure iron-nickel regolith unless it is highly porous.

Origin
Several possible origins have been proposed for Psyche. The earliest of these was that Psyche is an exposed metallic core resulting from a collision that stripped away the crust and mantle of an originally larger differentiated parent body some 500 kilometers in diameter. Other versions of this include the idea that it was not the result of a single large collision but multiple (more than three) relatively slow sideswipe collisions with bodies of comparable or larger size. However, this idea has fallen out of recent favor as mass and density estimates are inconsistent with a remnant core.

A second hypothesis is that Psyche was disrupted and gravitationally re-accreted into a mix of metal and silicate. In this case, it may be a candidate for the parent body of the mesosiderites, a class of stony–iron meteorites.

A third hypothesis is that Psyche may be a differentiated object, like 1 Ceres and 4 Vesta, but has experienced a type of iron volcanism, also known as ferrovolcanism, while still cooling. If true, this model predicts that metal would be highly enriched only in those regions containing (relic) volcanic centers. This view has been bolstered by recent radar observations.

Exploration
No spacecraft has visited Psyche, but a mission to Psyche was proposed to NASA in 2014. A team led by Lindy Elkins-Tanton, the director of the School for Earth and Space Exploration at Arizona State University, presented a concept for a robotic Psyche orbiter. This team argued that 16 Psyche would be a valuable object for study because it is the only metallic core-like body discovered so far.

The spacecraft would orbit Psyche for 20 months, studying its topography, surface features, gravity, magnetism, and other characteristics and would be based on current technology, avoiding high cost and the necessity to develop new technologies. On 30 September 2015, the Psyche orbiter mission was one of five Discovery Program semifinalist proposals.

The mission was approved by NASA on 4 January 2017 and was originally targeted to launch in October 2023, with an Earth gravity assist maneuver in 2024, a Mars flyby in 2025, and arriving at the asteroid in 2030. In May 2017, the launch date was moved up to target a more efficient trajectory, launching in 2022, with a Mars gravity assist in 2023 and arriving in 2026. However, problems with Psyche's flight software led NASA to revert to the original launch timeline.

On 28 February 2020, NASA awarded SpaceX a US$117 million contract to launch the Psyche spacecraft, and two smallsat secondary missions, on a Falcon Heavy rocket. The spacecraft was successfully launched on 13 October 2023, at 14:20 UTC, with an expected arrival in 2029.

Asteroid Psyche has an Earth-MOID of 1.5 AU, and will next come to opposition on 6 August 2024 when it will be 1.7 AU from Earth.

title: 16 Psyche


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Psyche (band)

Psyche are a Canadian dark synth-pop band, now based in Germany. They are centered on singer Darrin Huss, who has been the only constant member, with various line-ups including his brother Stephen Huss, later followed by David Kristian, Per-Anders Kurenbach, and Remi Szyszka, all recording albums with Darrin under the name Psyche.

Formation
Psyche was formed by brothers Darrin and Stephen Huss in Edmonton, Alberta, named after the B-Side of Killing Joke's Wardance single as well as being chosen for the meaning of the word. The band's debut performance was on December 13, 1982, with Dwayne Goettel on additional keyboards.

During this period, Psyche performed bizarre live shows wherein Darrin performed nude (except for being covered in shaving cream) while talk-singing and shouting over the music. The performance idea was prompted by pictures seen of Fad Gadget in British Music magazines.

While demos were recorded during the collaboration with Dwayne Goettel, no albums were released until 1985's Insomnia Theatre, after Goettel's departure.

Early years
After Insomnia Theatre achieved moderate success in Europe, Psyche signed with New Rose Records in Paris. They released two singles followed by a studio album, Unveiling the Secret, in 1986. To promote the record, Psyche performed as the opening act for Suicide, at Élysée Montmartre in Paris, then as headliners on their own European tour.

After the release of their third studio album, Mystery Hotel, Stephen Huss was diagnosed with schizophrenia and took a hiatus from the group. During this period Darrin began collaborating with David Kristian, leading to a new album, The Influence, in 1989. This album introduced new elements to Psyche's sound, with samples created by Kristian, and being performed entirely on the Casio FZ1. The songs "Misery", and "Haunted" began Psyche's shift to the dark wave music scene.

A visit home to Waterloo in 1991 reunited the Huss brothers and, the subsequent recording sessions produced 1991's Daydream Avenue. Though Psyche returned to tour Europe with German keyboardist Johannes Haeusler in support of English poetic artist Anne Clark, Stephen Huss stayed behind in Canada because of his illness.

In 1994, the album Intimacy, produced in collaboration with Joseph Watt (of Razormaid) was released, along with a companion EP of dance numbers, Private Desires, which featured a cover of Soft Cell's classic Sex Dwarf. The group embarked on a small German tour, but Stephen Huss remained in Canada, leaving Darrin to find new collaborators in Germany.

Crossover success
After another hiatus while Darrin took part in side projects, Psyche resumed activities in 1996 with Per-Anders Kurenbach joining as a new member. The first single release was "You Ran Away" with a cover version of "Goodbye Horses" by Q Lazzarus as the B-side. This cover version became a permanent staple in Psyche's live repertoire, as well as being included on the album Strange Romance, which took a musical shift toward an accessible, upbeat pop sound.

After playing for the first time in Oslo, Norway and a return to Sweden, Psyche released a live video featuring highlights from their Strange Romance Tour. In 1998 the group signed with the StrangeWays label out of Hamburg, Germany, and released their eighth album, Love Among the Ruined, which included some experimental pop music.

At the beginning of 2000, Psyche signed to Artoffact Records of Toronto, Canada. The release of Misguided Angels contained material from 1983 through 2000 as a re-introduction of Psyche back on their original continent. It contained the last material from Per-Anders Kurenbach, and Darrin as well as some lesser-known mixes. By this point the partnership was dissolved, and Darrin began the next decade of music with Remi Szyszka as his collaborator in Psyche.

The new line-up made its debut on Accession Records with the single, Sanctuary, released in April 2001. After a series of concerts in both Europe and North America, a ninth studio album The Hiding Place was released and well-received, charting at fourth place in the year-end Top 100 of the German Alternative Charts. To capitalize on this success, a remix album entitled Endangered Species was released mid-2002. A series of live performances followed in 2003, along with the release of Babylon Deluxe, which appeared in the German Alternative Top Ten.

The 11th Hour, Psyche's 11th album, featured the return of previous collaborator Per-Anders Kurenbach, but including a farewell track with Remi Szyszka, and a guest appearance by Christian Wirsig. The 11th Hour was released through Accession Records in Europe, Metropolis Records in North America, and Irond Records in Russia making it the widest release in the band's history. The album topped the German Alternative Charts (DAC), ranking #1 for 7 weeks on the DAC Top 10 Albums of March, 2005. and Nr. 11 on the overall chart of that year.

In 2006, as the band neared its 25-year mark, a DVD collection documenting Psyche's appearances in every incarnation from 1983 to 2005 was released. Titled Imaginary Life, its 23 tracks included at least one song from each of the previous albums released. It contains music videos and performances beginning with "The Crawler" on an Edmonton TV station in 1983 through to 2005, an audio commentary track, and a backstage interview with the Huss brothers in Sweden after their debut concert in Gothenburg in 1988.

Following The 11th Hour, Psyche shifted their focus to touring rather than recording, playing shows and festivals across Europe, North and South America, and South Africa. While no new studio albums were recorded, the band released remix albums (Unveiling the Secret 2.0, Until The Shadows, Halloween EP), compilations of old and unreleased materials (Re-Membering Dwayne, Unknown Treasures, As The Brain Collapses, Rare Mixes & B-Sides), several live albums, and some re-releases of early albums.

In 2011, Psyche releases a cover album, "Unknown Treasures", that includes re interpretations of songs by The Cure, The Doors, Depeche Mode or Visage. In 2012, they released the "All Things Pass Into The Night" EP which included a re-recorded extended version of "Goodbye Horses" on the Optimo Label. Also in 2012 Psyche released an updated version of "The Influence" album on Italian label Final Muzik, with new interpretations of the songs "Misery", "The Sundial", and "Salvation Stranger" as well as once again "Goodbye Horses" as "Immortality Mix".

2014 saw a collaboration with Rational Youth resulting in an electronic interpretation of AC/DC's hit "Thunderstruck" being released in three different coloured vinyl 7" singles on Artoffact Records The bands toured together that same year across Scandinavia and Germany.

Psyche collaborated with Belgian artist LUMINANCE on two songs written by LUMINANCE and sung by Darrin Huss as PSYCHE on a limited coloured vinyl 7" release on Artoffact Records in 2015.

Also in the same year, continuing with Artoffact Records, Psyche began re-releasing their 80s material starting with the 30th anniversary edition of their first 12" single "Thundershowers (In Ivory Towers) which was originally from 1985.

Recent work
In July 2016, the first three albums Insomnia Theatre (1985), Unveiling the Secret (1986/1987), and Mystery Hotel (1988) were digitally remastered and re-released as double albums including archival bonus tracks, plus related singles, and mixes.

Psyche released their a new original song "Youth of Tomorrow" as a video and digital release on Halloween, 2017. A 12" single followed early 2018 making it their first official release of new material in 13 years. After some European dates that year, Psyche returned to Canada for their first official tour of their home country since the early 1980s.

In 2018 and 2019 VUZ Records released a pair of compilations named Under the Radar containing rare and unreleased Psyche tracks as limited edition CDs. Prior to embarking on a tour with Rational Youth in 2019, the band released two remixes of their 1987 single, "Uncivilized," for which Jens Plöger provided the "Dark Italo Mix" under his studio name Run:.

Studio albums

 * Insomnia Theatre (1985)
 * Unveiling the Secret (1986)
 * Mystery Hotel (1988)
 * The Influence (1989)
 * Daydream Avenue (1991)
 * Intimacy (1994)
 * Strange Romance (1996)
 * Love Among the Ruined (1998)
 * The Hiding Place (2001)
 * Babylon Deluxe (2003)
 * The 11th Hour (2005)

Live albums

 * Live (1988)
 * Live 2K (2000)
 * Live at Belvedere Hall 1983 (2003)
 * Noche Oscura (Live in Mexico) (2009)

Compilations and remix albums

 * Tales from the Darkside (1990)
 * 69 Minutes of History (1993)
 * Misguided Angels (2000)
 * Endangered Species (2002)
 * Legacy (2004)
 * Unveiling the Secret 2.0 (2006)
 * Club Salvation (2007)
 * Vintage (2007)
 * Until the Shadows (2009)
 * Re-Membering Dwayne (2010)
 * Unknown Treasures (2011)
 * As the Brain Collapses (2012)
 * Under the Radar (2017)
 * Under the Radar 2 (2019)

Singles and EPs

 * "Thundershowers" (1985)
 * "Contorting the Image" (1985)
 * "Prisoner to Desire/Black Panther" (1987)
 * "Uncivilized" (1987)
 * "Eternal/Insatiable" (1988)
 * "Suspicion" (1989)
 * "Angel Lies Sleeping" (1991)
 * "If You Believe" (1991)
 * "The Saint Became a Lush" (1993)
 * Private Desires EP (1994)
 * "You Ran Away/Good-Bye Horses" (1996)
 * "Sanctuary" (2001)
 * "The Quickening" (2003)
 * "X-Rated" (2004)
 * "Unveiling the Secret (Remixes)" (2006)
 * "Disorder" (2008)
 * "All Things Pass into the Night" (2012)
 * Halloween EP (2013)
 * "The Saint Became a Lush (Radical G Rework)" (2014)
 * "Youth of Tomorrow" (2018)
 * "Heaven In Pain" (2020)
 * "Spirits Of Lockdown EP" Bandcamp only (2020)
 * "Cry Little Sister" Halloween Single (2022)
 * "Valentine Heart" (2022)

DVDs

 * Imaginary Life (2006)

title: Psyche (band)


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Amalthea (moon)

Amalthea is a moon of Jupiter. It has the third-closest orbit around Jupiter among known moons and was the fifth moon of Jupiter to be discovered, so it is also known as Jupiter V. It is also the fifth-largest moon of Jupiter, after the four Galilean moons. Edward Emerson Barnard discovered the moon on 9 September 1892 and named it after Amalthea of Greek mythology. It was the last natural satellite to be discovered by direct visual observation; all later moons were discovered by photographic or digital imaging.

Amalthea is in a close orbit around Jupiter and is within the outer edge of the Amalthea Gossamer Ring, which is formed from dust ejected from its surface. Jupiter would appear 46.5 degrees in diameter from its surface. Amalthea is the largest of the inner satellites of Jupiter and is irregularly shaped and reddish in color. It is thought to consist of porous water ice with unknown amounts of other materials. Its surface features include large craters and ridges.

Close-range images of Amalthea were taken in 1979 by the Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft, and in more detail by the Galileo orbiter in the 1990s.

Discovery

Amalthea was discovered on 9 September 1892 by Edward Emerson Barnard using the 36 inch (91 cm) refractor telescope at Lick Observatory. It was the last planetary satellite to be discovered by direct visual observation (as opposed to photographically) and was the first new satellite of Jupiter since Galileo Galilei's discovery of the Galilean satellites in 1610.

Name
Amalthea is named after the nymph Amalthea from Greek mythology, who nursed the infant Zeus (the Greek equivalent of Jupiter) with goat's milk. Its Roman numeral designation is Jupiter V. The name "Amalthea" was not formally adopted by the IAU until 1976, although it had been in informal use for many decades. The name was initially suggested by Camille Flammarion. Before 1976, Amalthea was most commonly known simply as Jupiter V.

Orbit
Amalthea orbits Jupiter at a distance of 181,000 km (2.54 Jupiter radii). The orbit of Amalthea has an eccentricity of 0.003 and an inclination of 0.37° relative to the equator of Jupiter. Such appreciably nonzero values of inclination and eccentricity, though still small, are unusual for an inner satellite and can be explained by the influence of the innermost Galilean satellite, Io: in the past Amalthea has passed through several mean-motion resonances with Io that have excited its inclination and eccentricity (in a mean-motion resonance the ratio of orbital periods of two bodies is a rational number like m:n).

Amalthea's orbit lies near the outer edge of the Amalthea Gossamer Ring, which is composed of dust ejected from the satellite.

Physical characteristics
The surface of Amalthea is very red. This color may be due to sulfur originating from Io or some other non-ice material. Bright patches of less-red tint appear on the major slopes of Amalthea, but the nature of this color is currently unknown. The surface of Amalthea is slightly brighter than surfaces of other inner satellites of Jupiter. There is also a substantial asymmetry between the leading and trailing hemispheres: the leading hemisphere is 1.3 times brighter than the trailing one. The asymmetry is probably caused by the higher velocity and frequency of impacts on the leading hemisphere, which excavates a bright material—presumably ice—from the interior of the moon.

Amalthea is irregularly shaped, with the best ellipsoidal approximation being 250 × 146 × 128 km. From this, Amalthea's surface area is likely between 88,000 and 170,000 square kilometers, or somewhere near 130,000. Like all other inner moons of Jupiter, it is tidally locked with the planet, with the long axis pointing towards Jupiter at all times. Its surface is heavily scarred by craters, some of which are extremely large relative to the size of the moon: Pan, the largest crater, measures 100 km across and is at least 8 km deep. Another crater, Gaea, measures 80 km across and is likely twice as deep as Pan. Amalthea has several prominent bright spots, two of which are named. They are Lyctos Facula and Ida Facula, with a width reaching up to 25 km. They are located on the edge of ridges.

Amalthea's irregular shape and large size led in the past to a conclusion that it is a fairly strong, rigid body, where it was argued that a body composed of ices or other weak materials would have been pulled into a more spherical shape by its own gravity. However, on 5 November 2002, the Galileo orbiter made a targeted flyby that came within 160 km of Amalthea, and the deflection of its orbit was used to compute the moon's mass (its volume had been calculated previously—to within 10% or so—from a careful analysis of all extant images). In the end, Amalthea's density was found to be as low as 0.86 g/cm3, so it must be either a relatively icy body or very porous "rubble pile" or, more likely, something in between. Recent measurements of infrared spectra from the Subaru telescope suggest that the moon indeed contains hydrous minerals, indicating that it cannot have formed in its current position, since the hot primordial Jupiter would have melted it. It is therefore likely to have formed farther from the planet or to be a captured Solar System body. No images were taken during this flyby (Galileo's cameras had been deactivated due to radiation damage in January 2002), and the resolution of other available images is generally low.

Amalthea radiates slightly more heat than it receives from the Sun, which is probably due to the influence of Jovian heat flux (<9 kelvins), sunlight reflected from the planet (<5 K), and charged particle bombardment (<2 K). This is a trait shared with Io, although for different reasons.

Named geological features
There are four named geological features on Amalthea: two craters and two (bright spots). The faculae are located on the edge of a ridge on the anti-Jupiter side of Amalthea.

Craters are named after characters in Greek mythology associated with Zeus and Amalthea, and faculae are named after locations associated with Zeus.

Relationship with Jupiter's rings

Due to tidal force from Jupiter and Amalthea's low density and irregular shape, the escape velocity at its surface points closest to and furthest from Jupiter is no more than 1 m/s, and dust can easily escape from it after, for example, micrometeorite impacts; this dust forms the Amalthea Gossamer Ring.

During its flyby of Amalthea, the Galileo orbiter's star scanner detected nine flashes that appeared to be small moonlets near the orbit of Amalthea. Because they were sighted only from one location, their true distances could not be measured. These moonlets may be anywhere in size from gravel to stadium-sized. Their origins are unknown, but they may be gravitationally captured into the current orbit or they may be ejecta from meteor impacts on Amalthea. On the next and final orbit (just an hour before destruction), Galileo detected one more such moonlet. However, this time Amalthea was on the other side of the planet, so it is probable that the particles form a ring around the planet near Amalthea's orbit.

Views to and from Amalthea
From Jupiter's "surface"—or rather, from just above its cloudtops—Amalthea would appear very bright, shining with a magnitude of −4.7, similar to that of Venus from Earth. At only 8 arcminutes across, its disc would be barely discernible. Amalthea's orbital period is only slightly longer than its parent planet's day (about 20% in this case), which means it would cross Jupiter's sky very slowly. The time between moonrise and moonset would be over 29 hours.

Science journalist Willy Ley suggested Amalthea as a base for observing Jupiter, because of its nearness to the planet, almost-synchronous orbit, and small size making a landing easy. From the surface of Amalthea, Jupiter would look enormous: at 46 degrees across, it would appear roughly 85 times wider than the full moon from Earth. Because Amalthea is in synchronous rotation, Jupiter would not appear to move, and would not be visible from one side of Amalthea. The Sun would disappear behind Jupiter's bulk for an hour and a half each revolution, and Amalthea's short rotation period gives it just under six hours of daylight. Though Jupiter would appear 900 times brighter than the full moon, its light would be spread over an area some 8,500 times greater and it would not look as bright per surface unit.

Exploration

In 1979, the unmanned Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 space probes obtained the first images of Amalthea to resolve its surface features. They also measured the visible and infrared spectra and surface temperature. Later, the Galileo orbiter completed the imaging of Amalthea's surface. Galileo made its final satellite fly-by at a distance of approximately 244 km from Amalthea's center (at a height of about 160–170 km) on 5 November 2002, permitting the moon's mass to be accurately determined, while changing Galileo's trajectory so that it would plunge into Jupiter in September 2003 at the end of its mission. In 2006, Amalthea's orbit was refined with measurements from New Horizons.

In fiction
Amalthea is the setting of several works of science fiction, including stories by Arthur C. Clarke, James Blish, and Arkady and Boris Strugatsky.

title: Amalthea (moon)


text:
Amalthea (mythology)

In Greek mythology, Amalthea or Amaltheia (Ancient Greek: Ἀμάλθεια) is the most-frequently mentioned foster-mother of Zeus.

Etymology
The name Amalthea, in Greek "tender goddess", is clearly an epithet, signifying the presence of an earlier nurturing goddess or maiden-goddess whom the Hellenes, whose myths we know, knew to be located in Crete, where Minoans may have called her a version of "Dikte".

Mythology
There were different traditions regarding Amalthea. Amalthea is sometimes represented as the goat who suckled the infant-god in a cave in Cretan Mount Aigaion ("Goat Mountain"), sometimes as a goat-tending nymph of uncertain parentage (the daughter of Oceanus, Helios, Haemonius, or—according to Lactantius—Melisseus ), who brought him up on the milk of her goat. The possession of multiple and uncertain mythological parents indicates wide worship of a deity in many cultures having varying local traditions. Other names, like Adrasteia, Ide, the nymph of Mount Ida, or Adamanthea, which appear in mythology handbooks, are simply duplicates of Amalthea.

In the tradition represented by Hesiod's Theogony, Cronus swallowed all of his children immediately after birth. The mother goddess Rhea, Zeus' mother, deceived her brother-consort Cronus by giving him a stone wrapped to look like a baby instead of Zeus. Since she instead gave the infant Zeus to Adamanthea to nurse in a cave on a mountain in Crete, it is clear that Adamanthea is a doublet of Amalthea. In many literary references, the Greek tradition relates that in order that Cronus should not hear the wailing of the infant, Amalthea gathered about the cave the Kuretes or the Korybantes to dance, shout, and clash their spears against their shields.

The aegis
Amalthea's skin, or that of her goat, taken by Zeus in honor of her when she died, became the protective aegis in some traditions.

Among the stars
"Amaltheia was placed amongst the stars as the constellation Capra—the group of stars surrounding Capella on the arm (ôlenê) of Auriga the Charioteer." Capra simply means "she-goat" and the star-name Capella is the "little goat", but some modern readers confuse her with the male sea-goat of the Zodiac, Capricorn, who bears no relation to Amalthea, no connection in a Greek or Latin literary source nor any ritual or inscription to join the two. Hyginus describes this catasterism in the Poetic Astronomy, in speaking of Auriga, the Charioteer:

"Parmeniscus says that a certain Melisseus was king in Crete, and to his daughters Jove was brought to nurse. Since they did not have milk, they furnished him a she-goat, Amalthea by name, who is said to have reared him. She often bore twin kids, and at the very time that Jove was brought to her to nurse, had borne a pair. And so because of the kindness of the mother, the kids, too were placed among the constellations. Cleostratus of Tenedos is said to have first pointed out these kids among the stars. But Musaeus says Jove was nursed by Themis and the nymph Amalthea, to whom he was given by Ops, his mother. Now Amalthea had as a pet a certain goat which is said to have nursed Jove."

title: Amalthea (mythology)


text:
Richeza of Lotharingia

Richeza of Lotharingia (also called Richenza, Rixa, Ryksa; born about 995/1000 – 21 March 1063) was a member of the Ezzonen dynasty who became queen of Poland as the wife of Mieszko II Lambert. Her Polish marriage was arranged to strengthen the ties between Mieszko and her uncle Emperor Otto III. She returned to Germany following the deposition of her husband in 1031, either divorcing or separating from him. Upon the death of her brother Duke Otto II of Swabia and the consequent extinction of the male line of her family, Richeza became a nun, worked to preserve the Ezzonen heritage, and funded the restoration of the Abbey of Brauweiler. She has been beatified.

Family and betrothal
She was the eldest daughter of Count Palatine Ezzo of Lotharingia by his wife, Matilda, daughter of Emperor Otto II and Empress Theophanu. Richeza's parents were married in 993. Polish historian Kazimierz Jasiński supposed that she was few years younger than her husband Mieszko II Lambert.

In 1000 during the Congress of Gniezno, an agreement was apparently made between Bolesław the Brave and Richeza's uncle Emperor Otto III. Among the usual political talks, they decided to strengthen ties through marriage. Otto's childlessness meant that the seven daughters of his sister Mathilde (the only of Otto II's daughters who married and produced children) were the potential brides for Mieszko, Bolesław I's son and heir; the oldest of Otto III's nieces, Richeza, was chosen. However, Otto's unexpected death in 1002, the reorientation of the Holy Roman Empire politics by his successor, Henry II, and wars between Henry and Bolesław led to the delay of the wedding. The Emperor took the opportunity of a settlement with the Ezzonen family and in Merseburg negotiated a temporary peace with Poland. The marriage between Mieszko and Richeza took place in Merseburg, probably during the Pentecost festivities.

Queenship
After the final peace agreement between the Holy Roman Empire and Poland, which was signed in 1018 in Bautzen, Richeza and Mieszko maintained close contact with the German court. In 1021 they participated in the consecration of part of the Bamberg Cathedral.

Bolesław I the Brave died on 17 June 1025. Six months later, on Christmas Day, Mieszko II Lambert and Richeza were crowned king and queen of Poland by the archbishop of Gniezno, Hipolit, in the Gniezno Cathedral. Mieszko's reign was short-lived: in 1031, the invasion of both German and Kievan troops forced him to escape to Bohemia, where he was imprisoned and castrated by orders of Duke Oldrich. Mieszko II's half-brother Bezprym took the government of Poland and began a cruel persecution of the followers of the former king. The Brauweiler Chronicle indicated that soon after the escape of her husband, Richeza and her children fled to Germany with the Polish regalia, which were given to Emperor Conrad II. She subsequently played an important role in mediating a peace settlement between Poland and the Holy Roman Empire. However, modern historians discount this account.

Richeza and Mieszko II never reunited; according to some sources, they were either officially divorced or separated. After Bezprym was murdered in 1032, Mieszko II was released from captivity and returned to Poland, but was forced to divide the country between himself, his brother Otto and their cousin Dytryk. One year later (1033), after Otto was killed and Dytryk expelled from the country, Mieszko II reunited Poland under his domain. However, his rule lasted only one year: on 10 or 11 July 1034, Mieszko II died suddenly, probably killed as a result of a conspiracy.

Richeza's son Casimir was at that time at the court of her brother Archbishop Hermann II of Cologne. In 1037 Casimir returned to Poland in order to claim the throne; apparently, Richeza also returned with him, although this is disputed. Soon after, a barons' rebellion — coupled with the so-called "Pagan Reaction" of the commoners — forced both Casimir and Richeza to flee to Germany again. She never returned.

Return to Germany
The return of Richeza to Germany forced a redistribution of her father's inheritance because at the previous arrangement, it was not contemplated that Richeza would need a place to live. She received Saalfeld, a possession that did not belong to the Lower Rhine area in which the Ezzonen dynasty tried to build a coherent dominion. Richeza still called herself queen of Poland, a privilege that was given to her by the emperor. In Saalfeld she led the Polish opposition that supported her son Casimir, who in 1039, with the help of Conrad II, finally obtained the Polish throne. During the years 1040–1047, Richeza lived in Klotten in the Moselle region.

On 7 September 1047 Richeza's brother Duke Otto II of Swabia, the last male representative of the Ezzonen dynasty, died, and with him the territorial and political objectives of his family. Richeza now inherited large parts of the Ezzonen possessions.

Otto's death seems to have touched Richeza. At his funeral in Brauweiler, according to Bruno of Toul (later Pope Leo IX), she put her fine jewellery on the altar. She declared that she would spend the rest of her life as a nun to preserve the memory of the Ezzonen dynasty. Another goal was probably to secure the remaining Ezzonen rights.

A charter dated 17 July 1051 noted that Richeza participated in the reorganization of the Ezzonen properties. Her sister Theophanu, Abbess of Essen, and her brother, Hermann II, Archbishop of Cologne and Richeza transferred the Abbey of Brauweiler to the Archdiocese of Cologne. This created a dispute with the Emperor, as this transfer had already occurred under the reign of Ezzo. This was successfully challenged by Ezzo's surviving children. The reason for the transfer was likely that the future wasn't secured for the descendants of the Ezzonen: From Ezzo's ten children, only Richeza and Otto had children. None of these children was in a position of real power over the Ezzonen inheritance. The transfer to the diocese, headed by Hermann II with one of the younger Ezzonen, ensured the cohesion of the property. In 1054 in connection with some donations to the Abbey of Brauweiler, Richeza expressed her desire to be buried there beside her mother. This reorganization, which apparently emanated from the hope that Hermann II would survive his siblings, failed because he died in 1056. The Archbishop of Cologne, Anno II, tried to increase the power of his diocese at the expense of the Ezzonen.

Richeza responded to Anno II's ambitions with the formal renunciation of her possessions in Brauweiler to the monastery of Moselle, while reserving the lifelong use of the lands. Brauweiler was the center of Ezzonen memory and she wanted it protected regardless of the economic position of the family. Then Richeza went to Saalfeld, where she found similar arrangements in favour of the Diocese of Würzburg. Anno II protested against these regulations unsuccessfully. In the end, Richeza only maintained direct rule over the towns of Saalfeld and Coburg, but retained the right to use until her death seven other locations in the Rhineland with their additional incomes, and 100 silver pounds per year by the Archdiocese of Cologne. Richeza died on 21 March 1063 in Saalfeld.

Heritage
Richeza was buried in Cologne's church of St. Maria ad Gradus and not, as she had wished, in Brauweiler. This was prompted by Archbishop Anno II, who appealed to an oral agreement with Richeza. The Klotten estate donated her funeral arrangements to St. Maria ad Gradus, whose relationship with Richeza, Hermann II and Anno II is unclear. Possibly St. Maria ad Gradus was an unfinished work of Richeza's brother and completed by Anno II, who wanted to secure part of the Ezzonen patrimony in this way. The Brauweiler Abbey claimed the validity of the 1051 charter and demanded the remains of the Polish Queen.

The dispute ended in 1090 when the then-current archbishop of Cologne, Hermann III, ruled in favour of the monastery of Brauweiler. However, Richeza's grave remained in St. Maria ad Gradus until 1816, when it was transferred to Cologne Cathedral. Her grave was placed in the chapel dedicated to St. John the Baptist in a classic wooden sarcophagus. Beside the coffin hang two medieval portraits of Richeza and Anno II that originate from the medieval grave in St. Maria ad Gradus.

Her grave was opened multiple times after the transfer to Cologne Cathedral. The last opening was in 1959 and revealed her bones. According to witnesses, Richeza had a small and graceful stature. Her collarbone showed traces of a fracture. Richeza's relics were located in St. Nicholas church in Brauweiler and were moved to the Klotter parish church in 2002.

Marriage and issue
Richeza and Mieszko had:
 * Richeza (born 1013) - married Béla I of Hungary
 * Casimir (born 1016) - Duke of Poland
 * Gertruda (born 1025), married Grand Prince Iziaslav I of Kiev
 * possibly Agatha, wife of Edward the Exile, whose origins are unknown. One theory that has been put forward is that she was the daughter of Mieszko II and Richeza.

Legacy
The most important of Richeza's projects was the rebuilding of the Abbey of Brauweiler. Her parents had founded Brauweiler, but the original church was modestly furnished, which was incompatible with the dynasty's territorial objectives. After Otto's death, Richeza decided to make Brauweiler the centre of Ezzonen memory. Since the original building didn't suit this purpose, Richeza built a new abbey, which remains in good condition. When the construction began a three-aisled pillared basilica was planned with a projecting transept to the east apse across a crypt. The aisles were groined vaults with flat ceilings in the central nave. Inside, the nave had five Pfeilerjoche, each of which was half as large as the square crossing. Throughout the Abbey the cross-vaulted ceiling could be seen (for example in the aisles, pillars or the crypt), which can be found in many Ezzonen buildings. The crypt was consecrated on 11 December 1051. The rest of the construction was consecrated on 30 October 1063, seven months after Richeza's death.

The building has distinct references to the Church of St. Maria im Kapitol in Cologne, founded by Richeza's sister Ida. Both crypts are laid out identically, the two bays in Brauweiler, however, were shorter. In the upper church, there are clear references. Brauweiler is seen as a copy of the Cologne Cathedral, probably thanks to the influence of Richeza's brother Hermann II, who in 1040 consecrated Stavelot Abbey. Richeza planned to make Brauweiler the Ezzonen family crypt, in 1051 interring the remains of her sister Adelaide, Abbess of Nivelles. In 1054 she transferred the remains of her father from Augsburg to be buried next to her sister.

The Gospel Book of Queen Richeza (today in possession of the Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek Darmstadt), comes from St. Maria ad Gradus, where Richeza had a space reserved in the central nave, normally occupied by the Donors. It is not clear whether this was done at the behest of Anno II, or by Richeza. An indication of the latter thesis, however, is the Gospel Book. The manuscript is made of 153 pages in the pergamin style in an 18 x 13.5 cm format. In 150 of the pages of the book, a prayer is recorded, which suggests a high-born owner. The following pages contain entries about the Ezzonen memorial. In addition to Richeza, Anno II and her parents were named. The entries can be counted among drawings in the Codex style recognized around 1100. The Codex itself was built around 1040, probably in Maasland, with incomplete ornamentation: the Mark and Luke are drawn completely, but only in a preliminary sketch. Matthew wasn't drawn. Another possible indication is the Codex date: After 1047, Richeza took her monastic vows and had no need for a personal representative signature. It is unknown whether it remained in her possession and was used together with other relics of Anno II from her estate of St. Maria ad Gradus, or had already been donated to her brother before her death.

title: Richeza of Lotharingia


text:
Talk:Crop rotation

Rewrite
The following are the bits not covered (and some not deserving of coverage) by my rewrite:

 * It is the greatest possible mistake to think that the temporary diminution of fertility in a field is chiefly owing to the loss of the decaying vegetable matter it previously contained: it is principally the consequence of the exhaustion of potash and soda, which are restored by the slow process of the more complete disintegration of the materials of the soil. It is evident that the careful tilling of fallow land must accelerate and increase this further breaking up of its mineral ingredients. Nor is this repose of the soil always necessary.

 * Because plants require for their growth different constituents of soil, changing the crop from year to year will maintain the fertility of that soil (provided it be done with judgment) quite as well as leaving it at rest or fallow. In this we but imitate nature. The oak, after thriving for long generations on a particular spot, gradually sickens; its entire race dies out; other trees and shrubs succeed it, till, at length, the surface becomes so charged with an excess of dead vegetable matter, that the forest becomes a peat moss, or a surface upon which no large tree will grow. Generally long before this can occur, the operation of natural causes has gradually removed from the soil substances, essential to the growth of oak leaving others favorable and necessary to the growth of beech or pine. So, in practical farming, one crop, in artificial rotation with others, extracts from the soil a certain quantity of necessary materials; a second carries off, in preference, those which the former has left.

 * One hundred parts of wheat straw yield 15 1/2 of ashes; the same quantity of barley straw, 8 1/2; of oat straw, only 4; and the ashes of the three are chemically, of about the same composition. Upon the same field, which will yield only one harvest of wheat, two successive crops of barley may be raised, and three of oats. We have in these facts a clear proof of what is abstracted from the soil and the key to the rational mode of supplying the deficiency.

 * A field, which has become unfitted for a certain kind of produce, may not, on that account, be unsuitable for another; and upon this observation a system of agriculture has been gradually formed, the principal object of which is to obtain the greatest possible produce in a succession of years, with the least outlay for manure.

 * because, during the interval, the soil will have been, by the action of the atmosphere, and the solution of vegetable and animal substances decaying upon or in it, again rendered capable of yielding what the wheat requires. Whether this process can be artificially anticipated, by supplying the exhausted ingredient to the soil, is a further and most interesting and important inquiry.

 * We could keep our fields in a constant state of fertility by replacing, every year, as much as is removed from them by their produce. An increase of fertility may be expected, of course, only when more is added of the proper material to the soil than is taken away. Any soil will partially regain its strength by lying fallow. But any soil, under cultivation, must at length (without help) lose those constituents which are removed in the seeds, roots and leaves of the plants raised upon it. To remedy this loss, and also increase the productiveness of the land, is the object of the use of proper manures.
 * Land, when not employed in raising food for animals or man, should, at least, be applied to the purpose of raising manure for itself; and this, to a certain extent, may be effected by means of green crops, which, by their decomposition, not only add to the amount of vegetable mould contained in the soil, but supply the alkalies that would be found in their ashes. That the soil should become richer by this burial of a crop, than it was before the seed of that crop was sown, will be understood by recollecting that three-fourths of the whole organic matter we bury has been derived from the air: that by this process of ploughing in, the vegetable matter is more equally diffused through the whole soil, and therefore more easily and rapidly decomposed; and that by its gradual decomposition, ammonia and nitric acid are certainty generated, though not so largely as when animal matters are employed. He who neglects the green sods, and crops of weeds that flourish by his hedgerows and ditches, overlooks an important natural means of wealth. Left to themselves, they ripen their seeds, exhausting the soil, and sowing them annually in his fields: collected in compost heaps, they add materially to his yearly crops of corn.

— Preceding unsigned comment added by Koyaanis Qatsi (talk • contribs) 20:56, 2 April 2002

Irrellevant passage (as currently written) moved to talk
This section moved from page. It is simply continuous cropping without reference to the principles of crop rotation:

Crop rotation is widely practiced in vegetable production, where it is possible to grow a cool-season crop (such as lettuce) in the spring, follow with a warm-season crop (such as tomatoes) in the summer, and then grow a winter crop (such as mache) harvested in early spring.

Crop rotation is less common with field crops because the timing is difficult to manage, particularly since most crop-growing regions experience a good deal of rainfall during the late spring and early summer season, which interrupts fieldwork. Pollinator 07:47, 22 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Where is the above passage quoted from ? it sounds old fashioned. N.B. harvestng of crops depletes the soil because the harvested grain etc. contains minerals from the soil, but similar amounts of minerals are also leached from the soil and lost to the atmosphere (in  the case of Nitrogen) as a result of cultivation of the soil. The author is right to emphasise the importance of weeds on the edges of fields and especially along ditches, but wrong to say that left to themselves they exhaust soil, in fact, soil under weeds invariably grows richer (unlike land under continuous cultivation ). Cutting back weeds on field margins and removing the cutings for hay,  mulch or compost is a very good  idea to improve nutrient use efficiency as these weeds will be thriving on surplus nutrients lost from nearby crops. Cutting them back will also reduce the problem of weed seeds.Pignut (talk) 20:58, 4 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Seasonal timing is important, but crop rotation usually means growing different crops in different years e.g. one year field 1 has maize, field 2, beans, field 3 potatoes. the next year field 1 has beans, field 2 has potatoes, field 3 has maize and so on. In this hypothetical example there are only warm season crops, so it would be good to grow some green manures over the winter. Pollinator is mistaken. There are many different climates in crop growing regions worldwide, and crops and rotations have been developed to suit these local conditions. Rotation of field crops is common worldwide. in a place with wet spring/early summer weather, a sequence of winter cereals could, for instance, be grown, each one planted in autumn and harvested late summer. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Pignut (talk • contribs) 21:28, 4 February 2011

== Crop rotation in the fourteenth century was considerably more widespread after John Lloyd invented the patent crop rotator.

Some think it was after 1172 ==

Funny - 12.215.147.70 21:04, 11 February 2007 (UTC)

 * True. But I got rid of it. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.40.195.29 (talk • contribs) 07:14, 26 February 2007

Some dutch translation.
te laat = to late I think it either has to do with the seasons or not being on time with planting/seeding the new crops after harvest.

onkruid = weeds

brouwgerst = barley with the intention of using it for brewing beer. As opposed to regular barley. brouwen = brewing

koolzaad = rapeseed (looked on the English companion to the Dutch page on koolzaad). It can be used for biodiesel (alternative fuel). My father sowed it once in the nineties, I believe there was also some European subsidies involved, but he did not harvest it. He used it as nutrition for the soil.

JulesVanLaar 02:58, 4 July 2007 (UTC)

 * If I knew anything about farming, I wouldn't be reading the wiki page on it ;) But I confirmed and made all the corrections.  Some of the original plants were a little over specific (eg brewer's barley, tribe broad beans), so I simplified those.  Thanks Jules, and if someone could explain what I meant by "late" (once that's decided), that'd be nice. Bagsc 26 July 2007

it is a crime
— Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.215.125.175 (talk • contribs) 08:38, 10 October 2007

 * ?? crop rotation is legal everywhere I think, but intercropping is a sin according to leviticus ch19 v19 :)  — Preceding unsigned comment added by Pignut (talk • contribs) 11:26, 5 February 2011 (UTC)

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Erosion section
The information on erosion was added as part of a class project at the University of Kentucky by a student enrolled in a soil management class. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.163.194.32 (talk) 17:36, 4 December 2008 (UTC)

History needs to be expanded?
Growing up in the 50s/60s in (upstate NY?? and) Indiana, crop rotation was a staple of the curriculum. In recent years I have become aware that what I was taught in school, and that I never heard farmers my family socialized with say was BS, is no nolonger the common practice in the US or elsewhere in the world. The article mentions the move away from crop rotation, but I wish an aggriculture specialist or student would fill in how the standard practice promoted by government farm extension programs seemingly suddenly vanished from recommended practice. I heard or read a brief comment that pointed to Earl Butts as the key figure, and I do recall he was controversial, but I never understood the issues over Earl Butts. As the abandonment of crop rotation occurred worldwide, what were the forces driving it. And what can be said about the efforts to return to the old methods? Mulp (talk) 18:41, 6 January 2009 (UTC)

Naked fallows
Naked fallows are mentioned in poetry by Robert Louis Stevenson, but not in this article. In trying to find a definition: I found this in Papers and Articles OSV Research Paper, author Jay Adams, 1978
 * The major attitudes that I would ascribe to progressive farmers are: 1) a belief in intensive rather than extensive agriculture; 2) a commitment to the spirit of scientific inquiry; 3) support for and participation in agricultural societies and the farm press; and 4) a conviction that farmers deserved a higher place in society. On the farm, these attitudes were brought to life by adoption of some or all of the following practices: manuring, draining, deep plowing, alternating crops, root culture, row culture, the use of clover, and the substitution of fallow crops for naked fallows. --Notes on Progressive Agriculture
 * --Pawyilee (talk) 13:41, 9 August 2010 (UTC)

naked or bare fallow means maintaining a field bare of crops or weeds by regular ploughing. It was common in the middle ages in europe as a way to control weeds, fields could be bare fallowed for a whole year. It is however extremely detrimental to soil fertility and structure causing massive leaching of nutrients. In a medieval village some of these leached nutrients would have been recovered by the cutting of hay and rushes (for floor covering) from the riversides (These would have been fed by nutrient run off from higher ground, and  the nutrients would return to the fields as animal manure and semi composted rushes). It is important to distinguish this from other kinds of fallow (growing green manures or simply letting the weeds grow). bare or naked fallow is certainly not "letting the land rest". Many farmers or gardeners nowadays still believe that there are benefits to cultivating soil in autumn and leaving it bare over winter (frost loosens clay soil and birds will eat slug eggs), but the considerable nutrient leaching during winter rains and the loss of humus will likely far outweigh any benefits -- user  pignut  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 89.206.182.27 (talk) 20:31, 4 February 2011 (UTC)

Critique for HIST406
This article largely covers the most of the general information concerning crop rotations. It discusses what, exactly, crop rotation is, how it works, its history, and what affects crop rotation has on the environment. The writing style is simple and informal. It seems to me more like the authors are trying to have a conversation with the reader rather than lay out the information in a clear and concise manner. Not to say they are bad writers, the article is just wordier than it truly needs to be. Also, the illustrations and pictures are too few and unhelpful. They just show pictures of farms and large plots of land. That does not demonstrate anything about what crop rotation is. There need to be illustrations that actually showcase the process of crop rotations. The sources, also, need work. Wikipedia is an online reference database, used mostly for quick reference alongside actual research. Therefore, there needs to be some sort of accountability for each page, each article. This crop rotation article does not have ideal sources. The sources listed are good, they are accurate, but they are inconsistent with Wikipedia’s speed, i.e. they are not links. It is tough to determine the accuracy of this pages information when the references cannot be quickly accessed, and when that is the case, one might as well just bypass the Wikipedia page altogether. The page needs more sources that can be directly linked to so the reader can quickly determine the page’s validity. Also, the sources need to be cited inside the article, as is stated by the box at the beginning of the article. Basically, the article is sloppy. It has a lot of information; it’s just not organized very efficiently nor is it presented very well. One solid afternoon to find supplemental references, reorganize the information, and clean up the language should make this article much more useful.

HIST406-10msuterlo (talk) 14:48, 4 October 2010 (UTC)

Crop rotations and soil fertility
There has been a lot of wishful thinking and misconceptions regarding the effects of crop rotations on soil fertility, and sadly, many farmers have gone bankrupt, depleted their soil and grown disillusioned with crop rotation and organic farming techniques in general, as a result.

Arable crop rotation (as distinct from ley-arable rotation) is better than continuous monoculture of the same crop (for instance it reduces, pest and  disease problems), but arable crop rotation is unlikely to be sufficient, by itself (without inputs of compost/manure, or periods growing green manures or ley) to maintain or improve the fertility of the soil under rotation.

It is often said that different arable crops remove different proportions of the essential nutrients and return different proportions in their crop residues (stubble, roots etc.), so a rotation of different crops prevents imbalances of nutrients that could occur in continuous monoculture. This is probably true although hard scientific evidence for this is surprisingly scarce (probably due to difficulties measuring small changes in soil nutrients: Soil is an ecosystem, hard to study without distubing it. At any point in time Some soil minerals will be available for plants to use, but far more will be locked away in humus, leaf litter, microbes, the bodies of animals such as earthworms or stuck to particles of clay etc.). However the quantities of nutrients removed in the harvested crop, and lost to groundwater and air as a result of soil cultivation are usually far greater than the quantities returned in crop residues.

Organic farming derives its name from Rudolf Steiner's concept of the farm as an organism, an interconnected whole. When a farmer says that a crop improves the "heart" or fertility of his land, many listeners will assume that the crop releases nutrients from its roots which enrich the soil it grows in. Few will consider the possibility that it might, for instance, allow the farmer to feed more animals from his land and thus get more, and richer, manure and compost.

19th century farmers considered turnips and potatoes to be soil improving crops, but the leaf and root residues left by a crop of potatoes are small. In fact, these root crops allowed the soil to be cleared of weeds, more animals to be fed over winter (before turnips were widely grown, many more animals had to be slaughtered in autumn), and the generous applications of manure thse crops received benefited subsequent crops. Potatoes and turnips do not themselves improve the land, but the act  of growing them can!

Leguminous plants ('legumes'), (such as beans, peas, alfalfa, clover, gorse or acacia) can obtain (or "fix") some, or all of their nitrogen from the air with the aid of bacteria living in their roots, known as Rhizobia. The amounts of nitrogen they can obtain per hectare often far exceed the amounts commonly applied by farmers as nitrogen fertiliser. The fixed nitrogen is distributed throughout the legume plant, and contrary to popular belief, there is generally more fixed nitrogen in the leaves, flowers, stems and seeds of a legume plant than there is in their roots. As the legume plant flowers and makes seeds it transfers nitrogen from its leaves and roots into its flowers and seeds. An annual legume plant such as soya bean will transfer most of its nitrogen into its seeds, leaving comparatively little in its dry, dead, roots, stem and leaves at harvest time. Some fixed nitrogen leaks from the roots of legume plants, for instance, when roots die or decay. Neighbouring plants, such as grass growing with clover, or weeds growing with peas can benefit from this deposited nitrogen, as can successive crops, although much of the fixed nitrogen deposited this way will be lost to groundwater and the air before a successive crop can use it, especially if the soil is ploughed in the interim.

If a grain legume, such as soyabean, is harvested when the seeds are fully ripe, the soil it grew in will have about as much nitrogen in it as it did when the beans were planted. Some studies on this have found slight increases in soil nitrogen, others small decreases following a soya crop. Some fixed nitrogen has been deposited in the soil by the soya plant, some of this fixed nitrogen has been lost from the soil and some soil nitrogen has been taken up by the soy plant (legumes only fix nitrogen when they must. The Rhizobia receive sugar in exchange for nitrogen, so symbiotically fixed nitrogen costs the legume more than soil nitrogen). Most of the fixed nitrogen is in the harvested beans along with phosphate, potassium and other minerals from the soil.

If these soyabeans are fed to animals on the farm where they were grown and the resulting manure is used to feed crops, then the soyabeans will have helped the overall fertility of the farm. Likewise if they are eaten by people on the farm enlightened enough to use composting toilets, there will also be a benefit. If beans are picked green, the stems, leaves and roots will contain more of the fixed nitrogen (and the beans themselves proportionately less), which could significantly benefit the next crop (or make compost or provide high protein feed for animals and subsequently, nitrogen rich manure). If, however, the beans are exported from the farm, the meagre deposits of fixed nitrogen left in the beanfield will not be sufficient to supply the needs of a hungry crop like corn.

Alternating corn with soybeans and exporting the ripe harvest, (if fertilisers, manure or compost are not brought in from elsewhere), will deplete the soil of nitrogen and other minerals.

In a ley-arable rotation, a sequence of arable crops is followed by one or more years of ley (temporary grassland) for grazing by animals and/or cutting for hay/silage. It was this, rather than arable crop rotation which kick started the agricultural revolution of the 18th century. The ley usually contains leguminous plants such as clover as well as grasses (and hopefully herbs too), and these seeds may be undersown sown with the seeds of the preceeding arable crop (usually a cereal) reducing the crop yield a little, but sparing the soil another wasteful and destructive cultivation.

As explained earlier, leguminous plants leak some of their fixed nitrogen into the soil, and grasses growing alongside clovers will gain from this. A multi-species grassland is a jungle of fiercely competing plants, their roots entwined in a dense tangled mat, fighting for all the available nutrients. A field of vegetables or even cereals, in contrast, gets stripped bare of weeds annually. The seedlings grow, comfortably spaced apart, in unnaturally enriched soil free from competing weeds. The crop plants roots are often only just starting to efficiently exploit the soil when it is time for them to be harvested and the soil stripped bare ready for the next crop. Typically, arable crops utilise around half of the minerals fed to them as fertiliser, manure or compost. The rest is lost to groundwater and air.

The grasses in a ley continue to take up nitrogen in the winter, when the clovers etc. are dying back and consequently releasing more of their fixed nitrogen. In addition, grazing animals eat the leaves of leguminous plants and then transfer fixed nitrogen to grass and soil in their dung and urine. Grassland legumes such as clovers have evolved to thrive on this rough treatment. Grazing animals create a patchwork of high nitrogen patches where grasses, dominate and low nitrogen patches where legumes can thrive free from competing grasses. Under these conditions, legumes obtain almost all of their nitrogen from the atmosphere, taking little from the soil.

All these processes enrich the ley with far more nitrogen rich organic matter than could ever be left behind by a field of beans. In addition fixed nitrogen from the legumes is going into the animals, becoming meat, milk and eggs (proteins are nitrogen compounds). Fixed nitrogen is also removed to other parts of the farm as hay or silage which are eventually converted into more meat and milk and into manure which can enrich soil anywhere on the farm. The removal of nitrogen from the ley in this manner, stimulates more nitrogen fixation by the legumes (as long as there is no other mineral deficiency). As the fixed nitrogen builds up in the ley, grass dominates at the expense of the legumes, and it is time to plough the ley and begin the cycle again with an arable crop. This ploughing causes the highet losses of nutrients of any stage in the rotation, so should be well timed with regard to the weather and season. Planting should be done as quickly as is practical. Leys can be managed as quick one or two year leys, primarily intended to enrich the soil where they grow, or as longer term leys to enrich the whole farm as well as the soil under the ley.

Green manures are crops grown to be ploughed or dug in to enrich the soil. They are especially useful in the absence of animals. They can also suppress weeds and pests. They may be legumes to enrich the soil with nitrogen or non-legumes to cover bare soil and prevent nutrient leaching. Deep rooting green manures can also bring nutrients up from the subsoil. Generally non-legumes are more useful than legumes for ground cover in cold winters as legumes don't fix nitrogen below around 7 degrees celsius, are less effective at stopping leaching and produce less biomass than many non-legume green manures. A mixture of legumes and non-legumes will usually fix slightly more nitrogen than a monoculture of the legume, produce more biomass and provide better groundcover. This is because Competition from a non-legume reduces the legume yield but forces the legume to fix a higher proportion of its nitrogen, by competing for the soil nitrogen. Legume green manures can also be undersown with crops, but more research is needed into this technique.

Green manure crops such as comfrey, alfalfa or grass can be grown as permanant stands, cut and used as compost or mulch. Trees can also be used to provide compost or mulch.

The increased nitrate and phosphate pollution of water in many areas over the last few decades is often blamed on synthetic fertilisers, which are a factor, but the main cause has been the conversion of mixed farms with permanant pastures, meadows, leys and trees, into entirely arable farms. An all arable farm using organic arable crop rotations or importing organic compost and manure to feed its crops, causes only slightly less nitrate pollution (per tonne of crop harvested) than an all arable farm using synthetic fertilisers. Both cause significantly more nitrate pollution than mixed farms (organic or not) where arable fields are interspersed with grassland. Much of this pollution derives from the breakdown of soil humus, which in a grassland or forest would remain stable for decades. Nitrate pollution and oher forms of eutrophication are natural capital going down the drain.

Conclusion: Rotations of arable cash crops will deplete soil nutrients and organic matter and are therefore unsustainable unless animal manures/compost are applied used, green manures used or (best of all) a ley phase included in the rotation. Tillage and bare soil increase losses of soil nutrients and soil organic matter, both should be minimised.Pignut (talk) 05:12, 5 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Nice essay, but in my opinion it only shows poor understanding of the principles of crop rotation from the farmers that went bankrupt. Crop rotation was never ment of being the holy grail of a manure/fertilizer/herbicide/pesticide-free practice. It was ment as a cost-effective way to achieve higher yields... The Banner talk 14:47, 7 October 2012 (UTC)

What is fallow?
I don't know what "fallow" is so I typed the word into wikipedia and it redirected me to this very article. Unfortunately the article uses the word fallow a lot but I couldn't see where it explains what fallow is. I still don't know. This article should either explain this, or the redirect should be removed. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 89.242.172.233 (talk) 17:01, 4 August 2011 (UTC)
 * Fallow land = land ploughed and harrowed but left unsown. The Banner talk 15:46, 10 October 2012 (UTC)

Fallow
What is "fallow" please? It redirects here, but I see no explanation in the lede, or indeed in the whole article. Thanks 219.78.114.1 (talk) 14:03, 7 October 2012 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 21:21, 19 March 2016 (UTC)

Bold edits/significant updates
I am a new user looking to make bold edits of this page. I am most concerned with updating content, introducing more inline citations and scientific information from USDA and peer-reviewed sources. Please let me know if there is anything I should be aware of in advance. Thank you! — Preceding unsigned comment added by Sfs329 (talk • contribs) 22:17, 30 April 2016 (UTC)

"Proceed"? ... "precede", IMHO
It says, in "Planning a rotation", "For example, a nitrogen-fixing crop, like a legume, should always proceed a nitrogen depleting one". Shouldn't that be "precede"? --User:Haraldmmueller 07:27, 7 October 2016 (UTC)

Why mention George Washington Carver and not scientists who's developments were adopted and are in use to this day?
George Washington Carver was indeed a scientist who, specifically, looked into nitrogen fixing in regards to crop rotation. However he was one of countless scientists looking into these agricultural developments -  In fact he has many contemporaries whose developments were actually impact full, put into common use, and are still in use to this very day. Particularly via the way of soy beans, there are several scientists who deserve accreditation in the "modern era" section that have apparently been overlooked in favor of Carver. He is worth including as very notable scientist, but not because of his impact in agriculture - but of because of his historical relevance in overcoming the discrimination African Americans Americans faced in his time, in academics, and in the south in general. That is worth noting, but he shouldn't lead the segment unless context given as to why he's being mentioned.

If the mention was prefaced by a sentence saying, "In the modern era one prominent African American scientist who worked in this field in was GWC" then the inclusion of Carver would make some more sense - as it stands its just appears a random scientist, who's work has minimal impact modern agriculture, is being mentioned before all others for no clear reason. He did teach, and thus he did teach Southern farmers, but the section is framed as if his methods were used by all farmers in the south, something that is patently false. 99.75.147.243 (talk) 17:42, 14 January 2023 (UTC)

 * The 'Modern developments' section could definitely use expansion and improvement. If you have suggestions for WP:RS sources that describe other influential science in this area, please add those sources to the article or in a comment here.Dialectric (talk) 18:13, 15 January 2023 (UTC)

Science
What is meant by crop rotation 2A00:F29:248:415C:C0F7:DAB8:C85D:DF6A (talk) 04:36, 24 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Crop rotation


text:
Talk:David Hume

induction not evolutionary
The claim at the end of the problem of induction section that "This is the closest thing possible during his (pre-Darwinian) time to an evolutionary account of our inductive tendencies, and Hume here has lit on a central feature in any properly atheistic Science of Man, placing him firmly in the naturalist tradition of great thinkers."

seems to be POV espescially without a source It is also innaccurate as it seems to suggest some innate ideas about induction which contradicts hume's blank slate idea of the mind. We may well read evolution into his account and he probably would have too had he known of it but there's no indication that this occurred to him.

Humeanism
The article does not currently contain mention of Humeanism, minimal Humeanism, Anti-Humeanism, and other related topics of interest to philosophers, particularly those interested in quantum mechanics. Since several such philosophers are notable enough to be included in WP (which can be verified by searching WP), and since Humeanism is a relevant aspect of QM research today (example citation: Australasian Journal of Philosophy), I hope that someone knowledgeable would add a short overview to this article soon, and at least the stub of an article on the subject. David Spector (talk) 16:42, 16 March 2021 (UTC)

Conservatism/Liberalism
I noticed that the template in the Political Theory section was changed from Liberalism to Conservatism overnight and there did not seem to be much of a discussion in the Talk page. Since Hume seems to have traits of both liberalism and conservatism, perhaps it is best to remove the template altogether and add both Liberalism and Conservatism to his main interests. Here is the revision in question.

Supilusikas (talk) 09:26, 28 October 2021 (UTC)

 * That sounds like something someone from the US would do. They use the words "conservative" and "liberal" in strange ways there. Corrupt Cactus (talk) 00:28, 20 November 2022 (UTC)

English
David Hume (/hjuːm/; born David Home; 7 May 1711 NS (26 April 1711 OS) – 25 August 1776)[10] was a Scottish Enlightenment philosopher, historian, economist, librarian[11] and essayist, who is best known today for his highly influential system of philosophical empiricism, skepticism, and naturalism.[1] Beginning with A Treatise of Human Nature (1739–40), Hume strove to create a naturalistic science of man that examined the psychological basis of human nature. Hume argued against the existence of innate ideas, positing that all human knowledge derives solely from experience. This places him with Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and George Berkeley as a British Empiricist.[12] 36.37.193.3 (talk) 04:32, 24 February 2022 (UTC)

Effect of Hume's views on slavery sentence
The article states that Hume's 'views served to reinforce the institution of racialised slavery in the later 18th century'. I know that this is a quote from an academic, however it seems empty without explaining how Hume's ideas "reinforced" slavery. I find it quite unlikely that Hume's philosophy had any impact on the "reinforcing" of atlantic slavery, which had been an established institution for over 200 years. Knoterification (talk) 05:45, 5 July 2022 (UTC)
 * I read the article, which is by an expert on Hume. He is not referring to Hume's philosophy pe se, but his comment that 'negroes are naturally inferior to whites'. However the author does not say how this view of Hume's (hardly uncommon at the time) actually had any effect on slavery. A plausible mechanism would be if, for example, the opponents of abolition cited the great David Hume in their defence, and this was effective. But the author does not say that, so we are left in the dark. The writer also seems to confuse the slave trade with slavery, saying Hume was involved in the former by way of encouraging his patron to buy a slave plantation, which is just lazy. The two are - and were seen as - distinct, hence the different abolition dates. It would not surprise me if the claim about Hume's views affecting slavery was just as dubious. But what do we do? he is an expert. Note: I edited your comment because the title you gave it was way too long. LastDodo (talk) 11:50, 23 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:David Hume


text:
Effect of taxes and subsidies on price

Taxes and subsidies change the price of goods and, as a result, the quantity consumed. There is a difference between an ad valorem tax and a specific tax or subsidy in the way it is applied to the price of the good. In the end levying a tax moves the market to a new equilibrium where the price of a good paid by buyers increases and the proportion of the price received by sellers decreases. The incidence of a tax does not depend on whether the buyers or sellers are taxed since taxes levied on sellers are likely to be met by raising the price charged to buyers. Most of the burden of a tax falls on the less elastic side of the market because of a lower ability to respond to the tax by changing the quantity sold or bought. Introduction of a subsidy, on the other hand, may either lowers the price of production which encourages firms to produce more, or lowers the price paid by buyers, encouraging higher sales volume. Such a policy is beneficial both to sellers and buyers.

Specific tax impact
Source:

The effect of a specific tax levied on sellers can be divided into three steps.

First, the demand for a good is the same for a given price level so the demand curve does not change. On the other hand, the tax makes the good in fact more expensive to produce for the seller. This means that the business is less profitable for a given price level and the supply curve shifts upwards.

Second, the higher cost of producing the good reduces the quantity supplied at any given price. The upward shifted supply curve is parallel to the original supply curve because no matter the quantity supplied, the seller’s expenses on the production are the same. Therefore the distance between the original and the new shifted supply curve is equal to the amount of tax imposed. Whatever the price of the good, the net price for which the sellers are selling is effectively the gross price less the amount of the tax. This makes the sellers supply the amount of the good as if the price were lower by the amount of the tax. In order for them to supply a given quantity of the good, the market price needs to be higher by the amount of tax to preserve net income from sales.

Last, after the shift of the supply curve is taken into account, the difference between the initial and after-tax equilibrium can be observed. The growth of market price is determined by the price elasticities of demand and supply. In the case of demand being more elastic than supply, the incidence of the tax falls more heavily on sellers and the consumers feel a smaller growth of price and vice versa. In both cases, the consumers pay more for the good and while the sellers initially receive more money, after the tax is accounted for, they are left with less money than if there were no tax imposed.

The tax raises the price which the customers pay for the good (unless the absorb the whole tax cost) and lowers the price the producers are effectively selling the good for unless they pass on the whole tax cost. The difference between the two prices remains the same no matter who bears most of the burden of the tax.

Example
The original equilibrium price is $3.00 and the equilibrium quantity is 100. The government then levies a tax of $0.50 on the sellers. This leads to a new supply curve which is shifted upward by $0.50 compared to the original supply curve. The new equilibrium price will sit between $3.00 and $3.50 and the equilibrium quantity will decrease. If we say that the consumers pay $3.30 and the new equilibrium quantity is 80, then the producers keep $2.80 and the total tax revenue equals $0.50 x 80 = $40.00. The burden of the tax paid by buyers is $0.30 x 80 = $2.40 and the burden paid by sellers equals $0.20 x 80 = $1.60.

Ad valorem tax impact
Source:

Similarly the effect can be broken down into three steps.

First, the tax again affects the sellers. The quantity demanded at a given price remains unchanged and therefore the demand curve stays the same. Since the tax is a certain percentage of the price, with increasing price, the tax grows as well. The supply curve shifts upward but the new supply curve is not parallel to the original one.

Second, the tax raises the production cost as with the specific tax but the amount of tax varies with price level. The upward shift of the supply curve is accompanied by a pivot upwards and to the left of the original supply curve. The vertical distance between the two supply curves is equal to the amount of tax in per cent. The effective price to the sellers is again lower by the amount of the tax and they will supply the good as if the price were lower by the amount of tax.

Last, the total impact of the tax can be observed. The equilibrium price of the good rises and the equilibrium quantity decreases. The buyers and sellers again share the burden of the tax relative to their price elasticities. The buyers have to pay more for the good and the sellers receive less money than before the tax has been imposed.

Example
The pre-tax equilibrium price is $5.00 with respective equilibrium quantity of 100. The government imposes a 20 per cent tax on the sellers. A new supply curve emerges. It is shifted upward and pivoted to the left and upwards in comparison to the original supply curve and their distance is always 20 per cent of the original price. In the pre-tax equilibrium the distance equals $5.00 x 0.20 = $1.00. This burden of the tax is again shared by the buyer and seller. If the new equilibrium quantity decreases to 85 and the buyer bears a higher proportion of the tax burden (e.g. $0.75), the total amount of tax collected equals $1.00 x 85 = $85.00. The buyer then faces the tax of $0.75 x 85 = $63.75 and the tax paid by the seller equals $0.25 x 85 = $21.25. The price the consumer buys the good for equals $5.75 but the seller only receives $4.75.

Subsidy impact
Marginal subsidies on production will shift the supply curve to the right until the vertical distance between the two supply curves is equal to the per unit subsidy; when other things remain equal, this will decrease price paid by the consumers (which is equal to the new market price) and increase the price received by the producers. Similarly, a marginal subsidy on consumption will shift the demand curve to the right; when other things remain equal, this will decrease the price paid by consumers and increase the price received by producers by the same amount as if the subsidy had been granted to producers. However, in this case, the new market price will be the price received by producers. The end result is that the lower price that consumers pay and the higher price that producers receive will be the same, regardless of how the subsidy is administered.

Effect of elasticity
Depending on the price elasticities of demand and supply, who bears more of the tax or who receives more of the subsidy may differ. Where the supply curve is less elastic than the demand curve, producers bear more of the tax and receive more of the subsidy than consumers as the difference between the price producers receive and the initial market price is greater than the difference borne by consumers. Where the demand curve is more inelastic than the supply curve, the consumers bear more of the tax and receive more of the subsidy as the difference between the price consumers pay and the initial market price is greater than the difference borne by producers.

An illustration
The effect of this type of tax can be illustrated on a standard supply and demand diagram. Without a tax, the equilibrium price will be at Pe and the equilibrium quantity will be at Qe.

After a tax is imposed, the price consumers pay will shift to Pc and the price producers receive will shift to Pp. The consumers' price will be equal to the producers' price plus the cost of the tax. Since consumers will buy less at the higher consumer price (Pc) and producers will sell less at a lower producer price (Pp), the quantity sold will fall from Qe to Qt.

title: Effect of taxes and subsidies on price