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Drumlin

A drumlin, from the Irish word droimnín ("little ridge"), first recorded in 1833, in the classical sense is an elongated hill in the shape of an inverted spoon or half-buried egg formed by glacial ice acting on underlying unconsolidated till or ground moraine. Assemblages of drumlins are referred to as fields or swarms; they can create a landscape which is often described as having a 'basket of eggs topography'.

Morphology
Drumlins occur in various shapes and sizes, including symmetrical (about the long axis), spindle, parabolic forms, and transverse asymmetrical forms. Generally, they are elongated, oval-shaped hills, with a long axis parallel to the orientation of ice flow and with an up-ice (stoss) face that is generally steeper than the down-ice (lee) face.

Drumlins are typically between 250 and 1,000 m long and between 120 and 300 m wide. Drumlins generally have a length to width ratio of between 1.7 and 4.1 and it has been suggested that this ratio can indicate the velocity of the glacier. That is, since ice flows in laminar flow, the resistance to flow is frictional and depends on area of contact; thus, a more elongated drumlin would indicate a lower velocity and a shorter one would indicate a higher velocity.

Occurrence
Drumlins and drumlin swarms are glacial landforms composed primarily of glacial till. They form near the margin of glacial systems, and within zones of fast flow deep within ice sheets, and are commonly found with other major glacially-formed features (including tunnel valleys, eskers, scours, and exposed bedrock erosion).

Drumlins are often encountered in drumlin fields of similarly shaped, sized and oriented hills. Many Pleistocene drumlin fields are observed to occur in a fan-like distribution. The long axis of each drumlin is parallel to the direction of movement of the glacier at the time of formation. Inspection of aerial photos of these fields reveals glacier's progress through the landscape. The Múlajökull drumlins of Hofsjökull are also arrayed in a splayed fan distribution around an arc of 180°. This field surrounds the current lobe of the glacier and provide a view into the past, showing the previous extent and motion of the ice.

Composition
Drumlins may comprise layers of clay, silt, sand, gravel and boulders in various proportions; perhaps indicating that material was repeatedly added to a core, which may be of rock or glacial till. Alternatively, drumlins may be residual, with the landforms resulting from erosion of material between the landforms. The dilatancy of glacial till was invoked as a major factor in drumlin formation. In other cases, drumlin fields include drumlins made up entirely of hard bedrock (e.g. granite or well-lithified limestone). These drumlins cannot be explained by the addition of soft sediment to a core. Thus, accretion and erosion of soft sediment by processes of subglacial deformation do not present unifying theories for all drumlins—some are composed of residual bedrock.

Formation
There are two main theories of drumlin formation. The first, constructional, suggests that they form as sediment is deposited from subglacial waterways laden with till including gravel, clay, silt, and sand. As the drumlin forms, the scrape and flow of the glacier continues around it and the material deposited accumulates, the clasts align themselves with direction of flow. It is because of this process that geologists are able to determine how the drumlin formed using till fabric analysis, the study of the orientation and dip of particles within a till matrix. By examining the till particles and plotting their orientation and dip on a stereonet, scientists are able to see if there is a correlation between each clast and the overall orientation of the drumlin: the more similar in orientation and dip of the clasts throughout the drumlin, the more likely it is that they had been deposited during the formation process. If the opposite is true, and there doesn't seem to be a link between the drumlin and the till, it suggests that the other main theory of formation could be true.

The second theory proposes that drumlins form by erosion of material from an unconsolidated bed. Erosion under a glacier in the immediate vicinity of a drumlin can be on the order of a meter's depth of sediment per year, depending heavily on the shear stress acting on the ground below the glacier from the weight of the glacier itself, with the eroded sediment forming a drumlin as it is repositioned and deposited.

A hypothesis that catastrophic sub-glacial floods form drumlins by deposition or erosion challenges conventional explanations for drumlins. It includes deposition of glaciofluvial sediment in cavities scoured into a glacier bed by subglacial meltwater, and remnant ridges left behind by erosion of soft sediment or hard rock by turbulent meltwater. This hypothesis requires huge, subglacial meltwater floods, each of which would raise sea level by tens of centimeters in a few weeks. Studies of erosional forms in bedrock at French River, Ontario, Canada, provide evidence for such floods. The recent retreat of a marginal outlet glacier of Hofsjökull in Iceland exposed a drumlin field with more than 50 drumlins ranging from 90 to(-) in length, 30 to(-) in width, and 5 to(-) in height. These formed through a progression of subglacial depositional and erosional processes, with each horizontal till bed within the drumlin created by an individual surge of the glacier. The above theory for the formation of these Icelandic drumlins best explains one type of drumlin. However, it does not provide a unifying explanation of all drumlins. For example, drumlin fields including drumlins composed entirely of hard bedrock cannot be explained by deposition and erosion of unconsolidated beds. Furthermore, hairpin scours around many drumlins are best explained by the erosive action of horseshoe vortices around obstacles in a turbulent boundary layer.

Semi-submerged or drowned drumlins can be observed where rising sea-levels flooded the low-lying areas in between drumlin ridges. The most notable example of this is Clew Bay in the west of Ireland, which contains hundreds of drumlin islands and islets. It was once a field of drumlins that was "drowned" following the Last Glacial Period.

Soil development on drumlins
Recently formed drumlins often incorporate a thin "A" soil horizon (often referred to as "topsoil" which accumulated after formation) and a thin "Bw" horizon (commonly referred to as "subsoil"). The "C" horizon, which shows little evidence of being affected by soil forming processes (weathering), is close to the surface, and may be at the surface on an eroded drumlin. Below the C horizon the drumlin consists of multiple beds of till deposited by lodgment and bed deformation. On drumlins with longer exposure (e.g. in the Lake Ontario drumlin field in New York State) soil development is more advanced, for example with the formation of clay-enriched "Bt" horizons.

Europe
Besides the Icelandic drumlins mentioned above, the literature also documents extensive drumlin fields in England, Scotland and Wales, Switzerland, Poland, Estonia (Vooremaa), Latvia, Sweden, around Lake Constance north of the Alps, in the Republic of Ireland (County Leitrim, County Monaghan, County Mayo and County Cavan), in Northern Ireland (County Fermanagh, County Armagh, and in particular County Down), Germany, Hindsholm in Denmark, Finland and Greenland.

North America
The majority of drumlins observed in North America were formed during the Wisconsin glaciation.

The largest drumlin fields in the world formed beneath the Laurentide Ice Sheet and are found in Canada — Nunavut, the Northwest Territories, northern Saskatchewan, northern Manitoba, northern Ontario and northern Quebec. Drumlins occur in every Canadian province and territory. Clusters of thousands of drumlins are found in:
 * Southern Ontario (along eastern end of Oak Ridges Moraine near Peterborough, as well as areas to the west near Dundas and Guelph )
 * Central-Eastern Ontario (Douro-Dummer)
 * Ontario – most of Northumberland County (between Rice Lake and Trenton, including Trent Hills)
 * The Thelon Plan of the Northwest Territories
 * Alberta – drumlins are located on the Morley Flats in the Stony Indian Reserve west of Calgary, as well as south of the Ghost Reservoir.
 * Saskatchewan – 80 km south of the east end of Lake Athabasca
 * Southwest of Amundsen Gulf in Nunavut
 * West Lawrencetown, Nova Scotia.

In the United States, drumlins are common in:
 * Central New York (between the south shore of Lake Ontario and Cayuga Lake)
 * The lower Connecticut River valley
 * Long Island
 * Manhattan
 * Eastern Massachusetts
 * Eastern Connecticut in Windham and New London Counties
 * The Monadnock Region of New Hampshire
 * Michigan (central and southern Lower Peninsula)
 * Minnesota
 * The Puget Sound region of Washington state
 * Wisconsin.

Asia
Drumlins are found at Tiksi, Sakha Republic, Russia.

South America
Extensive drumlin fields are found in Patagonia. A major drumlin field extends on both sides of the Strait of Magellan covering the surroundings of Punta Arenas' Carlos Ibáñez del Campo Airport, Isabel Island and an area south of Gente Grande Bay in Tierra del Fuego Island.

Land areas around Beagle Channel host also drumlin fields; for example Gable Island and northern Navarino Island.

Antarctica
In 2007, drumlins were observed to be forming beneath the ice of a West Antarctic ice stream.

title: Drumlin


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Moraine

A moraine is any accumulation of unconsolidated debris (regolith and rock), sometimes referred to as glacial till, that occurs in both currently and formerly glaciated regions, and that has been previously carried along by a glacier or ice sheet. It may consist of partly rounded particles ranging in size from boulders (in which case it is often referred to as boulder clay) down to gravel and sand, in a groundmass of finely-divided clayey material sometimes called glacial flour. Lateral moraines are those formed at the side of the ice flow, and terminal moraines are those formed at the foot, marking the maximum advance of the glacier. Other types of moraine include ground moraines (till-covered areas forming sheets on flat or irregular topography) and medial moraines (moraines formed where two glaciers meet).

Etymology
The word moraine is borrowed from French moraine, which in turn is derived from the Savoyard Italian morena ("mound of earth"). Morena in this case was derived from Provençal morre ("snout"), itself from Vulgar Latin *murrum "rounded object". The term was introduced into geology by Horace Bénédict de Saussure in 1779.

Characteristics
Moraines are landforms composed of glacial till deposited primarily by glacial ice. Glacial till, in turn, is unstratified and unsorted debris ranging in size from silt-sized glacial flour to large boulders. The individual rock fragments are typically sub-angular to rounded in shape. Moraines may be found on the glacier's surface or deposited as piles or sheets of debris where the glacier has melted.

Formation
Moraines may form through a number of processes, depending on the characteristics of sediment, the dynamics on the ice, and the location on the glacier in which the moraine is formed. Moraine forming processes may be loosely divided into passive and active.

Passive processes involve the placing of chaotic supraglacial sediments onto the landscape with limited reworking, typically forming hummocky moraines. These moraines are composed of supraglacial sediments from the ice surface.

Active processes form or rework moraine sediment directly by the movement of ice, known as glaciotectonism. These form push moraines and thrust-block moraines, which are often composed of till and reworked proglacial sediment.

Moraine may also form by the accumulation of sand and gravel deposits from glacial streams emanating from the ice margin. These fan deposits may coalesce to form a long moraine bank marking the ice margin. Several processes may combine to form and rework a single moraine, and most moraines record a continuum of processes. Reworking of moraines may lead to the formation of placer deposits of gold as is the case of southernmost Chile.

Types of moraines
Moraines can be classified either by origin, location with respect to a glacier or former glacier, or by shape.

Lateral moraines

Lateral moraines are parallel ridges of debris deposited along the sides of a glacier. The unconsolidated debris can be deposited on top of the glacier by frost shattering of the valley walls or from tributary streams flowing into the valley, or may be subglacial debris carried to the surface of the glacier, melted out, and transported to the glacier margin.

Lateral moraines can rise up to 140 m over the valley floor, can be up to 3 km long, and are steeper close to the glacier margin (up to 80 degrees) than further away (where slopes are typically 29 to 36 degrees.

Ground moraines

Ground moraines are till-covered areas with irregular topography and no ridges, often forming gently rolling hills or plains, with relief of less than 10 m. Ground moraine is accumulated at the base of the ice as lodgment till with a thin and discontinuous upper layer of supraglacial till deposited as the glacier retreats. It typically is found in the areas between end moraines.

Rogen moraines
Rogen moraines or ribbed moraines are a type of basal moraines that form a series of ribs perpendicular to the ice flow in an ice sheet. The depressions between the ribs are sometimes filled with water, making the Rogen moraines look like tigerstripes on aerial photographs. Rogen moraines are named after Lake Rogen in Härjedalen, Sweden, the landform's type locality.

de Geer moraines
Closely related to Rogen moraines, de Geer moraines are till ridges up to 5m high and 10–50m wide running perpendicular to the ice flow. They occur in large groups in low-lying areas. Named for Gerard De Geer, who first described them in 1889, these moraines may have developed from crevasses underneath the ice sheet. The Kvarken has a very high density of de Geer moraines.

End or terminal moraines

End moraines, or terminal moraines, are ridges of unconsolidated debris deposited at the snout or end of the glacier. They usually reflect the shape of the glacier's terminus. Glaciers act much like a conveyor belt, carrying debris from the top of the glacier to the bottom where it deposits it in end moraines. End moraine size and shape are determined by whether the glacier is advancing, receding or at equilibrium. The longer the terminus of the glacier stays in one place, the more debris accumulate in the moraine. There are two types of end moraines: terminal and recessional. Terminal moraines mark the maximum advance of the glacier. Recessional moraines are small ridges left as a glacier pauses during its retreat. After a glacier retreats, the end moraine may be destroyed by postglacial erosion.

Recessional moraine
Recessional moraines are often observed as a series of transverse ridges running across a valley behind a terminal moraine. They form perpendicular to the lateral moraines that they reside between and are composed of unconsolidated debris deposited by the glacier. They are created during temporary halts in a glacier's retreat.

Arctic push moraines

In permafrost areas an advancing glacier may push up thick layers of frozen sediments at its front. An arctic push moraine will then be formed.

Medial moraine

A medial moraine is a ridge of moraine that runs down the center of a valley floor. It forms when two glaciers meet and the debris on the edges of the adjacent valley sides join and are carried on top of the enlarged glacier. As the glacier melts or retreats, the debris is deposited and a ridge down the middle of the valley floor is created. The Kaskawulsh Glacier in the Kluane National Park, Yukon, has a ridge of medial moraine 1 km wide.

Supraglacial moraines
Supraglacial moraines are created by debris accumulated on top of glacial ice. This debris can accumulate due to ice flow toward the surface in the ablation zone, melting of surface ice or from debris that falls onto the glacier from valley sidewalls.

Washboard moraines
Washboard moraines, also known as minor or corrugated moraines, are low-amplitude geomorphic features caused by glaciers. They consist of low-relief ridges, 1 to 2 m in height and around 100 m apart, accumulated at the base of the ice as lodgment till. The name "washboard moraine" refers to the fact that, from the air, it resembles a washboard.''

Veiki moraine
A Veiki moraine is a kind of hummocky moraine that forms irregular landscapes of ponds and plateaus surrounded by banks. It forms from the irregular melting of ice covered with a thick layer of debris. Veiki moraine is common in northern Sweden and parts of Canada.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

authors: Вячеслав Митрофанов

title: Moraine


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Talk:Ultraviolet

UV Light, Infrared Light and Visible Light relations
If UV light is higher, is visible light brightness and infrared light heat also higher too? Can one type type increase without increasing the other types? For example does a UV index of 8 have the same sunlight brightness on the ground and same color temperature regardless of the angle of the sun in the sky and horizon? RedProofHill123 (talk) 18:11, 12 October 2022 (UTC)
 * In general, the ratios of UV, visible light and infrared emitted by a source can be in any proportion. I'm not aware of a hard and fast rule relating the "UV Index" given in the weather report to the amount of visible light and infrared coming from the Sun on that day; since atmospheric layers that absorb UV may have no effect on visible light or IR, there may not be a strict correlation (aside from the obvious that after sunset there's no visible, IR or UV). --Wtshymanski (talk) 02:02, 25 October 2022 (UTC)

UV Light effects on sleep cycles
Any thought to adding a sub-section on the effects of UV light on the sleep cycle: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41433-020-01132-2 Egreena42 (talk) 23:20, 5 December 2022 (UTC)

Ultraviolet
Read article 2402:3A80:1BDC:F388:0:0:D7D:DC6C (talk) 01:40, 5 February 2023 (UTC)

Consistency, is it UV-X or UVX ?
This might sound like nit picking, but I came across the issue because I had a problem reading the article.

In the introduction one of the paragraphs mixes wavelength and UVB before the term UV is described. As I do not know the range of UVB wavelengths I used my browser search for UVB in the article, but it found no wavelength ranges for the term.

However I found the table of the UV subtypes which uses the terms UV-A, UV-B and UV-C.

Which is correct or more commonly used? I believe UVX is more common, but I am an electronics and software engineer not an optics engineer or physicist. The article should use only one or the other.

Note also that when I searched the article for UV B only 3 hits were found. The dash or minus used in the table must be a different character. When I take that term UV‑B and search for it I get 17 hits. Whereas UVB gets 23 hits. Therefore the term without the dash is more common in the article. The fact that the character used for the dash in UV-X is not consistent and the minus character available on a standard keyboard is not the character most commonly used in the article would indicate that no dash or minus would be better.

I also suggest, in the introduction, before the terms are described, that either only wavelengths and frequencies should be used, or UVA, UVB and UVC terms and wavelength ranges should be described before the terms are used. Alternatively the wavelength range should be included in brackets wherever the terms are used before they are described in the article.

If I hear nothing I will change the EM spectrum to be consistent with the rest of the article and add a paragraph to describe UVA, UVB & UVC in the introduction. Lkingscott (talk) 10:01, 6 February 2023 (UTC)

What is UVB?
This article uses the term "UVB" 23 times, but never defines it or explains it. I think it's reasonable to infer that UVB has some relationship to ultraviolet, since the "UV" in "UVB" probably stand for "ultra violet".

Of course, I could search the web to learn what "UVB" means, but this article ought to explain it. Preferably before using the term 23 times. — Lawrence King ( talk ) 05:30, 27 September 2023 (UTC)
 * Ultraviolet. --Wtshymanski (talk) 19:07, 11 October 2023 (UTC)

Origin of UV-A, B, and C designations?
I don't have a reference for this, but I somewhat recall that the UV-A, UV-B, and UV-C nomenclature came from medicine, where UV-A and UV-B lamps had different therapeutic uses, and UV-C lamps were used for sanitizing air, surfaces, etc. 2600:4041:DF:9600:1885:6FC0:C62A:5345 (talk) 19:25, 14 October 2023 (UTC)

References to UV wavelengths without explanation
UVA, UVB, and UVC are referenced a lot on this page in a way that suggests the reader should already be familiar with these topics. This usually wouldn't be a problem, but there's no solid definition of their differences and defining characteristics, just their behavior in certain conditions. A new section defining and discussing them could be very helpful, particularly since those terms redirect to this page. 65.129.38.23 (talk) 01:52, 26 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ultraviolet


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Talk:Philip Larkin

Issues still outstanding from Peer Review
Although we were able to put done tags on a lot of the issues from the Peer Review the following are still outstanding:  almost - instinct 13:39, 17 November 2009 (UTC)

 * BB says: "It seems that too little use is made in the article of the collected letters, which could be used to flesh out more details of his private life, including some quite significant incidents. Among things not mentioned in the article are his being made a Companion of Honour in summer 1985 (letter to Anthony Powell 7 August 1985) and his being too ill to receive it from the Queen (letter 18 October 1985 to Colin Gunner). Also, we learn that Larkin was made a Companion of Literature (C.Litt) by the RSL, a more singular honour than a Fellowship (letter to Robert Conquest, 4 July 1978), and we can read what he thought about this ("Down among the dead men")" Does anyone have with access to this book? If so, could they dredge up the information being pointed to by BB?
 * I own the Letters, so could do this. Macphysto (talk) 14:29, 17 November 2009 (UTC)

2.1 Juvenilia &c.

 * BB says: "Booth's collection of the Coleman fiction and other early writing has a lengthy introduction discussing these works. It would be good to see this used as a source. In particular there is discussion of two unfinished novels No For An Answer and A New World Symphony, dated as between 1948 and 1954. These are not mentioned in the article, and I believe they should be, particularly as Booth's book has long (80+ pages) extracts from both." I don't have this book. Does anyone else?

 * "In what way did [The North Ship] show the influence of Yeats?"

2.2 Mature works

 * "I feel like the analysis of Larkin's writing is a bit thin. The "Creative output" section doesn't contain any analysis of his novels, for example."

2.3 Poetic style

 * M3 says: "I'm not getting a sense in the Creative output section of how Larkin's poetry style or themes resounded with his generation, whether he was revolutionary or not, whether he was as plain as any poet who gets into a magazine" and "I am also wishing for a statement or paragraph in this section ... that roundly states what his poems were about, what essence they captured, and how critics have since described his career"

 * "Larkin's earliest work showed the influence of Eliot, Auden and Yeats, and the development of his mature poetic identity in the early 1950s coincided with the growing influence on him of Thomas Hardy. - In what specific ways did these other poets influence Larkin's work?"

 * "The "Poetic style" section is almost entirley made up of quotations. Could some of these be removed and paraphrases used instead? It is jarring for the reader to read so many quotes."

2.4 Prose non-fiction

 * BB says: "we should be told whose view it is that in Required Writing his scepticism is at its most "nuanced and illuminating" (and preferably what this means), and at its most inflamed and polemical in the Daily Telegraph reviews. The sentence beginning "His scepticism...." is much too long and needs dividing" This, IIRC was written a long time ago. It would be good if someone could rewrite the whole section, IMO

 * More wanted on Larkin at Sixty
 * I'll see what I can do (but not until after I've supplied alt text for another 10 images in Leeds). --GuillaumeTell 16:21, 10 November 2009 (UTC)
 * Thank you :-) (and I think a leisurely pace has been proved to be de rigeur round here)  almost - instinct 16:31, 10 November 2009 (UTC)

 * "The "Critical opinion" section is almost a list of opinions rather than a coherent, topically-based section. There is even a one-sentence paragraph. This section needs to be restructed so that the reader is led through the different ideas rather than through the different critics. The names of the critics are not so important as the ideas. Also, the critics should be grouped together better, to indicate broad trends in Larkin scholarship. The paragraph that begins "The view that Larkin is not a nihilist or pessimist, but actually displays optimism in his works, is certainly not universally endorsed, but Chatterjee's lengthy study suggests the degree to which old stereotypes of Larkin are now being transcended" is the best example of the kind of topical coherence that the rest of the section should have."

Dead links
Just to note there are few broken URLs in the article's references, perhaps jeopardizing its good article status (but the only thing preventing it from becoming an FA in my view). Sir Richardson (talk) 15:04, 18 September 2011 (UTC)
 * Thank you for this. I've been through them all, and think these are all the dead ones: notes 45, 123, 132, 133, 139 , 158, 159, 162 . I'll work through them and find replacements asap. As for FA I would imagine the FAC reviewers would point to those issues still outstanding from the Peer Review. IMO it wouldn't take much work by someone equipped to deal with the issues. Yours,  almost - instinct 15:27, 18 September 2011 (UTC)
 * Two left to go. Am thinking that more up to date info is needed, not just a replacements for the links  almost - instinct 09:31, 24 September 2011 (UTC)

Photos
Is just one photo of the man sufficient ? Are there none available from when he was younger ? -- Beardo (talk) 08:16, 4 April 2012 (UTC)
 * I'm not sure - this was a while ago - but I believe that the people who were looking for photos found that ones without copyright issues were scarce. The article could definitely benefit from more photos of PL, if legitimate ones could be found. The lack of them explains all the pictures of buildings....  almost - instinct 10:49, 4 April 2012 (UTC)

Larkin, Needler Hall and Roger McGough
I brought this up some time ago, but now I have found reference to it in print (Roger McGough (2005), Said and Done Random House), see the link below (scroll down a page or so to find the Larkin reference):

http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bHd10oHMycIC&pg=PT89&dq=Needler+Hall&hl=en&sa=X&ei=6rPUT_qcBImQ8QO6moS_Aw&ved=0CE0Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Needler%20Hall&f=false

The interaction of two poets, and Roger McGough is quite well known (and has been nationally recognised - he has a CBE), is of some note. Especially as his correspondence with McGough is one of the few recorded instances of Larkin encouraging an aspiring fellow poet.

Motion's apparent omission in not noting Larkin's connection to the university hall of residence in Cottingham should not take precedence over an eyewitness account. The university owned houses in Cottingham, the student residents of which ate meals at Needler Hall, it is possible that Larkin was not resident in the hall but took his evening meals there in a similar manner. It is certain, however, that he ate there, and gave a begrudging Latin grace before the evening meal. As this is all in a published book I think that the bald statement that Larkin was in lodgings in Cottingham when he started work at Hull should be modified. Urselius (talk) 15:21, 10 June 2012 (UTC)

 * I don't believe I am convinced that the location of Larkin's evening meals is information sufficienty notable for this article. Or is there an angle to this I am missing?  almost - instinct 21:16, 11 June 2012 (UTC)

 * It is of similar weight to the presence in the article of a reference to him living in digs in Cottingham - especially if he wasn't, at least initially.
 * Larkin was noted as being less than helpful to students, or even approachable (he extended the same attitude to members of university staff for that matter). Larkin's interaction with McGough is remarkable in that it is an uncharacteristic example of him encouraging a young and aspiring poet - McGough wrote to Larkin largely due to having come across him when he was a student living at the hall of residence. The anecdote about the umbrella that McGough gives is a priceless vignette of Larkin in and of itself. Urselius (talk) 07:07, 12 June 2012 (UTC)

Currently the section in question reads: "In 1955 Larkin became University Librarian at the University of Hull, a post he would hold until his death. For his first year he lodged in bedsits." That second second sentence was including because in 1955 Larkin wrote "Mr Bleaney", his poem about lodging ("'This was Mr Bleaney's room'" it starts)  almost - instinct 22:59, 12 June 2012 (UTC)

 * I think we have become somewhat stalled on the hall aspect. Is there anything in the article about Larkin interacting with or helping other poets? If he had done so, should not this be mentioned?

 * Larkin helped Amis out with writing Lucky Jim and this is mentioned, and he helped, with advice, McGough when he was starting out as a poet - worthy of a sentence I would opine. McGough was in the pop charts with the group "The Scaffold" in the 1960s ("Lilly the Pink" etc.) has published a large number of well received poetry collections and for many years has had a weekly poetry programme on BBC Radio 4 - and is the most widely known face, or voice, of poetry in the UK. He has quite a high profile. Urselius (talk) 07:40, 13 June 2012 (UTC)

Maybe a separate section on his interaction (and/or lack of it) with other writers (eg also Barbara Pym) would be the way forward? The material on Amis might be happier in such a place? Maybe somewhere in the Legacy section? And might there be a better term than "Legacy"? (IIRC correctly that's just a standard suggested title)  almost - instinct 10:17, 13 June 2012 (UTC)

 * I think a section on his interactions with other writers would be a useful addition. There is some coverage of the writers who influenced Larkin, so there should be a counterweight concerning his influence on others, and not just via his published work but also through his actions. Urselius (talk) 11:04, 13 June 2012 (UTC)

Weasel Words In Opening Sentence
The first sentence of this article is a textbook example of the use of weasel words (pls see WP:WEASEL for explanation of weasel words). One can't just make a passive statement like "Larkin is widely regarded as one of the great English poets of the latter half of the twentieth century" without any attribution of this judgement. Otherwise, it simply expresses a contributors POV in the passive voice. Still, I think it's possible to communicate Larkin's importance as a poet without using weasel words. However, it would require editors to use actual references, preferrably with direct quotation/s.Jpcohen (talk) 05:22, 17 June 2012 (UTC)
 * Very quick first reply: I thought that in line citations weren't supposed to be used in the lede? IIRC this was originally a quote from the Times' 50 Greatest Post-War Writers survey (?which placed him at number one) but I'll have to look closely at how it evolved. Meanwhile, pls could you make a suggested replacement? Thanks  almost - instinct 22:12, 17 June 2012 (UTC)

 * Right, here is what was originally in the opening paragraph back in April 2008: "Larkin is commonly regarded as one of the greatest English poets of the latter half of the twentieth century. In 2003 Larkin was chosen as "the nation's best-loved poet" in a survey by the Poetry Book Society[1] and in 2008 The Times named Larkin as the greatest post-war writer[2]." The information in the second of those sentences has been moved away, leaving the first sentence on its own and looking unqualified. What would be the best way/s of using this information and/or rewriting the sentence to reflect this and correct the inadvertently created problem?  almost - instinct 13:22, 18 June 2012 (UTC)

 * I would change the first sentence of the lede to something very simple like "Philip Larkin was an English poet and novelist." It looks like the lede already contains praise for Larkin as Poet Book Society's "best-loved poet" and The Times "greatest post-war writer" at the end of the lede. I think that would probably be a sufficient amount of praise, don't you?Jpcohen (talk) 16:14, 18 June 2012 (UTC)

 * To tell the truth I've never looked at the guidelines for ledes and I think I'm right in saying that I've never edited this one. There was a stage a couple of years ago when there was some very intense discussion about what should be there (re: the contraversial elements) Normally when starting an article I do very plain first sentences like one you suggested; if anyone thinks that putting in a plain opening sentence undoes the balance that took some effort to be agreed on, could they pipe up, please?  almost - instinct 16:38, 18 June 2012 (UTC)
 * PS now I come to look over it, it seems to me that the second sentence could benefit from being cut in half.  almost - instinct 16:40, 18 June 2012 (UTC)

If anyone wants to look, the guidelines for citations in the lead are at WP:LEADCITE and for what to include at WP:MOSINTRO  almost - instinct 14:40, 19 June 2012 (UTC)

Spanish Wikipedia
A translation of this page on the Spanish Wikipedia has just been awarded Featured Article status. The irony of this is ... well, something ;-)  almost - instinct 13:03, 21 June 2012 (UTC)

Larkin's women
There is discussion starting at Talk:Patsy Strang on what to do with Patsy Strang and Monica Jones. Merge them here into a dedicated section (Larkin's personal relationships?), merge them together into a standalone article Philip Larkin's women?, leave them as they are, or simply redirect the titles here?  SilkTork   ✔Tea time  13:32, 9 August 2012 (UTC)
 * I've posted my thoughts on that talkpage  almost - instinct 15:29, 9 August 2012 (UTC)
 * There is now Relationships that influenced Philip Larkin, which should be linked to in this article on the man.211.225.33.104 (talk) 01:09, 22 November 2014 (UTC)
 * It is linked through Patsy Strang but I have put a See also at the start of the section to make it more obvious. Keith D (talk) 11:09, 22 November 2014 (UTC)

Article - broken CSS
This article exhibits the usual broken Wikipedia CSS: delivering low resolution feature-phone-type content to high resolution devices with better-than-desktop resolution, forcing users to accept the poor user experience resulting from the poor web design or else scroll to the end of the page and click a link to request a suitable version of the page (so-called 'Desktop'). — Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.157.215.14 (talk) 00:19, 7 January 2015 (UTC)

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CE
Tidied citations and references which had harv error warnings all over them, by replacing citation with cite book etc.Keith-264 (talk) 21:59, 30 March 2016 (UTC)

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All What Jazz or All that Jazz
This article, in quite an early section, gives the title of one of Larkin's works as "All What Jazz", but I thought that it was called "All That Jazz". Vorbee (talk) 08:29, 30 July 2017 (UTC)
 * The book given is ISBN 9780571134762 which is ""All What Jazz". Keith D (talk) 15:41, 30 July 2017 (UTC)
 * It's mentioined here and it's for sale e.g. here. Martinevans123 (talk) 15:53, 30 July 2017 (UTC)

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Meaning of "loss of modernism" needs clarification.
" In Hawkes's view, "Larkin's poetry ... revolves around two losses": the "loss of modernism", which manifests itself as "the desire to find a moment of epiphany", and "the loss of England, or rather the loss of the British Empire, which requires England to define itself in its own terms when previously it could define 'Englishness' in opposition to something else."[93]" and the phrase "loss of modernism" is unclear. Further down the article says that Larkin not unwillingly acquired a reputations as "an enemy of modernism". So why would his poetry revolve around the loss of something he hated? And what would that even mean? The reference is to a hard copy book that I can't consult. How about a quote from the book long enough that readers can see from the context what "modernism" refers to here? Arctic Gazelle (talk) 18:37, 29 April 2022 (UTC)

Proposed merge of Larkin 25 into Philip Larkin
Lots of overlap between the two articles. Randykitty (talk) 19:00, 19 January 2023 (UTC)

 * Oppose seems excessively long and detailed to merge into the main Larkin article. Jahaza (talk) 19:08, 19 January 2023 (UTC)

 * It's "excessively long and detailed" because it repeats a lot of the main article and because it contains a lot of trivial stuff... --Randykitty (talk) 19:47, 19 January 2023 (UTC)
 * OK, then edit the article down to something that should be merged. Jahaza (talk) 20:18, 19 January 2023 (UTC)

 * Support merge. With the trivia and duplicated material were removed it wouldn't add much text to this article. Mike Christie (talk - contribs -  library) 19:59, 19 January 2023 (UTC)
 * Oppose not really suitable for dumping in the main article. It is fine as a separate article. Keith D (talk) 01:34, 20 January 2023 (UTC)

When did Larkin retire as a librarian?
There is a brief mention that Larkin worked for the university library for thirty years, but nothing is said about when he retired or why. Very odd that such an omission has survived in a Featured Article. Moonraker (talk) 11:26, 10 April 2024 (UTC)

 * It seems he never did retire. This source says "When he died in 1985 at the age of sixty-three, he had not, in fact, written any poems to speak of for some years, but he was still working as a librarian." Martinevans123 (talk) 12:11, 10 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Also this: "Though the continued cutbacks made Larkin contemplate retiring, he did not. He died in office. In the summer of 1985 he became ill with cancer. By November he was too sick to attend Maeve Brennan's retirement party. On 2 December he died." Regards. Martinevans123 (talk) 14:22, 10 April 2024 (UTC)
 * He never retired, he died in office as librarian although had been progressively more and more ill for a while.  Andy Dingley (talk) 13:46, 10 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Philip Larkin


text:
Amélie

Amélie (Le Fabuleux Destin d'Amélie Poulain,, lit. 'The Fabulous Destiny of Amélie Poulain') is a 2001 French-language romantic comedy film directed by Jean-Pierre Jeunet. Written by Jeunet with Guillaume Laurant, the film is a whimsical depiction of contemporary Parisian life, set in Montmartre. It tells the story of a shy, introverted and quirky waitress, played by Audrey Tautou, who decides to change the lives of those around her for the better while dealing with her own isolation. The film features an ensemble cast of supporting roles, including Mathieu Kassovitz, Rufus, Lorella Cravotta, Serge Merlin, Jamel Debbouze, Claire Maurier, Clotilde Mollet, Isabelle Nanty, Dominique Pinon, Artus de Penguern, Yolande Moreau, Urbain Cancelier, and Maurice Bénichou.

Amélie was released theatrically in France on 25 April 2001 by UGC-Fox Distribution and in Germany on 16 August 2001 by Prokino Filmverleih. The film received widespread critical acclaim, with major praise for Tautou's performance, the cinematography, visuals, production design, sound design, editing, musical score, writing and Jeunet's direction. Amélie won Best Film at the European Film Awards, four César Awards, including Best Film and Best Director, and two British Academy Film Awards, including Best Original Screenplay. It was nominated for five Academy Awards, including Best Foreign Language Film and Best Original Screenplay. The film was an enormous commercial success, grossing $174.2 million worldwide against a budget of $10 million, and is one of the biggest international successes for a French film.

Plot
Amélie Poulain is born in 1974 and brought up by eccentric parents who – incorrectly believing that she has a heart defect – decide to home-school her. To cope with her loneliness, Amélie develops an active imagination and a mischievous personality. When Amélie is six, her mother, Amandine, is killed when a suicidal Canadian tourist jumps from the roof of Notre-Dame de Paris and lands on her. As a result, her father, Raphaël, withdraws more and more from society. Amélie leaves home at the age of 18 and becomes a waitress at the Café des 2 Moulins in Montmartre, which is staffed and frequented by a collection of eccentrics. She is single and lets her imagination roam freely, finding contentment in simple pleasures like dipping her hand into grain sacks, cracking crème brûlée with a spoon, and skipping stones along the Canal Saint-Martin.

On 31 August 1997, startled by the news of the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, Amélie drops a plastic perfume-stopper, which dislodges a wall tile and accidentally reveals an old metal box which contains childhood memorabilia hidden by a boy who lived in her apartment decades earlier. Amélie resolves to track down the boy and return the box to him. She promises herself that if it makes him happy, she will devote her life to bringing happiness to others.

After asking the apartment's concierge and several old tenants about the boy's identity, Amélie meets her reclusive neighbour, Raymond Dufayel, an artist with brittle bone disease who replicates Pierre-Auguste Renoir's 1881 painting Luncheon of the Boating Party every year. He recalls the boy's name as "Bretodeau". Amélie finds the man, Dominique Bretodeau, and surreptitiously gives him the box. Moved to tears by the discovery and the memories it holds, Bretodeau resolves to reconcile with his estranged daughter and the grandson he has never met. Amélie happily embarks on her new mission.

Amélie secretly executes complex schemes that positively affect the lives of those around her. She escorts a blind man to the Métro station while giving him a rich description of the street scenes he passes. She persuades her father to follow his dream of touring the world by stealing his garden gnome and having a flight attendant friend mail pictures of it posing with landmarks from all over the world. She starts a romance between her hypochondriacal co-worker Georgette and Joseph, a patron of the cafe. She convinces Madeleine Wallace, the concierge of her block of flats, that the husband who abandoned her had sent her a final conciliatory love letter just before his accidental death years before. She plays practical jokes on Collignon, the nasty greengrocer. Mentally exhausted, Collignon no longer abuses his meek, good-natured assistant Lucien. A delighted Lucien subsequently takes charge at the grocery stand.

Dufayel, having observed Amélie, begins a conversation with her about his painting. Although he has copied the same Renoir painting 20 times, he has never quite captured the look of the girl drinking a glass of water. They discuss the meaning of this character, and over several conversations, Amélie begins projecting her loneliness onto the image. Dufayel recognizes this and uses the girl in the painting to push Amélie to examine her attraction to a quirky young man, Nino Quincampoix, who collects the discarded photographs of strangers from passport photo booths. When Amélie bumps into Nino a second time, she realizes she is falling in love with him. He accidentally drops a photo album in the street. Amélie retrieves it.

Amélie plays a cat-and-mouse game with Nino around Paris before returning his treasured album anonymously. After arranging a meeting at the 2 Moulins, Amélie panics and tries to deny her identity. Her co-worker, Gina, concerned for Amélie's well-being, screens Nino for her; Joseph's comment about this misleads Amélie to believe she has lost Nino to Gina. It takes Dufayel's insight to give her the courage to pursue Nino, resulting in a romantic night together and the beginning of a relationship. The film ends as Amélie experiences a moment of happiness she has found for herself.

Production

In his DVD commentary, Jeunet explains that he originally wrote the role of Amélie for the English actress Emily Watson. In that first draft, Amélie's father was an Englishman living in London. However, Watson's French was not strong, and when she became unavailable to shoot the film, owing to a conflict with the filming of Gosford Park (2001), Jeunet rewrote the screenplay for a French actress. Audrey Tautou was the first actress he auditioned having seen her on the poster for the 1999 film Venus Beauty Institute.

Filming took place mainly in Paris. The Café des 2 Moulins (15 Rue Lepic, Montmartre, Paris) where Amélie works is a real place. Principal photography began from 2 March 2000 to 7 July 2000.

The filmmakers made use of computer-generated imagery (including computer animation), and a digital intermediate. The studio scenes were filmed in the MMC Studios Coloneum in Cologne (Germany). The film shares many of the themes in its plot with the second half of the 1994 film Chungking Express.

Release
The film was released in France, Belgium, and French-speaking western Switzerland in April 2001, with subsequent screenings at various film festivals followed by releases around the world. It received limited releases in North America, the United Kingdom, and Australasia later in 2001.

Cannes Film Festival selector Gilles Jacob described Amélie as "uninteresting", and therefore it was not screened at the festival, although the version he viewed was an early cut without music. The absence of Amélie at the festival caused something of a controversy because of the warm welcome by the French media and audience in contrast with the reaction of the selector. David Martin-Jones, in an article in Senses of Cinema, stated that the film "[wears] its national [French] identity on its sleeve" and that this attracted both audiences of mainstream films and those of arthouse ones.

Subsequent re-releases
In 2021, Newen Connect's TF1 Studio signed a deal with UGC for international distribution and sales rights to its films, including Amélie. The film was then re-released in multiple countries for its 20th anniversary, including on 11 May 2021 in Italy, by BIM Distribuzione.

In February 2022, while discussing the legacy of Amélie in an interview with The New York Times, Jeunet stated that U.S. distribution rights to the film, previously held by Miramax Zoë, had been acquired by Sony Pictures Classics, with the company planning a re-release in the future. While the distributor did confirm this news, no further developments were reported until late December 2023, when Sony announced their acquisition of distribution rights to the film for North America excluding French Canada and scheduled the film for a theatrical re-release in 250 theatres in the United States on 14 February 2024.

Critical response
On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a 90% approval rating based on 230 reviews, with an average rating of 8.2/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "The feel-good Amélie is a lively, fanciful charmer, showcasing Audrey Tautou as its delightful heroine." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 69 out of 100, based on 31 critics, indicating "generally positive" reviews.

Alan Morrison from Empire magazine gave Amélie five stars and called it "one of the year's best, with crossover potential along the lines of Cyrano de Bergerac (1990) and Il Postino (1994). Given its quirky heart, it might well surpass them all". Paul Tatara of CNN praised Amélie's playful nature. In his review, he wrote, "Its whimsical, free-ranging nature is often enchanting; the first hour, in particular, is brimming with amiable, sardonic laughs".

The film was attacked by critic Serge Kaganski of Les Inrockuptibles for an unrealistic and picturesque vision of a bygone French society with few ethnic minorities. Jeunet dismissed the criticism by pointing out that the photo collection contains pictures of people from numerous ethnic backgrounds, and that Jamel Debbouze, who plays Lucien, is of Moroccan descent.

Box office
The film opened on 432 screens in France and grossed 43.2 million French Franc ($6.2 million) in its opening week, placing it at number one. It stayed in the top 10 for 22 weeks. It was the highest-grossing film in France for the year with a gross of $41 million. The film also grossed $33 milion in the United States and Canada theatrically, making it the highest-grossing French-language film of all time in North America.

Accolades
Amélie was selected by The New York Times as one of "The Best 1,000 Movies Ever Made". The film placed No. 2 in Empire magazine's "The 100 Best Films of World Cinema". Paste magazine ranked it second on its list of the 50 Best Movies of the Decade (2000–2009). In August 2016, BBC Magazine conducted a poll on the 21st century's 100 greatest films so far, with Amélie ranking at number 87.

Entertainment Weekly named the film poster one of the best on its list of the top 25 film posters in the past 25 years. It also named Amélie setting up a wild goose chase for her beloved Nino all through Paris as No. 9 on its list of top 25 Romantic Gestures. In 2010, an online public poll by the American Cinematographer – the house journal of the American Society of Cinematographers – named Amélie the best shot film of the decade.

Amelie is rated 37 among the 50 Greatest Romantic Comedies of All Time by Rolling Stone magazine.

Soundtrack
The soundtrack to Amélie was composed by Yann Tiersen.

Musical adaptation
On 23 August 2013, composer Dan Messe, one of the founders and members of the band Hem, confirmed speculation that he would be writing the score for a musical adaptation of Amélie, collaborating with Craig Lucas and Nathan Tysen. Messe also confirmed he would be composing all original music for the show and not using the Yann Tiersen score. The musical adaptation premiered at the Berkeley Repertory Theater in August 2015. It opened on Broadway in March 2017 and closed in May 2017. The production started its pre-Broadway engagement at the Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles in December 2016, with Phillipa Soo in the title role. A London production opened in 2020, with Australian, German, Dutch, and Finnish productions set to open or resume pending the cessation of restrictions due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Jeunet has distanced himself from the musical due to his distaste for the artform, saying he only sold the rights to raise funds for children's charity "Mécénat Chirurgie Cardiaque".

Home media
The film has no overall worldwide distributor, but Blu-ray Discs have been released in Canada and Australia. The first release occurred in Canada in September 2008 by TVA Films. This version did not contain any English subtitles and received criticisms regarding picture quality. In November 2009, an Australian release occurred. This time the version contained English subtitles and features no region coding. Momentum Pictures released a Blu-ray in the UK on 17 October 2011. The film is also available in HD on iTunes and other digital download services.

In the United Kingdom, it was 2013's tenth best-selling foreign-language film on physical home video formats, and the year's third best-selling French film (below The Intouchables and Rust and Bone).

Legacy
For the 2007 television show Pushing Daisies, a "quirky fairy tale", American Broadcasting Company (ABC) sought an Amélie feel, with the same chords of "whimsy and spirit and magic". Pushing Daisies creator Bryan Fuller said Amélie is his favorite film. "All the things I love are represented in that movie", he said. "It's a movie that will make me cry based on kindness as opposed to sadness". The New York Times' review of Pushing Daisies reported "the Amélie influence on Pushing Daisies is everywhere".

A species of frog was named Cochranella amelie. The scientist who named it said: "This new species of glass frog is for Amélie, protagonist of the extraordinary movie Le Fabuleux Destin d'Amélie Poulain; a film where little details play an important role in the achievement of joie de vivre; like the important role that glass frogs and all amphibians and reptiles play in the health of our planet". The species was described in the scientific journal Zootaxa in an article entitled "An enigmatic new species of Glassfrog (Amphibia: Anura: Centrolenidae) from the Amazonian Andean slopes of Ecuador". The film is also the inspiration behind a painting game called Été where players can paint Montreal into life.

title: Amélie


text:
Leopard

The leopard (Panthera pardus) is one of the five extant species in the genus Panthera. It has a pale yellowish to dark golden fur with dark spots grouped in rosettes. Its body is slender and muscular reaching a length of 92 - 183 cm with a 66 - 102 cm long tail and a shoulder height of 60 - 70 cm. Males typically weigh 30.9 - 72 kg, and females 20.5 - 43 kg.

The leopard was first described in 1758, and several subspecies were proposed in the 19th and 20th centuries. Today, eight subspecies are recognised in its wide range in Africa and Asia. It initially evolved in Africa during the Early Pleistocene, before migrating into Eurasia around the Early–Middle Pleistocene transition. Leopards were formerly present across Europe, but became extinct in the region at around the end of the Late Pleistocene-early Holocene.

The leopard is adapted to a variety of habitats ranging from rainforest to steppe, including arid and montane areas. It is an opportunistic predator, hunting mostly ungulates and primates. It relies on its spotted pattern for camouflage as it stalks and ambushes its prey, which it sometimes drags up a tree. It is a solitary animal outside the mating season and when raising cubs. Females usually give birth to a litter of 2–4 cubs once in 15–24 months. Both male and female leopards typically reach sexual maturity at the age 2–2.5 years.

Listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, leopard populations are currently threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, and are declining in large parts of the global range. Leopards have had cultural roles in Ancient Greece, West Africa and modern Western culture. Leopard skins are popular in fashion.

Etymology
The English name "leopard" comes from Old French leupart or Middle French liepart, that derives from Latin leopardus and ancient Greek λέοπάρδος (leopardos). Leopardos could be a compound of λέων (leōn), meaning lion, and πάρδος (pardos), meaning spotted. The word λέοπάρδος originally referred to a cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus).

"Panther" is another common name, derived from Latin panther and ancient Greek πάνθηρ (pánthēr); The generic name Panthera originates in Latin panthera, a hunting net for catching wild beasts to be used by the Romans in combats. Pardus is the masculine singular form.

Taxonomy

Felis pardus was the scientific name proposed by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. The generic name Panthera was first used by Lorenz Oken in 1816, who included all the known spotted cats into this group. Oken's classification was not widely accepted, and Felis or Leopardus was used as the generic name until the early 20th century.

The leopard was designated as the type species of Panthera by Joel Asaph Allen in 1902. In 1917, Reginald Innes Pocock also subordinated the tiger (P. tigris), lion (P. leo), and jaguar (P. onca) to Panthera.

Living subspecies
Following Linnaeus' first description, 27 leopard subspecies were proposed by naturalists between 1794 and 1956. Since 1996, only eight subspecies have been considered valid on the basis of mitochondrial analysis. Later analysis revealed a ninth valid subspecies, the Arabian leopard.

In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the Cat Specialist Group recognized the following eight subspecies as valid taxa:

Results of an analysis of molecular variance and pairwise fixation index of 182 African leopard museum specimens showed that some African leopards exhibit higher genetic differences than Asian leopard subspecies.

Evolution
Results of phylogenetic studies based on nuclear DNA and mitochondrial DNA analysis showed that the last common ancestor of the Panthera and Neofelis genera is thought to have lived about. Neofelis diverged about from the Panthera lineage. The tiger diverged about, followed by the snow leopard about and the leopard about. The leopard is a sister taxon to a clade within Panthera, consisting of the lion and the jaguar.

Results of a phylogenetic analysis of chemical secretions amongst cats indicated that the leopard is closely related to the lion. The geographic origin of the Panthera is most likely northern Central Asia. The leopard-lion clade was distributed in the Asian and African Palearctic since at least the early Pliocene. The leopard-lion clade diverged 3.1–1.95 million years ago. Additionally, a 2016 study revealed that the mitochondrial genomes of the leopard, lion and snow leopard are more similar to each other than their nuclear genomes, indicating that their ancestors hybridized with the snow leopard at some point in their evolution.

The oldest unambiguous fossils of the leopard are from Eastern Africa, dating to around 2 million years ago.

Leopard-like fossil bones and teeth possibly dating to the Pliocene were excavated in Perrier in France, northeast of London, and in Valdarno, Italy. Until 1940, similar fossils dating back to the Pleistocene were excavated mostly in loess and caves at 40 sites in Europe, including Furninha Cave near Lisbon, Genista Caves in Gibraltar, and Santander Province in northern Spain to several sites across France, Switzerland, Italy, Austria, Germany, in the north up to Derby in England, in the east to Přerov in the Czech Republic and the Baranya in southern Hungary. Leopards arrived in Eurasia during the late Early to Middle Pleistocene around 1.2 to 0.6 million years ago. Four European Pleistocene leopard subspecies were proposed. P. p. begoueni from the beginning of the Early Pleistocene was replaced about by P. p. sickenbergi, which in turn was replaced by P. p. antiqua around 0.3 million years ago. P. p. spelaea is the most recent subspecies that appeared at the beginning of the Late Pleistocene and survived until about 11,000 years ago and possibly into the early Holocene in the Iberian Peninsula.

Leopards depicted in cave paintings in Chauvet Cave provide indirect evidence of leopard presence in Europe. Leopard fossils dating to the Late Pleistocene were found in Biśnik Cave in south-central Poland. Fossil remains were also excavated in the Iberian and Italian Peninsula, and in the Balkans. Leopard fossils dating to the Pleistocene were also excavated in the Japanese archipelago. Leopard fossils were also found in Taiwan.

Hybrids
In 1953, a male leopard and a female lion were crossbred in Hanshin Park in Nishinomiya, Japan. Their offspring known as a leopon was born in 1959 and 1961, all cubs were spotted and bigger than a juvenile leopard. Attempts to mate a leopon with a tigress proved unsuccessful.

Characteristics
The leopard's fur is generally soft and thick, notably softer on the belly than on the back. Its skin colour varies between individuals from pale yellowish to dark golden with dark spots grouped in rosettes. Its underbelly is white and its ringed tail is shorter than its body. Its pupils are round. Leopards living in arid regions are pale cream, yellowish to ochraceous and rufous in colour; those living in forests and mountains are much darker and deep golden. Spots fade toward the white underbelly and the insides and lower parts of the legs. Rosettes are circular in East African leopard populations, and tend to be squarish in Southern African and larger in Asian leopard populations. The fur tends to be grayish in colder climates, and dark golden in rainforest habitats. Rosette patterns are unique in each individual. This pattern is thought to be an adaptation to dense vegetation with patchy shadows, where it serves as camouflage.

Its white-tipped tail is about 60 - 100 cm long, white underneath and with spots that form incomplete bands toward the end of the tail. The guard hairs protecting the basal hairs are short, 3-4 mm in face and head, and increase in length toward the flanks and the belly to about 25 - 30 mm. Juveniles have woolly fur that appear to be dark-coloured due to the densely arranged spots. Its fur tends to grow longer in colder climates. The leopard's rosettes differ from those of the jaguar, which are darker and with smaller spots inside. The leopard has a diploid chromosome number of 38.

Melanistic leopards are also known as black panthers. Melanism in leopards is caused by a recessive allele and is inherited as a recessive trait. In India, nine pale and white leopards were reported between 1905 and 1967. Leopards exhibiting erythrism were recorded between 1990 and 2015 in South Africa's Madikwe Game Reserve and in Mpumalanga. The cause of this morph known as a "strawberry leopard" or "pink panther" is not well understood.

Size
The leopard is a slender and muscular cat, with relatively short limbs and a broad head. It is sexually dimorphic with males larger and heavier than females. Males stand 60 - 70 cm at the shoulder, while females are 57 - 64 cm tall. The head-and-body length ranges between 92 and 183 cm with a 66 to 102 cm long tail. Sizes vary geographically. Males typically weigh 30.9 - 72 kg, and females 20.5 - 43 kg. Occasionally, large males can grow up to 91 kg. Leopards from the Cape Province in South Africa are generally smaller, reaching only 20 - 45 kg in males. The maximum recorded weight of a wild leopard in Southern Africa was around 96 kg, and it measured 262 cm. In 2016, an Indian leopard killed in Himachal Pradesh measured 261 cm with an estimated weight of 78.5 kg; it was perhaps the largest known wild leopard in India.

The largest recorded skull of a leopard was found in India in 1920 and measured 28 cm in basal length, 20 cm in breadth, and weighed 1 kg. The skull of an African leopard measured 286 mm in basal length, and 181 mm in breadth, and weighed 790 g.

Distribution and habitat
The leopard has the largest distribution of all wild cats, occurring widely in Africa, the Caucasus and Asia, although populations are fragmented and declining. It is considered to be locally extinct in North Africa. It inhabits foremost savanna and rainforest, and areas where grasslands, woodlands, and riverine forests remain largely undisturbed. It can also persist in urban environments, if it is not persecuted, has sufficient prey and patches of vegetation for shelter during the day. In sub-Saharan Africa, it is still numerous and surviving in marginal habitats where other large cats have disappeared. There is considerable potential for human-leopard conflict due to leopards preying on livestock.

Leopard populations in the Arabian Peninsula are small and fragmented. In southeastern Egypt, a leopard killed in 2017 was the first sighting of the species in this area in 65 years.

In the Indian subcontinent, the leopard is still relatively abundant, with greater numbers than those of other Panthera species. As of 2020, the leopard population within forested habitats in India's tiger range landscapes was estimated at 12,172 to 13,535 individuals. Surveyed landscapes included elevations below 2600 m in the Shivalik Hills and Gangetic plains, Central India and Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats, the Brahmaputra River basin and hills in Northeast India. Some leopard populations in the country live quite close to human settlements and even in semi-developed areas. Although adaptable to human disturbances, leopards require healthy prey populations and appropriate vegetative cover for hunting for prolonged survival and thus rarely linger in heavily developed areas. Due to the leopard's stealth, people often remain unaware that it lives in nearby areas.

In Nepal's Kanchenjunga Conservation Area, a melanistic leopard was photographed at an elevation of 4300 m by a camera trap in May 2012. In Sri Lanka, leopards were recorded in Yala National Park and in unprotected forest patches, tea estates, grasslands, home gardens, pine and eucalyptus plantations. In Myanmar, leopards were recorded for the first time by camera traps in the hill forests of Myanmar's Karen State. The Northern Tenasserim Forest Complex in southern Myanmar is considered a leopard stronghold. In Thailand, leopards are present in the Western Forest Complex, Kaeng Krachan-Kui Buri, Khlong Saeng-Khao Sok protected area complexes and in Hala Bala Wildlife Sanctuary bordering Malaysia. In Peninsular Malaysia, leopards are present in Belum-Temengor, Taman Negara and Endau-Rompin National Parks. In Laos, leopards were recorded in Nam Et-Phou Louey National Biodiversity Conservation Area and Nam Kan National Protected Area. In Cambodia, leopards inhabit deciduous dipterocarp forest in Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary and Mondulkiri Protected Forest. In southern China, leopards were recorded only in the Qinling Mountains during surveys in 11 nature reserves between 2002 and 2009.

In Java, leopards inhabit dense tropical rainforests and dry deciduous forests at elevations from sea level to 2540 m. Outside protected areas, leopards were recorded in mixed agricultural land, secondary forest and production forest between 2008 and 2014.

In the Russian Far East, it inhabits temperate coniferous forests where winter temperatures reach a low of −25 °C.

Behaviour and ecology
The leopard is a solitary and territorial animal. It is typically shy and alert when crossing roadways and encountering oncoming vehicles, but may be emboldened to attack people or other animals when threatened. Adults associate only in the mating season. Females continue to interact with their offspring even after weaning and have been observed sharing kills with their offspring when they can not obtain any prey. They produce a number of vocalizations, including growls, snarls, meows, and purrs. The roaring sequence in leopards consists mainly of grunts, also called "sawing", as it resembles the sound of sawing wood. Cubs call their mother with an urr-urr sound.

The whitish spots on the back of its ears are thought to play a role in communication. It has been hypothesized that the white tips of their tails may function as a 'follow-me' signal in intraspecific communication. However, no significant association were found between a conspicuous colour of tail patches and behavioural variables in carnivores.

Leopards are mainly active from dusk till dawn and will rest for most of the day and some hours at night in thickets, among rocks or over tree branches. Leopards have been observed walking 1 - 25 km across their range at night; wandering up to 75 km if disturbed. In some regions, they are nocturnal. In western African forests, they have been observed to be largely diurnal and hunting during twilight, when their prey animals are active; activity patterns vary between seasons.

Leopards can climb trees quite skillfully, often resting on tree branches and descending headfirst. They can run at over 58 km/h, leap over 6 m horizontally, and jump up to 3 m vertically.

Social spacing
In Kruger National Park, most leopards tend to keep 1 km apart. Males occasionally interact with their partners and cubs, and exceptionally this can extend beyond to two generations. Aggressive encounters are rare, typically limited to defending territories from intruders. In a South African reserve, a male was wounded in a male–male territorial battle over a carcass.

Males occupy home ranges that often overlap with a few smaller female home ranges, probably as a strategy to enhance access to females. In the Ivory Coast, the home range of a female was completely enclosed within a male's. Females live with their cubs in home ranges that overlap extensively, probably due to the association between mothers and their offspring. There may be a few other fluctuating home ranges belonging to young individuals. It is not clear if male home ranges overlap as much as those of females do. Individuals try to drive away intruders of the same sex.

A study of leopards in the Namibian farmlands showed that the size of home ranges was not significantly affected by sex, rainfall patterns or season; the higher the prey availability in an area, the greater the leopard population density and the smaller the size of home ranges, but they tend to expand if there is human interference. Sizes of home ranges vary geographically and depending on habitat and availability of prey. In the Serengeti, males have home ranges of 33 - 38 km2 and females of 14 - 16 km2; but males in northeastern Namibia of 451 km2 and females of 188 km2. They are even larger in arid and montane areas. In Nepal's Bardia National Park, male home ranges of 48 km2 and female ones of 5 - 7 km2 are smaller than those generally observed in Africa.

Hunting and diet
The leopard is a carnivore that prefers medium-sized prey with a body mass ranging from 10 –. Prey species in this weight range tend to occur in dense habitat and to form small herds. Species that prefer open areas and have well-developed anti-predator strategies are less preferred. More than 100 prey species have been recorded. The most preferred species are ungulates, such as impala, bushbuck, common duiker and chital. Primates preyed upon include white-eyelid mangabeys, guenons and gray langurs. Leopards also kill smaller carnivores like black-backed jackal, bat-eared fox, genet and cheetah. In urban environments, domestic dogs provide an important food source. The largest prey killed by a leopard was reportedly a male eland weighing 900 kg. A study in Wolong National Nature Reserve in southern China demonstrated variation in the leopard's diet over time; over the course of seven years, the vegetative cover receded, and leopards opportunistically shifted from primarily consuming tufted deer to pursuing bamboo rats and other smaller prey.

The leopard depends mainly on its acute senses of hearing and vision for hunting. It primarily hunts at night in most areas. In western African forests and Tsavo National Park, they have also been observed hunting by day. They usually hunt on the ground. In the Serengeti, they have been seen to ambush prey by descending on it from trees. It stalks its prey and tries to approach as closely as possible, typically within 5 m of the target, and, finally, pounces on it and kills it by suffocation. It kills small prey with a bite to the back of the neck, but holds larger animals by the throat and strangles them. It caches kills up to 2 km apart. It is able to take large prey due to its powerful jaw muscles, and is therefore strong enough to drag carcasses heavier than itself up into trees; an individual was seen to haul a young giraffe weighing nearly 125 kg up 5.7 m into a tree. It eats small prey immediately, but drags larger carcasses over several hundred meters and caches it safely in trees, bushes or even caves; this behaviour allows the leopard to store its prey away from rivals, and offers it an advantage over them. The way it stores the kill depends on local topography and individual preferences, varying from trees in Kruger National Park to bushes in the plain terrain of the Kalahari.

Average daily consumption rates of 3.5 kg were estimated for males and of 2.8 kg for females. In the southern Kalahari Desert, leopards meet their water requirements by the bodily fluids of prey and succulent plants; they drink water every two to three days and feed infrequently on moisture-rich plants such as gemsbok cucumbers, watermelon and Kalahari sour grass.

Enemies and competitors
Across its range, the leopard coexists with a number of other large predators. In Africa, the leopard is part of a large predator guild with lions, cheetahs, spotted and brown hyenas, and African wild dogs. The leopard is dominant only over the cheetah while the others have the advantage of size, pack numbers or both. Leopards do not seem to actively avoid their competitors but rather difference in prey and habitat preferences appear to limit their spatial overlap. In particular, leopards use heavy vegetation regardless of whether lions are present in an area and both cats are active at the same time of day. Hyenas commonly steal kills from leopards. In the Kalahari Desert, leopards frequently lose kills to brown hyenas. Single brown hyenas have been observed charging at and displacing male leopards from kills. To counter this, leopards store their kills in the trees and out of reach. Lions occasionally fetch leopard kills from trees.

In Asia, the leopard's main competitors are tigers and dholes. Both the larger tiger and pack-living dhole dominate leopards during encounters. Tigers appear to inhabit the deep parts of the forest while leopards and dholes are pushed closer to the fringes. The three predators coexist by hunting different sized prey. In Nagarhole National Park, the average size for a leopard kill was 37.6 kg compared to 91.5 kg for tigers and 43.4 kg for dholes. At Kui Buri National Park, following a reduction in prey numbers, tigers continued to feed on favoured prey while leopards and dholes had to increase their consumption of small prey. Leopards can live successfully in tiger habitat when there is abundant food and vegetation cover. Nevertheless, they appear to be less common where tigers are numerous. Both the tiger and lion readily kill and consume both young and adult leopards, but interspecies killing of full-grown leopards is rare.

Reproduction and life cycle
In some areas, leopards mate all year round. In Manchuria and Siberia, they mate during January and February. On average, females begin to breed between the ages of 2½ and three, and males between the ages of two and three. The female's estrous cycle lasts about 46 days, and she is usually in heat for 6–7 days. Gestation lasts for 90 to 105 days. Cubs are usually born in a litter of 2–4 cubs. The mortality rate of cubs is estimated at 41–50% during the first year. Lions and spotted hyenas are the biggest cause for leopard cub mortality during their first year. Male leopards are known to cause infanticide, in order to bring the female back into heat. Intervals between births average 15 to 24 months, but can be shorter, depending on the survival of the cubs.

Females give birth in a cave, crevice among boulders, hollow tree or thicket. Newborn cubs weigh 280-1000 g, and are born with closed eyes, which open four to nine days after birth. The fur of the young tends to be longer and thicker than that of adults. Their pelage is also more gray in colour with less defined spots. They begin to eat meat at around nine weeks. Around three months of age, the young begin to follow the mother on hunts. At one year of age, cubs can probably fend for themselves, but will remain with the mother for 18–24 months. After separating from their mother, sibling cubs may travel together for months. Both male and female leopards typically reach sexual maturity at 2–2⅓ years.

The generation length of the leopard is 9.3 years. The average life span of a leopard is 12–17 years. The oldest leopard was a captive female that died at the age of 24 years, 2 months and 13 days.

Conservation
The leopard is listed on CITES Appendix I, and hunting is banned in Botswana and Afghanistan; in 11 sub-Saharan countries, trade is restricted to skins and body parts of 2,560 individuals. In 2007, a leopard reintroduction programme was initiated in the Russian Caucasus, where captive bred individuals are reared and trained in 0.5–0.9 ha large enclosures in Sochi National Park; six individuals released into Caucasus Nature Reserve and Alaniya National Park in 2018 survived as of February 2022. The leopard is locally extinct in Morocco, Mauritania, Togo, Libya, Tunisia, Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and most likely in Gambia, Lesotho, Laos, Vietnam and North Korea.

Threats
The leopard is primarily threatened by habitat fragmentation and conversion of forest to agriculturally used land, which lead to a declining natural prey base, human–wildlife conflict with livestock herders and high leopard mortality rates. It is also threatened by trophy hunting and poaching. Contemporary records suggest that the leopard occurs in only 25% of its historical range.

Between 2002 and 2012, at least four leopards were estimated to have been poached per week in India for the illegal wildlife trade of its skins and bones. In spring 2013, 37 leopard skins were found during a 7-week long market survey in major Moroccan cities. In 2014, 43 leopard skins were detected during two surveys in Morocco. Vendors admitted to have imported skins from sub-Saharan Africa.

Surveys in the Central African Republic's Chinko area revealed that the leopard population decreased from 97 individuals in 2012 to 50 individuals in 2017. In this period, transhumant pastoralists from the border area with Sudan moved in the area with their livestock. Rangers confiscated large amounts of poison in the camps of livestock herders who were accompanied by armed merchants. They engaged in poaching large herbivores, sale of bushmeat and trading leopard skins in Am Dafok.

In Java, the leopard is threatened by illegal hunting and trade. Between 2011 and 2019, body parts of 51 Javan leopards were seized including six live individuals, 12 skins, 13 skulls, 20 canines and 22 claws.

Cultural significance
Leopards have been featured in art, mythology and folklore of many countries. In Greek mythology, it was a symbol of the god Dionysus, who was depicted wearing leopard skin and using leopards as means of transportation. In one myth, the god was captured by pirates but two leopards rescued him. Numerous Roman mosaics from North African sites depict fauna now found only in tropical Africa. During the Benin Empire, the leopard was commonly represented on engravings and sculptures and was used to symbolise the power of the king or oba, since the leopard was considered the king of the forest. The Ashanti people also used the leopard as a symbol of leadership, and only the king was permitted to have a ceremonial leopard stool. Some African cultures considered the leopard to be a smarter, better hunter than the lion and harder to kill.

In Rudyard Kipling's "How the Leopard Got His Spots", one of his Just So Stories, a leopard with no spots in the Highveld lives with his hunting partner, the Ethiopian. When they set off to the forest, the Ethiopian changed his brown skin, and the leopard painted spots on his skin. A leopard played an important role in the 1938 Hollywood film Bringing Up Baby. African chiefs, European queens, Hollywood actors and burlesque dancers wore coats made of leopard skins.

The leopard is a frequently used motif in heraldry, most commonly as passant. The heraldic leopard lacks spots and sports a mane, making it visually almost identical to the heraldic lion, and the two are often used interchangeably. Naturalistic leopard-like depictions appear on the coat of arms of Benin, Malawi, Somalia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Gabon, the last of which uses a black panther.

Attacks on people
The Leopard of Rudraprayag killed more than 125 people; the Panar Leopard was thought to have killed over 400 people. Both were shot by British hunter Jim Corbett. The spotted devil of Gummalapur killed about 42 people in Karnataka, India.

In captivity
The ancient Romans kept leopards in captivity to be slaughtered in hunts as well as execute criminals. In Benin, leopards were kept and paraded as mascots, totems and sacrifices to deities. Several leopards were kept in a menagerie originally established by King John of England at the Tower of London in the 13th century; around 1235, three of these animals were given to Henry III by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. In modern times, leopards have been trained and tamed in circuses.

title: Leopard


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Hilderic

Hilderic (460s – 533) was the penultimate king of the Vandals and Alans in North Africa in Late Antiquity (523–530). Although dead by the time the Vandal Kingdom was overthrown in 534, he nevertheless played a key role in that event.

Life
Hilderic was the grandson of king Genseric, founder of the Vandal kingdom in Africa. His father was Genseric's son Huneric, and his mother was Eudocia, the daughter of the Roman Emperor Valentinian III and Licinia Eudoxia. Most of the Vandals were Arians and had persecuted Chalcedonians, but Hilderic favored Chalcedonianism as the religion of his mother, making his accession to the throne controversial. Soon after becoming king, Hilderic had his predecessor's widow, Amalafrida, imprisoned; he escaped war with her brother, the Gothic king Theoderic the Great, only by virtue of the latter's death in 526.

Hilderic's reign was noteworthy for the kingdom's excellent relations with the Eastern Roman Empire. Procopius writes that he was "a very particular friend and guest-friend of Justinian, who had not yet come to the throne", noting that Hilderic and Justinian exchanged large presents of money to each other. Hilderic allowed a new Chalcedonian bishop to take office in the Vandal capital of Carthage, and many Vandals began to convert to Chalcedonianism, to the alarm of the Vandal nobility.

By the time he assumed the crown, Hilderic was at least into his fifties, if not more than 60. For this reason, according to Procopius, he was uninterested in the military operations of the Vandals and left them to other family members, of whom Procopius singles out for mention his nephew Hoamer.

After seven years on the throne, Hilderic fell victim to a revolt led by his cousin Gelimer, who led the people in a rebellion against the Vandal King. Gelimer then became King of the Vandals and Alans, and restored Arianism as the official religion of the kingdom. He imprisoned Hilderic, along with Hoamer and his brother Euagees, but did not kill him. Justinian protested Gelimer's actions, demanding that Gelimer return the kingdom to Hilderic. Gelimer sent away the envoys who brought him this message, blinding Hoamer and putting both Hilderic and Euagees under closer confinement, claiming that they had planned a coup against him. When Justinian sent a second embassy protesting these developments, Gelimer replied, in effect, that Justinian had no authority to make these demands. Angered at this response, Justinian quickly concluded his ongoing war with the Sassanian Empire and prepared an expedition against the Vandals in 533. Once Gelimer learned of the arrival of the Roman army, he had Hilderic murdered, along with Euagees and other supporters of Hilderic he had imprisoned. Hilderic through his legendary daughter, Hildis and her son Halfdan the Old, is ancestor of Ragnar Lodbrok and his descendants.

title: Hilderic