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Talk:Drawing

Definitions
This encyclopedia article on drawing ignores the practice of entopic graphomania (in which dots are made at the sites of impurities or shifts in colour in a blank sheet of paper), in which the "subject" of the drawing is neither what is seen before the eyes nor what is in the imagination but what is in the actual drawing surface itself. --Daniel C. Boyer

Should include something about automatic drawing. --Daniel C. Boyer
 * Resolved both problems. --Daniel C. Boyer

There is a question about how or whether to deal with the question of movement of liquid down a vertical surface (when done in ink) in this article. --Daniel C. Boyer

The definition of painting is given in painting. If it is repeated here, how do we keep track of changes or change it automatically? Also I agree with Boyer about the restrictive definitions given here. They set distinctions that ignore many techniques. For example, saying that drawing does not allow pre-mixing of colour is restrictive as it is quite easy to mix colours and draw with the mix. This could also imply that Seurat was making drawings and not paintings. So the definitions for painting and drawing have to be consistent. They could also be the same, coudn't they? Drawing and painting are both the application of colour to a surface, generally. Examples might let the reader decide his/her own interpretation for fringe cases. The Da Vinci drawing on that pas is clearly a drawing. But for example, many painters will start a painting by making a "drawing" of the subject. When does it stop being a "drawing"? I have changed the definition of painting to make it more general. I will wait and see if the modified definition holds and then try to refine the definition here.Rawbear 10:39, 29 September 2006 (UTC)

Again, the definition is repeated in the Media section: "The medium is the means by which ink, pigment, or color are delivered onto the drawing surface". Also, why specify that ink and pigment can be delivered? It is all about the application (or delivery) of colour to a surface. Then, this is that same as painting...

 * Ink, pigment and the drawing surface *are* the media. 38.112.4.154 (talk) 19:28, 28 May 2010 (UTC)

-- Presently, Drawing is defined as a "method". I don't see that. Drawing can be a verb (to draw) or a noun (a drawing). How is it a "method"? Furthermore, last night I made a very radical edit of the article, making the point that to draw means to deliniate a shape. This is an important concept, but I don't see it mentioned in the article. I'm new to Wikipedia editing processes, so I'll sit back and see if my comments get feedback.

I saw the change to "deliniate a shape". This might be a restrictive definition: you can fill a shape with colour without ever defining the edge. On the other hand, although everyone has a pretty good idea of what a drawing is, keeping only one definition might be the restrictive option. Hence, your change is valid, but I'm thinking of adding to it. I am beginning to see drawing the same way I see painting: the application of colour to a surface (including black, as in graphite and ink, of course). Only the tools change. Rawbear 13:22, 16 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Painting are drawing are in that way synonymous. 38.112.4.154 (talk) 19:32, 28 May 2010 (UTC)

- The edit to suggest that a drawing delineates a figure is far too narrow and prescriptive. Drawings are not only made with lines; drawings do not only record figures. Drawing (verb) is the act of making marks on a surface which creates a visual image of a form or a shape which is called a drawing (noun). I am changing the introduction to agree with people above who have also identified that this article fail to make distinction between the noun and verb use of "drawing". Cosmopolitancats 10:41, 9 December 2006 (UTC) ---

Would a link to the website be relevant? Kaydrawing 17:50, 12 September 2007 (UTC) September 2007

 * There are a million websites like this, no need to link one, everyone has google. 38.112.4.154 (talk) 19:32, 28 May 2010 (UTC)

Drawing techniques
A section on drawing techniques has been included and some reorganization performed. However there is much more that can be added and improved in that part, espectially in the artistry section (such as on the topic of composition). — RJH 15:18, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)

I would suggest that the topic of composition is substantial enough to require an article in its own right - as indeed it already has. A link to composition (visual arts) would be appropriate - although that topic could do with more work. Cosmopolitancats 10:44, 9 December 2006 (UTC)

You're right, there needs to be a lot more on art techniques on wikipedia. E.g. Not even a mention of gesture, really/wtf? 38.112.4.154 (talk) 19:34, 28 May 2010 (UTC)

Improvement drive
Graphics is currently nominated to be improved by WP:IDRIVE. Vote for it if you want to contribute.--Fenice 20:10, 16 August 2005 (UTC)

Removed Kurt Vonnegut from the list of notable artists. Too early to say anything about that, to say the least. Too contrast, perhaps some more emphasis on less "academic", more free, less focussed on technical details, forms of drawing may be required.

Can you please identify yourself when you make a change.

I disagree about less emphasis on the academic. I do agree that it should include more reference to contemporary developments. This whole article lacks adequate coverage of drawing as an important form of visual expression in art history and identification of different forms of drawings and approaches to drawing - over and above the pure techniques for making marks on paper.

An article on drawing techniques might be required which links to this page.

See below - I've referred this article for review. Cosmopolitancats 12:02, 9 December 2006 (UTC)
 * A number of articles with a meta-page is probably in order. There are a few art technique articles already up, but they are no where linked together. 38.112.4.154 (talk) 19:38, 28 May 2010 (UTC)

GA Re-Review and In-line citations
Members of the WikiProject Good articles are in the process of doing a re-review of current Good Article listings to ensure compliance with the standards of the Good Article Criteria. (Discussion of the changes and re-review can be found here). A significant change to the GA criteria is the mandatory use of some sort of in-line citation (In accordance to WP:CITE) to be used in order for an article to pass the verification and reference criteria. Currently this article does not include in-line citations. It is recommended that the article's editors take a look at the inclusion of in-line citations as well as how the article stacks up against the rest of the Good Article criteria. GA reviewers will give you at least a week's time from the date of this notice to work on the in-line citations before doing a full re-review and deciding if the article still merits being considered a Good Article or would need to be de-listed. If you have any questions, please don't hesitate to contact us on the Good Article project talk page or you may contact me personally. On behalf of the Good Articles Project, I want to thank you for all the time and effort that you have put into working on this article and improving the overall quality of the Wikipedia project.

______

The current article focuses on some aspects drawing process but in my opinion clearly does not meet the criteria to be listed as a good article. This is a very large topic which is inadequately covered at present.
 * its focus is far too narrow eg
 * no reference to the history of drawing, the changes in the importance of drawing over time and
 * no reference to the different types of drawing and different approaches to drawing (over and above techniques for mark-making)
 * no commentary on draftsmen (but maybe this should be a different article which should then be linked here)
 * no reference to drawing societies
 * no reference to important academic sources re drawing
 * no reference to important collections of drawings
 * no reference to contemporary developments
 * Failure to cite important references and quite a lot of opinion being expressed
 * it fails to make links to all other relevant parts of wikipedia

Some thought needs to be given to how information can be organised and what might be more appropriately contained in a related article (eg drawing techniques). I'll come back and keep working on this but would appreciate more input from people with a good knowledge of drawing from a fine art/history of art perspective.

I've put this article up for review to address the issues identified above. Cosmopolitancats 11:17, 9 December 2006 (UTC) _____

 * Good feedback. Thank you. — RJH (talk) 17:33, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

"no reference to important academic sources re drawing" There doesn't really exist many/any important academic sourses re drawing, but this would be a good idea if there were. "no reference to drawing societies" These have very little influence anymore, but they would be worth mentioning in a historical section. "Failure to cite important references and quite a lot of opinion being expressed" True enough, but we're going to be hard pressed to cite a lot of this very well, most drawing information seems to be passed down through an oral/visual tradition. There is not a lot of writing going on. "what might be more appropriately contained in a related article (eg drawing techniques)." Drawing techniques deserve articles. 38.112.4.154 (talk) 19:47, 28 May 2010 (UTC)
 * Complete nonsense. There is a huge academic literature on drawing. But this conversation was in 2007, & the article long demoted, rightly so. Johnbod (talk) 20:21, 28 May 2010 (UTC)

Links to other parts of Wikipedia
I've included links to Sketch (visual drawing) and sketchbook in the reference section. the latter now includes links to online versions on the sketchbooks of famous artists Cosmopolitancats 11:54, 9 December 2006 (UTC)

On further investigation it would appear that most people, like me, are not aware that there is
 * a Drawing Category
 * a number of sub-drawing categories
 * a large number of individual pages devoted to drawing topics

As a structure for this broad topic area has already been established I therefore propose to review the existing article and move quite a lot of existing text to more specialist pages as I believe it has been inserted here in ignorance of what exists elsewhere already. I will first establish a plan for movement of text and proceed with this if there are no other comments.

I have made a start by inserting a link to the Category where ther sub-categories and drawing pages are listed at the top of this artcile.

Please do not add any more text to this page without first consulting the Drawing Category / sub-categories and all other Drawing pages  Cosmopolitancats 06:37, 11 December 2006 (UTC)

Subject
I'm afraid the assertion that most drawings are representational demonstrates an ignorance of developments in contemporary drawings and of the practice of some artists in the past. This section needs to be revised and I'll have a go on my next visit Cosmopolitancats 21:40, 9 December 2006 (UTC)

Computer software
A couple of online drawing communities have been added to the computer software section without any discussion on this page. first they should not appear in this section - they are not software. Second if an article on drawing communities is required to support this main article it needs to be drafted. Third - the request not to add any more text until we've thought about how best to restructure this page was ignored.

I propose to delete the online drawing communities on my next visit - but retain a note of them on this page - until a new article is proposed and drafted unless there are any dissenting voices. If you don't agree can you suggest what would be a more appropriate treatment bearing in mind there are a lot more online drawing communities than the ones listed.Cosmopolitancats 01:29, 8 January 2007 (UTC)

wiki drawing tools
Looking for web sites that allow people to draw via the browser to a wiki. Please ping me or post same.--DennisDaniels (talk) 19:30, 11 July 2009 (UTC)

The computer drawing option
Last sentence in Materials section reads "A new tool for drawing is the computer's 'drawing option'." Sounds like the result of mistranslation or unfamiliarity with computer technology. Suggest removal or expansion/clarification. 71.195.58.112 07:58, 1 August 2007 (UTC)

Recent edits
Recent edits, all coming from IPs in the same area, have introduced trivia, non-notable references to a gallery and brand of pen, and non-encyclopedic links (blogs, porn site). I have twice reverted the information which I believe compromised the encyclopedic content, explained so in my edit summaries, and twice been reverted by said IPs--multiple IPs can operate in unison w/o breaking the 3 revert rule. JNW 18:37, 14 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Agreed - admins please watch! Johnbod 18:45, 14 October 2007 (UTC)

Tags have been placed re: external links and poor and irrelevant examples. A review of IP edits from October 13 and 14 reveal the edits of concern. JNW 04:07, 15 October 2007 (UTC)

Definition: drawing vs. painting
I have a problem with this paragraph:

"Drawing is distinct from painting. The techniques of "drawing" and "painting" can be confused, because similar tools can perform both tasks; the operations are distinct in that painting involves the application of pigments, usually by means of a brush, onto cloth or prepared surfaces, whereas drawing is generally concerned with the marking of lines onto paper."

I believe that over-emphasizes differences in the support material. It's just as easy to find someone drawing on canvas as painting on paper.

Not sure how to define this better. Some differences suggest themselves, such as between line vs mass, monochrome (or very limited palette) vs color, "traditional" drawing media vs, well, paint, and so forth. I don't want to just jump in and rewrite the thing without a whole lot better idea of it... comments? __Just plain Bill 07:37, 7 November 2007 (UTC)

 * One of those instances where the more you try to define the differences, the more exceptions come to mind; I wonder if the distinctions made in the paragraph, while generally true, are even necessary. Line and mass are both properties of drawing; monochrom(ism?) is a more appropriate, but inadequate, description. I will look at this when I have more time. Passages that can still be trimmed are those on 'police sketch artists' and 'incredible nib' pens--of little or no relevance here. Good work! JNW 12:58, 7 November 2007 (UTC)
 * I think the fluid nature of paint, and use of brushes, vs the solid nature of the pigments in drawing (unless in ink), has to be the distinction. Gouache is in the middle, but on the drawing side I think.  Of course many Western drawings are worked over with wash, using a brush; similar Chinese works would be described as brush-paintings. Johnbod 13:18, 7 November 2007 (UTC)

Cheers, guys, thanks! I intend to let this one simmer for a little while & see what we come up with... ___Just plain Bill 15:24, 7 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Teaching figure drawing and figure painting, I've long been conscious of the distinctions. But these seem to be an issue primarily in the West; Asian art has long drawn (pun not intended) little distinction between drawing and painting. It is in the Western culture that drawing functions both as preparatory instrument and as an end in itself. If this is not already in the article, I can add something along these lines, with cites...time permitting. Today I'm teaching. JNW 22:50, 7 November 2007 (UTC)
 * OK, I'll throw something together while I'm still on a roll here. Feel free to gut it and start over, if need be. I won't be able to supply cites; more of a writer, musician and handyman here. As far as graphic arts go, I is more of a dilettante with some interest and atelier exposure. __Just plain Bill 00:30, 8 November 2007 (UTC)

Gallery
Here a couple dozen images from Wikimedia Commons, in no particular order. I'm thinking of putting a gallery towards the end of the article, before the Notes section. Some of these are, in fact engravings or plates from books, originating from a drawn source... __Just plain Bill 03:10, 8 November 2007 (UTC)

 * I was looking at the Commons, which is indeed a mess. Only actual photos of drawings belong here, and good quality ones (well reproduced I mean). But we certainly need more images in the article. Ones to illustrate the main media etc. As always the detail info texts on the Commons pics are awful. Johnbod 03:29, 8 November 2007 (UTC)
 * It'd be nice to go for quality images, I agree. Finding that in free images may take some time, and meanwhile I could see putting up a handful of these as examples. Nothing in the current rev. of the wikipedia is graven in stone, and if better images come along, they can go in the gallery instead. If we're lucky, keeping the gallery from getting bloated will be fun... __Just plain Bill 04:03, 8 November 2007 (UTC)

Masters of Drawing
Masters of Drawing changed to Notable Draftsmen. Calling these people Masters of Drawing is highly POV, especially when it does so for artists who are often thought to be pretty poor draftsmen. E.g. Pascin (http://imagehost.vendio.com/bin/imageserver.x/00000000/stevenskf/.mids/pasc2.jpg), and Van Gogh, (http://www.vggallery.com/drawings/jh_0155.jpg). 38.112.4.154 (talk) 20:23, 28 May 2010 (UTC)
 * Yes, they & others could just be removed from the list frankly. Pascin was more a famous character who drew really. Johnbod (talk) 22:17, 28 May 2010 (UTC)

Draftsman vs. Draughtsman
This article was very inconsistent in its use of these terms. As debates over national variations are discouraged per WP:ENGVAR, I edited the article to consistently use the American form "draftsman/men" over "draughtsman/men" due to the fact that the former appears 8 times and the latter 4. The same policy discourages changes from one to the other arbitrarily but calls for consistency within an article. Since this article is not particularly related to either a US or UK context, I went with the term that appeared more commonly and wanted to leave a note regarding that choice. MyNameWasTaken (talk) 21:20, 2 April 2012 (UTC)

Article illustrations
I would like a more thoughtful set of illustrations for this article. Some considerations:

Is there an illustration for drawing in antiquity, since drawing is mentioned as one of the most common arts? Are there ancient cave drawings which could be shown, for example?

Are various media adequately represented? Currently we have Rembrandt's (reed?) pen and wash, Toulouse pen and ink, Masson ink on paper, da Vinci (self-portrait) line drawing in sanguine (chalk), an Ingres (graphite?) pencil portrait, a computer rendering of two-point perspective, a Bouguereau drawing with black and white chalk or crayon, and one by a drawing machine using biros or Indian ink (according to Desmond Paul Henry).

Are various subjects adequately represented? Out of these eight drawings, four are human figures or faces, a fifth is an animal, six and seven are abstract, and the eighth is diagrammatic. There are no landscapes, architecture (besides the perspective diagram and the faint background of the Ingres portrait), still-lifes or regular decorative patterns. There are no representational drawings in a non-realistic (e.g., cartoon-like or anything drawn by a young child) style.

Besides all this, the illustrations have little direct connection with the textual content of the article.

Any help finding and placing more appropriate illustrations would be welcome. The captions of the existing images could also be improved to mention the media with which each was made. Hastyreader (talk) 14:07, 29 November 2012 (UTC)

Now that an IP user restored the Herbert Wetterauer image I removed (in my judgment it was the least interesting and notable of the portraits, and too similar to the Rembrandt in technique), there are five human figures or faces.

One thing I am having difficulty with is the scope of this article. Should it be limited to drawing in the Western fine art tradition or artistic movements, or is it supposed to encompass all drawing anywhere? (e.g. Chinese or Japanese brush painting and calligraphy) The current definition in relation to mark-making, with no qualifications as to being visually representative or aesthetically pleasing. I believe that's part of why this article has languished so long: it is trying to cover too many things which are related but don't really fall belong together in a single topic.

Architecture: Ingres et al. were sent to Rome to draw various classical ruins. There should be a suitable image of architecture somewhere in these returned school assignments.

Landscapes: Rembrandt drew landscapes, though he's already represented with the lion; Wenzel Hollar did some watercolor landscapes which are in the Chatsworth collection (or were when Old Master Drawings from Chatsworth was published); Paulus Bril did at least one Roman landscape, according to my notes.

Studies: there are no images of studies in this article, but there should be numerous usable ones of anatomy and drapery by da Vinci, Michelangelo, etc.

Still-lifes, decorations, caricatures: Not sure where to look. Dore was excellent, but how many of his drawings have survived apart from finished engravings? Hastyreader (talk) 14:24, 30 November 2012 (UTC)

Persistent inclusion of minor drawing
This appears to reflect the desire of a single account, a dedication to retaining a minor drawing by a contemporary artist of marginal note. Let's add relevant examples by significant artists. Further thoughts welcome. JNW (talk) 23:49, 18 August 2013 (UTC)
 * See also Brush. I smell a WP:COI agenda. JNW (talk) 23:56, 18 August 2013 (UTC)
 * Me too - removed from brush. still on about 25 language versions for Heidegger, & on lots of German articles though. Keep on keeping on J!! Johnbod (talk) 00:21, 19 August 2013 (UTC)
 * Thank you, JB. I'm away from home and checking in on an IPhone, so my abilities are limited. This looks like a determined long-term effort that might require more attention. There was also a prolonged discussion at the Heidegger page, but the rationale for removal there wasn't trenchant. JNW (talk) 00:27, 19 August 2013 (UTC)

suggestion..
Might it be better for such a general term with so many meanings to be the title of the disambiguation page (Drawing (disambiguation)) - then when people make links, they will be alerted to check; the links have more value in confirming the actual context that was meant. (drawing.. technical drawing.. drawing in CG.. drawing dividends etc). 86.176.242.250 (talk) 18:42, 28 February 2017 (UTC)

Boundary-pushing
In reading the article’s statements regarding the world-renowned, notable draftsman Jean-Michel Basquiat, who produced over 1500 drawings, I was puzzled by the following question: in exactly what way did he "push" the so-called "boundaries" of drawing? Also, is this unusual assertion someone's subjective opinion or is it an objective fact?173.72.115.153 (talk) 00:19, 12 September 2018 (UTC)De Mikeal Tibbetts
 * I don't see anything specifically about boundary-pushing in the article on Jean-Michel Basquiat, so I will remove it from this article. Just plain Bill (talk) 00:57, 12 September 2018 (UTC)

Nomination of Portal:Drawing for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether Portal:Drawing is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The page will be discussed at Wikipedia:Miscellany for deletion/Portal:Drawing until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the page during the discussion, including to improve the page to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the deletion notice from the top of the page. North America1000 10:16, 8 May 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Drawing


text:
Campanulales

Campanulales is a valid botanic name for a plant order. It was used in the Cronquist system as an order within the subclass Asteridae in the class Magnoliopsida flowering plants. As then circumscribed it included the families:

 * Pentaphragmataceae In Watson and Dallwitz this family has 1 genus, Pentaphragma with 30 species from southeast Asia.
 * Sphenocleaceae - 1 genus
 * Campanulaceae (harebells) - 28 genera
 * Stylidiaceae In Watson and Dallwitz it has 5 genera and 150 species.
 * Donatiaceae
 * Brunoniaceae In Watson and Dallwitz there is only one species in the family, Brunonia australis
 * Goodeniaceae (naupaka) - 1 genus

Campanulales is not recognized as an order in the APG II system, where the families are included in order Asterales, except for Sphenocleaceae in Solanales.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Campanulales


text:
User:Tmroeder

Thomas Michael Roeder

A Wikipedia user with interests in many fields. I am a software engineer at Google; before that, I did research and advanced development at Microsoft Research. I graduated with a Combined Honours B.Sc. in Mathematics and Computer Science from the University of British Columbia and went on to do an M.Sc. and Ph.D. at Cornell University in their Computer Science Department.

title: User:Tmroeder


text:
Rubiales (plant)

Rubiales was an order of flowering plants in the Cronquist system, including the families Rubiaceae and Theligonaceae. The latest APG system (2016) does not recognize this order and places the families within Gentianales.

title: Rubiales (plant)


text:
Audio codec

An audio codec, or audio decoder is a device or computer program capable of encoding or decoding a digital data stream (a codec) that encodes or decodes audio. In software, an audio codec is a computer program implementing an algorithm that compresses and decompresses digital audio data according to a given audio file or streaming media audio coding format. The objective of the algorithm is to represent the high-fidelity audio signal with a minimum number of bits while retaining quality. This can effectively reduce the storage space and the bandwidth required for transmission of the stored audio file. Most software codecs are implemented as libraries which interface to one or more multimedia players. Most modern audio compression algorithms are based on modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) coding and linear predictive coding (LPC).

In hardware, audio codec refers to a single device that encodes analog audio as digital signals and decodes digital back into analog. In other words, it contains both an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and digital-to-analog converter (DAC) running off the same clock signal. This is used in sound cards that support both audio in and out, for instance. Hardware audio codecs send and receive digital data using buses such as AC-Link, I²S, SPI, I²C, etc. Most commonly the digital data is linear PCM, and this is the only format that most codecs support, but some legacy codecs support other formats such as G.711 for telephony.

title: Audio codec


text:
Video codec

A video codec is software or hardware that compresses and decompresses digital video. In the context of video compression, codec is a portmanteau of encoder and decoder, while a device that only compresses is typically called an encoder, and one that only decompresses is a decoder.

The compressed data format usually conforms to a standard video coding format. The compression is typically lossy, meaning that the compressed video lacks some information present in the original video. A consequence of this is that decompressed video has lower quality than the original, uncompressed video because there is insufficient information to accurately reconstruct the original video.

There are complex relationships between the video quality, the amount of data used to represent the video (determined by the bit rate), the complexity of the encoding and decoding algorithms, sensitivity to data losses and errors, ease of editing, random access, and end-to-end delay (latency).

History
Historically, video was stored as an analog signal on magnetic tape. Around the time when the compact disc entered the market as a digital-format replacement for analog audio, it became feasible to also store and convey video in digital form. Because of the large amount of storage and bandwidth needed to record and convey raw video, a method was needed to reduce the amount of data used to represent the raw video. Since then, engineers and mathematicians have developed a number of solutions for achieving this goal that involve compressing the digital video data.

In 1974, discrete cosine transform (DCT) compression was introduced by Nasir Ahmed, T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao. During the late 1980s, a number of companies began experimenting with DCT lossy compression for video coding, leading to the development of the H.261 standard. H.261 was the first practical video coding standard, and was developed by a number of companies, including Hitachi, PictureTel, NTT, BT, and Toshiba, among others. Since H.261, DCT compression has been adopted by all the major video coding standards that followed.

The most popular video coding standards used for codecs have been the MPEG standards. MPEG-1 was developed by the Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG) in 1991, and it was designed to compress VHS-quality video. It was succeeded in 1994 by MPEG-2/H.262, which was developed by a number of companies, primarily Sony, Thomson and Mitsubishi Electric. MPEG-2 became the standard video format for DVD and SD digital television. In 1999, it was followed by MPEG-4/H.263, which was a major leap forward for video compression technology. It was developed by a number of companies, primarily Mitsubishi Electric, Hitachi and Panasonic.

The most widely used video coding format, as of 2016, is H.264/MPEG-4 AVC. It was developed in 2003 by a number of organizations, primarily Panasonic, Godo Kaisha IP Bridge and LG Electronics. H.264 is the main video encoding standard for Blu-ray Discs, and is widely used by streaming internet services such as YouTube, Netflix, Vimeo, and iTunes Store, web software such as Adobe Flash Player and Microsoft Silverlight, and various HDTV broadcasts over terrestrial and satellite television.

AVC has been succeeded by HEVC (H.265), developed in 2013. It is heavily patented, with the majority of patents belonging to Samsung Electronics, GE, NTT and JVC Kenwood. The adoption of HEVC has been hampered by its complex licensing structure. HEVC is in turn succeeded by Versatile Video Coding (VVC).

There are also the open and free VP8, VP9 and AV1 video coding formats, used by YouTube, all of which were developed with involvement from Google.

Applications
Video codecs are used in DVD players, Internet video, video on demand, digital cable, digital terrestrial television, videotelephony and a variety of other applications. In particular, they are widely used in applications that record or transmit video, which may not be feasible with the high data volumes and bandwidths of uncompressed video. For example, they are used in operating theaters to record surgical operations, in IP cameras in security systems, and in remotely operated underwater vehicles and unmanned aerial vehicles. Any video stream or file can be encoded using a wide variety of live video format options. Here are some of the H.264 encoder settings that need to be set when streaming to an HTML5 video player.

Video codec design
Video codecs seek to represent a fundamentally analog data set in a digital format. Because of the design of analog video signals, which represent luminance (luma) and color information (chrominance, chroma) separately, a common first step in image compression in codec design is to represent and store the image in a YCbCr color space. The conversion to YCbCr provides two benefits: first, it improves compressibility by providing decorrelation of the color signals; and second, it separates the luma signal, which is perceptually much more important, from the chroma signal, which is less perceptually important and which can be represented at lower resolution using chroma subsampling to achieve more efficient data compression. It is common to represent the ratios of information stored in these different channels in the following way Y:Cb:Cr. Different codecs use different chroma subsampling ratios as appropriate to their compression needs. Video compression schemes for Web and DVD make use of a 4:2:1 color sampling pattern, and the DV standard uses 4:1:1 sampling ratios. Professional video codecs designed to function at much higher bitrates and to record a greater amount of color information for post-production manipulation sample in 4:2:2 and 4:4:4 ratios. Examples of these codecs include Panasonic's DVCPRO50 and DVCPROHD codecs (4:2:2), Sony's HDCAM-SR (4:4:4), Panasonic's HDD5 (4:2:2), Apple's Prores HQ 422 (4:2:2).

It is also worth noting that video codecs can operate in RGB space as well. These codecs tend not to sample the red, green, and blue channels in different ratios, since there is less perceptual motivation for doing so—just the blue channel could be undersampled.

Some amount of spatial and temporal downsampling may also be used to reduce the raw data rate before the basic encoding process. The most popular encoding transform is the 8x8 DCT. Codecs which make use of a wavelet transform are also entering the market, especially in camera workflows which involve dealing with RAW image formatting in motion sequences. This process involves representing the video image as a set of macroblocks. For more information about this critical facet of video codec design, see B-frames.

The output of the transform is first quantized, then entropy encoding is applied to the quantized values. When a DCT has been used, the coefficients are typically scanned using a zig-zag scan order, and the entropy coding typically combines a number of consecutive zero-valued quantized coefficients with the value of the next non-zero quantized coefficient into a single symbol, and also has special ways of indicating when all of the remaining quantized coefficient values are equal to zero. The entropy coding method typically uses variable-length coding tables. Some encoders compress the video in a multiple step process called n-pass encoding (e.g. 2-pass), which performs a slower but potentially higher quality compression.

The decoding process consists of performing, to the extent possible, an inversion of each stage of the encoding process. The one stage that cannot be exactly inverted is the quantization stage. There, a best-effort approximation of inversion is performed. This part of the process is often called inverse quantization or dequantization, although quantization is an inherently non-invertible process.

Video codec designs are usually standardized or eventually become standardized—i.e., specified precisely in a published document. However, only the decoding process need be standardized to enable interoperability. The encoding process is typically not specified at all in a standard, and implementers are free to design their encoder however they want, as long as the video can be decoded in the specified manner. For this reason, the quality of the video produced by decoding the results of different encoders that use the same video codec standard can vary dramatically from one encoder implementation to another.

Commonly used video codecs
A variety of video compression formats can be implemented on PCs and in consumer electronics equipment. It is therefore possible for multiple codecs to be available in the same product, reducing the need to choose a single dominant video compression format to achieve interoperability.

Standard video compression formats can be supported by multiple encoder and decoder implementations from multiple sources. For example, video encoded with a standard MPEG-4 Part 2 codec such as Xvid can be decoded using any other standard MPEG-4 Part 2 codec such as FFmpeg MPEG-4 or DivX Pro Codec, because they all use the same video format.

Codecs have their qualities and drawbacks. Comparisons are frequently published. The trade-off between compression power, speed, and fidelity (including artifacts) is usually considered the most important figure of technical merit.

Codec packs
Online video material is encoded by a variety of codecs, and this has led to the availability of codec packs — a pre-assembled set of commonly used codecs combined with an installer available as a software package for PCs, such as K-Lite Codec Pack, Perian and Combined Community Codec Pack.

title: Video codec


text:
Video file format

A video file format is a type of file format for storing digital video data on a computer system. Video is almost always stored using lossy compression to reduce the file size.

A video file normally consists of a container (e.g. in the Matroska format) containing visual (video without audio) data in a video coding format (e.g. VP9) alongside audio data in an audio coding format (e.g. Opus). The container can also contain synchronization information, subtitles, and metadata such as title. A standardized (or in some cases de facto standard) video file type such as .webm is a profile specified by a restriction on which container format and which video and audio compression formats are allowed.

The coded video and audio inside a video file container (i.e. not headers, footers, and metadata) is called the essence. A program (or hardware) which can decode compressed video or audio is called a codec; playing or encoding a video file will sometimes require the user to install a codec library corresponding to the type of video and audio coding used in the file.

Good design normally dictates that a file extension enables the user to derive which program will open the file. That is the case with some video file formats, such as WebM (.webm), Windows Media Video (.wmv), Flash Video (.flv), and Ogg Video (.ogv), each of which can only contain a few well-defined subtypes of video and audio coding formats, making it relatively easy to know which codec will play the file. In contrast to that, some very general-purpose container types like AVI (.avi) and QuickTime (.mov) can contain video and audio in almost any format, and have file extensions named after the container type, making it very hard for the end user to use the file extension to derive which codec or program to use to play the files.

The free software FFmpeg project's libraries have very wide support for encoding and decoding video file formats. For example, Google uses ffmpeg to support a wide range of upload video formats for YouTube. One widely used media player using the ffmpeg libraries is the free software VLC media player, which can play most video files that end users will encounter.

title: Video file format


text:
Apron

An apron is a garment that is worn over other clothing to cover the front of the body. They may have several purposes, typically as a functional accessory that protects clothes and skin from stains and marks. However, other types of aprons may be worn as a decoration, for hygienic reasons, as part of a uniform, or as protection from certain dangers such as acid, allergens or excessive heat. It can also be used at work stations to hold extra tools and pieces or protect from dust and unwanted materials.

As a top layer that covers the front body, the apron is also worn as a uniform, adornment, ceremonial garb (e.g. Masonic apron) or fashion statement. Apron styles can be practical, fashionable, and sentimental.

The word comes from Old French napron, meaning a small piece of cloth. Over time "a napron" became "an apron" through a linguistic process called rebracketing.

Apron styles
There are many different apron forms depending on the purpose of the apron. A basic distinction is between waist aprons, which cover the body from the waist down, and bib aprons, which also cover the upper part of the body.

An apron is usually held in place by two ribbon-like strips of cloth that are tied at the back. A bib apron may either have a strap around the neck (perhaps the most widespread use today), or shoulder straps that criss-cross at the back and attach to the waistband. The advantage of the former design is that it makes it especially simple to put on the bib apron. The advantage of the shoulder strap design is that it makes the apron more comfortable to wear; a neck strap can slightly impair ease of movement.

Some modern-day aprons have humorous expressions, designs or corporate logos.

Bib apron
The bib apron (also known as the "French chefs apron" or a "barbecue apron") has been worn for centuries. The bib apron's humble beginnings began when people used scraps of fabric to make a bib-like covering that slipped over the neck and tied at the back. The bib apron's intuitive design and full coverage have made it a popular apron for tradesmen and people in low-economic classes since the 1880s—and maybe even earlier. In the 1960s—when women no longer wanted an apron that symbolized domestic ideals—the bib apron became the most-used apron and is now offered in a multitude of variations, colors, detailing and fabrications.

Pinafore

Pinafores may be worn by girls and women as a decorative garment or as a protective apron. A related term is pinafore dress (American English: jumper dress); it is a sleeveless dress intended to be worn over a top or blouse.

A pinafore is a full apron with two holes for the arms that is tied or buttoned in the back, usually just below the neck. Pinafores have complete front shaped over shoulder while aprons usually have no bib, or only a smaller one. A child's garment to wear at school or for play would be a pinafore.

Tabard

A tabard (British English; cobbler apron in U.S. English) is a type of apron that covers both the front and back of the body. It is fastened with side ties or with waistbands that tie in the back. It covers most of the upper part of the body and is used in many occupations, like bakeries, hospitals, and large retail stores. The original cobbler's apron was typically made of leather.

An alternative version uses snaps instead of ties and closes at the front. Such an apron is in effect like a vest and is more commonly sold for domestic rather than occupational use.

Bungalow apron
A bungalow apron is an item of women's at-home clothing. Most bungalow aprons were extremely simple garments, often with kimono sleeves (sleeves cut in one piece with the body of the dress), little or no trim, and the fewest possible fasteners. Most date from the first half of the 20th century (roughly 1910 into the 1940s), when they evolved into or were replaced by the "patio dress" or Lounger available today.

In contrast to most aprons, they were intended to be worn as a stand-alone garment, not over another dress. They probably developed from the full-coverage wraparound or pullover aprons of the early years of the 20th century.

Bungalow aprons fell roughly between nightgowns or house coats and house-dresses; they were appropriate for morning in-home wear but would not have been worn outside of the house, as opposed to a true morning or house-dress, which might have been worn to the grocery store or in other informal situations.

Clerical garment
The term apron also refers to an item of clerical clothing, now largely obsolete, worn by Anglican bishops and archdeacons. The clerical apron resembles a short cassock reaching just above the knee, and is colored black for archdeacons and purple for bishops. The apron is worn with black breeches, reaching to just below the knee, and knee-length gaiters. The history behind the vesture is that it symbolically represents the mobility of bishops and archdeacons, who at one time would ride horses to visit various parts of a diocese or archdeaconry. In this sense, the apparel was much more practical than a clerical cassock would be. In latter years, this vesture was more symbolic than practical, and since the mid-twentieth century it has fallen out of favor.

Aprons in the home
The apron was traditionally viewed as an essential garment for anyone doing housework. Cheaper clothes and washing machines made aprons less common beginning in the mid-1960s in some countries such as the United States. However, the practice of wearing aprons remains strong in many places.

Today, the apron has enjoyed a minor renaissance in terms of both women and men now wearing them when performing household chores. For instance, an article in The Wall Street Journal claimed in 2005 that the apron is "enjoying a renaissance as a retro-chic fashion accessory" in the United States. However, it still is not as prevalent as it was prior to the 1960s.

Aprons are nowadays considered equally appropriate for both women and men by most people. However, prevailing social norms ensure that women frequently wear more delicate clothing, and may therefore be more likely to want the protection an apron offers. This can also be because the apron is the traditional clothing for cooking and washing dishes, which was usually done by women.

When domestic workers are supplied a uniform by their employers, an apron is often included. The aprons are worn for hygienic as well as for identification purposes.

Protective and fashionable aprons throughout history
Since fabric was precious in the medieval and Renaissance eras, aprons then were little more than scraps of material tied around the waist with the intent of protecting the valuable clothing underneath.

In Europe during the Middle Ages, aprons were worn by blacksmiths, armor and weapon makers, gardeners, carvers, furniture makers, leather smiths, cobblers, tailors, jewelers, metal forgers, fishmongers, clock makers, homemakers, tradesmen, artisans and masons. Tradesmen in general were called "apron men," as aprons were so common that distinguishing styles emerged between the various trades. For example, English barbers were known as "checkered apron men." Cobblers wore black to protect garments from the black wax used on shoes. Butchers wore blue stripes. Butlers wore green aprons. Blue was commonly worn by weavers, spinners, and gardeners. Stonemasons wore white aprons as protection against the dust of their trade, and even in the twenty-first century, aprons survive as part of Masonic ceremonial attire. These aprons were long, coming down to below the knees, with a flap or bib to protect the chest. The Union of the Grand Lodge of England between the Ancient and Modern branches of English Freemasonry in 1813 brought into many effect many changes in dress and ritual which still prevail to this day. In respect to the Masonic apron it was felt necessary to have these standardised and the resulting effort are the aprons we have in use today. The Dutch wore aprons bordered with black and with a skull and crossbones on the flap. Scottish lodges each have their individual right to choose the design, colour and shape of their aprons; some employ a tartan, while many others have a circular rather than a triangular flap. Soldiers of the French Foreign Legion wore leather aprons as part of their ceremonial dress as early as the 18th century.

From these utilitarian beginnings, the modern apron got more stylish over time. During the Renaissance, more fanciful aprons crafted from finer fabrics began to appear—usually without bibs and often embroidered. Well-to-do women favored long dresses often with detachable sleeves, and to keep their expensive gowns clean, they wore washable aprons or overdresses in a range of embellishments and materials.

Aprons became a fashion statement in the 1500s, when women started adorning them with expensive lace and embroidery.

Politics ruled women's fashion in 1650s England when Oliver Cromwell decreed that women and girls should dress properly. This sparked the Puritan look of a white apron covering a long black dress that reached from a woman's neck to her toes.

At the height of the industrial revolution in Victorian England, the market was flooded with different types of aprons. The boom of factories and sewing machines meant that consumers had options: one could choose a full-body apron, a linen apron, a linen apron with ruffles or ruching or lace, a grosgrain apron with embroidery, or an apron with a flounce. Aprons were a way of indicating the difference in status between the employer and the employee, and the uniform of the staff was strictly regulated. For example, a housemaid might wear a print dress during the day and then change into a black dress and dress apron for the evening service.

In contemporary South Africa, young women wear beaded aprons to celebrate their coming of age.

Ancient ceremonial aprons
Examples of ancient gods wearing aprons can be found worldwide. Fertility goddess figurines may be the earliest depiction of women wearing aprons. These ancient snake goddess figurines excavated in Crete depicted how Minoan women may have dressed in 1600 BCE: a tight bodice, bare breasts, and an embroidered or woven apron covering a long dress. Monuments and wall paintings in Ancient Egypt depict a triangular-shaped apron with the point upward when the wearer is taking part in some kind of ceremony of initiation. In China, some of the ancient figures of the gods wear semi-circular aprons. In Central America the ancient gods are consistently sculpted wearing aprons. Tepoxtecatl (the preserver) is depicted wearing an apron with a triangular flap. Priests wore similar aprons as a sign of their allegiance to the gods and as a badge of their authority.

Aprons in the United States
Aprons have been used in North America throughout its recorded history by both the Native Americans and later peoples. The kitchen apron fell somewhat out of favor in the 1960s after its rise to celebrity in the 1950s when it became the post-war symbol for family and domesticity. People started doing their work without an apron entirely or they choose to wear a bib apron (its unisex, simple, boxy design represented the opposite of the 1950s housewife). The bib apron, also known as the "French chef's apron" or "barbecue apron", remains the dominant apron on the American market and is offered in a multitude of variations in colors, detailing and fabrics.

Early American aprons
Native American wore aprons for both practical and ceremonial purposes. Early female settlers wore plain, long white aprons. Later, Quaker women wore long and colorful silk aprons.

As cities in New England grew, more elaborate options began to appear. Upscale American women in the 18th century wore embroidered aprons that sometimes dipped at the front of the waist (so as to not obscure the bodice of a gown).

Aprons: 1800s
In England and the United States in the 1800s, both maids and wealthy women wore aprons. Servant aprons were traditionally white and were supposed to be "clean, neat and appropriate." The maid's clothing was meant to follow the fashion trends of the time while also representing her employer's class status and wealth. Some aprons had lace, embroidery or pleating work on them to add a bit of sophistication if they were servants who regularly appeared in front of house guests.

Wealthy housewives of the time were also expected to show off their family's status in society and their commitment to the domestic life. They did this by also wearing aprons, though the aprons were far more elegant and expensive than the maid's white cotton apron. Popular materials included black lace, satin with chenille borders, shot silk, and satin. An apron of this caliber was necessary with a morning dress during the early nineteenth century for a woman of status. During this time, "never was there a greater rage than for aprons (of satin and shot silk) for morning or afternoon." The elegant and colorful apron was also a symbol that a woman had the funds to be swindled by travelling merchants into purchasing "a gaudy ribbon or shining pair scissors."

Another symbol which the extravagant apron represented was of the "fig leaf," as worn by Eve in the Garden of Eden. Women termed their ornamental aprons "fig leaves," thus drawing attention to their "sexual region." Small decorated aprons were one example of "suggestive fashion." According to at least one private journal entry, men of the time were reputed to loudly exclaim, "Oh my!" upon spotting a woman in a "fig leaf" apron, sometimes blushing profusely and fainting on the spot.

Aprons for both maids and housewives were not just worn in the home, but out on the town as well. The painting "Scene in Frankfurt Fair, April 1835. Part of the Line of Stalls Extending Along the River Mayn" by Mary Ellen Best shows a mother in a highly decorated and colorful apron and her daughter in a green pinafore apron. They are out shopping in a market and through the appearance of their stylish aprons, they are exhibiting their upper-middle class status as well as their ties to female domesticity.

Aprons: 1920s
From 1900 through the 1920s, well-heeled women wore ornate, heavily embroidered aprons. Aprons of the 1920s mirror the style of the times: loose and long. Often closed with a button and adorned with needlework, many aprons styles emerged during this era and stores began selling patterns and kits to make and adorn aprons at home. Aprons of this period followed the silhouette of dapper fashions—long, with no waist line.

Aprons: 1930s – 1940s
The “Hooverette” or “Hoover apron” emerged in the 1930s, named after the man in charge of the U.S. Food Administration at the time, Herbert H. Hoover. Women working outside the home wore whatever protective garments their jobs required, including coveralls, smocks, or aprons. At home, they worked in full-length aprons with hefty pockets and a cinched waistline that were often decorated with buttons, pockets and contrasting colors.

Aprons became plain during the Great Depression. Since fabric was scarce, women would make aprons out of flour and animal-feed sacks to protect their clothing. Pinafore aprons, or "pinnies" as they were affectionately called, began to gain popularity. Dorothy famously wore a blue and white gingham pinafore in The Wizard of Oz.

Aprons: 1950s
Post-war family values made the apron the symbol of home, family, mother and wife. As sewing machines and cloth became available, aprons—both commercial and homemade—became the uniform of the professional housewife. Magazines from the 1940s and 50s feature apron-adorned women in nearly every advertisement that is related to housework or cooking, including those for irons, kitchen appliances, and food products. The 1950s brought out the half-aprons of highly starched cotton, feedsack, and for special occasions sheer fabric trimmed with lace. Two-piece aprons and short smocks of bright cotton prints for everyday use were also popular.

The postwar archetypal housewife was practical and creative. She made aprons out of remnants, extra kitchen curtains, dish towels, handkerchiefs, and flour sacks. When she made her aprons, she considered design as well as function. Many 1950s aprons were decorated with sewing, cleaning, cooking, and "mom" themes.

Husbands in the 1950s often sported bib aprons for barbecues on the weekends, often with written statements about Dad's grilling talents.

Aprons: 1960s – 1970s
Aprons fell out of favor as women began looking again beyond the home and family for fulfillment as the feminist movement of the latter half of the 20th century began. In response, people chose to wear no apron when they did their work, or they wore bib aprons that were less stereotypically feminine, sometimes with ironic or sarcastic statements written on them.

Aprons remained a staple of the workplace as a means of protecting garments. Aprons were also worn as a work uniform and by people who worked in the food trades—butchers, waitresses and chefs as well as hairdressers and barbers.

Aprons: 1980s – today
Many home cooks chose not to wear an apron in the 1980s. Those that did often wore bib aprons or vintage/retro DIY aprons. However, more recently the apron has again enjoyed increasing popularity. Employees in the service industry continue to wear aprons for work, often a bib apron with company logos. Today there is no negative social stigma associated with doing one's own chores (e.g. cooking, cleaning) or pursuing messy hobbies or careers (e.g. styling, gardening, painting).

title: Apron


text:
Vertex

Vertex, vertices or vertexes may refer to:

Mathematics and computer science

 * Vertex (geometry), a point where two or more curves, lines, or edges meet
 * Vertex (computer graphics), a data structure that describes the position of a point
 * Vertex (curve), a point of a plane curve where the first derivative of curvature is zero
 * Vertex (spherical geometry), a point of a great circle which closestly approches the pole of a sphare
 * Vertex (graph theory), the fundamental unit of which graphs are formed
 * Vertex (topography), in a triangulated irregular network
 * Vertex of a representation, in finite group theory

Physics

 * Vertex (physics), the reconstructed location of an individual particle collision
 * Vertex (optics), a point where the optical axis crosses an optical surface
 * Vertex function, describing the interaction between a photon and an electron

Biology and anatomy

 * Vertex (anatomy), the highest point of the head
 * Vertex (urinary bladder), alternative name of the apex of urinary bladder
 * Vertex distance, the distance between the surface of the cornea of the eye and a lens situated in front of it
 * Vertex presentation, a head-first presentation at childbirth

Businesses

 * Vertex (company), an American business services provider
 * Vertex Holdings, an investment holding company in Singapore
 * Vertex Inc, an American tax compliance software and services company
 * Vertex Pharmaceuticals, an American biotech company
 * Vertex Railcar, a Chinese-American manufacturer of railroad rolling stock 2014–2018
 * Vertex Resource Group, a Canadian environmental services company

Other uses

 * Vertex (album), by Buck 65, 1997
 * Vertex (band), formed in 1996
 * Vertex (astrology), the point where the prime vertical intersects the ecliptic

title: Vertex


text:
Edge

Edge or EDGE may refer to:

Computing

 * Edge computing, a network load-balancing system
 * Edge device, an entry point to a computer network
 * Adobe Edge, a graphical development application
 * Microsoft Edge, a web browser developed by Microsoft
 * EdgeHTML, the layout engine previously used in Microsoft Edge
 * ThinkPad Edge, a Lenovo laptop computer series marketed from 2010
 * Silhouette edge, in computer graphics, a feature of a 3D body projected onto a 2D plane
 * Explicit data graph execution, a computer instruction set architecture

Telecommunication(s)

 * Edge Wireless, an American mobile phone provider
 * Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution, a pre-3G digital mobile phone technology
 * Motorola Edge, a series of smartphones made by Motorola
 * Samsung Galaxy Note Edge, a phablet made by Samsung
 * Samsung Galaxy S7 Edge or Samsung Galaxy S6 Edge, smartphones made by Samsung
 * Ubuntu Edge, a prototype smartphone made by Canonical

Music

 * Edge (Daryl Braithwaite album), a 1988 album by Daryl Braithwaite
 * "Edge", the B-side of the 2008 single "Love the World" by Perfume
 * "Edge", a 2013 song by Haim from Days Are Gone

Radio and television

 * 93.7 Edge FM, in Bega, New South Wales
 * Edge FM 102.1, in Wangaratta, Victoria
 * Edge FM 102.5, in Deniliquin, New South Wales
 * Edge Radio, in Hobart, Tasmania
 * Edge TV, a Canadian cable music channel
 * Edge Media Television, parent company of Irish media company Controversial TV
 * Edge (TV pilot), a 2015 television pilot

Video games

 * Edge (magazine), a UK video games magazine
 * Edge (video game), a 2008 video game by Mobigame
 * Edge Games, an American video game company
 * Edge (Final Fantasy), a character from the game Final Fantasy IV
 * Edge (Rival Schools), a character from the game Rival Schools
 * Edge (Suikoden), a character from the game Suikoden III

Organizations

 * Edge (educational foundation), an organization in the United Kingdom
 * Edge Church, an assemblies of God megachurch in Adelaide, South Australia
 * EDGE Foundation, an organization helping female students pursue graduate studies in mathematics
 * Edge Foundation, Inc., a science and technology think tank
 * EDGE Group, an advanced military and technology conglomerate based in the United Arab Emirates

Surname

 * Edge (surname)

Other

 * Morgan Edge, a DC Comics supervillain
 * Edge (wrestler) (born 1973), ring name of Canadian professional wrestler Adam Copeland
 * Edgerrin James (born 1978), nicknamed "Edge", American football player
 * The Edge (Born 1961), David Howell Evans, better known as the Edge or simply Edge is best known as the lead guitarist, keyboardist, and backing vocalist of the rock band U2

Places

 * Edge, Cheshire, a former civil parish
 * Edge, Gloucestershire, a village north of Stroud
 * Edge, Shropshire, a hamlet near Yockleton
 * Edge, Texas, a community in the United States
 * Edge House, a historic home in Groveland, Florida, U.S.

Sports

 * Edge (cricket), a term used in cricket
 * Edge rusher, either a defensive end or outside linebacker, positions in American football
 * St. John's Edge, a Canadian basketball team
 * West Michigan Edge, an American soccer team

Other

 * Edge (geometry), a one-dimensional line segment joining two vertices
 * Edge (graph theory), a pair of vertices that are adjacent in a graph
 * Edge (shaving gel), a brand of shaving gel
 * Edge Act, U.S. banking legislation
 * Edge baronets, title in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom
 * EDGE species, evolutionarily distinct and globally endangered species
 * Ford Edge, a midsize crossover SUV
 * Leading edge, a line connecting the forward-most points of a wing's profile
 * Trailing edge, the rear edge of the wing
 * Signal edge, a transition of a digital signal from low to high or high to low
 * Zivko Edge 540, an aerobatic aircraft

title: Edge


text:
Arc

Arc may refer to:

Mathematics

 * Arc (geometry), a segment of a differentiable curve
 * Circular arc, a segment of a circle
 * Arc (topology), a segment of a path
 * Arc length, the distance between two points along a section of a curve
 * Arc (projective geometry), a particular type of set of points of a projective plane
 * arc (function prefix) (arcus), a prefix for inverse trigonometric functions
 * Directed arc, a directed edge in graph theory
 * Minute and second of arc, a unit of angular measurement equal to 1/60 of one degree.
 * Wild arc, a concept from geometric topology

Geology

 * Arc, in geology a mountain chain configured as an arc due to a common orogeny along a plate margin or the effect of back-arc extension
 * Hellenic arc, the arc of islands positioned over the Hellenic Trench in the Aegean Sea off Greece

 * Back-arc basin, a subsided region caused by back-arc extension

 * Back-arc region, the region created by back-arc extension, containing all the basins, faults, and volcanoes generated by the extension
 * Island arc, an arc-shaped archipelago, usually so configured for geologic causes, such as sea-floor spreading, common orogeny on the margin of the same plate, or back-arc extension
 * Northeastern Japan Arc, an island arc
 * Banda Arc, a set of island arcs in Indonesia
 * Continental arc, in geology a continental mountain chain or parallel alignment of chains (as opposed to island arcs), configured in an arc
 * Eastern Arc Mountains, a continental arc of Africa
 * Volcanic arc, a chain of volcanoes positioned in an arc shape as seen from above
 * Aleutian Arc, a large volcanic arc in the U.S. state of Alaska
 * Nastapoka arc, a circular coastline in Hudson Bay

Technology

 * , the command-line interface for ArcInfo
 * ARC (file format), a file name extension for archive files
 * ARC (processor), 32-bit RISC architecture
 * ARC (adaptive replacement cache), a page replacement algorithm for high-performance filesystems
 * Arc (programming language), a Lisp dialect designed by Paul Graham
 * Arc (web browser), a freeware web browser developed by The Browser Company
 * Sony Ericsson Xperia Arc, a cellphone
 * Audio Return Channel, an audio technology working over HDMI
 * Authenticated Received Chain, an email authentication system
 * Arc lamp, a lamp that produces light by an electric arc
 * Xenon arc lamp, a highly specialized type of gas discharge lamp
 * Deuterium arc lamp, a low-pressure gas-discharge light source
 * Hydrargyrum medium-arc iodide lamp, the trademark name of Osram's brand of metal-halide gas discharge medium arc-length lamp
 * Electric arc furnace, a furnace that heats charged material by means of an electric arc
 * Arc welding, a welding process that is used to join metal to metal
 * Arc-fault circuit interrupter, a specialized circuit breaker
 * Arc converter, a spark transmitter
 * Intel Arc, brand of graphics processing units designed by Intel
 * Arc, one side (half) of an arch

Other science

 * Electric arc, an ongoing plasma discharge (an electric current through a gas), producing light and heat
 * Arc flash, the light and heat produced as part of an arc fault
 * Arc (protein), a name of product of an immediate early gene, also called Arg3.1
 * Reflex arc, a neural pathway that controls a reflex
 * Circumhorizontal arc, an optical phenomenon
 * Circumzenithal arc, an optical phenomenon

Music

 * The Arcs, an American garage rock band formed by Dan Auerbach in 2015

 * A.R.C. (album), by pianist Chick Corea with bassist David Holland and drummer Barry Altschul recorded in 1971
 * Arc (Neil Young & Crazy Horse album), 1991
 * Arc (Everything Everything album), 2013
 * Arc (EP), a 2016 EP by Agoraphobic Nosebleed
 * "Arc", a song by Pearl Jam from Riot Act

Video games

 * Arc System Works, a video game developer
 * Luminous Arc, a video game series
 * The title character of Arc the Lad, a series of role-playing video games for the PlayStation and PlayStation 2
 * Armored Response Coalition, a fictional military/resistance organization seen in the 2020 video game Doom Eternal

Other arts and entertainment

 * Tilted Arc, a controversial public art installation by Richard Serra
 * Arc Poetry Magazine, a Canadian literary journal
 * Character arc, the status of a character as it unfolds throughout the story
 * Story arc, an extended or continuing storyline
 * Arcs, one of the twelve basic principles of animation
 * Ultraman Arc, a 2024 Japanese television series produced by Tsubuyara Productions and TV Tokyo

Codes

 * Arcata Transit Center, Amtrak code for the station in Arcata, California
 * IATA airport code of Arctic Village Airport, a public use airport in Alaska
 * ISO 639-3 language code of the Official Aramaic language, spoken between 700 BCE and 300 BCE

Companies and organizations

 * Arc Infrastructure, an Australian railway company
 * Arc International, a French manufacturer and distributor of household goods
 * Arc Publications, a UK independent publisher of poetry
 * Arc @ UNSW, the principal student organisation at the University of New South Wales
 * Arc of the United States, a charitable organization serving people with intellectual and developmental disabilities
 * Arc Holdings, a French manufacturer of household goods

Places

 * Arc (Provence), a river of southern France, flowing into the Étang de Berre
 * Arc (Savoie), a river of eastern France, tributary of the Isère river
 * Les Arcs, a ski resort in the French Alps
 * Les Arcs, Var, a town in southern France
 * Arc, short for "Arcade"; a Street suffix as used in the US

Other uses

 * Arc (Bahá'í), a number of administrative buildings for the Bahá'í Faith, located on Mount Carmel in Israel
 * Arc (greyhounds), a major greyhound race in the Greyhound Board of Great Britain calendar

title: Arc


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Homemaking

Homemaking is mainly an American and Canadian term for the management of a home, otherwise known as housework, housekeeping, housewifery or household management. It is the act of overseeing the organizational, day-to-day operations of a house or estate, and the managing of other domestic concerns. A person in charge of the homemaking, who is not employed outside the home, in the US and Canada, is called a homemaker, a term for a housewife or a househusband. Historically the role of homemaker was often assumed by women. The term "homemaker", however, may also refer to a social worker who manages a household during the incapacity of the housewife or househusband. Home health workers assume the role of homemakers when caring for elderly individuals. This includes preparing meals, giving baths, and any duties the person in need cannot perform for themselves.

Homemaking can be the full-time responsibility of one spouse, partner, or parent, shared with children or extended family, or shared or traded between spouses/partners as one or both work outside the home. It can also be outsourced partially or completely to paid help. In previous decades, there were a number of mandatory courses for the young to learn the skills of homemaking. In high school, courses included cooking, nutrition, home economics, family and consumer science (FACS), and food and cooking hygiene.

19th century
In North America, early 19th-century ideals required homemaking be the responsibility of the woman; "the wife is properly supposed to be the light and centre of the home." Traditional wives who stayed home and did not work for pay were required by social ideals to create and maintain a peaceful space to provide to her husband and children. For women in a pre-modern environment, "it is the duty and privilege and solemn responsibility, which make this art of home-making more interesting and important to her than any other art in the world." Author of these statements, Annie Swan was not alone in the late 1800s viewpoint that women were encouraged, if not required, to maintain the home solely themselves. In 1875, Harper's Bazaar published an article outlining the duties of a housewife and the esteemed respect those duties deserve: "but if one only staid to think how countless and how onerous those duties really are, more respect would be paid to the faithful effort to perform them, and an added reverence extended to the mother who is also the housekeeper." Harper's Bazaar recognizes that women do the majority of the work within the home, pointing out that the work is detailed and at many times, difficult.

20th century
The 20th century began with similar homemaking roles as the 19th; however, the century concluded with a much different perception. In the late 1990s, marriage consisted in most cases of both wife and husband participating in homemaking. Darlene Piña and Vern Bengtson who are anthropologists and professors at the University of Southern California, extensively researched marriage dynamics and household labor in the late twentieth century. They concluded that "all wives benefit equally by their husbands' greater involvement in household labor." The division of labor within the home promotes a healthy relationship between husband and wife. Concluding, that likelihood of increased happiness within marriage is vastly improved when homemaking is shared with the husband. West and Zimmerman, concluded an analysis of over 487 couples and found that "women were rewarded for performing feminine behaviors, such as housework, whereas men receive positive reinforcement for engaging in masculine tasks, such breadwinning."

In contrast, a study performed by Hochschild in 1989, concluded that even when wives contributed more than 50% of the household income they often still performed more household labor than their husbands. Hochschild's study directly debunked the previous theory that women performed housework because they contributed significantly less to household income. Instead, the results of the study indicated that even in marriage dynamics where women contributed more than half of the household income, they still completed the vast majority of homemaking tasks.

Married women who are economically and emotionally dependent on their husbands are less likely to report the division of household labor as unfair. This significant group of married women felt that household labor reinforced their female gender identity and connection to femininity.

21st century
Sex and gender continue to shape the division of household responsibilities in the United States in the twenty-first century. According to the 2018 American Time Use Survey, 84 percent of women and 69 percent of men reported that they spent some time performing household duties, which included "housework, cooking, lawn care, or household management." Women reported spending an average of 2.6 hours a day on household activities, and men 2.0 hours. On a surveyed day, 49% percent of women and 20% of men reported doing housework.

Men and women's perception of household responsibilities differ. Pew Research Center's 2014 Religious Landscape Study found that fathers were more likely than mothers to say that chores were evenly split between both partners (56% vs. 46%). When asked, 50% of mothers reported they handled more responsibilities around the house than their partners; only 12% of fathers reported they did more household tasks. Despite this difference in perception, a majority of married U.S. adults (56%) said that sharing household chores as "very important" to a successful marriage.

In a 2008 article, social scientists Susan L. Brown and Sayaka Kawamura reported that the unequal distribution in housework was attributed mainly to time availability. They concluded: "wives typically work fewer hours than their husbands, [so] they have more time available to perform household tasks."

Housekeeping
Housekeeping by the homemaker is the care and control of property, ensuring its maintenance, proper use and appearance. In a private home a maid or housekeeper is sometimes employed to do some of the housekeeping. Housework is work done by the act of housekeeping. Some housekeeping is housecleaning and some housekeeping is home chores. Home chores are housework that needs to be done at regular intervals. Housekeeping includes the budget and control of expenditures, preparing meals and buying food, paying the heat bill, and cleaning the house.

Cooking
Most modern-day houses contain sanitary facilities and a means of preparing food. A kitchen is a room or part of a room used by the homemaker for cooking, food preparation and food preservation. In the West, a modern kitchen is typically equipped with a stove, an oven, a sink with hot and cold running water, a refrigerator and kitchen cabinets. Many homemakers use a microwave oven, a dishwasher and other electric appliances like blender and convection cooker and automatic appliances like rice cookers. The main function of a kitchen is cooking or preparing food but it may also be used for dining for a casual meal such as lunch.

Cooking is the process of preparing food with or without heat, making, selecting, measuring and combining ingredients in an ordered procedure for producing safe and edible food. The process encompasses a vast range of methods, tools and combinations of ingredients to alter the flavor, appearance, texture, or digestibility of food. Factors affecting the outcome include the variability of ingredients, ambient conditions, tools, and the skill of the individual doing the actual cooking.

The diversity of cooking worldwide is a reflection of the aesthetic, agricultural, economic, cultural, social and religious diversity of people across the globe. Applying heat to a food usually, though not always, chemically transforms it, thus changing its flavor, texture, consistency, appearance, and nutritional properties. Methods of cooking that involve the boiling of liquid in a receptacle have been practised at least since the 10th millennium BC, with the introduction of pottery.

Cleaning
House cleaning by the homemaker is the systematic process of making a home neat and clean. This may be applied more broadly than just an individual home, such as a metaphor for a similar "clean up" process applied elsewhere such as at a hotel or as a procedural reform. In the process of house cleaning general cleaning activities are completed, such as disposing of rubbish, storing of belongings in regular places, cleaning dirty surfaces, dusting and vacuuming. The details of this are various and complicated enough that many books have been published on the subject. How-to sites on the internet have many articles on house cleaning. Tools include the vacuum cleaner, broom and mop. Supplies such as cleaning solutions and sponges are sold in grocery stores and elsewhere. Professional cleaners can be hired for less frequent or specialist tasks such as cleaning blinds, rugs, and sofas. Professional services are also offered for the basic tasks. Safety is a consideration because some cleaning products are toxic and some cleaning tasks are physically demanding. Green cleaning refers to cleaning without causing pollution or chemicals that may cause bodily harm. The history of house cleaning has links to the advancement of technology.

Outdoor housecleaning chores include removing leaves from rain gutters, washing windows, sweeping doormats, cleaning the pool, putting away lawn furniture, and taking out the trash.

Laundry

Laundry refers to the act of washing clothing and linens, the place where that washing is done, and/or that which needs to be, is being, or has been laundered. Various chemicals may be used to increase the solvent power of water, such as the compounds in soaproot or yucca-root used by Native American tribes. Soap, a compound made from lye (from wood-ash) and fat, is an ancient and very common laundry aid. Modern washing machines typically use powdered or liquid laundry detergent in place of more traditional soap. Once clean, the clothes are dried.

Washing machines and dryers are now fixtures in homes around the world. In some parts of the world, including the US, Canada, and Switzerland, apartment buildings and dormitories often have laundry rooms, where residents share washing machines and dryers. Usually the machines are set to run only when money is put in a coin slot. In other parts of the world, apartment buildings with laundry rooms are uncommon, and each apartment may have its own washing machine. Those without a machine at home or the use of a laundry room must either wash their clothes by hand or visit a commercial laundromat.

A clothes dryer is a household appliance that is used to remove moisture from a load of clothing and other textiles, generally shortly after they are cleaned in a washing machine. Most dryers consist of a rotating drum called a tumbler through which heated air is circulated to evaporate the moisture from the load. The tumbler is rotated relatively slowly in order to maintain space between the articles in the load. In most cases, the tumbler is belt-driven by an induction motor. Using these machines may cause clothes to shrink, become less soft (due to loss of short soft fibers/ lint) and fade. For these reasons, as well as environmental concerns, many people use open air methods such as a clothes line and clotheshorse.

Laundry starch is used in the laundering of clothes. Starch was widely used in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries to stiffen the wide collars and ruffs of fine linen which surrounded the necks of the well-to-do. During the 19th century and early 20th century, it was stylish to stiffen the collars and sleeves of men's shirts and the ruffles of girls' petticoats by applying starch to them as the clean clothes were being ironed. Aside from the smooth, crisp edges it gave to clothing, it served practical purposes as well. Dirt and sweat from a person's neck and wrists would stick to the starch rather than to the fibers of the clothing, and would easily wash away along with the starch. After each laundering, the starch would be reapplied. Today the product is sold in aerosol cans for home use. Kitchen starch used as a thickening agent for food can also be applied to laundered fabrics (requires boiling).

Maintenance
Homemakers that follow predictive maintenance techniques determine the condition of in-service equipment in order to predict when maintenance should be performed. This approach offers cost savings over routine or time-based maintenance, because tasks are performed only when warranted. Homemakers that follow preventive maintenance methods ensure that household equipment and the house are in satisfactory operating condition by providing for inspection, detection, and correction of incipient failures either before they occur or before they develop into major defects.

Home maintenance
Home maintenance involves the diagnosis and resolution of problems in a home, and is related to home maintenance to avoid such problems. Many types of maintenance are "Do it yourself" (DIY) projects. Maintenance is not necessarily the same as home improvement, although many improvements can result from repairs or maintenance. Often the costs of larger repairs will justify the alternative of investment in full-scale improvements. It may make just as much sense to upgrade a home system (with an improved one) as to repair it or incur ever-more-frequent and expensive maintenance for an inefficient, obsolete or dying system. For a DIY project, also useful is the established limits on time and money investments before a repair (or list of repairs) become overwhelming and discouraging, and less likely to ever be completed.

Lawn maintenance
Homemakers that have a lawn responsibility adhere to seasonal lawn care practices, which vary to some extent depending on the climate zone and type of grass that is grown (whether cool season or warm season varieties). Various recognized method used by homemakers in lawn care are observed in any area. In spring or early summer, homemakers seed, sod, or sprig a yard when the ground is warmer. In summer lawn mowers are used at high cutting for cool season grass, and lower cutting for warm season lawns. In autumn, lawns are mown by homemakers at a lower height and thatch build-up that occurs in warm season grasses are removed. Homemakers do add sandy loam and apply fertilizer, containing some type of wetting agent. Cool season lawns are planted in the autumn with adequate rainfall. Lawn care in the winter is minimal, requiring only light feedings of organic material, such as green-waste compost, and minerals to encourage earthworms and beneficial microbes.

Management
Household management by the homemaker is the act of overseeing the organizational, financial, and day-to-day operations of a house or estate. It differs from housekeeping, which consists of the physical maintenance and cleaning of a house.

House organization
House organization or home organization includes interior design to make the home aesthetically pleasing by arranging furniture, plants, blinds, and so forth. De-cluttering means removing unnecessary things from the house.

De-cluttering
Household de-cluttering involves putting things in their proper place after they have been used. "Cleaning up your mess" might involve removing glasses, eating utensils or gadgets i.e. toys from the living room if you have eaten a meal there in front of the television. If several people have done that over a few days and not removed their glasses, dishes and utensils from the living room, the living room is considered to be "cluttered" with dishes. The dishes are out of place because they belong in the kitchen, washed and put away in the cupboards. That is the most common example of clutter in a modern North American household.

There is another definition of clutter, which refers to having simply too many things and not enough room for all of it. Sometimes as happens in Asian households, the items are necessary, but the home is simply too small, and ingenious methods are needed to organize everything to minimize unsightly clutter. Removing unneeded or no longer necessary objects from a household or home is also an aspect of de-cluttering. Objects can be given away to friends or charitable organizations, sold as second-hand, recycled or thrown away.

Extreme forms of an inability to de-clutter is a behavioral aspect of compulsive hoarding. On the other end, a society that relies overly much on generating and then disposing of waste is referred to as a throw-away society.

Household purchasing
Household purchasing refers to homemaker's attempt to acquire goods or services to accomplish the goals of the household. Though there are several households that attempt to set standards in the purchasing process, processes can vary greatly between households. Typically the word "purchasing" is not used interchangeably with the word "procurement", since procurement typically includes other concepts. Home makers decide the market goods that the household will buy, such as the groceries which have been bought at a grocer's.

Another important purchase handled by homemakers is the power source used for appliances. Home or other building heating may include boilers, furnaces, and water heaters. Compressed natural gas is used in rural homes without connections to piped-in public utility services, or with portable grills. However, due to being less economical than LPG, LPG (Propane) is the dominant source of rural gas for natural gas-powered ranges and/or ovens, natural gas-heated clothes dryers, heating/cooling and central heating. The amount of usages is determined by factors such as natural gas prices.

Servants
Homemakers may manage household workers or "domestic workers".

Work strategies
In sociology, household work strategy is the division of labour between members of a household, whether implicit or the result of explicit decision–making, with the alternatives weighed up in a simplified type of cost-benefit analysis. It is a plan for the relative deployment of household members' time between the three domains of employment: Household work strategies may vary over the life-cycle, as household members age, or with the economic environment; they may be imposed by one person or be decided collectively.
 * 1) in the market economy, including home-based self-employment second jobs, in order to obtain money to buy goods and services in the market;
 * 2) domestic production work, such as cultivating a vegetable patch or raising chickens, purely to supply food to the household; and
 * 3) domestic consumption work to provide goods and services directly within the household, such as cooking meals, child–care, household repairs, or the manufacture of clothes and gifts.

Household production
"Household production" is an economic category for activities including homemaking. It is defined as "the production of the goods and services by the members of a household, for their own consumption, using their own capital and their own unpaid labor. Goods and services produced by households for their own use include accommodation, meals, clean clothes, and child care. The process of household production involves the transformation of purchased intermediate commodities into final consumption commodities. Households use their own capital and their own labor."

There are efforts to construct estimates of the value of household production in a way analogous to GDP, though the category is not usually included in GDP. Goods and services created by households are generally consumed within the same country, and hence contribute in a "Domestic Consumption" category in national accounts.

Wages for housework
The International Wages for Housework Campaign was a global, social movement co-founded in 1972 in Padua, Italy, by author and activist Selma James. The Campaign was formed to raise awareness of how housework and childcare are the base of all industrial work and to stake the claim that these unavoidable tasks should be compensated as paid, wage labor. The demands for the Wages for Housework formally called for economic compensation for domestic work but also used these demands to more generally call attention to the affective labors of women, the reliance of capitalist economies on exploitative labor practices against women, and leisure inequality.

Effects of technology and advertising
Many home appliances have been invented that make housework faster or more effective compared to before the industrial revolution. These include:
 * Washing machine
 * Clothes dryer
 * Dishwasher
 * Sewing machine
 * Vacuum cleaner
 * Small electrics like the electric mixer, blender, toaster, and coffee maker
 * Microwave oven
 * Refrigerator, reducing the number of grocery trips or the amount of food preservation work to do

Utilities can potentially eliminate work like gathering and chopping firewood, shovelling coal, fetching water from outdoors, and heating cold tap water.

Historian Ruth Schwartz Cowan estimated that homemakers in the 1800s performed about 50–60 hours of work per week, and that this is the same as the 1990s. She says that, rather than reducing the amount of time devoted to housework, labor-saving devices have been used to make the same amount of time do more work, such as by vacuuming a rug instead of sweeping it, or washing fabrics more frequently. Modern parents also more frequently transport their children to after-school activities, and doctors no longer make house calls.

title: Homemaking


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Cape Canaveral

Cape Canaveral (Cabo Cañaveral) is a cape in Brevard County, Florida, in the United States, near the center of the state's Atlantic coast. Officially Cape Kennedy from 1963 to 1973, it lies east of Merritt Island, separated from it by the Banana River. It is part of a region known as the Space Coast, and is the site of the Cape Canaveral Space Force Station. Since many U.S. spacecraft have been launched from both the station and the Kennedy Space Center on adjacent Merritt Island, the two are sometimes conflated with each other.

Other features of the cape include Port Canaveral, one of the busiest cruise ports in the world, and the Cape Canaveral Lighthouse. The city of Cape Canaveral lies just south of the Port Canaveral District. Mosquito Lagoon, the Indian River, Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge and Canaveral National Seashore are also features of this area.

History

Humans have occupied the area for at least 12,000 years.

During the middle Archaic period, from 5000 BC to 2000 BC, the Mount Taylor period culture region covered northeast Florida, including the area around Cape Canaveral. Late in the Archaic period, from 2000 BC to 500 BC, the Mount Taylor culture was succeeded by the Orange culture, which was among the earliest cultures in North America to produce pottery. The Orange culture was followed by the St. Johns culture, from 500 BC until after European contact. The area around the Indian River was in the Indian River variant of the St. Johns culture, with influences from the Belle Glade culture to the south.

During the first Spanish colonial period the area around the Indian River, to the south of Cape Canaveral, was occupied by the Ais people, while the area around the Mosquito Lagoon, to the north of the Cape, was occupied by the Surruque people. The Surruque were allied with the Ais, but it is not clear whether the Surruque spoke a Timucua language, or a language related to the Ais language.

In the early 16th century, Cape Canaveral was noted on maps, although without being named. It was named by Spanish explorers in the first half of the 16th century as Cabo Cañaveral. The name "Canaveral" ( in Spanish, meaning 'reed bed' or 'sugarcane plantation') is the third oldest surviving European place name in the United States. The first application of the name, according to the Smithsonian Institution, was from the 1521–1525 explorations of Spanish explorer Francisco Gordillo. A point of land jutting out into an area of the Atlantic Ocean with swift currents, it became a landing spot for many shipwrecked sailors. An early alternative name was "Cape of Currents". By at least 1564, the name appeared on maps.

English privateer John Hawkins and his journalist John Sparke gave an account of their landing at Cape Canaveral in the 16th century. A Presbyterian missionary was wrecked here and lived among the Indians. Other histories tell of French survivors from Jean Ribault's colony at Fort Caroline, whose ship the Trinité wrecked on the shores of Cape Canaveral in 1565, and built a fort from its timbers.

In December 1571, Pedro Menéndez was wrecked off the Coast of Cape Canaveral and encountered the Ais Indians. From 1605 to 1606, the Spanish Governor of Florida Pedro de Ibarra sent Alvaro Mexia on a diplomatic mission to the Ais Indian nation. The mission was a success; diplomatic ties were made and an agreement for the Ais to receive ransoms for all the shipwrecked sailors they returned.

The first Cape Canaveral Lighthouse was completed in January 1848 to warn ships of the coral shoals off the coast.

The hurricane of August 1885, pushed a "wall of water" over the barrier island (elevation, 3.1 m) devastating Cape Canaveral and adjacent areas. The ocean waves flooded the homesteaders and discouraged further settlement in the area. The beach near the lighthouse was severely eroded prompting its relocation 1.6 km west inland.

The 1890 graduating class of Harvard University started a gun club called the "Canaveral Club" at the Cape. This was founded by C. B. Horton of Boston and George H. Reed. A number of distinguished visitors including presidents Grover Cleveland and Benjamin Harrison were reported to have stayed here. In the 1920s, the grand building fell into disrepair and later burned to the ground.

In the 20th century, several communities sprang up in Cape Canaveral with names like Canaveral, Canaveral Harbor, Artesia and De Soto Beach. While the area was predominantly a farming and fishing community, some visionaries saw its potential as a resort for vacationers. However, the stock market crash of 1929 hampered its development. In the 1930s, a group of wealthy journalists started a community called "Journalista Beach", now called Avon by the Sea. The Brossier brothers built houses in this area and started a publication entitled the Evening Star Reporter that was the forerunner of the Orlando Sentinel.

Construction of Port Canaveral for military and commercial purposes was started in July 1950 and dedicated on 4 November 1953. Congress approved the construction of a deep-water port in 1929, half a century after it was first petitioned by the U.S. Navy in 1878. It is now the major deep-water port of Central Florida.

Rocket launch site

Cape Canaveral became the test site for missiles when the legislation for the Joint Long Range Proving Ground was passed by the 81st Congress and signed by President Harry Truman on 11 May 1949. Work began on 9 May 1950, under a contract with the Duval Engineering Company of Jacksonville, Florida, to build the Cape's first paved access road and its first permanent launch site.

The first rocket launched at the Cape was a V-2 rocket named Bumper 8 from Launch Complex 3 on 24 July 1950. On 6 February 1959, the first successful test firing of a Titan intercontinental ballistic missile was accomplished. NASA's Project Mercury and Gemini space flights were launched from Cape Canaveral, as were Apollo flights using the Saturn I and Saturn IB rockets.

Cape Canaveral was chosen for rocket launches to take advantage of the Earth's rotation. The linear velocity of the Earth's surface is greatest towards the equator; the relatively southerly location of the cape allows rockets to take advantage of this by launching eastward, in the same direction as the Earth's rotation. It is also highly desirable to have the downrange area sparsely populated, in case of accidents; an ocean is ideal for this. The east coast of Florida has logistical advantages over potential competing sites. The Spaceport Florida Launch Complex 46 of the Cape Canaveral Space Force Station is the easternmost near the tip of the cape.

In 1999, the North American Numbering Plan Administration allocated telephone area code 321 (as in a launch countdown) to the Cape Canaveral area in homage to its spacefaring heritage.

Name changes
A post office in the area was built and listed in the U.S. Post Office application as "Artesia" and retained this name from 1893 to 1954. It was "Port Canaveral" from 1954 to 1962, and then the City of Cape Canaveral from 1962 to 1963, when a larger post office was built.

In 1963, President Lyndon Johnson issued an executive order renaming the area "Cape Kennedy", after President John F. Kennedy, who had set the goal of landing on the Moon. After Kennedy's assassination in November 1963, his widow, Jacqueline Kennedy, suggested to Johnson that renaming the Cape Canaveral facility would be an appropriate memorial. Johnson recommended the renaming of the entire cape, announced in a televised address on November 28, 1963, six days after the assassination, on Thanksgiving evening. Accordingly, Cape Canaveral was officially renamed Cape Kennedy. Kennedy's last visit to the space facility was on 16 November 1963, six days before his death; the final Mercury mission had concluded six months earlier.

Although the name change was approved by the U.S. Board on Geographic Names of the Department of the Interior in December 1963, it was not popular in Florida from the outset, especially in the bordering city of Cape Canaveral. In May 1973, the Florida Legislature passed a law restoring the former 400-year-old name, and the Board went along. The name restoration to Cape Canaveral became official on 9 October 1973. Senator Ted Kennedy had stated in 1970 that it was a matter to be decided by the citizens of Florida. The Kennedy family issued a letter stating they "understood the decision". NASA's Kennedy Space Center retains the "Kennedy" name.

The Gemini, Apollo, and the first Skylab missions were all launched while the area was named Cape Kennedy. The first crewed launch under the restored name of Cape Canaveral was Skylab 4, the final Skylab mission, on 16 November 1973.

title: Cape Canaveral


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National Portrait Gallery

National Portrait Gallery may refer to:

 * National Portrait Gallery (Australia), in Canberra
 * National Portrait Gallery (Sweden), in Mariefred
 * National Portrait Gallery (United States), in Washington, D.C.
 * National Portrait Gallery, London, with satellite galleries in North Yorkshire and Somerset, England
 * Scottish National Portrait Gallery, in Edinburgh

title: National Portrait Gallery