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Virtual management

Virtual management is the supervision, leadership, and maintenance of virtual teams—dispersed work groups that rarely meet face to face. As the number of virtual teams has grown, facilitated by the Internet, globalization, outsourcing, and remote work, the need to manage them has also grown. The following article provides information concerning some of the important management factors involved with virtual teams, and the life cycle of managing a virtual team.

Due to developments in information technology within the workplace, along with a need to compete globally and address competitive demands, organizations have embraced virtual management structures. As in face-to-face teams, management of virtual teams is also a crucial component in the effectiveness of the team. However, when compared to leaders of face-to-face teams, virtual team leaders face the following difficulties: (a) logistical problems, including coordination of work across different time zones and physical distances; (b) interpersonal issues, including an ability to establish effective working relationships in the absence of frequent face-to-face communication; and (c) technological difficulties, including finding and learning to use appropriate technology. In global virtual teams, there is an additional dimension of cultural differences which impact on a virtual team's functioning.

Management factors
For the team to reap the benefits mentioned above, the manager considers the following factors.

Trust and Leader Effectiveness
A virtual team leader must ensure a feeling of trust among all team members—something all team members have an influence on and must be aware of. However, the team leader is responsible for this in the first place. Team leaders must ensure a sense of psychological safety within a team by allowing all members to speak honestly and directly, but respectfully, to each other.

For a team to succeed, the manager must schedule meetings to ensure participation. This carries over to the realm of virtual teams, but in this case these meetings are also virtual. Due to the difficulties of communicating in a virtual team, it is imperative that team members attend meetings. The first team meeting is crucial and establishes lasting precedents for the team. Furthermore, there are numerous features of a virtual team environment that may impact on the development of follower trust. The team members have to trust that the leader is allocating work fairly and evaluating team members equally.

An extensive study conducted over 8 years examined what factors increase leader effectiveness in virtual teams. One such factor is that virtual team leaders need to spend more time than conventional team counterparts being explicit about expectations. This is due to the patterns of behavior and dynamics of interaction which are unfamiliar. Moreover, even in information rich virtual teams using video conferencing, it is hard to replicate the rapid exchange of information and cues available in face-to-face discussions. To develop role clarity within virtual teams, leaders should focus on developing: (a) clear objectives and goals for tasks; (b) comprehensive milestones for deliverables; and (c) communication channels for seeking feedback on unclear role guidance.

When determining an effective way of leadership for a culturally diverse team there are various ways: directive (from directive to participatory), transactional (rewarding) or transformational influence. Leadership must ensure effective communication and understanding, clear and shared plans and task assignments and collective sense of belonging in team. Further, the role of a team leader is to coordinate tasks and activities, motivate team members, facilitate collaboration and solve conflicts when needed. This proofs that a team leader's role in effective virtual team management and creating knowledge sharing environment is crucial.

Presence and Instruction
Virtual team leaders must become virtually present so they can closely monitor team members and note changes that might affect their ability to undertake their tasks. Due to the distributed nature of virtual teams, team members have less awareness of the wider situation of the team or dynamics of the overall team environment. Consequently, as situations change in a virtual team environment, such as adjustments to task requirements, modification of milestones, or changes to the goals of the team, it is important that leaders monitor followers to ensure they are aware of these changes and make amendments as required. The leaders of virtual teams do not possess the same powers of physical observation, and have to be creative in setting up structures and processes so that variations from expectations can be observed well virtually (for instance, virtual team leaders have to sense when "electronic" silence means acquiescence rather than inattention). At the same time, leaders of virtual teams cannot assume that members are prepared for virtual meetings and also have to ensure that the unique knowledge of each distributed person on the virtual team is fully utilized. Virtual team leaders should be aware that information overload may result in situations when a leader has provided too much information to a team member.

Virtuality
Finally, when examining virtual teams, it is crucial to consider that they differ in terms of their virtuality. Virtuality refers to a continuum of how "virtual" a team is. There are three predominant factors that contribute to virtuality, namely: (a) the richness of communication media; (b) distance between team members, both in time zones and geographical dispersion; and (c) organizational and cultural diversity.

Detriments
In the field of managing virtual research and development (R&D) teams there have arisen certain detriments to the management decisions made when leading a team. The first of these detriments is the lack of potential for radical innovation, this is brought about by the lack of affinity with certain technologies or processes. This causes a decrease in certainty about the feasibility of the execution. As a result, virtual R&D teams focus on incremental innovations. The second detriment is the nature of the project may need to change. Depending on how interdependent each step is, the ability for a virtual team to successfully complete the project varies at each step. Thirdly, the sharing of knowledge, which was identified above as an important ingredient in managing a virtual team, becomes even more important albeit difficult. There is some knowledge and information that is simple and easy to explain and share, but there is other knowledge that may be more content or domain specific that is not so easy to explain. In a face to face group this can be done by walking a team member through the topic slowly during a lunch break, but in a virtual team this is no longer possible and the information is at risk of being misunderstood leading to set backs in the project. Finally, the distribution and bundling of resources is also very much altered by the move from collocation to virtual space. Where once the team was all in one place and the resources could be split there as needed, now the team can be anywhere, and the same resources still need to get to the correct people. This takes time, effort, and coordination to avoid potential setbacks or conflicts.

Life Cycle
To effectively use the management factors described above, it is important to know when in the life cycle of a virtual team they would be most useful. According to the life cycle of virtual team management includes five stages:
 * 1) Preparations
 * 2) Launch
 * 3) Performance management
 * 4) Team development
 * 5) Disbanding

Preparations
The initial task during the implementation of a team is the definition of the general purpose of the team together with the determination of the level of virtuality that might be appropriate to achieve these goals. These decisions are usually determined by strategic factors such as mergers, increase of the market span, cost reductions, flexibility and reactivity to the market, etc. Management-related activities that should take place during preparation phase includes mission statement, personnel selection, task design, rewards system design, choose appropriate technology and organizational integration.

In regards to personnel selection, virtual teams have an advantage. To maximize outcomes, management wants the best team it can have. Before virtual teams, they did this by gathering the "best available" workers and forming a team. These teams did not contain the best workers of the field, because they were busy with their own projects, or were too far away to meet the group. With virtual teams, managers can select personnel from anywhere in the world, and so from a wider pool.

Launch
It is highly recommended that, in the beginning of virtual teamwork, all members should meet each other face to face. Crucial elements of such a “kick-off” workshop are getting acquainted with the other team members, clarifying the team goals, clarifying the roles and functions of the team members, information and training how communication technologies can be used efficiently, and developing general rules for the teamwork. As a consequence, “kick-off” workshops are expected to promote clarification of team processes, trust building, building of a shared interpretive context, and high identification with the team.

Getting acquainted, goal clarification and development of intra-team rules should also be accomplished during this phase. Initial field data that compare virtual teams with and without such “kick-off” meetings confirm a general positive effects on team effectiveness, although more differentiated research is necessary. Experimental studies demonstrate that getting acquainted before the start of computer-mediated work facilitates cooperation and trust.

One of the manager's roles during launch is to create activities or events that allow for team building. These kickoff events should serve three major goals: everyone on the team is well versed in the technology involved, everyone knows what is expected of them and when it is expected, and finally have everyone get to know one another. By meeting all three goals the virtual team may be far more successful, and it lightens everyone's load.

Performance management
After the launch of a virtual team, work effectiveness and a constructive team climate has to be maintained using performance management strategies. These comprehensive management strategies arise from the agreed upon difficulty of working in virtual teams. Research shows that constructs and expectations of team membership, leadership, goal setting, social loafing and conflict differ in cultural groups and therefore affects team performance a lot. In early team formation process, one thing to agree on within a team is the meaning of leadership and role differentiation for the team leader and other team members. To apply this, the leader must show active leadership to create a shared conceptualization of team meaning, its focus and function.

The following discussion is again restricted to issues on which empirical results are already available. These issues are leadership, communication within virtual teams, team members' motivation, and knowledge management.

Leadership is a central challenge in virtual teams. Particularly, all kinds of direct control are difficult when team managers are not at the same location as the team members. As a consequence, delegative management principles are considered that shift parts of classic managerial functions to the team members. However, team members only accept and fulfill such managerial functions when they are motivated and identify with the team and its goals, which is again more difficult to achieve in virtual teams. Next, empirical results on three leadership approaches are summarized that differ in the degree of autonomy of the team members: Electronic monitoring as an attempt to realize directive leadership over distance, management by objectives (MBO) as an example for delegative leadership principles, and self-managing teams as an example for rather autonomous teamwork.

One way to maintain control over a virtual team is through motivators and incentives. Both are common techniques implemented by managers for collocated teams, but with slight adjustments they can be used effectively for virtual teams as well. A commonly held belief is that working online, is not particularly important or impactful. This belief can be changed by notifying employees that their work is being sent to the managers. This attaches the importance of career prospects to the work, and makes it more meaningful for the workers.

Communication processes are perhaps the most frequently investigated variables relevant for the regulation of virtual teamwork. By definition, communication in virtual teams is predominantly based on electronic media such as e-mail, telephone, video-conference, etc. The main concern here is that electronic media reduce the richness of information exchange compared to face-to-face communication. This difference in richness of information is an idea shared by multiple researchers, and there are some methods to move around the drop created by working in a virtual environment. One such method is to use the anonymity provided by working digitally. It lets people share concerns without worrying about being identified. This serves to over come the lack of richness by providing a safe method to honestly provide feedback and information. Predominant research issues have been conflict escalation and disinhibited communication (“flaming”), the fit between communication media and communication contents, and the role of non-job-related communication. These research issues revolve around the idea that people become more hostile over a virtual medium making the working environment unhealthy. These findings were quickly dismissed in the presence of virtual teams due to the fact that virtual teams have the expectation that one will work longer together, and the level of anonymity is different from just a one off online interaction. One of the important needs for successful communication is the ability to have every member of the group together repeatedly over time. Effective dispersed groups show spikes in presence during communication over time, while ineffective groups do not have as dramatic spikes.

For the management of motivational and emotional processes, three groups of such processes have been addressed in empirical investigations so far: motivation and trust, team identification and cohesion, and satisfaction of the team members. Since most of the variables are originated within the person, they can vary considerably among the members of a team, requiring appropriate aggregation procedures for multilevel analyses (e.g. motivation may be mediated by interpersonal trust ).

Systematic research is needed on the management of knowledge and the development of shared understanding within the teams, particularly since theoretical analyses sometimes lead to conflicting expectations. The development of such “common ground” might be particularly difficult in virtual teams because sharing of information and the development of a “transactive memory” (i.e., who knows what in the team) is harder due to the reduced amount of face-to-face communication and the reduced information about individual work contexts.

Team development
Virtual teams can be supported by personnel and team development interventions. The development of such training concepts should be based on an empirical assessment of the needs and/or deficits of the team and its members, and the effectiveness of the trainings should be evaluated empirically. The steps of team developments include assessment of needs/deficits, individual and team training, and evaluation of training effects.

One such development intervention is to have the virtual team self-facilitate. Normally, a team brings in an outside facilitator to ensure that the team is correctly using the technology. This is a costly method of developing the team, but virtual teams can self-facilitate. This lessens the need for an outside facilitator, and saves the team time, effort, and resources.

Disbanding and reintegration
Finally, the disbanding of virtual teams and the re-integration of the team members is an important issue that has been neglected not only in empirical but also in most of the conceptual work on virtual teams. However, particularly when virtual project teams have only a short life-time and reform again quickly, careful and constructive disbanding is mandatory to maintain high motivation and satisfaction among the employees. Members of transient project teams anticipate the end of the teamwork in the foreseeable future, which in turn overshadows the interaction and shared outcomes. The final stage of group development should be a gradual emotional disengagement that includes both sadness about separation and (at least in successful groups) joy and pride in the achievements of the team.

title: Virtual management


text:
Talk:National park

US bias
There is very little coverage in the history on the development outside the US. 76.66.197.30 (talk) 06:18, 28 September 2009 (UTC)

 * I'm not familiar enough with the terminology to answer your question about royal parks directly, but a link in the see also section would probably be appropriate at a minimum. I did remove the link to The National Parks since there were several US-specific links already and it read like an advert; that said, while the history section makes it clear that the concept was proposed by an Englishman and also mentions Nordenskiöld, it appears to have come to fruition in the US.

 * I do agree that there should be more on the development of the concept at the international level by the IUCN, threats to national parks in areas of conflict, and possibly mention of the related concept you brought up. There is an tag, so feel free to add any relevant information. :) Recognizance (talk) 20:25, 30 September 2009 (UTC)

 * I've added into the Further Reading section journal articles that have information on national parks in Canada, South America, England, and some other countries including the U.S.; I'll include information from these journal articles into the article as I am able to read them; anyone who is interested in reading these journal articles in order to add to this wikipedia article please feel free to contact me. Nnoell (talk) 03:29, 19 February 2010 (UTC)

Science
Who is binod? Where is binod ? 103.61.113.118 (talk) 01:08, 14 October 2022 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:National park


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List of Welsh-language poets (6th century to c. 1600)

Much of Welsh language poetry has, until quite recently, been composed in various forms of strict metre (canu caeth), latterly with the encouragement of the eisteddfod movement. The following list is as inclusive as possible for the years prior to 1600. It includes as many minor poets as possible to illustrate the range and content of Welsh poetry throughout the ages. However much early poetry has been lost, and much medieval verse is either anonymous or, usually in the case of mythological poems and prophetic verse, attributed to the 6th-century poet Taliesin or the mythical figure of Myrddin. Early religious and gnomic verse is also usually anonymous. Where possible examples of each poet's surviving work is presented at Welsh Poetry at Wikisource

Each period of the poets listed below is accompanied by a graphical timeline to illustrate the main events and individuals that influenced the poets and their work. These timelines also depict the development of the Welsh language. Further details of its development may be found at Welsh language.

Pre 6th century
No works by Welsh poets prior to the 6th century have survived. Tradition records:

 * Maelgwyn of Llandaff (c. 450) – said, according to one source, to have written of Joseph of Arimathea's burial at Glastonbury. However, in the mid-5th century he would have spoken Brythonic, not Welsh, and as a monk would probably have written in Latin. His existence is doubtful.
 * St. Meugan (fl. c. late 5th century) – possibly a court poet to Cadwallon of Gwynedd

Extant
The bulk of surviving verse from the period known as "Canu'r Bwlch" is anonymous.(see Wikisource)

The works of the following poets, belonging to the Hengerdd or Cynfeirdd period, are extant and accepted as probably genuine:

 * Aneirin (Neirin mab Dwyrei) (fl. 550–600)
 * Taliesin (fl. later 6th century)

The following works are probably apocryphal:

 * Meigant (fl. c. 600–620) – a poet whose surviving work is recorded in the Black Book Of Carmarthen.
 * Afan Ferddig (7th century) – accepted as the author of Moliant Cadwallon a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan
 * Juvencus Manuscript/ Cambridge Juvencus (late 9th century) contains two Welsh englyn-poems, one of nine and one of three englynion. For the text and Sir Ifor William's translation see: The Juvencus Englynion.
 * The englyn-cycles which were previously attributed to Llywarch Hen and Heledd are now seen as works of later (9th–10th century) poets.
 * St Elaeth (11th century) – a poet and a monk whose surviving verse is recorded in the Black Book Of Carmarthen.

Non-extant or doubtful
Four others are named by Nennius as poets of renown alongside Taliesin and Aneirin:
 * Blwchbardd
 * Cian (Guenith Guaut)
 * Culfardd
 * Talhaearn Tad Awen

 * Arofan (7th century)
 * Cuhelyn the Bard (?9th century) – referred to in several poems but otherwise unknown. None of his work survives. The earliest reference to him is in a text (English version) found in the Black Book Of Carmarthen. However, a later charter of Sir Nicholas FitzMartin, Marcher Lord of Kemes, off-handedly describes someone as his descendant; the charter grants the supposed descendant land in the Preseli Hills.
 * Bleheris (?11th century) – an otherwise unknown poet of doubtful authenticity referred to as "born and bred in Wales" in Gawain and as a source for the story.

Other

 * Myrddin ab Morfryn – was believed by some to be an historical person who died in AD 570, but is now accepted as a mythical figure (see Merlin).

1100 to 1290
The following group of court poets used to be called the Gogynfeirdd and are now generally referred to as "Beirdd y Tywysogion", the Poets of the Princes. The list is roughly chronological.

 * Meilyr Brydydd (fl. 1100–1137)
 * Gwalchmai ap Meilyr (fl. 1130–1180)
 * Owain Cyfeiliog (c. 1130–1197)
 * Llywarch Llaety (fl. c. 1140–1160)
 * Llywelyn Fardd I – (fl. c. 1150–1175) – named in the Red Book of Hergest as “Llywelyn Fardd, son of Cywryd”.
 * Seisyll Bryffwrch (fl. 1155–1175)
 * Cynddelw Brydydd Mawr (fl. 1155–1200)
 * Peryf ap Cedifor (fl. c. 1170)
 * Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd (died 1170)
 * Gwynfardd Brycheiniog (fl. c. 1170–1180)
 * Llywarch ap Llywelyn ("Prydydd y Moch") (1173–1220)
 * Elidir Sais (1190–1240)
 * Meilyr ap Gwalchmai (fl. second half of the 12th century)
 * Gwilym Rhyfel (12th century)
 * Cneppyn Gwerthrynion (c. 13th century)
 * Einion ap Gwalchmai (fl. 1202–1223)
 * Einion Wan (fl. c. 1202–1245)
 * Einion ap Gwgon (fl. c. 1215)
 * Y Prydydd Bychan (fl. c. 1222–1268)
 * Goronwy Foel (fl. c. middle of the 13th century)
 * Dafydd Benfras (fl. 1230–1260)
 * Hywel Foel ap Griffri ap Pwyll Wyddel (fl. c. 1240–1300)
 * Adda Fras (c. 1240 – c. 1320) – whose poems haven't survived but whose name is recorded in one of the Peniarth manuscripts and in Tudur Aled's elegy to Dafydd ab Edmwnd.
 * Madog ap Gwallter (fl. c. 1250)
 * Bleddyn Fardd (fl. c. 1258–1284)
 * Llygad Gŵr (fl. 1268)
 * Gruffudd ab yr Ynad Coch (fl. 1277–1282)
 * Cadwgan Ffôl (13th century) – whose englyn celebrating a victory gained by the Welsh over the English at Degannwy is preserved in one of the Peniarth Manuscripts.

1290 to c.1500
The poets of this period are known as Beirdd yr Uchelwyr. The list is fairly chronological but not exhaustive as the work of some minor poets of the late 15th and 16th centuries remains in manuscript and a large corpus of late medieval Darogan, prophetic verse, is anonymous or attributed to early poets. Traditional patronage dwindled in the late 16th century but a handful of bards still received patronage from the gentry into the 17th century. Free verse by individuals composing "freelance" gradually took over from the mid-16th century onwards.

 * Casnodyn (fl. first half of the 14th century)
 * Phylip Brydydd (fl. c. 1300–1325)
 * Madog Benfras (fl. c. 1320–1360) – best known for his elegy on Dafydd ap Gwilym.
 * Dafydd ap Gwilym (c. 1320 – c. 1370)
 * Iolo Goch (1320–1398)
 * Bleddyn Ddu (fl. c. 1330-1385) – whose surviving poems are preserved in the Red Book of Hergest.
 * Rhys Goch Eryri (1330–1420)
 * Gruffudd Gryg (fl. c.1340–1380)
 * Gruffudd ab Adda (fl. mid 14th century)
 * Llywelyn Goch ap Meurig Hen (fl. c. 1350–1390)
 * Gruffudd ap Maredudd ap Dafydd (fl. 1352–1382) – famed for his awdlau to the Chester Rood and the Virgin Mary, and for his elegy to Gwenhwyfar of Pentraeth.
 * Einion Offeiriad (died 1356)
 * Tudur ap Gwyn Hagr (fl. second half of the 14th century)
 * Iorwerth Beli (fl. second half of the 14th century)
 * Dafydd ap Hywel ap Madoc ("Dafydd Ddu Athro o Hiraddug") (died 1371)
 * Dafydd y Coed (fl. 1380) – whose awdlau and satirical poems are found in the Red Book of Hergest.
 * Mab y Clochyddyn (fl. c. 1380) – whose elegy to Gwenhwyfar, "Marwnad Gwenhwyfar ferch Madog", is found in the Red Book of Hergest.
 * Gruffudd Llwyd (fl. c.1380–1410)
 * Dafydd Bach ap Madog Wladaidd ("Sypyn Cyfeiliog") (fl. 1340–1390)
 * Siôn Cent (ca. 1400–1430/45)
 * Dafydd Llwyd ap Llywelyn ap Gruffudd (Dafydd Llwyd o Fathafarn) (fl. c. 1400–1490)
 * Sefnyn (fl. 1408)
 * Dafydd Gorlech (c. 1410 – c. 1490)
 * Ieuan ap Rhydderch ab Ieuan Llwyd (fl.1410-1430)
 * Lewys Glyn Cothi (c. 1420–1490)
 * Tudur Penllyn (fl. c. 1420–1490)
 * Hywel Swrdwal (fl. 1430–1475)
 * Hywel Cilan (fl. 1435–1470) – who composed poems to the nobility of north Wales.
 * Guto'r Glyn (c. 1435 – c. 1493)
 * Llywelyn ab y Moel (died 1440)
 * Sefnyn (fl.1440)
 * Gwilym ab Ieuan Hen (fl. c. 1440–1480)
 * Llawdden (fl. 1440–1480)
 * Maredudd ap Rhys (fl. 1440–1483)
 * Ieuan Gethin (fl. c. 1450)
 * Maredudd ap Rhys (c. 1450–1480)
 * Dafydd ab Edmwnd (fl. c. 1450–1497)
 * Rhys Brydydd (fl. mid-15th century)
 * Ieuan Brydydd Hir (fl. 1450–1485)
 * Dafydd Nanmor (fl. 1450–1490)
 * Bedo Brwynllys (fl. c. 1460)
 * Dafydd Epynt (fl. c. 1460) – who composed poems in praise of Christ, patron saints and the nobility associated with Brecon and Abergavenny. Texts of his poems are found in the Peniarth manuscripts.
 * Deio ab Ieuan Du (fl. 1460–1480)
 * Ieuan Dyfi (c. 1460–1500)
 * Gutun Owain (fl. 1460–1500)
 * Gwilym Tew (fl. 1460–1480)
 * Gwerful Mechain (fl. 1462–1500)
 * Ieuan ap Tudur Penllyn
 * Owain ap Llywelyn ab y Moel (fl. 1470–1500)
 * Rhys Nanmor (fl. 1480–1513)
 * Siôn ap Hywel (fl. c. 1490–1532)
 * Rhisiart ap Rhys (fl. c. 1495–1510)
 * Bedo Aeddren (fl. 1500)
 * Dafydd ap Ieuan Llwyd (fl. 1500)

16th century
Most of the earlier poets here are very much in the Beirdd yr Uchelwyr tradition. Traditional patronage dwindled in the late 16th century but a handful of bards still received patronage from the gentry into the 17th century. Free verse by individuals composing "freelance" gradually took over from the mid-16th century onwards. The free verse and strict metre poets sit rather uneasily together in this list.

 * Tudur Aled (c. 1465–1525)
 * Lewys Môn (fl. 1485–1527)
 * Siôn Ceri (fl. early 16th century)
 * Dafydd ap Rhys O Fenai (fl. 16th century)
 * Meurig Dafydd (c. 1510–95), bard, genealogist and historian in Glamorgan
 * Lewys Morgannwg (fl. 1520–1565)
 * Siôn Tudur (1522–1602)
 * Morus Dwyfech (1523- 1590) - poet in Gwynedd writing many types of verse and also his will in the form of a poem.
 * Dafydd Trefor (died 1528) – whose work includes cywyddau on religious themes and an elegy on the death of Henry VII.
 * Simwnt Fychan (c. 1530–1606)
 * St. Richard Gwyn (c. 1537–1584) – who composed a number of odes in defence of Catholicism, while jailed.
 * Alis Wen (Alice ferch Gruffudd ap Ieuan Fychan; fl. 1540–1570) – whose surviving poems include musings on the type of man she desired to marry and on her fathers’ second marriage.
 * Catrin ferch Gruffudd ap Ieuan Fychan (fl. 16th century) – whose surviving poem is on a theme of religion.
 * Morus Dwyfach (fl. 1540–1580)
 * Rhys Cain (c. 1540–1614)
 * Llywelyn Siôn (c. 1540–1615)
 * Siôn Phylip (1543–1620)
 * Edmwnd Prys (c. 1543–1623)
 * Robin Clidro (1545–1580)
 * Dafydd Alaw (fl. 1550) – whose surviving work includes an elegy to Lewys Môn and poems in praise of the nobility of Anglesey.
 * Wiliam Midleton (c. 1550 – c. 1596)
 * Morris Kyffin (c. 1555–1598)
 * Catrin ferch Gruffudd ap Hywel – who composed a poem in praise of Jesus Christ.
 * Gwilym Gwyn (fl. c. 1560–1600) – whose surviving work includes a cywydd to St. Elian Geimiad.
 * Gruffudd Hiraethog (died 1564)
 * Tomos Prys (c. 1564–1634)
 * Rhisiart Gruffudd (fl. c. 1569) – whose surviving work includes a poem seeking reconciliation between Sir Richard Bulkeley of Anglesey with his second wife, Agnes, who had been accused of poisoning her husband.
 * Rhys Prichard (1579–1644)
 * Cadwaladr ap Rhys Trefnant (fl. 1600) – whose surviving poems in praise of noble families of Montgomeryshire are recorded in some of the Peniarth and Mostyn manuscripts.


text:
Talk:Virtual management

Untitled
Requesting comments on Virtual Management:

I am doing a research on the topic and it seems that a uniform and comprehensive definition is missing from the current literature. The VM article I created in Wikipedia is introductory and I would be thrilled to hear your opinions on the topic!

080402 Thanks for the new info. My original version was more business-oriented, the new paragraphs put the topic into a broader context. Anything more?

You, who added the new paragraphs: it would be very interesting to hear why you didn't like the article in the first place (it said so in the New pages - page).

Recent prod
I found a few references that discuss virtual management - I also found someone's term paper on the subject. I certainly wouldn't use that term paper as a reference, but it does list quite a few other good sources on the subject, for anyone else who wants to expand this article, so it's worth a look.

On a side note, I also found an article about this at "(suite 101 dot com)/reference/virtual_management", but the block list won't let me add the specific link. Does anyone know why that site's been blocked? The article there looks pretty good, it's a shame we can't use it. Quack 688 08:15, 5 January 2007 (UTC)

For Everyone's Information
Hello fellow wiki editors, I am currently working on updating and expanding this article page. I am working with a handful of other editors on a class Wikipedia assignment. There are a few edits that we would like to make starting with the Introduction. I found the introduction to be rather long and not really containing information relevant to this article. Below I have typed out a proposed alteration that I will implement as long as I receive no protest.

"Virtual management, is the supervision, leadership, and maintenance of virtual teams. It has been brought about by the rise of the Internet, globalization, outsourcing, telecommuting, and virtual teams, is management of frequently widely dispersed groups and individuals with rarely, if ever, meeting them face to face. Due to developments in information technology within the workplace, along with a need to compete globally and address competitive demands, organisations have embraced virtual management structures.[1] As with face-to-face teams, management of virtual teams is a crucial component in the effectiveness of the team. However, compared to leaders of face-to-face teams, virtual team leaders face the following difficulties: (a) logistical problems, including coordinating work across different time zones and physical distances; (b) interpersonal issues, including an ability to establish effective working relationships in the absence of frequent face-to-face communication; and (c) technological difficulties, including appropriate technology and ease-of-use.[5] In global virtual teams, there is the added dimension of cultural differences which impact on a virtual team's functioning."

This edit reformats the information currently there, and adds some sentences to improve flow and focus. Tvondavi (talk) 19:37, 8 November 2016 (UTC)

Article Peer Review (CMU Organizational Communication)
'''Is the article complete? That is does it answer the questions you'd want to know about the topic, and cover the topic in sufficient detail?'''

I like the idea of adding in the “life cycle” information into the topic. It makes the topic a lot more understandable. In general, the article covers the main points regarding virtual management. However, I’m not quite sure not all the details are there. For example, the line “The implementation of a virtual team structure has been shown to produce many benefits including reduced real estate expenses, increased productivity, access to global markets and environmental benefits due to a reduction in airline flights.” in the background provides some summary information that would be better in the article lead. Could there be more elaboration (such as definitive numbers) on the benefits of virtual management rather than a one-line summary? Furthermore, a lot of the drawbacks to virtual management seem to focus on the managerial side. Is there any information about the detriments in general (such as reduced teamwork, possibility of reduced work, reduction in communication) Additionally, are there certain situations where virtual management works better than others, such as the type or temperament of the team or the company's industry?

'''Is the article lead (the abstract before the table of contents) a useful summary of the article? The lead should provide an overview of what the rest of the article will say to help readers predict whether they want to read the whole thing.'''

I would recommend adding in the information regarding the life cycle. There is already information about the additional difficulties that virtual team managers face, which is good, but I think that it would be good to have some immediate benefits/detriments to a virtual team system in the article lead.

'''Is the article well-structured? Do the sections of the article make sense and are then in a logical order?'''

I think that one important structural detail lies within the “Management Factors” subheading. While the details are there, the organization is not. It seems rather jumbled, and there is a mix of benefits and detriments of virtual management sprinkled throughout the section. I think that one way to improve this is to visually reduce the number of one-line paragraphs. This, at the very least, provides an increased illusion of organization. I think that it would help to include subsections within the “Background” as well. While it may be a good idea to leave specific management-related detriments and benefits within the “Management Factors” section, I think that two additional subsections can be added: one for the general benefits, one for the general detriments. These two subsections may go well in the “Background” section.

'''Is the article well-written? Are individual paragraphs coherent and individual sentences? You can identify problematic paragraphs and sentence & either describe how to fix them in the article talk page or can actually make changes in the article itself.'''

I think that this article is generally well-written. It seems that additional work can be completed on what existed before any class edits (mainly the “Management” section.) As I mentioned above, paragraphs need to be a little longer in general. This paragraph—An extensive study conducted over 8 years[7] examined what factors increase leader effectiveness in virtual teams. This study identified 5 factors which are essential for effective leadership of virtual teams: —doesn’t seem to be complete as well. I think that this “Management” section can simply be split into two general paragraphs: one about why virtual management is harder to deal with and how do deal with these concerns, one about the benefits of virtual management.

Is the content well documented, from reliable sources?

The content seems to be well documented, and the sources are a mixture of books and research papers, which are in general reliable.

Renhaoh (talk) 23:16, 13 November 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Virtual management


text:
Llywelyn ab Iorwerth

Llywelyn ab Iorwerth (, c. 1173 – 11 April 1240), also known as Llywelyn the Great (Llywelyn Fawr, ), was a medieval Welsh ruler. He succeeded his uncle, Dafydd ab Owain Gwynedd, as King of Gwynedd in 1195. By a combination of war and diplomacy, he dominated Wales for 45 years.

During Llywelyn's childhood, Gwynedd was ruled by two of his uncles, who split the kingdom between them, following the death of Llywelyn's grandfather, Owain Gwynedd, in 1170. Llywelyn had a strong claim to be the legitimate ruler and began a campaign to win power at an early age. He was sole ruler of Gwynedd by 1200 and made a treaty with King John of England that year. Llywelyn's relations with John remained good for the next ten years. He married John's natural daughter Joan in 1205, and when John arrested Gwenwynwyn of Powys in 1208, Llywelyn took the opportunity to annex southern Powys. In 1210, relations deteriorated, and John invaded Gwynedd in 1211. Llywelyn was forced to seek terms and to give up all lands east of the River Conwy but was able to recover them the following year in alliance with the other Welsh princes. He allied himself with the barons who forced John to sign Magna Carta in 1215. By 1216, he was the dominant power in Wales, holding a council at Aberdyfi that year to apportion lands to the other princes.

Following King John's death, Llywelyn concluded the Treaty of Worcester with his successor, Henry III, in 1218. During the next fifteen years, Llywelyn was frequently involved in fights with Marcher lords and sometimes with the king, but also made alliances with several major powers in the Marches. The Peace of Middle in 1234 marked the end of Llywelyn's military career, as the agreed truce of two years was extended year by year for the remainder of his reign. He maintained his position in Wales until his death in 1240 and was succeeded by his son Dafydd ap Llywelyn.

Early life

Llywelyn was born about 1173, the son of Iorwerth Drwyndwn and the grandson of Owain Gwynedd, who had been ruler of Gwynedd until his death in 1170. He was probably born at Dolwyddelan the royal manor of Nantconwy, though not in the present Dolwyddelan Castle, which was built by Llywelyn himself. He may have been born in the old castle which occupied a rocky knoll on the valley floor.

Little is known about his father, Iorwerth Drwyndwn, who died when Llywelyn was an infant. There is no record of Iorwerth having taken part in the power struggle between some of Owain Gwynedd's other sons following Owain's death, although he was the eldest surviving son. There is a tradition that he was disabled or disfigured in some way that excluded him from power.

John Edward Lloyd states that Iorwerth was killed in battle at Pennant Melangell, in Powys, in 1174 during the wars deciding the succession following the death of his father.

By 1175, Gwynedd had been divided between two of Llywelyn's uncles. Dafydd ab Owain held the area east of the River Conwy and Rhodri ab Owain held the west. Dafydd and Rhodri were the sons of Owain by his second marriage to Cristin verch Goronwy. This marriage was not considered valid by the church as Cristin was Owain's first cousin, a degree of relationship which according to Canon law prohibited marriage. The chronicler Gerald of Wales refers to Iorwerth Drwyndwn as the only legitimate son of Owain Gwynedd. Following Iorwerth's death, Llywelyn was, at least in the eyes of the church, the legitimate claimant to the throne of Gwynedd.

Llywelyn's mother was Marared, occasionally anglicised to Margaret, daughter of Madog ap Maredudd, prince of Powys. There is evidence that after Iorwerth's death Marared married into the Corbet family of Caux in Shropshire, and Llywelyn may have spent part of his childhood there. There is in existence a grant of land from Llywelyn ab Iorwerth to the monastery of Wigmore, in which Llywelyn indicates his mother was a member of the house of Corbet.

Rise to power 1188–1199

In his account of his journey around Wales in 1188, Gerald mentions that the young Llywelyn was already in arms against his uncles Dafydd and Rhodri:

"Owen, son of Gruffyth, prince of North Wales, had many sons, but only one legitimate, namely, Iorwerth Drwyndwn, which in Welsh means 'flat-nosed', who had a son named Lhewelyn. This young man, being only twelve years of age, began, during the period of our journey, to molest his uncles David and Roderic, the sons of Owen by Christiana, his cousin-german; and although they had divided amongst themselves all North Wales, except the land of Conan, and although David, having married the sister of king Henry II, by whom he had one son, was powerfully supported by the English, yet within a few years the legitimate son, destitute of lands or money (by the aid of divine vengeance), bravely expelled from North Wales those who were born in public incest, though supported by their own wealth and by that of others, leaving them nothing but what the liberality of his own mind and the counsel of good men from pity suggested: a proof that adulterous and incestuous persons are displeasing to God."

In 1194, with the aid of his cousins Gruffudd ap Cynan and Maredudd ap Cynan, he defeated Dafydd at the Battle of Aberconwy at the mouth of the River Conwy.

Rhodri died in 1195, and his lands west of the Conwy were taken over by Gruffudd and Maredudd, while Llywelyn ruled the territories taken from Dafydd east of the Conwy. In 1197, Llywelyn captured Dafydd and imprisoned him. A year later Hubert Walter, Archbishop of Canterbury, persuaded Llywelyn to release him, and Dafydd retired to England, where he died in May 1203.

Wales was divided into Pura Wallia, the areas ruled by the Welsh princes, and Marchia Wallia, ruled by the Anglo-Norman barons. Since the death of Owain Gwynedd in 1170, Rhys ap Gruffydd had made the southern kingdom of Deheubarth the strongest of the Welsh kingdoms, and had established himself as the leader of Pura Wallia. After Rhys died in 1197, fighting between his sons led to the splitting of Deheubarth between warring factions. Gwenwynwyn, prince of Powys Wenwynwyn, tried to take over as leader of the Welsh princes, and in 1198, raised a great army to besiege Painscastle, which was held by the troops of William de Braose, 4th Lord of Bramber. Llywelyn sent troops to help Gwenwynwyn, but in August Gwenwynwyn's force was attacked by an army led by the justiciar, Geoffrey Fitz Peter, 1st Earl of Essex, and heavily defeated. Gwenwynwyn's defeat gave Llywelyn the opportunity to establish himself as the leader of the Welsh. In 1199, he captured the important castle of Mold, Flintshire and was apparently using the title "prince of the whole of North Wales" (tocius norwallie princeps). Llywelyn was probably not in fact master of all Gwynedd at this time since it was his cousin Gruffudd ap Cynan who promised homage to King John for Gwynedd in 1199.

Consolidation 1200–1209

Gruffudd ap Cynan died in 1200 and left Llywelyn the undisputed ruler of Gwynedd. In 1201, he took Eifionydd and Llŷn from Maredudd ap Cynan on a charge of treachery. In July, the same year Llywelyn concluded a treaty with King John of England. This is the earliest surviving written agreement between an English king and a Welsh ruler, and under its terms, Llywelyn was to swear fealty and do homage to the king. In return, it confirmed Llywelyn's possession of his conquests and allowed cases relating to lands claimed by Llywelyn to be heard under Welsh law.

Llywelyn made his first move beyond the borders of Gwynedd in August 1202 when he raised a force to attack Gwenwynwyn ab Owain Cyfeiliog of Powys, who was now his main rival in Wales. The clergy intervened to make peace between Llywelyn and Gwenwynwyn and the invasion was called off. Elise ap Madog, lord of Penllyn, had refused to respond to Llywelyn's summons to arms and was stripped of almost all his lands by Llywelyn as punishment.

Llywelyn consolidated his position in 1205 by marrying Joan, Lady of Wales, the natural daughter of King John. He had previously been negotiating with Pope Innocent III for leave to marry his uncle Rhodri's widow, daughter of Rǫgnvaldr Guðrøðarson, King of the Isles. However, this proposal was dropped.

In 1208, Gwenwynwyn of Powys fell out with King John who summoned him to Shrewsbury in October and then arrested him and stripped him of his lands. Llywelyn took the opportunity to annex southern Powys and northern Ceredigion and rebuild Aberystwyth Castle. In the summer of 1209 he accompanied John on a campaign against King William the Lion, Scotland.

Setback and recovery 1210–1217

In 1210, relations between Llywelyn and King John deteriorated. John Edward Lloyd suggests that the rupture may have been due to Llywelyn forming an alliance with William de Braose, 4th Lord of Bramber, who had fallen out with the king and had been deprived of his lands. While John led a campaign against de Braose and his allies in Ireland, an army led by Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester, and Peter des Roches, Bishop of Winchester, invaded Gwynedd. Llywelyn destroyed his own castle at Deganwy and retreated west of the River Conwy. The Earl of Chester rebuilt Deganwy, and Llywelyn retaliated by ravaging the Earl's lands. John sent troops to help restore Gwenwynwyn to the rule of southern Powys. In 1211, John invaded Gwynedd with the aid of almost all the other Welsh princes, planning according to Brut y Tywysogion "to dispossess Llywelyn and destroy him utterly". The first invasion was forced to retreat, but in August that year John invaded again with a larger army, crossed the River Conwy and penetrated Snowdonia. Bangor was burnt by a detachment of the royal army and the Bishop of Bangor captured. Llywelyn was forced to come to terms, and by the advice of his council sent his wife Joan to negotiate with the king, her father. Joan was able to persuade her father not to dispossess her husband completely, but Llywelyn lost all his lands east of the River Conwy. He also had to pay a large tribute in cattle and horses and to hand over hostages, including his illegitimate son Gruffydd and was forced to agree that if he died without a legitimate heir by Joan, all his lands would revert to the king.

This was the low point of Llywelyn's reign, but he quickly recovered his position. The other Welsh princes, who had supported King John against Llywelyn, soon became disillusioned with John's rule and changed sides. Llywelyn formed an alliance with Gwenwynwyn of Powys and the two main rulers of Deheubarth, Maelgwn ap Rhys and Rhys Gryg, and rose against John. They had the support of Pope Innocent III, who had been engaged in a dispute with John for several years and had placed his kingdom under an interdict. Innocent III released Llywelyn, Gwenwynwyn and Maelgwn from all oaths of loyalty to John and lifted the interdict in the territories which they controlled. Llywelyn was able to recover all Gwynedd apart from the castles of Deganwy and Rhuddlan within two months in 1212.

John planned another invasion of Gwynedd in August 1212. According to one account, he had just commenced by hanging some of the Welsh hostages given the previous year when he received two letters. One was from his daughter Joan, Llywelyn's wife, the other from William I of Scotland (William the Lion), and both warned him in similar terms that if he invaded Wales his magnates would seize the opportunity to kill him or hand him over to his enemies. The invasion was abandoned, and in 1213, Llywelyn took the castles of Deganwy and Rhuddlan. Llywelyn made an alliance with Philip II Augustus of France, then allied himself with the barons who were in rebellion against John, marching on Shrewsbury and capturing it without resistance in 1215. When John was forced to sign Magna Carta, Llywelyn was rewarded with several favourable provisions relating to Wales, including the release of his son, Gruffydd, who had been a hostage since 1211. The same year, Ednyfed Fychan was appointed seneschal of Gwynedd and was to work closely with Llywelyn for the remainder of his reign.

Llywelyn had now established himself as the leader of the independent princes of Wales, and in December 1215, led an army which included all the lesser princes to capture the castles of Carmarthen, Kidwelly, Llanstephan, Cardigan and Cilgerran. Another indication of his growing power was that he was able to insist on the consecration of Welshmen to two vacant sees that year, Iorwerth, as Bishop of St Davids, and Cadwgan of Llandyfai, as Bishop of Bangor.

In 1216, Llywelyn held a council at Aberdyfi to adjudicate on the territorial claims of the lesser princes, who affirmed their homage and allegiance to Llywelyn. J. Beverley Smith comments: "The leader in military alliance assumed the role of lord, his erstwhile allies were now his vassals." Gwenwynwyn of Powys changed sides again that year and allied himself with King John. Llywelyn called up the other princes for a campaign against him and drove him out of southern Powys once more. Gwenwynwyn died in England later that year, leaving an underage heir. King John also died that year, and he also left an underage heir in King Henry III with a minority government set up in England.

In 1217, Reginald de Braose of Brecon and Abergavenny, who had been allied to Llywelyn and married his daughter, Gwladus Ddu, was induced by the English crown to change sides. Llywelyn responded by invading his lands, first threatening Brecon, where the burgesses offered hostages for the payment of 100 marks, then heading for Swansea where Reginald de Braose met him to offer submission and to surrender the town. He then continued westwards to threaten Haverfordwest where the burgesses offered hostages for their submission to his rule or the payment of a fine of 1,000 marks.

Treaty of Worcester and border campaigns 1218–1229

Following King John's death Llywelyn concluded the Treaty of Worcester with his successor Henry III in 1218. This treaty confirmed him in possession of all his recent conquests. From then until his death Llywelyn was the dominant force in Wales, though there were further outbreaks of hostilities with marcher lords, particularly the Marshal family and Hubert de Burgh, Earl of Kent, and sometimes with the king. Llywelyn built up marriage alliances with several of the Marcher families. One daughter, Gwladus Ddu ("Gwladus the Dark"), was already married to Reginald de Braose of Brecon and Abergavenny, but with Reginald an unreliable ally Llywelyn married another daughter, Marared, to John de Braose of Gower, Reginald's nephew. He found a loyal ally in Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester, whose nephew and heir, John of Scotland, Earl of Huntingdon, married Llywelyn's daughter Elen ferch Llywelyn in about 1222. Following Reginald de Braose's death in 1228, Llywelyn also made an alliance with the powerful Roger Mortimer of Wigmore when Gwladus Ddu married as her second husband Ralph de Mortimer.

Llywelyn was careful not to provoke unnecessary hostilities with the crown or the Marcher lords; for example, in 1220, he compelled Rhys Gryg to return four commotes in South Wales to their previous Anglo-Norman owners. He built a number of castles to defend his borders, most thought to have been built between 1220 and 1230. These were the first sophisticated stone castles in Wales; his castles at Criccieth, Deganwy, Dolbadarn, Dolwyddelan and Castell y Bere are among the best examples. Llywelyn also appears to have fostered the development of quasi-urban settlements in Gwynedd to act as centres of trade.

Hostilities broke out with William Marshal, 2nd Earl of Pembroke in 1220. Llywelyn destroyed the castles of Narberth and Wiston, burnt the town of Haverfordwest and threatened Pembroke Castle, but agreed to abandon the attack on payment of £100. In early 1223, Llywelyn crossed the border into Shropshire and captured Kinnerley and Whittington castles. The Marshals took advantage of Llywelyn's involvement here to land near St David's in April with an army raised in Ireland and recaptured Cardigan and Carmarthen without opposition. The Marshals' campaign was supported by a royal army which took possession of Montgomery. Llywelyn came to an agreement with the king at Montgomery in October that year. Llywelyn's allies in South Wales were given back lands taken from them by the Marshals and Llywelyn himself gave up his conquests in Shropshire.

In 1228, Llywelyn was engaged in a campaign against Hubert de Burgh, who was Justiciar of England and Ireland and one of the most powerful men in the kingdom. Hubert had been given the lordship and castle of Montgomery by the king and was encroaching on Llywelyn's lands nearby. The king raised an army to help Hubert, who began to build another castle in the commote of Ceri. However, in October the royal army was obliged to retreat and Henry agreed to destroy the half-built castle in exchange for the payment of £2,000 by Llywelyn. Llywelyn raised the money by demanding the same sum as the ransom of William de Braose, Lord of Abergavenny, whom he had captured in the fighting.

Marital problems 1230
Following his capture, William de Braose decided to ally himself to Llywelyn, and a marriage was arranged between his daughter Isabella and Llywelyn's heir, Dafydd ap Llywelyn. At Easter 1230, William visited Llywelyn's court. During this visit, he was found in Llywelyn's chamber together with Llywelyn's wife Joan. On 2 May, de Braose was hanged; Joan was placed under house arrest for a year. The Brut y Tywysogion chronicler commented:
 * "That year William de Braose the Younger, Lord of Abergavenny, was hanged by the lord Llywelyn in Gwynedd after he had been caught in Llywelyn's chamber with the king of England's daughter, Llywelyn's wife."

A letter from Llywelyn to William's wife, Eva Marshal, written shortly after the execution enquires whether she still wishes the marriage between Dafydd and Isabella to take place. The marriage did go ahead, and the following year Joan was forgiven and restored to her position as princess.

Until 1230, Llywelyn had used the title princeps Norwalliæ "Prince of North Wales", but from that year he changed his title to "Prince of Aberffraw and Lord of Snowdon". He was, however, more concerned with the reality of power rather than its appearance. He never claimed or used the title "Prince of Wales" despite his authority extending over other rulers in Wales.

Final campaigns and the Peace of Middle 1231–1240
In 1231, there was further fighting. Llywelyn was becoming concerned about the growing power of Hubert de Burgh. Some of his men had been taken prisoner by the garrison of Montgomery and beheaded, and Llywelyn responded by burning Montgomery, Powys, New Radnor, Hay, and Brecon before turning west to capture the castles of Neath and Kidwelly. He completed the campaign by recapturing Cardigan Castle. King Henry retaliated by launching an invasion and built a new castle at Painscastle, but was unable to penetrate far into Wales.

Negotiations continued into 1232 when Hubert was removed from office and later imprisoned. Much of his power passed to Peter de Rivaux, including control of several castles in south Wales. William Marshal had died in 1231, and his brother Richard had succeeded him as Earl of Pembroke. In 1233, hostilities broke out between Richard Marshal and Peter de Rivaux, who was supported by the king. Llywelyn made an alliance with Richard, and in January 1234 the earl and Llywelyn seized Shrewsbury. Richard was killed in Ireland in April, but the king agreed to make peace with the insurgents. The Peace of Middle, agreed on 21 June, established a truce of two years with Llywelyn, who was allowed to retain Cardigan and Builth. This truce was renewed year by year for the remainder of Llywelyn's reign.

Arrangements for the succession
In his later years, Llywelyn devoted much effort to ensuring that his only legitimate son, Dafydd, would follow him as ruler of Gwynedd and amended Welsh law as followed in Gwynedd. Llywelyn's amendment to Welsh law favouring legitimate children in a Church sanctioned marriage mirrored the earlier efforts of the Lord Rhys, Prince of Deheubarth, in designating Gruffydd ap Rhys II as his heir over those of his illegitimate eldest son, Maelgwn ap Rhys. In both cases, favouring legitimate children born in a Church sanctioned marriage would facilitate better relations between their sons and the wider Anglo-Norman polity and Catholic Church by removing any "stigma" of illegitimacy. Dafydd's older but illegitimate brother, Gruffydd, was therefore excluded as the primary heir of Llywelyn, though would be given lands to rule. This was a departure from Welsh custom, which held that the eldest son was his father's heir regardless of his parents' marital status.

In 1220, Llywelyn induced the minority government of King Henry to acknowledge Dafydd as his heir. In 1222, he petitioned Pope Honorius III to have Dafydd's succession confirmed. The original petition has not been preserved but the Pope's reply refers to the "detestable custom... in his land whereby the son of the handmaiden was equally heir with the son of the free woman and illegitimate sons obtained an inheritance as if they were legitimate". The Pope welcomed the fact that Llywelyn was abolishing this custom. In 1226, Llywelyn persuaded the Pope to declare his wife Joan, Dafydd's mother, to be a legitimate daughter of King John, again in order to strengthen Dafydd's position, and in 1229, the English crown accepted Dafydd's homage for the lands he would inherit from his father. In 1238, Llywelyn held a council at Strata Florida Abbey where the other Welsh princes swore fealty to Dafydd. Llywelyn's original intention had been that they should do homage to Dafydd, but the king wrote to the other rulers forbidding them to do homage. Additionally, King Llywelyn arranged for his son Dafydd to marry Isabella de Braose, eldest daughter of William de Braose. As William de Braose had no male heir, Llywelyn strategized that the vast de Braose holdings in South Wales would pass to the heir of Dafydd with Isabella.

Gruffydd was given an appanage in Meirionnydd and Ardudwy but his rule was said to be oppressive, and in 1221 Llywelyn stripped him of these territories. In 1228, Llywelyn imprisoned him, and he was not released until 1234. On his release, he was given part of Llŷn to rule. His performance this time was apparently more satisfactory and by 1238 he had been given the remainder of Llŷn and a substantial part of Powys.

Death and the transfer of power

Joan died in 1237 and Llywelyn appears to have suffered a paralytic stroke the same year. From this time on, his heir Dafydd took an increasing part in the rule of the kingdom. Dafydd deprived his half-brother Gruffydd of the lands given him by Llywelyn and later seized him and his eldest son Owain and held them in Criccieth Castle. The chronicler of Brut y Tywysogion records that in 1240, "the lord Llywelyn ap Iorwerth, Prince of Wales, son of Owain Gwynedd, a second Achilles, died having taken on the habit of religion at Aberconwy, and was buried honourably."

Llywelyn died at the Cistercians abbey of Aberconwy, which he had founded and was buried there. This abbey was later moved to Maenan, becoming the Maenan Abbey, near Llanrwst, and Llywelyn's stone coffin can now be seen in St Grwst's Church, Llanrwst. Among the poets who lamented his passing was Einion Wan:

"True lord of the land – how strange that today He rules not o'er Gwynedd; Lord of nought but the piled up stones of his tomb, Of the seven-foot grave in which he lies."

Dafydd succeeded Llywelyn as prince of Gwynedd, but King Henry was not prepared to allow him to inherit his father's position in the remainder of Wales. Dafydd was forced to agree to a treaty greatly restricting his power and was also obliged to hand his half-brother Gruffydd over to the king, who now had the option of using him against Dafydd. Gruffydd was killed attempting to escape from the Tower of London in 1244. This left the field clear for Dafydd, but Dafydd himself died with illegitimate and underage issue in 1246 and was eventually succeeded by his nephew, Gruffydd's son, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd.

Historical assessment
Llywelyn dominated Wales for more than 40 years and was one of only two Welsh rulers to be called "the Great", the other being his ancestor Rhodri the Great (Rhodri Mawr). The first person to give Llywelyn the title "the Great" seems to have been his near contemporary, the English chronicler Matthew Paris.

John Edward Lloyd gave the following assessment of Llywelyn: "'Among the chieftains who battled against the Anglo-Norman power his place will always be high if not indeed the highest of all, for no man ever made better or more judicious use of the native force of the Welsh people for adequate national ends; his patriotic statesmanship will always entitle him to wear the proud style of Llywelyn the Great'."

David Moore gives a different view: "'When Llywelyn died in 1240 his principatus of Wales rested on shaky foundations. Although he had dominated Wales, exacted unprecedented submissions and raised the status of the prince of Gwynedd to new heights, his three major ambitions – a permanent hegemony, its recognition by the king, and its inheritance in its entirety by his heir – remained unfulfilled. His supremacy, like that of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn, had been merely personal in nature, and there was no institutional framework to maintain it either during his lifetime or after his death'."

Children
Llywelyn married Joan, natural daughter of John, King of England, in 1205. Llywelyn and Joan had three identified children in the records but in all probability had more, as Llywelyn's children were fully recognized during his marriage to Joan whilst his father-in-law, King John, was alive. Little is known of Llywelyn's mistress, Tangwystl Goch, his union with her was not recognised by the church, she was the daughter of Llywarch "Goch". The identity of the mother of some of Llywelyn's children before this union is uncertain, but the following are recorded in contemporary or near-contemporary records:

Children by Joan:
 * Dafydd ap Llywelyn (c. 1212–1246) married Isabella de Braose;
 * Gwladus Ddu (1206–1251);
 * Elen ferch Llywelyn (1207–1253), married (1) John of Scotland, Earl of Huntingdon and (2) Robert II de Quincy;
 * Susanna ferch Llywelyn (died after November 1228);
 * Marared (Margaret) ferch Llywelyn (died after 1268), married John de Braose in 1219, and had issue. Secondly (c. 1232) Walter III de Clifford;
 * Elen (the younger) ferch Llywelyn, Countess of Mar, possibly identical with Susanna (born before 1230; died after 16 February 1295).

Children by Tangwystl Goch, (died c. 1198):
 * Gruffudd ap Llywelyn ap Iorwerth, became a hostage of King John;
 * Gwenllian, married William de Lacy, son of Hugh de Lacy, Lord of Meath.

Children whose parentage is uncertain:
 * Angharad ferch Llywelyn (c. 1212–1256), probable daughter by Joan; married Maelgwn Fychan;
 * Tegwared y Bais Wen ap Llywelyn (c. 1215), a son by a woman named as Crysten in some sources, a possible twin of Angharad.

Family tree
The family tree of Llywelyn the Great's lineal descendants from his birth in the late 12th century until the end of the family dynasty of Gwynedd in the late 14th century:

Cultural allusions
A number of Welsh poems addressed to Llywelyn by contemporary poets such as Cynddelw Brydydd Mawr, Dafydd Benfras and Llywarch ap Llywelyn (better known under the nickname Prydydd y Moch) have survived. Very little of this poetry has been published in English translation.

Llywelyn has continued to figure in modern Welsh literature. The play Siwan (1956, English translation 1960) by Saunders Lewis deals with the finding of William de Braose in Joan's chamber and his execution by Llywelyn. Another well-known Welsh play about Llywelyn is Llywelyn Fawr by Thomas Parry.

Llywelyn is the main character or one of the main characters in several English-language novels:
 * Raymond Foxall (1959) Song for a Prince: The Story of Llywelyn the Great covers the period from King John's invasion in 1211 to the execution of William de Braose.
 * Sharon Kay Penman's (1985) Here Be Dragons is centred on the marriage of Llywelyn and Joan. Dragon's Lair (2003) by the same author features the young Llywelyn before he gained power in Gwynedd. Llywelyn further appears in Penman's novel Falls the Shadow (1988).
 * Edith Pargeter (1960–1963) "The Heaven Tree Trilogy" features Llywelyn, Joan, William de Braose, and several of Llywelyn's sons as major characters.
 * Gaius Demetrius (2006) Ascent of an Eagle tells the story of the early part of Llywelyn's reign.

The story of the faithful hound Gelert, owned by Llywelyn and mistakenly killed by him, is also considered to be fiction. "Gelert's grave" is a popular tourist attraction in Beddgelert but is thought to have been created by an 18th century innkeeper to boost the tourist trade. The tale itself is a variation on a common folktale motif.

title: Llywelyn ab Iorwerth


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User:Miguel

By way of introduction
I am a Spanish mathematical physicist working in finance. I obtained my Ph.D. from the University of California at Riverside at the end of 2004. — Miguel (talk) 22:27, 14 April 2010 (UTC)

My wikipediholic score was 61 as of 22:10, 2004 Feb 25 (UTC)

Thoughts on wikipedia
Wikipedia is successful because everyone loves to read themselves write.

Contributing to any article of political significance is a sure source of wikistress. I have seen myself gradually drifting away from political/religious/cultural articles, then away from current affairs, and then even away from theoretical physics articles. When even an inocuous topic such as Normal distribution can lead to acrimonious discussions on talk pages, I am just about ready to give up on Wikipedia.

After the March 11, 2004 Madrid attacks I realized staying away from the clamor of the boetians just wasn't going to work, but that one must pick one's battles wisely.

My contributions
All my contributions up to 2005 April 15 are licensed under whatever the default licence for wikipedia was.

All my contributions after 2005 April 15 and until further notice are multi-licensed under the default wikipedia license and the Creative Commons licence Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0.

The following is a list of articles where I have done more than just housekeeping. I have originated or completely rewritten a number of them.

Probability and statistics
stochastic process, Brownian motion, randomness, random sequence, normal distribution, Bayes' theorem, random variable, probability distribution, multivariate normal distribution, multivariate random variable, statistics, Chapman-Kolmogorov equation, uniform distribution, exponential family, order statistic, Kolmogorov-Smirnov test

(Mathematical) physics
fractal, loop quantum gravity, Maxwell's equations, self-organization, time dilation, functional integration, perpetual motion, Onsager reciprocal relations, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, non-equilibrium thermodynamics, free energy, work content, Helmholtz free energy, Wilson loop, Immirzi parameter, Unruh effect, quantum gravity, mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics, canonical commutation relation, Supermassive black hole, Darcy-Weisbach equation, Aharonov-Bohn effect

Other Mathematics
bounded, monotonic, tree (graph theory), graph, multiplicative function, function, discrete mathematics, partial order, function (programming), Newton's method, recursion, parameter, group object, Stone-Weierstrass theorem, character (mathematics), star-algebra, mathematical beauty,handlebody, handle decomposition

History of science
Eudoxus of Cnidus, mathematical analysis, Kazimierz Kuratowski, Adrien-Marie Legendre, Archimedes, arithmetization of analysis, Albert Einstein

Spain
history of Spain, Spanish Civil War, Madrid, Spain, autonomous communities of Spain, Spanish Constitution of 1978, Spanish alphabet, Gara, List of political parties in Spain, Spanish Empire, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, patera, Spanish Senate, Javier Solana

(Then) current events
Jean-Marie Le Pen, Jacques Chirac, Igla, 2003 US-Canada blackout, Spanish legislative election, 2004, Camp Bucca, Schwarze Pumpe, Tim Parker, Groupe de Bruges

March 11, 2004 Madrid attacks and Aftermath of the March 11, 2004 Madrid attacks, which have been recommended as a source.

Miscellaneous
state of emergency, declaration of war, Arcadia, empathy, Dogme 95, Creationism, ethics in religion, anarchism, List of alternative, speculative and disputed theories, European Union, human, model (economics), fencing, pierolapithecus catalaunicus, type-A behavior, liquid smoke, Euro Stoxx 50

title: User:Miguel