text:
User talk:David Parker

Hi all,

My field's modern & mediaeval (this bit's mine, so I can keep the "ae") history, with an emphasis on the economic & demographic. Leisure activities (if you can call them that) include reading, The Fall, old stuff generally (small towns, films, doorknobs, the usual) and good dark beers. Other likes include cats, green, Monty Python, foxes (so long as they don't go too near the cats) & the Missus. Dislikes include sirens, project management, gyratory systems and advertising.

Cheers,

Dave

Hi, Dave and welcome -- WojPob

Hi David -- welcome to the Poland or German (Germanic, ur-German) debate. My advice to you now is to not get depressed when everything you say is contradicted because it doesn't suit certain irredentist arguments. This particular set of debates has been going on for several months, so be warned ;-) Otherwise, very nice work on the maps -- the rest of us looked, but didn't really bother to read because we accept the fact that maps tend to be fairly untrustworthy as sources. It's good to know that the initial citation was less than a proof of the "It's Prussian!" argument. User:JHK Hello David, I see that you have taken an interest in the places dear to my heart. Thank you so much for your wonderful input . It is such a pleasure to have someone working on the project with a clear understanding and unfuzzy arguments. user:H.J. Hello again, I have a question or rather a favor to ask. You seem to know Latin. Could you please translate: "Divina Clementia.March.Brandenb. SR Imp.,Camerarius et Nunc Temporis Archigeron Elector VII Obdin. Ducens.DVX Boruss etc " Thank you so much user:H.J. David -- just so you know, user:H.J. has a book of portraits of famous people that she uses as a source for a lot of her European rulers stuff. The link is on several of the talk pages to which she and I have both contributed. It's a beautiful book, but my take on it is that it is a typical book of exemplary and/or famous people. I've actually done a course in Germany on this type of volume, and one of the things that was very evident was that these books are not always accurate and often are the product of wishful thinking and a bit of sucking up to a patron. THis type of argument (i.e., that the inscription says "duke of Prussia, so he was duke of Prussia") has come up on several occasions -- this is the first time I've actually seen a solicitation for a translation, though. Best of luck -- User:JHK] David, the Jesuit part is written in an over 100 year old encyclopedia. In reference to my ? a few days ago I guess, that you do not know Latin ? [[user:H.J. - HJ, the 'turned it over to Jesuits' is unforgivably vague. turned over his duchy to be ruled by jesuits? turned over religious instruction in his duchy to jesuits is the likely answer. -- MichaelTinkler I never saw your earlier note, I'm afraid, but Brandenburg/Prussian history isn't so obscure that it has to be gleaned from selective interpretation of contemporary illustrations (flatly contradicted by their own accompanying text - uncited, of course), obscure references to nominal titles, or unnamed encyclopaedias (which?). Why would Johann Georg, a Lutheran ruler, hand his dominions to the Jesuits? Would this revolutionary transformation in the religious balance of central Europe not have registered more forcefully in the historical record than appears to have been the case? (With all the ramblings of the professors I almost did not see your note either). The rulers at that time switched back and forth several times.8o percent were protestant. But there were Calvinists and all kinds of other reformers. Under the Habsburgs the Anti-Reformation brought the Catholics back to appr. 50/50 in Germany. Many Hohenzollern were Calvinists and always had to get along with the emperors, who headed the Catholic Anti-Reformation. Albert I of Prussia was Lutheran. Johann Georg and his brother Johann Sigismund took on reformed religion in 1613. The way it is written in wikipedia now is fine, because today it does not make much difference any more. HJ: Johann Sigismund certainly embraced Calvinism, but he's the only Brandenburg ruler I know of who did so. As far as I'm aware, Johann Georg never strayed from Lutheranism, though his realm welcomed Calvinists fleeing the Spanish Netherlands. Can you direct me to a source to the contrary? User:David Parker To User:David Parker This Johann Georg Hohenzollern (1525-1598) remained Lutheran. His grandsons Johann Sigismund and Johann Georg , both sons of Joachim Friedrich,were raised at the court of their grandfather under a lutheran teacher. When both brothers went to study at Strassburg, they learned about Calvinism. The grandfather Johan Georg made them sign documents, not to change religion. Both brother changed to Reformed (I guess that is Calvinism ?) in 1613 .(from Kirchenlexikon -church lexicon). (I removed the link to the grandfather.) user:H.J. HJ: I suspected as much from your wording, but didn't have time to check it out. Yes, Reformed = Calvinist here. It's significant that Johann Sigismund accepted the state's Lutheran orientation, so his change of conscience remained a private affair rather than a matter of state. The confusion of the two Johan Georgs is a timely reminder, though, of the need to take care with statements of fact. User:David Parker

Hi David,

Noticed you're doing a lot of work on Early Mediaeval, as well as the dread Early Modern Germany. I was wondering if I could entice you towards later Mediaeval -- especially post conquest England and 12th and 13th c. france? And maybe the Wars of the Roses? I'm only asking because most of my most recent work has focused on pre-11th c, so I'm really comfortable with Carolingians, Merovingians, and Ottonians. Michael is also an early specialist, plus lots of Byzantine. We both do lots of ecclesiastical stuff,too. No pressure, just trying to spread thin resources in the best way possible, and if you know the stuff, I won't have to do as much research! User:JHK Sure, always happy to oblige - just point me to anything in urgent need of attention, and I'll try to at least start sorting it out. I'm summoning the courage to start a Hundred Years War outline - and for once I'd be happy if anyone out there beat me to it. I'm still working on FS and M, by the way, and would welcome your or Michael's thoughts on origins and diffusion (I'm similarly more at ease with the 13th-14th centuries there). DP

Have at it on the 100 YW! by the way -- Have you had a chance to weigh in on the history standards page? I have suggested an addition to acceptable nomenclature for article titles... JHK

HI David -- it looks like you've got the redirects to work -- what did you do?? User:JHK

 * Hi JHK - no, they don't work as redirects to non-pre-existing edit pages at all, so after entering the "#REDIRECT ..." in the old entry I key in the new address in the address bar rather than trying to open the new entry from the old one. The redirect works as soon as you've entered something in the new article, but not before: until then you just get the edit page for the old article with an inoperative "#REDIRECT ..." in it.
 * Way cool -- thanks! Off to grade papers before the England Holland game (I know -- it's over, but we recorded it!) User:JHK

Hi David -- I have something you might be interested in. If you were to check out the wikipedia-l list, you'd know how to get it! User:JHK
 * Er... could you give me a clue? (Page address? there are an awful lot of them counting messages!) - DP, way past his bedtime and not at his cleverest - will try again in the morning.

Maybe I did just beat you to it on Budapest, but you wrote a much better article. Congratulations -- user:Derek Ross

To User:David Parker You apparently had some info that Georg Friedrich was not duke of Prussia and filed it under rubbish. A 1588 coin III Gross Ar (Triplex Silver Groschen) clearly identifies Georg Friedrich as Duc and Dvx Prvssiae. I had added this on the Georg Friedrich site. That was removed. I re-inserted it on Talk/Georg riedrich. With the new system it is easy to miss messages. Therefore I am posting it here for you. Do we change it back to duke ? user:H.J. Howdy, all -- as I'm the person who pulled the coin, I thought I'd weigh in. I've already tried to impress upon some people that coins are not always reliable sources. A concrete example:
 * in around 267 AD, A beautifully detailed aureus was circulated via the military through much of Gaul. The coin bore the portrait of the Emperor Postumus.  The inscription on the obverse, IIRC, read Postumus Augustus, Divi Filius, Pontifex Maximus, Consul.  Problem? kinda.  Postumus was a usurper.  Gallienus was the Emperor at the time.

Coins and inscriptions do not always tell the truth. User:JHK HJ: My regnal information, which you share, states that Albert Frederick was duke of Prussia from 1568 until his death in 1618, when the title passed to the Brandenburg line. Clearly, a land can have only one duke. George Frederick's position was in fact regent. Albert Frederick remained the duke throughout. David, the title of duke was not taken from Albert Frederick, but in his place other dukes of Prussia and electors of Brandenburg etc ruled. I added that info on the Hohenzollern site. I have some question on the next duke of Prussia, between 1608 and 1618. Was it the son of Joachim Friedrich or it may have been Maximilian (III) ,brother of emperor Mathias and son of emperor Maximilian II Habsburg. I see on Maximilian (III)'s coins the statement : Mag: Prvss:Ad Comes and Prvss :Admi( That may pertain to the western Prussia part of Prussia ?).All the Habsburg were at that time grand masters of the Teutonic Knights, also the grand masters of the Order of the Golden Fleece.

The coins and the records, maps etc of that time, in my view, show more the realities of what really was at that time. 20th century interpretations or political correctness has often not shown many facts. Oftentimes there were not only one officeholder, but sometimes 2 kings, even 3 popes at the same time. So naturally there are different regions, that tell different histories from the same time. user:H.J. HJ: Again, there cannot be "other dukes": the title is unique to one individual, who must be qualified by the rules of succession or by specific bequest to possess it. This, George Frederick was not, and neither was John Sigismund while Albert Frederick lived. Between 1603 and his death in 1618 Albert Frederick was duke of Prussia, and the only duke of Prussia, as he had been for the previous 35 years.

Now, at least one margrave of Ansbach governed (may we use that hopefully neutral term, please, rather than the ambiguous "ruled"?") the dukedom in his place during his illness: I am not aware of any other margrave of that state, still less of Brandenburg proper, having fulfilled that role subsequently. You seem to suggest that John Sigismund acted as regent between 1603 and his succession to the dukedom 15 years later: I would be interested to see evidence for this, as I am aware of none.

One thing of which I can assure you is that Prussia in this period did not fall under Imperial administration: this was indeed the very reason why it was subsequently to become the seat of Hohenzollern kingship. There is simply no question as to sovereignty over western Prussia at this time: it was Polish, as contemporaries recognised perfectly explicitly at the time (see the text to the 1598 map which you invoked in this discussion).

This is not a question of 20th-century interpretation: others might well claim some ill-defined jurisdiction over the territory, but their decrees were of no consequence (note for comparison the ludicrous English claim to the crown of France - enshrined in a fundamental law of the realm as late as 1701). It also explains why Prussia only acquired western/Royal Prussia by participating in the first partition of Poland in 1772.

I sincerely hope that we are not reduced to arguing on the basis that a particular sixteenth-century matter of sovereignty is an issue of "political correctness", as I have extremely little patience with such evasion of questions of historical fact. User:David Parker Hello again David, Thanks for your opinion on the dukes. What are your ideas on that unanswered puzzle:Mag: Prvss:Ad Comes and Prvss :Admi  double Taler coins of Maximilian (III ,brother of emperor Mathias and son of emperor Maximilian II Habsburg). Since you tell me ,there can only be one duke,which was Albert Friedrich, till 1618, the Maximilian coins from ca 1613, 1617 are really a puzzle. Also, another question, do you have a book or what is the sorce that states, that there can only be one duke? I was of the impression, that the first son of a duke is born a duke. Thanks for your info user:H.J. The coin isn't really a puzzle at all: Maximilian's title of Administrator des Hochmeistertums in Preussen (Administrator of the Grand Masterdom in Prussia) was simply one of those attached to his office of Master of the Teutonic Order, which had held east Prussia until 1525. Again, the Anglo-French example is illustrative of how such residual claims can limp on meaninglessly for decades or even centuries after they have ceased to have any practical effect.

I'm not aware of reigning dukes' sons also holding the rank of duke during their father's reign. This would indeed make a nonsense of the ducal list at Hohenzollern. Clearly, it is reigning dukes that we are interested in. We already have too many articles on real past emperors, kings, dukes and margraves that say absolutely nothing about their historical role: don't let's start dragging in titles which existed only among their courtiers and minters. User:David Parker

-- That sounds plausible. Thanks HJ

David,

Hi, and a belated welcome. I see you have become embroiled in the great Prussia debate from which I have managed to extricate Norse mythology, the history of Hedeby, etc, etc, etc. Nice to see another mediaevalist on-board. sjc

Hi David,

A belated welcome from me as well. Thanks for helping to keep our Prussian enthusiasts in line. :-) Sorry I've not been on hand to help things along lately. --Larry Sanger Since you're a mediaevalist, would you take a look at Richard I of England? The text ends suddenly several years before his death, after being fairly detailed until then. That's not my period, so I've noted the gap in my "to do" and then not done the necessary research. Vicki Rosenzweig I'm flattered, Vicki, but I'm not really that much of a mediaevalist, more a modernist-cum-mediaevalist who doesn't really believe in the distinction: the article looks fine to me, and I'm sure you know far more about him than I do: perhaps you should call on User:JHK and Michael T for this. It looks well worth finishing, and I hope you get around to it: I couldn't really do it justice in such detail. User:David Parker
 * Sorry, I should clarify. The article isn't my work--I just did a bit of copyediting, and then suddenly hit the end of the article. I don't even know if what's there now is correct.
 * But the reason I dropped in was to remind you to be careful of self-links: the article on Emma of Normandy began with a link to her name, rather than having it in triple quotes for bold. Vicki Rosenzweig
 * Yes, I noticed it as soon as I came out of edit, but you'd already beaten me to it! Still, less typos than usual - but give me a chance after the first edit! On Richard, I'd like to tighten it up a bit (you'll notice I go for short articles - I think that's what most of us need initially) if that's OK - there's just no way I could cover the rest of his reign in such depth. User:David Parker

Subject: Ras Tafari

Well, David let us better drink one good dark ale and let us stop already in the beginning to blab of what kind of encyclopedia this is. I am participating herein for a good week and I am very glad to read and add to articles. My intentions are similar as of Mr. Jospeh Hill and of Mr. Winston Rodney and that means not to hurt no one mon, to teach no one. In the end what are we trying to describe here? Facts, a truth, ((some) personal) thoughts? I haven't found yet what is the whole set of topics and the ways of their representations here in this free, as it is mentioned to be, encyclopedia. I can serve some external references, I can copy some facts from outside, give something from my memory and what remains after all. It should be a good and very informative article, right. And one firm fact is that we must describe such articles as for example Rastafarians is with somehow nonstandard approach. Shurely we must allege some believes direct from original and true Rastafarians, don't we?

''She's got some wild, wild life... inna real,

real life, ahah, hah. Checking in, checking out...'' User:David Byrne

XJamRastafire 4 Wednesday [2002.02.28] (0)

Subject: Ras Tafari

Well, David as ya wish man. But I must say you're insulting the name of one great and still unknown leader with your childhod corrections a lot. I don't mind that. Readability restored. I won't be calling if you would be so kind to correct my grammar and such as I am a non - English user of this project. Please let me someone say about putting resources inhere. But I won't argue no more cause I am a living man and I have some better things to do. I wonder if you have a soul if once being in Ethiopia Zion land to kiss its holly ground. Today I watched Mr. Rodney's and Mr. Hill's concerts at Red's Rock and I stand behind everything I have written. And who can tell who the original Rastafarians are. I won't tell no more until above is corrected in more proper way. With respect. Egziabeher:LJbP.

XJamRastafire 6 Saturday [2002.03.02] (0)

 * "Readability" was a reference not to anyone's mastery of English but rather to the revised first paragraph's former overloading with excessive text formatting and translation: the problem would have been the same in Slovene or any other language. I don't criticise people's English (usually) as long as they're making a reasonable effort: I try to improve it where I think it's helpful, but in this case the language wasn't the main issue.

 * I took out the Slovene links because they're of very limited use in an English-language encyclopedia: the facts as presented are matters of common record and don't need references. Cheers. User:David Parker

 * I've lost previous text and I can't paste it back so I have to write this again. OK, then David. You had calmed my feelings. Let me add just one thing. First Ras Tafari, as we all know, had ruled to a state where Amharic language had (sometimes forced) dominion over all languages of Ethiopian nations. I tryed to explain a bit those (for us westeners) strange words in Amharic not to complicate a text. I haven't put those references in the article to, in any kind, emphasize sourceing in Slovene language but just to show them as a reliabe direct sources from the scene as both Dr. Ernest Petrič and Danilo Jelenc had spent in Ethiopia over 20 years. Petrič as an expert on international relations and Jelenc as an expert on industrial mining. In his very informative book Jelenc gave many authentic aspects of Ras Tafari's nature. As a miner he knows Tafari was conserned only on gold. What real (selfclaiming) Rastafarians would say about it? Don't force me to allege some more views on Tafari's dark sides. I am not called to reason around. Let this be a subject elsewhere and some other time. His divinity was written in Ethiopian "usurpated" constitution and was "legal". I am tracking similar approach as Rastafarians stand for. They respect him and so I respect him too. But we know nothing about him perhaps. I am relying on Burning Spear's words that every man can be a Babylon. My dad once said he was a big dictator. When 1975 army officer came to arrest him he was crying. This is a natural order, Lion's dominion was wanishing and so (as you say we "must" bury this man. DO WE REALLY HAVE TO?). I have no mathematical proof for what lies inside me. And who knows. Perhaps hatse is watching and reading our conversations from somewhere. Sarcophagus under sackcloth had 1988 still been waiting for his body when Petrič had desribed this in his book. And since then things had changed a bit in world's one and only elected land and among its poorest one - revolution had eaten her children and the future is written - so what Rastafarians are trying to say to us (I am definitely excluded - Who feels it knows its Lord - I say, I feel it and I know it [Rita Marley]) who do not believe? Hill's Armaghedeon war had begun. Rescue he who can... Jah Jah See dem a come, but I and I conquerors - Watch them - They are coming to accuse I for things I know not about, They are coming to lock I down, right yeah, ta dam, ej, eej. Mesiah Garvey and they gave him away... [Joseph Hill] No one remebers this old man... [Winston Rodney] (Watch attention on drums) And finally Slovene had much with Ethiopian destiny in 1930'ies, because many Slovenes fought with Abesinian forces against Italian's aggressive divisions and that's why probably Haile Selassie visited Slovenia and distrustful Burning Spear played in Ljubljana 1987. [Ark of the covenant can not be taken away from Menelik's Addis Abbaba. Respect. The great truth of Axum of Zion ]

David, I am sorry, but you are wrong. Jadwiga was technically king, she was crowned as KING of Poland. It was described in article. szopen

David, of all the things of which user:H.J. could be accused, I have to defend her on this -- She does sign her talk stuff. I think she either hasn't figured out how to log in or hasn't set her browser for cookies and thuse doesn't automatically log in. While she has in the past tried to edit in stealth mode, she appears to be very proud of her contributions. So...i think accusing her of trying to be anonymous may not be very fair -- after all, we've all know her IP address quite well since she appeared! ;-) JHK

PS -- Welcome to my "busibody little group" LOL Perhaps, but it's very convenient not having one's name highlighted on the "Recent Changes" page or in revision histories when producing such an astonishing proportion of utter crap that others are likely to want to check for the inevitable errors. User:David Parker
 * I agree completely -- but she seems to be very proud of her contributions. I just utilize some of the more convenient new features!JHK

To David. About your comment of user:H.J.'s page - point taken! Space Cadet.

Hi David; just wondered where did you get the idea that in Polish Tzars are called Czars. They are not. In Polish it is Car, not Czar (Czar in Poland is Char, with Ch like in chalk, and means either charm or spell). And my Polish-English dictionary in entry Car gaves: tsar, tzar, czar. szopen

 * Hmm, interesting: yes, "czar" would of course come out like our "char", so where did it come from? Not current English transliteration of Russian, that's for sure. Can we all stick to Tsar, please? DP

Of course, i don't care that much, and besides you know better than I how should rulers of Russia called in English. I was just curious why people think Czar is Polish szopen

One more thing: just make quick search on Czar in wikipedia. I bet my own head that most of those entries were not made by Poles :) szopen Indian rather than Sepoy? I've always heard it Sepoy, even in Flashman, I think.  Maybe it's a US/British terminology thing?  I'm confused (but probably not because of evil influences) JHK -- who's just curious and implying no criticism at all because David usually knows this stuff
 * Both are quite legitimate, JHK, but "Sepoy Mutiny" is I think rather dated, and "Indian Mutiny" is certainly the better-known in the UK. I think it could be a UK/US thing - perhaps "Indian" has a slightly different ring over there... User:David Parker
 * Duh -- hadn't even thought of that...you're probably right. ;-)JHK

I am especially grateful for the change from Famous Germans Born in Danzig to Famous People Born in Gdansk. And who could have expected a Slovene attempting to write in Jamaican patois? You get credit towards Purgatory for all this, DP. MichaelTinkler

 * Hey Michael what did you mean with that Slovene attempt? Do I have anything to do with all of this? Accidentally I am pure Slovene and I wonder, ha, ha. Can you say some more words on this? Russian Tzars are called in Slovene as in Polish car. --XJam [2002.03.20] 3 Wednesday (0)

Thanks for the help on Russo-Japanese War -- I suspected that the problem was Old Style/New Style, but who was usinig what was not at all clear in the few web based resources I was using this morning to rough out an extended stub. I will probably push things around for a bit in note form before trying a narrative. User:ClaudeMuncey

Please have a look at Turkic peoples. I know that you did a lot of work on it in th past and wonder what you think of its present form. In particular I am keen to remove eventually the "disputed" notice, so I gave some work to altering/removing the pan-turkic bias Refdoc 11:46, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Article Licensing
Hi, I've started a drive to get users to multi-license all of their contributions that they've made to either (1) all U.S. state, county, and city articles or (2) all articles, using the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike (CC-by-sa) v1.0 and v2.0 Licenses or into the public domain if they prefer. The CC-by-sa license is a true free documentation license that is similar to Wikipedia's license, the GFDL, but it allows other projects, such as WikiTravel, to use our articles. Since you are among the top 2000 Wikipedians by edits, I was wondering if you would be willing to multi-license all of your contributions or at minimum those on the geographic articles. Over 90% of people asked have agreed. For More Information:
 * Multi-Licensing FAQ - Lots of questions answered
 * Multi-Licensing Guide
 * Free the Rambot Articles Project

To allow us to track those users who muli-license their contributions, many users copy and paste the " " template into their user page, but there are other options at Template messages/User namespace. The following examples could also copied and pasted into your user page:

 * Option 1
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions, with the exception of my user pages, as described below:

OR
 * Option 2
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions to any U.S. state, county, or city article as described below:

Or if you wanted to place your work into the public domain, you could replace " " with "  ". If you only prefer using the GFDL, I would like to know that too. Please let me know what you think at my talk page. It's important to know either way so no one keeps asking. -- Ram-Man (comment| talk)

rastafarians
Why did you rename this article rastafarianism? I know it is going back 3 years, but the subject has been debated recently, and I am curious to know. --SqueakBox 00:38, Feb 26, 2005 (UTC)

Votes requested on cfr Tudor and Plantagenet
Hi! I note your input on the Anjou page, I would greatly appreciate your voting on the proposed renaming of Category:Tudor to Category:House of Tudor, and Category:Plantagenet to Category:House of Plantagenet it seems the vote was suggested by obsessed with uniformity, however renaming the categories would be a mistake in my opinion, due to the fact that Tudor people is a sub category of Tudor, and having it as a sub category of House of Tudor would make no sense. Also, in my opinion House of Anjou is the more normally used phrase for the descendants of Geoffrey of Anjou rather than House of Plantagenet. please vote here Thanks, Arnie587 21:50, 28 September 2005 (UTC)

Départements of France
Hello Dave- I made a proposal regarding the above page that may be of interest to you: Requested_moves. -Eric (talk) 18:28, 13 October 2006 (UTC)

Your user and talk pages
Hi Dave, I found your user and talk pages while doing some wikiarchaeology. . I have restored all of their earliest surviving revisions from old copies of the Wikipedia database, so they are available to everyone now. I've restored the user page to its regular title, but the user talk page is at. Hope you don't mind. Graham 87 09:22, 27 June 2013 (UTC)

Feudal society listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has asked for a discussion to address the redirect Feudal society. Since you had some involvement with the Feudal society redirect, you might want to participate in the redirect discussion (if you have not already done so). Emmette Hernandez Coleman (talk) 19:12, 28 June 2013 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 08:51, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

Invitation to join the Fifteen Year Society
Dear ,

I'd like to extend a cordial invitation to you to join the Fifteen Year Society, an informal group for editors who've been participating in the Wikipedia project for fifteen years or more.

Best regards, Urhixidur (talk) 16:50, 6 June 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:David Parker


text:
User:RobLa

RobLa -> Rob Lanphier. Even more information can be found my homepage at "https://robla.net".

 * My contributions: Special:Contributions/User:RobLa
 * First contribution correctly(?) recorded on current English Wikipedia
 * My edits on nostalgia.wikipedia.org (courtesy of The Wayback Machine) - nostalgia.wikipedia.org shows many of my early edits to Wikipedia, claiming that I'm the first credited contributor to the Voting system article (or perhaps the "Electoral system article: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electoral_system&oldid=388850940 ). I'm guessing there were earlier revisions than my October 2001 edits. I may have written much of that early prose, but almost certainly not all at once in a revision labeled "*Added Google directory link"
 * I was an employee of Wikimedia Foundation (WMF) from 2010-2016:
 * Special:Contributions/RobLa-WMF <- this is the stuff I wrote on English Wikipedia when I worked for WMF. I made a few public contributions to some of the other wikis while I was there (e.g. on mediawiki.org and on on meta.wikimedia.org). Look "RobLa-WMF" up on guc.toolforge.org if you're interested.
 * meta:User:RobLa-WMF <- My official employee user page with a picture of a younger User:RobLa
 * User:RobLa/COI <- this is where I attempt to clearly state my conflicts of interest.

Journal
I have a subpage that I use as a quasi-blog: User:RobLa/Journal

Subpages
I have lots of cruft I've added over the years as subpages to my user page. One day, I would like to clean this up.

Sandbox
See User:RobLa/sandbox for updates:

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:RobLa


text:
210s

The 210s decade ran from January 1, 210, to December 31, 219.

title: 210s


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220s

The 220s decade ran from January 1, 220, to December 31, 229.

title: 220s


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230s

The 230s decade ran from January 1, 230, to December 31, 239.

title: 230s


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240s

The 240s decade ran from January 1, 240, to December 31, 249.

title: 240s


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Medina

Medina, officially Al-Madinah al-Munawwarah (المدينة المنورة, ) and also commonly simplified as Madīnah or Madinah (المدينة), is the capital of Medina Province in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia. It is one of the oldest and most important places in Islamic history. One of the most sacred cities in Islam, the population as of 2022 is 1,411,599, making it the fourth-most populous city in the country. Around 58.5% of the population are Saudi citizens and 41.5% are foreigners. Located at the core of the Medina Province in the western reaches of the country, the city is distributed over 589 km2, of which 293 km2 constitutes the city's urban area, while the rest is occupied by the Hejaz Mountains, empty valleys, agricultural spaces and older dormant volcanoes.

Medina is generally considered to be the "cradle of Islamic culture and civilization". The city is considered to be the second-holiest of three key cities in Islamic tradition, with Mecca and Jerusalem serving as the holiest and third-holiest cities respectively. Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (lit. 'The Prophet's Mosque') is of exceptional importance in Islam and serves as burial site of the prophet Muhammad, by whom the mosque was built in 622 CE (first year of the Hijrah). Observant Muslims usually visit his tomb, or rawdhah, at least once in their lifetime during a pilgrimage known as Ziyarat, although this is not obligatory. The original name of the city before the advent of Islam was Yathrib (يَثْرِب), and it is referred to by this name in Chapter 33 (Al-Aḥzāb, lit. 'The Confederates') of the Quran. It was renamed to ' (lit. 'City of the Prophet' or 'The Prophet's City') after Muhammad's death and later to ' (lit. 'The Enlightened City') before being simplified and shortened to its modern name,  (lit. 'The City'), from which the English-language spelling of "Medina" is derived. Saudi road signage uses ' and ' interchangeably.

The city existed for over 1,500 years before Muhammad's migration from Mecca, known as the Hijrah. Medina was the capital of a rapidly increasing Muslim caliphate under Muhammad's leadership, serving as its base of operations and as the cradle of Islam, where Muhammad's ummah (lit. 'nation')—composed of Medinan citizens (Ansar) as well as those who immigrated with Muhammad (Muhajirun), who were collectively known as the Sahabah—gained huge influence. Medina is home to three prominent mosques, namely al-Masjid an-Nabawi, Quba Mosque, and Masjid al-Qiblatayn, with the Quba Mosque being the oldest in Islam. A larger portion of the Qur'an was revealed in Medina in contrast to the earlier Meccan surahs.

Much like most of the Hejaz, Medina has seen numerous exchanges of power within its comparatively short existence. The region has been controlled by Jewish-Arabian tribes (up until the fifth century CE), the ʽAws and Khazraj (up until Muhammad's arrival), Muhammad and the Rashidun (622–660), the Umayyads (660–749), the Abbasids (749–1254), the Mamluks of Egypt (1254–1517), the Ottomans (1517–1805), the First Saudi State (1805–1811), Muhammad Ali of Egypt (1811–1840), the Ottomans for a second time (1840–1918), the Sharifate of Mecca under the Hashemites (1918–1925) and finally is in the hands of the present-day Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (1925–present).

In addition to visiting for Ziyarah, tourists come to visit the other prominent mosques and landmarks in the city that hold religious significance such as Mount Uhud, Al-Baqi' cemetery and the Seven Mosques among others. The Saudi government has also carried out the destruction of several historical structures and archaeological sites, both in Medina and Mecca.

Yathrib
Before the advent of Islam, the city was known as Yathrib (يَثْرِب; ). The word Yathrib appears in an inscription found in Harran, belonging to the Babylonian king Nabonidus (6th century BCE) and is well attested in several texts in the subsequent centuries. The name has also been recorded in Āyah (verse) 13 of Surah (chapter) 33 of the Qur'an. and is thus known to have been the name of the city up to the Battle of the Trench. According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad later forbade calling the city by this name.

Taybah and Tabah
Sometime after the battle, Muhammad renamed the city Taybah (the Kind or the Good) (طَيْبَة) and Tabah (طَابَة) which is of similar meaning. This name is also used to refer to the city in the popular folk song, "Ya Taybah!" (O Taybah!). The two names are combined in another name the city is known by, Taybat at-Tabah (the Kindest of the Kind).

Madinah
The city has also simply been called Al-Madinah (i.e. 'The City') in some ahadith . The names  (ٱلْمَدِيْنَة ٱلنَّبَوِيَّة) and Madīnat un-Nabī (both meaning "City of the Prophet" or "The Prophet's City") and al-Madīnat ul-Munawwarah ("The Enlightened City") are all derivatives of this word. This is also the most commonly accepted modern name of the city, used in official documents and road signage, along with Madinah.

History
Medina is home to several distinguished sites and landmarks, most of which are mosques and hold historic significance. These include the three aforementioned mosques, Masjid al-Fath (also known as Masjid al-Khandaq), the Seven Mosques, the Baqi' Cemetery where the graves of many famous Islamic figures are presumed to be located; directly to the southeast of the Prophet's Mosque, the Uhud mountain, site of the eponymous Battle of Uhud and the King Fahd Glorious Qur'an Printing Complex where most modern Qur'anic Mus'hafs are printed.

Early history and Jewish control
Medina has been inhabited at least 1500 years before the Hijra, or approximately the 9th century BCE. By the fourth century CE, Arab tribes began to encroach from Yemen, and there were three prominent Jewish tribes that inhabited the city around the time of Muhammad: the Banu Qaynuqa, the Banu Qurayza, and Banu Nadir. Ibn Khordadbeh later reported that during the Persian Empire's domination in Hejaz, the Banu Qurayza served as tax collectors for the Persian Shah.

The situation changed after the arrival of two new Arab tribes, the 'Aws or Banu 'Aws and the Khazraj, also known as the Banu Khazraj. At first, these tribes were allied with the Jewish tribes who ruled the region, but they later revolted and became independent.

Under the 'Aws and Khazraj
Toward the end of the 5th century, the Jewish rulers lost control of the city to the two Arab tribes. The Jewish Encyclopedia states that "by calling in outside assistance and treacherously massacring at a banquet the principal Jews", Banu Aus and Banu Khazraj finally gained the upper hand at Medina.

Most modern historians accept the claim of the Muslim sources that after the revolt, the Jewish tribes became clients of the 'Aws and the Khazraj. However, according to Scottish scholar, William Montgomery Watt, the clientship of the Jewish tribes is not borne out by the historical accounts of the period prior to 627, and he maintained that the Jewish populace retained a measure of political independence.

Early Muslim chronicler Ibn Ishaq tells of an ancient conflict between the last Yemenite king of the Himyarite Kingdom and the residents of Yathrib. When the king was passing by the oasis, the residents killed his son, and the Yemenite ruler threatened to exterminate the people and cut down the palms. According to Ibn Ishaq, he was stopped from doing so by two rabbis from the Banu Qurayza tribe, who implored the king to spare the oasis because it was the place "to which a prophet of the Quraysh would migrate in time to come, and it would be his home and resting-place." The Yemenite king thus did not destroy the town and converted to Judaism. He took the rabbis with him, and in Mecca, they reportedly recognized the Ka'bah as a temple built by Abraham and advised the king "to do what the people of Mecca did: to circumambulate the temple, to venerate and honor it, to shave his head and to behave with all humility until he had left its precincts." On approaching Yemen, tells Ibn Ishaq, the rabbis demonstrated to the local people a miracle by coming out of a fire unscathed and the Yemenites accepted Judaism.

Eventually the Banu 'Aws and the Banu Khazraj became hostile to each other and by the time of Muhammad's Hijrah (emigration) to Medina in 622, they had been fighting for 120 years and were sworn enemies The Banu Nadir and the Banu Qurayza were allied with the 'Aws, while the Banu Qaynuqa sided with the Khazraj. They fought a total of four wars.

Their last and bloodiest known battle was the Battle of Bu'ath, fought a few years prior to the arrival of Muhammad. The outcome of the battle was inconclusive, and the feud continued. 'Abd Allah ibn Ubayy, one Khazraj chief, had refused to take part in the battle, which earned him a reputation for equity and peacefulness. He was the most respected inhabitant of the city prior to Muhammad's arrival. To solve the ongoing feud, concerned residents of Yathrib met secretly with Muhammad in 'Aqaba, a place outside Mecca, inviting him and his small group of believers to come to the city, where Muhammad could serve a mediator between the factions and his community could practice its faith freely.

Under Muhammad and the Rashidun
In 622, Muhammad and an estimated 70 Meccan Muhajirun left Mecca over a period of a few months for sanctuary in Yathrib, an event that transformed the religious and political landscape of the city completely; the longstanding enmity between the Aus and Khazraj tribes was dampened as many of the two Arab tribes and some local Jews embraced the new religion of Islam. Muhammad, linked to the Khazraj through his great-grandmother, was agreed on as the leader of the city. The natives of Yathrib who had converted to Islam of any background—pagan Arab or Jewish—were called the Ansar ("the Patrons" or "the Helpers").

According to Ibn Ishaq, all parties in the area agreed to the Constitution of Medina, which committed all parties to mutual cooperation under the leadership of Muhammad. The nature of this document as recorded by Ibn Ishaq and transmitted by Ibn Hisham is the subject of dispute among modern Western historians, many of whom maintain that this "treaty" is possibly a collage of different agreements, oral rather than written, of different dates, and that it is not clear exactly when they were made. Other scholars, however, both Western and Muslim, argue that the text of the agreement—whether a single document originally or several—is possibly one of the oldest Islamic texts we possess. In Yemenite Jewish sources, another treaty was drafted between Muhammad and his Jewish subjects, known as Kitāb Dimmat al-Nabi, written in the 3rd year of the Hijra (625), and which gave express liberty to Jews living in Arabia to observe the Sabbath and to grow-out their side-locks. In return, they were to pay the jizya annually for protection by their patrons, while the Muslims would pay the Zakat tax.

Battle of Uhud

In the year 625, Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, a senior chieftain of Mecca who later converted to Islam, led a Meccan force against Medina. Muhammad marched out to meet the Qurayshi army with an estimated 1,000 troops, but just as the army approached the battlefield, 300 men under 'Abd Allah ibn Ubayy withdrew, dealing a severe blow to the Muslim army's morale. Muhammad continued marching with his now 700-strong force and ordered a group of 50 archers to climb a small hill, now called Jabal ar-Rummaah (The Archers' Hill) to keep an eye on the Meccan's cavalry and to provide protection to the rear of the Muslim's army. As the battle heated up, the Meccans were forced to retreat. The frontline was pushed further and further away from the archers and foreseeing the battle to be a victory for the Muslims, the archers decided to leave their posts to pursue the retreating Meccans. A small party, however, stayed behind; pleading the rest to not disobey Muhammad's orders.

Seeing that the archers were starting to descend from the hill, Khalid ibn al-Walid commanded his unit to ambush the hill and his cavalry unit pursued the descending archers were systematically slain by being caught in the plain ahead of the hill and the frontline, watched upon by their desperate comrades who stayed behind up in the hill who were shooting arrows to thwart the raiders, but with little to no effect. However, the Meccans did not capitalize on their advantage by invading Medina and returned to Mecca. The Madanis (people of Medina) suffered heavy losses, and Muhammad was injured.

Battle of the Trench
In 627, Abu Sufyan led another force toward Medina. Knowing of his intentions, Muhammad asked for proposals for defending the northern flank of the city, as the east and west were protected by volcanic rocks and the south was covered with palm trees. Salman al-Farsi, a Persian Sahabi who was familiar with Sasanian war tactics recommended digging a trench to protect the city and Muhammad accepted it. The subsequent siege came to be known as the Battle of the Trench and the Battle of the Confederates. After a month-long siege and various skirmishes, the Meccans withdrew again due to the harsh winter.

During the siege, Abu Sufyan contacted the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza and formed an agreement with them, to attack the Muslim defenders and effectively encircle the defenders. It was however discovered by the Muslims and thwarted. This was in breach of the Constitution of Medina and after the Meccan withdrawal, Muhammad immediately marched against the Qurayza and laid siege to their strongholds. The Jewish forces eventually surrendered. Some members of the Aws negotiated on behalf of their old allies and Muhammad agreed to appoint one of their chiefs who had converted to Islam, Sa'd ibn Mu'adh, as judge. Sa'ad judged that all male members of the tribe should be killed and the women and children enslaved. This action was conceived of as a defensive measure to ensure that the Muslim community could be confident of its continued survival in Medina. The French historian Robert Mantran proposes that from this point of view it was successful—from this point on, the Muslims were no longer primarily concerned with survival but with expansion and conquest.

In the ten years following the hijra, Medina formed the base from which Muhammad and the Muslim army attacked and were attacked, and it was from here that he marched on Mecca, entering it without battle in 630. Despite Muhammad's tribal connection to Mecca, the growing importance of Mecca in Islam, the significance of the Ka'bah as the center of the Islamic world, as the direction of prayer (Qibla), and in the Islamic pilgrimage (Hajj), Muhammad returned to Medina, which remained for some years the most important city of Islam and the base of operations of the early Rashidun Caliphate.

The city is presumed to have been renamed Madinat al-Nabi ("City of the Prophet" in Arabic) in honor of Muhammad's prophethood and the city being the site of his burial. Alternatively, Lucien Gubbay suggests the name Medina could also have been a derivative from the Aramaic word Medinta, which the Jewish inhabitants could have used for the city.

Under the first three caliphs Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman, Medina was the capital of a rapidly increasing Muslim Empire. During the reign of 'Uthman ibn al-Affan, the third caliph, a party of Arabs from Egypt, disgruntled at some of his political decisions, attacked Medina in 656 and assassinated him in his own home. Ali, the fourth caliph, changed the capital of the caliphate from Medina to Kufa in Iraq for being in a more strategic location. Since then, Medina's importance dwindled, becoming more a place of religious importance than of political power. Medina witnessed little to no economic growth during and after Ali's reign.

Umayyad Caliphate
After al-Hasan, the son of 'Ali, ceded power to Mu'awiyah I, son of Abu Sufyan, Mu'awiyah marched into Kufa, Ali's capital, and received the allegiance of the local 'Iraqis. This is considered to be the beginning of the Umayyad caliphate. Mu'awiyah's governors took special care of Medina and dug the 'Ayn az-Zarqa'a ("Blue Spring") spring along with a project that included the creation of underground ducts for the purposes of irrigation. Dams were built in some of the wadis and the subsequent agricultural boom led to the strengthening of the economy. Following a period of unrest during the Second Fitna in 679, Husayn ibn 'Ali was martyred at Karbala and Yazid assumed unchecked control for the next three years. In 682, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr declared himself Caliph of Mecca and the people of Medina swore allegiance to him. This led to an eight-year-long period of economic distress for the city. In 692, the Umayyads regained power and Medina experienced its second period of huge economic growth. Trade improved and more people moved into the city. The banks of Wadi al-'Aqiq were now lush with greenery. This period of peace and prosperity coincided with the rule of 'Umar ibn Abdulaziz, who many consider to be the fifth of the Rashidun.

Abbasid Caliphate
Abdulbasit A. Badr, in his book, Madinah, The Enlightened City: History and Landmarks, divides this period into three distinct phases: Badr describes the period between 749 and 974 as a push-and-pull between peace and political turmoil, while Medina continued to pay allegiance to the Abbasids. From 974 to 1151, the Sharifate of Medina was in a liaison with the Fatimids, even though the political stand between the two remained turbulent and did not exceed the normal allegiance. From 1151 onwards, Medina paid allegiance to the Zengids, and the Emir Nuruddin Zengi took care of the roads used by pilgrims and funded the fixing of the water sources and streets. When he visited Medina in 1162, he ordered the construction of a new wall that encompassed the new urban areas outside the old city wall. Zengi was succeeded by Saladin, founder of the Ayyubid dynasty, who supported Qasim ibn Muhanna, the Sharif of Medina, and greatly funded the growth of the city while slashing taxes paid by the pilgrims. He also funded the Bedouins who lived on the routes used by pilgrims to protect them on their journeys. The later Abbasids also continued to fund the expenses of the city. While Medina was formally allied with the Abbasids during this period, they maintained closer relations with the Zengids and Ayyubids. The historic city formed an oval, surrounded by a strong wall, 30 to 40 ft high, dating from this period, and was flanked with towers. Of its four gates, the Bab al-Salam ("The Gate of Peace"), was remarked for its beauty. Beyond the walls of the city, the west and south were suburbs consisting of low houses, yards, gardens and plantations.

Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo
after the fall of Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid Empire, to the Mongols, the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo took over the Egyptian governorate and effectively gained control of Medina. In 1258, Medina was threatened by lava from the Harrat Rahat volcanic region but was narrowly saved from being burnt after the lava turned northward. During Mamluk reign, the Masjid an-Nabawi caught fire twice. Once in 1256, when the storage caught fire, burning the entire mosque, and the other time in 1481, when the masjid was struck by lightning. This period also coincided with an increase in scholarly activity in Medina, with scholars such as Ibn Farhun, Al-Hafiz Zain al-Din al-'Iraqi, Al Sakhawi and others settling in the city. The striking iconic Green Dome also found its beginnings as a cupola built under Mamluk Sultan al-Mansur Qalawun as-Salihi in 1297.

First Ottoman period
In 1517, the first Ottoman period began with Selim I's conquest of Mamluk Egypt. This added Medina to their territory and they continued the tradition of showering Medina with money and aid. In 1532, Suleiman the Magnificent built a secure fortress around the city and constructed a strong castle armed by an Ottoman battalion to protect the city. This is also the period in which many of the Prophet's Mosque's modern features were built even though it was not painted green yet. These suburbs also had walls and gates. The Ottoman sultans took a keen interest in the Prophet's Mosque and redesigned it over and over to suit their preferences.

First Saudi insurgency
As the Ottomans' hold over their domains broke loose, the Madanis pledged alliance to Saud bin Abdulaziz, founder of the First Saudi state in 1805, who quickly took over the city. In 1811, Muhammad Ali of Egypt, Ottoman commander and Wali of Egypt, commanded two armies under each of his two sons to seize Medina, the first one, under the elder Towson Pasha, failed to take Medina. But the second one, a larger army under the command of Ibrahim Pasha, succeeded after battling a fierce resistance movement.

Muhammad Ali's era
After defeating his Saudi foes, Muhammad Ali took over governance of Medina and although he did not formally declare independence, his governance took on more of a semi-autonomous style. Muhammad's sons, Towson and Ibrahim, alternated in the governance of the city. Ibrahim renovated the city's walls and the Prophet's Mosque. He established a grand provision distribution center (taqiyya) to distribute food and alms to the needy and Medina lived a period of security and peace. In 1840, Muhammad moved his troops out of the city and officially handed the city to the central Ottoman command.

Second Ottoman period
Four years in 1844, after Muhammad Ali's departure, Davud Pasha was given the position of governor of Medina under the Ottoman sultan. Davud was responsible for renovating the Prophet's Mosque on Sultan Abdulmejid I's orders. When Abdul Hamid II assumed power, he made Medina stand out of the desert with a number of modern marvels, including a radio communication station, a power plant for the Prophet's Mosque and its immediate vicinity, a telegraph line between Medina and Constantinople, and the Hejaz railway which ran from Damascus to Medina with a planned extension to Mecca. Within one decade, the population of the city multiplied by leaps and bounds and reached 80,000. Around this time, Medina started falling prey to a new threat, the Hashemite Sharifate of Mecca in the south. Medina witnessed the longest siege in its history during and after World War I.

Sharifate of Mecca and Saudi conquest
The Sharif of Mecca, Husayn ibn Ali, first attacked Medina on 6 June 1916, in the middle of World War I. Four days later, Husayn held Medina in a bitter 3-year siege, during which the people faced food shortages, widespread disease and mass emigration. Fakhri Pasha, governor of Medina, tenaciously held on during the Siege of Medina from 10 June 1916 and refused to surrender and held on another 72 days after the Armistice of Moudros, until he was arrested by his own men and the city was taken over by the Sharifate on 10 January 1919. Husayn largely won the war due to his alliance with the British. In anticipation of the plunder and destruction to follow, Fakhri Pasha secretly dispatched the Sacred Relics of Muhammad to the Ottoman capital, Istanbul. As of 1920, the British described Medina as "much more self-supporting than Mecca." After the Great War, the Sharif of Mecca, Sayyid Hussein bin Ali was proclaimed King of an independent Hejaz. Soon after, the people of Medina secretly entered an agreement with Ibn Saud in 1924, and his son, Prince Mohammed bin Abdulaziz conquered Medina as part of the Saudi conquest of Hejaz on 5 December 1925 which gave way to the whole of the Hejaz being incorporated into the modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Under the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia focused more on the expansion of the city and the demolition of former sites that according to them violated Islamic principles and Islamic law such as the tombs at al-Baqi. Nowadays, the city mostly only holds religious significance and as such, just like Mecca, has given rise to a number of hotels surrounding the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi, which unlike the Masjid Al-Ḥarām, is equipped with an underground parking. The old city's walls have been destroyed and replaced with the three ring roads that encircle Medina today, named in order of length, King Faisal Road, King Abdullah Road and King Khalid Road. Medina's ring roads generally see less traffic overall compared to the four ring roads of Mecca.

An international airport, named the Prince Mohammed Bin Abdulaziz International Airport, now serves the city and is located on Highway 340, known locally as the Old Qassim Road. The city now sits at the crossroads of two major Saudi Arabian highways, Highway 60, known as the Qassim–Medina Highway, and Highway 15 which connects the city to Mecca in the south and onward and Tabuk in the north and onward, known as the Al Hijrah Highway or Al Hijrah Road, after Muhammad's journey. The old Ottoman railway system was shutdown after their departure from the region and the old railway station has now been converted into a museum. The city has recently seen another connection and mode of transport between it and Mecca, the Haramain high-speed railway line connects the two cities via King Abdullah Economic City near Rabigh, King Abdulaziz International Airport and the city of Jeddah in under 3 hours.

Though the city's sacred core of the old city is off limits to non-Muslims, the Haram area of Medina itself is much smaller than that of Mecca and Medina has recently seen an increase in the number of Muslim and Non-Muslim expatriate workers of other nationalities, most commonly South Asian peoples and people from other countries in the Gulf Cooperation Council. Almost all of the historic city has been demolished in the Saudi era. The rebuilt city is centered on the vastly expanded al-Masjid an-Nabawi.

Destruction of heritage in Medina
Saudi Arabia upholds Wahhabism as its religious ideology, which is hostile to any reverence given to historical or religious places of significance for fear that it may give rise to shirk (idolatry). As a consequence, under Saudi rule, Medina has suffered from considerable destruction of its physical heritage including the loss of many buildings over a thousand years old. Critics have described this as "Saudi vandalism" and claim that 300 historic sites linked to Muhammad, his family or companions have been lost in Medina and Mecca over the last 50 years. The most famous example of this is the demolition of al-Baqi.

Geography
Medina is located in the Hejaz region which is a 200 km wide strip between the Nafud desert and the Red Sea. Located approximately 720 km northwest of Riyadh which is at the center of the Saudi desert, the city is 250 km away from the west coast of Saudi Arabia and at an elevation of approximately 620 m above sea level. It lies at 39º36' longitude east and 24º28' latitude north. It covers an area of about 589 km2. The city has been divided into twelve districts, 7 of which have been categorized as urban districts, while the other 5 have been categorized as suburban.

Elevation
Like most cities in the Hejaz region, Medina is situated at a very high elevation. Almost three times as high as Mecca, the city is situated at 620 m above sea level. Mount Uhud is the highest peak in Medina and is 1,077 m tall.

Topography
Medina is a desert oasis surrounded by the Hejaz Mountains and volcanic hills. The soil surrounding Medina consists of mostly basalt, while the hills, especially noticeable to the south of the city, are volcanic ash which dates to the first geological period of the Paleozoic Era. It is surrounded by a number of famous mountains, most notably Jabal Al-Hujjaj (The Pilgrims' Mountain) to the west, Sal'aa Mountain to the north-west, Jabal al-'Ir or Caravan Mountain to the south and Mount Uhud to the north. The city is situated on a flat mountain plateau at the tripoint of the three valleys (wadis) of Wadi al 'Aql, Wadi al 'Aqiq, and Wadi al Himdh, for this reason, there are large green areas amidst a dry deserted mountainous region.

Climate
Under the Köppen climate classification, Medina falls in a hot desert climate region (BWh). Summers are extremely hot and dry with daytime temperatures averaging about 43 °C with nights about 29 °C. Temperatures above 45 °C are not unusual between June and September. Winters are milder, with temperatures from 8 °C at night to 25 °C in the day. There is very little rainfall, which falls almost entirely between November and May. In summer, the wind is north-western, while in the spring and winters, is south-western.

Significance in Islam
Medina's importance as a religious site derives from the presence of two mosques, Masjid Quba'a and al-Masjid an-Nabawi. Both of these mosques were built by Muhammad himself. Islamic scriptures emphasize the sacredness of Medina. Medina is mentioned several times in the Quran; two examples are Surah At-Tawbah (verse 101) and Al-Hashr (verse 8). Medinan suras are typically longer than their Meccan counterparts and they are also larger in number. Muhammad al-Bukhari recorded in Sahih Bukhari that Anas ibn Malik quoted Muhammad as saying: "'Medina is a sanctuary from that place to that. Its trees should not be cut and no heresy should be innovated nor any sin should be committed in it, and whoever innovates in it an heresy or commits sins (bad deeds), then he will incur the curse of God, the angels, and all the people.'"

The Prophet's Mosque (al-Masjid an-Nabawi)
According to Islamic tradition, a prayer in The Prophet's Mosque equates to 1,000 prayers in any other mosque except the Masjid al-Haram where one prayer equates to 100,000 prayers in any other mosque. The mosque was initially just an open space for prayer with a raised and covered minbar (pulpit) built within seven months and was located beside Muhammad's rawdhah (residence, although the word literally means garden) to its side along with the houses of his wives. The mosque was expanded several times throughout history, with many of its internal features developed over time to suit contemporary standards.

The modern Prophet's Mosque is famed for the Green Dome situated directly above Muhammad's rawdhah, which currently serves as the burial site for Muhammad, Abu Bakr al-Siddiq and Umar ibn al-Khattab and is used in road signage along with its signature minaret as an icon for Medina itself. The entire piazza of the mosque is shaded from the sun by 250 membrane umbrellas.

Quba'a Mosque
It is Sunnah to perform prayer at the Quba'a Mosque. According to a hadith, Sahl ibn Hunayf reported that Muhammad said, "'Whoever purifies himself in his house, then comes to the mosque of Quba' and prays in it, he will have a reward like the Umrah pilgrimage.'" and in another narration,"'Whoever goes out until he comes to this mosque – meaning the Mosque of Quba' – and prays there, that will be equivalent to 'Umrah.'"It has been recorded by al-Bukhari and Muslim that Muhammad used to go to Quba'a every Saturday to offer two rak'ahs of Sunnah prayer. The mosque at Quba'a was built by Muhammad himself upon his arrival to the old city of Medina. Quba'a and the mosque has been referred in the Qur'an indirectly in Surah At-Tawbah, verse 108.

Masjid al-Qiblatayn
Masjid al-Qiblatayn is another mosque historically important to Muslims. Muslims believe that Muhammad was commanded to change his direction of prayer (qibla) from praying toward Jerusalem to praying toward the Ka'bah at Mecca, as he was commanded in Surah Al-Baqarah, verses 143 and 144. The mosque is currently being expanded to be able to hold more than 4,000 worshippers.

Masjid al-Fath and the Seven Mosques
Three of these historic six mosques were combined recently into the larger Masjid al-Fath with an open courtyard. Sunni sources contend that there is no hadith or any other evidence to prove that Muhammad may have said something about the virtue of these mosques.

Al-Baqi' Cemetery
Al-Baqi' is a significant cemetery in Medina where several family members of Muhammad, caliphs and scholars are known to have been buried.

End of civilization
Concerning the end of civilization in Medina, Abu Hurairah is recorded to have said that Muhammad said: "'The people will leave Medina in spite of the best state it will have, and none except the wild birds and the beasts of prey will live in it, and the last persons who will die will be two shepherds from the tribe of Muzaina, who will be driving their sheep towards Medina, but will find nobody in it, and when they reach the valley of Thaniyat-al-Wada'h, they will fall down on their faces dead.' (al-Bukhari, Vol. 3, Book 30, Hadith 98)"Sufyan ibn Abu Zuhair said Muhammad said: "'Yemen will be conquered and some people will migrate (from Medina) and will urge their families, and those who will obey them to migrate (to Yemen) although Medina will be better for them; if they but knew. Sham will also be conquered and some people will migrate (from Medina) and will urge their families and those who will obey them, to migrate (to Sham) although Medina will be better for them; if they but knew. 'Iraq will be conquered and some people will migrate (from Medina) and will urge their families and those who will obey them to migrate (to 'Iraq) although Medina will be better for them; if they but knew.' (al-Bukhari, Vol. 3, Book 30, Hadith 99)"

Protection from plague and ad-Dajjal (the False Messiah)
With regards to Medina's protection from plague and ad-Dajjal, the following ahadith were recorded:

by Abu Bakra: "'The terror caused by Al-Masih Ad-Dajjal will not enter Medina and at that time Medina will have seven gates and there will be two angels at each gate guarding them.' (al-Bukhari, Vol. 3, Book 30, Hadith 103)"by Abu Hurairah:"'There are angels guarding the entrances (or roads) of Medina, neither plague nor Ad-Dajjal will be able to enter it.' (al-Bukhari, Vol. 3, Book 30, Hadith 104)"

Demographics
As of 2018, the recorded population of Medina province was 2,188,138, with a growth rate of 2.32%. Being a destination of Muslims from around the world, Medina witnesses illegal immigration after performing Hajj or Umrah, despite the strict rules the government has enforced. However, the Central Hajj Commissioner Prince Khalid bin Faisal stated that the numbers of illegal staying visitors dropped by 29% in 2018.

Religion
As with most cities in Saudi Arabia, Islam is the religion followed by the majority of the population of Medina.

Sunnis of different schools (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali) constitute the majority, while there is a significant Shia minority in and around Medina, such as the Nakhawila. Outside the haram, there are significant numbers of Non-Muslim migrant workers and expats.

Culture
Similar to that of Mecca, Medina exhibits a cross-cultural environment, a city where people of many nationalities and cultures live together and interact with each other on a daily basis. This only helps the King Fahd Complex for the Printing of the Holy Quran. Established in 1985, the biggest publisher of Quran in the world, it employs around 1100 people and publishes 361 different publications in many languages. It is reported that more than 400,000 people from around the world visit the complex every year. Every visitor is gifted a free copy of the Qur'an at the end of a tour of the facility.

Museums and arts
The Al Madinah Museum has several exhibits concerning the cultural and historical heritage of the city featuring different archeological collections, visual galleries and rare images of the old city. It also includes the Hejaz Railway Museum. The Dar Al Madinah Museum opened in 2011 and it uncovers the history of Medina specializing in the architectural and urban heritage of the city. There is no archeology or architecture from the time of Mohammed, except what remains of a few stone defensive towers The Holy Qur'an Exhibition houses rare manuscripts of the Quran, along with other exhibitions that encircle the Masjid an-Nabawi.

The Madinah Arts Center, founded in 2018 and operated by the MMDA's Cultural Wing, focuses on modern and contemporary arts. The center aims to enhance arts and enrich the artistic and cultural movement of society, empowering artists of all groups and ages. As of February 2020, before the implementation of social distancing measures and curfews, it held more than 13 group and solo art galleries, along with weekly workshops and discussions. The center is located in King Fahd Park, close to Quba Mosque on an area of 8,200 m2

In 2018, the MMDA launched Madinah Forum of Arabic Calligraphy, an annual forum to celebrate Arabic calligraphy and renowned Arabic calligraphers. The event includes discussions about Arabic calligraphy, and a gallery to show the work of 50 Arabic calligraphers from 10 countries. The Dar al-Qalam Center for Arabic Calligraphy is located to the northwest of the Masjid an-Nabawi, just across the Hejaz Railway Museum. In April 2020, it was announced that the center was renamed the Prince Mohammed bin Salman Center for Arabic Calligraphy, and upgraded to an international hub for Arabic Calligraphers, in conjunction with the "Year of Arabic Calligraphy" event organized by the Ministry of Culture during the years 2020 and 2021.

Other projects launched by the MMDA Cultural Wing include the Madinah Forum of Live Sculpture held at Quba Square, with 16 sculptors from 11 countries. The forum aimed to celebrate sculpture as it is an ancient art, and to attract young artists to this form of art.

Economy
Historically, Medina's economy was dependent on the sale of dates and other agricultural activities. As of 1920, 139 varieties of dates were being grown in the area, along with other vegetables. Religious tourism plays a major part in Medina's economy, being the second holiest city in Islam, and holding many historical Islamic locations, it attracts more than 7 million annual visitors who come to perform Hajj during the Hajj season, and Umrah throughout the year.

Medina has two industrial areas, the larger one was established in 2003 with a total area of 10,000,000 m2, and managed by the Saudi Authority for Industrial Cities and Technology Zones (MODON). It is located 50 km from Prince Mohammed bin Abdulaziz International Airport, and 200 km from Yanbu Commercial Port, and has 236 factories, which produce petroleum products, building materials, food products, and many other products. The Knowledge Economic City (KEC) is a Saudi Arabian joint stock company founded in 2010. It focuses on real estate development and knowledge-based industries. The project is under development and is expected to highly increase the number of jobs in Medina by its completion.

Primary and secondary education
The Ministry of Education is the governing body of education in the al-Madinah Province and it operates 724 and 773 public schools for boys and girls respectively throughout the province. Taibah High School is one of the most notable schools in Saudi Arabia. Established in 1942, it was the second-largest school in the country at that time. Saudi ministers and government officials have graduated from this high school.

Higher education and research
Taibah University is a public university providing higher education for the residents of the province, it has 28 colleges, of which 16 are in Medina. It offers 89 academic programs and has a strength of 69210 students as of 2020. The Islamic University, established in 1961, is the oldest higher education institution in the region, with around 22000 students enrolled. It offers majors in Sharia, Qur'an, Usul ad-Din, Hadith, and the Arabic language. The university offers Bachelor of Arts degrees and also Master's and Doctorate degrees. The admission is open to Muslims based on scholarships programs that provide accommodation and living expenses. In 2012, the university expanded its programs by establishing the College of Science, which offers Engineering and Computer science majors. Al Madinah College of Technology, which is governed by TVTC, offers a variety of degree programs including electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, computer sciences and electronic sciences. Private universities at Medina include University of Prince Muqrin, the Arab Open University, and Al Rayyan Colleges.

Air
Medina is served by the Prince Mohammad bin Abdulaziz International Airport located off Highway 340. It handles domestic flights, while it has scheduled international services to regional destinations in the Middle East. It is the fourth-busiest airport in Saudi Arabia, handling 8,144,790 passengers in 2018. The airport project was announced as the world's best by Engineering News-Record's 3rd Annual Global Best Projects Competition held on 10 September 2015. The airport also received the first Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Gold certificate in the MENA region. The airport receives higher numbers of passengers during the Hajj.

Roads
In 2015, the MMDA announced Darb as-Sunnah (Sunnah Path) Project, which aims to develop and transform the 3 km Quba'a Road connecting the Quba'a Mosque to the al-Masjid an-Nabawi to an avenue, paving the whole road for pedestrians and providing service facilities to the visitors. The project also aims to revive the Sunnah where Muhammed used to walk from his house (al-Masjid an-Nabawi) to Quba'a every Saturday afternoon.

The city of Medina lies at the junction of two of the most important Saudi highways, Highway 60 and Highway 15. Highway 15 connects Medina to Mecca in the south and onward and Tabuk and Jordan in the north. Highway 60 connects the city with Yanbu, a port city on the Red Sea in the west and Al Qassim in the east. The city is served by three ring roads: King Faisal Road, a 5 km ring road that surrounds Al-Masjid an-Nabawi and the downtown area, King Abdullah Road, a 27 km road that surrounds most of urban Medina and King Khalid Road is the biggest ring road that surrounds the whole city and some rural areas with 60 km of roads.

Bus and rapid transit
The bus transport system in Medina was established in 2012 by the MMDA and is operated by SAPTCO. The newly established bus system includes 10 lines connecting different regions of the city to Masjid an-Nabawi and the downtown area, and serves around 20,000 passengers on a daily basis. In 2017, the MMDA launched the Madinah Sightseeing Bus service. Open top buses take passengers on sightseeing trips throughout the day with two lines and 11 destinations, including Masjid an-Nabawi, Quba'a Mosque and Masjid al-Qiblatayn and offers audio tour guidance with eight different languages. By the end of 2019, the MMDA announced its plan to expand the bus network with 15 BRT lines. The project was set to be done in 2023. In 2015, the MMDA announced a three-line metro project in extension to the public transportation master plan in Medina.

Rail
The historic Ottoman Hejaz railway was abandoned following World War One and the Medina railway station was converted into a museum by the Saudi government. The Haramain High Speed Railway (HHR) came into operation in 2018, linking Medina and Mecca, and passes through three stations: Jeddah, King Abdul Aziz International Airport, and King Abdullah Economic City. It runs along 444 km with a speed of 300 km/h, and has an annual capacity of 60 million passengers.

Notable people

 * Aziz Diya (1914–1997), writer

title: Medina