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Linguistic typology

Linguistic typology (or language typology) is a field of linguistics that studies and classifies languages according to their structural features to allow their comparison. Its aim is to describe and explain the structural diversity and the common properties of the world's languages. Its subdisciplines include, but are not limited to phonological typology, which deals with sound features; syntactic typology, which deals with word order and form; lexical typology, which deals with language vocabulary; and theoretical typology, which aims to explain the universal tendencies.

Linguistic typology is contrasted with genealogical linguistics on the grounds that typology groups languages or their grammatical features based on formal similarities rather than historic descendence. The issue of genealogical relation is however relevant to typology because modern data sets aim to be representative and unbiased. Samples are collected evenly from different language families, emphasizing the importance of lesser-known languages in gaining insight into human language.

History
Speculations of the existence of a (logical) general or universal grammar underlying all languages were published in the Middle Ages, especially by the Modistae school. At the time, Latin was the model language of linguistics, although transcribing Irish and Icelandic into the Latin alphabet was found problematic. The cross-linguistic dimension of linguistics was established in the Renaissance period. For example, Grammaticae quadrilinguis partitiones (1544) by Johannes Drosaeus compared French and the three ‘holy languages’, Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. The approach was expanded by the Port-Royal Grammar (1660) of Antoine Arnauld and Claude Lancelot, who added Spanish, Italian, German and Arabic. Nicolas Beauzée's 1767 book includes examples of English, Swedish, Lappish, Irish, Welsh, Basque, Quechua, and Chinese.

The conquest and conversion of the world by Europeans gave rise to 'missionary linguistics' producing first-hand word lists and grammatical descriptions of exotic languages. Such work is accounted for in the ‘Catalogue of the Languages of the Populations We Know’, 1800, by the Spanish Jesuit Lorenzo Hervás. Johann Christoph Adelung collected the first large language sample with the Lord's prayer in almost five hundred languages (posthumous 1817).

More developed nineteenth-century comparative works include Franz Bopp's 'Conjugation System' (1816) and Wilhelm von Humboldt's ‘On the Difference in Human Linguistic Structure and Its Influence on the Intellectual Development of Mankind’ (posthumous 1836). In 1818, August Wilhelm Schlegel made a classification of the world's languages into three types: (i) languages lacking grammatical structure, e.g. Chinese; (ii) agglutinative languages, e.g. Turkish; and (iii) inflectional languages, which can be synthetic like Latin and Ancient Greek, or analytic like French. This idea was later developed by others including August Schleicher, Heymann Steinthal, Franz Misteli, Franz Nicolaus Finck, and Max Müller.

The word 'typology' was proposed by Georg von der Gabelentz in his Sprachwissenschaft (1891). Louis Hjelmslev proposed typology as a large-scale empirical-analytical endeavour of comparing grammatical features to uncover the essence of language. Such a project begins from the 1961 conference on language universals at Dobbs Ferry. Speakers included Roman Jakobson, Charles F. Hockett, and Joseph Greenberg who proposed forty-five different types of linguistic universals based on his data sets from thirty languages. Greenberg's findings were mostly known from the nineteenth-century grammarians, but his systematic presentation of them would serve as a model for modern typology. Winfred P. Lehmann introduced Greenbergian typological theory to Indo-European studies in the 1970s.

During the twentieth century, typology based on missionary linguistics became centered around SIL International, which today hosts its catalogue of living languages, Ethnologue, as an online database. The Greenbergian or universalist approach is accounted for by the World Atlas of Language Structures, among others. Typology is also done within the frameworks of functional grammar including Functional Discourse Grammar, Role and Reference Grammar, and Systemic Functional Linguistics. During the early years of the twenty-first century, however, the existence of linguistic universals became questioned by linguists proposing evolutionary typology.

Method
Quantitative typology deals with the distribution and co-occurrence of structural patterns in the languages of the world. Major types of non-chance distribution include:

 * preferences (for instance, absolute and implicational universals, semantic maps, and hierarchies)
 * correlations (for instance, areal patterns, such as with a Sprachbund)

Linguistic universals are patterns that can be seen cross-linguistically. Universals can either be absolute, meaning that every documented language exhibits this characteristic, or statistical, meaning that this characteristic is seen in most languages or is probable in most languages. Universals, both absolute and statistical can be unrestricted, meaning that they apply to most or all languages without any additional conditions. Conversely, both absolute and statistical universals can be restricted or implicational, meaning that a characteristic will be true on the condition of something else (if Y characteristic is true, then X characteristic is true). An example of an implicational hierarchy is that dual pronouns are only found in languages with plural pronouns while singular pronouns (or unspecified in terms of number) are found in all languages. The implicational hierarchy is thus singular < plural < dual (etc.).

Qualitative typology develops cross-linguistically viable notions or types that provide a framework for the description and comparison of languages.

Subfields
The main subfields of linguistic typology include the empirical fields of syntactic, phonological and lexical typology. Additionally, theoretical typology aims to explain the empirical findings, especially statistical tendencies or implicational hierarchies.

Syntactic typology
Syntactic typology studies a vast array of grammatical phenomena from the languages of the world. Two well-known issues include dominant order and left-right symmetry.

Dominant order
One set of types reflects the basic order of subject, verb, and direct object in sentences:

 * Object–subject–verb (OSV)
 * Object–verb–subject (OVS)
 * Subject–verb–object (SVO)
 * Subject–object–verb (SOV)
 * Verb–subject–object (VSO)
 * Verb–object–subject (VOS)

These labels usually appear abbreviated as "SVO" and so forth, and may be called "typologies" of the languages to which they apply. The most commonly attested word orders are SOV and SVO while the least common orders are those that are object initial with OVS being the least common with only four attested instances.

In the 1980s, linguists began to question the relevance of geographical distribution of different values for various features of linguistic structure. They may have wanted to discover whether a particular grammatical structure found in one language is likewise found in another language in the same geographic location. Some languages split verbs into an auxiliary and an infinitive or participle and put the subject and/or object between them. For instance, German (Ich habe einen Fuchs im Wald gesehen - *"I have a fox in-the woods seen"), Dutch (Hans vermoedde dat Jan Marie zag leren zwemmen - *"Hans suspected that Jan Marie saw to learn to swim") and Welsh (Mae ' r gwirio sillafu wedi'i gwblhau - *"Is the checking spelling after its to complete"). In this case, linguists base the typology on the non-analytic tenses (i.e. those sentences in which the verb is not split) or on the position of the auxiliary. German is thus SVO in main clauses and Welsh is VSO (and preposition phrases would go after the infinitive).

Many typologists classify both German and Dutch as V2 languages, as the verb invariantly occurs as the second element of a full clause.

Some languages allow varying degrees of freedom in their constituent order, posing a problem for their classification within the subject–verb–object schema. Languages with bound case markings for nouns, for example, tend to have more flexible word orders than languages where case is defined by position within a sentence or presence of a preposition. For example, in some languages with bound case markings for nouns, such as Language X, varying degrees of freedom in constituent order are observed. These languages exhibit more flexible word orders, allowing for variations like Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) structure, as in 'The cat ate the mouse,' and Object-Subject-Verb (OSV) structure, as in 'The mouse the cat ate.' To define a basic constituent order type in this case, one generally looks at frequency of different types in declarative affirmative main clauses in pragmatically neutral contexts, preferably with only old referents. Thus, for instance, Russian is widely considered an SVO language, as this is the most frequent constituent order under such conditions—all sorts of variations are possible, though, and occur in texts. In many inflected languages, such as Russian, Latin, and Greek, departures from the default word-orders are permissible but usually imply a shift in focus, an emphasis on the final element, or some special context. In the poetry of these languages, the word order may also shift freely to meet metrical demands. Additionally, freedom of word order may vary within the same language—for example, formal, literary, or archaizing varieties may have different, stricter, or more lenient constituent-order structures than an informal spoken variety of the same language.

On the other hand, when there is no clear preference under the described conditions, the language is considered to have "flexible constituent order" (a type unto itself).

An additional problem is that in languages without living speech communities, such as Latin, Ancient Greek, and Old Church Slavonic, linguists have only written evidence, perhaps written in a poetic, formalizing, or archaic style that mischaracterizes the actual daily use of the language. The daily spoken language of Sophocles or Cicero might have exhibited a different or much more regular syntax than their written legacy indicates.

Theoretical issues
The below table indicates the distribution of the dominant word order pattern of over 5,000 individual languages and 366 language families. SOV is the most common type in both although much more clearly in the data of language families including isolates. 'NODOM' represents languages without a single dominant order.

Though the reason of dominance is sometimes considered an unsolved or unsolvable typological problem, several explanations for the distribution pattern have been proposed. Evolutionary explanations include those by Thomas Givon (1979), who suggests that all languages stem from an SOV language but are evolving into different kinds; and by Derek Bickerton (1981), who argues that the original language was SVO, which supports simpler grammar employing word order instead of case markers to differentiate between clausal roles.

Universalist explanations include a model by Russell Tomlin (1986) based on three functional principles: (i) animate before inanimate; (ii) theme before comment; and (iii) verb-object bonding. The three-way model roughly predicts the real hierarchy (see table above) assuming no statistical difference between SOV and SVO, and, also, no statistical difference between VOS and OVS. By contrast, the processing efficiency theory of John A. Hawkins (1994) suggests that constituents are ordered from shortest to longest in VO languages, and from longest to shortest in OV languages, giving rise to the attested distribution. This approach relies on the notion that OV languages have heavy subjects, and VO languages have heavy objects, which is disputed.

Left-right symmetry
A second major way of syntactic categorization is by excluding the subject from consideration. It is a well-documented typological feature that languages with a dominant OV order (object before verb), Japanese for example, tend to have postpositions. In contrast, VO languages (verb before object) like English tend to have prepositions as their main adpositional type. Several OV/VO correlations have been uncovered.

Theoretical issues
Several processing explanations were proposed in the 1980s and 1990s for the above correlations. They suggest that the brain finds it easier to parse syntactic patterns that are either right or left branching, but not mixed. The most widely held such explanation is John A. Hawkins' parsing efficiency theory, which argues that language is a non-innate adaptation to innate cognitive mechanisms. Typological tendencies are considered as being based on language users' preference for grammars that are organized efficiently, and on their avoidance of word orderings that cause processing difficulty. Hawkins's processing theory predicts the above table but also makes predictions for non-correlation pairs including the order of adjective, demonstrative and numeral in respect with the noun. This theory was based on corpus research and lacks support in psycholinguistic studies.

Some languages exhibit regular "inefficient" patterning. These include the VO languages Chinese, with the adpositional phrase before the verb, and Finnish, which has postpositions. But there are few other profoundly exceptional languages. It is suggested more recently that the left-right orientation is limited to role-marking connectives (adpositions and subordinators), stemming directly from the semantic mapping of the sentence. Since the true correlation pairs in the above table either involve such a connective or, arguably, follow from the canonical order, orientation predicts them without making problematic claims.

Morphosyntactic alignment
Another common classification distinguishes nominative–accusative alignment patterns and ergative–absolutive ones. In a language with cases, the classification depends on whether the subject (S) of an intransitive verb has the same case as the agent (A) or the patient (P) of a transitive verb. If a language has no cases, but the word order is AVP or PVA, then a classification may reflect whether the subject of an intransitive verb appears on the same side as the agent or the patient of the transitive verb. Bickel (2011) has argued that alignment should be seen as a construction-specific property rather than a language-specific property.

Many languages show mixed accusative and ergative behaviour (for example: ergative morphology marking the verb arguments, on top of an accusative syntax). Other languages (called "active languages") have two types of intransitive verbs—some of them ("active verbs") join the subject in the same case as the agent of a transitive verb, and the rest ("stative verbs") join the subject in the same case as the patient. Yet other languages behave ergatively only in some contexts (this "split ergativity" is often based on the grammatical person of the arguments or on the tense/aspect of the verb). For example, only some verbs in Georgian behave this way, and, as a rule, only while using the perfective (aorist).

Phonological typology
Linguistic typology also seeks to identify patterns in the structure and distribution of sound systems among the world's languages. This is accomplished by surveying and analyzing the relative frequencies of different phonological properties. Exemplary relative frequencies are given below for certain speech sounds formed by obstructing airflow (obstruents). These relative frequencies show that contrastive voicing commonly occurs with plosives, as in English neat and need, but occurs much more rarely among fricatives, such as the English niece and knees. According to a worldwide sample of 637 languages, 62% have the voicing contrast in stops but only 35% have this in fricatives. In the vast majority of those cases, the absence of voicing contrast occurs because there is a lack of voiced fricatives and because all languages have some form of plosive (occlusive), but there are languages with no fricatives. Below is a chart showing the breakdown of voicing properties among languages in the aforementioned sample.

Languages worldwide also vary in the number of sounds they use. These languages can go from very small phonemic inventories (Rotokas with six consonants and five vowels) to very large inventories (!Xóõ with 128 consonants and 28 vowels). An interesting phonological observation found with this data is that the larger a consonant inventory a language has, the more likely it is to contain a sound from a defined set of complex consonants (clicks, glottalized consonants, doubly articulated labial-velar stops, lateral fricatives and affricates, uvular and pharyngeal consonants, and dental or alveolar non-sibilant fricatives). Of this list, only about 26% of languages in a survey of over 600 with small inventories (less than 19 consonants) contain a member of this set, while 51% of average languages (19-25) contain at least one member and 69% of large consonant inventories (greater than 25 consonants) contain a member of this set. It is then seen that complex consonants are in proportion to the size of the inventory.

Vowels contain a more modest number of phonemes, with the average being 5–6, which 51% of the languages in the survey have. About a third of the languages have larger than average vowel inventories. Most interesting though is the lack of relationship between consonant inventory size and vowel inventory size. Below is a chart showing this lack of predictability between consonant and vowel inventory sizes in relation to each other.

title: Linguistic typology


text:
Sucker

Sucker may refer to:

General use

 * Lollipop or sucker, a type of confection
 * Sucker (slang), a slang term for a very gullible person
 * Hard candy
 * Cough drop
 * Mint (candy)

Biology

 * Sucker (botany), a term for a shoot that arises underground from the roots of a tree or shrub
 * Sucker (zoology), various adhesive organs
 * Suckerfish (disambiguation)

Film and television

 * Suckers or The secret life of suckers, an animated television series by Spanish animation studio BRB Internacional
 * The Suckers, a 1972 sexploitation film directed by Stu Segall
 * Suckers (film), a 1999 comedy-drama film directed by Roger Nygard
 * Sucker, a 2011 horror film produced by Kimberley Kates
 * "The Sucker" (The Amazing World of Gumball), a 2018 episode of The Amazing World of Gumball
 * "Suckers", a 2003 episode of the fourth season of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation

Books

 * Suckers: How alternative medicine makes fools of us all, a 2008 book about alternative medicine written by Rose Shapiro

Music

 * Suckers (band), a Brooklyn-based band
 * Sucker (Charli XCX album), a 2014 album and its title track by Charli XCX
 * Sucker (Ian Sweet album), a 2023 album by Ian Sweet
 * "Sucker" (song), a 2019 song by the Jonas Brothers
 * "Sucker", a 1994 song by Baboon from Face Down in Turpentine
 * "Sucker", a 1973 song by The J.B.'s from Doing It to Death
 * "Sucker", a 1972 song by Mott the Hoople from All the Young Dudes
 * "Sucker", a 2000 song by New Found Glory from New Found Glory
 * "Sucker", a 2000 song by Peaches from The Teaches of Peaches
 * "Suckers!", a 2007 song by Super Furry Animals from Hey Venus!'

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Sucker


text:
Percidae

The Percidae are a family of ray-finned fish, part of the order Perciformes, which are found in fresh and brackish waters of the Northern Hemisphere. The majority are Nearctic, but there are also Palearctic species. The family contains more than 200 species in 11 genera. The perches and their relatives are in this family; well-known species include the walleye, sauger, ruffe, and three species of perch. However, small fish known as darters are also a part of this family.

Characteristics
The family is characterised by having the dorsal fin split into two which are normally separated or have a narrow connection, although this is wider in the genus Zingel, the front section contains the spines and the rear section contains the soft rays. The anal fin contains 1 or 2 spines, if there is a second spine it is typically weak. The pelvic fins are placed on the thorax and have a single spine and 5 soft rays. They also have skeletal synapomorphies. The maximum size attained is 100 cm in the zander (Sander lucioperca) but most of the species in the family are much smaller. Their scales are ctenoid and their bodies are normally somewhat elongate.

Systematics
The 5th Edition of Fishes of the World classifies the Percidae into five subfamilies and Fishbase recognises 239 species in 11 genera.

 * Subfamily Percinae Rafinesque, 1815
 * Genus Perca Linnaeus, 1758
 * Subfamily Acerinae Bleeker, 1858
 * Genus Gymnocephalus Bloch, 1793
 * Subfamily Percarininae Gill, 1861
 * Genus Percarina Nordmann, 1840
 * Subfamily Luciopercinae Jordan & Evermann, 1896
 * Tribe Luciopercini Jordan & Evermann 1896
 * Genus Sander Oken, 1817
 * Tribe Romanichthyini Dumitrescu, Bănărescu & Stoica 1957
 * Genus Romanichthys Dumitrescu, Bănărescu & Stoica 1957
 * Genus Zingel Cloquet, 1817
 * Subfamily Etheostomatinae Agassiz, 1850
 * Genus Ammocrypta Jordan, 1877
 * Genus Etheostoma Rafinesque, 1817
 * Genus Nothonotus Putnam, 1863
 * Genus Percina Haldeman, 1842

Fossil genera

 * †Mioplosus Cope, 1877
 * †Priscacara Cope, 1877

title: Percidae


text:
Cirrus

Cirrus may refer to:

Science

 * Cirrus (biology), any of various thin, thread-like structures on the body of an animal
 * Cirrus (botany), a tendril
 * Infrared cirrus, in astronomy, filamentary structures seen in infrared light
 * Cirrus cloud, a type of cloud

Aviation

 * Cirrus aero engines, a series of British aircraft engines manufactured by various companies from the 1920s to the 1950s
 * Cirrus Aircraft, an aircraft manufacturer in Duluth, Minnesota, USA
 * Cirrus Airlines, a defunct regional airline in Hallbergmoos, Germany
 * Cirrus (rocket), a German research rocket first launched in 1961
 * Schempp-Hirth Cirrus, an Open-class sailplane
 * Schempp-Hirth Standard Cirrus, a Standard-class sailplane
 * Swing Cirrus, a German paraglider design

Music

 * Cirrus (album), a 1974 release by Bobby Hutcherson
 * Cirrus (band), an American electronica duo
 * "Cirrus" (song), a 2013 instrumental by DJ Bonobo
 * "Cirrus", a 1996 song by Joe Morris from Elsewhere
 * "Cirrus Minor" (song), a 1969 song by Pink Floyd

Other uses

 * Chrysler Cirrus, a car produced by DaimlerChrysler between 1995 and 2000
 * Cirrus (drug), a medication that contains pseudoephedrine and cetirizine
 * Cirrus (Helsinki building), a high-rise apartment building in Helsinki, Finland
 * Cirrus (Seattle building), a residential skyscraper in Seattle, Washington, USA
 * Cirrus (interbank network), an automated teller machine (ATM) network owned by MasterCard
 * Cirrus Logic, a semiconductor manufacturer
 * Access Database Engine, former versions of which were known as Microsoft Jet Database Engine and codenamed Cirrus
 * Cirrus Vodka, a vodka made in Richmond, Virginia, USA
 * Cirrus Mountain, a mountain in Alberta
 * Mount Cirrus. a mountain in Colorado

title: Cirrus


text:
Talk:Mark Bingham

Previous discussions without headers
>> Holm describes Bingham as a brave, competitive man, saying, "He hated to lose — at anything."

Need a citation for that.

Randal Oulton (talk) 05:25, 9 September 2010 (UTC) -

For an August 2004 deletion debate over this page see Votes for deletion/Rodney Dickens et al

Paul Holm was not Mark's partner of eight years. Paul was Mark's former partner of 6 years. The two had not been together for a couple of years.

9-11-03 You are not forgotten. Thank you for your sacrifice - you gave us all hope on a hopeless day.

- I would like to see some references for the claim that he prevented the deaths of "hundreds of thousands" of people. Less than 3000 were killed during the entire 9/11 attacks, was this passenger jet loaded with nuclear weapons or something?

--66.153.153.59 (talk) 12:15, 2 December 2008 (UTC)
 * I believe it says "hundreds or thousands". Either way, you'll never know. 僕曜日 (talk) 23:17, 14 October 2009 (UTC)

Mark_Bingham2.jpg
This image problematic on several counts. If there are no objections, based on policy, I will remove the offending image in violation of WP:FAIR. Lionel (talk) 00:28, 10 February 2011 (UTC)
 * 1) It is non-free and there is already a non-free image in this article. It fails WP:FAIR #3a, 8
 * 2) My removal was reverted and the edit sum was "... the other showing him doing what he is famous for" i.e. rugby. Well, he is not famous for playing rugby; he is famous for being a passenger on foomed Flight 93. This explanation provided by the editor is insufficient rationale for a fair use claim. Lionel (talk) 00:28, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

It's fine based on policy, he is certainly known for playing rugby, that is his recreation.STL1989 (talk) 04:47, 11 February 2011 (UTC)
 * It seems as though you are dismissing my points out of hand. With all due respect, did you even read WP:FAIR? Lionel (talk) 06:47, 11 February 2011 (UTC)

Gay American
It a shame the author is afraid to mention that Mark Bingham was gay. Gay American would take pride in having that fact mentioned in the article, because that's part of who he was. --Eddylyons (talk) 01:57, 4 January 2012 (UTC)

 * That's a very strange omission in this article. I've just added a statement to the lede that Bingham was gay.  Textorus (talk) 07:10, 7 January 2012 (UTC)

Notability
This article mentions several people who've honoured and character-played this victim in the media; but neglects to explain his significance.Beingsshepherd (talk) 01:01, 27 February 2013 (UTC)Beingsshepherd

 * The final sentence of the Lead section explains his significance:
 * "As a gay man, Bingham has been widely honored posthumously for having 'smashed the gay stereotype mold and really opened the door to many others that came after him.'"
 * In addition to this, there's the fact that he was one of the four ringleaders who came up with the plan to take the plane back from the hijackers. This was not adequately stated in the Lead or the article, so I added it, with a citation. Thanks for pointing this out. Nightscream (talk) 05:15, 27 February 2013 (UTC)

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Puffery
In general, this article needs some tightening up. While it's clear that Mark Bingham acted bravely with his fellow passengers on that airplane, the article is tends to glorify him and includes information such as he had saved lives on several previous occasions, including that of his partner's twice. This may be true (and documented) but is it really relevant here? The events of 9/11 caused many people to act in heroic, extraordinary ways no matter what they had done previously. Also, I cleaned up some extraneous information, such as the names of many of the Hoagland (his mother's) family who survived him; such detail weighs down the more relevant parts of the article.ChiHistoryeditor (talk) 13:03, 16 September 2019 (UTC)

The height of several passengers?
In the 9/11 section it says: "Bingham, Burnett, and Glick were each more than 6 feet (1.83 m) tall, well-built and fit."

Is this necessary? Bingham's height is noted elsewhere in the article, but this sentence feels superfluous and doesn't add anything, nor is there an explanation of why it matters. Lindsey40186 (talk) 22:45, 27 March 2023 (UTC)

 * The cited source mentions it when it describes how the three men spearheaded the attempt to retake the plane. Nightscream (talk) 16:01, 29 March 2023 (UTC)
 * I can appreciate that it was mentioned in the source material. I guess I'm just wondering if it's important enough to mention in the article. I'm fine with whatever the consensus is. Lindsey40186 (talk) 12:34, 30 March 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mark Bingham


text:
Centrarchidae

Centrarchidae, better known as sunfishes, is a family of freshwater ray-finned fish belonging to the order Perciformes (formerly belonging to the deprecated order Centrarchiformes), native only to North America. There are eight universally included genera within the centrarchid family: Lepomis (true sunfishes), Micropterus (black basses), Pomoxis (crappies), Enneacanthus (banded sunfishes), Centrarchus (type genus, consisting solely of the flier C. macropterus), Archoplites (Sacramento perch), Ambloplites (rock basses), and Acantharchus (mud sunfish). A genetic study in 2012 suggests that the highly distinct pygmy sunfishes of the genus Elassoma are also centrarchids.

The centrarchid family comprises 38 identified species, 34 of which are extant. It includes many popular game fishes familiar to North American anglers, such as the largemouth bass, rock bass, bluegill, pumpkinseed, green sunfish and crappies. Most sunfish are highly valued panfish for sport fishing, and have been introduced in many areas outside their native ranges, sometimes becoming invasive species. While edible, they are not commercially marketed as food fish.

Description
Family members are distinguished by having a laterally compressed body shape, 6 to 9 anal spines, and 2 dorsal fins (spinous first dorsal and rayed second dorsal) which are fused. The number of dorsal spines varies from 6 to 13. All species in Micropterus and Lepomis have 3 anal spines, which distinguishes them from the other genera in the family. The pseudobranch is small and concealed. Body size varies widely within the family with the black-banded sunfish at just 8 cm in length, while the largemouth bass is reported to reach almost 1 m in extreme cases.

Many of the species within Centrarchidae can be separated into two main groups based on the two most common genera (Micropterus and Lepomis). Species in the genera Lepomis are defined by a deep or more round body shape, smaller mouths, and obtaining food through suction feeding. Species in the genera Micropterus are defined by a more streamlined body shape, larger mouths, and consuming prey primarily by ram feeding methods.

Habitat
Centrarchids prefer clear, warm, and slower-moving water, and are commonly found in habitats such as lakes, ponds, medium to low flow streams and rivers, and swamps. They also prefer to live in and around aquatic vegetation so they can get adequate coverage from predators. While few species in the family diverge from the aforementioned habitat list, the Sacramento perch can survive in habitats with unusually high alkalinity, salinity, and temperatures. Centrarchids can be found in various locations within the water column and their exact preference is species specific. For instance, bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) mainly inhabit the deeper littoral zones, while green sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus) prefer habitats near the shoreline and shallower areas. Suction feeders within the family (i.e. Lepomis) generally feed off the bottom of their habitat, while ram feeders (i.e. Micropterus) generally feed in more open areas known as the limnetic zone. Centrarchids diet consists of macro-invertebrates (e.g. insects, snails and crayfish) and other fish found in their habitat.

Thermal tolerance
In freshwater systems, water temperature is determined by many abiotic factors, with air temperature being one of the most significant contributors. As in other ectotherms, many physiological processes and behaviors in Centrarchidae, such as feeding and reproduction, are heavily impacted by the temperature in their environment. All species in the family Centrarchidae are considered warmwater adapted species. In general, warmwater adapted species are characterized as being larger at higher temperatures and lower latitudes. The optimal temperature range of most species in the family is 28 °C(82 °F) to 32 °C(90 °F), although they can survive and reproduce in temperatures that are outside of this optimum range. Increases in temperature outside the optimal range for centrarchids can have negative effects, such as speeding up reproductive maturity or increasing mortality after the first reproductive event. The lethal temperature range varies widely in the family, but some species have been seen to survive water temperatures as low as 1 °C(33 °F) or as high as 41 °C(106 °F).

Reproduction
Centrarchids generally spawn in the spring, and juveniles emerge in the late spring to early summer. The transition from winter to spring conditions (i.e. melting of ice-cover, increase in day length, and increased food availability) is the main cue for centrarchids to begin preparing for reproduction. All species within Centrarchidae, except for those in the genus Micropterus, develop breeding coloration in both males and females (although less defined in females) during the breeding season. The process of courtship and reproduction is nearly identical for all species in the family, which is a major reason for the high levels of hybridization within Centrarchidae. With that said, there are some mechanisms in place to prevent hybridization, such as intricate morphology of the operculum in Lepomis, which assists in recognition of conspecific mates.

To initiate reproduction, males dig a deep circular depression in the substrate with their caudal fins to create a nest, which they will aggressively defend from intruding males. Males and females then undergo a courtship dancing ritual before the female deposits her eggs into the male's nest. Multiple females may deposit eggs in a single nest. Larger males usually attract more mates and also take better care of their offspring. Male parental care includes nest building, nest guarding, guarding of eggs and fry, and nest fanning (aerating eggs).

Males unsuccessful at courtship may exhibit a cheater strategy where they sneak fertilizations of female's eggs by various behavioral methods. This is commonly seen with smaller males in the genus Lepomis.

Range
The native range of Centrarchidae is confined within North America, covering most of the United States and stopping in southern Canada. The northern edge of the native range is heavily bound by temperature due to reduced foraging ability and growth in cold weather and subsequent starvation in winter months. As a result, centrarchid distributions and range in any place they are found will be restricted by cold temperatures.

Range shifts
The ability to adapt to cold temperatures at the edge of the sunfish range varies widely within the family. Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) have no cold acclimation ability as seen through the strict maintenance of the northern boundary of the species range. Other species like smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu) and green sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus) have exhibited signs of minor cold-water adaptation and have even experienced slight range expansions into colder habitats.

If air temperatures continue to rise in the next 50 to 100 years as predicted, warmwater species like centrarchids will likely experience range expansions northward and see an overall increase in occupiable habitat. This range expansion can have grave consequences for other freshwater fishes however, as many centrarchids are dominant top predators which can severely alter the community structure of non-native ecosystems and drive the extinction of other native predators.

Invasive range
While centrarchids are native to only North America, they can be found worldwide due to introductions on multiple continents, including Europe, South America, Africa, and Asia. At least 18 species of Centrarchidae are North American exports. Its multi-continental spread is mostly due to the high popularity of the family (especially from the genera Micropterus) as freshwater game fish that are frequently stocked for recreational fishing all around Europe.

Across the globe, invasive and introduced centrarchids pose a great threat to native species in the areas they invade. There are multiple confirmed instances of largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) severely altering and reducing native fish populations in Italy, South Africa, Japan, and Madagascar and even causing the local extinction of any species of the family Cyprinodontidae within the waterbodies they have invaded in Mexico.

Fossil record
The earliest fossils of Centrarchidae are from latest Eocene to early Oligocene deposits from Montana and South Dakota, belonging to several as yet undescribed species and the two extinct genera †Plioplarchus and †Boreocentrarchus. Both Plioplarchus and Boreocentrarchus are classified in the subfamily Centrarchinae, because these species possess more than three anal fin spines.

Classification
Recent genetic evidence suggests the following taxonomy of the centrarchid genera and species:

The 5th edition of Fishes of the World recognises three subfamilies; the Lepominae, which contains the genera Acantharchus, Lepomis, and Micropterus; the Elassomatinae, which consists solely of the highly distinct genus Elassoma (treated by Fishbase as a separate family, the Elassomatidae); and the Centrarchinae, which contains all of the remaining genera.

title: Centrarchidae


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Gadidae

The Gadidae are a family of marine fish, included in the order Gadiformes, known as the cods, codfishes, or true cods. It contains several commercially important fishes, including the cod, haddock, whiting, and pollock.

Most gadid species are found in temperate waters of the Northern Hemisphere, but several range into subtropical, subarctic, and Arctic oceans, and a single (southern blue whiting) is found in the Southern Hemisphere. They are generally medium-sized fish, and are distinguished by the presence of three dorsal fins on the back and two anal fins on the underside. Most species have barbels on their chins, which they use while browsing on the sea floor. Gadids are carnivorous, feeding on smaller fish and crustaceans.

Gadids are highly prolific, producing several million eggs at each spawning. This contributes to their high population numbers, which, in turn, makes commercial fishing relatively easy.

Concepts differ about the contents of the family Gadidae. The system followed by FishBase includes a dozen genera. Alternatively, fishes in the current Lotidae (with burbot, cusk) and Phycidae (hakes) have also been included in the Gadidae, as its subfamilies Lotinae and Phycinae.

title: Gadidae


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Gadiformes

Gadiformes, also called the Anacanthini, are an order of ray-finned fish that include the cod, hakes, pollock, haddock, burbot, rocklings and moras, many of which are food fish of major commercial value. They are mostly marine fish found throughout the world and the vast majority are found in temperate or colder regions (tropical species are typically deep-water) while a few species may enter brackish estuaries. Pacific tomcods, one of the two species that makes up the genus Microgadus, are able to enter freshwater, but there is no evidence that they breed there. Some populations of landlocked Atlantic tomcod on the other hand, complete their entire life cycle in freshwater. Yet only one species, the burbot (Lota lota), is a true freshwater fish.

Common characteristics include the positioning of the pelvic fins (if present), below or in front of the pectoral fins. Gadiformes are physoclists, which means their swim bladders do not have a pneumatic duct. The fins are spineless. Gadiform fish range in size from the codlets, which may be as small as 7 cm in adult length, to the Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua, which reaches up to 2 m.

The earliest gadiforms are Palaeogadus weltoni from the Maastrichtian of the United States and the undescribed, informally named "Protocodus" from the Early Paleocene of Greenland.

title: Gadiformes


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Sciaenidae

Sciaenidae is a family of ray-finned fishes belonging to the order Acanthuriformes. They are commonly called drums or croakers in reference to the repetitive throbbing or drumming sounds they make. The family consists of about 293 to 298 species in about 66 or 67 genera.

Taxonomy
Sciaenidae was first proposed as a family in 1829 by the French zoologist Georges Cuvier. The 5th edition of Fishes of the World classifies the family in the suborder Sciaenoidei, alongside the rover family Emmelichthyidae, in the order Acanthuriformes. Other authorities classify the Sciaenidae and the Emmelichthyidae as incertae sedis within the series Eupercaria. The Catalog of Fishes retains this family within the Acanthuriformes but does not recognise the suborder Sciaenoidei.

The 5th edition of Fishes of the World, Fishbase and Catalog of Fishes do not recognise subfamilies within the Sciaenidae  but many workers on these fishes do recognise subfamilies and tribes within the family. For example, in 1989 Kunio Sasaki erected a number of subfamilies and tribes.

Genera
The following genera are classified within the family Sciaenidae:

Etymology
Sciaenidae takes its name from its type genus Sciaena which is derived from the Greek skiaina, which was used to refer to marine perch-like fishes.

Characteristics
A sciaenid has a long dorsal fin reaching nearly to the tail, and a notch between the rays and spines of the dorsal, although the two parts are actually separate. Drums are somberly coloured, usually in shades of brown, with a lateral line on each side that extends to the tip of the caudal fin. The anal fin usually has two spines, while the dorsal fins are deeply notched or separate. Most species have a rounded or pointed caudal fin. The mouth is set low and is usually inferior. Their croaking mechanism involves the beating of abdominal muscles against the swim bladder.

Sciaenids are found worldwide, in both fresh and salt water, and are typically benthic carnivores, feeding on invertebrates and smaller fish. They are small to medium-sized, bottom-dwelling fishes living primarily in estuaries, bays, and muddy river banks. Most of these fish types avoid clear waters, such as coral reefs and oceanic islands, with a few notable exceptions (e.g. reef croaker, high-hat, and spotted drum). They live in warm-temperate and tropical waters and are best represented in major rivers in Southeast Asia, northeast South America, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Gulf of California.

In the United States most fishers consider freshwater drum to be rough fish not suitable for eating, similar to carp, gar, and buffalo fish, although there are a number of people that enjoy fishing for these species and eating them, despite their limitations.

Fisheries
They are excellent food and sport fish, and are commonly caught by surf and pier fishers. Some are important commercial fishery species, notably small yellow croaker with reported landings of 218,000–407,000 tonnes in 2000–2009; according to FAO fishery statistics, it was the 25th most important fishery species worldwide. However, a large proportion of the catch is not reported at species level; in the FAO fishery statistics, the category "Croakers, drums, not elsewhere included", is the largest one within sciaenids, with annual landings of 431,000–780,000 tonnes in 2000–2009, most of which were reported from the western Indian Ocean (FAO fishing area 51) and northwest Pacific (FAO fishing area 61). The future of croakers, like many other fish species in the United States and around the world is uncertain because overfishing continues to be a major threats. The population has decreased significantly which will affect their ability reproduce. In United States Croakers are managed by the federal and state governments to ensure that they're harvested sustainably.

Croaking mechanism
A notable trait of sciaenids is the ability to produce a "croaking" sound. However, the pitch and use of croaking varies species to species. The croaking ability is a distinguishing characteristic of sciaenids. The croaking mechanism is used by males as a mating call in some species.

To produce the croaking sound, special muscles vibrate against the swim bladder. These muscles are called sonic muscle fibres, and run horizontally along the fish's body on both sides around the swim bladder, connected to a central tendon that surrounds the swim bladder ventrally. These sonic muscle fibres are repeatedly contracted against the swim bladder to produce the croaking sound that gives drum and croaker their common name, effectively using the swim bladder as a resonating chamber. The sciaenids' large swim bladder is more expansive and branched than other species, which aids in the croaking. In some species the sonic muscle fibres are only present in males. These muscles strengthen during the mating season and are allowed to atrophy the rest of the time, deactivating the croaking mechanism. In other species, most notably the Atlantic croaker, the croaking mechanism is present in both sexes and remains active year-round. These species are thought to use croaking for communication, such as announcing hazards and location when in turbid water.

Croaking in communication
In some species, croaking is used for communication aside from attracting mates. For those species that have year-round croaking ability, the croaks may serve as a low-aggression warning during group feeding, as well as to communicate location in cloudy water. In those species that lack the ability to croak year-round, croaking is usually restricted to males for attracting mates. A disadvantage to the croaking ability is that it allows bottlenose dolphin to easily locate large groups of croaker and drum as they broadcast their position, indicating large amounts of food for the dolphins.

title: Sciaenidae


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Sparidae

Sparidae is a family of ray-finned fishes belonging to the order Spariformes, the seabreams and porgies, although they were traditionally classified in the order Perciformes. They are found in shallow temperate and tropical waters around the world and are demersal carnivores.

Taxonomy
Sparidae was first proposed as a family in 1818 by the French polymath and naturalist Constantine Samuel Rafinesque. Traditionally the taxa within the Spariformes were classified within the Perciformes, with some authorities using the term "Sparoid lineage" for the families Centracanthidae, Nemipteridae, Lethrinidae and Sparidae. Since then the use of molecular phylogenetics in more modern classifications has meant that the Spariformes is recognised as a valid order within the Percomorpha containing six families, with Callanthidae, Sillaginidae and Lobotidae included. Other workers have found that the Centracanthidae is synonymous with Sparidae and that the Spariformes contains only the remaining three families of the "Sparoid lineage".

In the past workers recognised six subfamilies within the Sparidae. These were Boopsinae, Denticinae, Diplodinae, Pagellinae, Pagrinae, and Sparinae. However, these taxa did not resolve as monophyletic in all the analyses undertaken. These analyses support Sparidae as a monophyletic family if Spicara, a genus formerly in the family Centracanthidae, was included. This meant that Spicara and Centracanthus were both now classified within Sparidae, so that Centracanthidae is a junior synonym of Sparidae.

Etymology
Sparidae takes its name from its type genus, Sparus, that name coming from the Greek for its only species the gilt-head bream (Sparus aurata).

Genera
The family Sparidae contains about 155 species in 38 genera:

Fossil genera include:

 * †Abromasta Day, 2003
 * †Burtinia van Beneden, 1873
 * †Crommyodus Cope, 1875
 * †Ctenodentex Storms, 1896
 * †Ellaserrata Day, 2003
 * †Kreyenhagenius David, 1946
 * †Paracalamus Arambourg, 1927
 * †Plectrites Jordan & Gilbert, 1920
 * †Pseudosparnodus Day, 2003
 * †Pshekharus Bannikov & Kotylar, 2015
 * †Rhythmias Jordan & Gilbert, 1920
 * †Sciaenurus Agassiz, 1845
 * †Sparnodus Agassiz, 1838

Characteristics
Sparidae breams have oblong, moderately deep and compressed bodies. The head is large, with a characteristic steep dorsal slant. There are no scales on the snout but there are scales on the cheeks. The preoperculum may or may not have scales and has no spines or serrations on its margin. The operculum is scaled and also has no spines. The mouth is slightly oblique and can be protruded a little. The upper jaw never extends back past a vertical line through the centre of the eye. There are teeth in the jaws which vary from conical or flattened but there are no teeth on the roof of the mouth. There is one dorsal fin which is supported by between 10 and 13 spines and 9 and 17 soft rays, with the ultimate ray being split into 2, and no incision separated the spines from the soft rays. The rearmost spines in the dorsal fin may be elongated or filamentous. The anal fin is supported by 3 robust spines and between 7 and 15 soft rays. The caudal fin varies from moderately deeply emarginate to forked. The pectoral fins are typically long and pointed and the pelvic fins are under or immediately to the rear of the bases of the pectoral fins, supported a single spine and 5 soft rays, with an scale in the axilla, referred to as the axillary pelvic process. The scales are typically smooth, cycloid, or slightly rough to the touch, weakly ctenoid, The lateral line is single and continuous and reached the base of the caudal fin. They are very variable in colour and may be pinkish or reddish to yellowish or greyish, frequently with tints of silver or gold and dark or coloured spots, stripes or bars. The two largest species of Sparid are the white steenbras (Lithognathus lithognathus) and the red steenbras (Petrus rupestris), both of which have a maximum published total length of 200 cm, while the smallest species is the cherry seabream (Polysteganus cerasinus).

Distribution and habitat
Sparidae breams are found in tropical and temperate coastal waters around the world. They are demersal fishes on the continental shelf and slope. A few species are found in brackish water, and a few of these will enter fresh water.

Biology
Sparidae breams are predatory with most feeding on benthic invertebrates. Smaller species in the family usually gather in schools, as do the juveniles of the larger species. The larger adult fishes are normally solitary or, at least, are less sociable and prefer deeper waters. The juveniles and subadults are often markedly different in shape and colour patterns, and may be much more colourful. Many sparids are hermaphroditic and some have both male and female sex organs at the same time. Others change sex as the grow, either changing from male to female, i.e. protandrous. or from female to male, protogynous.

Fisheries
Sparids are highly regarded as food fish and are important target species for commercial fisheries wherever they occur. Between 1990 and 1995, the FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics reported that the annual weight of landings was between 2,170 and 4,020 t of sparids in the Western Central Pacific.

Cookery
The most celebrated of the breams in cookery are the gilt-head bream and the common dentex.

title: Sparidae


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Clupeiformes

Clupeiformes is the order of ray-finned fish that includes the herring family, Clupeidae, and the anchovy family, Engraulidae. The group includes many of the most important forage and food fish.

Clupeiformes are physostomes, which means that their gas bladder has a pneumatic duct connecting it to the gut. They typically lack a lateral line, but still have the eyes, fins and scales that are common to most fish, though not all fish have these attributes. They are generally silvery fish with streamlined, spindle-shaped bodies, and they often school. Most species eat plankton which they filter from the water with their gill rakers.

The former order of Isospondyli was subsumed mostly by Clupeiformes, but some isospondylous fishes (isospondyls) were assigned to Osteoglossiformes, Salmoniformes, Cetomimiformes, etc.

Their sister group were the extinct Ellimmichthyiformes, which were dominant throughout much of the Cretaceous and into the Paleogene, and often coexisted with clupeiforms at many known localities. Both groups closely resembled each other morphologically, although the ellimmichthyiformes evolved some highly divergent body plans later in the Cretaceous.

Several fossil clupeiforms are known from the Early Cretaceous of South America that appear to be more closely allied with Clupeioidei over the Denticipitidae. This suggests a very deep divergence within the crown group Clupeiformes that must have occurred during the Early Cretaceous or before.

Families
The order includes about 405 species in ten families:
 * Order Clupeiformes
 * Genus †Histiothrissa
 * Genus ?†Jhingrania (possibly a clupavid)
 * Genus †Santanaclupea
 * Genus †Spratticeps
 * Suborder Denticipitoidei
 * Family Denticipitidae (denticle herring)
 * Suborder Clupeoidei
 * Genus †Beksinskiella
 * Genus †Nolfia
 * Genus †Pseudoellima
 * Family †Cynoclupeidae
 * Family Engraulidae (anchovies)
 * Subfamily Coiliinae
 * Subfamily Engraulinae
 * Family Spratelloididae
 * Family Pristigasteridae (longfin herrings)
 * Subfamily Pristigasterinae
 * Subfamily Pelloninae
 * Family Chirocentridae (wolf herrings)
 * Family Dussumieriidae (round herrings)
 * Family Clupeidae (herrings)
 * Family Ehiravidae
 * Family Alosidae (shads, sardines and menhadens)
 * Family Dorosomatidae

title: Clupeiformes


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Clupeidae

Clupeidae is a family of clupeiform ray-finned fishes, comprising, for instance, the herrings and sprats. Many members of the family have a body protected with shiny cycloid (very smooth and uniform) scales, a single dorsal fin, and a fusiform body for quick, evasive swimming and pursuit of prey composed of small planktonic animals. Due to their small size and position in the lower trophic level of many marine food webs, the levels of methylmercury they bioaccumulate are very low, reducing the risk of mercury poisoning when consumed.

Description and biology
Clupeids are mostly marine forage fish, although a few species are found in fresh water. No species has scales on the head, and some are entirely scaleless. The lateral line is short or absent, and the teeth are unusually small where they are present at all. Clupeids typically feed on plankton, and range from 2 to 75 cm (0.8 to 30 in.) in length.

Clupeids spawn huge numbers of eggs (up to 200,000 in some species) near the surface of the water. After hatching, the larvae live among the plankton until they develop a swim bladder and transform into adults. These eggs and fry are not protected or tended to by parents. The adults typically live in large shoals, seeking protection from piscivorous predators such as birds, sharks and other predatory fish, toothed whales, marine mammals, and jellyfish. They also form bait balls.

Commercially important species of the Clupeidae include the Atlantic and Baltic herrings (Clupea harengus), and the Pacific herring (C. pallasii)).

Feeding physiology
The Clupeidae family primarily feed on small planktonic organisms. The teeth of members of this family are either reduced or absent, reduced teeth are miniature teeth that would be barely visible and line the interior of the fish's mouth. The structure of these teeth indicate that these organisms do not need to cut or tear their prey items as they would need fully formed teeth to complete this process. They do, however, possess long gill rakers that are designed for sifting plankton and other small particles out of the water as it passes through their gills. Gill rakers are protrusions along the gill arch, opposing the gill filaments, that help aquatic organisms to trap food particles.

The diet of many clupeids primarily consists of phytoplankton and plant matter during their larval stages. As the fish mature this diet begins to shift towards larger and more substantive organisms, including more zooplankton and copepods. This change in diet is possible due to their increase in body and gill raker size, which allows them to capture and process larger organisms to support themselves. Small organisms like these do not need to be ground or torn apart for consumption so pronounced teeth would not serve a purpose in the feeding habits of Clupeidae, instead the use of filter feeding allows for much more efficient nutrient collection.

The fusiform body shape of Clupeidae is also advantageous to their trophic ecology. The tapering body form is a highly hydrodynamic form that allows for quick increases in speed and a high maximum speed. Moving at high speeds allows the members of this family to regulate their feeding habits and avoid predators. Clupeidae can moderate the speed at which they swim to increase their uptake of nutrients. As with all filter feeders, Clupeidae cannot take in food if nutrient rich water does not pass over their gills. To moderate this, members of this family have been found to increase their swimming speed when they sense that there is a high concentration of food items in order to take advantage of this feeding period. Keeping a high swimming speed during periods of low food availability would not be efficient to maintain over long periods of time as the organisms would not net as much energy as they may need to in order to sustain themselves and increase their fitness. Increasing their swimming speed during feeding periods would allow them to take in more plankton while not suffering consequences from maintaining that speed.

Taxonomy
According to FishBase (2023), the family currently comprises the following 7 genera (including about 15 species).

 * Clupea
 * Ethmidium
 * Gudusia
 * Hyperlophus
 * Potamalosa
 * Ramnogaster
 * Sprattus

The family arguably also contains the "Sundasalangidae", a paedomorphic taxon first thought to be a distinct salmoniform family, but then discovered to be deeply nested in the Clupeidae.

Until recently, the concept of Clupeidae was broader, but it has been subdivided into several distinct families (e.g. Alosidae)

Fossil genera
Known fossil genera (albeit most classified under the sensu lato concept) include:

 * †Alisea
 * †Austroclupea
 * †Audenaerdia
 * †Bolcaichthys
 * †Chasmoclupea
 * †Clupeidarum [ otolith]
 * †Clupeops
 * †Eoalosa
 * †Eosardinella
 * †Etringus
 * †Ganoessus
 * †Ganolytes
 * †Gosiutichthys
 * †Horaclupea
 * †?Hypsospondylus
 * †Karaganops
 * †Marambionella
 * †Maicopiella
 * †Moldavichthys
 * †Paleopiquitinga
 * †Primisardinella
 * †Pseudohilsa
 * †Quisque
 * †Rupelia
 * †Sarmatella (=†Illusionella)
 * †Trollichthys
 * †Waihaoclupea
 * †Wisslerius
 * †Xenophanis
 * †Xyne
 * †Xyrinius

title: Clupeidae


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Scombridae

The mackerel, tuna, and bonito family, Scombridae, includes many of the most important and familiar food fishes. The family consists of 51 species in 15 genera and two subfamilies. All species are in the subfamily Scombrinae, except the butterfly kingfish, which is the sole member of subfamily Gasterochismatinae.

Scombrids have two dorsal fins and a series of finlets behind the rear dorsal fin and anal fin. The caudal fin is strongly divided and rigid, with a slender, ridged base. The first (spiny) dorsal fin and the pelvic fins are normally retracted into body grooves. Species lengths vary from the 20 cm of the island mackerel to the 4.58 m recorded for the immense Atlantic bluefin tuna.

Scombrids are generally predators of the open ocean, and are found worldwide in tropical and temperate waters. They are capable of considerable speed, due to a highly streamlined body and retractable fins. Some members of the family, in particular the tunas, are notable for being partially endothermic (warm-blooded), a feature that also helps them to maintain high speed and activity. Other adaptations include a large amount of red muscle, allowing them to maintain activity over long periods. Scombrids like the yellowfin tuna can reach speeds of 22 km/h (14 mph).

Classification
Jordan, Evermann, and Clark (1930) divide these fishes into the four families: Cybiidae, Katsuwonidae, Scombridae, and Thunnidae, but taxonomists later classified them all into a single family, the Scombridae.

The World Wildlife Fund and the Zoological Society of London jointly issued their "Living Blue Planet Report" on 16 September 2015 which states that a dramatic fall of 74% occurred in worldwide stocks of scombridae fish between 1970 and 2010, and the global overall "population sizes of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish fell by half on average in just 40 years".

The 51 extant species are in 15 genera and two subfamilies – with the subfamily Scombrinae further grouped into four tribes, as:

 * Family Scombridae
 * Genus †Eoscombrus (fossil; Late Eocene of California)
 * Subfamily Gasterochismatinae
 * Genus Gasterochisma
 * Subfamily Scombrinae
 * Tribe Scombrini – mackerels
 * Genus Rastrelliger
 * Genus Scomber
 * Tribe Scomberomorini – Spanish mackerels
 * Genus Acanthocybium
 * Genus Grammatorcynus
 * Genus Orcynopsis
 * Genus Scomberomorus
 * Tribe Sardini – bonitos
 * Genus Sarda
 * Genus Cybiosarda
 * Genus Gymnosarda
 * Tribe Thunnini – tunas
 * Genus Allothunnus
 * Genus Auxis
 * Genus Euthynnus
 * Genus Katsuwonus
 * Genus Thunnus

title: Scombridae


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Serranidae

Serranidae is a large family of fishes belonging to the order Perciformes. The family contains about 450 species in 65 genera, including the sea basses and the groupers (subfamily Epinephelinae). Although many species are small, in some cases less than 10 cm, the giant grouper (Epinephelus lanceolatus) is one of the largest bony fishes in the world, growing to 2.7 m in length and 400 kg in weight. Representatives of this group live in tropical and subtropical seas worldwide.

Characteristics
Many serranid species are brightly colored, and many of the larger species are caught commercially for food. They are usually found over reefs, in tropical to subtropical waters along the coasts. Serranids are generally robust in form, with large mouths and small spines on the gill coverings. They typically have several rows of sharp teeth, usually with a pair of particularly large, canine-like teeth projecting from the lower jaw.

All serranids are carnivorous. Although some species, especially in the Anthiadinae subfamily, only feed on zooplankton, the majority feed on fish and crustaceans. They are typically ambush predators, hiding in cover on the reef and darting out to grab passing prey. Their bright colours are most likely a form of disruptive camouflage, similar to the stripes of a tiger.

Many species are protogynous hermaphrodites, meaning they start out as females and change sex to male later in life. They produce large quantities of eggs and their larvae are planktonic, generally at the mercy of ocean currents until they are ready to settle into adult populations.

Like other fish, serranids harbour parasites, including nematodes, cestodes, digeneans, monogeneans, isopods, and copepods. A study conducted in New Caledonia has shown that coral reef-associated serranids harbour about 10 species of parasites per fish species.

Classification

In recent times, this family has been proposed to be split. The two hypothetical families emerging from the remains of the possibly-obsolete taxon are the families Epinephilidae and Anthiadidae. This taxonomic separation is recognized by some authorities, including the IUCN. Recent molecular classifications challenge the validity of the genera Cromileptes (sometimes spelled Chromileptes) and Anyperodon. Each of these two genera has a single species, which were included in the same clade as species of Epinephelus in a study based on five different genes.

The subfamilies and genera are as follows: • Subfamily Anthiinae Poey, 1861

• * Acanthistius Gill, 1862

• * Anatolanthias Anderson, Parin & Randall, 1990

• * Anthias Bloch, 1792

• * Baldwinella Anderson & Heemstra, 2012

• * Caesioperca Castelnau, 1872

• * Caprodon Temminck & Schlegel, 1843

• * Choranthias Anderson & Heemstra, 2012

• * Dactylanthias Bleeker, 1871

• * Epinephelides Ogilby, 1899

• * Giganthias Katayama, 1954

• * Hemanthias Steindachner, 1875

• * Holanthias Günther 1868

• * Hypoplectrodes Gill, 1862

• * Lepidoperca Regan, 1914

• * Luzonichthys Herre, 1936

• * Meganthias Randall & Heemstra, 2006

• * Nemanthias J.L.B. Smith, 1954

• * Odontanthias Bleeker, 1873

• * Othos Castelnau, 1875

• * Plectranthias Bleeker, 1873

• * Pronotogrammus Gill, 1863

• * Pseudanthias Bleeker, 1871

• * Rabaulichthys Allen, 1984

• * Sacura D.S. Jordan & Richardson, 1910

• * Selenanthias Tanaka, 1918

• * Serranocirrhitus Watanabe, 1949

• * Tosana H.M. Smith & Pope, 1906

• * Tosanoides Kamohara, 1953

• * Trachypoma Günther, 1859

• Subfamily Epinephelinae Bleeker, 1874 (groupers)

• *Tribe Niphonini D.S. Jordan, 1923

• ** Niphon Cuvier, 1828

• *Tribe Epinephelini Bleeker, 1874

• ** Aethaloperca Fowler, 1904

• ** Alphestes Bloch & Schneider, 1801

• ** Anyperodon Günther, 1859

• ** Cephalopholis Bloch & Schneider, 1801

• ** Chromileptes Swainson, 1839

• ** Dermatolepis Gill, 1861

• ** Epinephelus Bloch, 1793

• ** Gonioplectrus Gill, 1862

• ** Gracila Randall, 1964

• ** Hyporthodus Gill, 1861

• ** Mycteroperca Gill, 1862

• ** Paranthias Guichenot, 1868

• ** Plectropomus Pken, 1817

• ** Saloptia J.L.B. Smith, 1964

• ** Triso Randall, Johnson & Lowe, 1989

• ** Variola Swainson, 1839

• *Tribe Diploprionini Bleeker, 1874

• ** Aulacocephalus Temminck & Schlegel, 1843

• ** Belonoperca Fowler & B.A. Bean, 1930

• ** Diploprion Cuvier, 1828

• * Tribe Liopropomini Poey, 1867

• ** Bathyanthias Günther, 1880

• ** Liopropoma Gill, 1861

• ** Rainfordia McCulloch, 1923

• *Tribe Grammistini Bleeker, 1857

• ** Aporops Schultz, 1943

• ** Grammistes Bloch & Schneider, 1801

• ** Grammistops Schultz 1953

• ** Jeboehlkia Robins, 1967

• ** Pogonoperca Günther 1859

• ** Pseudogramma Bleeker, 1875

• ** Rypticus Cuvier, 1829

• ** Suttonia J.L.B. Smith, 1953

• Subfamily Serraninae Swainson, 1839

• * Bullisichthys Rivas, 1971

• * Centropristis Cuvier, 1829

• * Chelidoperca Boulenger, 1895

• * Cratinus Steindachner, 1878

• * Diplectrum Holbrook, 1855

• * Hypoplectrus Gill, 1861

• * Paralabrax Girard, 1856

• * Parasphyraenops T.H. Bean, 1912

• * Schultzea Woods, 1958

• * Serraniculus Ginsburg, 1952

• * Serranus Cuvier, 1816

• incertae sedis

• * ?†Blabe White, 1936 (Eocene, Egypt)

• * Caesioscorpis Whitley, 1945

• * Hemilutjanus Bleeker, 1876

• * †Palaeoperca Micklich, 1978 (Eocene, Germany)

title: Serranidae