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Ontology (information science)

In information science, an ontology encompasses a representation, formal naming, and definitions of the categories, properties, and relations between the concepts, data, or entities that pertain to one, many, or all domains of discourse. More simply, an ontology is a way of showing the properties of a subject area and how they are related, by defining a set of terms and relational expressions that represent the entities in that subject area. The field which studies ontologies so conceived is sometimes referred to as applied ontology.

Every academic discipline or field, in creating its terminology, thereby lays the groundwork for an ontology. Each uses ontological assumptions to frame explicit theories, research and applications. Improved ontologies may improve problem solving within that domain, interoperability of data systems, and discoverability of data. Translating research papers within every field is a problem made easier when experts from different countries maintain a controlled vocabulary of jargon between each of their languages. For instance, the definition and ontology of economics is a primary concern in Marxist economics, but also in other subfields of economics. An example of economics relying on information science occurs in cases where a simulation or model is intended to enable economic decisions, such as determining what capital assets are at risk and by how much (see risk management).

What ontologies in both information science and philosophy have in common is the attempt to represent entities, including both objects and events, with all their interdependent properties and relations, according to a system of categories. In both fields, there is considerable work on problems of ontology engineering (e.g., Quine and Kripke in philosophy, Sowa and Guarino in information science), and debates concerning to what extent normative ontology is possible (e.g., foundationalism and coherentism in philosophy, BFO and Cyc in artificial intelligence).

Applied ontology is considered by some as a successor to prior work in philosophy. However many current efforts are more concerned with establishing controlled vocabularies of narrow domains than with philosophical first principles, or with questions such as the mode of existence of fixed essences or whether enduring objects (e.g., perdurantism and endurantism) may be ontologically more primary than processes. Artificial intelligence has retained considerable attention regarding applied ontology in subfields like natural language processing within machine translation and knowledge representation, but ontology editors are being used often in a range of fields, including biomedical informatics, industry. Such efforts often use ontology editing tools such as Protégé.

Ontology in Philosophy
Ontology is a branch of philosophy and intersects areas such as metaphysics, epistemology, and philosophy of language, as it considers how knowledge, language, and perception relate to the nature of reality. Metaphysics deals with questions like "what exists?" and "what is the nature of reality?". One of five traditional branches of philosophy, metaphysics is concerned with exploring existence through properties, entities and relations such as those between particulars and universals, intrinsic and extrinsic properties, or essence and existence. Metaphysics has been an ongoing topic of discussion since recorded history.

Etymology
The compound word ontology combines onto-, from the Greek ὄν, on (gen. ὄντος, ontos), i.e. "being; that which is", which is the present participle of the verb εἰμί, eimí, i.e. "to be, I am", and -λογία, -logia, i.e. "logical discourse", see classical compounds for this type of word formation.

While the etymology is Greek, the oldest extant record of the word itself, the Neo-Latin form ontologia, appeared in 1606 in the work Ogdoas Scholastica by Jacob Lorhard (Lorhardus) and in 1613 in the Lexicon philosophicum by Rudolf Göckel (Goclenius).

The first occurrence in English of ontology as recorded by the OED (Oxford English Dictionary, online edition, 2008) came in Archeologia Philosophica Nova or New Principles of Philosophy by Gideon Harvey.

Formal Ontology
Since the mid-1970s, researchers in the field of artificial intelligence (AI) have recognized that knowledge engineering is the key to building large and powerful AI systems. AI researchers argued that they could create new ontologies as computational models that enable certain kinds of automated reasoning, which was only marginally successful. In the 1980s, the AI community began to use the term ontology to refer to both a theory of a modeled world and a component of knowledge-based systems. In particular, David Powers introduced the word ontology to AI to refer to real world or robotic grounding,  publishing in 1990 literature reviews emphasizing grounded ontology in association with the call for papers for a AAAI Summer Symposium Machine Learning of Natural Language and Ontology, with an expanded version published in SIGART Bulletin and included as a preface to the proceedings. Some researchers, drawing inspiration from philosophical ontologies, viewed computational ontology as a kind of applied philosophy.

In 1993, the widely cited web page and paper "Toward Principles for the Design of Ontologies Used for Knowledge Sharing" by Tom Gruber used ontology as a technical term in computer science closely related to earlier idea of semantic networks and taxonomies. Gruber introduced the term as a specification of a conceptualization: "An ontology is a description (like a formal specification of a program) of the concepts and relationships that can formally exist for an agent or a community of agents. This definition is consistent with the usage of ontology as set of concept definitions, but more general. And it is a different sense of the word than its use in philosophy."

Attempting to distance ontologies from taxonomies and similar efforts in knowledge modeling that rely on classes and inheritance, Gruber stated (1993): "Ontologies are often equated with taxonomic hierarchies of classes, class definitions, and the subsumption relation, but ontologies need not be limited to these forms. Ontologies are also not limited to conservative definitions — that is, definitions in the traditional logic sense that only introduce terminology and do not add any knowledge about the world. To specify a conceptualization, one needs to state axioms that do constrain the possible interpretations for the defined terms."

As refinement of Gruber's definition Feilmayr and Wöß (2016) stated: "An ontology is a formal, explicit specification of a shared conceptualization that is characterized by high semantic expressiveness required for increased complexity."

Formal Ontology Components
Contemporary ontologies share many structural similarities, regardless of the language in which they are expressed. Most ontologies describe individuals (instances), classes (concepts), attributes and relations.

Domain ontology
A domain ontology (or domain-specific ontology) represents concepts which belong to a realm of the world, such as biology or politics. Each domain ontology typically models domain-specific definitions of terms. For example, the word card has many different meanings. An ontology about the domain of poker would model the "playing card" meaning of the word, while an ontology about the domain of computer hardware would model the "punched card" and "video card" meanings.

Since domain ontologies are written by different people, they represent concepts in very specific and unique ways, and are often incompatible within the same project. As systems that rely on domain ontologies expand, they often need to merge domain ontologies by hand-tuning each entity or using a combination of software merging and hand-tuning. This presents a challenge to the ontology designer. Different ontologies in the same domain arise due to different languages, different intended usage of the ontologies, and different perceptions of the domain (based on cultural background, education, ideology, etc.).

At present, merging ontologies that are not developed from a common upper ontology is a largely manual process and therefore time-consuming and expensive. Domain ontologies that use the same upper ontology to provide a set of basic elements with which to specify the meanings of the domain ontology entities can be merged with less effort. There are studies on generalized techniques for merging ontologies, but this area of research is still ongoing, and it is a recent event to see the issue sidestepped by having multiple domain ontologies using the same upper ontology like the OBO Foundry.

Upper ontology
An upper ontology (or foundation ontology) is a model of the commonly shared relations and objects that are generally applicable across a wide range of domain ontologies. It usually employs a core glossary that overarches the terms and associated object descriptions as they are used in various relevant domain ontologies.

Standardized upper ontologies available for use include BFO, BORO method, Dublin Core, GFO, Cyc, SUMO, UMBEL, and DOLCE. WordNet has been considered an upper ontology by some and has been used as a linguistic tool for learning domain ontologies.

Hybrid ontology
The Gellish ontology is an example of a combination of an upper and a domain ontology.

Visualization
A survey of ontology visualization methods is presented by Katifori et al. An updated survey of ontology visualization methods and tools was published by Dudás et al. The most established ontology visualization methods, namely indented tree and graph visualization are evaluated by Fu et al. A visual language for ontologies represented in OWL is specified by the Visual Notation for OWL Ontologies (VOWL).

Engineering
Ontology engineering (also called ontology building) is a set of tasks related to the development of ontologies for a particular domain. It is a subfield of knowledge engineering that studies the ontology development process, the ontology life cycle, the methods and methodologies for building ontologies, and the tools and languages that support them.

Ontology engineering aims to make explicit the knowledge contained in software applications, and organizational procedures for a particular domain. Ontology engineering offers a direction for overcoming semantic obstacles, such as those related to the definitions of business terms and software classes. Known challenges with ontology engineering include:
 * 1) Ensuring the ontology is current with domain knowledge and term use
 * 2) Providing sufficient specificity and concept coverage for the domain of interest, thus minimizing the content completeness problem
 * 3) Ensuring the ontology can support its use cases

Editors
Ontology editors are applications designed to assist in the creation or manipulation of ontologies. It is common for ontology editors to use one or more ontology languages.

Aspects of ontology editors include: visual navigation possibilities within the knowledge model, inference engines and information extraction; support for modules; the import and export of foreign knowledge representation languages for ontology matching; and the support of meta-ontologies such as OWL-S, Dublin Core, etc.

Learning
Ontology learning is the automatic or semi-automatic creation of ontologies, including extracting a domain's terms from natural language text. As building ontologies manually is extremely labor-intensive and time-consuming, there is great motivation to automate the process. Information extraction and text mining have been explored to automatically link ontologies to documents, for example in the context of the BioCreative challenges.

Research
Epistemological assumptions, which in research asks "What do you know? or "How do you know it?", creates the foundation researchers use when approaching a certain topic or area for potential research. As epistemology is directly linked to knowledge and how we come about accepting certain truths, individuals conducting academic research must understand what allows them to begin theory building. Simply, epistemological assumptions force researchers to question how they arrive at the knowledge they have.

Languages
An ontology language is a formal language used to encode an ontology. There are a number of such languages for ontologies, both proprietary and standards-based:
 * Common Algebraic Specification Language is a general logic-based specification language developed within the IFIP working group 1.3 "Foundations of System Specifications" and is a de facto standard language for software specifications. It is now being applied to ontology specifications in order to provide modularity and structuring mechanisms.
 * Common logic is ISO standard 24707, a specification of a family of ontology languages that can be accurately translated into each other.
 * The Cyc project has its own ontology language called CycL, based on first-order predicate calculus with some higher-order extensions.
 * DOGMA (Developing Ontology-Grounded Methods and Applications) adopts the fact-oriented modeling approach to provide a higher level of semantic stability.
 * The Gellish language includes rules for its own extension and thus integrates an ontology with an ontology language.
 * IDEF5 is a software engineering method to develop and maintain usable, accurate, domain ontologies.
 * KIF is a syntax for first-order logic that is based on S-expressions. SUO-KIF is a derivative version supporting the Suggested Upper Merged Ontology.
 * MOF and UML are standards of the OMG
 * Olog is a category theoretic approach to ontologies, emphasizing translations between ontologies using functors.
 * OBO, a language used for biological and biomedical ontologies.
 * OntoUML is an ontologically well-founded profile of UML for conceptual modeling of domain ontologies.
 * OWL is a language for making ontological statements, developed as a follow-on from RDF and RDFS, as well as earlier ontology language projects including OIL, DAML, and DAML+OIL. OWL is intended to be used over the World Wide Web, and all its elements (classes, properties and individuals) are defined as RDF resources, and identified by URIs.
 * Rule Interchange Format (RIF) and F-Logic combine ontologies and rules.
 * Semantic Application Design Language (SADL) captures a subset of the expressiveness of OWL, using an English-like language entered via an Eclipse Plug-in.
 * SBVR (Semantics of Business Vocabularies and Rules) is an OMG standard adopted in industry to build ontologies.
 * TOVE Project, TOronto Virtual Enterprise project

Published examples

 * Arabic Ontology, a linguistic ontology for Arabic, which can be used as an Arabic Wordnet but with ontologically-clean content.
 * AURUM - Information Security Ontology, An ontology for information security knowledge sharing, enabling users to collaboratively understand and extend the domain knowledge body. It may serve as a basis for automated information security risk and compliance management.
 * BabelNet, a very large multilingual semantic network and ontology, lexicalized in many languages
 * Basic Formal Ontology, a formal upper ontology designed to support scientific research
 * BioPAX, an ontology for the exchange and interoperability of biological pathway (cellular processes) data
 * BMO, an e-Business Model Ontology based on a review of enterprise ontologies and business model literature
 * SSBMO, a Strongly Sustainable Business Model Ontology based on a review of the systems based natural and social science literature (including business). Includes critique of and significant extensions to the Business Model Ontology (BMO).
 * CCO and GexKB, Application Ontologies (APO) that integrate diverse types of knowledge with the Cell Cycle Ontology (CCO) and the Gene Expression Knowledge Base (GexKB)
 * CContology (Customer Complaint Ontology), an e-business ontology to support online customer complaint management
 * CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model, an ontology for cultural heritage
 * COSMO, a Foundation Ontology (current version in OWL) that is designed to contain representations of all of the primitive concepts needed to logically specify the meanings of any domain entity. It is intended to serve as a basic ontology that can be used to translate among the representations in other ontologies or databases.  It started as a merger of the basic elements of the OpenCyc and SUMO ontologies, and has been supplemented with other ontology elements (types, relations) so as to include representations of all of the words in the Longman dictionary defining vocabulary.
 * Computer Science Ontology, an automatically generated ontology of research topics in the field of computer science
 * Cyc, a large Foundation Ontology for formal representation of the universe of discourse
 * Disease Ontology, designed to facilitate the mapping of diseases and associated conditions to particular medical codes
 * DOLCE, a Descriptive Ontology for Linguistic and Cognitive Engineering
 * Drammar, ontology of drama
 * Dublin Core, a simple ontology for documents and publishing
 * Financial Industry Business Ontology (FIBO), a business conceptual ontology for the financial industry
 * Foundational, Core and Linguistic Ontologies
 * Foundational Model of Anatomy, an ontology for human anatomy
 * Friend of a Friend, an ontology for describing persons, their activities and their relations to other people and objects
 * Gene Ontology for genomics
 * Gellish English dictionary, an ontology that includes a dictionary and taxonomy that includes an upper ontology and a lower ontology that focusses on industrial and business applications in engineering, technology and procurement.
 * Geopolitical ontology, an ontology describing geopolitical information created by Food and Agriculture Organization(FAO). The geopolitical ontology includes names in multiple languages (English, French, Spanish, Arabic, Chinese, Russian and Italian); maps standard coding systems (UN, ISO, FAOSTAT, AGROVOC, etc.); provides relations among territories (land borders, group membership, etc.); and tracks historical changes. In addition, FAO provides web services of geopolitical ontology and a module maker to download modules of the geopolitical ontology into different formats (RDF, XML, and EXCEL). See more information at FAO Country Profiles.
 * GAO (General Automotive Ontology) - an ontology for the automotive industry that includes 'car' extensions
 * GOLD, General Ontology for Linguistic Description
 * GUM (Generalized Upper Model), a linguistically motivated ontology for mediating between clients systems and natural language technology
 * IDEAS Group, a formal ontology for enterprise architecture being developed by the Australian, Canadian, UK and U.S. Defence Depts.
 * Linkbase, a formal representation of the biomedical domain, founded upon Basic Formal Ontology.
 * LPL, Landmark Pattern Language
 * NCBO Bioportal, biological and biomedical ontologies and associated tools to search, browse and visualise
 * NIFSTD Ontologies from the Neuroscience Information Framework: a modular set of ontologies for the neuroscience domain.
 * OBO-Edit, an ontology browser for most of the Open Biological and Biomedical Ontologies
 * OBO Foundry, a suite of interoperable reference ontologies in biology and biomedicine
 * OMNIBUS Ontology, an ontology of learning, instruction, and instructional design
 * Ontology for Biomedical Investigations, an open-access, integrated ontology of biological and clinical investigations
 * ONSTR, Ontology for Newborn Screening Follow-up and Translational Research, Newborn Screening Follow-up Data Integration Collaborative, Emory University, Atlanta.
 * Plant Ontology for plant structures and growth/development stages, etc.
 * POPE, Purdue Ontology for Pharmaceutical Engineering
 * PRO, the Protein Ontology of the Protein Information Resource, Georgetown University
 * ProbOnto, knowledge base and ontology of probability distributions.
 * Program abstraction taxonomy
 * Protein Ontology for proteomics
 * RXNO Ontology, for name reactions in chemistry
 * SCDO, the Sickle Cell Disease Ontology, facilitates data sharing and collaborations within the SDC community, amongst other applications (see list on SCDO website).
 * Sequence Ontology, for representing genomic feature types found on biological sequences
 * SNOMED CT (Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine—Clinical Terms)
 * Suggested Upper Merged Ontology, a formal upper ontology
 * Systems Biology Ontology (SBO), for computational models in biology
 * SWEET, Semantic Web for Earth and Environmental Terminology
 * SSN/SOSA, The Semantic Sensor Network Ontology (SSN) and Sensor, Observation, Sample, and Actuator Ontology (SOSA) are W3C Recommendation and OGC Standards for describing sensors and their observations.
 * ThoughtTreasure ontology
 * TIME-ITEM, Topics for Indexing Medical Education
 * Uberon, representing animal anatomical structures
 * UMBEL, a lightweight reference structure of 20,000 subject concept classes and their relationships derived from OpenCyc
 * WordNet, a lexical reference system
 * YAMATO, Yet Another More Advanced Top-level Ontology
 * YSO - General Finnish Ontology

The W3C Linking Open Data community project coordinates attempts to converge different ontologies into worldwide Semantic Web.

Libraries
The development of ontologies has led to the emergence of services providing lists or directories of ontologies called ontology libraries.

The following are libraries of human-selected ontologies.
 * COLORE is an open repository of first-order ontologies in Common Logic with formal links between ontologies in the repository.
 * DAML Ontology Library maintains a legacy of ontologies in DAML.
 * Ontology Design Patterns portal is a wiki repository of reusable components and practices for ontology design, and also maintains a list of exemplary ontologies.
 * Protégé Ontology Library contains a set of OWL, Frame-based and other format ontologies.
 * SchemaWeb is a directory of RDF schemata expressed in RDFS, OWL and DAML+OIL.

The following are both directories and search engines.
 * OBO Foundry is a suite of interoperable reference ontologies in biology and biomedicine.
 * Bioportal (ontology repository of NCBO)
 * OntoSelect Ontology Library offers similar services for RDF/S, DAML and OWL ontologies.
 * Ontaria is a "searchable and browsable directory of semantic web data" with a focus on RDF vocabularies with OWL ontologies. (NB Project "on hold" since 2004).
 * Swoogle is a directory and search engine for all RDF resources available on the Web, including ontologies.
 * Open Ontology Repository initiative
 * ROMULUS is a foundational ontology repository aimed at improving semantic interoperability. Currently there are three foundational ontologies in the repository: DOLCE, BFO and GFO.

Examples of applications
In general, ontologies can be used beneficially in several fields.
 * Enterprise applications. A more concrete example is SAPPHIRE (Health care) or Situational Awareness and Preparedness for Public Health Incidences and Reasoning Engines which is a semantics-based health information system capable of tracking and evaluating situations and occurrences that may affect public health.
 * Geographic information systems bring together data from different sources and benefit therefore from ontological metadata which helps to connect the semantics of the data.
 * Domain-specific ontologies are extremely important in biomedical research, which requires named entity disambiguation of various biomedical terms and abbreviations that have the same string of characters but represent different biomedical concepts. For example, CSF can represent Colony Stimulating Factor or Cerebral Spinal Fluid, both of which are represented by the same term, CSF, in biomedical literature. This is why a large number of public ontologies are related to the life sciences. Life science data science tools that fail to implement these types of biomedical ontologies will not be able to accurately determine causal relationships between concepts.

title: Ontology (information science)


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Talk:1654 BC

Removed from main page:

"The Last passage of the comet Nibiru. Orbital Period 3657 years.  Next passge 2003 AD. see www.zetatalk.com.  A pole shift occured that severely disrupted Egyption civilization allowing jewish exodus"

There seems to be no evidence for *any* of this, unless we count woo-woo web pages by people who think that aliens are speaking to them. Vicki Rosenzweig

what and where is the evidence for this pole shift? You need to provide this or the comment will be removed. Vignaux

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:1654 BC


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Robert Blake

Robert Blake (or variants) may refer to:

Sports

 * Bob Blake (American football) (1885–1962), American football player
 * Robbie Blake (born 1976), English footballer
 * Bob Blake (ice hockey) (1914–2008), American ice hockey player
 * Rob Blake (born 1969), Canadian ice hockey player

Politics

 * Robert O. Blake (1921–2015), American diplomat
 * Robert O. Blake, Jr. (born 1957), American diplomat, son of above

Military

 * Robert Blake (admiral) (1598–1657), English admiral
 * Robert Blake (Medal of Honor), American Civil War sailor, first African-American to receive the Medal of Honor
 * Robert Blake (USMC) (1894–1983), United States Marine Corps general

Entertainment

 * Robert Blake (actor) (1933–2023), American actor, starred in the TV series Baretta
 * Robert Blake (folk singer) (fl. 21st century), American folk singer
 * Bobby Blake (born 1957), American pornographic actor turned Baptist elder

Other

 * Robert Blake (cabinetmaker) (fl. 1826–1839), London cabinetmaker
 * Robert Blake (dentist) (1772–1822), Irish dentist
 * Robert Blake, Baron Blake (1916–2003), English historian
 * Robert Pierpont Blake (1886–1950), American Byzantist and Orientalist
 * Robert R. Blake (1918–2004), American management theoretician, developer of the Managerial Grid Model
 * Robert Blake, brother of poet William Blake (1757–1827), who William claimed visited him in his dreams

In fiction

 * Bob Blake, in a series of African-American westerns from the 1930s played by Herb Jeffries
 * Robert Blake, from Bungie' computer game Marathon 2: Durandal
 * Robert Harrison Blake, from H. P. Lovecraft's short story "The Haunter of the Dark"

title: Robert Blake


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Numeral

A numeral is a figure, symbol, or group of figures or symbols denoting a number. It may refer to:

 * Numeral system used in mathematics
 * Numeral (linguistics), a part of speech denoting numbers (e.g. one and first in English)
 * Numerical digit, the glyphs used to represent numerals

title: Numeral


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Auster Aircraft

Auster Aircraft Limited was a British aircraft manufacturer from 1938 to 1961.

History
The company began in 1938 at the Britannia Works, Thurmaston near Leicester, England, as Taylorcraft Aeroplanes (England) Limited, making light observation aircraft designed by the Taylorcraft Aircraft Corporation of America. 1,604 high-wing Taylorcraft Auster monoplanes were built during World War II for the armed forces of the UK and Canada, primarily for the role of air observation post (AOP).

During the war the head office and drawing office were at a big old house on the outskirts of Thurmaston called "The Woodlands". The fuselages and wings were manufactured at Syston under the works manager by the name of Sharp. Sheet metalwork was done at the old 'en tout cas' works at Thurmaston. Final assembly, fitting out and testing took place at Rearsby aerodrome. The name changed to Auster (after the Roman name for the south wind) on 7 March 1946, when production shifted to Rearsby aerodrome, all in Leicestershire. All designs were evolved from the early Taylorcraft with a sprung skid or tailwheel beneath the fin (except for a low-wing aircraft called the "Agricola" designed for aerial farming work; only nine of these were completed). When the company was merged into Beagle Aircraft in June, 1961, the high-wing design was developed still further as the Terrier and, with a nosewheel, the Airedale.

The Auster name was dropped in 1962 after Beagle Aircraft was created.

Aircraft

 * Taylorcraft Plus C – licence-built Taylorcraft B
 * Taylorcraft Plus D – re-engined Plus C.
 * Model D/1 – Auster I – military version of Plus C with enlarged windows.
 * Model E – Auster III – re-engined Auster I with split flaps Gipsy Major 1 engine
 * Model F – Auster II – re-engined Auster I Lycoming 0-290-3 engine
 * Model G – Auster IV – Modified fuselage with extended rear cabin glazing and Lycoming 0-290-3 engine
 * Model H – Experimental tandem two-seat training glider converted from Taylorcraft B.
 * Model J – Auster V – As Auster IV with blind-flying instruments and Vacuum System Lycoming 0-290-3/1 engine
 * Auster J family
 * Mk 5 – Civil conversion of Auster V with Lycoming 0-290-3(C) engines
 * Mk 5 Alpha – new-build Auster Mk5 aircraft with Lycoming 0-290-3(C) engines
 * Mk5-150 – Conversion of Civil Auster V with Lycoming 0-320 engine
 * J/1 Autocrat – three-seat high-winged monoplane light aircraft (fitted with Blackburn Cirrus Minor II engine)
 * Auster J/1A Autocrat – four-seat version of Autocrat
 * Auster J/1B Aiglet – re-engined agricultural version of Autocrat ([De Havilland Gipsy Major1] engine)
 * Auster J/1N – Conversion of Auster J/1 Autocrat from Cirrus MinorII engine to Gipsy Major1 engine.
 * Auster J/1N Alpha – NEW built Auster J/1N aircraft (De Havilland Gipsy Major1 engine)
 * Auster J/1S Autocrat – Conversion to De-Havilland Gipsy Major10 Mk2 engine.
 * J/1U Workmaster – agricultural version of the Alpha Lycoming 0-360 engine
 * Auster J/1Y – Conversion of Auster J/1 Series to Lycoming 0-320 Engine Predecessor of Auster D5/160 Auster D5
 * J/2 Arrow
 * J/3 Atom – low-powered version of Arrow with Continental engine
 * J/4 – Arrow with Blackburn Cirrus Minor I engine Predecessor of Auster D4/108
 * J/5 Adventurer – three-seat high-wing monoplane light aircraft
 * Auster J/5 Adventurer
 * Auster J/5A Adventurer
 * J/5 Autocar
 * Auster J/5B Autocar – four-seat high-winged monoplane light aircraft
 * Auster J/5E Autocar
 * Auster J/5G Autocar
 * Auster J/5P Autocar
 * Auster J/5T Autocar – one only built
 * Auster J/5V Autocar
 * J/5 Aiglet Trainer – aerobatic version 32 ft wingspan
 * Auster J/5F Aiglet Trainer
 * Auster J/5K Aiglet Trainer
 * Auster J/5L Aiglet Trainer
 * Auster J/8L Aiglet Trainer
 * J/5 Alpine – improved Aiglet Trainer with 36 ft wingspan
 * Auster J/5R Alpine
 * Auster J/5Q Alpine
 * Model K – Auster AOP6 – post-war military Air Observation aircraft.
 * Auster 6A Tugmaster – glider towing conversion of the Auster 6
 * Auster 6B / Beagle Terrier – civil conversion of the Auster 6
 * Model L – proposed two or three seat low-wing monoplane based on the Model G airframe with a Lycoming O-290-3 engine, not built.

 * Model M – Auster A.2/45 – 2 or 3-seat high-wing AOP aircraft, prototype only.
 * Model N – Auster A.2/45 – re-engined Model M, prototype only.
 * Model P – Auster Avis – four-seater based on J/1 with slimmer fuselage, two built.
 * Model Q – Auster T7 – two-seat trainer version of AOP6.
 * Model S – AOP aircraft based on AOP6 with enlarged tail, prototype only.
 * Model A3 – two-seat light aircraft project with a Blackburn Cirrus Minor engine, not built.
 * Model A4 – two-seat development project of current (1948) designs with a Blackburn Cirrus Minor 2 engine, not built.
 * Model A5 – four-seat army co-operation project with a De Havilland Gipsy Major 10 engine, two version planned a conventional landing gear for air ambulance work and a tricycle landing gear version for communications and reconnaissance work, not built.
 * Model A6 – variant of the A4 with a Cirrus Minor engine driving a geared ducted fan, not built.
 * Model A7 – light twin project, not built.
 * Model A8 – three-seat AOP project with a Bombardier engine, not built.
 * Model A9 – Project to meet a Royal Air Force requirement for a two-seat training aircraft, the Percival Provost was selected and the A9 was not built.
 * Model B1 – mid-wing AOP project, not built.
 * Model B3 – radio-controlled target drone.
 * Model B4 – Auster B4 – four-seat high-winged ambulance aircraft
 * Model B5 – Auster AOP9 – 1950s military air observation aircraft
 * Model B6 – parasol-wing agricultural project with bubble canopy, not built.
 * Model B8 – Auster B8 Agricola – low-winged agricultural aircraft
 * Model B9 – ramjet helicopter project, not built
 * Model C4 – Auster Antarctic – modified Auster T7 for Antarctic support.
 * Model C6 – Auster Atlantic – four-seat high-wing touring monoplane with tricycle undercarriage, one built.
 * Model D4 – Auster D4 – two-seat development of the Auster Arrow.
 * Model D5 – Auster D5 – re-engined version of Auster Alpha with modified tail, developed as the Beagle Husky
 * Model D6 – Auster D6 – four-seat development of Auster Autocar
 * Model D8 – original designation of Beagle Airedale.
 * Model E3 – AOP9 with modified engine as the AOP11.

title: Auster Aircraft


text:
Hansa

Hansa may refer to:

Places

 * Hanseatic League, a 13th–17th century alliance of European trading cities
 * Hansa (shopping centre), in Turku, Finland
 * Hansa-Park, a German attraction park
 * 480 Hansa, a main-belt asteroid, a minor planet orbiting the Sun

Ships

 * Hansa, a schooner, the research ship of the Second German North Polar Expedition
 * Hansa Carrier, a container ship, the recovery of whose lost cargo of uniquely numbered Nike shoes provided research into North Pacific Ocean currents
 * GERMAN AUXILIARY CRUISER Hansa, a German auxiliary cruiser used in World War II
 * SMS Hansa, a German Imperial navy ship name
 * SMS Hansa (1872), a German armored corvette
 * SMS Hansa (1898), a German protected cruiser
 * SS Hansa, several steamships of the name
 * SS Albert Ballin, a German transatlantic passenger liner renamed Hansa in 1935 because Ballin had been Jewish
 * SS Hansa (1899), a Swedish passenger liner, sunk by a Soviet submarine in 1944

Others

 * Hansa (airship), or Zeppelin LZ13, a German airship
 * Hansa (car), a German car brand of the Borgward group
 * HFB 320 Hansa Jet, a German business jet
 * Hansa Bai, 15th century Queen of Mewar

Organizations

 * Hansa Brewery, a Norwegian brewery merged to form Hansa Borg Bryggerier
 * Hansa Records, a record label based in Germany
 * Hansa Tonstudio, a recording studio in Berlin, Germany
 * Hansa Rostock, a German football (soccer) club
 * Lufthansa, a German airline company
 * Lüneburger SK Hansa, a German football (soccer) club
 * DDG Hansa, a former German shipping company
 * Hansa (market), a former darknet market
 * Hansa Chippers, a woodchipper manufacturer based in New Zealand

Other uses

 * Hansa, a synonym for Metrocles (skipper), a genus of butterflies
 * Hansa (film), a 2012 Hindi film directed by Manav Kaul
 * Hansa Bird, or Hamsa, a swan or goose used as a symbol and decorative element in India
 * Hansa Session, a 2018 album by Scottish synth-pop band Chvrches.
 * Hansa Yellow, a yellow pigment used in paints
 * Hansa, an Earth-based trade organization that governs much of human civilization in Kevin J. Anderson's The Saga of Seven Suns science fiction series
 * Hansa Parekh, a character in the Khichdi franchise

title: Hansa


text:
Talk:Johannes Dantiscus/Archive 1

Another article badly written and badly cited, about someone utterly unimportant except that he was a bishoop of a place in Prussia -- or, he was important, but the wikipedian who wrote this has no sense of what historians consider useful information. JHK

This is what the article looked like before -- I had made some changes before I decided to add editorial comments to the text, in hopes that explanations and clarifications would be forthcoming:

Johann Flachsbinder, also known as Johann von Hoefen and sometimes known as Johann Danticus for his birthplace, was born in the Hansa city of Danzig in 1485.
 * Please note that you can make links say what you want but refer to something else by "pipelining" them. Please do so.

His father was a Danzig brewer and merchant. Johann became a church canon and a poet.

 *  What his father did is not that important, historically, unless it bears on the life of the son -- how is this information relevant?

Emperor Maximilian I enoble him. He became bishop of Kulm, and later bishop of Ermeland, both dioceses in Prussia, governed by prince-bishops.

 * How was he ennobled (note spelling and correct verb tense) by Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor (note the way we use titles)? This is unclear.   If the dioceses were governed by prince-bishops, then wasn't he a prince-bishop?  Do these things have anything to do with each other?  what?

He wrote many poems in Latin, as it was customary at that time.
 * How is this information significant? also, we say in English, "as was customary..."

Despite the surrounding Prussian lands turning Protestant, Ermland remained Catholic.
 * Again, how does this information relate to the whole? Was Danticus somehow responsible?  Did Catholicism increase his prestige, or make his job more difficult?  Also, please stick to one spelling of Ermeland -- don't change midway.

Von Hoefen or Danticus took part in the imperial Convention of Vienna in 1515 under Maximilian I.

 * What happened there? Whay is it important to know that Danticus was one of scores, if not hundreds, in attendance, unless something really momentous happened?  I ask because it's normal for bishops (or prince-bishops) to attend such meetings...

Among his many works is the "Life of Johann von Hoefen" (Vita Joannis de Curus Dantici).

 * That's actually not the literal translation -- why did you choose to translate it that way?

He died in 1548 at Frauenburg, Ermland in Prussia.

Ref.
 * please spell out -- wikipedia is not paper

Cath. Enc.
 * I looked here -- where is this listed? I looked under von Hoefen and Danticus.  When I googled, I could only find this on genealogical sites that also mention our friend Mr. Watzenrode.

Univ. Gda Prof.dr hab E. Kotoviki
 * Did you get the information from this professor directly? otherwise, you need to cite a work, with proper bibliographic information.

About the "Danti{s}cus" article: Of what nationality is Professor "Kotoviki" (because it sounds like a made up or badly misspelled Polish name)?

Is the professor really not aware that:
 * It's Dantiscus not Danticus (even all the German websites seem to possess that knowledge)
 * Jan Dantyszek (as he is generally known in the country of his was birth, life and death - Poland)was a Polish diplomat and ambassador for 28 years
 * he spent a big portion of his life at the court of the Polish kings
 * as Polish soldier he took part of the campaign, against the Turks and Moldavians
 * Warmia was in Poland until 1772 which may explain the mystery of why "Ermeland remained Catholic despite the surrounding Prussian lands turning Protestant"
 * Flachsbinder was his father's nickname, the family name was von Hoefen
 * about the only German thing about him was his grandfather;

or did you filter it out as "irrelevant"?

Space Cadet -- The name of the Professor is corrected now. (I tried to find it again, could not., but today it came up on http://www.altavista.com : Dantiscus.

I also changed the heading to show the different spellings. "Fassbinder" was added by someone other than me. Therefore I now changed the text to reflect that. The German Institute in Warsaw : Deutsche Historische Institute DHI (I mentioned them months ago) is working with Polish experts to decipher the German language records in the "regained", or rather "reconquered"land, among them the German Language records of the prince-bishop of Ermland , Danti(s)cus. This has not been done by the Polish "liberators of the land" since take-over. It was started after 1992 and the DHI was approached in 1995, I believe.

I do not know (yet), when Danti(s)cus received the prince-bishop (Reichsfuerst) title, perhaps in 1515 by Maximilian in Vienna ? I originally did put an entry on the "first" Congress of Vienna (1515) and the importance of the emperor adopting Louis etc etc, but little remained. Emperor Maximilian made a deal with Sigismund I (then neglected to support the Protestants) Just as the Habsburgs were "inheriting" Hungary, Poland etc, they had set out to take over the Hanseatic League and inherit Prussia and what all else. It was more important that all should remain Catholic and it did not matter what language, as long as they were of the "correct political religion of that time".

By the way the grandmasters did not pledge allegiance to the Polish king (except Paul von Russdorf ?) and when Albrecht von Brandenburg Prussia became grandmaster, he also refused. He only pledged allegiance to his uncle Sigismund I on a personal basis, after he stepped down as grand master.

I know Danti(s)cus also received titles from emperor Charles V, date ? When this Danzig burgher became an Ermland resident, that was a different "state" ,he may or may not have been prince-bishop before becoming bishop of Ermland.

Under emperor Maximilian II's son Maximilian (III) the Teutonic Knights Grandmaster was a Habsburg (himself). Maximilian II and III were also elected king of Poland.

Sigismund I was duke of Silesia, later king of Poland. Sigismund III Vasa was king of Sweden, Gothland, Vandalorum and king of Poland and kept the official title king of Sweden all his life. The kings of Sweden were Reichsfuersten, or imperial princes for at least that part of Germany or Holy Roman Empire, that they ruled. And so on and so on.

It was standard procedure for all the rulers of Europe to interchange positions, offices, titles, if you will, because they were all intermarried and they bought and sold titles to territories and countries.

To the Erm(e)land spelling. I had entered an article under Ermland, because that is the modern spelling, even though centuries ago it was spelled Ermeland. Search engines give you much more info on Ermland, but again someone had changed wiki to Ermeland. Oh well. user:H.J.

- And he was important because .... Danny

According to many sources, the history of polish diplmacy is divided into two periods: before and after Dantiscus. His carreer as a polish diplomat lasted over 30 years. Also, he belongs to the circle of the most outstanding Polish-Latin poets. Frau user:H.J. is trying to make him part of German history, based on the fact that his family came from Germany in XIV th century and that the land where he spent most of his life belonged to the Kingdom of Prussia in XIX th century.

Space Cadet

 * Additionally, she still hasn't bothered to fill in the blanks indicated above. And SC -- could you please review the notes on creating and editing pages?  It seems that you often inadvertantly create pages where the page width gets extended past the window.  Thanks! JHK

user:H.J., I'm sorry, but what you have added isn't a citation. I did find a University of Gdansk web site on von Hoefen, with an article written by the professor you name -- but i don't know how you make the connection to UNESCO -- there are lots of guidelines available on this site and many others on the proper forms for citing sources. Please use them, and use them properly, to help show that your use of the articles in question is legitimate. Also, there are many books called 'Kirchenlexicon' -- which one are you using? Why is this so difficult for you to grasp or, if you understand, to cooperate? JHK - JHK, on http://www.altavista.com search : Dantiscus the 4. article is: Jan Dantyszek.. click on this text in Polish and English language, go all the way down, click on :Virtual Library of Polish Literature and you come to UNESCO United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization,, which promote a strong public domain ..world's literary heritage. The Kirchenlexicon is bautz.de. Not too difficult. user:H.J. -- If it isn't difficult, then you should have no problem citing the web sites correctly, and stating that they are public domain. I am not sure that the Kirchenlexicon at bautz.de is public domain. Even when something is public domain, you still have to cite properly -- otherwise it's considered plagiarism. Plagiarism isn't illegal -- just immoral and unethical. If people reading the wikipedia think that it is being created by people who are happy to plagiarize, it will make the whole project look bad. There are lots of guides out there on how to cite sources properly. It is your responsibility to read them and learn how to do it. The Chicago Manual of Style is one, and there are some guidelines on the 'pedia. Please take the time to learn how to do things correctly.

title: Talk:Johannes Dantiscus/Archive 1


text:
Handicraft

A handicraft is a traditional main sector of craft making and applies to a wide range of creative and design activities that are related to making things with one's hands and skill, including work with textiles, moldable and rigid materials, paper, plant fibers, clay, etc. One of the oldest handicraft is Dhokra; this is a sort of metal casting that has been used in India for over 5,000 years and is still used. In Iranian Baluchistan, women still make red ware hand-made pottery with dotted ornaments, much similar to the 4,000-year-old pottery tradition of Kalpurgan, an archaeological site near the village. Usually, the term is applied to traditional techniques of creating items (whether for personal use or as products) that are both practical and aesthetic. Handicraft industries are those that produce things with hands to meet the needs of the people in their locality without using machines.

Collective terms for handicrafts include artisanry, crafting, and handcrafting. The term arts and crafts is also applied, especially in the United States and mostly to hobbyists' and children's output rather than items crafted for daily use, but this distinction is not formal, and the term is easily confused with the Arts and Crafts design movement, which is in fact as practical as it is aesthetic.

Handicraft has its roots in the rural crafts—the material-goods necessities—of ancient civilizations, and many specific crafts have been practiced for centuries, while others are modern inventions or popularizations of crafts which were originally practiced in a limited geographic area.

Many handcrafters use natural, even entirely indigenous, materials while others may prefer modern, non-traditional materials, and even upcycle industrial materials. The individual artisanship of a handcrafted item is the paramount criterion; those made by mass production or machines are not handicraft goods.

Seen as developing the skills and creative interests of students, generally and sometimes towards a particular craft or trade, handicrafts are often integrated into educational systems, both informally and formally. Most crafts require the development of skill and the application of patience but can be learned by virtually anyone.

Like folk art, handicraft output often has cultural and/or religious significance, and increasingly may have a political message as well, as in craftivism. Many crafts become very popular for brief periods of time (a few months, or a few years), spreading rapidly among the crafting population as everyone emulates the first examples, then their popularity wanes until a later resurgence.

The Arts and Crafts movement in the West
The Arts and Crafts movement originated as a late-19th-century design reform and social movement principally in Europe, North America and Australia, and continues today. Its proponents are motivated by the ideals of movement founders such as William Morris and John Ruskin, who proposed that in pre-industrial societies, such as the European Middle Ages, people had achieved fulfillment through the creative process of handicrafts. This was held up in contrast to what was perceived to be the alienating effects of industrial labor.

These activities were called crafts because originally many of them were professions under the guild system. Adolescents were apprenticed to a master craftsman and refined their skills over a period of years in exchange for low wages. By the time their training was complete, they were well equipped to set up in trade for themselves, earning their living with the skill that could be traded directly within the community, often for goods and services. The Industrial Revolution and the increasing mechanization of production processes gradually reduced or eliminated many of the roles professional craftspeople played, and today many handicrafts are increasingly seen, especially when no longer the mainstay of a formal vocational trade, as a form of hobby, folk art and sometimes fine art.

The term handicrafts can also refer to the products themselves of such artisanal efforts, that require specialized knowledge, maybe highly technical in their execution, require specialized equipment and/or facilities to produce, involve manual labor or a blue-collar work ethic, are accessible to the general public, and are constructed from materials with histories that exceed the boundaries of Western "fine art" tradition, such as ceramics, glass, textiles, metal and wood. These products are produced within a specific community of practice, and while they mostly differ from the products produced within the communities of art and design, the boundaries often overlap, resulting in hybrid objects. Additionally, as the interpretation and validation of art is frequently a matter of context, an audience may perceive handcrafted objects as art objects when these objects are viewed within an art context, such as in a museum or in a position of prominence in one's home.

In modern education
Simple "arts and crafts" projects are a common elementary and middle school activity in both mainstream and alternative education systems around the world.

In some of the Scandinavian or Nordic countries, more advanced handicrafts form part of the formal, compulsory school curriculum, and are collectively referred to as slöjd in Swedish, and käsityö in Finnish. Students learn how to work mainly with metal, textile and wood, not for professional training purposes as in American vocational–technical schools, but with the aim to develop children's and teens' practical skills, such as everyday problem-solving ability, tool use, and understanding of the materials that surround us for economical, cultural and environmental purposes.

Secondary schools and college and university art departments increasingly provide elective options for more handicraft-based arts, in addition to formal "fine arts", a distinction that continues to fade throughout the years, especially with the rise of studio craft, i.e. the use of traditional handicrafts techniques by professional fine artists.

Many community centers and schools run evening or day classes and workshops, for adults and children, offering to teach basic craft skills in a short period of time.

Handicraft production
Handicraft production is a small–scale production of products using manual labor. It was especially common in the Middle Ages, during the era of the Industrial Revolution it was mainly supplanted by mass production, however, it still exists for the production of goods such as luxury goods. The "handmade effect" is a phenomenon where consumers exhibit a preference for products that are crafted by human labor rather than produced through automated or robotic processes. This preference is particularly pronounced for products with higher symbolic value, where expressing one's beliefs and personality holds greater significance. Consumers, especially in contexts emphasizing symbolic consumption, have a stronger motivation for uniqueness and associate human labor more closely with product uniqueness. In product categories where mechanical production is common, consumers are more attracted to products labeled as handmade. The positive handmade effect on product attractiveness is driven, in large part, by the perception that handmade products symbolically "contain love." The handmade effect is influenced by two key factors. Firstly, consumers express stronger intentions to purchase handmade products when buying gifts for loved ones, compared to more distant recipients. Secondly, they are willing to pay a higher price for handmade gifts when the purchase is motivated by the desire to convey love rather than simply acquiring the best-performing product.

The handicraft method of production has been used by people since ancient times. Initially, people engaged in handicraft production aimed to satisfy the needs of their own economy, however, with the development of commodity–money relations, an increasing number of goods produced by them began to be supplied to the market. Mostly these were household products: dishes, furniture, jewelry, souvenirs, clothes, shoes. However, over time, other goods, such as weapons, began to go on sale.

In pre–revolutionary Russia, handicraft production was quite widespread: about 30% of all manufactured products were produced by handicraft methods. Products were sold at fairs, and barter exchange was widespread. With the beginning of industrialisation and collectivization of the Soviet Union, the handicraft mode of production was declared "the highest degree of oppression of the working people" and ceased to exist in almost all spheres of the Soviet economy except on an informal basis.

Some state economies, such as that of Vietnam, are largely based on handicraft production. For example, in the 1950s in North Vietnam, there were more than 100,000 handicraft enterprises. In the early 1970s, even before the end of the war, handicraft production provided about half of all the products of the local industry and almost a third of the total industrial production of the republic. By 1977, after the reunification of Vietnam, there were 700,000 handicraftsmen in South Vietnam.

Handicraft production in Nepal withstands competition with industrial production and foreign goods, which is explained not only by economic and natural–geographical factors, but also by the support and encouragement of the handicraft industry from the state.

List of common handicrafts
There are almost as many variations on the theme of handicrafts as there are crafters with time on their hands, but they can be broken down into a number of categories:

Using textiles or leather

 * Bagh prints
 * Banner-making
 * Batik
 * Calligraphy
 * Carpet
 * Canvas work
 * Cross-stitch
 * Crochet
 * Darning
 * Dyeing yarns
 * Embossing leather
 * Embroidery
 * Felting
 * Knitting
 * Lace-making
 * Leather crafting
 * Lucet
 * Macrame
 * Millinery (hat making)
 * Needlepoint
 * Needlework generally
 * Patchwork
 * Quilting
 * Ribbon embroidery
 * Rug making
 * Saddle making
 * Sewing generally
 * Shoe making (cordwainning)
 * Silkscreening
 * Spinning (textiles)
 * String art
 * Tapestry
 * Tatting
 * T-shirt art
 * Tunisian Crochet
 * Weaving
 * Bagru Print
 * Handmade Bags

Using wood, metal, clay, bone, horn, glass, or stone

 * Bead work
 * Bone carving (buffalo, camel, etc., as well as horn and
 * Brass broidered coconut shell craft of Kerala
 * Carpentry
 * Ceramic art generally
 * Chip carving
 * Copper arts
 * Dollhouse construction and furnishing
 * Doll making
 * Enameling and Grisaille
 * Fretwork
 * Glass etching
 * Glassblowing
 * Jewelry design
 * Joining (woodworking)
 * Lapidary
 * Lath art
 * Marquetry
 * Metalwork
 * Mosaics
 * Pottery
 * Puppet making
 * Repoussé and chasing (embossing metal)
 * Scale modeling
 * Sculpture
 * Silversmithing
 * Stained glass
 * Toy making
 * Wood burning (pyrography)
 * Wood carving
 * Wood turning
 * Woodworking generally

Using paper or canvas

 * Altered books
 * Artist trading cards
 * Assemblage, collage in three dimensions
 * Bookbinding
 * Cardmaking
 * Collage
 * Décollage
 * Decoupage
 * Embossing paper
 * Iris folding
 * Origami or paper folding
 * Paper craft generally
 * Paper making
 * Paper marbling
 * Paper modeling, paper craft or card modeling
 * Papier-mâché
 * Parchment craft
 * Pop-up books
 * Quilling or paper filigree
 * Rubber/acrylic stamping
 * Scrapbooking

Using plants other than wood

 * Basket weaving
 * Corn dolly making
 * Floral design
 * Pressed flower craft
 * Soapmaking
 * Straw marquetry

Other

 * Balloon animals
 * Cake decorating
 * Candlemaking
 * Egg decorating

Sales venues
Handicrafts are often made for home use and decor. If sold, they are sold in direct sales, gift shops, public markets, and online shopping. In developing countries, handicrafts are sold to locals and as souvenirs to tourists. Sellers tend to speak at least a few words of common tourist languages. There are also specialty markets such as:
 * Pike Place Public Market of Seattle
 * Etsy, The Largest Marketplace for Handmade and Craft Supplies
 * Street Artists Program of San Francisco
 * Ann Arbor Art Fairs
 * International Art and Craft Fair, Ouagadougou

In Vietnam
According to the Vietnam Handicrafts Export Association (VIETCRAFT), Vietnam's handicrafts export turnover in 2023 reached USD 2.2 billion, up 10.5% over 2022. The United States is Vietnam's largest export market, accounting for 35% of total export turnover. Vietnam's handicrafts industry currently has about 600 villages, with over 10 million direct workers.

Wickerwork is a traditional handicraft industry, based on the use of two basic materials, bamboo and rattan. Vietnam currently has 893 villages specializing in wickerwork, accounting for 24% of the total number of villages, including 647 bamboo and rattan villages and 246 straw and water hyacinth villages.

title: Handicraft


text:
Aviation Traders

Aviation Traders Limited (ATL) was a war-surplus aircraft and spares trader formed in 1947. In 1949, it began maintaining aircraft used by some of Britain's contemporary independent airlines on the Berlin Airlift. In the early 1950s, it branched out into aircraft conversions and manufacturing. During that period it also became a subcontractor for other aircraft manufacturers. By the end of the decade, it was taken over by the Airwork group.

History
Aviation Traders Ltd. (ATL) was established by Freddie Laker at Bovingdon in Hertfordshire, England, in 1947 to trade in war-surplus aircraft and spares. Two years later, Laker shifted his fledgling business to new premises at Rochford aerodrome (later Southend Municipal Airport) near Southend-on-Sea, Essex, England.

ATL initially specialised in converting numerous war-surplus bombers and transporters into freighters. This included the conversion of Handley Page Halifax bombers into freighters, six of which were sold to Bond Air Services, an early post-war independent British airline. Bond Air Services based these planes at Wunstorf aerodrome in West Germany to carry essential supplies into West Berlin during the Berlin Blockade of 1948–49. Bond Air Services furthermore contracted Aviation Traders to service these planes. In return, Aviation Traders got half of Bond Air Services' freight charges. Following the end of the Berlin Airlift in 1949, Laker had most of the Halifaxes he had supplied to various independent airlines during the Airlift scrapped at its Southend facilities.

Aviation Traders (Engineering) Ltd – (ATEL), ATL's engineering division, was formally established in 1949. Laker put Jack Wiseman, a fully qualified aircraft maintenance engineer with whom he had worked for a brief period at London Aero Motor Services (LASM), in charge of his new engineering business.

Three former British European Airways (BEA) Vickers Vikings, which Laker had acquired in 1949 as well, were overhauled at ATL's Southend maintenance base and sold on to British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) at a profit.

The following year, ATL's engineering arm cannibalised a number of unairworthy Yorks and Lancasters Laker had purchased to rebuild the salvaged parts into three airworthy Yorks.

ATL also became one of many post-war aircraft manufacturers which attempted to develop a successor to the ubiquitous Douglas DC-3 piston-engine airliner.

ATL's answer was the 28 passenger ATL-90 Accountant powered by two Rolls-Royce Dart turboprop engines, which first flew on 9 July 1957, however ATL's design was competing against a large number of designs from well-established aircraft manufacturers with much deeper pockets and could not match the scale of their investments, either in the design and development or in marketing it. Competing designs including the Convair CV-240 series, Fokker F-27 Friendship and Vickers VC.1 Viking also saturated the market. As a consequence, the Accountant failed to attract orders, which led to the programme's termination and in the prototype's destruction.

Subsequent conversion work was more successful. Avro Tudor airliners were fitted with large side freight doors for Air Charter Ltd (one of ATL's sister companies) as Supertraders.

Twenty-one Douglas DC-4 airliners were converted into car ferries as the ATL-98 Carvair, a major rebuild that replaced the aircraft's original nose with an enlarged version that raised the cockpit above the cargo hold and added a hinged nose through which five cars could be loaded with a mobile scissor lift. Twenty-five passengers could be carried in the unaltered rear fuselage while the fin was enlarged to offset the increased side area of the new forward fuselage. Carvairs were operated from Southend Airport on short air ferry routes across the English Channel or North Sea where they supplemented Bristol Freighters already being used in the same role. High speed car ferry service by large hovercraft such as the SR.N4 meant an end to the service.

ATL installed unused Rolls-Royce Merlins in ex-BOAC Canadair Argonaut (North Star) airliners. The engines were acquired earlier along with ex-BOAC Halifaxes and several Avro Tudors purchased from the British Government.

In 1951, ATL won a contract from Bristol Aircraft to manufacture wing centre sections for Bristol Freighters. Between the beginning of 1952 and the end of 1955, ATL built 50 wing sections for Bristol Aircraft. During that period ATL had grown into a large engineering and manufacturing organisation.

In 1956, ATL purchased over 250 surplus ex-Royal Air Force Percival Prentice trainers, about 20 of which were converted for civilian customers.

In 1958, Laker announced his decision to sell both ATL and Air Charter to Airwork for £600,000 cash plus a further £200,000, subject to the valuation of stock. The deal became effective in January 1959, when both companies joined the Airwork group.

In 1996, Britavia, which was part of Airwork and was the design arm of Shorts Support Services ceased trading as Britavia and was subject to a Management Buy-Out, and started trading again as Aviation Traders Limited (ATL) based at Bournemouth Airport until 2016. In 2016 ATL moved to their current offices in Wimborne. ATL provided approved design services under the CAA reference of DAI/9525/96. With the introduction of EASA, ATL moved under the control of EASA and transferred to a Design Organisation Approval (DOA) under Part 21J and now certifies and designs fixed and rotary wing modifications under approval reference EASA.21J.016. ATL are currently opening a European company and office to continue following BREXIT.

Aircraft

 * ATL.90 Accountant - Prototype medium-range airliner
 * ATL.92 - Proposed military variant of the Accountant
 * ATL.93 - Proposed military variant of the Accountant
 * ATL.98 Carvair - Modified Douglas DC-4 for use as a car transport

title: Aviation Traders


text:
Talk:Hansa

Discussion
Fr. Jonat -- you knew very well that there was an article for Hanseatic League -- why did you create a page called Hansa, when there was no need. I have redirected Hansa to Hanseatic League, rather than your "see hanseatic League" sentence. PLEASE try to LEARN how the software works -- it allows you to create a link with an alternate name -- like Hansa  the link directs to the "official" article name, but the link says whatever the second part says. JHK

--- Duh! Thanks, Damian, forgot about nowiki!!JHK

When mentioning the "Hansa" it is, I think, almost always the Hansaeitic League that is ment (just compare number of links to either page, compare page size, compare dab pages). Thus I will direct the link to "Hansa" and put the record label as a "see also" at the bottom. --Fred-Chess July 8, 2005 13:49 (UTC)

Hansa means 'swan' in the Sanskrit language and many related East Indian languages. Given that 'luft' in German means 'air' and add 'hansa' to it, you get lufthansa, the airlines, whose logo is a flying swan. It is also interesting that the swastika symbol is borrowed from India.

There is a German manufacturer of specialty vehicles named Hansa. I don't know if they are related to / descended from the Hansa car brand or a separate company. Their full name is "HANSA Maschinenbau Vertriebs- und Fertigungs GmbH"; they have a web site. 70.185.217.138 02:19, 22 October 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hansa


text:
Gain (antenna)

In electromagnetics, an antenna's gain is a key performance parameter which combines the antenna's directivity and radiation efficiency. The term power gain has been deprecated by IEEE. In a transmitting antenna, the gain describes how well the antenna converts input power into radio waves headed in a specified direction. In a receiving antenna, the gain describes how well the antenna converts radio waves arriving from a specified direction into electrical power. When no direction is specified, gain is understood to refer to the peak value of the gain, the gain in the direction of the antenna's main lobe. A plot of the gain as a function of direction is called the antenna pattern or radiation pattern. It is not to be confused with directivity, which does not take an antenna's radiation efficiency into account.

Gain or 'absolute gain' is defined as "The ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction to the radiation intensity that would be produced if the power accepted by the antenna were isotropically radiated". Usually this ratio is expressed in decibels with respect to an isotropic radiator (dBi). An alternative definition compares the received power to the power received by a lossless half-wave dipole antenna, in which case the units are written as dBd. Since a lossless dipole antenna has a gain of 2.15 dBi, the relation between these units is $$\mathrm{Gain(dBd)} \approx \mathrm{Gain(dBi)} - 2.15$$. For a given frequency, the antenna's effective area is proportional to the gain. An antenna's effective length is proportional to the square root of the antenna's gain for a particular frequency and radiation resistance. Due to reciprocity, the gain of any antenna when receiving is equal to its gain when transmitting.

Gain
Gain is a unitless measure that combines an antenna's radiation efficiency $$\eta$$ and directivity D:

 * $$G = \eta D$$

Radiation efficiency
The radiation efficiency $$\eta$$ of an antenna is "The ratio of the total power radiated by an antenna to the net power accepted by the antenna from the connected transmitter."
 * $$\eta = {P_R \over P_O}$$

A transmitting antenna is supplied with power by a transmission line connecting the antenna to a radio transmitter. The power accepted by the antenna $$P_O$$ is the power supplied to the antenna's terminals. Losses prior to the antenna terminals are accounted for by separate impedance mismatch factors which are therefore not included in the calculation of radiation efficiency.

Gain in decibels
Published numbers for antenna gain are almost always expressed in decibels (dB), a logarithmic scale. From the gain factor G, one finds the gain in decibels as:
 * $$G_\text{dBi} = 10 \log_{10}\left(G\right).$$

Therefore, an antenna with a peak power gain of 5 would be said to have a gain of 7 dBi. dBi is used rather than just dB to emphasize that this is the gain according to the basic definition, in which the antenna is compared to an isotropic radiator.

When actual measurements of an antenna's gain are made by a laboratory, the field strength of the test antenna is measured when supplied with, say, 1 watt of transmitter power, at a certain distance. That field strength is compared to the field strength found using a so-called reference antenna at the same distance receiving the same power in order to determine the gain of the antenna under test. That ratio would be equal to G if the reference antenna were an isotropic radiator (irad).

However a true isotropic radiator cannot be built, so in practice a different antenna is used. This will often be a half-wave dipole, a very well understood and repeatable antenna that can be easily built for any frequency. The directive gain of a half-wave dipole with respect to the isotropic radiator is known to be 1.64 and it can be made nearly 100% efficient. Since the gain has been measured with respect to this reference antenna, the difference in the gain of the test antenna is often compared to that of the dipole. The gain relative to a dipole is thus often quoted and is denoted using dBd instead of dBi to avoid confusion. Therefore, in terms of the true gain (relative to an isotropic radiator) G, this figure for the gain is given by:
 * $$G_\text{dBd} \approx 10 \log_{10}\left(\frac{G}{1.64}\right).$$

For instance, the above antenna with a gain G = 5 would have a gain with respect to a dipole of 5/1.64 ≈ 3.05, or in decibels one would call this 10 log(3.05) ≈ 4.84 dBd. In general:
 * $$G_\text{dBd} \approx G_\text{dBi} - 2.15\,\text{dB}$$

Both dBi and dBd are in common use. When an antenna's maximum gain is specified in decibels (for instance, by a manufacturer) one must be certain as to whether this means the gain relative to an isotropic radiator or with respect to a dipole. If it specifies dBi or dBd then there is no ambiguity, but if only dB is specified then the fine print must be consulted. Either figure can be easily converted into the other using the above relationship.

When considering an antenna's directional pattern, gain with respect to a dipole does not imply a comparison of that antenna's gain in each direction to a dipole's gain in that direction. Rather, it is a comparison between the antenna's gain in each direction to the peak gain of the dipole (1.64). In any direction, therefore, such numbers are 2.15 dB smaller than the gain expressed in dBi.

Partial gain
Partial gain is calculated as power gain, but for a particular polarization. It is defined as the part of the radiation intensity $$U$$ corresponding to a given polarization, divided by the total radiation intensity of an isotropic antenna.

The partial gains in the $$\theta$$ and $$\phi$$ components are expressed as

 * $$G_\theta = 4\pi\left(\frac{U_\theta}{P_\text{in}}\right)$$

and

 * $$G_\phi = 4\pi\left(\frac{U_\phi}{P_\text{in}}\right)$$,

where $$U_\theta$$ and $$U_\phi$$ represent the radiation intensity in a given direction contained in their respective $$E$$ field component.

As a result of this definition, we can conclude that the total gain of an antenna is the sum of partial gains for any two orthogonal polarizations.

 * $$G = G_\theta + G_\phi$$

First example
Suppose a lossless antenna has a radiation pattern given by:

 * $$U = B_0\,\sin^3(\theta).$$

Let us find the gain of such an antenna. First we find the peak radiation intensity of this antenna:

 * $$ U_\text{max} = B_0$$

The total radiated power can be found by integrating over all directions:

 * $$\begin{align}

P_\text{rad} &= \int_0^{2\pi}\int_0^\pi U(\theta, \phi)\sin(\theta)\, d\theta\, d\phi = 2\pi B_0 \int_0^\pi \sin^4(\theta)\, d\theta = B_0\left(\frac{3}{4}\pi^2\right) \\ D &= 4\pi\left(\frac{U_\text{max}}{P_\text{rad}}\right) = 4\pi\left[\frac{B_0}{B_0\left(\frac{3}{4}\pi^2\right)}\right] = \frac{16}{3\pi} \approx 1.698 \end{align}$$

Since the antenna is specified as being lossless the radiation efficiency is 1. The maximum gain is then equal to:

 * $$\begin{align}

G &= \eta D \approx (1)(1.698) = 1.698 \\ G_\text{dBi} &\approx 10\, \log_{10}(1.698) \approx 2.30\,\text{dBi} \end{align}$$

Expressed relative to the gain of a half-wave dipole we would find:

 * $$G_\text{dBd} = 10\, \log_{10}\left(\frac{1.698}{1.64}\right) = 0.15\,\text{dBd}$$.

Second example
As an example, consider an antenna that radiates an electromagnetic wave whose electrical field has an amplitude $$\ E_\theta\ $$ at a distance $$\ r\ .$$ That amplitude is given by:
 * $$ E_\theta = {A I \over r}$$

where:
 * $$\ I\ $$ is the current (in Amps) fed to the antenna and
 * $$\ A\ $$ is a characteristic constant (in Ohm) of each antenna.

For a large distance $$\ r\ .$$ The radiated wave can be considered locally as a plane wave. The intensity of an electromagnetic plane wave is:
 * $${P\over S} = {c_\circ \varepsilon_\circ \over 2}{E_\theta}^2 = {1 \over 2} { {E_\theta}^2 \over Z_\circ }\ $$

where
 * $$ Z_\circ = \sqrt{ {\mu_\circ \over \varepsilon_\circ}\ } = 376.730313461\mathsf{\ \Omega \ }$$ is a universal constant called vacuum impedance.

and
 * $$\left({P\over S}\right)_\mathsf{ant} = {1 \over 2 Z_\circ} {A^2 I^2 \over r^2}\ $$

If the resistive part of the series impedance of the antenna is $$\ {R_s}\ ,$$ the power fed to the antenna is $$\scriptstyle{1\over 2} {R_s I^2}\ .$$ The intensity of an isotropic antenna is the power so fed divided by the surface of the sphere of radius $r$:
 * $$\left({P \over S}\right)_\mathsf{iso} = {{1\over 2}R_sI^2 \over 4\pi r^2 }\ $$

The directive gain is:
 * $$ G = {\left[ {1 \over 2 Z_\circ} {A^2 I^2 \over r^2} \right] \over {\left[ \frac{ {1 \over 2} R_s I^2 }{ 4\pi r^2 } \right] } } \approx {A^2 \over 30 R_s }\ $$

For the commonly utilized half-wave dipole, the particular formulation works out to the following, including its decibel equivalency, expressed as dBi (decibels referenced to isotropic radiator):

 * $$\begin{align}

R_{\frac{\lambda}{2}} &= 60 \operatorname{Cin}(2\pi) = 60 \left[ \ln(2\pi) + \gamma - \operatorname{Ci}(2\pi) \right] = 120 \int_{0}^{\frac{\pi}{2}} \frac{\cos\left( \frac{\pi}{2}\cos\theta \right)^2 }{ \sin\theta}d\theta\ ,\\ &= 15 \left[ 2\pi^2 - \frac{1}{3} \pi^4 + \frac{4}{135}\pi^6 - \frac{1}{630}\pi^8 + \frac{4}{70875}\pi^{10} + \ldots + (-1)^{n+1}\frac{(2\pi)^{2n}}{n(2n)!}\right]\ ,\\ &= 73.12960 \ldots \mathsf{\; \Omega; } \end{align}\ $$
 * (In most cases 73.130, is adequate)

 * $$\begin{align} G_{\frac{\lambda}{2}}

&= \frac{60^2}{30R_{\frac{\lambda}{2}}} = \frac{3600}{30R_{\frac{\lambda}{2}}} = \frac{120}{R_{\frac{\lambda}{2}}} = \frac{1}{{}^{\int_{0}^{\frac{\pi}{2}} \frac{ \cos \left( \frac{\pi}{2} \cos \theta \right)^2 }{ \sin \theta} d \theta}}\, \\ &\approx \frac{120}{73.1296} \approx 1.6409224 \approx 2.15088\ \mathsf{\ dBi} ; \end{align}$$
 * (Likewise, 1.64 and 2.15 dBi are usually the cited values)

Sometimes, the half-wave dipole is taken as a reference instead of the isotropic radiator. The gain is then given in dBd (decibels over dipole):
 * 0 dBd = 2.15 dBi

Realized gain
Realized gain differs from gain in that it is "reduced by its impedance mismatch factor." This mismatch induces losses above the dissipative losses described above; therefore, realized gain will always be less than gain. Gain may be expressed as absolute gain if further clarification is required to differentiate it from realized gain.

Total radiated power
Total radiated power (TRP) is the sum of all RF power radiated by the antenna when the source power is included in the measurement. TRP is expressed in watts or the corresponding logarithmic expressions, often dBm or dBW.

When testing mobile devices, TRP can be measured while in close proximity of power-absorbing losses such as the body and hand of the user.

The TRP can be used to determine body loss (BoL). The body loss is considered as the ratio of TRP measured in the presence of losses and TRP measured while in free space.

title: Gain (antenna)


text:
Adrien-Marie Legendre

Adrien-Marie Legendre (18 September 1752 – 9 January 1833) was a French mathematician who made numerous contributions to mathematics. Well-known and important concepts such as the Legendre polynomials and Legendre transformation are named after him. He is also known for his contributions to the method of least squares, and was the first to officially publish on it, though Carl Friedrich Gauss had discovered it before him.

Life
Adrien-Marie Legendre was born in Paris on 18 September 1752 to a wealthy family. He received his education at the Collège Mazarin in Paris, and defended his thesis in physics and mathematics in 1770. He taught at the École Militaire in Paris from 1775 to 1780 and at the École Normale from 1795. At the same time, he was associated with the Bureau des Longitudes. In 1782, the Berlin Academy awarded Legendre a prize for his treatise on projectiles in resistant media. This treatise also brought him to the attention of Lagrange.

The Académie des sciences made Legendre an adjoint member in 1783 and an associate in 1785. In 1789, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.

He assisted with the Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790) to calculate the precise distance between the Paris Observatory and the Royal Greenwich Observatory by means of trigonometry. To this end in 1787 he visited Dover and London together with Dominique, comte de Cassini and Pierre Méchain. The three also visited William Herschel, the discoverer of the planet Uranus.

Legendre lost his private fortune in 1793 during the French Revolution. That year, he also married Marguerite-Claudine Couhin, who helped him put his affairs in order. In 1795, Legendre became one of six members of the mathematics section of the reconstituted Académie des Sciences, renamed the Institut National des Sciences et des Arts. Later, in 1803, Napoleon reorganized the Institut National, and Legendre became a member of the Geometry section. From 1799 to 1812, Legendre served as mathematics examiner for graduating artillery students at the École Militaire and from 1799 to 1815 he served as permanent mathematics examiner for the École Polytechnique. In 1824, Legendre's pension from the École Militaire was stopped because he refused to vote for the government candidate at the Institut National. In 1831, he was made an officer of the Légion d'Honneur.

Legendre died in Paris on 9 January 1833, after a long and painful illness, and Legendre's widow carefully preserved his belongings to memorialize him. Upon her death in 1856, she was buried next to her husband in the village of Auteuil, where the couple had lived, and left their last country house to the village. Legendre's name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.

Mathematical work
Abel's work on elliptic functions was built on Legendre's, and some of Gauss's work in statistics and number theory completed that of Legendre. He developed, and first communicated to his contemporaries before Gauss, the least squares method which has broad application in linear regression, signal processing, statistics, and curve fitting; this was published in 1806 as an appendix to his book on the paths of comets. Today, the term "least squares method" is used as a direct translation from the French "méthode des moindres carrés".

His major work is Exercices de Calcul Intégral, published in three volumes in 1811, 1817 and 1819. In the first volume he introduced the basic properties of elliptic integrals, beta functions and gamma functions, introducing the symbol Γ normalizing it to Γ(n+1) = n!. Further results on the beta and gamma functions along with their applications to mechanics – such as the rotation of the earth, and the attraction of ellipsoids – appeared in the second volume. In 1830, he gave a proof of Fermat's Last Theorem for exponent n = 5, which was also proven by Lejeune Dirichlet in 1828.

In number theory, he conjectured the quadratic reciprocity law, subsequently proved by Gauss; in connection to this, the Legendre symbol is named after him. He also did pioneering work on the distribution of primes, and on the application of analysis to number theory. His 1798 conjecture of the prime number theorem was rigorously proved by Hadamard and de la Vallée-Poussin in 1896.

Legendre did an impressive amount of work on elliptic functions, including the classification of elliptic integrals, but it took Abel's stroke of genius to study the inverses of Jacobi's functions and solve the problem completely.

He is known for the Legendre transformation, which is used to go from the Lagrangian to the Hamiltonian formulation of classical mechanics. In thermodynamics it is also used to obtain the enthalpy and the Helmholtz and Gibbs (free) energies from the internal energy. He is also the namesake of the Legendre polynomials, solutions to Legendre's differential equation, which occur frequently in physics and engineering applications, such as electrostatics.

Legendre is best known as the author of Éléments de géométrie, which was published in 1794 and was the leading elementary text on the topic for around 100 years. This text greatly rearranged and simplified many of the propositions from Euclid's Elements to create a more effective textbook.

Honors

 * Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1832)
 * The Moon crater Legendre is named after him.
 * Main-belt asteroid 26950 Legendre is named after him.
 * Legendre is one of the 72 prominent French scientists who were commemorated on plaques at the first stage of the Eiffel Tower when it first opened.

Publications

 * Essays
 * 1782 Recherches sur la trajectoire des projectiles dans les milieux résistants (prize on projectiles offered by the Berlin Academy)

 * Books
 * Eléments de géométrie, textbook 1794
 * Essai sur la Théorie des Nombres 1797-8 ("An VI"), 2nd ed. 1808, 3rd ed. in 2 vol. 1830
 * Nouvelles Méthodes pour la Détermination des Orbites des Comètes, 1805
 * Exercices de Calcul Intégral, book in three volumes 1811, 1817, and 1819
 * Traité des Fonctions Elliptiques, book in three volumes 1825, 1826, and 1830

 * Memoires in Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences
 * 1783 Sur l'attraction des Sphéroïdes homogènes (work on Legendre polynomials)
 * 1784 Recherches sur la figure des Planètes p. 370
 * 1785 Recherches d'analyse indéterminée p. 465 (work on number theory)
 * 1786 Mémoire sur la manière de distinguer les Maxima des Minima dans le Calcul des Variations p. 7 (as Legendre)
 * 1786 Mémoire sur les Intégrations par arcs d'ellipse p. 616 (as le Gendre)
 * 1786 Second Mémoire sur les Intégrations par arcs d'ellipse p. 644
 * 1787 L'intégration de quelques équations aux différences Partielles (Legendre transform)

 * In Memoires présentés par divers Savants à la l'Académie des Sciences de l'Institut de France
 * 1806 Nouvelle formula pour réduire en distances vraies les distances apparentes de la Lune au Soleil ou à une étoile (30–54)
 * 1807 Analyse des triangles tracés sur la surface d'un sphéroide (130–161)
 * Tome 10 Recherches sur diverses sortes d'intégrales défines (416–509)
 * 1819 Méthode des moindres carrés pour trouver le milieu le plus probable entre les résultats de différentes observations (149–154), Mémoire sur l'attraction des ellipsoïdes homogènes (155–183)
 * 1823 Recherches sur quelques objets d'Analyse indéterminée et particulièrement sur le théorème de Fermat (1–60)
 * 1828 Mémoire sur la détermination des fonctions Y et Z que satisfont à l'équation 4(X^n-1) = (X-1)(Y^2+-nZ^2), n étant un nombre premier 4i-+1 (81–100)
 * 1833 Réflexions sur différentes manières de démontrer la théorie des parallèles ou le théorème sur la somme des trois angles du triangle, avec 1 planche (367–412)

Mistaken portrait
For two centuries, until the recent discovery of the error in 2005, books, paintings and articles have incorrectly shown a profile portrait of the obscure French politician Louis Legendre (1752–1797) as a portrait of the mathematician. The error arose from the fact that the sketch was labelled simply "Legendre" and appeared in a book along with contemporary mathematicians such as Lagrange. The only known portrait of Legendre, rediscovered in 2008, is found in the 1820 book Album de 73 portraits-charge aquarellés des membres de I'Institut, a book of caricatures of seventy-three members of the Institut de France in Paris by the French artist Julien-Léopold Boilly as shown below:

title: Adrien-Marie Legendre