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Andaman and Nicobar Islands

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands is a union territory of India. It consists of 836 islands (of which only 31 are inhabited) grouped into two island groups: the northern Andaman Islands and the southern Nicobar Islands, separated by a 150 km wide channel. Port Blair is the capital and largest city of the territory, located about 1,190 km from Chennai and 1,255 km from Kolkata in mainland India. The islands are sandwiched between the Bay of Bengal to the west and the Andaman Sea to the east with the northern-most point located 901 km from the mouth of Hooghly river. Indira Point at 6°45’10″N and 93°49’36″E at the southern tip of Great Nicobar is the southernmost point of India.

The territory shares maritime borders with Indonesia located about 165 km to the south, Myanmar located 280 km to the north-east and Thailand located 650 km to the south-east. The islands occupy a total land area of approximately 8249 km2 with a population of 380,581 as per the 2011 census. The territory is divided into three districts: Nicobar, South Andaman, and North and Middle Andaman with the capitals at Car Nicobar, Port Blair and Mayabunder respectively.

Genetic and cultural studies suggest that the indigenous Andamanese people may have been isolated from other populations during the Middle Paleolithic era, more than 30,000 years ago. Archeological evidence of civilization has been dated back to 2,200 years. In the 11th century CE, Cholas, one of the three Tamil kingdoms, used the islands as a naval base to launch expeditions in South East Asia. The Danish were the first Europeans to arrive on the islands in 1755. The islands became part of the British Raj in 1868. During the Second World War, the islands were invaded by the Japanese Empire. After Indian Independence in 1947, the region became a province and later a union territory after the adoption of the Constitution of India in 1950.

The islands host the Andaman and Nicobar Command, the only geographical command operated jointly by the three major wings of the Indian Armed Forces: the Army, the Air Force and the Navy. While Hindi and English are the official languages, the major spoken languages include Bengali, Tamil and Telugu. Indigenous people speak any of the Andamanese or Nicobarese family of languages. Hinduism is the majority religion in the union territory, with a significant Christian minority. The islands are also home to the Sentinelese people, an uncontacted tribe.

Etymology
The name Andaman might have been derived from Handuman, after the Indian God Hanuman from the Hindu epic Ramayana. The place was called with a similar name by the Malay, who used to be involved in slave trade in the region. The place was also referred by various names such as Angademan by Ptolemy in the 2nd century CE and Angamanian by Marco Polo in 13th century CE. Nicobar, which was located in the sea route connecting South India to South East Asia, was known as Nakkavaram, meaning "open/naked land" borrowed from Tamil language which later became Nicobar. In the middle ages (500-1500 AD), Nicobar was known as Lankhabatus in Arabia, probably a mis-transcription of the name Nakkavaram. An 11th-century CE work Kathasaritsagar indicates the name as Narikel Dweep. Marco Polo termed the island as Necuverann, while the islands were known as Lo-Jan Kuo in China, a translation of Nakkavar with the same meaning.

Early history
Genetic and cultural studies suggest that the indigenous Andamanese people may have been isolated from other populations during the Middle Paleolithic era, which ended 30,000 years ago. Archeological evidence obtained from middens have been dated the earliest civilisations back to 200-300 BCE. The islands have been mentioned by Ptolemy in the 2nd century CE.

Middle ages

The Nicobar islands existed on a major trade route connecting India to the South East Asia and had much contact with the outside world for centuries. But there are very few accounts of information as there was no written language with the indigenous people to document their history. The islands have been mentioned in the accounts of travellers like Faxian in the 6th century CE and I-T’sing in 7th century CE.

In the 11th century CE, Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty of Tamilakam invaded parts of South East Asia using the Nicobar islands as an intermediate naval base. It was part of an established Chola trade route connecting India and South East Asia, with the practice continuing in the subsequent years during the reigns of Rajendra II and Kulothunga I. Chola inscriptions from Thanjavur, dated to 1050 CE, describe the islands as Ma-Nakkavaram meaning "great open/naked land" in Tamil. The islands are later mentioned by Marco Polo in the 13th century CE and Friar Oderic in early 14th century CE.

European colonisation
The European colonisation on the islands began when settlers from the Danish East India Company arrived on the Nicobar Islands on 12 December 1755. On 1 January 1756, the Nicobar Islands were made into a Danish colony, first named Nye Danmark (New Denmark) and later Frederiksøerne (Frederick's Islands). The islands were managed from the Danish colony of Tranquebar in the Indian mainland. However, various attempts to settle on the islands were unsuccessful due to repeated outbreaks of malaria, which led to the death of the colonists. Between 1778 and 1783, William Bolts tried to establish an Austrian colony on the Nicobar islands, mistakenly assuming that the Danish had abandoned the claims to the islands, renaming them Theresa Islands. In 1789, the British colonised the Andaman islands to set up a naval base and establish a penal colony. In 1794, a first batch of 100 prisoners were sent to the island but the settlement was abandoned in 1796.

In 1858, the British established a colony near Port Blair. Between 1864 and 1868, Italy tried to buy the island from the Danish. On 16 October 1868, the Danish sold the rights to the Nicobar islands to the British, which was made part of the British India in 1869. In 1872, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands were united under a single command and administered by a chief commissioner based out of Port Blair. The construction of the Cellular Jail started in 1896 and was completed in 1906. The jail was used to house political prisoners and independence activists away from the Indian mainland.

World War II
During the Second World War, the islands were invaded by the Japanese as a part of their attack on the allies in 1942. Port Blair was captured by the Japanese on 23 March 1942 and established control over the island. The provisional control was passed on to the Azad Hind of Subhash Chandra Bose on 29 December 1943, based on the understanding with the Japanese with the islands renamed as Shaheed-Dweep (Martyr Island) and Swaraj-dweep (Self-rule Island). Bose appointed General A. D. Loganathan as the governor of the islands, who had limited power while the real control of the islands remained with the Japanese. In the years under Japanese occupation, there have been reports of widespread looting, arson, rape and extra judicial killings.

Local people were often killed on trivial matters with the largest being the Homfreyganj massacre on 30 January 1944, where 44 local civilians were shot by the Japanese on suspicion of spying. Japanese Vice Admiral Teizo Hara and Major-General Tamenori Sato surrendered to Lieutenant Colonel Nathu Singh, the commanding officer of the Rajput Regiment on 15 August 1945, on board the Royal Navy warship HMS Sandbar and the territory was officially handed back over to the British to Brigadier J. A. Salomons, commander of 116th Indian Infantry Brigade, and Chief Administrator Noel Patterson, in a ceremony performed at the Gymkhana Ground in Port Blair on 7 October 1945.

Post independence
During the Partition of India, the British announced their intention to retain possession of the islands and use them to resettle Anglo-Indians and Anglo-Burmese on these islands. The islands were claimed by the Indian National Congress for India and the Muslim League for Pakistan during the partition negotiations. After the India Independence in 1947, the islands became part of the Dominion of India. As per the Constitution of India, the Islands were designated as the only part D territory in 1950, to be administered by a lieutenant governor appointed by the Government of India. The islands were later used to resettle people displaced during the partition with a substantial number of displaced immigrants establishing agricultural colonies. The islands became a separate union territory administered by the Government of India, following the re-organization in 1956. The islands have been developed into a key defence establishment since the 1980 due to its strategic location in the Bay of Bengal across the Strait of Malacca.

On 26 December 2004, the coasts of the Andaman and Nicobar islands experienced 10 m high tsunami waves following an undersea earthquake in the Indian Ocean which resulted in more than 2,000 casualties, 46,000 injuries and rendering at least 40,000 homeless. The locals and tourists on the islands suffered the greatest casualties while the indigenous people largely survived unscathed due to movement to high grounds following the oral traditions passed down over generations that warned them to evacuate following earthquakes.

Geography
There territory consists of 836 islands and islets occupying an area of 8249 km2, of which only 31 are permanently inhabited. The islands extend from 6° to 14° North latitudes and from 92° to 94° East longitudes. The islands are grouped into the north Andaman islands and south Nicobar islands, separated by the 150 km wide Ten Degree Channel. The Andamans cover an area of 6408 km2 while the Nicobar group covers an area of 1841 km2. The highest point is the Saddle Peak at 737 m, located in North Andaman Island.

The northernmost point of the islands is 901 km away from the mouth of the Hooghly River in the Indian mainland. The territory shares maritime borders with Indonesia located about 165 km to the south, Myanmar located 280 km to the north-east and Thailand located 650 km to the south-east. Indira Point, the southernmost point of India, is located at 6°45’10″N and 93°49’36″E at the southern tip of Great Nicobar. The capital and largest city is Port Blair, located 1190 km from Chennai and 1255 km from Kolkata on the Indian mainland. Barren Island, the only active volcano in India, is located in the Andaman Sea.

The islands have a 1962 km long coast-line. The topography of the territory varies significantly across various islands. The islands may have sandy, rocky sandstone or marshy beaches on the coastlines and might be surrounded by shoals and coral reefs. The altitude varies significantly from completely flat islands to gradually raising topography from the coast to the interior in larger islands. The islands are generally surrounded by shallow seas of varying depths in the vicinity with some deep natural bays occurring along certain coasts. The islands have a moderate temperature around the year with the average ranging from 23°C to 31°C. The islands have a tropical climate with warm summers and not so chill winters. The rainfall is dependent on the monsoons and tropical cyclones are common in late summer.

Flora and fauna
The islands have mangroves interspersed with marshes, coconut trees or dispersed bushy vegetation along the coast. There are twelve types of forests that occur in the islands including evergreen, deciduous, mangrove, littoral, bamboo, sub-montane and brackish water forests. North Andaman is characterised by wet evergreen forests with climbing plants, Middle Andaman has moist deciduous forests and South Andaman islands have epiphytic vegetation, mostly ferns and orchids. The North Nicobar islands are mostly barren with grasslands while evergreen forests form the dominant vegetation in the central and southern islands of the Nicobar group. The forest coverage is estimated to be 86.2% of the total land area with about 2,200 varieties of plants of which 200 are endemic and 1,300 do not occur in mainland India. There are more than 200 species used for timber.

There are more than 8300 species of fauna of which 1117 are endemic to the islands. There are about 64 species of reptiles of which half of them are endemic to the islands. Most of the larger species were introduced by colonists and travellers, some of which became endemic due to their prolonged isolation. There are about 55 mammal species of which 32 are endemic with 26 species of rats and 14 species of bats, the most amongst the mammals. The endangered Indian elephant can be found in forested or mountainous areas of the islands, which were originally introduced from the mainland to help with the timber extraction in 1883. Endangered and critically endangered species endemic to the islands include the Andaman white-toothed shrew, Andaman spiny shrew, Jenkin's shrew, Nicobar spiny shrew, Nicobar tree shrew, Miller's Nicobar rat, Palm rat, Andaman teal, Nicobar scops owl, Andaman boobook and Darwin's eastern frog. Other large fauna include Wild boar, Spotted deer, Barking deer and Sambar deer.

There are about 270 species of birds in the islands of which 90 are endemic. The islands' caves are nesting grounds for the Edible-nest swiftlet, whose nests are prized for bird's nest soup. The islands serve as an intermediate resting site for birds such as Horsfield's bronze cuckoo, Zappey's flycatcher and Javan pond heron during long distance migrations. The Nicobar pigeon found in the islands is the closest living relative to the extinct Dodo. The territory is home for about 896 species of winged insects including 225 butterflies species.

There are more than 1350 species of echinoderms and molluscs and 200 species of corals in the seas surrounding the islands. Larger marine species include salt water crocodiles, dugongs, turtles, dolphins and whales. There are more than 1350 species of fishes including 13 fresh water species. The islands are well known for prized shellfish, the commercial exploitation of which began in the early 20th century. There are about nine national parks, 96 wildlife sanctuaries and one biosphere reserve in the islands.

Demographics
As per the 2011 census, the population was 380,581, of which 202,871 (53.3%) were males and 177,710 (46.7%) were females. The sex ratio was 878 females per 1,000 males. There were a total of 94,551 households and about 143,488 (37.7%) of the population lived in urban areas. Hinduism (69.5%) is the major religion of people of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands followed by Christianity (21.7%) and Islam (8.5%).

The Andaman islands were populated by the indigenous people (the Great Andamanese, the Onge, the Jarawa and the Sentinelese) who were isolated and spoke Andamanese languages for thousands of years. The Nicobar islands, which was part of trade routes and was frequented by travelers, were populated by Shompen people before the islands were settled by Nicobarese people, who spoke Austroasiatic languages. The islands are also home to the Sentinelese people, amongst the only known uncontacted tribe in India. When the islands were first colonized, the population of the natives were estimated to be around 5,000 and while the population of islands temporarily increased during colonization, the population saw a massive spike post-1960s due to the policies of the Union Government that encouraged settlers from other parts of the country. In the early 21st century, the population of indigenous people has drastically dropped and, it was estimated to consist of 44 Great Andamanese, 380 Jarawas, 101 Onges, 15 Sentinelese and 229 Shompens. The Government of India is trying to protect the remnant population by providing access to healthcare facilities, communication and social engagement.

Languages
The Andamanese people speak about a dozen endangered Andamanese languages, which belong to two families, Great Andamanese and Ongan that are unrelated to each other or to any other language group. There are two unattested languages: Sentinelese, spoken by Sentinelese people, who refuse contact with outsiders, which might be related to Ongan as per Anvita Abbi and Jangil, which became extinct in the 1920s. Indigenous to the Nicobar Islands are the Shompen language, spoken by Shompen people and the five Nicobarese languages, which form part of the Austroasiatic language family and are spoken by about people or 7.6% of the population.

The majority of the population, however, are speakers of immigrant languages which include Bengali (28.5%), Tamil (15.2%), Telugu (13.2%), Hindi (12.9%), Malayalam (7.2%). Sadri (5.5%), and Kurukh (4%). Hindi is the official language of the region, while English is declared an additional official language for communication purposes.

Administration and politics
The islands form a part of the union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and is administered by a Lieutenant Governor on behalf of the Government of India. The union territory was established in 1956 with a chief commissioner as the head of the administration. In 1982, the Lieutenant Governor replaced the Chief Commissioner as the head of administration. In 1981, a "Pradesh council" with councillors as representatives of the people was constituted to advise the Lieutenant Governor. The territory sends one representative to Lok Sabha of the Indian Parliament from its Andaman and Nicobar Islands Lok Sabha constituency. The territory is divided into three districts, each headed by a deputy commissioner. The Calcutta High Court has jurisdiction over the islands with a permanent seat at Port Blair.

The indigenous communities have their own system of administration. There are long term settlements known as baraij and short-term settlements known as chang. The coast-dwellers (aryoto) have semi-permanent settlements and the interior groups (eremtaga) dwell on temporary settlements, which enable them to migrate during dry seasons.

Economy
, the GSDP was inr 103000000000. Agriculture is a major occupation with nearly 50% of the population engaged in the sector. Only about 48675 ha of land, which is about 6% of the total land area, can be used for agriculture. Paddy is the main food crop, grown in about 20% of the arable land. Most of the food for consumption is imported from mainland India. Coconut and arecanut are the cash crops grown in the Nicobar islands. Other crops include pulses, oilseeds, vegetables like okra, brinjal, cucurbit and radish; spices and fruits such as mango, sapota, orange, banana, guava and pineapple. Rubber, red oil, palm and cashew are grown on a limited scale in plantations. The territory has an exclusive economic zone of more than 6 lakh sq. km, which contributes to the fishing industry. , the region produced 27,526 tonnes of fish, mostly from marine sector with minor contribution from inland fisheries.

, there were 1,833 registered small-scale industries with majority being involved in engineering, woodworking and textiles apart from 21 factories. District Industries Centre (DIC) is the body responsible for the development of small and medium industries in the islands. Andaman and Nicobar Islands Integrated Development Corporation Limited (ANIIDCO), established in 1988, is responsible for the development and economic growth of the islands.

Tourism
Tourism is one of the major contributors to the economy of the islands. The islands had more than 4 lakh visitors in 2016 with a 94% contribution from domestic tourists. In 2018, plans to develop facilities in various islands under the National Institute of Transforming India (NITI) Aayog was initiated by Government of India, with the aim of increasing tourist inflows. Foreign tourists are issued Restricted Area Permits (RAP) which gives access to specific areas with conditions. While domestic tourists do not require a permit to visit the accessible parts of the islands, the tribal reserves are forbidden and requires special permission for access. The islands have many beaches due to its long coastline and various water sports are practised including kayaking, scuba diving and parasailing.

Major attractions include the Cellular Jail, Chatham Saw Mill, Forest Museum, Samudrika Naval Marine Museum, Anthropological Museum, Fisheries Aquarium, Science Center and Carbyn's cove in Port Blair; Bharatpur, Lakshmanpur and Sitapur beaches in Shaheed Dweep; Elephant and Radhanagar beaches in Swaraj Dweep; Hudi tikri, Red, Bird and Bat islands, Amkunj beach near Rangat; Dhaninallah mangroves and Karmatang beach near Mayabunder; limestone caves and mud volcanoes near Diglipur; Craggy island and Ross & Smith islands and various national parks and protected sanctuaries.

Transportation
The islands are served by Veer Savarkar International Airport near Port Blair which has regular flights to major cities in India. The airport operates as a civil enclave, sharing airside facilities with INS Utkrosh of the Indian Navy. The airport has a single runway of 3290 m in length, with the civilian terminal operated by the Airports Authority of India with air traffic operations managed by the Indian Navy. Andaman and Nicobar Command of Indian Armed Forces operates air bases of Car Nicobar AFS, INS Kohassa, INS Utkrosh and INS Baaz.

There are 23 ports along the islands with a major port at Port Blair and eight other significant ports including Diglipur, Mayabunder, Rangat, Hut Bay, Car Nicobar, Katchal and Campbell Bay. In 2022, the Government of India proposed the development of a new container ship terminal and an airport at Great Nicobar. There are 39 light houses situated across the islands.

, there are 422 km long national highways in the state with the major highway being the 230.7 km long NH 4 connecting Port Blair and Diglipur.

Infrastructure
There is no single power grid connecting all the islands and independent power houses caters to the power requirements of individual islands. The islands have an installed power capacity of 68.46 MW with majority of the power generated from diesel power plants and a single hydroelectric powerplant of 5.25MW on Kalpong river. In 2016, a new 15-megawatt diesel power plant was established in South Andaman with Japanese assistance. IN 2022, the government proposed additional power plants and infrastructure to be developed in Great Nicobar.

4G mobile service is provided by various telecom operators in the islands. Till 2020, Internet was provided through satellite links and access was limited. Bharat Broadband Network started work on laying fiber optic submarine cables connecting the islands with Chennai in December 2018. On 10 August 2020, the undersea optical fibre cable went live, which enabled high-speed broadband connections in the islands.

Education
The first primary school in the islands was established in 1881. During Independence, 12 schools were functioning on the islands including one high school. , there are 428 schools functioning in the islands with a total enrolment of 86,081 students. Jawaharlal Nehru Rajkeeya Mahavidyalaya was the first institute of higher education, established in 1967. Mahatma Gandhi Government College was established in 1990 and is affiliated to Pondicherry University. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Government Polytechnic was established in 1984 and the affiliated engineering college, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Institute of Technology was established in 1989. Andaman Law College is the only law college in the state, established in 2016. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands Institute of Medical Sciences was established in 1963.

In popular culture

 * Arthur Conan Doyle refers to the Andaman islands in the Sherlock Holmes novel The Sign of the Four.
 * Bengali author Sunil Gangopadhyay based the events of one his Kakababu-series adventure thriller novels, Sabuj Dwiper Raja (1976), on the islands. In 1979, it was made into a film of the same name, shot extensively on the islands.
 * The National Award winning Malayalam film Kaalapani was set against backdrop of the Port Blair's Cellular Jail and was extensively shot in the islands.
 * The Netflix Original Series, Kaala Paani, is based on a fictional illness that spreads in the islands.

title: Andaman and Nicobar Islands


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Talk:Hitchhiking

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 17 August 2020 and 23 November 2020. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Allstarhit.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 23:44, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

Reasons for Hitchhiking
I wrote this stub (thanks go to Lee Kuan Yew for the excellent editing). I wonder if something needs to be done about what I perceive to be the western bias, though.

Hitchiking in rich countries is something done more for adventure than out of necessity. -are you kidding? Depends on how much you travel and what you do in life obviously, but as a student who is frequently on the road how the hell am I supposed to pay a train ride to the south of the country which costs up to 200 euros?
 * Please explain why it is necessary for you to be ‘frequently on the road’ and how this connected with your being a student.

Are there countries where hitchhiking is done out of necessity? Or is that called car-pooling then? (Perhaps this article should point out the the two participants in a lift generally do not know each other.)--branko

Hitching in rich countries is NOT always done out of necessity - you've obviously never taken drifters... But you're right to say that it's more common. -- And yes, there are many countries where people hike out of necessity - and it's not carpooling because it's not prearraged. People stand by the roadside very regularly. This article does have a Western bias, but to get rid of that it really just needs expanding. My contention is - should we really have tips on how to hitchhike? - Wikitravel is perfectly sufficient. That isn't really our job. We're not a how-to guide. --Pteron 18:41, 5 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Chances of getting a ride: my hitchiking experiences are 20 years outdated, but I would say that gender, number and age have an impact - two young males have less of a chance than e.g. two women, mixed gender couple or single elderly person. --Georgius 10:30, 1 May 2005 (UTC)

Web based wiki
What web based wiki or wikis would be a good alternate to my blog about lifts around and about http://liftscambridge.blogspot.com that does not need the software downloaded to the computer setup at this end and has minimal or no ads? dsaklad@zurich.csail.mit.edu 10:09, 16 August 2005 (UTC)

 * http://hitchhiking.wikia.com? I'm actually thinking of moving it to another spot, so that there won't be ads anymore. Guaka 18:38, 23 August 2006 (UTC)

Eastern Europe
The article says: "For example, many eastern European governments firmly supported hitchhikers and in many eastern European and developing nations it is still a very mundane and ordinary occurrence, with hitchhikers a part of the ordinary social landscape, in some places crowding one another out waiting for rides." What proof is there of this claim? In communist Romania (as in before 1989) hitchhiking was ilegal and now people are still very reluctant to take on hitchhickers. In fact it has a very bad name.

Proof
[[["Proof" for the stated above exists likely for Poland and Russia, where hitchhiking was institutionalized. In Poland there used to be a "Biuro Autostop"-branch of the Polish Tourist Countryside Lovers Association PTTK. An example of official hitchhikng material may be found here: http://www.polskaludowa.com/codzienne/ksiazeczka_Autostop.htm. The situation in Poland regarding hitchhiking during the communistic/socialist era (1945-1990) has been described in the study Autostop Polski which was issued last year (it is linked to on the hitchhiking page of wikipedia). The book lists numbers of sold official hitchhiking booklets with official hitchhikers cards, by which drivers knew they would receive a coupon worth a bonus by serving a ride.

However, one can discuss wether it concerned STRONG governmental support in Poland and Russia. Well informed hitchhikers of that time are not very likely to read and comment this Wikipedia page (for example because of their age and quite low share of them possessing PC and web access). With the knowledge from Autostop Polski that several tens of thousands hitchhiking booklets were sold on a yearly bases in the 70s/80s, knowing that the number of vehicles in Poland at the time was unlikely to be more than 1 or 2 mln, hitchhiking must have played an important role in the whole of mobility.

Thus far I have not heard of official governmental support in "eastern European nations" other than Poland and Russia.

However, even if hitchhiking was not officially (strongly) supported by governments in Eastern Europe, the politics (communism, socialism, Leninism), economic situation, the principle of equality of "the people" in earnings, freedom, allocation etc and the relative scarce availability of vehicles (and petrol?) in a limited variation of models did anyway encourage people to a much stronger degree than the capitalistic system in other parts of the world, where status, prestations, capital, appearance and "egoism" pay off.

Besides that the definition of Eastern European countries (vs nations) is discussable. In geographical terms we have to devide Europe in West, Central or Middle and East, where Poland for example is a Central European country. A popular division however is Eastern versus Western Europe, where many people regard the old NATO countries as Western Europe (including Greece for example), while the former Warsawpact countries are considered as Eastern Europe (except the former country DDR, which territory has become part of Germany and is also regarded as Western Europe according to the "old" political definition of Eastern and Western Europe).

Geographical incorrectness of marking Poland as Eastern European becomes more apparent when one consideres that when one draws a cross from all corners of the European continent, they cross in the middle of Poland.

It would be interesting to know more about the legal situation regarding hitchhiking in Romania a priori 1990. Frank Verhart, 11 dec 06]]]

Reasons
I do not agree with this statement: ""Many current-day hitchhikers combine hitchhiking with hospitality exchange networks for many of the same reasons (cheap; social political reasons; meeting people)."" This MAY possibly apply to SOME countries in Western Europe, but certainly NOT to most if not all countries in Central Europe, all countries in the East of Europe and most if not all countries in Asia. In Eastern Europe (Belarus, Ukraine, Romania, Bulgaria, Russia) the share of hitchhikers in hospitality exchange networks is close to 0%. The same can be concluded for the continent Africa, or for Cuba for example. A high share of people who hitchhike there do not even have access to PC and web. The statement is too much of a generalization. Besides that this topic deserves another paragraph, since it brings in another topic rather than to explain motivations of hitchhikers. Frank Verhart, 11 dec 06. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 84.30.146.252 (talk) 21:09, 11 December 2006 (UTC).

digihitch
Digihitch.com has been reinserted in external links for reasons mentioned below (see 01 May 2006 notes). The website is the most popular community of hitchhikers in the world, with over 8000 members and 30000+ unique visitors monthly. When the site is found with the keyword of 'hitchhiking' users view an average of 10 pages/visit and the bounce rate is less than 10%. Thus, when searching for hitchhiking, web visitors consider digihitch.com to be what they are looking for. Morgan 'Salman' 01 December 2006
 * User:Digihitch should not be adding a link to digihitch (see External links: Use of Wikipedia to link to a website that you own, maintain or are acting as an agent for is strongly recommended against, even if the guidelines otherwise imply that it should be linked to.)
 * That aside, I am not convinced that digihitch should be the exception to the general rule here. The status quo here has found community and rideshare resources problematic and unencyclopedic.  You run a nice site, but it is probably inappropriate to link it here.  Best, ∴ here…♠ 22:50, 1 December 2006 (UTC)
 * Surprised to read you referring to digihitch.com as a rideshare website when in fact ridesharing makes up less than 1% of the content and purpose of the site. Like many of the gazillions of websites linked to on Wikipedia, it is a resource website that also contains community content/stories. I can respect the general rule that editors/webmasters should not be adding links to their own sites. Looks like I, as editor, will just have to find enough wikipedian digihitchers to champion the cause and place digihitch on the Hitchhiking page. Because, IMHO, if digihitch.com did not belong on an encyclopedic page of its primary subject there would be absolutely no point for its existence on the web! Morgan 'Sal'man 05:54, 4 December 2006 (UTC)
 * Thanks for removing the remaining embedded rideshare link. I added digihitch, with a direct link to the encyclopedia of road subculture.  I won't be surprised if it is removed again at some point based on excessive advertising, majority original research, or just that wikipedia's goal has never been to provide external links.  Specifically, community content and stories are not appropriate for external links, additional published and verifiable research about the article subject is.  A majority of the gazillions of websites linked to on wikipedia should probably be removed.  Regardless, the citation to the california traffic report should certainly stay.  Thanks for all the work! ∴ here…♠ 09:18, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

Digihitch has been dead for, what's it, more than a decade, and most of the content was not cached on archive.org. Why keep any links to it??? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.189.209.67 (talk) 20:18, 19 June 2022 (UTC)

Clarity
Can someone make the parenthetical "(semi-force vehicle owners who would not normally use public transport to share the ride with the public by "bringing the bus to Muhammad")" clearer? I didn't understand it. --Christian Campbell 18:10, 22 December 2005 (UTC)

 * You're right, this is confusing and not particularly encyclopaedic, I've removed it. - FrancisTyers 18:27, 22 December 2005 (UTC)

Request: Legal status
Wouldn't it be helpful and informative to compile a list of the legal status of hitchhiking in each country?

 * Of course it will be helpful and informative to list. I will try to list American laws. See wikitravel:Tips_for_hitchhiking for now.--Jusjih 05:04, 28 April 2006 (UTC)

Hitchhiking is legal in every single country of the world. That it might not be are conservative myths. What is not legal is walking next to a motorway.

 * Try to tell that to a cop pulling over shouting "No hitchhiking in New York State!". Guaka 18:40, 23 August 2006 (UTC)

Hitchhiking is illegal in a bunch of countries and regions. It is illegal in the Australian state of Victoria. Silly person. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 124.179.0.34 (talk) 09:14, 26 December 2011 (UTC)

Just a query
Which Luxemburg is it? Is it in Germany? Sorry, but there is no section on File History nor the link for the author. --129.69.36.27 10:36, 24 June 2006 (UTC) (<- was me--Anupam Srivastava 10:37, 24 June 2006 (UTC))

 * Luxemburg is a country --Banime (talk) 04:58, 19 November 2007 (UTC)

South Africa
When I was in South Africa in 2003 I was travelling with a local and passed a somewhat busy intersection south of Jo'burg. There was a bunch of hitchikers standing in the median, all making different symbols with their hands. It was explained to me that these represented certain destinations. I found it very interesting, maybe a local could elaborate?

Recent Changes
I'm not sure how to edit these, as they are obviously original research, yet may still be valuable. Possibly just a clean up? Schnauf 06:54, 12 September 2006 (UTC)

Request: Hitchhiking Corner

I saw a reference to "hitchhiking corner" (as a definition for the German word "Trampereck"). It's not a term I'm familiar with.

Flagged 'Rules section' with inappropriate tone
The Hitchhiking 'Rules' section should be removed or rewritten to sound like an encyclopedic article instead of an article lifted from a pop magazine.--Dawaegel 23:13, 30 January 2007 (UTC)

Links Moved?
Should all the links that are in the 'Reasons' section be moved to the 'External Links' section or deleted entirely? soldierx40k 13:46, 2 September 2007 (UTC)

Weasel Words Warning Removed
This article has a problem with uncited sources and may possibly include original research, but I couldn't find any clear examples of weasel words. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.67.62.26 (talk) 08:41, 1 June 2008 (UTC)

Platers
Platers are people who deliver unregistered cars by driving them, and they usually hitchhike back home after delivering the vehicle as thier travel cost would usually be too high to afford. They are recognised because they carry the red plates that are used on unregistered vehicle in the UK, and hold them with thier signs to show they are professional couriers, and so supposedly more trustworthy a passenger. They make up a large proportion of the remaining hitchers in the UK now.

I was going to add a bit on platers, but I can't think where to put it, I thought maybe a bit about couriers holding thier plates in the signalling section, but really it needs a bit more explanation about the red plates and driving unregitered cars about, a new section maybe? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.107.237.42 (talk) 00:51, 9 August 2008 (UTC)

Hitchhiking centres
I wouldn't call this thing hitchhiking, it's just an arranged car-pooling. Hitchhiking rather means finding a ride on the spot, and usually without paying, or as Frank Verhart describes it ad-hoc car pooling. The motivation for hitchhiking is usually not to spend any money, while on these car pooling sites, the fare is usually quite high. I would propose removing this part and putting a link to Carpool instead, to avoid confusion. --Philipp Gruber (talk) 10:01, 20 November 2008 (UTC)
 * I say go for it. Murderbike (talk) 20:39, 20 November 2008 (UTC)

There doesn't seem to be a citation of any sort for the info about Neil Doug Gregg. This is bad for 2 reasons. First, I can't find anything on the internets about him or the song or the Death Valley Ramblers, and I'd like to learn more about him and track down the song. Second, is it even true... —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.223.203.30 (talk) 19:15, 23 November 2008 (UTC)

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very badly written -delete — Preceding unsigned comment added by 94.64.96.7 (talk) 03:57, 11 October 2012 (UTC)

Disputed text in "Safety" section, and other matters
In revision 561900190, Nikkimaria (talk) didn't just remove unreliably-sourced material; she also silently undid a number of other recent edits. I have restored the other edits. Dear Nikkimaria: did Wikipedia warn you of an edit conflict?

I'm not sure I agree with all the removal of unreliably-sourced material in that edit, but I have left most of the edit intact, because I don't have so much time for arguing.

But I have restored one paragraph to the article's "Safety" section. The paragraph, in its entirety, is:

Recommended safety practices include:

 * Asking for rides at gas stations instead of signaling at the roadside.
 * Trusting one's instincts.
 * Refusing rides from impaired drivers.
 * Hitchhiking during daylight hours.

An argument to back up my restoration of the text:

 * A lightweight source may sometimes be acceptable for a lightweight claim. The disputed text seems to me to be mostly common-sense advice. Nikkimaria, if you really don't like it, please use better source and let me know here on this talk page that you have done so. Perhaps I will have time to eventually go dig through Survival by Hugh C. McDonald (which discusses hitching) and The Gift of Fear by Gavin de Becker (which discusses situational awareness), and to provide sources. Or perhaps someone else will provide sources.

 * Please see also You don't need to cite that the sky is blue. And see the point about subject-specific common knowledge at When to cite.

Dear all: Do you think the disputed text in the "Safety" section should stay or go?

Cheers, —Unforgettableid (talk) 06:55, 28 June 2013 (UTC)
 * I received no edit-conflict warning, so apologies for that error. I am happy to leave that text in the article without sources; the only reason I removed any text was because you objected to the removal of citations without the removal of associated text. The relevant citation cannot be left in place, though, because it does not meet the requirements for inclusion on the page you link – there is no indication of author qualifications, and it is not being used as a source about itself – and per WP:USERG cannot be considered a reliable source, even a "lightweight" one. Nikkimaria (talk) 12:47, 28 June 2013 (UTC)
 * Ah. No worries; I'm glad that the edit conflict has been cleared up. About the disputed text: It seems to me that failing to say where the text is adapted from would be academic dishonesty. Plus, footnote markers don't just inform readers of an idea's source: they also let readers click through and read more from the idea's originator(s). If a footnote marker points to an unreliable source, why is it bad to leave the marker in place? I have never seen any policy which implies such a thing. P.S. I used Wikipedia's "thank" tool for two reasons: in order to thank you for replying here, and to notify you that I have responded. :) Have a wonderful day, —Unforgettableid (talk) 16:21, 28 June 2013 (UTC)
 * Okay, your arguments seem a bit contradictory to me: if it's common knowledge, any source or individual would reach the same idea; if the idea is original, then it needs a reliable source, and without one should be omitted. We don't want to be directing our readers towards unreliable sources, and WP:BURDEN (and common practice) support removing material where it is not cited by a reliable source. I think there probably is a reliable source somewhere for this info, so I'm happy to just throw on a citation-needed tag until such time as one can be found; however, including a non-reliable source is misleading for both editors (who might not realize the material is effectively unsourced) and readers (who are directed towards a non-reliable source). Nikkimaria (talk) 22:02, 28 June 2013 (UTC)
 * Hmmm. Maybe my arguments are indeed contradictory. I'm in a rush at the moment, so I don't have time to analyze things. But anyway, fair points. How about simply adding better source? Cheers! —Unforgettableid (talk) 23:53, 28 June 2013 (UTC)
 * In fact, it would be nonstandard, but you could even add better source both in the text and before each tag. Also, in response to your concern about "misleading" readers: As soon as they click through to Hitchwiki, they will realize that it lacks strict editorial control. Unforgettableid (talk) 18:30, 2 July 2013 (UTC)

 * I favor removing that text based on WP:NOTHOWTO. MakeBelieveMonster (talk) 00:19, 29 June 2013 (UTC)

I would also remove it, as we are not a how-to guide.--Dmol (talk) 00:56, 29 June 2013 (UTC)
 * Fine. I'm not sure I like WP:NOTHOWTO, but still, I've moved all four safety-advice bullet points to "Hitchhiker's safety#Summary" on Hitchwiki. —Unforgettableid (talk) 05:16, 30 June 2013 (UTC)
 * I just looked more carefully at the WP:NOTHOWTO policy. Based on what I saw, I've restored all four lines describing recommended safety practices. WP:NOTHOWTO forbids "instructing the reader in the imperative mood" but seems to allow "describing to the reader how other people [...] do something". Anyway, those lines briefly summarize four lessons from countless hours of safe and unsafe experiences from various hitchhikers. I think that, by doing so, the four lines significantly improve the section; please see WP:IAR. Cheers, —Unforgettableid (talk) 05:43, 30 June 2013 (UTC)

Dear Nikkimaria: I reverted you again. I suggested better source above, but you didn't reply. Instead, you (again!) removed the disputed ref without removing the attached text, even though there is no consensus to do so and even though there seems to be policy which justifies such an action. If you repeatedly try to push through changes for which there is no consensus, then please don't expect me to pick apart the relevant edit in order to keep the good parts. Instead, please expect me to revert the entire edit. If you're unhappy with this, then don't make ordinary changes and consensus-lacking changes in the same edit. As for your edit-summary comment telling me to see WP:BURDEN: I looked at WP:BURDEN. It seems to imply that, after allowing a reasonable amount of time for references to be found, editors may remove the text together with its references. But it does not seem to imply that editors may remove the references and leave the text in place. Cheers, —Unforgettableid (talk) 18:30, 2 July 2013 (UTC)
 * As I said above, "We don't want to be directing our readers towards unreliable sources, and WP:BURDEN (and common practice) support removing material where it is not cited by a reliable source. I think there probably is a reliable source somewhere for this info, so I'm happy to just throw on a citation-needed tag until such time as one can be found; however, including a non-reliable source is misleading for both editors (who might not realize the material is effectively unsourced) and readers (who are directed towards a non-reliable source)". BURDEN notes that material lacking reliable sources should either be tagged with citation-needed, or removed; as mentioned above, I opted for the former, but if you prefer we can employ the latter. However, we cannot use unreliable sources. Nikkimaria (talk) 18:36, 2 July 2013 (UTC)
 * WP:BURDEN notes that if material lacks reliable sources, you should either add a citation-needed tag, or you should remove the material. (Emphasis mine.)
 * The disputed sentence already cites one (unreliable) source, and I can't find any policy which recommends removing the unreliable-source citation. Now, please remember: The ref thanks the authors; allows readers to see the original source to learn more; and allows readers to analyze the source's credibility for themselves. If you remove the ref, you lose all three advantages.
 * Given those three advantages, and since there's no policy which recommends removing the ref, it makes sense to leave the ref in place. If we leave the ref in place, then it would be nonsensical to add a citation-needed tag next to it. I can see only three alternative solutions.
 * You could add, which would produce an [unreliable source] tag. But non-Wikipedians think of "unreliable" as a harsh accusation, so I think the word "unreliable" is the wrong word choice to use inline.
 * So I think you should use better source, which can alert both readers and editors to the fact that the article is citing user-generated content.
 * Or, like you said, you could remove the material. But neither of us want to do that.
 * Dear Nikkimaria, what do you think about alternative 1? How about alternative 2?
 * Cheers, —Unforgettableid (talk) 00:35, 3 July 2013 (UTC)
 * 1 is more appropriate than 2, but of those three I would prefer option 3. Actually, I prefer my original solution, but 3 would be a close second. Nikkimaria (talk) 03:18, 3 July 2013 (UTC)
 * What don't you like about the [unreliable source] option? —Unforgettableid (talk) 19:14, 3 July 2013 (UTC)
 * It retains the unreliable source. Nikkimaria (talk) 03:01, 4 July 2013 (UTC)
 * I explained to you the advantages of leaving the unreliably-sourced ref in place and adding an [unreliable source] tag. What are the advantages of removing the ref and the tag? Cheers, —Unforgettableid (talk) 23:17, 4 July 2013 (UTC)
 * I explained to you the problem of citing an unreliable source. We don't want to include material citable only to unreliable sources, we don't want to send readers to an unreliable source to learn more. So: the material in question has been removed from the article. Per WP:BURDEN, it cannot be added without citing a reliable source. User-generated sources are not reliable in this context. Nikkimaria (talk) 02:21, 5 July 2013 (UTC)

Folks - the issue isn't the sourcing, it is the type of content being considered. Wikipedia isn't the place for how-to content. MakeBelieveMonster (talk) 02:03, 4 July 2013 (UTC)
 * I respectfully disagree. Please see my comment of 05:43, 30 June 2013 (UTC), above. Cheers, —Unforgettableid (talk) 23:17, 4 July 2013 (UTC)

The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
I changed the popular culture link to The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy to refer to the original work rather than the 2005 film which is just an adaptation. 86.151.231.40 (talk) 16:57, 10 December 2013 (UTC)
 * A good change. Beyond My Ken (talk) 17:00, 10 December 2013 (UTC)

"No Hitchhiking" signs in Washington
Why I have noticed the "No Hitchhiking" signs in Washington are removed? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.244.206.2 (talk) 07:25, 18 December 2014 (UTC)

Image
Is it possible to exchange the hitchhiking in NZ image with one that doesn't double as a Kiwi experience Ad? Wassermelone89 (talk) 17:10, 24 January 2016 (UTC)

Not limited to cars
Hitchhiking is not limited to cars, and is certainly not a new activity. A friend hitched a ride in a horse-drawn wagon, and no doubt this has been going on for centuries. The lede implies that hitchhiking originated with, and is limited to, cars.203.80.61.102 (talk) 02:08, 1 September 2017 (UTC)
 * IIRC some Penniless Student Oaf taking part in a Hitchhiking Challenge — get as far as you can in 24 hours — scored a lift from some wealthy business type in West London and got a lift to Italy in a private jet. Mr Larrington (talk) 09:08, 21 April 2022 (UTC)

External links modified
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Hitchhiking and distance?
Is there any reference to distance while using the term 'hitchhiking' and the purpose of the ride? I mean would it be still considered hitchhiking when someone gets a couple of heavy bags with groceries at a supermarket and then asks some passing drivers to give them a lift for a couple of blocks down the street? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 89.43.165.212 (talk) 18:51, 20 January 2021 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Hitchhiker (disambiguation) which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 18:19, 11 April 2021 (UTC)

Hitchhiking article
Please add to “In Popular Culture” - Literature 2021 “Escape from The Front” by Erwin (Erv) Krause AuthorHouse ISBN 978-1-6655-1478-7 After his wife sues fir divorce and he’s fired from his teaching job, Will Kraft hitchhikes to Montana to map out a new life for himself WKraft1943 (talk) 19:44, 28 September 2021 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Hitchhiking


text:
Talk:Augur

Untitled
To Seindal: auspices, haruspices and augures, were three kinds of (let's say) "priests". I don't well remember the differences now, but they probably were distinguished by the respective methods of divination. And augures were (perhaps in elder times) called auspices. The word "auspices" means therefore the result of divination, as well as the ancient name of augures. Do you think we should render this with more depth?

Ciao :-) -- Gianfranco
 * I just wrote out of memory. I have a book on Roman Religion in order in the local library, so more will come when I get it.   Nel frattempo, pazienza.  Seindal, Saturday, April 6, 2002
 * Certo, che aspetto! :-)

 * I hope in your book there is also something about the cults in Ager Vaticanus, that should be related with this matter: while editing about Vatican this morning, I was thinking to the fact that it always was a sacred area, with some relationships with these vaticinii and also, in some way, with the roman Decumanus (this could be another interesting argument, given that it should have been one of the considerations accepted when projecting the plan of St.Peter's and its orientation). In the meanwhile, I'll try to investigate in my old sources.

 * Buona Domenica -- Gianfranco

Plagiarization
The article presents the roots of augury a little too matter of factly, given the debate. Romululus and Remus, for instance, are depicted in a number of the ancient sources as having used augury to settle their quarrel (remember the twelve vultures?). Augury itself came out of Italian roots. Also, without looking up the source, I'm pretty sure the line immediately below the Attius Navius quote (about the role of the augur) is plagiarized.

Article needs complete rewrite
This is very bad. Compare with the article in Smith's Dictionary (external links). Without going into the detail and Greek citations etc. of that article, the Ickypedia article should at least give an overview of augury, the various classes, who performed it, etc. Someone with some time on their hands could do worse than to condense and modernize the Smith's article and use that instead of the fluff we now have. Bill 11:23, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

 * I'm not going to knock myself out, but I did clear some of the brush just now. Stuff about omens, haruspices, etc. does not belong here: but under the general article, I presume there is one, divination, of which, along with augury, they are subsets. The business about auspices primarily being taken when statues sweat blood, or there was an eclipse, is wrong: a complete misunderstanding, and needlessly confusing auspices (which are not in fact the subject of this article) with omina and so on. Bill 17:53, 30 March 2006 (UTC)

A tool?
In the 'Medieval Sourcebook: Medieval Prices' (i. e. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/medievalprices.html ) an augur is listed as a tool. I now augurs as in the Wiki-article, but what kind of tool is an augur???? 89.166.133.57 18:02, 12 August 2006 (UTC)
 * An augur that you're thinking of is a type of drill, generally used to pierce ice on lakes to create holes for fishing. It is unrelated (as far as I know) to the practice of augury.--CaesarGJ 15:29, 14 August 2006 (UTC)

"Not suitable?"
does augur mean - Not siutable? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 220.227.74.129 (talk) 12:54, 29 January 2008 (UTC)
 * No. — Llywelyn II   23:17, 9 August 2023 (UTC)

Roman augurs and augury
I've intruded some material from a current version of Imperial cult (ancient Rome). Some is not relevant here, but I'll attend to the worst and add annotated refs ASAP. Haploidavey (talk) 17:32, 28 June 2009 (UTC)

China
This doesn't go in an article on ancient Rome:

Augurs in Han China

Historian Hans Bielenstein translates the title of one of the subordinate officers of the Ministry of Ceremonies as "Prefect Grand Augur," a post established in 104 BC during the Han Dynasty of China. This officer was in charge of rituals of divination that were used to influence state policy. For example, the Prefect Grand Augur performed a ceremony in 90 BC on whether or not Han forces should assault the northern nomadic Xiongnu Empire. Another example was the ceremony in 3 AD, when the Prefect Grand Augur performed a ritual to determine whether or not it was auspicious for Wang Mang's daughter to become the empress.

It's referenced with:

 * Bielenstein, Hans. (1980). The Bureaucracy of Han Times. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521225108.

Since this is a translation of a Chinese title, I'm not sure it should be listed under the Latin term "augur" unless that's really the standard translation. And then it needs its article, or to be placed somewhere else. Cynwolfe (talk) 00:14, 3 June 2010 (UTC)
 * Fair enough to have separate articles, but this isn't the Latin article on augurs or an article on ancient Rome. This is the English article on the English word "augur". If this becomes entirely focused on the Roman guys and that sense isn't the, then the title should be dabbed to augur (Rome) or something similar. My own understanding is that augur is inclusive of (but not limited to) the formal Roman priesthood. — Llywelyn II   23:23, 9 August 2023 (UTC)

material from glossary
The following material might already be in this article, or might need to be incorporated. It was moved from the Glossary of ancient Roman religion. Cynwolfe (talk) 14:35, 9 September 2010 (UTC)
 * The collegium of augurs was supposedly founded by Romulus, first king of Rome and himself an augur. They were originally three in number; by the time of Julius Caesar, there were sixteen. Augurs functioned under their own religious authority as collegial equals, independent of the pontifex maximus who supervised the other priestly colleges.[NOTE: Veit Rosenberger, in Rüpke, Jörg (Editor), A Companion to Roman Religion, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007. p298-9.] According to Roman tradition, the independence of augurs was a mainstay and source of their religious integrity: one of the earliest, Attus Navius was said to have shown miraculous powers when challenged by King Tarquin.[NOTE: Mary Beard, Simon Price, John North, Religions of Rome: Volume 1, a History, Cambridge University Press, 1998. pp 23 - 4.]

 * Admission to the college was through co-option. Augurs were not subject to the kind of priestly prohibitions and constraints that bound in particular the flamens. Although augurs held no direct political power, their right to withhold religious ratification could amount to a veto. The office was extremely prestigious; Cicero was only able to obtain it ten years after he was consul.[NOTE: Niall Rudd, Cicero. The Republic; The Laws (Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 173.] Cicero filled the vacancy left by the untimely death of Publius Crassus, who obtained it by the age of 30 through his demonstrated potential and the prestige of his father just before dying at the Battle of Carrhae.

off topic
This article at times wanders pretty far from the subject. If there a few sentences in a row that don't include the word "augur", a pronoun referring to an augur or augurs, or the name of somebody identified as an augur, that's probably an indication we've wandered off topic. It should probably also be kept in mind that the article is "augur," not "augury." The latter is a difficult, complex, and technical topic; explaining what an augur is and does is a little more manageable. Cynwolfe (talk) 14:09, 16 September 2010 (UTC)

 * Appropos of topic, Augury currently redirects to this article. I don't know how to undo the redirect. I assume we should have an article Augury (ancient Rome). Any opinions on this? Haploidavey (talk) 16:11, 16 September 2010 (UTC)

 * The material you Cynwolfe tagged was taken or copied from another article – I don't remember which, but Religion in ancient Rome seems the most likely source, maybe Imperial cult (ancient Rome) – and dumped here without further editing. I'm the most likely dumper; you might find the same material cropping up here, there, and elsewhere, looking for a home. As said elsewhere, I think dumping in article space is not good policy; in this instance, the material's definitely off-topic, and the article would benefit from its wholesale removal. Haploidavey (talk) 14:43, 16 September 2010 (UTC)

 * Have removed the tagged section. Further problems of organisation and narrative remain. Haploidavey (talk) 15:01, 16 September 2010 (UTC)

 * I guess it helps to read one's own earlier comments on talk-pages: I dumped the now-deleted material from Imperial cult (ancient Rome). Other sections here seem to duplicate material removed from Glossary of ancient Roman religion as excessively detailed and wanting in clarity of expression, focus and organisation. Haploidavey (talk) 15:24, 16 September 2010 (UTC)

 * Ah yes. I would guess I've been a dumper too, though last time I dumped it was in the preceding talk section, not the article. I think the ira deorum goes here, though, because didn't the augur play a role, as was said, in maintaining its opposite, the pax deorum? Perhaps all we needed was less explanation of the ira. As Aldrasto has noted elsewhere, there are plenty of articles on topics related to Roman religion and 'morality' that require attention. One of the problems is their interconnectedness: you start working on one, and realize that it requires a link to another for an expanded explanation, and when you go to that article, find it doesn't quite explain what you need it to, and so on until you find yourself writing articles about the curio maximus or Vercondaridubnus instead of working on an article people might actually visit, like Roman mythology (27,714 hits in August, as compared to the curio's 297). Cynwolfe (talk) 16:19, 16 September 2010 (UTC)
 * And actually, there is no separate article on augury or augurium or any of that; "augury" redirects to "augur." Cynwolfe (talk) 16:46, 16 September 2010 (UTC)
 * Snap! See above. On obscurity, I reckon I can beat you hands down: Mater Larum scored a magnificent 95 visitors in August. I await my award. On the ira deorum, no less its correlative pax deorum, yes, but succinctly and in sequence - thus, as part of the explanatory section above the deleted section. We need narrative vigour and clarity. Whenever I work with remnants, it ends with a string of assorted and ill-matched beads. Haploidavey (talk) 17:02, 16 September 2010 (UTC)
 * OK, IMHO no independent article needed for Augury (ancient Rome), contra my statement above, which I now recognize was about structure and organization. Sections will do it. May I suggest that as we reserve grand theorizing for a deeper section, near the beginning we describe as concretely as possible the physical circumstances? I might further suggest an exercise: read two or three sources until you understand them, close them, and describe what the augur did as you would to an interested 15-year-old. I at least am trying to break the habit of defensive Wiki-density and trying instead to focus on readability and accessibility in articles (or the first sections of articles) that get a couple thousand hits or more a month. Then go back and put in the footnotes after you have something that reads well (perhaps written in a user space or offline). An experiment. It's one I'm going to try more often, anyway. As WP has become more reliable, it's become more unreadable. Cynwolfe (talk) 18:01, 16 September 2010 (UTC)

Augur and auspice
Please see the question regarding these two articles over at Talk:Auspice. —Akrabbimtalk 15:18, 11 December 2013 (UTC)

Paragraph about number of augurs confusing. Doesn’t belong under “Kingdom of Rome”. Eldin raigmore (talk) 18:34, 4 December 2018 (UTC)
Paragraph about number of augurs confusing. Doesn’t belong under “Kingdom of Rome”. Eldin raigmore (talk) 18:34, 4 December 2018 (UTC)

So... when did they stop?
The article needs some discussion of when the Romans and/or their successor cultures stopped bothering chickens and vultures. To the extent this is focused on a specific priesthood, when was it discontinued? Presumably sometime following the rise of Christianity but there should be discussion, some rough dating, and sources at least. — Llywelyn II   23:29, 9 August 2023 (UTC)

Sources for future article expansion
This is already in the "External links" section but it should obviously be used to source points in the article and fill in gaps like the end of the college in the late 4th to early 5th century. — Llywelyn II   23:44, 9 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Augur


text:
Elizabeth Woodville

Elizabeth Woodville (also spelt Wydville, Wydeville, or Widvile; c. 1437 – 8 June 1492), later known as Dame Elizabeth Grey, was Queen of England from 1 May 1464 until 3 October 1470 and from 11 April 1471 until 9 April 1483 as the wife of King Edward IV. She was a key figure in the Wars of the Roses, a dynastic civil war between the Lancastrian and the Yorkist factions between 1455 and 1487.

At the time of her birth, Elizabeth's family was of middle rank in the English social hierarchy. Her mother, Jacquetta of Luxembourg, had previously been an aunt-by-marriage to King Henry VI, and was the daughter of Peter I, Count of Saint-Pol. Elizabeth's first marriage was to a minor supporter of the House of Lancaster, John Grey of Groby. He died at the Second Battle of St Albans in 1461, leaving Elizabeth a widowed mother of two young sons.

Elizabeth's second marriage, in 1464, to Edward IV became a cause célèbre. Elizabeth was known for her beauty but came from minor nobility with no great estates, and the marriage took place in secret. Edward was the first king of England since the Norman Conquest to marry one of his subjects, and Elizabeth was the first such consort to be crowned queen. The couple had ten children together. The marriage greatly enriched Elizabeth's siblings and children, but their advancement incurred the hostility of Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, "The Kingmaker", and his various alliances with the most senior figures in the increasingly divided royal family. This hostility turned into open discord between King Edward and Warwick, leading to a battle of wills that finally resulted in Warwick's switching allegiance to the Lancastrian cause, and to the execution of Elizabeth's father, Richard Woodville, and her brother, John, by Warwick in 1469.

After the death of her husband in 1483, Elizabeth remained politically influential even after her son, briefly proclaimed King Edward V, was deposed by her brother-in-law, Richard III. Edward and his younger brother Richard both disappeared soon afterwards, and are presumed to have been murdered on Richard III's orders. Elizabeth subsequently played an important role in securing the accession of Henry VII in 1485.

Henry married Elizabeth's eldest daughter, Elizabeth of York, which ended the Wars of the Roses and established the Tudor dynasty. Through her daughter, Elizabeth Woodville was a grandmother of the future Henry VIII. Elizabeth was forced to yield pre-eminence to Henry VII's mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort; her influence on events in these years, and her eventual departure from court into retirement, remain obscure.

Early life and first marriage
Elizabeth Woodville was born in about 1437 (no record of her birth survives), at Grafton Regis, Northamptonshire. She was the firstborn child of a socially unequal marriage between Richard Woodville and Jacquetta of Luxembourg, which briefly scandalised the English court. The Woodvilles, though an old and respectable family, were gentry rather than noble, a landed and wealthy family that had previously produced commissioners of the peace, sheriffs, and MPs, rather than peers of the realm. Elizabeth's mother, in contrast, was the eldest daughter of Peter I of Luxembourg, Count of Saint-Pol, Conversano and Brienne, and as the widow of John of Lancaster, Duke of Bedford, uncle of King Henry VI of England, was before her second marriage one of the highest ranking women in England. As Jacquetta had pledged, upon the death of her first husband, that she would not remarry without first obtaining royal permission, and as royal permission to marry Woodville was out of the question, the pair married secretly. When the marriage became public knowledge, the couple was heavily fined, but was pardoned on 24 October 1437: it has been conjectured that the pardon coincided with the birth of Elizabeth, the couple's firstborn child.

Around 1452, Elizabeth Woodville married John Grey of Groby, the heir to the Barony Ferrers of Groby. He was killed at the Second Battle of St Albans in 1461, fighting for the Lancastrian cause. This would become a source of irony, since Elizabeth's future husband Edward IV was the Yorkist claimant to the throne. Elizabeth Woodville's two sons from this first marriage were Thomas Grey (later Marquess of Dorset) and Richard Grey.

Elizabeth Woodville was called "the most beautiful woman in the Island of Britain" with "heavy-lidded eyes like those of a dragon".

Queen consort
Edward IV had many mistresses, the best known of them being Jane Shore, and he did not have a reputation for fidelity. His marriage to the widowed Elizabeth Woodville took place secretly and, though there is no documentary evidence of the date, it is traditionally said to have taken place at her family home in Northamptonshire on 1 May 1464. Only the bride's mother and two ladies were in attendance. Edward married her just over three years after he had assumed the English throne in the wake of his overwhelming victory over the Lancastrians, at the Battle of Towton, which resulted in the displacement of King Henry VI. Elizabeth Woodville was crowned queen on 26 May 1465, a few days after Ascension Day.

In the early years of his reign, Edward IV's governance of England was dependent upon a small circle of supporters, most notably his cousin, Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick. At around the time of Edward IV's secret marriage, Warwick was negotiating an alliance with France in an effort to thwart a similar arrangement being made by his sworn enemy Margaret of Anjou, wife of the deposed Henry VI. The plan was that Edward IV should marry a French princess. When his marriage to Elizabeth, who was both a commoner and from a family of Lancastrian supporters, became public Warwick was both embarrassed and offended. His relationship with Edward IV was ruined. The match was also badly received by the Privy Council, who according to Jean de Waurin told Edward with great frankness that "he must know that she was no wife for a prince such as himself".

With the arrival on the scene of the new queen came many relatives, some of whom married into the most notable families in England. Three of her sisters married the sons of the earls of Kent, Essex and Pembroke. Another sister, Catherine Woodville, married the queen's 11-year-old ward Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, who later joined Edward IV's brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, in opposition to the Woodvilles after the death of Edward IV. Elizabeth's 20-year-old brother John married Katherine, Duchess of Norfolk, Edward IV and Warwick's aunt. The Duchess had been widowed three times and was in her sixties, so the marriage created a scandal at court. Elizabeth's son, Thomas Grey, married firstly Anne Holland, a niece of Edward, and later Cecily Bonville, 7th Baroness Harington.

Elizabeth's status as a commoner before her sudden, secret marriage to Edward was primarily the reason for the backlash against her queenship. She was often seen as arrogant and disrespectful for actions that would be seen as normal by a lady of higher rank, such as her predecessor Margaret of Anjou. Such was Elizabeth's unpopularity that George, Duke of Clarence, rebellious brother of her husband, later even accused her of witchcraft in order to murder his wife Isabel Neville. Most historians now believe that Isabel died of either consumption or childbed fever.

When Elizabeth Woodville's relatives, especially her brother Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers, began to challenge Warwick's pre-eminence in English political society, Warwick conspired with his son-in-law George, Duke of Clarence, the king's younger brother. One of his followers accused Elizabeth Woodville's mother, Jacquetta of Luxembourg, of practising witchcraft. She was acquitted the following year.

Warwick and Clarence twice rose in revolt and then fled to France. Warwick formed an uneasy alliance with the Lancastrian Queen Margaret of Anjou, executed Elizabeth's father and brother after the Yorkist defeat at the Battle of Edgecote, and restored Margaret's husband Henry VI to the throne in 1470. But the following year, Edward IV returned from exile and defeated Warwick at the Battle of Barnet, and the Lancastrians at the Battle of Tewkesbury. Henry VI was killed soon afterwards.

Following her husband's temporary fall from power, Elizabeth Woodville sought sanctuary in Westminster Abbey, where she gave birth to a son, Edward (later King Edward V of England). Her marriage to Edward IV produced a total of ten children, including another son, Richard, Duke of York, who would later join his brother as one of the Princes in the Tower. Five daughters also lived to adulthood.

Elizabeth Woodville engaged in acts of Christian piety in keeping with conventional expectations of a medieval queen consort. She also became a patroness of Queens' College, Cambridge. Her acts included making pilgrimages, obtaining a papal indulgence for those who knelt and said the Angelus three times per day, and founding the chapel of St. Erasmus in Westminster Abbey.

Queen dowager
Following Edward IV's sudden death, possibly from pneumonia or being worn out from "high living", in April 1483, Elizabeth Woodville became queen dowager. Her young son, Edward V, became king, with his uncle, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, acting as Lord Protector. In response to the Woodvilles' attempt to monopolise power, Gloucester quickly moved to take control of the young king and had the king's uncle Earl Rivers and half-brother Richard Grey, son to Elizabeth, arrested. The young king was transferred to the Tower of London to await the coronation. With her younger son and daughters, Elizabeth again sought sanctuary. Lord Hastings, the late king's leading supporter in London, initially endorsed Gloucester's actions, but Gloucester then accused him of conspiring with Elizabeth Woodville against him. Hastings was summarily executed. Whether any such conspiracy really occurred is not known. Richard accused Elizabeth of plotting to "murder and utterly destroy" him.

On 25 June 1483, Gloucester had Elizabeth Woodville's son Richard Grey and brother Anthony, Earl Rivers, executed in Pontefract Castle, Yorkshire. The Titulus Regius — an act of Parliament — declared that Edward IV's children with Elizabeth were illegitimate on the grounds that Edward IV had a precontract with the widow Lady Eleanor Butler, which was considered a legally binding contract that rendered any other marriage contract invalid. One source, the Burgundian chronicler Philippe de Commines, says that Robert Stillington, Bishop of Bath and Wells, carried out an engagement ceremony between Edward IV and Lady Eleanor. The act also contained charges of witchcraft against Elizabeth, but gave no details and the charges had no further repercussions. As a consequence, the Duke of Gloucester and Lord Protector was offered the throne and became King Richard III. Edward V, who was no longer king, and his brother Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York, remained in the Tower of London. There are no recorded sightings of them after the summer of 1483.

Additionally, Elizabeth was stripped of all her entitlements as queen dowager and her lands reverted to the Crown. She was granted most, but not all, of these lands back in March 1486 by Henry VII.

Life under Richard III
Now referred to as Dame Elizabeth Grey, she and Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham (a former close ally of Richard III and now probably seeking the throne for himself) allied themselves with Margaret Stanley (née Beaufort) and espoused the cause of Margaret's son Henry Tudor, a great-great-great-grandson of King Edward III, the closest male heir of the Lancastrian claim to the throne with any degree of validity. To strengthen his claim and unite the two feuding noble houses, Elizabeth Woodville and Margaret Beaufort agreed that the latter's son should marry the former's eldest daughter, Elizabeth of York, who upon the death of her brothers became the heiress of the House of York. Henry Tudor agreed to this plan and in December 1483 publicly swore an oath to that effect in the cathedral in Rennes, Brittany. A month earlier, an uprising in his favour, led by Buckingham, had been crushed.

Richard III's first Parliament of January 1484 stripped Elizabeth of all the lands given to her during Edward IV's reign. On 1 March 1484, Elizabeth and her daughters came out of sanctuary after Richard III publicly swore an oath that her daughters would not be harmed or molested and that they would not be imprisoned in the Tower of London or in any other prison. He also promised to provide them with marriage portions and to marry them to "gentlemen born". Richard also awarded Elizabeth a pension of 700 Marks per year. The family returned to Court, apparently reconciled to Richard III. After the death of Richard III's wife Anne Neville, in March 1485, rumours arose that the newly widowed king was going to marry his niece Elizabeth of York. It is known that Richard was in negotiation to marry Joana of Portugal and to marry off Elizabeth to Manuel, Duke of Beja.

Life under Henry VII
In 1485, Henry Tudor invaded England and defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field. As king, Henry VII married Elizabeth of York and had the Titulus Regius revoked and all found copies destroyed. Elizabeth Woodville was accorded the title and honours of a queen dowager.

Scholars differ about why Dowager Queen Elizabeth spent the last five years of her life living at Bermondsey Abbey, to which she retired on 12 February 1487. Among her modern biographers, David Baldwin believes that Henry VII forced her retreat from the court, while Arlene Okerlund presents evidence from July 1486 that she was already planning her retirement from court to live a religious, contemplative life at Bermondsey Abbey. Another suggestion is that her retreat to Bermondsey was forced on her because she was in some way involved in the 1487 Yorkist rebellion of Lambert Simnel, or at least was seen as a potential ally of the rebels.

At Bermondsey Abbey, Elizabeth was treated with the respect due to a dowager queen. She lived on a pension of £400 and received small gifts from Henry VII. She was present at the birth of her granddaughter Margaret at Westminster Palace in November 1489 and at the birth of her grandson, the future Henry VIII, at Greenwich Palace in June 1491. Her daughter Elizabeth of York, wife of Henry VII, visited her on occasion at Bermondsey, although another one of her other daughters, Cecily of York, visited her more often.

Henry VII briefly contemplated marrying his mother-in-law to King James III of Scotland, when James III's wife, Margaret of Denmark, died in 1486. James was killed in battle in 1488.

Elizabeth Woodville died at Bermondsey Abbey, on 8 June 1492. With the exception of the queen, who was awaiting the birth of her fourth child, and Cecily of York, her daughters attended the funeral at Windsor Castle: Anne of York (the future wife of Thomas Howard), Catherine of York (the future Countess of Devon) and Bridget of York (a nun at Dartford Priory). Elizabeth's will specified a simple ceremony. The surviving accounts of her funeral on 12 June 1492 suggest that at least one source "clearly felt that a queen's funeral should have been more splendid" and may have objected that "Henry VII had not been fit to arrange a more queenly funeral for his mother-in-law", although simplicity was the queen dowager's own wish. A letter discovered in 2019, written in 1511 by Andrea Badoer, the Venetian ambassador in London, suggests that she had died of plague, which would explain the haste and lack of public ceremony. Elizabeth was laid to rest in the same chantry as her husband King Edward IV in St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle.

By John Grey

 * Thomas Grey, Earl of Huntingdon, Marquess of Dorset and Lord Ferrers de Groby (1455 – 20 September 1501), married first Anne Holland, but she died young without issue; he married second on 18 July 1474, Cecily Bonville, suo jure Baroness Harington and Bonville, by whom he had fourteen children. The disputed queen Lady Jane Grey is a direct descendant of this line.
 * Richard Grey (1457 – 25 June 1483) was executed at Pontefract Castle.

By King Edward IV

 * Elizabeth of York (11 February 1466 – 11 February 1503), Queen consort of England as the wife of Henry VII (reigned 1485–1509). Mother of Henry VIII (reigned 1509–1547).
 * Mary of York (11 August 1467 – 23 May 1482), buried in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle
 * Cecily of York (20 March 1469 – 24 August 1507), Viscountess Welles
 * Edward V of England (2 November 1470 – c. 1483), one of the Princes in the Tower
 * Margaret of York (10 April 1472 – 11 December 1472), buried in Westminster Abbey
 * Richard, Duke of York (17 August 1473 – c. 1483), one of the Princes in the Tower
 * Anne of York (2 November 1475 – 23 November 1511), Lady Howard
 * George, Duke of Bedford (March 1477 – March 1479), buried in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle
 * Catherine of York (14 August 1479 – 15 November 1527), Countess of Devon
 * Bridget of York (10 November 1480 – 1507), nun at Dartford Priory, Kent York Sisters.jpg

In literature
One of only three lyric poems in Middle English ascribed to a woman author, alongside "An Anchoress' Hymn to the Virgin" and "Eleanor Percy's Prayer", "My heart is set upon a lusty pin" is attributed to one "Queen Elizabeth", sometimes thought to have been Elizabeth Woodville (although the author is also argued to have been her daughter, Elizabeth of York). This hymn to Venus, found in one single manuscript, is a complex six-stanza poem with rhyme scheme ABABBAA, an "elaboration of the sestina," in which the seventh line of each stanza is the same as its first, and the six unique lines of the first stanza provide the first lines for each of the poem's six stanzas.

Non-fiction

 * Elizabeth Woodville: Mother of the Princes in the Tower (2002) by David Baldwin
 * Elizabeth Wydeville: The Slandered Queen (2005) by Arlene Okerlund
 * The Women of the Cousins' War (2011) by Philippa Gregory, David Baldwin and Michael Jones. The book deals with Jacquetta of Luxembourg (mother of Elizabeth Woodville) (chapter written by Philippa Gregory), Elizabeth Woodville (chapter written by David Baldwin), and Lady Margaret Beaufort (mother of Elizabeth Woodville's son-in-law King Henry VII) (chapter written by Michael Jones)
 * Elizabeth Woodville (2013) by David MacGibbon
 * The Woodvilles: The Wars of the Roses and England's Most Infamous Family (2013) by Susan Higginbotham
 * Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville: A True Romance (2016) by Amy Licence

Fiction
Edward IV's love for his wife is celebrated in sonnet 75 of Philip Sidney's Astrophel and Stella. (written by 1586, first pub. 1591).

She appears in two of Shakespeare's plays: Henry VI Part 3 (written by 1592), in which she is a fairly minor character, and Richard III (written approx. 1592), where she has a central role. Shakespeare portrays Elizabeth as a proud and alluring woman in Henry VI Part 3. By Richard III, she is careworn from having to defend herself against detractors in the court, including her titular brother-in-law, Richard. She spends much of the play bemoaning her fate as family members and supporters of her are killed, including her two young sons. She is one of Richard's cleverest opponents and among the few who see through him from the beginning, though she is mostly powerless to stop him once he murders her allies in the court. Although most modern editions of Henry VI Part 3 and Richard III call her "Queen Elizabeth" in the stage directions, the original Shakespearean Folio never actually refer to her by name, instead calling her first "Lady Grey" and later simply "Queen."

Novels that feature Elizabeth Woodville as a character include:
 * The Last of the Barons by Edward Bulwer-Lytton Available online.
 * Dickon (1929) by Marjorie Bowen.
 * The Daughter of Time (1951), Josephine Tey's classic mystery.
 * The White Rose (1969) by Jan Westcott.
 * The King's Grey Mare (1972) by Rosemary Hawley Jarman, a fictionalised biography of Elizabeth Woodville.
 * The Woodville Wench (published in US as The Queen Who Never Was) (1972) by Maureen Peters.
 * The Sunne in Splendour (1982) by Sharon Kay Penman.
 * The Sun in Splendour (1982) by Jean Plaidy.
 * A Secret Alchemy (2009) by Emma Darwin.
 * The White Queen (2009) by Philippa Gregory, which borrows Rosemary Hawley Jarman's supernatural elements from The King's Grey Mare. Elizabeth Woodville also appears in other novels in Gregory's Cousins' War series.
 * The King's Grace (2009) by Anne Easter Smith The life of Edward IV's illegitimate daughter who spent many years in service of the Dowager Queen.
 * The Kingmaker’s Daughter (2012) by Philippa Gregory.
 * Das Spiel der Könige, a historical novel in German by Rebecca Gablé.
 * Bloodline (2015) and Ravenspur (2016), in the "War of Roses" series by Conn Iggulden
 * The Last White Rose (2022) by Alison Weir.

Film

 * Richard III (1911): Woodville was played by Violet Farebrother
 * Richard III (1912): Woodville was played by Carey Lee.
 * In the French film, Les enfants d'Édouard (1914), Woodville was played by Jeanne Delvair.
 * Jane Shore (1915): Woodville was played by Maud Yates.
 * Tower of London (1939): Woodville was played by Barbara O'Neil.
 * Richard III (1955): Woodville was portrayed by Mary Kerridge.
 * In the Hungarian TV movie III. Richárd (1973) Woodville was played by Rita Békés.
 * Richard III (1995): Woodville was played by Annette Bening.
 * Looking for Richard (1996): Woodville was played by Penelope Allen.
 * Richard III (2005): Woodville was played by Caroline Burns Cooke.
 * Richard III (2007): Woodville was played by María Conchita Alonso.

Television

 * An Age of Kings (1960): Woodville was portrayed by Jane Wenham.
 *  Wars of the Roses (1965): Woodville was played by Susan Engel.
 *  The Shadow of the Tower (1972): Woodville was played by Stephanie Bidmead
 * The Third Part of Henry the Sixth and The Tragedy of Richard III (1983): Woodville was played by Rowena Cooper.
 * The White Queen (2013): Woodville was portrayed by Rebecca Ferguson.
 * The Hollow Crown, Henry VI and Richard III (2016): Woodville was played by Keeley Hawes.
 * The White Princess (2017): Woodville was played by Essie Davis.

Music

 * In 2020, Vicki Manser portrayed Elizabeth Woodville on the cast recording of A Mother's War, a musical based on the Wars of the Roses.

Schools named after Elizabeth Woodville

 * Elizabeth Woodville Primary School, Groby, Leicestershire (1971).
 * Elizabeth Woodville Secondary School, Roade, Northamptonshire (2011).

title: Elizabeth Woodville


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Upload

Uploading refers to transmitting data from one computer system to another through means of a network. Common methods of uploading include: uploading via web browsers, FTP clients, and terminals (SCP/SFTP). Uploading can be used in the context of (potentially many) clients that send files to a central server. While uploading can also be defined in the context of sending files between distributed clients, such as with a peer-to-peer (P2P) file-sharing protocol like BitTorrent, the term file sharing is more often used in this case. Moving files within a computer system, as opposed to over a network, is called file copying.

Uploading directly contrasts with downloading, where data is received over a network. In the case of users uploading files over the internet, uploading is often slower than downloading as many internet service providers (ISPs) offer asymmetric connections, which offer more network bandwidth for downloading than uploading.

Definition
To transfer something (such as data or files), from a computer or other digital device to the memory of another device (such as a larger or remote computer) especially via the internet.

Historical development
Remote file sharing first came into fruition in January 1978, when Ward Christensen and Randy Suess, who were members of the Chicago Area Computer Hobbyists' Exchange (CACHE), created the Computerized Bulletin Board System (CBBS). This used an early file transfer protocol (MODEM, later XMODEM) to send binary files via a hardware modem, accessible by another modem via a telephone number.

In the following years, new protocols such as Kermit were released, until the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) was standardized 1985. FTP is based on TCP/IP and gave rise to many FTP clients, which, in turn, gave users all around the world access to the same standard network protocol to transfer data between devices.

The transfer of data saw a significant increase in popularity after the release of the World Wide Web in 1991, which, for the first time, allowed users who were not computer hobbyists to easily share files, directly from their web browser over HTTP.

Resumability of file transfers
Transfers became more reliable with the launch of HTTP/1.1 in 1997, which gave users the option to resume downloads that were interrupted, for instance due to unreliable connections. Before web browsers widely rolled out support, software programs like GetRight could be used to resume downloads. Resuming uploads is not currently supported by HTTP, but can be added with the Tus open protocol for resumable file uploads, which layers resumability of uploads on top of existing HTTP connections.

Client-to-server uploading
Transmitting a local file to a remote system following the client–server model, e.g., a web browser transferring a video to a website, is called client-to-server uploading.

Remote uploading
Transferring data from one remote system to another remote system under the control of a local system is called remote uploading or site-to-site transferring. This is used when a local computer has a slow connection to the remote systems, but these systems have a fast connection between them. Without remote uploading functionality, the data would have to first be downloaded to the local system and then uploaded to the remote server, both times over a slower connection. Remote uploading is used by some online file hosting services. Another example can be found in FTP clients, which often support the File eXchange Protocol (FXP) in order to instruct two FTP servers with high-speed connections to exchange files. A web-based example is the Uppy file uploader that can transfer files from a user's cloud storage such as Dropbox, directly to a website without first going to the user's device.

Peer-to-peer
Peer-to-peer (P2P) is a decentralized communications model in which each party has the same capabilities, and either party can initiate a communication session. Unlike the client–server model, in which the client makes a service request and the server fulfils the request (by sending or accepting a file transfer), the P2P network model allows each node to function as both client and server. BitTorrent is an example of this, as is the InterPlanetary File System (IPFS). Peer-to-peer allows users to both receive (download) and host (upload) content. Files are transferred directly between the users' computers. The same file transfer constitutes an upload for one party, and a download for the other party.

Copyright issues
The rising popularity of file sharing during the 1990s culminated in the emergence of Napster, a music-sharing platform specialized in MP3 files that used peer-to-peer (P2P) file-sharing technology to allow users exchange files freely. The P2P nature meant there was no central gatekeeper for the content, which eventually led to the widespread availability of copyrighted material through Napster.

The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) took notice of Napster's ability to distribute copyrighted music among its user base, and, on December 6, 1999, filed a motion for a preliminary injunction in order to stop the exchange of copyrighted songs on the service. After a failed appeal by Napster, the injunction was granted on March 5, 2001. On September 24, 2001, Napster, which had already shut down its entire network two months earlier, agreed to pay a $26 million dollar settlement.

After Napster had ceased operations, many other P2P file-sharing services also shut down, such as Limewire, Kazaa and Popcorn Time. Besides software programs, there were many BitTorrent websites that allowed files to be indexed and searched. These files could then be downloaded via a BitTorrent client. While the BitTorrent protocol itself is legal and agnostic of the type of content shared, many of the services that did not enforce a strict policy to take down copyrighted material would eventually also run into legal difficulties.

title: Upload


text:
Madras (disambiguation)

Madras is the former name of Chennai, the capital of Tamil Nadu state in India.

Madras may also refer to:

Additional places

 * Madras Presidency, a former province of British India
 * Madras State, a state of India until 1968
 * Madras, Georgia, a community in the United States
 * Madras, Oregon, a city in the United States
 * Kampung Madras, a neighborhood in Medan, Indonesia

Other

 * Madras (beverage), an alcoholic beverage
 * Madras (cloth), a type of cotton fabric originating in the state of Tamil Nadu in India
 * Madras (costume), the national dress of Saint Lucia, Dominica and the French West Indies
 * Madras (film), a 2014 Tamil film
 * Madras (soundtrack), to the 2014 film
 * Madras College, a secondary school in St. Andrews, Scotland, in the United Kingdom
 * Madras sauce, a curry sauce
 * Madras System, an education method
 * HMIS Madras (J237), a WWII ship of the Royal Indian Navy
 * 45575 Madras, a British LMS Jubilee Class locomotive

title: Madras (disambiguation)