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County Antrim

County Antrim (named after the town of Antrim, ) is one of the six counties of Northern Ireland, located within the historic province of Ulster. Adjoined to the north-east shore of Lough Neagh, the county covers an area of 3086 km2 and has a population of 651,321, as of the 2021 census. County Antrim has a population density of 211 people per square kilometre or 546 people per square mile. It is also one of the thirty-two traditional counties of Ireland.

The Glens of Antrim offer isolated rugged landscapes, the Giant's Causeway is a unique landscape and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Bushmills produces whiskey, and Portrush is a popular seaside resort and night-life area. The majority of Belfast, the capital city of Northern Ireland, is in County Antrim, with the remainder being in County Down.

According to the 2001, 2011, and 2021 censuses it is currently one of only two counties of the Island of Ireland in which a plurality or majority of the population are from a Protestant background. The other is County Down to the south.

Geography

A large portion of Antrim is hilly, especially in the east, where the highest elevations are attained. The range runs north and south, and, following this direction, the highest points are Knocklayd 514 m, Slieveanorra 508 m, Trostan 550 m, Slemish 437 m, Agnew's Hill 474 m and Divis 478 m. The inland slope is gradual, but on the northern shore the range terminates in abrupt and almost perpendicular declivities, and here, consequently, some of the finest coast scenery in the world is found, widely differing, with its unbroken lines of cliffs, from the indented coast-line of the west. The most remarkable cliffs are those formed of perpendicular basaltic columns, extending for many miles, and most strikingly displayed in Fair Head and the celebrated Giant's Causeway. From the eastern coast the hills rise instantly but less abruptly, and the indentations are wider and deeper. On both coasts there are several resort towns, including Portrush (with well-known golf links), Portballintrae and Ballycastle; on the east Cushendun, Cushendall and Waterfoot on Red Bay, Carnlough and Glenarm, Larne on the Sea of Moyle, and Whitehead on Belfast Lough. All are somewhat exposed to the easterly winds prevalent in spring. The only island of size is the L-shaped Rathlin Island, off Ballycastle, 11 km in total length by 2 km maximum breadth, 7 km from the coast, and of similar basaltic and limestone formation to that of the mainland. It is partially arable, and supports a small population. Islandmagee is a peninsula separating Larne Lough from the North Channel.

The valleys of the Bann and Lagan, with the intervening shores of Lough Neagh, form the fertile lowlands. These two rivers, both rising in County Down, are the only ones of importance. The latter flows to Belfast Lough, the former drains Lough Neagh, which is fed by a number of smaller streams. The fisheries of the Bann and of Lough Neagh (especially for salmon and eels) are of value both commercially and to sportsmen, the small town of Toome, at the outflow of the river, being the centre. Immediately below this point lies Lough Beg, the "Small Lake", about 4.5 m lower than Lough Neagh.

Transport
County Antrim has a number of air, rail and sea links.

Airports
Northern Ireland's main airport, Belfast International Airport, at Aldergrove, is in County Antrim. Belfast International shares its runways with 38 Brigade Flying Station Aldergrove, which otherwise has its own facilities. It is the fifth-largest regional air cargo centre in the UK. There are regular services to Great Britain, Europe and North America.

The region is also served by George Best Belfast City Airport, a mile east of Belfast city centre on the County Down side of the city, which was renamed in 2006 in honour of footballer George Best.

Rail

The main Translink Northern Ireland Railways routes are the major line between Belfast, Antrim, Ballymena, Coleraine and Derry, Belfast to Carrickfergus and Larne, the port for Stranraer in Scotland and Coleraine to Portrush.

Sea
Two of Northern Ireland's main ports are in County Antrim, Larne and Belfast.

Ferries sail from Larne Harbour to destinations including Cairnryan in Scotland.

The Port of Belfast is Northern Ireland's principal maritime gateway, serving the Northern Ireland economy and increasingly that of the Republic of Ireland. It is a major centre of industry and commerce and has become established as the focus of logistics activity for Northern Ireland. Around two-thirds of Northern Ireland's seaborne trade, and a quarter of that for Ireland as a whole is handled at the port, which receives over 6,000 vessels each year.

Demographics
As of the 2021 census, County Antrim had a population of 651,321, making it the most populous county in Northern Ireland, and the second-largest county by population on the island of Ireland, second only to County Dublin.

Community background and religion
A traditionally Protestant-majority county since the Plantation of Ulster by Scottish and English settlers, the 2021 census revealed that those of a Protestant and Other Christian community background were no longer a majority in Antrim, comprising 47.0% of the population, a sharp decline from 75.2% in 1861. This is largely attributable to the rapid increase of the Catholic population, particularly in the city of Belfast, where they now comprise a plurality of the population, and its surrounding metropolitan area, as well as immigration from other parts of the world following the end of The Troubles and increasing rates of irreligion.

Irish language
Statistics for 2009–2010 show 1,832 students attending the twelve Gaelscoileanna (Irish language primary schools) and one Gaelcholáiste (Irish language secondary school).

Administration
The county was administered by Antrim County Council from 1899 until the abolition of county councils in Northern Ireland in 1973. The traditional county town is Antrim. More recently, Ballymena was the seat of county government. From 1973 Northern Ireland was split into districts, which were redrawn in 2015. County Antrim is part of the following districts:
 * Antrim and Newtownabbey
 * Belfast
 * Causeway Coast and Glens
 * Mid and East Antrim
 * Lisburn and Castlereagh
 * Armagh City, Banbridge and Craigavon

The county contains within it the whole of five parliamentary constituencies:
 * Belfast North
 * Belfast West
 * East Antrim
 * North Antrim
 * South Antrim

Parts of the following five parliamentary constituencies are also in County Antrim:
 * Belfast East
 * Belfast South
 * East Londonderry
 * Lagan Valley
 * Upper Bann

Cities
Places with official city status:
 * Belfast
 * Lisburn

Large towns
(population of 18,000 or more and under 75,000 at 2001 Census)
 * Antrim
 * Ballymena
 * Carrickfergus
 * Larne
 * Newtownabbey

Medium towns
(population of 10,000 or more and under 18,000 at 2001 Census)
 * none

Small towns
(Population of 4,500 or more and under 10,000 at 2001 Census)
 * Ballycastle
 * Ballyclare
 * Ballymoney
 * Greenisland
 * Jordanstown
 * Portrush
 * Randalstown

Intermediate settlements
(population of 2,250 or more and under 4,500 at 2001 Census)
 * Ahoghill
 * Broughshane
 * Crumlin
 * Cullybackey
 * Whitehead

Villages
(Population of 1,000 or more and under 2,250 at 2001 Census)
 * Bushmills
 * Carnlough
 * Cloughmills
 * Cogry & Kilbride
 * Cushendall
 * Doagh
 * Dunloy
 * Glenavy
 * Kells
 * Portglenone
 * Templepatrick

Small villages or hamlets
(population of less than 1,000 at 2001 Census)
 * Aghagallon
 * Aghalee
 * Aldergrove
 * Armoy
 * Ballintoy
 * Ballycarry
 * Ballyeaston
 * Ballygalley
 * Ballynure
 * Boneybefore
 * Cairncastle
 * Carnalbanagh
 * Cargan
 * Cushendun
 * Dervock
 * Glenarm
 * Glynn
 * Loughguile
 * Moss-Side
 * Newtown Crommelin
 * Parkgate
 * Portballintrae
 * Rasharkin
 * Stranocum
 * Toome

Subdivisions
Baronies

 * Antrim Lower
 * Antrim Upper
 * Belfast Lower
 * Belfast Upper
 * Carrickfergus
 * Cary
 * Dunluce Lower
 * Dunluce Upper
 * Glenarm Lower
 * Glenarm Upper
 * Kilconway
 * Massereene Lower
 * Massereene Upper
 * Toome Lower
 * Toome Upper

Parishes

Townlands

History
At what date the county of Antrim was formed is not known, but it appears that a certain district bore this name before the reign of Edward II (early 14th century), and when the shiring of Ulster was undertaken by Sir John Perrot in the 16th century, Antrim and Down were already recognised divisions, in contradistinction to the remainder of the province. The earliest known inhabitants were Mesolithic hunter-gatherers of pre-Celtic origin, but the names of the townlands or subdivisions, supposed to have been made in the 13th century, are all of Celtic derivation.

In ancient times, Antrim was inhabited by a Celtic people called the Darini. In the early Middle Ages, southern County Antrim was part of the Kingdom of Ulidia, ruled by the Dál Fiatach clans Keenan and MacDonlevy/McDunlavey; the north was part of Dál Riada, which stretched into what is now western Scotland over the Irish Sea. Dál Riada was ruled by the O'Lynch clan, who were vassals of the Ulidians. Besides the Ulidians and Dál Riada, there were the Dál nAraide of lower County Antrim, and the Cruthin, who were pre-Gaelic Celts and probably related to the Picts of Britain. Between the 8th and 11th centuries Antrim was exposed to the inroads of the Vikings.

In the late 12th century Antrim became part of the Earldom of Ulster, conquered by Anglo-Norman invaders. A revival of Gaelic power followed the campaign of Edward Bruce in 1315, leaving Carrickfergus as the only significant English stronghold. In the late Middle Ages, Antrim was divided into three parts: northern Clandeboye, the Glynnes and the Route. The Cambro-Norman MacQuillans were powerful in the Route.

A branch of the O'Neills of Tirconnell (modern Tyrone) migrated to Clandeboye in the 14th century, and ruled it for a time from their castle on Lough Neagh. Their family was called Clandeboye O'Neills. Donald Balloch, who succeeded his father John Mor Macdonald, Lord of Dunyvaig and the Glens, married the daughter of Conn O'Neill of the Clandeboye O'Neills sometime after the Battle of Inverlochy. In 1433, Alexander of Islay, Lord of the Isles, joined with his cousin, Donald Balloch, Conn O'Neill of the Clandeboye O'Neills, and Eoghan O'Neill, king of Tirowen (modern Tyrone) to defend against an attack on Antrim by the O'Donnells of Tirconnell. Alexander Macdonald led the attack that was successful, so that the O'Donnells became subject to the O'Neills of Tirowen. A Gallowglass sept, the MacDonnells (they were "Macdonalds" in Scotland), became the most powerful in the Glens in the 15th century.

During the Tudor era (16th century) numerous adventurers from Britain attempted to colonise the region; many Scots settled in Antrim around this time. In 1588 the Antrim coast was the scene of one of the 24 wrecks of the Spanish Armada in Ireland. The Spanish vessel La Girona was wrecked off Lacana Point, Giant's Causeway in 1588 with the loss of nearly 1,300 lives.

Antrim is divided into sixteen baronies. Lower Antrim, part of Lower Clandeboye, was settled by the sept O'Flynn/O'Lynn. Upper Antrim, part of Lower Clandeboye, was the home of the O'Keevans. Belfast was part of Lower Clandeboye and was held by the O'Neill-Clannaboys. Lower Belfast, Upper Belfast, and Carrickfergus were also part of Lower Clandeboye. Cary was part of the Glynnes; ruled originally by the O'Quinn sept, the MacDonnell galloglasses from Scotland took power here in the late Middle Ages and some of the O'Haras also migrated from Connaught. Upper and Lower Dunluce were part of the Route, and were ruled by the MacQuillans. Upper and Lower Glenarm was ruled by the O'Flynn/O'Lynn sept, considered part of the Glynns. In addition to that sept and that of O'Quinn, both of which were native, the Scottish Gallowglass septs of MacKeown, MacAlister, and MacGee, are found there. Kilconway was originally O'Flynn/O'Lynn territory, but was held by the MacQuillans as part of the Route, and later by the gallowglass sept of MacNeill. Lower Massereene was part of Lower Clandeboye and was ruled by the O'Flynns and the O'Heircs. Upper Massereene was part of Lower Clandeboye, ruled by the O'Heircs. Upper and Lower Toome, part of the Route, were O'Flynn/O'Lynn territory. Misc was first ruled by the MacQuillans. Later, the Scottish Gallowglass MacDonnells and MacAlisters invaded. The MacDonnells were a branch of the Scottish Clan MacDonald; the MacAlisters traced their origin back to the Irish Colla Uais, eldest of the Three Collas.

Islandmagee had, besides antiquarian remains, a notoriety as a home of witchcraft, and during the Irish Rebellion of 1641 was the scene of an act of reprisal (for the massacre of Protestants) against the Catholic population by the Scottish Covenanter soldiery of Carrickfergus.

In 1689 during the Williamite War in Ireland, County Antrim was a centre of Protestant resistance against the rule of the Catholic James II. During the developing crisis James' garrison at Carrickfergus successfully repulsed an attempt by local Protestants to storm it. After the advance of the Irish Army under Richard Hamilton, all of County Antrim was brought under Jacobite control. Later in the year a major expedition from England under Marshal Schomberg landed in Belfast Lough and successfully laid siege to Carrickfergus. Having captured most of the largest towns of the area, they then marched southwards towards Dundalk.

Historic monuments

The antiquities of the county consist of cairns, mounts or forts, remains of ecclesiastical and military structures, and round towers.

There are three round towers: one at Antrim, one at Armoy, and one on Ram's Island in Lough Neagh, only that at Antrim being perfect. There are some remains of the ecclesiastic establishments at Bonamargy, where the earls of Antrim are buried, Kells, Glenarm, Glynn, Muckamore and Whiteabbey.

The castle at Carrickfergus, dating from the Norman invasion of Ireland, is one of the best preserved medieval structures in Ireland. There are, however, remains of other ancient castles, as Olderfleet, Cam's, Shane's, Glenarm, Garron Tower, Red Bay, and Dunluce Castle, notable for its dramatic location on a rocky outcrop.

The principal cairns are: one on Colin mountain, near Lisburn; one on Slieve True, near Carrickfergus; and two on Colinward. The cromlechs most worthy of notice are: one near Cairngrainey, to the north-east of the old road from Belfast to Templepatrick; the large cromlech at Mount Druid, near Ballintoy; and one at the northern extremity of Islandmagee. The mounts, forts and entrenchments are very numerous.

The natural rock formations of Giant's Causeway on the Antrim coast are now designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Saint Patrick
Slemish, about 8 mi east of Ballymena, is notable as being the scene of St Patrick's early life. According to tradition Saint Patrick was a slave for seven years, near the hill of Slemish, until he escaped back to Great Britain.

Linen
Linen manufacturing was previously an important industry in the county. At the time Ireland produced a large amount of flax. Cotton-spinning by jennies was first introduced to Belfast by industrialists Robert Joy and Thomas M'Cabe in 1777; and twenty-three years later it was estimated that more than 27,000 people were employed in the industry within 10 mi of Belfast. Women were employed in the working of patterns on muslin.

Notable residents

 * James Adair (1709–1783), explorer, trader, and historian
 * John Bodkin Adams (1899–1983), general practitioner born in Randalstown and suspected of killing 163 patients while practising in England
 * William Aiken (1779–1831), founder of South Carolina Canal and Rail Road Company
 * Wayne Boyd (born 1990), racing driver
 * Hugh Boyle (1897–1986), from Dunloy, Catholic Bishop of Port Elizabeth and of Johannesburg
 * Joey Dunlop (1952–2000), from Ballymoney, five-time World Motorcycle Champion
 * Caroline Girvan (born 1984), fitness trainer and YouTuber
 * William Magee Hunter (1834–1868), New Zealand soldier, born in County Antrim
 * Sir John Jamison (1776–1844), physician and naval surgeon from Carrickfergus who became a constitutional reformer in New South Wales, Australia
 * George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney (1737–1806), from Ballymoney, first British Ambassador to China
 * Tony McCoy (born 1974), from Moneyglass, jockey
 * Eva McGown (1883–1972), chorister, pioneer, and hostess in Alaska
 * John O'Kane Murray (1847–1885), physician and author
 * Liam Neeson (born 1952), from Ballymena, actor
 * James Nesbitt (born 1965), from Broughshane, lived near Coleraine, actor
 * Josh Rock (born 2001), darts player
 * General Sir James Steele (1894–1975), senior British Army officer who served in both World War I and World War II
 * Geoff Wylie (born 1956), from Ballymena, darts player

Flora and fauna
Records of the seaweeds of County Antrim were brought together and published in 1907 by J. Adams who notes that the list contains 211 species. Batter's list, of 1902, contained 747 species in his catalogue of British marine algae.

Of the freshwater algae there are 10 taxa in the Charophyta (Charales) recorded from County Antrim: Chara aspera var. aspera; Chara globularis var. globularis; Chara globularis var. virgata (Kütz.) R.D.; Chara vulgaris var. vulgaris; Chara vulgaris var. contraria (A. Braun ex Kütz.) J.A.Moore; Chara vulgaris var. longibracteata (Kütz.) J. Groves & Bullock-Webster; Chara vulgaris var. papillata Wallr. ex A. Braun; Nitella flexilis var. flexilis; Nitella translucens (Pers.) C.A. Ag. and Tolypella nidifica var. glomerata (Desv.) R.D. Wood.

title: County Antrim


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Alfred Marshall

Alfred Marshall (26 July 1842 – 13 July 1924) was an English economist, and was one of the most influential economists of his time. His book Principles of Economics (1890) was the dominant economic textbook in England for many years. It brought the ideas of supply and demand, marginal utility, and costs of production into a coherent whole. He is known as one of the founders of neoclassical economics.

Life and career
Marshall was born at Bermondsey in London, second son of William Marshall (1812–1901), clerk and cashier at the Bank of England, and Rebecca (1817–1878), daughter of butcher Thomas Oliver, from whom, on her mother's death, she inherited property. William Marshall was a devout strict Evangelical, "author of an Evangelical epic in a sort of Anglo-Saxon language of his own invention which found some favour in its appropriate circles" and of a tract titled Men's Rights and Women's Duties. There are scholars who note that this strict upbringing wielded strong influence on Marshall's work such as how he favored the doctrines of philosophical idealism.

Marshall had two brothers and two sisters; a cousin was the economist Ralph Hawtrey. The Marshalls were a West Country clerical family; Marshall's great-great-grandfather was "the Reverend William Marshall, half-legendary Herculean parson of Devonshire", famous for "twisting horseshoes with his hands" to scare "local blacksmiths into fearing that they blew their bellows for the devil". Marshall grew up in Clapham and was educated at the Merchant Taylors' School and St John's College, Cambridge, where he demonstrated an aptitude in mathematics, achieving the rank of Second Wrangler in the 1865 Cambridge Mathematical Tripos. Marshall experienced a mental crisis that led him to abandon physics and switch to philosophy. He began with metaphysics, specifically "the philosophical foundation of knowledge, especially in relation to theology". Metaphysics led Marshall to ethics, specifically a Sidgwickian version of utilitarianism; ethics, in turn, led him to economics, because economics played an essential role in providing the preconditions for the improvement of the working class.

He saw that the duty of economics was to improve material conditions, but such improvement would occur, Marshall believed, only in connection with social and political forces. His interest in Georgism, liberalism, socialism, trade unions, women's education, poverty and progress reflect the influence of his early social philosophy on his later activities and writings.

Marshall was elected in 1865 to a fellowship at St John's College at Cambridge, and became lecturer in the moral sciences in 1868. He was Mary Paley's professor of political economy at Cambridge; they became a couple and were married in 1877, forcing Marshall to leave his position as a Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. He became the first principal at University College, Bristol, which was the institution that later became the University of Bristol, again lecturing on political economy and economics.

In 1885 he became professor of political economy at Cambridge, where he remained until his retirement in 1908. Over the years he interacted with many British thinkers including Henry Sidgwick, W.K. Clifford, Benjamin Jowett, William Stanley Jevons, Francis Ysidro Edgeworth, John Neville Keynes and John Maynard Keynes. Marshall founded the Cambridge School which paid special attention to increasing returns, the theory of the firm, and welfare economics; after his retirement leaderships passed to Arthur Cecil Pigou and John Maynard Keynes.

Contributions to economics

Marshall desired to improve the mathematical rigour of economics and transform it into a more scientific profession. In the 1870s he wrote a small number of tracts on international trade and the problems of protectionism. In 1879, many of these works were compiled into a work entitled The Theory of Foreign Trade: The Pure Theory of Domestic Values. In the same year (1879) he published The Economics of Industry with his wife Mary Paley.

Although Marshall took economics to a more mathematically rigorous level, he did not want mathematics to overshadow economics and thus make economics irrelevant to the layman. Accordingly, Marshall tailored the text of his books to laymen and put the mathematical content in the footnotes and appendices for the professionals. In a letter to A. L. Bowley, he laid out the following system: "(1) Use mathematics as shorthand language, rather than as an engine of inquiry. (2) Keep to them till you have done. (3) Translate into English. (4) Then illustrate by examples that are important in real life (5) Burn the mathematics.  (6) If you can't succeed in 4, burn 3.  This I do often.'"

He perfected his Economics of Industry while at Bristol, and published it more widely in England as an economic curriculum; its simple form stood upon sophisticated theoretical foundations. Marshall achieved a measure of fame from this work, and upon the death of William Jevons in 1882, Marshall became the leading British economist of the scientific school of his time.

Marshall returned to Cambridge, via a brief period at Balliol College, Oxford, during 1883–84, to take the seat as Professor of Political Economy in 1884 on the death of Henry Fawcett. At Cambridge he endeavoured to create a new tripos for economics, a goal which he would achieve only in 1903. Until that time, economics was taught under the Historical and Moral Sciences Triposes which failed to provide Marshall the kind of energetic and specialised students he desired.

Along with Pigou and Hawtrey, Marshall developed the quantity theory of money or the income version of the money theory. In 1917, Marshall introduced the Cambridge version of the quantity theory of money and this was refined further by Pigou, Hawtrey, and Robertson. It became known as the Cambridge equation.

Principles of Economics (1890)
Marshall began his economic work, the Principles of Economics, in 1881, and spent much of the next decade at work on the treatise. His plan for the work gradually extended to a two-volume compilation on the whole of economic thought. The first volume was published in 1890 to worldwide acclaim, establishing him as one of the leading economists of his time. The second volume, which was to address foreign trade, money, trade fluctuations, taxation, and collectivism, was never published.

Principles of Economics established his worldwide reputation. It appeared in eight editions, starting at 750 pages and growing to 870 pages. It decisively shaped the teaching of economics in English-speaking countries. Its main technical contribution was a masterful analysis of the issues of elasticity, consumer surplus, increasing and diminishing returns, short and long terms, and marginal utility. Many of the ideas were original with Marshall; others were improved versions of the ideas by W. S. Jevons and others.

In a broader sense Marshall hoped to reconcile the classical and modern theories of value. John Stuart Mill had examined the relationship between the value of commodities and their production costs, on the theory that value depends on the effort expended in manufacture. Jevons and the marginal utility theorists had elaborated a theory of value based on the idea of maximising utility, holding that value depends on demand. Marshall's work used both these approaches, but he focused more on costs. He noted that, in the short run, supply cannot be changed and market value depends mainly on demand. In an intermediate time period, production can be expanded by existing facilities, such as buildings and machinery, but, since these do not require renewal within this intermediate period, their costs (called fixed, overhead, or supplementary costs) have little influence on the sale price of the product. Marshall pointed out that it is the prime or variable costs, which constantly recur, that influence the sale price most in this period. In a still longer period, machines and buildings wear out and have to be replaced, so that the sale price of the product must be high enough to cover such replacement costs. This classification of costs into fixed and variable and the emphasis given to the element of time probably represent one of Marshall's chief contributions to economic theory. He was committed to partial equilibrium models over general equilibrium on the grounds that the inherently dynamical nature of economics made the former more practically useful.

Much of the success of Marshall's teaching and Principles book derived from his effective use of diagrams, which were soon emulated by other teachers worldwide.

Alfred Marshall was the first to develop the standard supply and demand graph demonstrating a number of fundamentals regarding supply and demand including the supply and demand curves, market equilibrium, the relationship between quantity and price in regards to supply and demand, the law of marginal utility, the law of diminishing returns, and the ideas of consumer and producer surpluses. This model is now used by economists in various forms using different variables to demonstrate several other economic principles. Marshall's model allowed a visual representation of complex economic fundamentals where before all the ideas and theories were only capable of being explained through words. These models are now critical throughout the study of economics because they allow a clear and concise representation of the fundamentals or theories being explained.

Theoretical contributions
Marshall is considered to be one of the most influential economists of his time, largely shaping mainstream economic thought for the next fifty years, and being one of the founders of the school of neoclassical economics. Although his economics was advertised as extensions and refinements of the work of Adam Smith, Thomas Robert Malthus and John Stuart Mill, he extended economics away from its classical focus on the market economy and instead popularised it as a study of human behaviour. He downplayed the contributions of certain other economists to his work, such as Léon Walras, Vilfredo Pareto and Jules Dupuit, and only grudgingly acknowledged the influence of Stanley Jevons himself.

Marshall was one of those who used utility analysis, but not as a theory of value. He used it as a part of the theory to explain demand curves and the principle of substitution. Marshall's scissors analysis – which combined demand and supply, that is, utility and cost of production, as if in the two blades of a pair of scissors – effectively removed the theory of value from the center of analysis and replaced it with the theory of price. While the term "value" continued to be used, for most people it was a synonym for "price". Prices no longer were thought to gravitate toward some ultimate and absolute basis of price; prices were existential, between the relationship of demand and supply.

Marshall's influence on codifying economic thought is difficult to deny. He popularised the use of supply and demand functions as tools of price determination (previously discovered independently by Cournot); modern economists owe the linkage between price shifts and curve shifts to Marshall. Marshall was an important part of the "marginalist revolution"; the idea that consumers attempt to adjust consumption until marginal utility equals the price was another of his contributions. The price elasticity of demand was presented by Marshall as an extension of these ideas. Economic welfare, divided into producer surplus and consumer surplus, was contributed by Marshall, and indeed, the two are sometimes described eponymously as 'Marshallian surplus.' He used this idea of surplus to rigorously analyse the effect of taxes and price shifts on market welfare. Marshall also identified quasi-rents.

Marshall's brief references to the social and cultural relations in the "industrial districts" of England were used as a starting point for late twentieth-century work in economic geography and institutional economics on clustering and learning organisations.

Gary Becker (1930–2014), the 1992 Nobel prize winner in economics, has mentioned that Milton Friedman and Alfred Marshall were the two greatest influences on his work.

Another contribution that Marshall made was differentiating concepts of internal and external economies of scale. That is that when costs of input factors of production go down, it is a positive externality for all the firms in the market place, outside the control of any of the firms.

The Marshallian industrial district
A concept based on a pattern of organisation that was common in late nineteenth century Britain in which firms concentrating on the manufacture of certain products were geographically clustered. Comments made by Marshall in Book 4, Chapter 10 of Principles of Economics have been used by economists and economic geographers to discuss this phenomenon.

The two dominant characteristics of a Marshallian industrial district are high degrees of vertical and horizontal specialisation and a very heavy reliance on market mechanism for exchange. Firms tend to be small and to focus on a single function in the production chain. Firms located in industrial districts are highly competitive in the neoclassical sense, and in many cases there is little product differentiation. The major advantages of Marshallian industrial districts arise from simple propinquity of firms, which allows easier recruitment of skilled labour and rapid exchanges of commercial and technical information through informal channels. They illustrate competitive capitalism at its most efficient, with transaction costs reduced to a practical minimum, but they are feasible only when economies of scale are limited.

Later career
Marshall served as president of the first day of the 1889 Co-operative Congress.

Over the next two decades he worked to complete the second volume of his Principles, but his unyielding attention to detail and ambition for completeness prevented him from mastering the work's breadth. The work was never finished and many other, lesser works he had begun work on – a memorandum on trade policy for the Chancellor of the Exchequer in the 1890s, for instance – were left incomplete for the same reasons.

His health problems had gradually grown worse since the 1880s, and in 1908 he retired from the university. He hoped to continue work on his Principles but his health continued to deteriorate and the project had continued to grow with each further investigation. The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 prompted him to revise his examinations of the international economy and in 1919 he published Industry and Trade at the age of 77. This work was a more empirical treatise than the largely theoretical Principles, and for that reason it failed to attract as much acclaim from theoretical economists. In 1923, he published Money, Credit, and Commerce, a broad amalgam of previous economic ideas, published and unpublished, stretching back a half-century.

Final years, death and legacy
From 1890 to 1924 he was the respected father of the economic profession and to most economists for the half-century after his death, the venerable grandfather. He had shied away from controversy during his life in a way that previous leaders of the profession had not, although his even-handedness drew great respect and even reverence from fellow economists, and his home at Balliol Croft in Cambridge had no shortage of distinguished guests. His students at Cambridge became leading figures in economics, including John Maynard Keynes and Arthur Cecil Pigou. His most important legacy was creating a respected, academic, scientifically founded profession for economists in the future that set the tone of the field for the remainder of the 20th century.

Marshall died aged 81 at his home in Cambridge and is buried in the Ascension Parish Burial Ground. The library of the Department of Economics at Cambridge University (The Marshall Library of Economics), the Economics society at Cambridge (The Marshall Society) as well as the University of Bristol Economics department are named after him. His archive is available for consultation by appointment at the Marshall Library of Economics.

His home, Balliol Croft, was renamed Marshall House in 1991 in his honour when it was bought by Lucy Cavendish College, Cambridge.

Alfred Marshall's wife was Mary Paley, an economist who was one of the first women students at Cambridge and a lecturer at Newnham College. She continued to live in Balliol Croft until her death in 1944; her ashes were scattered in the garden. The couple had no children.

Works

 * 1879 – The Economics of Industry (with Mary Paley Marshall)
 * 1879 – The Pure Theory of Foreign Trade: The Pure Theory of Domestic Values
 * 1890 – Principles of Economics
 * 1919 – Industry and Trade
 * 1923 – Money, Credit and Commerce

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title: Alfred Marshall