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Hermann Huppen

Hermann Huppen (born 17 July 1938) is a Belgian comic book creator. He is better known under his pen-name Hermann. He is most famous for his post-apocalyptic comic Jeremiah which was made into a television series.

Biography
Hermann was born in 1938 in Bévercé (now a part of Malmedy) in Liège Province. After studying to become a furniture maker and working as interior architect, Hermann made his debut as comic book artist in 1964 in the Franco-Belgian comics magazine Spirou with a four-page story. Greg noticed his talent and offered him to work for his studio. In 1966, he began illustrating the Bernard Prince series written by Greg, published in Tintin magazine. In 1969, also in collaboration with Greg, he began the western series Comanche. This appeared at the same time as other western series such as Blueberry.

Hermann began writing his own stories in 1977, starting the post-apocalyptic Jeremiah series, which is still produced today. In the same period, he also made three albums of Nick, inspired by Little Nemo in Slumberland, for Spirou. In 1983 he began a new series, Les Tours de Bois-Maury, which is set in the Middle Ages and is less focused on action than his other works.

Hermann has also created many non-series graphic novels sometimes together with his son Yves H. One of them, Lune de Guerre, with a story by Jean Van Hamme, was later filmed as The Wedding Party (2005 film) by Dominique Deruddere.

Hermann is characterized by a realistic style and stories that are both somber and angry, with a sense of disillusion with regards to the human character in general, and current society more specifically.

Awards

 * 1973: Prix Saint-Michel, Belgium
 * 1980: Prix Saint-Michel
 * 1992: Best Long Comic Strip at the Haxtur Awards, Spain
 * - nominated for Best Drawing at the Haxtur Awards

 * 1999: nominated for Best Drawing and Best Cover at the Haxtur Awards
 * 2001: Best Drawing at the Haxtur Awards
 * - nominated for Best Short Comic Strip and Best Script at the Haxtur Awards

 * 2002: Grand Prix Saint-Michel
 * - nominated for Best Short Comic Strip and Best Drawing at the Haxtur Awards

 * 2003: nominated for the Audience Award and the Artwork Award at the Angoulême International Comics Festival, France
 * 2005: nominated for the Audience Award at the Angoulême International Comics Festival
 * 2006: nominated for Best Comic (French language) at the Prix Saint-Michel
 * 2010: nominated for Best Artwork at the Prix Saint-Michel

Selected bibliography
All of these comics have been published in French, Dutch and German: other translations are noted in the "remarks" column.

title: Hermann Huppen


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Net present value

The net present value (NPV) or net present worth (NPW) is a way of measuring the value of an asset that has cashflow by adding up the present value of all the future cash flows that asset will generate. The present value of a cash flow depends on the interval of time between now and the cash flow because of the Time value of money (which includes the annual effective discount rate). It provides a method for evaluating and comparing capital projects or financial products with cash flows spread over time, as in loans, investments, payouts from insurance contracts plus many other applications.

Time value of money dictates that time affects the value of cash flows. For example, a lender may offer 99 cents for the promise of receiving $1.00 a month from now, but the promise to receive that same dollar 20 years in the future would be worth much less today to that same person (lender), even if the payback in both cases was equally certain. This decrease in the current value of future cash flows is based on a chosen rate of return (or discount rate). If for example there exists a time series of identical cash flows, the cash flow in the present is the most valuable, with each future cash flow becoming less valuable than the previous cash flow. A cash flow today is more valuable than an identical cash flow in the future because a present flow can be invested immediately and begin earning returns, while a future flow cannot.

NPV is determined by calculating the costs (negative cash flows) and benefits (positive cash flows) for each period of an investment. After the cash flow for each period is calculated, the present value (PV) of each one is achieved by discounting its future value (see Formula) at a periodic rate of return (the rate of return dictated by the market). NPV is the sum of all the discounted future cash flows.

Because of its simplicity, NPV is a useful tool to determine whether a project or investment will result in a net profit or a loss. A positive NPV results in profit, while a negative NPV results in a loss. The NPV measures the excess or shortfall of cash flows, in present value terms, above the cost of funds. In a theoretical situation of unlimited capital budgeting, a company should pursue every investment with a positive NPV. However, in practical terms a company's capital constraints limit investments to projects with the highest NPV whose cost cash flows, or initial cash investment, do not exceed the company's capital. NPV is a central tool in discounted cash flow (DCF) analysis and is a standard method for using the time value of money to appraise long-term projects. It is widely used throughout economics, financial analysis, and financial accounting.

In the case when all future cash flows are positive, or incoming (such as the principal and coupon payment of a bond) the only outflow of cash is the purchase price, the NPV is simply the PV of future cash flows minus the purchase price (which is its own PV). NPV can be described as the "difference amount" between the sums of discounted cash inflows and cash outflows. It compares the present value of money today to the present value of money in the future, taking inflation and returns into account.

The NPV of a sequence of cash flows takes as input the cash flows and a discount rate or discount curve and outputs a present value, which is the current fair price. The converse process in discounted cash flow (DCF) analysis takes a sequence of cash flows and a price as input and as output the discount rate, or internal rate of return (IRR) which would yield the given price as NPV. This rate, called the yield, is widely used in bond trading.

Formula
Each cash inflow/outflow is discounted back to its present value (PV). Then all are summed such that NPV is the sum of all terms: $$\mathrm{PV} = \frac{R_t}{(1+i)^t}$$ where:
 * $t$ is the time of the cash flow
 * $i$ is the discount rate, i.e. the return that could be earned per unit of time on an investment with similar risk
 * $$R_t$$ is the net cash flow i.e. cash inflow – cash outflow, at time t. For educational purposes, $$R_0$$ is commonly placed to the left of the sum to emphasize its role as (minus) the investment.
 * $$1/(1+i)^t$$ is the discount factor, also known as the present value factor.

The result of this formula is multiplied with the Annual Net cash in-flows and reduced by Initial Cash outlay the present value, but in cases where the cash flows are not equal in amount, the previous formula will be used to determine the present value of each cash flow separately. Any cash flow within 12 months will not be discounted for NPV purpose, nevertheless the usual initial investments during the first year R0 are summed up a negative cash flow.

The NPV can also be thought of as the difference between the discounted benefits and costs over time. As such, the NPV can be also be written as:

 * $$\mathrm{NPV} = \mathrm{PV}(B) - \mathrm{PV}(C)$$

where:
 * $B$ are the benefits or cash inflows
 * $C$ are the costs or cash outflows

Given the (period, cash inflows, cash outflows) shown by ($t$, $$B_t$$, $$C_t$$) where $N$ is the total number of periods, the net present value $$\mathrm{NPV}$$ is given by:

 * $$\mathrm{NPV}(i, N) = \sum_{t=0}^N \frac{B_t}{(1+i)^t} - \sum_{t=0}^N \frac{C_t}{(1+i)^t}$$

where: The NPV can be rewritten using the net cash flow $$(R_t)$$ in each time period as:$$\mathrm{NPV}(i, N) = \sum_{t=0}^N \frac{R_t}{(1+i)^t}$$By convention, the initial period occurs at time $$t = 0$$, where cash flows in successive periods are then discounted from $$t = 1, 2, 3 ...$$ and so on. Furthermore, all future cash flows during a period are assumed to be at the end of each period. For constant cash flow $t$, the net present value $$\mathrm{NPV}$$ is a finite geometric series and is given by:
 * $$B_t$$ are the benefits or cash inflows at time $t$.
 * $$C_t$$ are the costs or cash outflows at time $R$.

$$\mathrm{NPV}(i, N, R) = R \left( \frac{ 1 -\left( \frac{1}{1 + i} \right)^{N+1}} { 1 - \left( \frac{1}{1+i} \right) } \right), \quad i \ne 0 $$

Inclusion of the $$R_0$$ term is important in the above formulae. A typical capital project involves a large negative $$R_0$$ cashflow (the initial investment) with positive future cashflows (the return on the investment). A key assessment is whether, for a given discount rate, the NPV is positive (profitable) or negative (loss-making). The IRR is the discount rate for which the NPV is exactly 0.

Capital efficiency
The NPV method can be slightly adjusted to calculate how much money is contributed to a project's investment per dollar invested. This is known as the capital efficiency ratio. The formula for the net present value per dollar investment (NPVI) is given below:

 * $$\mathrm{NPVI}(i, N) = \frac{\sum_{t=1}^N \frac{R_t}{(1+i)^t}}{\sum_{t=1}^N \frac{C_t}{(1+i)^t}}$$

where:
 * $$R_t$$ is the net cash flow i.e. cash inflow – cash outflow, at time t.
 * $$C_t$$ are the net cash outflows, at time t.

Example
If the discounted benefits across the life of a project are US$100 million and the discounted net costs across the life of a project are US$60 million then the NPVI is:

That is for every dollar invested in the project, a contribution of US$0.6667 is made to the project's NPV.

Alternative discounting frequencies
The NPV formula assumes that the benefits and costs occur at the end of each period, resulting in a more conservative NPV. However, it may be that the cash inflows and outflows occur at the beginning of the period or in the middle of the period.

The NPV formula for mid period discounting is given by:

 * $$\mathrm{NPV}(i, N) = \sum_{t=0}^N \frac{R_t}{(1+i)^{t-0.5}}$$

Over a project's lifecycle, cash flows are typically spread across each period (for example spread across each year), and as such the middle of the year represents the average point in time in which these cash flows occur. Hence mid period discounting typically provides a more accurate, although less conservative NPV.

The NPV formula using beginning of period discounting is given by:

 * $$\mathrm{NPV}(i, N) = -\text{Initial Investment} + \sum_{t=1}^N \frac{R_t}{(1+i)^{t-1}}$$

This results in the least conservative NPV.

The discount rate
The rate used to discount future cash flows to the present value is a key variable of this process.

A firm's weighted average cost of capital (after tax) is often used, but many people believe that it is appropriate to use higher discount rates to adjust for risk, opportunity cost, or other factors. A variable discount rate with higher rates applied to cash flows occurring further along the time span might be used to reflect the yield curve premium for long-term debt.

Another approach to choosing the discount rate factor is to decide the rate which the capital needed for the project could return if invested in an alternative venture. If, for example, the capital required for Project A can earn 5% elsewhere, use this discount rate in the NPV calculation to allow a direct comparison to be made between Project A and the alternative. Related to this concept is to use the firm's reinvestment rate. Re-investment rate can be defined as the rate of return for the firm's investments on average. When analyzing projects in a capital constrained environment, it may be appropriate to use the reinvestment rate rather than the firm's weighted average cost of capital as the discount factor. It reflects opportunity cost of investment, rather than the possibly lower cost of capital.

An NPV calculated using variable discount rates (if they are known for the duration of the investment) may better reflect the situation than one calculated from a constant discount rate for the entire investment duration. Refer to the tutorial article written by Samuel Baker for more detailed relationship between the NPV and the discount rate.

For some professional investors, their investment funds are committed to target a specified rate of return. In such cases, that rate of return should be selected as the discount rate for the NPV calculation. In this way, a direct comparison can be made between the profitability of the project and the desired rate of return.

To some extent, the selection of the discount rate is dependent on the use to which it will be put. If the intent is simply to determine whether a project will add value to the company, using the firm's weighted average cost of capital may be appropriate. If trying to decide between alternative investments in order to maximize the value of the firm, the corporate reinvestment rate would probably be a better choice.

Risk-adjusted net present value (rNPV)
Using variable rates over time, or discounting "guaranteed" cash flows differently from "at risk" cash flows, may be a superior methodology but is seldom used in practice. Using the discount rate to adjust for risk is often difficult to do in practice (especially internationally) and is difficult to do well.

An alternative to using discount factor to adjust for risk is to explicitly correct the cash flows for the risk elements using risk-adjusted net present value (rNPV) or a similar method, then discount at the firm's rate.

Use in decision making
NPV is an indicator of how much value an investment or project adds to the firm. With a particular project, if $$R_t$$ is a positive value, the project is in the status of positive cash inflow in the time of t. If $$R_t$$ is a negative value, the project is in the status of discounted cash outflow in the time of t. Appropriately risked projects with a positive NPV could be accepted. This does not necessarily mean that they should be undertaken since NPV at the cost of capital may not account for opportunity cost, i.e., comparison with other available investments. In financial theory, if there is a choice between two mutually exclusive alternatives, the one yielding the higher NPV should be selected. A positive net present value indicates that the projected earnings generated by a project or investment (in present dollars) exceeds the anticipated costs (also in present dollars). This concept is the basis for the Net Present Value Rule, which dictates that the only investments that should be made are those with positive NPVs.

An investment with a positive NPV is profitable, but one with a negative NPV will not necessarily result in a net loss: it is just that the internal rate of return of the project falls below the required rate of return.

Advantages and disadvantages of using Net Present Value
NPV is an indicator for project investments, and has several advantages and disadvantages for decision-making.

Advantages
The NPV includes all relevant time and cash flows for the project by considering the time value of money, which is consistent with the goal of wealth maximization by creating the highest wealth for shareholders.

The NPV formula accounts for cash flow timing patterns and size differences for each project, and provides an easy, unambiguous dollar value comparison of different investment options.

The NPV can be easily calculated using modern spreadsheets, under the assumption that the discount rate and future cash flows are known. For a firm considering investing in multiple projects, the NPV has the benefit of being additive. That is, the NPVs of different projects may be aggregated to calculate the highest wealth creation, based on the available capital that can be invested by a firm.

Disadvantages
The NPV method has several disadvantages.

The NPV approach does not consider hidden costs and project size. Thus, investment decisions on projects with substantial hidden costs may not be accurate.

Relies on input parameters such as knowledge of future cash flows
The NPV is heavily dependent on knowledge of future cash flows, their timing, the length of a project, the initial investment required, and the discount rate. Hence, it can only be accurate if these input parameters are correct; although, sensitivity analyzes can be undertaken to examine how the NPV changes as the input variables are changed, thus reducing the uncertainty of the NPV.

Relies on choice of discount rate and discount factor
The accuracy of the NPV method relies heavily on the choice of a discount rate and hence discount factor, representing an investment's true risk premium. The discount rate is assumed to be constant over the life of an investment; however, discount rates can change over time. For example, discount rates can change as the cost of capital changes. There are other drawbacks to the NPV method, such as the fact that it displays a lack of consideration for a project’s size and the cost of capital.

Lack of consideration of non-financial metrics
The NPV calculation is purely financial and thus does not consider non-financial metrics that may be relevant to an investment decision.

Difficulty in comparing mutually exclusive projects
Comparing mutually exclusive projects with different investment horizons can be difficult. Since unequal projects are all assumed to have duplicate investment horizons, the NPV approach can be used to compare the optimal duration NPV.

Interpretation as integral transform
The time-discrete formula of the net present value
 * $$\mathrm{NPV}(i,N) = \sum_{t=0}^{N} \frac{R_t}{ (1+i) ^{t}}$$

can also be written in a continuous variation
 * $$\mathrm{NPV}(i) = \int_{t=0}^\infty (1+i)^{-t} \cdot r(t) \, dt$$

where
 * r(t) is the rate of flowing cash given in money per time, and r(t) = 0 when the investment is over.

Net present value can be regarded as Laplace- respectively Z-transformed cash flow with the integral operator including the complex number s which resembles to the interest rate i from the real number space or more precisely s = ln(1 + i).

 * $$F(s) = \left\{ \mathcal{L} f\right\}(s) = \int_0^\infty e^{-st} f(t) \,dt $$

From this follow simplifications known from cybernetics, control theory and system dynamics. Imaginary parts of the complex number s describe the oscillating behaviour (compare with the pork cycle, cobweb theorem, and phase shift between commodity price and supply offer) whereas real parts are responsible for representing the effect of compound interest (compare with damping).

Example
A corporation must decide whether to introduce a new product line. The company will have immediate costs of 100,000 at $NPVI= US$100M-US$60M⁄US$60M ≈ 0.6667$. Recall, a cost is a negative for outgoing cash flow, thus this cash flow is represented as −100,000. The company assumes the product will provide equal benefits of 10,000 for each of 12 years beginning at $t = 0$. For simplicity, assume the company will have no outgoing cash flows after the initial 100,000 cost. This also makes the simplifying assumption that the net cash received or paid is lumped into a single transaction occurring on the last day of each year. At the end of the 12 years the product no longer provides any cash flow and is discontinued without any additional costs. Assume that the effective annual discount rate is 10%.

The present value (value at $t = 1$) can be calculated for each year:

The total present value of the incoming cash flows is 68,136.91. The total present value of the outgoing cash flows is simply the 100,000 at time $t = 0$. Thus:

 * $$\mathrm{NPV} = PV(\text{benefits}) - PV(\text{costs})$$

In this example:

 * $$\begin{align}

\mathrm{NPV} &= 68,136.91 - 100,000 \\ & = -31,863.09 \end{align}$$

Observe that as t increases the present value of each cash flow at t decreases. For example, the final incoming cash flow has a future value of 10,000 at $t = 0$ but has a present value (at $t = 12$) of 3,186.31. The opposite of discounting is compounding. Taking the example in reverse, it is the equivalent of investing 3,186.31 at $t = 0$ (the present value) at an interest rate of 10% compounded for 12 years, which results in a cash flow of 10,000 at $t = 0$ (the future value).

The importance of NPV becomes clear in this instance. Although the incoming cash flows ($t = 12$) appear to exceed the outgoing cash flow (100,000), the future cash flows are not adjusted using the discount rate. Thus, the project appears misleadingly profitable. When the cash flows are discounted however, it indicates the project would result in a net loss of 31,863.09. Thus, the NPV calculation indicates that this project should be disregarded because investing in this project is the equivalent of a loss of 31,863.09 at $10,000 × 12 = 120,000$. The concept of time value of money indicates that cash flows in different periods of time cannot be accurately compared unless they have been adjusted to reflect their value at the same period of time (in this instance, $t = 0$). It is the present value of each future cash flow that must be determined in order to provide any meaningful comparison between cash flows at different periods of time. There are a few inherent assumptions in this type of analysis:

 * 1) The investment horizon of all possible investment projects considered are equally acceptable to the investor (e.g. a 3-year project is not necessarily preferable vs. a 20-year project.)
 * 2) The 10% discount rate is the appropriate (and stable) rate to discount the expected cash flows from each project being considered. Each project is assumed equally speculative.
 * 3) The shareholders cannot get above a 10% return on their money if they were to directly assume an equivalent level of risk. (If the investor could do better elsewhere, no projects should be undertaken by the firm, and the excess capital should be turned over to the shareholder through dividends and stock repurchases.)

More realistic problems would also need to consider other factors, generally including: smaller time buckets, the calculation of taxes (including the cash flow timing), inflation, currency exchange fluctuations, hedged or unhedged commodity costs, risks of technical obsolescence, potential future competitive factors, uneven or unpredictable cash flows, and a more realistic salvage value assumption, as well as many others.

A more simple example of the net present value of incoming cash flow over a set period of time, would be winning a Powerball lottery of US$500 million. If one does not select the "CASH" option they will be paid US$25000000 per year for 20 years, a total of US$500000000, however, if one does select the "CASH" option, they will receive a one-time lump sum payment of approximately US$285 million, the NPV of US$500000000 paid over time. See "other factors" above that could affect the payment amount. Both scenarios are before taxes.

Common pitfalls

 * If, for example, the Rt are generally negative late in the project (e.g., an industrial or mining project might have clean-up and restoration costs), then at that stage the company owes money, so a high discount rate is not cautious but too optimistic. Some people see this as a problem with NPV. A way to avoid this problem is to include explicit provision for financing any losses after the initial investment, that is, explicitly calculate the cost of financing such losses.
 * Another common pitfall is to adjust for risk by adding a premium to the discount rate. Whilst a bank might charge a higher rate of interest for a risky project, that does not mean that this is a valid approach to adjusting a net present value for risk, although it can be a reasonable approximation in some specific cases. One reason such an approach may not work well can be seen from the following: if some risk is incurred resulting in some losses, then a discount rate in the NPV will reduce the effect of such losses below their true financial cost. A rigorous approach to risk requires identifying and valuing risks explicitly, e.g., by actuarial or Monte Carlo techniques, and explicitly calculating the cost of financing any losses incurred.
 * Yet another issue can result from the compounding of the risk premium. R is a composite of the risk free rate and the risk premium. As a result, future cash flows are discounted by both the risk-free rate as well as the risk premium and this effect is compounded by each subsequent cash flow. This compounding results in a much lower NPV than might be otherwise calculated. The certainty equivalent model can be used to account for the risk premium without compounding its effect on present value.
 * Another issue with relying on NPV is that it does not provide an overall picture of the gain or loss of executing a certain project. To see a percentage gain relative to the investments for the project, usually, Internal rate of return or other efficiency measures are used as a complement to NPV.
 * Non-specialist users frequently make the error of computing NPV based on cash flows after interest. This is wrong because it double counts the time value of money. Free cash flow should be used as the basis for NPV computations.
 * When using Microsoft's Excel, the "=NPV(...)" formula makes two assumptions that result in an incorrect solution. The first is that the amount of time between each item in the input array is constant and equidistant (e.g., 30 days of time between item 1 and item 2) which may not always be correct based on the cash flow that is being discounted.  The second item is that the function will assume the item in the first position of the array is period 1 not period zero.  This then results in incorrectly discounting all array items by one extra period.  The easiest fix to both of these errors is to use the "=XNPV(...)" formula.

Software support
Many computer-based spreadsheet programs have built-in formulae for PV and NPV.

History
Net present value as a valuation methodology dates at least to the 19th century. Karl Marx refers to NPV as fictitious capital, and the calculation as "capitalising," writing: "The forming of a fictitious capital is called capitalising. Every periodically repeated income is capitalised by calculating it on the average rate of interest, as an income which would be realised by a capital at this rate of interest." In mainstream neo-classical economics, NPV was formalized and popularized by Irving Fisher, in his 1907 The Rate of Interest and became included in textbooks from the 1950s onwards, starting in finance texts.

Alternative capital budgeting methods

 * Adjusted present value (APV): adjusted present value, is the net present value of a project if financed solely by ownership equity plus the present value of all the benefits of financing.
 * Accounting rate of return (ARR): a ratio similar to IRR and MIRR
 * Cost-benefit analysis: which includes issues other than cash, such as time savings.
 * Internal rate of return (IRR): which calculates the rate of return of a project while disregarding the absolute amount of money to be gained.
 * Modified internal rate of return (MIRR): similar to IRR, but it makes explicit assumptions about the reinvestment of the cash flows. Sometimes it is called Growth Rate of Return.
 * Payback period: which measures the time required for the cash inflows to equal the original outlay. It measures risk, not return.
 * Real option: which attempts to value managerial flexibility that is assumed away in NPV.
 * Equivalent annual cost (EAC): a capital budgeting technique that is useful in comparing two or more projects with different lifespans.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Net present value


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Hierarchical File System (Apple)

Hierarchical File System (HFS) is a proprietary file system developed by Apple Inc. for use in computer systems running Mac OS. Originally designed for use on floppy and hard disks, it can also be found on read-only media such as CD-ROMs. HFS is also referred to as Mac OS Standard (or HFS Standard), while its successor, HFS Plus, is also called Mac OS Extended (or HFS Extended).

With the introduction of Mac OS X 10.6, Apple dropped support for formatting or writing HFS disks and images, which remained supported as read-only volumes until macOS 10.15. Starting with macOS 10.15, HFS disks can no longer be read.

History
Apple introduced HFS in September 1985, specifically to support Apple's first hard disk drive for the Macintosh, replacing the Macintosh File System (MFS), the original file system which had been introduced over a year and a half earlier with the first Macintosh computer. HFS drew heavily upon Apple's first operating system with a hierarchical file system, SOS for the failed Apple III, which also served as the basis for hierarchical file systems on the Apple IIe and Apple Lisa. HFS was developed by Patrick Dirks and Bill Bruffey. It shared a number of design features with MFS that were not available in other file systems of the time (such as DOS's FAT). Files could have multiple forks (normally a data and a resource fork), which allowed the main data of the file to be stored separately from resources such as icons that might need to be localized. Files were referenced with unique file IDs rather than file names, and file names could be up to 31 characters long.

However, MFS had been optimized to be used on very small and slow media, namely floppy disks, so HFS was introduced to overcome some of the performance problems that arrived with the introduction of larger media, notably hard drives. The main concern was the time needed to display the contents of a folder. Under MFS all of the file and directory listing information was stored in a single file, which the system had to search to build a list of the files stored in a particular folder. This worked well with a system with a few hundred kilobytes of storage and perhaps a hundred files, but as the systems grew into megabytes and thousands of files, the performance degraded rapidly.

The solution was to replace MFS's directory structure with one more suitable to larger file systems. HFS replaced the flat table structure with the Catalog File which uses a B-tree structure that could be searched very quickly regardless of size. HFS also redesigned various structures to be able to hold larger numbers, 16-bit integers being replaced by 32-bit almost universally. Oddly, one of the few places this "upsizing" did not take place was the file directory itself, which limits HFS to a total of 65,535 files on each logical disk.

While HFS is a proprietary file system format, it is well-documented; there are usually solutions available to access HFS-formatted disks from most modern operating systems.

Apple introduced HFS out of necessity with its first 20 MB hard disk offering for the Macintosh in September 1985, where it was loaded into RAM from a MFS floppy disk on boot using a patch file ("Hard Disk 20"). However, HFS was not widely introduced until it was included in the 128K ROM that debuted with the Macintosh Plus in January 1986 along with the larger 800 KB floppy disk drive for the Macintosh that also used HFS. The introduction of HFS was the first advancement by Apple to leave a Macintosh computer model behind: the original 128K Macintosh, which lacked sufficient memory to load the HFS code and was promptly discontinued.

In 1998, Apple introduced HFS Plus to address inefficient allocation of disk space in HFS and to add other improvements. HFS Plus is still supported by current versions of Mac OS, but starting with Mac OS X, an HFS volume cannot be used for booting, and beginning with Mac OS X 10.6 (Snow Leopard), HFS volumes are read-only and cannot be created or updated. In macOS Sierra (10.12), Apple's release notes state that "The HFS Standard filesystem is no longer supported." However, read-only HFS Standard support continued to work until the release of macOS 10.15, ending official support for classic HFS Standard after 35 years.

Design
A storage volume is inherently divided into logical blocks of 512 bytes. The Hierarchical File System groups these logical blocks into allocation blocks, which can contain one or more logical blocks, depending on the total size of the volume. HFS uses a 16-bit value to address allocation blocks, limiting the number of allocation blocks to 65,535 (216-1).

Five structures make up an HFS volume:
 * 1) Logical blocks 0 and 1 of the volume are the Boot Blocks, which contain system startup information. For example, the names of the System and Shell (usually the Finder) files which are loaded at startup.
 * 2) Logical block 2 contains the Master Directory Block (also known as MDB). This defines a wide variety of data about the volume itself, for example date & time stamps for when the volume was created, the location of the other volume structures such as the Volume Bitmap or the size of logical structures such as allocation blocks. There is also a duplicate of the MDB called the Alternate Master Directory Block (also known as Alternate MDB) located at the opposite end of the volume in the second to last logical block. This is intended mainly for use by disk utilities and is only updated when either the Catalog File or Extents Overflow File grow in size.
 * 3) Logical block 3 is the starting block of the Volume Bitmap, which keeps track of which allocation blocks are in use and which are free. Each allocation block on the volume is represented by a bit in the map: if the bit is set then the block is in use; if it is clear then the block is free to be used. Since the Volume Bitmap must have a bit to represent each allocation block, its size is determined by the size of the volume itself.
 * 4) The Extent Overflow File is a B-tree that contains extra extents that record which allocation blocks are allocated to which files, once the initial three extents in the Catalog File are used up. Later versions also added the ability for the Extent Overflow File to store extents that record bad blocks, to prevent the file system from trying to allocate a bad block to a file.
 * 5) The Catalog File is another B-tree that contains records for all the files and directories stored in the volume. It stores four types of records. Each file consists of a File Thread Record and a File Record while each directory consists of a Directory Thread Record and a Directory Record. Files and directories in the Catalog File are located by their unique Catalog Node ID (or CNID).
 * 6) * A File Thread Record stores just the name of the file and the CNID of its parent directory.
 * 7) * A File Record stores a variety of metadata about the file including its CNID, the size of the file, three timestamps (when the file was created, last modified, last backed up), the first file extents of the data and resource forks and pointers to the file's first data and resource extent records in the Extent Overflow File. The File Record also stores two 16 byte fields that are used by the Finder to store attributes about the file including things like its creator code, type code, the window the file should appear in and its location within the window.
 * 8) * A Directory Thread Record stores just the name of the directory and the CNID of its parent directory.
 * 9) * A Directory Record which stores data like the number of files stored within the directory, the CNID of the directory, three timestamps (when the directory was created, last modified, last backed up). Like the File Record, the Directory Record also stores two 16 byte fields for use by the Finder. These store things like the width & height and x & y co-ordinates for the window used to display the contents of the directory, the display mode (icon view, list view, etc.) of the window and the position of the window's scroll bar.

Limitations
The Catalog File, which stores all the file and directory records in a single data structure, results in performance problems when the system allows multitasking, as only one program can write to this structure at a time, meaning that many programs may be waiting in queue due to one program "hogging" the system. It is also a serious reliability concern, as damage to this file can destroy the entire file system. This contrasts with other file systems that store file and directory records in separate structures (such as DOS's FAT file system or the Unix File System), where having structure distributed across the disk means that damaging a single directory is generally non-fatal and the data may possibly be re-constructed with data held in the non-damaged portions.

Additionally, the limit of 65,535 allocation blocks resulted in files having a "minimum" size equivalent 1/65,535th the size of the disk. Thus, any given volume, no matter its size, could only store a maximum of 65,535 files. Moreover, any file would be allocated more space than it actually needed, up to the allocation block size. When disks were small, this was of little consequence, because the individual allocation block size was trivial, but as disks started to approach the 1 GB mark, the smallest amount of space that any file could occupy (a single allocation block) became excessively large, wasting significant amounts of disk space. For example, on a 1 GB disk, the allocation block size under HFS is 16 KB, so even a 1 byte file would take up 16 KB of disk space. This situation was less of a problem for users having large files (such as pictures, databases or audio) because these larger files wasted less space as a percentage of their file size. Users with many small files, on the other hand, could lose a copious amount of space due to large allocation block size. This made partitioning disks into smaller logical volumes very appealing for Mac users, because small documents stored on a smaller volume would take up much less space than if they resided on a large partition. The same problem existed in the FAT16 file system.

HFS saves the case of a file that is created or renamed but is case-insensitive in operation.

title: Hierarchical File System (Apple)


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Elevator music

Elevator music (also known as Muzak, piped music, or lift music) is a type of background music played in elevators, in rooms where many people come together for reasons other than listening to music, and during telephone calls when placed on hold. Before the emergence of the Internet, such music was often "piped" to businesses and homes through telephone lines, private networks or targeted radio broadcasting (as in the BBC's Music While You Work, where powerful speakers were set up in factories to make the broadcast audible).

There is no specific sound associated with elevator music, but it usually involves simple instrumental themes from "soft" popular music, or "light" classical music being performed by slow strings. This type of music was produced, for instance, by the Mantovani Orchestra, and conductors such as Franck Pourcel and James Last, peaking in popularity around the 1970s.

More recent types of elevator music may be computer-generated, with the actual score being composed entirely algorithmically.

Other uses
The term can also be used for kinds of easy listening, lounge, piano solo, jazz or middle of the road music, or what are known as "beautiful music" radio stations.

This style of music is sometimes used to comedic effect in mass media such as film, where intense or dramatic scenes may be interrupted or interspersed with such anodyne music while characters use an elevator. Some video games have used music similarly: Metal Gear Solid 4 where a few elevator music-themed tracks are accessible on the in-game iPod, as well as System Shock, Rise of the Triad: Dark War, GoldenEye 007, Mass Effect, and Earthworm Jim.

Opposition
There are a number of societies, such as Pipedown, that are dedicated to reducing the extent and intrusiveness of piped music. This campaign group proposes that some people can be deeply annoyed by piped music, and even find it spoils their enjoyment in recreation or drives them out of shops. They suggest that eight out of 10 people have left an establishment early because it was too noisy. The Good Pub Guide 2017 called for a ban on piped music in pubs, already the case in houses managed by the Samuel Smith Old Brewery.

title: Elevator music


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RAM drive

A RAM drive (also called a RAM disk) is a block of random-access memory (primary storage or volatile memory) that a computer's software is treating as if the memory were a disk drive (secondary storage). RAM drives provide high-performance temporary storage for demanding tasks and protect non-volatile storage devices from wearing down, since RAM is not prone to wear from writing, unlike non-volatile flash memory. They are in a sense the reverse of virtual memory: RAM drive uses a volatile fast memory as if it's a nonvolatile slow memory. Virtual memory is the opposite.

It is sometimes referred to as a virtual RAM drive or software RAM drive to distinguish it from a hardware RAM drive that uses separate hardware containing RAM, which is a type of battery-backed solid-state drive.

Historically primary storage based mass storage devices were conceived to bridge the performance gap between internal memory and secondary storage devices. In the advent of solid-state devices this advantage lost most of its appeal. However, solid-state devices do suffer from wear from frequent writing. Primary memory writes do not so or in far lesser effect. So RAM devices do offer an advantage to store frequently changing data, like temporary or cached information.

Performance
The performance of a RAM drive is generally orders of magnitude faster than other forms of digital storage, such as SSD, tape, optical, hard disk, and floppy drives. This performance gain is due to multiple factors, including access time, maximum throughput, and file system characteristics.

File access time is greatly reduced since a RAM drive is solid state (no moving parts). A physical hard drive, optical (e.g, CD-ROM, DVD, and Blu-ray) or other media (e.g. magnetic bubble, acoustic storage, magnetic tape) must move the information to a particular position before reading or writing can occur. RAM drives can access data with only the address, eliminating this latency.

Second, the maximum throughput of a RAM drive is limited by the speed of the RAM, the data bus, and the CPU of the computer. Other forms of storage media are further limited by the speed of the storage bus, such as IDE (PATA), SATA, USB or FireWire. Compounding this limitation is the speed of the actual mechanics of the drive motors, heads, or eyes.

Third, the file system in use, such as NTFS, HFS, UFS, ext2, etc., uses extra accesses, reads and writes to the drive, which although small, can add up quickly, especially in the event of many small files vs. few larger files (temporary internet folders, web caches, etc.).

Because the storage is in RAM, it is volatile memory, which means it will be lost in the event of power loss, whether intentional (computer reboot or shutdown) or accidental (power failure or system crash). This is, in general, a weakness (the data must periodically be backed up to a persistent-storage medium to avoid loss), but is sometimes desirable: for example, when working with a decrypted copy of an encrypted file, or using the RAM drive to store the system's temporary files.

In many cases, the data stored on the RAM drive is created from data permanently stored elsewhere, for faster access, and is re-created on the RAM drive when the system reboots.

Apart from the risk of data loss, the major limitation of RAM drives is capacity, which is constrained by the amount of installed RAM. Multi-terabyte SSD storage has become common, but RAM is still measured in gigabytes.

RAM drives use normal system memory as if it were a partition on a physical hard drive rather than accessing the data bus normally used for secondary storage. Though RAM drives can often be supported directly in the operating system via special mechanisms in the OS kernel, it is generally simpler to access a RAM drive through a virtual device driver. This makes the non-disk nature of RAM drives invisible to both the OS and applications.

Usually no battery backup is needed due to the temporary nature of the information stored in the RAM drive, but an uninterruptible power supply can keep the system running during a short power outage.

Some RAM drives use a compressed file system such as cramfs to allow compressed data to be accessed on the fly, without decompressing it first. This is convenient because RAM drives are often small due to the higher price per byte than conventional hard drive storage.

History and operating system specifics
The first software RAM drive for microcomputers was invented and written by Jerry Karlin in the UK in 1979/80. The software, known as the Silicon Disk System, was further developed into a commercial product and marketed by JK Systems Research which became Microcosm Research Ltd when the company was joined by Peter Cheesewright of Microcosm Ltd. The idea was to enable the early microcomputers to use more RAM than the CPU could directly address. Making bank-switched RAM behave like a disk drive was much faster than the disk drives. especially before hard drives were readily available on such machines. The Silicon Disk was launched in 1980, initially for the CP/M operating system and later for MS-DOS.

The 128kB Atari 130XE (with DOS 2.5) and Commodore 128 natively support RAM drives, as does ProDOS for the Apple II. On systems with 128kB or more of RAM, ProDOS automatically creates a RAM drive named /RAM.

IBM added a RAM drive named VDISK.SYS to PC DOS (version 3.0) in August 1984, which was the first DOS component to use extended memory. VDISK.SYS was not available in Microsoft's MS-DOS as it, unlike most components of early versions of PC DOS, was written by IBM. Microsoft included the similar program RAMDRIVE.SYS in MS-DOS 3.2 (released in 1986), which could also use expanded memory. It was discontinued in Windows 7. DR-DOS and the DR family of multi-user operating systems also came with a RAM disk named VDISK.SYS. In Multiuser DOS, the RAM disk defaults to the drive letter M: (for memory drive). AmigaOS has had a built in RAM drive since the release of version 1.1 in 1985 and still has it in AmigaOS 4.1 (2010). Apple Computer added the functionality to the Apple Macintosh with System 7's Memory control panel in 1991, and kept the feature through the life of Mac OS 9. Mac OS X users can use the hdid, newfs (or newfs hfs) and mount utilities to create, format and mount a RAM drive.

A RAM drive innovation introduced in 1986 but made generally available in 1987 by Perry Kivolowitz for AmigaOS was the ability of the RAM drive to survive most crashes and reboots. Called the ASDG Recoverable Ram Disk, the device survived reboots by allocating memory dynamically in the reverse order of default memory allocation (a feature supported by the underlying OS) so as to reduce memory fragmentation. A "super-block" was written with a unique signature which could be located in memory upon reboot. The super-block, and all other RRD disk "blocks" maintained check sums to enable the invalidation of the disk if corruption was detected. At first, the ASDG RRD was locked to ASDG memory boards and used as a selling feature. Later, the ASDG RRD was made available as shareware carrying a suggested donation of 10 dollars. The shareware version appeared on Fred Fish Disks 58 and 241. AmigaOS itself would gain a Recoverable Ram Disk (called "RAD") in version 1.3.

Many Unix and Unix-like systems provide some form of RAM drive functionality, such as /dev/ram on Linux, or md(4) on FreeBSD. RAM drives are particularly useful in high-performance, low-resource applications for which Unix-like operating systems are sometimes configured. There are also a few specialized "ultra-lightweight" Linux distributions which are designed to boot from removable media and stored in a ramdisk for the entire session.

Dedicated hardware RAM drives
There have been RAM drives which use DRAM memory that is exclusively dedicated to function as an extremely low latency storage device. This memory is isolated from the processor and not directly accessible in the same manner as normal system memory. Some of the first dedicated RAM drives were released in 1983-1985.

An early example of a hardware RAM drive was introduced by Assimilation Process in 1986 for the Macintosh. Called the "Excalibur", it was an external 2MB RAM drive, and retailed for between $599 and $699 US. With the RAM capacity expandable in 1MB increments, its internal battery was said to be effective for between 6 and 8 hours, and, unusual for the time, it was connected via the Macintosh floppy disk port.

In 2002, Cenatek produced the Rocket Drive, max 4 GB, which had four DIMM slots for PC133 memory, with up to a maximum of four gigabytes of storage. At the time, common desktop computers used 64 to 128 megabytes of PC100 or PC133 memory. The one gigabyte PC133 modules (the largest available at the time) cost approximately $1,300. A fully outfitted Rocket Drive with four GB of storage would have cost $5,600.

In 2005, Gigabyte Technology produced the i-RAM, max 4 GB, which functioned essentially identically to the Rocket Drive, except upgraded to use the newer DDR memory technology, though also limited to a maximum of 4 GB capacity.

For both of these devices, the dynamic RAM requires continuous power to retain data; when power is lost, the data fades away. For the Rocket Drive, there was a connector for an external power supply separate from the computer, and the option for an external battery to retain data during a power failure. The i-RAM included a small battery directly on the expansion board, for 10-16 hours of protection.

Both devices used the SATA 1.0 interface to transfer data from the dedicated RAM drive to the system. The SATA interface was a slow bottleneck that limited the maximum performance of both RAM drives, but these drives still provided exceptionally low data access latency and high sustained transfer speeds, compared to mechanical hard drives.

In 2006, Gigabyte Technology produced the GC-RAMDISK, max 8GB, which was the second generation creation for the i-RAM. It has a maximum of 8 GB capacity, twice that of the i-RAM. It used the SATA-II port, again twice that of the i-RAM. One of its best selling points is that it can be used as a boot device.

In 2007, ACard Technology produced the ANS-9010 Serial ATA RAM disk, max 64 GB. Quote from the tech report: The ANS-9010 "which has eight DDR2 DIMM slots and support for up to 8 GB of memory per slot. The ANS-9010 also features a pair of Serial ATA ports, allowing it to function as a single drive or masquerade as a pair of drives that can easily be split into an even faster RAID 0 array."

In 2009, Acard Technology produced the ACARD ANS-9010BA 5.25'' Dynamic SSD SATA-II RAM Disk, max 64GB. It uses a single SATA-II port.

Both variants are equipped with one or more CompactFlash card interface located in the front panel, allowing non-volatile data being stored on the RAM drive to be copied on the CompactFlash card in case of power failure and low backup battery. Two pushbuttons located on the front panel allows the user to manually backup / restore data on the RAM drive. The CompactFlash card itself is not accessible to the user by normal means as the CF card is solely intended for RAM backup and restoration. The CF card's capacity has to meet / exceed the RAM module's total capacity in order to effectively work as a reliable backup.

In 2009, DDRdrive, LLC produced the DDRDrive X1, which claims to be the fastest solid state drive in the world. The drive is a primary 4GB DDR dedicated RAM drive for regular use, which can back up to and recall from a 4GB SLC NAND drive. The intended market is for keeping and recording log files. If there is a power loss the data can be saved to an internal 4GB ssd in 60 seconds, via the use of a battery backup. Thereafter the data can be recovered back in to RAM once power is restored. A host power loss triggers the DDRdrive X1 to back up volatile data to on-board non-volatile storage.

title: RAM drive


text:
Jeet Kune Do

Jeet Kune Do (abbreviated JKD) is a hybrid martial art conceived and practiced by martial artist Bruce Lee. It was formed from Lee's experiences in unarmed fighting and self-defense—as well as eclectic, Zen Buddhist and Taoist philosophies—as a new school of martial arts thought.

The core of Jeet Kune Do is the interception of the opponent, making corresponding responses or counterattacks that strike at incoming attacks. JKD also incorporates a set of principles to help practitioners make instant decisions and improve the physical and mental self, being intended to have practical applications in life without the traditional routines and metaphysics of conventional martial arts. As an eclectic martial art, it relies on a fighting style heavily influenced by Wing Chun, Tai Chi, taekwondo, boxing, fencing and jujutsu.

Bruce Lee himself never formalized Jeet Kune Do before he died. This forced later JKD practitioners to rely upon their own interpretation of the philosophy created by Bruce Lee.

Overview and philosophy
Growing up in Hong Kong, Lee was a student of Wing Chun Grandmaster Ip Man. However, in America he called what he taught Jun Fan Gung Fu  However, around 1964, following his encounter with Wong Jack-man, Lee disavowed the rigidity of systematized martial arts. Following this, Lee began a journey of research in order to refine his way of practicing martial arts. In 1965, he outlined the basic concepts of Jeet Kune Do in a press interview, but it was not until 1967 that he came up with the name Jeet Kune Do. Initially, Lee wrestled with putting a name to his art as he constantly veered away from any type of crystallization of its essence; however, the simple need to refer to it in some concrete way led him to decide upon a name for it.

"I have not invented a 'new style,' composite, modified or otherwise that is set within distinct form as apart from 'this' method or 'that' method. On the contrary, I hope to free my followers from clinging to styles, patterns, or molds. Remember that Jeet Kune Do is merely a name used, a mirror in which to see 'ourselves'. . . Jeet Kune Do is not an organized institution that one can be a member of. Either you understand or you don't, and that is that. There is no mystery about my style. My movements are simple, direct, and non-classical. The extraordinary part of it lies in its simplicity. Every movement in Jeet Kune Do is being so of itself. There is nothing artificial about it. I always believe that the easy way is the right way. Jeet Kune Do is simply the direct expression of one's feelings with the minimum of movements and energy. The closer to the true way of Kung Fu, the less wastage of expression there is. Finally, a Jeet Kune Do man who says Jeet Kune Do is exclusively Jeet Kune Do is simply not with it. He is still hung up on his self-closing resistance, in this case, anchored down to a reactionary pattern, and naturally is still bound by another modified pattern and can move within its limits. He has not digested the simple fact that truth exists outside all molds; pattern and awareness is never exclusive. Again let me remind you Jeet Kune Do is just a name used, a boat to get one across, and once across it is to be discarded and not to be carried on one's back."

The metaphor Lee borrowed from Chan Buddhism was of constantly filling a cup with water, and then emptying it, used for describing Lee's philosophy of "casting off what is useless". Lee considered traditional form-based martial arts, which practiced pre-arranged patterns, forms and techniques, to be restrictive and ineffective in dealing with chaotic self-defense situations. Lee believed that real combat was alive and dynamic and conceived Jeet Kune Do to enable its practitioners to adapt to the changes of live combat, believing that it was only through its use in real combat that a martial arts practitioner could judge a technique worthy of adoption.

Principles
Lee incorporated into Jeet Kune Do four universal combat truths that he felt were self-evident and would lead to combat success if followed. The "4 Combat Ranges" in particular are what he felt were instrumental in becoming a "total" martial artist. This is also the principle most related to mixed martial arts.

JKD practitioners also subscribe to the notion that the best defense is a strong offense, hence the principle of "Intercepting". Lee believed that in order for an opponent to attack someone they had to move towards them. This provided an opportunity to "intercept" that attack or movement. The principle of interception covers more than just intercepting physical attacks. Lee believed that many non-verbals and telegraphs (subtle movements that an opponent is unaware of) could be perceived or "intercepted" and thus be used to one's advantage. The "5 Ways of Attack" are attacking categories that help Jeet Kune Do practitioners organize their fighting repertoire and comprise the offensive portion of JKD. The concepts of Stop hits & stop kicks and simultaneous parrying & punching were borrowed from European fencing and Wing Chun's theory of simultaneous defending and attacking, and comprise the defensive portion of JKD. These concepts were modified for unarmed combat and implemented into the JKD framework by Lee. These concepts also complement the other principle of interception.

Be like water
Lee believed that martial systems should be as flexible as possible. He often used water as an analogy for describing why flexibility is a desired trait in martial arts. Water is infinitely flexible. It can be seen through, and yet at other times it can obscure things from sight. It can split and go around things, rejoining on the other side, or it can crash through things. It can erode the hardest rocks by gently lapping away at them or it can flow past the tiniest pebble. Lee believed that a martial system should have these attributes. JKD students reject traditional systems of training, fighting styles and the Confucian pedagogy used in traditional kung fu schools because of this lack of flexibility. JKD is claimed to be a dynamic concept that is forever changing, thus being extremely flexible. "Absorb what is useful; Disregard that which is useless" is an often quoted Bruce Lee maxim. JKD students are encouraged to study every form of combat possible. This is believed to expand one's knowledge of other fighting systems; to both add to one's arsenal as well as to know how to defend against such tactics.

Economy of motion
JKD students are told to waste no time or movement. When it comes to combat JKD practitioners believe the simplest things work best.

Stop hits and stop kicks
This means intercepting an opponent's attack with an attack of your own instead of a simple block. JKD practitioners believe that this is the most difficult defensive skill to develop. This strategy is a feature of some traditional Chinese martial arts, as well as an essential component of European épée fencing (known in fencing terminology as the "counter-attack").

Simultaneous parrying and punching
When confronting an incoming attack, the attack is parried or deflected and a counterattack is delivered at the same time. Not as advanced as a stop hit but more effective than blocking and counterattacking in sequence. This is also practiced by some Chinese martial arts.

No high kicks
JKD practitioners believe they should target their kicks to their opponent's shins, knees, thighs, and midsection. These targets are the closest to the foot, provide more stability and are more difficult to defend against. However, as with all other JKD principles nothing is "written in stone". If a target of opportunity presents itself, even a target above the waist, one could take advantage of the situation without feeling hampered by this principle.

The four ranges of combat

 * Kicking
 * Punching
 * Trapping
 * Grappling

Jeet Kune Do students train in each of these ranges equally. According to Lee, this range of training serves to differentiate JKD from other martial arts. Lee stated that most but not all traditional martial systems specialize in training at one or two ranges. Bruce Lee's theories have been especially influential and substantiated in the field of Mixed Martial Arts, as the MMA Phases of Combat are essentially the same concept as the JKD combat ranges. As a historical note, the ranges in JKD have evolved over time. Initially the ranges were categorized as short or close, medium, and long range. These terms proved ambiguous and eventually evolved into their more descriptive forms although there may still be others who prefer the three categories.

Five ways of attack

 * Single Angular Attack (SAA) and its converse Single Direct Attack (SDA).
 * Hand Immobilization Attack (HIA) and its counterpart Foot Immobilization attack, which make use of trapping to limit the opponent's function with that appendage.
 * Progressive Indirect Attack (PIA). Attacking one part of the opponent's body followed by attacking another part as a means of creating an opening.
 * Attack By Combinations (ABC). This is using multiple rapid attacks, with volume of attack as a means of overcoming the opponent.
 * Attack By Drawing (ABD). This is creating an opening with positioning as a means of counterattacking.

Three parts of JKD
JKD practitioners believe that techniques should contain the following properties:
 * Efficiency - An attack that reaches its mark
 * Directness - Doing what comes naturally in a learned way.
 * Simplicity - Thinking in an uncomplicated manner; without ornamentation.

Centerline
The centerline refers to an imaginary line running down the center of one's body. The theory is to exploit, control and dominate your opponent's centerline. All attacks, defenses and footwork are designed to preserve your own centerline and open your opponent's. Lee incorporated this theory into JKD from Wing Chun. This notion is closely related to maintaining control of the center squares in the strategic game chess.

The three guidelines for centerline are:
 * The one who controls the centerline will control the fight.
 * Protect and maintain your own centerline while you control and exploit your opponent's.
 * Control the centerline by occupying it.

Branches
Although Bruce Lee officially closed his martial arts schools two years before his death, he allowed his curriculum to be taught privately. Since his death, Jeet Kune Do is argued to have split into different groups. They are:

 * The Original (or Jun Fan) JKD branch, whose proponents include Taky Kimura, James Lee, Jerry Poteet, and Ted Wong; these groups claim to teach what was believed to be only what was taught by Bruce Lee, and encourage the student to further develop his or her abilities through those teachings.  The inherent training principles of this branch are shaped by the static concept of what was "originally taught", just as the training systems of "traditional" martial arts have been taught for centuries and become recognizable as "styles", except it is referred to as a philosophy of "style without style".

 * The JKD Concepts branch, whose proponents include Dan Inosanto, Richard Bustillo, and Larry Hartsell; these groups strive to continue the philosophy of individual self-expression through re-interpretation of combat systems through the lens of Jeet Kune Do, under the concept that it was never meant to be a static art but rather an ongoing evolution, and have incorporated elements from many other martial arts into the main fold of its teachings (most notably, grappling and Kali / Escrima material) based on the individual's personal preferences and physical attributes. The entire JKD "system" can be described through a simple diagram, and the concepts can then be applied to a variety of contexts in a "universal" way.

To understand the branches of JKD it is important to understand the difference between the two "types" or viewpoints of Jeet Kune Do:

Lee believed that this freedom of adoption was a distinguishing property from traditional martial arts.
 * 1) JKD framework: This type of JKD provides the guiding principles. Bruce Lee experimented with many styles and techniques to reach these conclusions.  To Lee these principles were truisms.  The JKD framework is not bound or confined by any styles or systems.  This type of JKD is a process.
 * 2) JKD Personal Systems: This type of JKD utilizes the JKD framework along with any techniques from any other style or system to construct a "personal system". This approach utilizes a "building blocks" manner in which to construct a personalized system that is especially tailored to an individual. Lee believed that only an individual could determine for themselves what the usefulness of any technique should be. This type of JKD is thus a product.

There are many who confuse the JKD Framework with a JKD Personal System (IE. Bruce Lee's personal JKD) thinking them to be one and the same. The system that Bruce Lee personally expressed was his own personal JKD; tailored for himself. Before he could do this, however, he needed to first develop the "JKD Framework" process. Many of the systems that Bruce Lee studied were not to develop his "Personal JKD" but rather was used to gather the "principles" for incorporation in the JKD Framework approach. The uniqueness of JKD to Lee is that it was a "process" not a "product" and thus not a "style" but a system, concept, or approach. Traditional martial arts styles are essentially a product that is given to a student with little provision for change. These traditional styles are usually fixed and not tailored for individuals. Bruce Lee claimed there were inherent problems with this approach and established a "Process" based system rather than a fixed style which a student could then utilize to make a "tailored" or "Personal" product of their own.

The two branches of JKD differ in what should be incorporated or offered within the "JKD Framework". The Original (or Jun Fan) JKD branch believes that the original principles before Bruce Lee died are all that is needed for the construction of personalized systems. JKD Concepts branch believe that there are further principles that can be added to construct personalized systems. The value of each Branch can be determined by individual practitioners based on whatever merits they deem important.

Original JKD is further divided into two points of view. OJKD and JFJKD both hold Wing Chun, Western boxing and fencing as the cornerstones on Bruce's JKD.
 * OJKD follows all Bruce's training from early Jun Fan Gung Fu (Seattle period) and focuses on trapping with Wing Chun influence.
 * Jun Fan Jeet Kune Do is a signature version of JKD as Bruce taught privately to Ted Wong. This is a later time period and practices a greater emphasis on elusiveness and simplified trapping unique to Bruce's later approach to combat. The focus is with fencing and Western boxing.

Conditioning
Some exercises Lee did included Da Sam Sing or Gak Sam Sing, a traditional method of forearm conditioning practiced in classical Kung Fu. He also did exercises simulating a fight against a four-limbed human using the traditional Mook Yan Jong used in Wing Chun. Lee was also an avid follower of Indian wrestler Great Gama's training routine. He read articles about him and how he employed his exercises to build his strength for wrestling, incorporating them into his own routine. The training routines Lee used included isometrics as well as "the cat stretch", "the squat" (known as "baithak"), and also known as the "deep-knee bend."

Influence and references in popular culture
Kato from Green Hornet is the first fictional character to use Jeet Kune Do, as he was portrayed by Bruce Lee in the 1966 TV series. In the aforementioned TV series, Lee would demonstrate various techniques associated with Jeet Kune Do. Following Lee's impact and death, Kato would utilize JKD in subsequent incarnations of Green Hornet media.

In Arrow, Jeet Kune Do is the martial arts style of the League of Assassins.

Fighting games
Various video game characters utilize Jeet Kune Do as their choice way of fighting. These include:
 * Liu Kang, Johnny Cage and Mokap in Mortal Kombat
 * K' in the King of Fighters uses a style notably similar to Jeet Kune Do, although his fighting style is listed in official profiles as "pure violence."
 * Jacky Bryant and Sarah Bryant from Virtua Fighter
 * Marshall Law, Forest Law, and Lee Chaolan from Tekken
 * Midknight from Eternal Champions
 * Jann Lee from Dead or Alive
 * Fei Long from Super Street Fighter II
 * Jon Talbain from Darkstalkers
 * Chou from Mobile Legends: Bang Bang
 * Clair Andrews from Ehrgeiz

Notable practitioners

 * Bruce Lee
 * Taky Kimura
 * Brandon Lee
 * Shannon Lee
 * Dan Inosanto
 * Erik Paulson
 * Ernest Emerson
 * Glenn Danzig
 * James Wilks
 * Jang Hyuk
 * Jason David Frank
 * Jeff Imada
 * Jerry Poteet
 * Joe Lewis
 * Junichi Okada
 * Kareem Abdul-Jabbar
 * Patrick Marcil
 * Richard Bustillo
 * Ron Balicki
 * Tim Tackett
 * Yorinaga Nakamura
 * Jason Scott Lee
 * Ben Saunders
 * Tim Boetsch

title: Jeet Kune Do


text:
Talk:One-child policy

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Hui people
The Huis are exempted from this policy. This could be incorporated into the article by the main contributors. Joyson Prabhu Holla at me!   10:26, 2 January 2012 (UTC)
 * http://books.google.com.bh/books?id=pA_MP4Q11qgC&pg=PA123&dq=Hui+one+child&hl=en&sa=X&ei=lYQBT62DGMfU8gORsoG4AQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Hui%20one%20child&f=false
 * http://books.google.com.bh/books?id=gwjeKt7yMogC&pg=PA139&dq=Hui+one+child&hl=en&sa=X&ei=lYQBT62DGMfU8gORsoG4AQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Hui%20one%20child&f=false
 * Can't immediately document this but I believe (was told this when I visited China) that an exemption or special allowance applied to all national minority ethnic groups, especially those living in rural areas. I don't think there's a particular reason to single out the Hui. Hopefully more general documentation can be found.~Mack2~ 04:39, 28 January 2013 (UTC)

 * All ethnic minorities were exempt.--Jack Upland (talk) 07:10, 15 November 2016 (UTC)

Propaganda poster
The Chinese characters on the poster in the image with the caption "Chinese One-Child Policy propaganda from 1982" say "for the happiness of your family, please pay attention to traffic safety". It doesn't say anything about the One-Child Policy or family planning. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 5.148.6.34 (talk) 15:14, 10 June 2019 (UTC)

Forced sterilizations
Hello, it would be nice to have some more info on forced sterilizations. These old slogans (now getting phased out) corroborate roumors that in some cases tubes used to be (or perhaps still are?) forcibly tied immediately after women give birth, in the labour room? 220.246.134.47 (talk) 02:05, 6 January 2013 (UTC)

Growth rate plot / misleading caption
Hello, I feel that the graph of population growth vs. year does not support the notion of 'strong growth in spite of the one-child poliy'. the growth is clearly (albeit slightly) sub-linear whereas an exponential rate were to be expected without birth-control measures - however, the actual reason might be a decreasing birth rate due to increasing wealth outsizing any effect of population control measures. what do other people think ? does anybody have references addressing the separation of said factors ? comment added by Q-lio (talk) 12:16, 8 January 2013 (UTC)
 * I agree it's not really strong growth; I've removed the "strong" qualifier to make it more reasonable. Since the fertility rate has been below replacement since the 1990's, all the growth since then comes from the demographic momentum, which only a "zero-child policy" could have prevented. --Roentgenium111 (talk) 19:32, 9 February 2013 (UTC)

Changed caption to "Population of China 1961-2008" since it does not convey much meaning. --Krishna Pagadala (talk) 00:34, 11 August 2015 (UTC)

Fairly accurate article
Having some amount of expertise on this subject, I would like to commend the Wikipedia community for posting a fairly accurate depiction of the one-child policy in China. Most Americans I talk to imagine a draconian policy rigidly enforced. This Wikipedia article gives some idea of the vagarities involved, while still explaining what the policy was supposed to be, as well as a useful graph showing the steady increase in population. Good job Wikipedia!

116.55.65.71 (talk) 17:35, 8 February 2013 (UTC) ↔ — Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.9.206.198 (talk) 16:38, 23 April 2013 (UTC)

 * I disagree; more than 50% of the article is devoted to poorly evidenced, sensationalist and POV criticism of the policy, such as the promotion of infanticide or gender based-abortion (the sex ratio chart used as circumstantial evidence for this also lacks a decent reference).
 * While there is plenty of discussion of how oppressive the policy is, there is little information about the policy itself; the article is very vague when it comes to discussing enforcement of the policy, stating that 'fines' are the main enforcement mechanism, but then misleads the reader by using an example of the 'fine' or rather 'contribution' that would be paid by someone earning 200,000 yuan, which is an astronomical salary compared to the average annual salary in Beijing, the country's richest province, of 56,000 yuan; because the fine is based on disposable income, the fine/fee for someone earning 200,000 is exponentially larger than the average fine/fee, which may not be levied on poor families at all.
 * Also, the claim that families may have to pay for health-care and education themselves is unreferenced and a bit rich, considering the healthcare and education funding models used in the West and even other parts of the developing world.
 * The only other enforcement mechanism mentioned is forced abortions and sterilisations, for which, again, the article fails to provide any evidence, other than an article from the (right-wing) Daily Telegraph which asserts that Huaiji County instituted a 'quota' of 20,000 abortions and sterilisations, but provides no evidence for such an assertion. This plays into the narrative of communist bureaucrats rounding up women and sterilising them concentration camp-style; typical Communist Party-bashing. In fact, the overly critical tone of the article seems to be anti-CPC, or anti-communist in general. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 188.220.70.14 (talk) 15:14, 28 May 2013 (UTC)
 * Even the Chinese government's People's Daily admits the past (?) local use of forced sterilizations and abortions, quoting explicit slogans: "If you don't receive the tubal ligation surgery by the deadline, your house will be demolished!" "We would rather scrape your womb than allow you to have a second child!" "Kill all your family members if you don't follow the rule!" --Roentgenium111 (talk) 17:06, 2 June 2014 (UTC)
 * I hope that you are just lazy and simply didn't bother to read that article you quoted. At no point does it say any forced sterilizations or abortions were carried out; the article is criticising, not past, but recent explicit slogans like the ones you mentioned. These slogans are nothing to do with the Chinese government and are attributed in the article to "Some local officials in rural areas" and, in the first paragraph of the article you cited, describes the threats contained therein as "criminal acts"; i.e. not government policy.   — Preceding unsigned comment added by InternationalistChap (talk • contribs) 15:47, 3 August 2014 (UTC)
 * The quoted slogans are an explicit declaration of forced sterilizations being carried out, unless you want to accuse these local officials of publicly lying.
 * I never claimed that forced abortions were an official government policy; they're not. But any local officials are employed by the (local or central) government, so the government is responsible for their "criminal" behaviour, in the end. --Roentgenium111 (talk) 12:16, 14 August 2014 (UTC)
 * Surely you can see that the quoted slogans are NOT an explicit declaration of forced sterilizations being carried out, they are an explicit declaration of a THREAT to carry out forced sterilisations. We do not know that the local officials really intended on carrying out their threats, they were more likely to have been trying to scare people; there is certainly a culture of corrupt and bullying behaviour by local officials in China, especially in rural areas, but this is the case in any country (take a look at the recent events in Ferguson in the US). But even if they WERE intending on carrying out their threats, there is still no evidence that they DID carry out any of these threats, or that anyone else did in the past; there is no evidence of of forced sterilizations being carried out. As I said, even if such evidence did exist, it is not the fault of the government; they have defined it as a criminal act in the article you quoted; I don't see how they can be held responsible 'in the end' as you suggest, any more than the US federal government is responsible for the actions of the police officer in Ferguson. — Preceding unsigned comment added by InternationalistChap (talk • contribs) 20:22, 16 August 2014 (UTC)

 * I too am happy with the quality of the article. It stands in sharp contrast to the prevailing cartoon image that the Anglophone world has of China, where local governments strap a pregnant woman down and vacuum the fetus out of her uterus. Anyway, I have always been skeptical of "natural reproductive rights", specifically the idea that anyone regardless of physical/mental health or parental fitness has the right to create more humans in his image, born to suffer and to cause suffering... so I may be biased. But all I see is that China accomplished what it set out to do. It worked. It seems that the ends justified the means. And obviously they weren't *that* draconian, since they didn't apply the policy to possibly endangered minority ethnic groups, or to impoverished farming families who needed more children to help plow the fields for the family's survival. My personal opinion is that this article is NPOV. Succubus MacAstaroth (talk) 05:15, 25 November 2015 (UTC)

Zhang Yimou Case and Suggested Equitable Fining Paradigm
Equitable fines based on total nett asset. A flat 10,000 yuan fine would be painful to a lower class earner, but to Zhang Yimou, that would be nothing. Use a percentage total nett asset based fine instead, probably 30% of net asset, since overpopulation could destroy China? So if Zhang is worth 100 million, the fine should be 33.3 million. For that lower earner say for example, if worth 50,000 in totality, the fine should be 16,666 yuan instead - also 30%. The fine of 1.23 million yuan is nothing to the USD$70,000,000 US Dollars that Zhang Yimou has which equals 423.6 MILLION Yuan and is a mere 0.25% of Zhang's entire wealth. Just totally unfair as opposed to the poor. Using a percetiage based fine would be equitable.

Reference Link : http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/entertainment/2013-12/10/c_132956022.htm — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2001:E68:4000:15:1C39:8F3B:8AEE:CB75 (talk) 22:56, 5 January 2014 (UTC)

Hui people Family Planning
Family planning among Hui Muslims in China. Many Hui Muslims voluntarily limit themselves to one child.

http://ilookchina.net/2010/11/05/exemptions-in-chinas-one-child-policy/

Do not use this blog directly as a soure, but it contains references to reliable sources itself.

http://ningxiaunveiled.wordpress.com/family-planning/

20:00, 4 March 2014 (UTC)

Origins not clear
Can't quite trace the evolution of the policy. Did Mao come round to seeing the drawbacks to population maximizing? Or were some of his ministers planning to start the new policy as soon as he died? Valetude (talk) 09:42, 1 April 2014 (UTC)
 * The article says, "The one child policy had been planned as early as 1977 [i.e. after Mao's death], although it was not mandated nationwide until 1979." But Mao himself seems to have supported the previous voluntary two-child policy (from 1970).--Roentgenium111 (talk) 17:10, 2 June 2014 (UTC)

Population pyramid
I'd like to suggest the inclusion of a population pyramid of China and perhaps one of India as well, for comparison.

No other single graph can show whether a one-child policy would be effective. For example, the current "population growth" graph is misleading in that the full effect of lower birth rates can only be seen after enough of the older generation have passed away. Very low growth rates can imply negative population growth in the long run regardless of continued population increases in the short run. - Comparing the size of the "added" (new born) age groups with the oldest (passing away) age groups determines population growth. - Comparing the size of the newest added (new born) age groups with the age group directly above (previous new born) to determine birth rates.

http://www.prb.org/images12/china-india-population.gif http://lewishistoricalsociety.com/pictures/albums/userpics/1148055065.gif — Preceding unsigned comment added by 195.240.151.165 (talk) 11:42, 24 April 2014 (UTC)

 * Totally agreed. There used to be a pop. pyramid in the article (until at least 2012), someone seems to have removed it without discussion. --Roentgenium111 (talk) 13:31, 23 May 2014 (UTC)

Changing section heading from "Alleged birth reduction"
I changed the section heading Alleged birth reduction to Overstatement of effect on birth reduction. This change was reverted with the explanation that "Alleged is more accurate and "overstatement" is opinionated". It also said 'good faith edits', I'm not sure if this means that it was reverted in good faith, or that I had changed it in bad faith. Anyway, the section is about how Zhai Zhenwu's estimation of 400 million births prevented is disputed by Wang Feng, who estimates the figure at 200 million; i.e. Wang is accusing Zhai of overestimating/overstating the one-child policy's effect on population growth. This means that my word choice, overstated is actually accurate, and nothing to do with my personal opinion. However, Alleged birth reduction implies that the assertion that there has been an effect on birth reduction at all is in dispute, when in fact both Wang and Zhai agree that the policy has had an affect on birth reduction, the effect is not 'alleged', it is only the scale of that effect that is in dispute vis. 200 million versus 400 million; either way it has had a pretty big impact according to the evidence presented in the section; nothing in this section suggests that there has been zero impact, therefore alleged is inaccurate word choice, although I wouldn't say it's opinionated... I'm not sure what opinion it would indicate, or about what... — Preceding unsigned comment added by InternationalistChap (talk • contribs) 22:52, 29 August 2014 (UTC)

Even the 200 million is maximum bound assuming no further changes in fertility due to demographic transition. Wang has written others papers referenced in the article on this matter. My guess is that the actual extra fertility reduction is in the low 10's of millions if that. --Krishna Pagadala (talk) 00:38, 11 August 2015 (UTC)

Deletions in the 'Sex-based birth rate disparity' Sub-section
The Sex-based birth rate disparity subsection in the effects section was extremely long and only two paragraphs of it touched on the one-child policy, and even those did so only tangentially. I have deleted all but those two paragraphs. All of the deleted info is covered in more detail in the 'Missing women of Asia' article, which is also linked at the top of the sub-section. I think it is pretty obvious that it was off-topic, but seeing as it was such a significant amount of text that was deleted (owing to the unwieldy, unnecessary length of the section itself), I thought I'd start a new section here for anyone who thinks it should be reinstated to give their reasons. InternationalistChap (talk) 04:17, 30 August 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
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Lead graf needs editing
We probably need to reword the entire first graf, or rethink the approach to the article. The "one child policy" is no more, but the "family planning policy" still is, with a limit of two children. So we need to draw that distinction. Though this article is indeed titled the "one child policy," so we may need to think about a renaming as well? -- Fuzheado | Talk 15:27, 29 October 2015 (UTC)

 * This article title needs to say as is, maybe a new article could be created for Family planning in China. --Krishna Pagadala (talk) 04:12, 1 November 2015 (UTC)
 * The entire introduction (the bit before the table of contents) is garbage. It says it started being phased out in 2015, then later says the two-child policy will only take effect after being ratified in 2016. There is also a lot of repetition, redundancy, and the like.211.23.25.61 (talk) 07:02, 12 November 2015 (UTC)

 * I would support a move to "Family Planning in China" (or something similar), with redirects from one-child policy and two-child policy. — Zujine |talk 05:18, 27 November 2015 (UTC)

The slapping face of the subject
Congratulations, If it's a article about the family planning policy of PRC, the title is a joke now. One-child policy is included in the family planning policy, but it doesn't mean One-child policy is equal to the family planning policy. Because of the obstinate idea, I don't know how to fix the links of wikidata which title mean "One-child policy" but a subject of the family planning policy of PRC. I made a new item to save the subject about the family planning policy of PRC. And I hope someone will fix the title. --Cwek (talk) 13:50, 28 December 2015 (UTC)
 * Cwek, Do you recommend changing the name of the article to something like Family planning in China, and making One-child policy a subsection? Is there a different name for the article that you recommend? I can agree with changing the name because China now has a two-child policy, making the current name outdated for a general topic on Chinese family planning. Moving_a_page. Waters.Justin (talk) 02:16, 2 March 2016 (UTC)
 * User:Waters.Justin: Yes,I agree to move the name of this article. And the problem isn't only the name. Now the introduction means that One-child policy is equal to the family planning policy of PRC, but the truth is the core of PRC's family planning policy was One-child policy. This article needs to rewrite to express that the family planning policy of PRC isn't only One-child policy or isn't equal to One-child policy. --Cwek (talk) 03:15, 2 March 2016 (UTC)
 * Thank is useless.It sees that It have no any change to rewrite this subject. I hope that One-child policy is a subproject article of same level like Two-child_policy, And we write a new article for Family planning in People's Republic of China as subproject article of a government policy. --Cwek (talk) 07:25, 2 March 2016 (UTC)

Family planning in People's Republic of China
Here is the link if you want to start a new article. Some of the content on this article that is not about the One-child policy could be split and moved to the new article. Waters.Justin (talk) 16:56, 2 March 2016 (UTC)

 * Cwek, User:Waters.Justin While not completely understanding the discussion, I think I disagree with splitting into several pages. The main article should be One-child policy, as this is by far the most widely used term, and it covers both Two-child policy and family planning policy. I have suggested in a separate section below to merge family planning policy with One-child policy. I also suggest merging Two-child policy with One-child policy, as the "two-child policy" isn't a new policy, but an amendment to the old "one-child policy", allowing couples to have two children. As such, there are no "two-child policy". Johannesxie (talk) 15:03, 10 April 2018 (UTC)

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 * ✅ Original archive link leads to an archived version of a login page. An earlier archive was available, so I used that. --Kakurady (talk) 13:23, 14 April 2016 (UTC)

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The problem of "one-child policy" vs. "family planning policy" - suggesting merging!
Hi there!

I have discovered a problem with the language reference of this site. It appears that the One-child policy site does not have any link to a mandarin Chinese site. I tried to add this, but was rejected because the one-child policy (Q221719) site in mandarin Chinese has been merged with the site which in English is called family planning policy (Q21857372). So in English we have two different sites, whereas in mandarin Chinese, they only have one.

I suggest merging the site family planning policy with one-child policy to harmonise with what they have done on the Chinese site. The site family planning policy does not (in my opinion) contain any information that is not included in the one child policy. I see above in the discussions that the existance of family planning policy is because there is a distinction between one-child policy and the newly adopted two-child-policy. However, the most broadly used term is still "one-child-policy" and the term "two-child policy" is in my experience seldom used.

I hope to gain someone's attention here, as I am very new to editing here on wikipedia, so I'll need more experienced people to do the actual merging.

-- // Johannesxie (talk) 14:57, 10 April 2018 (UTC)

Inadequate illustration
There is a 1982 photo of a street scene with a big poster somewhere in the middle of the article (Section 'Enforcement'). It shows a family of three crossing the road. The caption is misappropriating the purpose of the campaign for which the poster was used. It doesn't promote the One-child policy, it merely says "For the sake of happiness of your family, pay attention to road traffic safety!" (为你家庭幸福注意交通安全). Please update the caption accordingly, or remove the illustration. In the present state it's misleading. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.182.185.177 (talk) 10:18, 3 April 2019 (UTC)

1.5 child policy and gender disparity
At the end of the paragraph "Fertility reduction: Debates over the roles of policy vs. socio-economic change" in the section "Effects" the sentence "Most of this deficit was due to sex-selective abortion as well as the 1.5 child stopping rule, which required rural parents to stop childbearing if their first born was a son." is backed up by Goodkind, Daniel (2015). However, his article argues exactly the opposite in a paragraph entitled "3. Claims  that  China’s  1.5-child  loophole encourages sex selection defy logic. That loophole provides no greater reason to sex select than a two-child policy, and no policy has ever given parents more reason to hope that their first child would be a daughter." Thus, the second half of the sentence should be removed. --Twilliver Ongenbone (talk) 21:46, 7 May 2019 (UTC)

Referencing Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
Is there any reason the article needs to make so many references to the CBC? Especially in the section on abolition, many of these seem unnecessary. A CBC article referencing a UN publication should surely be referenced back to the UN without the need to parrot the media report of such and this section in particular reads as though the CBC are academic experts on China's social policies. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.225.238.146 (talk) 16:59, 14 May 2020 (UTC)

Update
The graph labeled, "Population Growth Since 1980" could be updated and improved. Eemstewart (talk) 05:26, 31 August 2021 (UTC)

Editing Collaboration
Hello! I am a student editor at Rice University. I find this topic really interesting and plan to edit this article to include more information about the gender biases leading to the policy's skewed sex ratio, as well as the lasting gender imbalances catalyzed by this policy. For more information, as well as a sense of the reference sources I plan to use, you can visit my user page. IJXB27 (talk) 01:09, 17 September 2021 (UTC) IJXB27

Wiki Education assignment: Research Process and Methodology - SU22 - Sect 202 - Tue
— Assignment last updated by Cindyhong123 (talk) 12:50, 9 August 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Research Process and Methodology - FA22 - Sect 201 - Thu
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Bro
Bro 77.103.249.243 (talk) 19:22, 5 January 2023 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: HIST 4048 Women and Gender in Modern China
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title: Talk:One-child policy


text:
Asian

Asian may refer to:
 * Items from or related to the continent of Asia:
 * Asian people, people in or descending from Asia
 * Asian culture, the culture of the people from Asia
 * Asian cuisine, food based on the style of food of the people from Asia
 * Asian (cat), a cat breed similar to the Burmese but in a range of different coat colors and patterns
 * Asii (also Asiani), a historic Central Asian ethnic group mentioned in Roman-era writings
 * Asian option, a type of option contract in finance
 * Asyan, a village in Iran

title: Asian