text:
Talk:Geography of Antarctica

Removed U.S. comparison
Removes from Antarctica article:

Area - comparative: slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US

I took that out because it seems to suggest Wikipedia is a U.S. publication, which it isn't, it is a worldwide encyclopedia. Besides, of those who don't live in the U.S., how many know the area it consumes? The United States is not the centre of the universe, you know. - Mark Ryan

 * So what can we compare areas to that won't be equally arbitrary? Or do we just state them in units (km^2 or mile^2)?  Pakaran (ark a pan) 18:19, 11 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Oy. We REALLY need to cut down the size of this map! -- Zoe

Ice sheet concern
There has been some concern about this Ice sheet, because there is a small chance that it will collapse. If it would do so, ocean levels would rise by a few metres in a very short period of time.

 * Who is concerned? People who don't know that the ice sheet is on land and has no where to collapse into? Or people who don't know that floating ice, when it breaks off, does NOT displace any more water? (Because it's ALREADY floating) --user:Ed Poor (deep or sour) 17:44, Nov 11, 2004 (UTC)

Shelf and sheet
Wikipedia says:

 * Ice Shelves float on the surface of the sea and, if they melt, to first order they do not change sea level. Because they are fresh, however, their melting would cause a small increase in sea levels. It can also be argued that if ice shelves melt it is a precursor to the melting of ice sheets on Greenland and Antarctica.

(William M. Connolley 21:16, 11 Nov 2004 (UTC)) OK, lets try to straighten this nonsense out.

 * Western Antarctica is covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. There has been some concern about this Ice sheet, because there is a small chance that it will collapse. If it would do so, some people worry that ocean levels would rise by a few metres in a very short period of time. However, ice Shelves float on the surface of the sea and, if they melt, to first order they do not change sea level (see Sea level rise).

The para is above, Eds addition in italics. Ed's additions make it wrong, and hence I have removed them. Ice shelves float. Ice sheets don't. If the WAIS collapses it *will* cause a large sea level rise. There is no case for qualifying this by 'some people worry that'. What should be qualified (and it is, with "small probability") is the chances of the WAIS collapsing. The wiki entry Ed quotes was written by me and is therefore correct. As a fig leaf, I've just done a minor edit to it to emphasise that the SRL from ice shelves is very small indeed. But in the disputed para, we're not talking shelves we are talking sheets.

Is that clear now?

 * The wiki entry Ed quotes was written by me and is therefore correct. LOL! I give up; how can I dispute the same source I just cited? :-) --user:Ed Poor (deep or sour) 21:25, Nov 11, 2004 (UTC)

 * We do need to point out that any collapse would not happen overnight and result in disaster-movie-like scenes. I don't know if the article makes that clear.  Pakaran (ark a pan) 23:38, 11 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * (William M. Connolley 09:42, 12 Nov 2004 (UTC)) But does that belong on geography of ant?

 * Prolly not, sorry. Pakaran (ark a pan) 10:57, 12 Nov 2004 (UTC)

See polar ice and especially sea ice. Then somebody try to find a definitive scientific answer to the following question:

 * What happens when an ice shelf "calves off" from an ice sheet? Does it sink? How fast does it sink? Does it create a tsunami?

Here's my Official Layman's Answer:

 * Nothing at all happens. The ice is already floating, with 90% underwater and buoying up the 10% that's above water. All you get is a huge iceberg the size of Rhode Island -- which has happened several times before and was photographed by satellites and tracked by the US government ice-watching agency (no, Dr. C., not a "survey")

Eventually, the iceberg drifts north and melts, which reduces the saline content of the world's oceans! But let's ask Dr. C. if this reduction is computable or even significant. --user:Ed Poor (deep or sour) 17:02, Nov 12, 2004 (UTC)

Here's what Scientists Who Study Ice say:

 * The breakup of the ice shelves in the Peninsula has little consequence for sea level rise.

And Dr. C.'s mates say:

 * Reports of melting ice sheets threatening to raise sea levels, global warming and climate change pervade the mass media and spread concern among governments and public alike. However, the timing and causal links between changes in the Antarctic ice sheet and other features of the global system such as atmosphere, oceans and land masses are neither simple nor direct.

and since their models aren't any good they surveyed a dozen scientists for a report on the Risk of collapse of the Antarctic ice sheet, which concluded that:

 * it is most likely that in the near future the Antarctic ice sheet will reduce, or mitigate, sea level rise.

(William M. Connolley 17:56, 12 Nov 2004 (UTC)) All of the quotes you provide above are from real scientists and are therefore correct :-). The problem is that you have misunderstood them. You also still haven't understood ice shelves. Ice shelves are where the ice sheet flows off into deeper water. If an ice shelf melts it has little direct impact on sea level. It might cause an indirect effect by increasing flow from the grounded ice sheet, which would increase sea level. The mitigation of SRL is true, of course: its in IPCC. There is no controversy about it. Its just that the effect is much smaller than thermal expansion.

Volcanoes of Antarctica
I note that the article mentions that Paulet Island and Lindenberg Island are regarded as active volcanoes. I am not sure about Paulet Island, but the activity of Lindenberg Island is based on a report by Nordenskjold (1902) which was not confirmed by later expeditions, and is now suspected of being erroneous. I will check this out when I have a chance, but I am pretty sure that (despite being marked as active on the "Tectonic Map of the Scotia Arc") Lindenberg island is not active. --APRCooper (talk) 21:06, 1 January 2008 (UTC)

Depression of land
The article says: "the ice is so massive that it has depressed the continental bedrock in some areas more than 2.5 km below sea level". Even granted that the bedrock is indeed 2.5 km below sea level, what is this statement supposed to imply? That the bedrock would be above sea level if the ice were not there? That the bedrock would be, perhaps, only 2 km below sea level if the ice were not there? Backspace (talk) 04:27, 22 January 2008 (UTC)

 * The weight of the ice is pushing the rock down; the crust of the Earth is pushed down into the space where the upper mantle would otherwise be. See Isostatic depression and isostatic rebound for what happens when the weight is removed.  -- SEWilco (talk) 04:43, 22 January 2008 (UTC)

 * Oh.. the article already has a copy of the latter link. -- SEWilco (talk) 04:48, 22 January 2008 (UTC)

 * Well, those articles explain a lot of things that I didn't know, but I'm still trying to get a general idea of how Antarctica would look if the ice were removed, both immediately, and with respect to the forces in those linked articles, at eventual equilibrium, i.e., which parts would be under water and which parts would be land. Backspace (talk) 07:50, 22 January 2008 (UTC)

Natural resources
I am a little unhappy about the fact box listing minerals as natural resources, for the following reasons. First, there are no PROVEN mineral resources in Antarctica at all. Of course, given the size of the continent, it is very likely that they exist, but at present there are no proven resources. Second, there is a moratorium on mineral exploitation, so no mineral resources can be proven for the foreseeable future. Thirdly, as less than 0.5% of the continent is accessible to geological exploration (the rest is covered in ice averaging nearly 2km thick), the commercial constraints on exploitation make it unlikely that minerals could be extracted commercially. Studies have been done on this last point and it has been shown that it would be uneconomic to exploit a resource of the value of the Bushveld Complex in South Africa if it were in Antarctica.

Note that there is a big difference between noting the presence or absence of a mineral and it's being present in exploitable quantities. For example, deposits of coal are found in the Transantarctic Mountains, and these have been known since the days of Scott's expeditions. However, there is no evidence that the coal is present in exploitable quantities, and given the tectonic setting it is probably unlikely that it is.

If there is no response to this, I will remove the minerals from the Natural Resources box.--APRCooper (talk) 10:41, 22 February 2008 (UTC)

OK, there was no response by the end of the day, so I've done the change. --APRCooper (talk) 17:08, 22 February 2008 (UTC)

 * The continent does have a large amount of water, but that's already mentioned somewhere. If there are known amounts of minerals they'll get listed, just as some articles list tar sands and other presently unusable resources.  It's easy to do the math and know there is a lot of something in any continent, but here we need to know what specific deposits have been found.  Yes, some coal is known, but we'd need to know whether it is an isolated deposit or one which extends for hundreds of kilometers.  -- SEWilco (talk) 17:46, 22 February 2008 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Geography of Antarctica


text:
Talk:Politics of Australia

Government deparments
What has a list of government departments got to do with the politics of Australia? They belong in an article about administration. Adam 13:27, 10 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Answer: (1) This is the destination page of Government of Australia where such a list probably could go; and (2) Ministers of government administer departments, and that generates 'politics'! Hence, I say, put it back. Peter Ellis 04:27, 13 Apr 2004 (UTC)

There is an important distinction between government and politics which should should be maintained. If you want to write an article about the structure of government in Australia, which would be a good thing to have, then de-redirect Government of Australia, transfer the "Government" section of Politics of Australia into the new article, and put your list of departments there. Adam 04:39, 13 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * I agree I keep getting frustratrated at having nowhere to link Australian Government and similar. This term refers to parliament and the public service and is quite a different thing to Politics of Australia. In fact recently all federal government departments rebranded themselves with the Government of Australia crest, and the department name smaller underneath. Has anyone started on an article about this stuff that we can redirect appropriate things to? Maybe this is worth listing on the Australian wikipedians' notice board as an article that needs work/colaboration. Martyman 23:02, 19 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Oh good I'm not the only one irked about this.--ZayZayEM 03:10, 20 Oct 2004 (UTC)

This needs to be sorted out. It should not keep bunny hopping the single article back and forth. Two seperate articles definitely need to be formed. Politics covers all politics, not just federal government structure and issues.

Political data
What is the purpose of the Political data section in this article? Most of it is either covered in the Government section, or not relavent to an article on politics of Australia. The only part worth saving is the list of parties, which should be moved to the Political parties section. - Borofkin 01:13, 23 Nov 2004 (UTC)

I agree. That "data" was copied from the CIA factbook in the early days of this article and is now mostly duplicated in Government of Australia. Adam 02:22, 23 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Done. I left International organisations. Not sure what to do with it. - Borofkin 03:24, 23 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Link suggestions
An automated Wikipedia link suggester has some possible wiki link suggestions for the Politics_of_Australia article, and they have been placed on this page for your convenience. Tip: Some people find it helpful if these suggestions are shown on this talk page, rather than on another page. To do this, just add to this page. — LinkBot 00:58, 18 Dec 2004 (UTC)

article format
most politics of articles for other countries include a discussion of (or at least Main article: links) government. for better or worse, people expect a politics articles to include a discussion of government, and so the politics of article can be thought of as a "top-level" article, with more specialised material in more specific articles. with the summary style we can do this nicely with short summaries of the major articles in the area. please don't revert this without a discussion here on the talk page. thanks. clarkk 23:54, 29 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * There is no need for articles to duplicate what is in other articles. If people want to know about the structure of Australian government, they can look in the relevant articles, to which I have provided links. This article is about Australian politics. The changes you have made create the bizarre situation that the opening paragraph of the article has nothing whatever to do with the topic of the article. It is as if the article Butterflies of South America begins with a discussion of the Theory of relativity. Adam 00:57, 30 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * i don't think that the analogy of butterflies and relativity is apt, many of the politics of... articles include a section on the system of government, see politics of the United States and politics of the United Kingdom, since the system of government is relevant to politics. i am not trying to duplicate information, i am simply summarising it (in fact i did not write the original summaries, i was simply restoring the summaries that were already there).  this is a standard way of organising articles (did you look at the summary style?), government is usually thought of as an aspect of the overall politics of a country. clarkk 02:00, 30 Mar 2005 (UTC)

I have suggested a new introductory section. Adam 02:24, 30 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Important notice
The government section of the "Outline of Australia" needs to be checked, corrected, and completed -- especially the subsections for the government branches.

When the country outlines were created, temporary data (that matched most of the countries but not all) was used to speed up the process. Those countries for which the temporary data does not match must be replaced with the correct information.

Please check that this country's outline is not in error.

If you have any questions or comments, please contact The Transhumanist.

Thank you.

title: Talk:Politics of Australia


text:
Talk:Geography of Australia

Untitled
I just added the latest GA Australia map, but the aspect ratio on the main page is wrong. The original is a PDF. Could someone please fix this? Thanks,

ad15:03, 19 June 2013 (UTC)~ — Preceding unsigned comment added by Adinov (talk • contribs)

Measurement
I don't get the bit at maritime claims: nm? Isn't that nanometres? A very small unit? I'm confused... - Mark Ryan

 * I believe that nm in this context means a nautical mile. Its length is defined to be the length of an arc of angle one minute (1/60th of a degree) at the equator. That is, 1 nautical mile is approximately 1.852 kilometers or 1.1508 miles. It is frequently used when measuring distance on the sea or in the air, probably for historical reasons. -MarkReid

Query - I don't understand the land usage statistics. 6% arable land etc... Does that mean UNUSED arable land? Then it says X% grazing land and so on... I assume the totals of all those numbers will add up to 100% Karen Johnson

Subject of page
The current article seems to be about the Geography of the Commonwealth of Australia instead of the Australian continent.

Is Britain part of Europe ? Yes / Is Japan part of Asia ? Yes / Is Tasmania part of Australia ? Yes / Is New Guinea part of Australia ? Yes. Because each of these is a continental island on their continental shelf. Can the authors please either update the article to reflect the geography of Australia, or otherwise rename it as the Geography of the Commonwealth of Australia (in which case please add information about Christmas & Lord Howe Islands. All Best :).211.30.84.166 17:11, 3 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Is New Guinea part of Australia? Is Northern Ireland part of Ireland? Yes and no.  Australia is both the name of the Commonwealth of Australia and the continent just as we might use Ireland to refer either to the Irish Republic or the island.

 * The Geography and climate section of the article on the Commonwealth of Australia refers readers to this article as the main article so I would say that it is intended to be about the geography of the Commonwealth of Australia. I would agree, though, that Geography of the Commonwealth of Australia would be the better title: this avoids the ambiguity.

 * However, if the article were about the continent, then it should be merged to Australia (continent) as discussed on that article's talk page. The authors (up till now) obviously don't make the distinction as can be seen by the opening sentence: "The geography of Australia encompasses a wide variety of biogeographic regions being the world's smallest continent but the sixth-largest country." Jimp 07:45, 28 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I've added a note at the top of the article to make readers aware that the article is about the geography of the Commonwealth of Australia and included a link to Australia (continent). Jimp 31 January 2006

 * I concur, J. We must also be mindful when referring to this and that: while there is duality/ambiguity in this instance, there are topics specific to the geography of the country (especially geopolitics, national subdivisions), others that are more macro in nature (plate tectonics), and others yet that may apply to both.  For example regarding zoogeography, et al., we should also consider biomes, ecoregions, et al. too. :) E Pluribus Anthony | talk | 08:15, 31 January 2006 (UTC)

Monolith
bull shit

It's stated on the Monolith page that Uluru is not a Monolith, but this article claims it is... Annihilatenow 16:34, 4 March 2006 (UTC)
 * OK, I've changed it to mention Mount Augustus, which is actually the world's largest monolith, even though it is not as well known. I believe is a very reliable source, and should be believed. Graham/pianoman87 talk 09:49, 26 February 2006 (UTC)

Weather
I have mentioned the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, but it might be worthwhile that quite a bit of the weather (especially during summer) is caused by cold fronts coming up from the Southern Ocean.

Landforms

 * Keep - important and largely notable. Smbarnzy 11:39, 7 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Merge whatever useful information the article contains. I'm concerned the article is attempting to establish a classification in violation of our no original research policy. Surely, any useful discussion of Australian landforms is containable within the geography of Australia article.--cj | talk 16:42, 8 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Merge --Peta 23:18, 11 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Keep more is better then less, just because an article is small now does not mean it will be small in the future and in the future there might be a problem of too much information and people will start deleting information just because there is too much.Potaaatos 17:44, 18 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Keep - Shiftchange 12:56, 2 April 2007 (UTC)

Snow in Australia

 * Merge as too narrow scope. Smbarnzy 11:39, 7 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Merge.--cj | talk 16:42, 8 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Merge --Peta
 * Keep more is better then less, just because an article is small now does not mean it will be small in the future and in the future there might be a problem of too much information and people will start deleting information just because there is too much.Potaaatos 17:44, 18 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Keep - Shiftchange 12:56, 2 April 2007 (UTC)

Dryness of the Australian Continent
07:12, 8 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Merge - sounds like a section of this article to me! too narrow scope. Smbarnzy 11:39, 7 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Merge attempt a section in this article first. If it proves too unwieldy, then split off into daughter article per the summary style. --cj | talk 16:42, 8 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Merge --Peta 23:18, 11 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Keep more is better then less, just because an article is small now does not mean it will be small in the future and in the future there might be a problem of too much information and people will start deleting information just because there is too much.Potaaatos 17:44, 18 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Merge The dryness of the continent is a characterisic of our climate. - Shiftchange 12:56, 2 April 2007 (UTC)

Not Fair

 * I also think merging is bad, the problem will arise in the future when the article becomes too big and people will start to delete information, it is better to have many small articles because they will take much longer to grow and keep away to crazy deletersPotaaatos 17:46, 18 February 2007 (UTC)

please read WP:OWN - just because you created an article doesn't give you any greater ownership of the article now than anyone else. You do own copyright in your contributions, but by contributing them to Wikipedia you have explicitly licenced them under the GNU Free Documentation License. You claim on talk:Dryness of the Australian continent that you're not done and inten to complete the article, but it hasn't happened in over two months.
 * Potaaatos, people will not delete well-referenced information. If this article ever became too big, it would be split in summary style, to create daughter articles, just like this article is in turn a daughter of Australia, linked from Australia. Two of these three have no references whatsoever, and the third has rather vague "Sources".
 * My first opinion based on the titles was to use two of these to create a new Climate of Australia article as a daughter of this one, and merge the other one in here. On reading them all, I think merge is best, possibly followed later by a split if too much information ends up collected. The split might not create any of these articles. Note that a proposal to merge explicitly means we value the information you have contributed, but would like to arrange it differently. --Scott Davis Talk 10:47, 19 February 2007 (UTC)

Mount Kosciuszko not the highest point
... according to Wikipedia, the highest point is actually here. Since the article specifically deals with the Commonwealth, I'm making the change. Leon 23:13, 30 May 2007 (UTC)

Agreed, the highest point of the country is different than the highest point of the continent. This type of inaccuracy that stems from the confusion of the article's definition will be reoccurring until it is better defined. Perhaps the first paragraph should more explicitly define the scope of the article. To me, an example of a better defined article would be the Geography_of_the_United_States article. VIOLENTRULER (talk) 10:30, 7 February 2010 (UTC)

40% Sand Dunes???
Really? I think they mean 40% desert - but most of the Australian desert is not Sahara style sand dunes. Anyway, it definitely contradicts this Wikipedia article - Deserts of Australia - which says 18% of Australia is desert (which is also wrong) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 220.253.145.43 (talk) 23:09, 5 September 2009 (UTC)

File:Australia satellite plane.jpg to appear as POTD soon
Hello! This is a note to let the editors of this article know that File:Australia satellite plane.jpg will be appearing as picture of the day on January 26, 2011. You can view and edit the POTD blurb at Template:POTD/2011-01-26. If this article needs any attention or maintenance, it would be preferable if that could be done before its appearance on the Main Page so Wikipedia doesn't look bad. :) Thanks!  howcheng  {chat} 23:49, 24 January 2011 (UTC)

This gives absolutely no information
"Coastline	25,765 km (16,000 mi)" Costlines are fractals, meaning if you measure it with a yardstick it will be very different then if you are measuring it with a inch or mile stick. Without saying what the measuring unit is 25,765 km means absolutely nothing. This is known as the Coastline paradox — Preceding unsigned comment added by Jooe15 (talk • contribs) 11:30, 15 January 2015 (UTC)  The sidebar also completely contradicts the main article, possibly for the reasons stated above. "The Australian mainland has a total coastline length of 35,877 km (22,293 mi)" "Coastline	25,765 km (16,000 mi)"

Incomplete Section
The section [Natural Hazards] in Geography of Australia does not have enough detail and should have more info added (such as when they happen). Add tornadoes? (reference from [Climate]) Gr8vince - Vincent Tang (talk) 20:05, 31 March 2015 (UTC)
 * You are correct. This article is incomplete and rated as C class.  More referenced details on natural hazards would be excellent.  I think the issue is that the continent is very large with a varied geography and a low population density. It therefore takes a long time to be comprehensive unless an editor or group of editors spend effort to achieve it. I recently identified the lack of context on the Severe storms in Australia article as well. - Shiftchange (talk) 06:54, 1 April 2015 (UTC)

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Network

Network, networking and networked may refer to:

Science and technology

 * Network theory, the study of graphs as a representation of relations between discrete objects
 * Network science, an academic field that studies complex networks

Mathematics

 * Networks, a graph with attributes studied in network theory
 * Scale-free network, a network whose degree distribution follows a power law
 * Small-world network, a mathematical graph in which most nodes are not neighbors, but have neighbors in common
 * Flow network, a directed graph where each edge has a capacity and each edge receives a flow

Biology

 * Biological network, any network that applies to biological systems
 * Ecological network, a representation of interacting species in an ecosystem
 * Neural network, a network or circuit of neurons

Technology and communication

 * Artificial neural network, a computing system inspired by animal brains
 * Broadcast network, radio stations, television stations, or other electronic media outlets that broadcast content from a centralized source
 * News network
 * Radio network, including both broadcast and two-way communications
 * Television network, used to distribute television program content
 * Electrical network, an interconnection of electrical components
 * Social networking service, an online platform that people use to build social networks
 * Telecommunications network, allowing communication between separated nodes
 * Computer network or data network, a digital telecommunications network
 * Network hardware: Network switch, Networking cable
 * Wireless network, a computer network using wireless data connections
 * Network (typeface), used on the transport network in the West Midlands, UK

Sociology and business

 * Social network, in social science research
 * Scientific collaboration network, a social network wherein nodes are scientists and links are co-authorships
 * Social group, a network of people
 * Network of practice, a social science concept
 * Business networking, the sharing of information or services between people, companies or groups
 * Personal networking, the practice of developing and maintaining a personal network
 * Supply network, a pattern of temporal and spatial processes carried out at facility nodes and over distribution links
 * Transport network, a network in geographic space

Arts, entertainment and media

 * Network (1976 film), a 1976 American film
 * Network (2019 film), an Indian film
 * Network (album), a 2004 album by Saga
 * Network (comics), a series of Marvel Comics characters
 * Network (play), a 2017 play based on the 1976 film
 * Network (TV series), a Canadian variety television series
 * Network (video game), a 1980 business simulation game for the Apple II
 * Network, aka Taryn Haldane, a fictional character and member of the Sovereign Seven comic book series
 * Network, the members' newsletter of the British Sociological Association
 * The Network, an American new wave band
 * "The Network", a 1987 Matlock episode
 * The Network, a fictional organization in the comic strip Modesty Blaise
 * "Networking", a song by We Are the Physics from We Are the Physics Are OK at Music

Organizations

 * NETWORK (Slovak party), a political party in Slovakia
 * Network (lobby group), an American social justice group
 * The Network (group of churches), an international group of evangelical churches
 * The Network (political party), an Italian political party (1991–1999)
 * The Network (professional wrestling), a professional wrestling stable
 * The Network 2018, an Italian political party (2011–present)
 * Network (Russia), allegedly an anti-government anarchist organization active in Russia in 2015–2017

title: Network


text:
User:MarkReid

Most of my time is spent researching for a PhD at the University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. My thesis examines bias representation and learning in inductive logic programming. I also work part-time as a researcher / developer.

For fun I play classical guitar, compose, juggle, snowboard, rockclimb and spend too much time on Wikis (though only recently).

I live in, and love, Sydney. I've travelled to, and lived in, several other big cities around the world but this city has an atmosphere that can't be beat.

Yikes yet another Ozzie! We are being invaded! Oh, Welcome to the 'pedia by the way. Hope you like it here. --User:maveric149

title: User:MarkReid


text:
Television broadcaster

A television broadcaster or television network is a telecommunications network for the distribution of television content, where a central operation provides programming to many television stations, pay television providers or, in the United States, multichannel video programming distributors. Until the mid-1980s, broadcast programming on television in most countries of the world was dominated by a small number of terrestrial networks. Many early television networks such as the BBC, CBS, CBC, NBC or ABC in the US and in Australia evolved from earlier radio networks.

Overview
In countries where most networks broadcast identical, centrally originated content to all of their stations, and where most individual television transmitters therefore operate only as large "repeater stations", the terms "television network", "television channel" (a numeric identifier or radio frequency) and "television station" have become mostly interchangeable in everyday language, with professionals in television-related occupations continuing to make a differentiation between them. Within the industry, a tiering is sometimes created among groups of networks based on whether their programming is simultaneously originated from a central point, and whether the network master control has the technical and administrative capability to take over the programming of their affiliates in real-time when it deems this necessary – the most common example being during national breaking news events.

In North America in particular, many television networks available via cable and satellite television are branded as "channels" because they are somewhat different from traditional networks in the sense defined above, as they are singular operations – they have no affiliates or component stations, but instead are distributed to the public via cable or direct-broadcast satellite providers. Such networks are commonly referred to by terms such as "specialty channels" in Canada or "cable networks" in the U.S.

A network may or may not produce all of its own programming. If not, production companies (such as Warner Bros. Television, Universal Television, Sony Pictures Television and TriStar Television) can distribute their content to the various networks, and it is common that a certain production firm may have programs that air on two or more rival networks. Similarly, some networks may import television programs from other countries, or use archived programming to help complement their schedules.

Some stations have the capability to interrupt the network through the local insertion of television commercials, station identifications and emergency alerts. Others completely break away from the network for their own programming, a method known as regional variation. This is common where small networks are members of larger networks. The majority of commercial television stations are self-owned, even though a variety of these instances are the property of an owned-and-operated television network. The commercial television stations can also be linked with a noncommercial educational broadcasting agency. Some countries have launched national television networks, so that individual television stations can act as common repeaters of nationwide programs.

On the other hand, television networks also undergo the impending experience of major changes related to cultural varieties. The emergence of cable television has made available in major media markets, programs such as those aimed at American bi-cultural Latinos. Such a diverse captive audience presents an occasion for the networks and affiliates to advertise the best programming that needs to be aired.

This is explained by author Tim P. Vos in his abstract A Cultural Explanation of Early Broadcast, where he determines targeted group/non-targeted group representations as well as the cultural specificity employed in the television network entity. Vos notes that policymakers did not expressly intend to create a broadcast order dominated by commercial networks. In fact, legislative attempts were made to limit the network's preferred position.

As to individual stations, modern network operations centers usually use broadcast automation to handle most tasks. These systems are not only used for programming and for video server playout, but use exact atomic time from Global Positioning Systems or other sources to maintain perfect synchronization with upstream and downstream systems, so that programming appears seamless to viewers.

Global
A major international television broadcaster is the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), which is perhaps most-well known for its news agency BBC News. Owned by the Crown, the BBC funds itself in two ways. UK services branded under BBC are funded by the television license paid by British residents, as a result no advertising appears on these services. The advertising-funded arm (BBC Studios) employs 23,000 people worldwide including the operation of broadcaster UKTV in the UK itself. Experimental television broadcasts were started in 1929, using an electromechanical 30-line system developed by John Logie Baird. Limited regular broadcasts using this system began in 1934 and an expanded service (now known as BBC Television) started from Alexandra Palace in November 1936.

United States
Television in the United States had long been dominated by the Big Three television networks, the American Broadcasting Company (ABC), CBS (formerly the Columbia Broadcasting System) and the National Broadcasting Company (NBC); however, the Fox Broadcasting Company (Fox), which launched in October 1986, has gained prominence and is now considered part of the "Big Four". The Big Three provide a significant number of programs to each of their affiliates, including newscasts, prime time, daytime and sports programming, but still reserve periods during each day where their affiliate can air local programming, such as local news or syndicated programs. Since the creation of Fox, the number of American television networks has increased, though the amount of programming they provide is often much less: for example, The CW only provides fifteen hours of primetime programming each week (along with three hours on Saturdays), while MyNetworkTV only provides ten hours of primetime programming each week, leaving their affiliates to fill time periods where network programs are not broadcast with a large amount of syndicated programming. Other networks are dedicated to specialized programming, such as religious content or programs presented in languages other than English, particularly Spanish.

The largest television network in the United States, however, is the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), a non-profit, publicly owned, non-commercial educational service. In comparison to the commercial television networks, there is no central unified arm of broadcast programming, meaning that each PBS member station has a significant amount of freedom to schedule television shows as they consent to. Some public television outlets, such as PBS, carry separate digital subchannel networks through their member stations (for example, Georgia Public Broadcasting; in fact, some programs airing on PBS were branded on other channels as coming from GPB Kids and PBS World).

This works as each network sends its signal to many local affiliated television stations across the country. These local stations then carry the "network feed", which can be viewed by millions of households across the country. In such cases, the signal is sent to as many as 200+ stations or as little as just a dozen or fewer stations, depending on the size of the network.

With the adoption of digital television, television networks have also been created specifically for distribution on the digital subchannels of television stations (including networks focusing on classic television series and films operated by companies like Weigel Broadcasting (owners of Movies! and Me-TV) and Nexstar Media Group (owners of Rewind TV and Antenna TV), along with networks focusing on music, sports and other niche programming).

Cable and satellite providers pay the networks a certain rate per subscriber (the highest charge being for ESPN, in which cable and satellite providers pay a rate of more than $5.00 per subscriber to ESPN). The providers also handle the sale of advertising inserted at the local level during national programming, in which case the broadcaster and the cable/satellite provider may share revenue. Networks that maintain a home shopping or infomercial format may instead pay the station or cable/satellite provider, in a brokered carriage deal. This is especially common with low-power television stations, and in recent years, even more so for stations that used this revenue stream to finance their conversion to digital broadcasts, which in turn provides them with several additional channels to transmit different programming sources.

History
Television broadcasting in the United States was heavily influenced by radio. Early individual experimental radio stations in the United States began limited operations in the 1910s. In November 1920, Westinghouse signed on "the world's first commercially licensed radio station", KDKA in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Other companies built early radio stations in Detroit, Boston, New York City and other areas. Radio stations received permission to transmit through broadcast licenses obtained through the Federal Radio Commission (FRC), a government entity that was created in 1926 to regulate the radio industry. With some exceptions, radio stations east of the Mississippi River received official call signs beginning with the letter "W"; those west of the Mississippi were assigned calls beginning with a "K". The number of programs that these early stations aired was often limited, in part due to the expense of program creation. The idea of a network system which would distribute programming to many stations simultaneously, saving each station the expense of creating all of their own programs and expanding the total coverage beyond the limits of a single broadcast signal, was devised.

NBC set up the first permanent coast-to-coast radio network in the United States by 1928, using dedicated telephone line technology. The network physically linked individual radio stations, nearly all of which were independently owned and operated, in a vast chain, NBC's audio signal thus transmitted from station to station to listeners across the United States. Other companies, including CBS and the Mutual Broadcasting System, soon followed suit, each network signed hundreds of individual stations on as affiliates: stations which agreed to broadcast programs from one of the networks.

As radio prospered throughout the 1920s and 1930s, experimental television stations, which broadcast both an audio and a video signal, began sporadic broadcasts. Licenses for these experimental stations were often granted to experienced radio broadcasters, and thus advances in television technology closely followed breakthroughs in radio technology. As interest in television grew, and as early television stations began regular broadcasts, the idea of networking television signals (sending one station's video and audio signal to outlying stations) was born. However, the signal from an electronic television system, containing much more information than a radio signal, required a broadband transmission medium. Transmission by a nationwide series of radio relay towers would be possible but extremely expensive.

Researchers at AT&T subsidiary Bell Telephone Laboratories patented coaxial cable in 1929, primarily as a telephone improvement device. Its high capacity (transmitting 240 telephone calls simultaneously) also made it ideal for long-distance television transmission, where it could handle a frequency band of 1 MHz. German television first demonstrated such an application in 1936 by relaying televised telephone calls from Berlin to Leipzig, 180 km away, by cable.

AT&T laid the first L-carrier coaxial cable between New York City and Philadelphia, with automatic signal booster stations every 10 mi, and in 1937 it experimented with transmitting televised motion pictures over the line. Bell Labs gave demonstrations of the New York–Philadelphia television link in 1940 and 1941. AT&T used the coaxial link to transmit the Republican National Convention in June 1940 from Philadelphia to New York City, where it was televised to a few hundred receivers over the NBC station W2XBS (which evolved into WNBC) as well as seen in Schenectady, New York via W2XB (which evolved into WRGB) via off-air relay from the New York station.

NBC had earlier demonstrated an inter-city television broadcast on 1 February 1940, from its station in New York City to another in Schenectady, New York by General Electric relay antennas, and began transmitting some programs on an irregular basis to Philadelphia and Schenectady in 1941. Wartime priorities suspended the manufacture of television and radio equipment for civilian use from 1 April 1942 to 1 October 1945, temporarily shutting down expansion of television networking. However, in 1944 a short film, "Patrolling the Ether", was broadcast simultaneously over three stations as an experiment.

AT&T made its first postwar addition in February 1946, with the completion of a 225 mi cable between New York City and Washington, D.C., although a blurry demonstration broadcast showed that it would not be in regular use for several months. The DuMont Television Network, which had begun experimental broadcasts before the war, launched what Newsweek called "the country's first permanent commercial television network" on 15 August 1946, connecting New York City with Washington. Not to be outdone, NBC launched what it called "the world's first regularly operating television network" on 27 June 1947, serving New York City, Philadelphia, Schenectady and Washington. Baltimore and Boston were added to the NBC television network in late 1947. DuMont and NBC would be joined by CBS and ABC in 1948.

In the 1940s, the term "chain broadcasting" was used when discussing network broadcasts, as the television stations were linked together in long chains along the East Coast. But as the television networks expanded westward, the interconnected television stations formed major networks of connected affiliate stations. In January 1949, with the sign-on of DuMont's WDTV in Pittsburgh, the Midwest and East Coast networks were finally connected by coaxial cable (with WDTV airing the best shows from all four networks). By 1951, the four networks stretched from coast to coast, carried on the new microwave radio relay network of AT&T Long Lines. Only a few local television stations remained independent of the networks.

Each of the four major television networks originally only broadcast a few hours of programs a week to their affiliate stations, mostly between 8:00 and 11:00 p.m. Eastern Time, when most viewers were watching television. Most of the programs broadcast by the television stations were still locally produced. As the networks increased the number of programs that they aired, however, officials at the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) grew concerned that local television might disappear altogether. Eventually, the federal regulator enacted the Prime Time Access Rule, which restricted the amount of time that the networks could air programs; officials hoped that the rules would foster the development of quality local programs, but in practice, most local stations did not want to bear the burden of producing many of their own programs, and instead chose to purchase programs from independent producers. Sales of television programs to individual local stations are done through a method called "broadcast syndication", and today nearly every television station in the United States obtains syndicated programs in addition to network-produced fare.

Late in the 20th century, cross-country microwave radio relays were replaced by fixed-service satellites. Some terrestrial radio relays remained in service for regional connections.

After the failure and shutdown of DuMont in 1956, several attempts at new networks were made between the 1950s and the 1970s, with little success. The Fox Broadcasting Company, founded by the Rupert Murdoch-owned News Corporation (now owned by Fox Corporation), was launched on 9 October 1986 after the company purchased the television assets of Metromedia; it would eventually ascend to the status of the fourth major network by 1994. Two other networks launched within a week of one another in January 1995: The WB Television Network, a joint venture between Time Warner and the Tribune Company, and the United Paramount Network (UPN), formed through a programming alliance between Chris-Craft Industries and Paramount Television (whose parent, Viacom, would later acquire half and later all of the network over the course of its existence). In September 2006, The CW was launched as a "merger" of The WB and UPN (in actuality, a consolidation of each respective network's higher-rated programs onto one schedule); MyNetworkTV, a network formed from affiliates of UPN and The WB that did not affiliate with The CW, launched at the same time.

Regulation
FCC regulations in the United States restricted the number of television stations that could be owned by any one network, company or individual. This led to a system where most local television stations were independently owned, but received programming from the network through a franchising contract, except in a few major cities that had owned-and-operated stations (O&O) of a network and independent stations. In the early days of television, when there were often only one or two stations broadcasting in a given market, the stations were usually affiliated with multiple networks and were able to choose which programs would air. Eventually, as more stations were licensed, it became common for each station to be exclusively affiliated with only one network and carry all of the "prime-time" programs that the network offered. Local stations occasionally break from regularly scheduled network programming however, especially when a breaking news or severe weather situation occurs in the viewing area. Moreover, when stations return to network programming from commercial breaks, station identifications are displayed in the first few seconds before switching to the network's logo.

Canada
A number of different definitions of "network" are used by government agencies, industry, and the general public. Under the Broadcasting Act, a network is defined as "any operation where control over all or any part of the programs or program schedules of one or more broadcasting undertakings is delegated to another undertaking or person", and must be licensed by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).

Only three national over-the-air television networks are currently licensed by the CRTC: government-owned CBC Television (English) and Ici Radio-Canada Télé (French), French-language private network TVA, and APTN, a network focused on Indigenous peoples in Canada. A third French-language service, Noovo (formerly V), is licensed as a provincial network within Quebec, but is not licensed or locally distributed (outside of carriage on the digital tiers of pay television providers) on a national basis.

Currently, licensed national or provincial networks must be carried by all cable providers (in the country or province, respectively) with a service area above a certain population threshold, as well as all satellite providers. However, they are no longer necessarily expected to achieve over-the-air coverage in all areas (APTN, for example, only has terrestrial coverage in parts of northern Canada).

In addition to these licensed networks, the two main private English-language over-the-air services, CTV and Global, are also generally considered to be "networks" by virtue of their national coverage, although they are not officially licensed as such. CTV was previously a licensed network, but relinquished this license in 2001 after acquiring most of its affiliates, making operating a network license essentially redundant (per the above definition).

Smaller groups of stations with common branding are often categorized by industry watchers as television systems, although the public and the broadcasters themselves will often refer to them as "networks" regardless. Some of these systems, such as CTV 2 and the now-defunct E!, essentially operate as mini-networks, but have reduced geographical coverage. Others, such as Omni Television or the Crossroads Television System, have similar branding and a common programming focus, but schedules may vary significantly from one station to the next. Citytv originally began operating as a television system in 2002 when CKVU-TV in Vancouver started to carry programs originating from CITY-TV in Toronto and adopted that station's "Citytv" branding, but gradually became a network by virtue of national coverage through expansions into other markets west of Atlantic Canada between 2005 and 2013.

Most local television stations in Canada are now owned and operated directly by their network, with only a small number of stations still operating as affiliates.

Europe, Asia, Africa and South America
Most television services outside North America are national networks established by a combination of publicly funded broadcasters and commercial broadcasters. Most nations established television networks in a similar way: the first television service in each country was operated by a public broadcaster, often funded by a television licensing fee, and most of them later established a second or even third station providing a greater variety of content. Commercial television services also became available when private companies applied for television broadcasting licenses. Often, each new network would be identified with their channel number, so that individual stations would often be numbered "One", "Two", "Three" and so forth.

United Kingdom
The first television network in the United Kingdom was operated by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). On 2 November 1936 the BBC opened the world's first regular high-definition television service, from a 405 lines transmitter at Alexandra Palace. The BBC remained dominant until eventually on 22 September 1955, commercial broadcasting was established to create a second television network. Rather than creating a single network with local channels owned and operated by a single company (as is the case with the BBC), each local area had a separate television channel that was independently owned and operated, although most of these channels shared a number of programmes, particularly during peak evening viewing hours. These channels formed the ITV network.

When the advent of UHF broadcasting allowed a greater number of television channels to broadcast, the BBC launched a second channel, BBC 2 (with the original service being renamed BBC 1). A second national commercial network was launched Channel 4, although Wales instead introduced a Welsh-language service, S4C. These were later followed by the launch of a third commercial network, Channel 5. Since the introduction of digital television, the BBC, ITV, Channel 4 and Channel 5 each introduced a number of digital-only channels. Sky operates a large number of channels, as does UKTV.

Sweden
Sweden had only one television network from 1956 until the early-1990s: the public broadcaster Sveriges Television (SVT). Commercial companies such as Modern Times Group, TV4, Viasat, and SBS Discovery have established TV networks since the 1980s although they initially aired exclusively on satellite. In 1991, TV4 became Sweden's first commercial television network to air terrestrially. Most television programming in Sweden is centralised except for local news updates that air on SVT2 and TV4.

Netherlands
Until 1989, Netherlands Public Broadcasting was the only television network in the Netherlands, with three stations, Nederland 1, Nederland 2 and Nederland 3. Rather than having a single production arm, there are a number of public broadcasting organizations that create programming for each of the three stations, each working relatively independently. Commercial broadcasting in the Netherlands is currently operated by two networks, RTL Nederland and SBS Broadcasting, which together broadcast seven commercial stations.

Soviet era
The first television network in the Soviet Union launched on 7 July 1938 when Petersburg – Channel 5 of Leningrad Television became a unionwide network. The second television network in the Soviet Union launched on 22 March 1951 when Channel One of USSR Central Television became a unionwide network. Until 1989, there were six television networks, all owned by the USSR Gosteleradio. This changed during Mikhail Gorbachev's Perestroika program, when the first independent television network, 2×2, was launched.

1990s
Following the breakup of the Soviet Union, USSR Gosteleradio ceased to exist as well as its six networks. Only Channel One had a smooth transition and survived as a network, becoming Ostankino Channel One. The other five networks were operated by Ground Zero. This free airwave space allowed many private television networks like NTV and TV-6 to launch in the mid-1990s.

2000s
The 2000s were marked by the increased state intervention in Russian television. On 14 April 2001 NTV experienced management changes following the expulsion of former oligarch and NTV founder Vladimir Gusinsky. As a result, most of the prominent reporters featured on NTV left the network. Later on 22 January 2002, the second largest private television network TV-6, where the former NTV staff took refuge, was shut down allegedly because of its editorial policy. Five months later on 1 June, TVS was launched, mostly employing NTV/TV-6 staff, only to cease operations the following year. Since then, the four largest television networks (Channel One, Russia 1, NTV and Russia 2) have been state-owned.

Still, the 2000s saw a rise of several independent television networks such as REN (its coverage increased vastly allowing it to become a federal network), Petersburg – Channel Five (overall the same), the relaunched 2×2. The Russian television market is mainly shared today by five major companies: Channel One, Russia 1, NTV, TNT and CTC.

Brazil
The major commercial television network in Brazil is Rede Globo, which was founded in 1965. It grew to become the largest and most successful media conglomerate in the country, having a dominating presence in various forms of media including television, radio, print (newspapers and magazines) and the Internet.

Other networks include Rede Bandeirantes, RecordTV, SBT, RedeTV!, TV Cultura, and TV Brasil.

Australia
Australia has two national public networks, ABC Television and SBS. The ABC operates eight stations as part of its main network ABC TV, one for each state and territory, as well as three digital-only networks, ABC Kids / ABC TV Plus, ABC Me and ABC News. SBS currently operates six stations, SBS, SBS Viceland, SBS World Movies, SBS Food, NITV and SBS WorldWatch.

The first commercial networks in Australia involved commercial stations that shared programming in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide and later Perth, with each network forming networks based on their allocated channel numbers: TCN-9 in Sydney, GTV-9 in Melbourne, QTQ-9 in Brisbane, NWS-9 in Adelaide and STW-9 in Perth together formed the Nine Network; while their equivalents on VHF channels 7 and 10 respectively formed the Seven Network and Network 10. Until 1989, areas outside these main cities had access to only a single commercial station, and these rural stations often formed small networks such as Prime Television. Beginning in 1989, however, television markets in rural areas began to aggregate, allowing these rural networks to broadcast over a larger area, often an entire state, and become full-time affiliates to one specific metropolitan network.

As well as these free-to-air channels, there are others on Australia's Pay television network Foxtel.

New Zealand
New Zealand has one public network, Television New Zealand (TVNZ), which consists of two main networks: TVNZ 1 is the network's flagship network which carries news, current affairs and sports programming as well as the majority of the locally produced shows broadcast by TVNZ and imported shows. TVNZ's second network, TV2, airs mostly imported shows with some locally produced programs such as Shortland Street. TVNZ also operates a network exclusive to pay television services, TVNZ Heartland, available on providers such as Sky. TVNZ previously operated a non-commercial public service network, TVNZ 7, which ceased operations in June 2012 and was replaced by the timeshift channel TV One Plus 1. The network operated by Television New Zealand has progressed from operating as four distinct local stations within the four main centers in the 1960s, to having the majority of the content produced from TVNZ's Auckland studios at present.

New Zealand also has several privately owned television networks with the largest being operated by MediaWorks. MediaWorks' flagship network is TV3, which competes directly with both TVNZ broadcast networks. MediaWorks also operates a second network, FOUR, which airs mostly imported programmes with children's shows airing in the daytime and shows targeted at teenagers and adult between 15 and 39 years of age during prime time. MediaWorks also operates a timeshift network, TV3 + 1, and a 24-hour music network, C4.

All television networks in New Zealand air the same programming across the entire country with the only regional deviations being for local advertising; a regional news service existed in the 1980s, carrying a regional news programme from TVNZ's studios in New Zealand's four largest cities, Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin.

In the 1960s, the service operated at the time by the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation was four separate television stations – AKTV2 in Auckland, WNTV1 in Wellington, CHTV3 in Christchurch and DNTV2 in Dunedin – which each ran their own newscast and produced some in-house programmes, with other shows being shared between the stations. Programmes and news footage were distributed via mail, with a programme airing in one region being mailed to another region for broadcast the following week. A network was finally established in 1969, with the same programmes being relayed to all regions simultaneously. From the 1970s to the 1990s, locally produced programmes that aired on TV One and TV2 were produced out of one of the four main studios, with TVNZ's network hub based in Wellington. Today, most locally produced programmes that are aired by both TVNZ and other networks are not actually produced in-house, instead they are often produced by a third party company (for example, the TV2 programme Shortland Street is produced by South Pacific Pictures). The networks produce their own news and current affairs programs, with most of the content filmed in Auckland.

New Zealand also operates several regional television stations, which are only available in individual markets. The regional stations will typically air a local news programme, produce some shows in-house and cover local sports events; the majority of programming on the regional stations will be imported from various sources.

Philippines
In the Philippines, in practice, the terms "network", "station" and "channel" are used interchangeably as programming lineups are mostly centrally planned from the networks' main offices, and since provincial/regional stations usually just relay the broadcast from their parent network's flagship station (usually based in the Mega Manila area). As such, networks made up of VHF stations are sometimes informally referred to by their over-the-air channel number in the Mega Manila area (for example, Channel 4 or Kwatro for People's Television Network, Channel 2 or Dos for ABS-CBN, Channel 9 or Nueve for Radio Philippines Network, Channel 7 or Siyete for GMA Network, Channel 13 or Trese for IBC and Channel 5 or Singko for TV5), while some incorporate their channel numbers in the network's name (for example, TV5, Studio 23 and Net 25, which respectively broadcast on VHF channel 5, and UHF channels 23 and 25).

Unlike the United States, where networks receive programmes produced by various production companies, the two largest networks in the Philippines produce all of their prime time programmes. Other networks adopt block-time programming, which uses programming arrangements similar to the relationship between a U.S. network and station.

title: Television broadcaster


text:
Columbia

Columbia most often refers to:

 * Columbia (personification), the historical personification of the United States
 * Columbia University, a private university in New York City
 * Columbia Pictures, an American film studio owned by Sony Pictures
 * Columbia Sportswear, an American clothing company

Columbia may also refer to:

Natural features

 * Columbia Plateau, a geologic and geographic region in the U.S. Pacific Northwest
 * Columbia River, in Canada and the United States
 * Columbia Bar, a sandbar in the estuary of the Columbia River
 * Columbia Country, the region of British Columbia encompassing the northern portion of that river's upper reaches
 * Columbia Valley, a region within the Columbia Country
 * Columbia Lake, a lake at the head of the Columbia River
 * Columbia Wetlands, a protected area near Columbia Lake
 * Columbia Slough, along the Columbia watercourse near Portland, Oregon
 * Glacial Lake Columbia, a proglacial lake in Washington state
 * Columbia Icefield, in the Canadian Rockies
 * Columbia Island (District of Columbia), in the Potomac River
 * Columbia Island (New York), in Long Island Sound

Populated places

 * Columbia City (disambiguation)
 * Columbia County (disambiguation)
 * District of Columbia (disambiguation), including "Columbia District"
 * Columbia Township (disambiguation)
 * Mount Columbia (disambiguation)

Canada

 * British Columbia, a province of Canada
 * Columbia District, a Hudson's Bay Company fur trading district in the Pacific Northwest
 * Columbia, British Columbia, a former city in Canada
 * Columbia (electoral district), formerly in British Columbia, Canada, 1903–1928
 * Columbia Street, New Westminster, the main downtown street of that city, in British Columbia, Canada

United States

 * District of Columbia, the United States' capital district
 * Columbia, Alabama, a town
 * Columbia, Arizona, a populated place
 * Columbia, California, a census-designated place and former boomtown
 * Columbia, San Diego, California, a neighborhood
 * Columbia, Connecticut, a town
 * Columbia, Illinois, a city
 * Columbia, Fayette County, Indiana, an unincorporated town
 * Columbia, Iowa, an unincorporated community
 * Columbia, Kentucky, a city
 * Columbia, Louisiana, a town
 * Columbia, Maine, a town
 * Columbia, Maryland, a planned community
 * Columbia, Michigan, a village
 * Columbia, Mississippi, a city
 * Columbia, Missouri, a city
 * Columbia metropolitan area (Missouri)
 * Columbia, New Hampshire, a town
 * Columbia, New Jersey, a census-designated place
 * Columbia, New York, a town
 * Columbia, North Carolina, a town
 * Columbia, Tuscarawas County, Ohio, an unincorporated community
 * Columbia, Williams County, Ohio, an unincorporated community
 * Columbia, Pennsylvania, a borough
 * Columbia, South Carolina, the capital of South Carolina
 * Columbia metropolitan area (South Carolina)
 * Columbia, South Dakota, a city
 * Columbia, Tennessee, a city
 * Columbia, Virginia, a town
 * Columbia (Richmond, Virginia), a historic home
 * Camp Columbia (Hanford), Washington state, a prison camp during and after World War II
 * Columbia, West Virginia
 * Columbia, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
 * Columbia, former name of Romney, Indiana, an unincorporated community
 * Columbia, former name of Etna, New York, an unincorporated community
 * Columbia, former name of West Columbia, Texas, a city

Elsewhere

 * Columbia, Queensland, a locality in Australia
 * Camp Columbia (Wacol), Queensland, Australia, during World War II
 * Columbia, Tyne and Wear, United Kingdom, a village subdivision of the town of Washington
 * Columbia (supercontinent), a prehistoric supercontinent
 * 327 Columbia, an asteroid

Fictional elements

 * Columbia (BioShock), a city in the video game BioShock Infinite
 * Columbia, a character in the movie The Rocky Horror Picture Show
 * Columbia Airlines, from the movie Airport 1975

Music

 * Columbia, a style of Cuban rumba
 * Columbia: Live at Missouri University, a 1993 live album by American power pop group Big Star
 * "Columbia" (Oasis song), a song on the 1994 album Definitely Maybe
 * "Columbia", a song on the 2000 album Out There and Back by Paul van Dyk
 * "Columbia", a song on the 2005 album Bloom by Eric Johnson

Publications

 * Columbia Encyclopedia, one-volume encyclopedia published by Columbia University Press
 * Columbia: A Journal of Literature and Art, annual literary journal published by Columbia University
 * Columbia Magazine, an alumni magazine published by Columbia University
 * Columbia: The Magazine of Northwest History, quarterly magazine published by the Washington State Historical Society
 * Columbia, a magazine published by the Knights of Columbus
 * Columbia Magazine, an online magazine published in Columbia, Kentucky

Arts and media companies

 * Columbia Amusement Company, an American burlesque chain that operated from 1902 to 1927
 * Columbia Artists Management, an international talent management agency
 * Columbia Broadcasting System, original name of American broadcast network, CBS; initially Columbia Phonographic Broadcasting System (1927–1928), then Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc. (1928–1974), now CBS Inc. (1974–present)
 * Columbia Comics, an American comic book publisher
 * Columbia Games, an American board game company
 * Columbia Graphophone Company, a British record company and label from 1922 to 1973
 * Columbia House, an American mail-order media company
 * Nippon Columbia, formerly Columbia Music Entertainment, a Japanese record company
 * Columbia Records, an American record label founded in 1888, owned since 1988 by Sony Music Entertainment
 * Columbia University Press, affiliated with Columbia University and publisher of Columbia Encyclopedia

Transportation companies

 * Columbia Aircraft, American manufacturer active 1995-2007, taken over by Cessna
 * Columbia Aircraft Corporation, American manufacturer active 1927-1947, originally Columbia Air Liners Inc.
 * Columbia Bicycles of Hartford, Connecticut
 * Columbia (automobile brand) (1899–1913), originally expanded from the bicycle line
 * Columbia Helicopters, based in Aurora, Oregon
 * Columbia Motors of Detroit, Michigan (1917–1924)
 * Columbia Railway, a historic Washington, D.C. streetcar company
 * Columbia Transit (COMO Connect), a bus company serving Columbia, Missouri
 * Columbia Transportation, the university bus system of Columbia University

Other companies

 * Columbia Brewery in Canada
 * Columbia Data Products, a software company in Florida
 * Columbia Forest Products, a forest manufacturing company in North Carolina
 * Columbia Gas Transmission, a gas pipeline between the U.S. Gulf Coast and New York
 * Columbia Industries, a bowling manufacturing company
 * Columbia Insurance Group, an insurance company
 * Columbia Management Group, a financial services company
 * Columbia Mining Company, amalgamated in 2001 with Teck Resources as Teck-Cominco
 * Columbia Power Corporation, Canada
 * Columbia Restaurant, Florida

People

 * Al Columbia (born 1970), American artist, writer and cartoonist
 * Columbia Eneutseak (or Nancy Columbia; 1893–1959), American actress and screenwriter
 * Columbia Lancaster (1803–1893), a delegate from the Territory of Washington

Schools

 * Columbia Lions, athletic teams representing the university
 * Columbia International University, Columbia, South Carolina
 * Columbia College (disambiguation)
 * Columbia Bible College, Abbotsford, British Columbia
 * Columbia Theological Seminary, formerly in Columbia, now in Decatur, Georgia
 * Columbia Grammar & Preparatory School, New York City
 * Columbia High School (disambiguation)
 * Columbia Independent School, Columbia, Missouri
 * Columbia Middle School in Grovetown, Georgia
 * Columbia University, a former name of the University of Portland

School districts

 * Columbia Elementary School District, Redding, California
 * Columbia School District (Mississippi)
 * Columbia Public Schools, Columbia, Missouri

Aircraft and spacecraft

 * Space Shuttle Columbia
 * Space Shuttle Columbia disaster
 * Command Module Columbia, the Command/Service Module for the Apollo 11 mission
 * Columbia XJL, a large amphibian aircraft built only as three prototypes

Naval vessels

 * USS Columbia, any of several ships of the US Navy
 * Columbia-class cruiser, a group of two protected cruisers used by the United States Navy, 1890–91
 * Columbia-class submarine, an upcoming class of nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines for the United States Navy
 * CSS Columbia, a Confederate (and later U.S. Navy) ironclad ram during the Civil War
 * HMCS Columbia, any of several commissioned vessels of the Royal Canadian Navy

America's Cup yachts

 * Columbia (1871 yacht)
 * Columbia (1899 yacht)
 * Columbia (1958 yacht)

Other ships

 * Columbia (Arrow Lakes sternwheeler)
 * Columbia (barque), in the service of the Hudson's Bay Company on the Columbia River and along the Pacific Northwest Coast
 * Columbia (collapsed paddle steamer), a paddle steamer excursion boat which sank on the Illinois River in July 1918
 * Columbia (sidewheeler 1850), a steamboat in Oregon
 * MV Columbia, a large passenger and automobile ferry in the Alaska Marine Highway System fleet
 * SS Columbia, a historic excursion steamer docked in Ecorse, Michigan, United States
 * SS Columbia (1880), a coastal passenger liner which made the first commercial use of Edison's light bulb
 * SS Columbia (1889), an ocean liner, later renamed Rapido, a cruiser for the Spanish Navy
 * United States lightship Columbia (WLV-604), the first lightship on the Pacific Coast of the United States, docked in Astoria, Oregon
 * Columbia Rediviva, commonly known as the Columbia, a maritime fur trade vessel

Other uses

 * Columbia Carousel, carousels in amusement parks
 * Columbia sheep, an American breed
 * Columbia (supercomputer), named for the space shuttle
 * Columbia, another name for the 2-4-2 classification of steam locomotives
 * Sailing Ship Columbia, a themed ride at Disneyland
 * Team Columbia, a professional cycling team sponsored by Columbia Sportswear
 * Columbia (Hewlett-Packard), a codename for the HP OmniGo 700LX palmtop PC

title: Columbia


text:
Alkanna tinctoria

Alkanna tinctoria, the dyer's alkanet or simply alkanet, is a herbaceous flowering plant in the borage family Boraginaceae. Its roots are used to produce a red dye. The plant is also known as dyers' bugloss, orchanet, Spanish bugloss, or Languedoc bugloss. It is native to the Mediterranean region. A. tinctoria has 30 chromosomes and is regarded as a dysploid at the tetraploid level (4x + 2).

A. tinctoria has a bright blue flower. The plant has a root of blackish appearance externally, but blue-red inside, with a whitish core. The root produces a fine red colouring material, which has been used as a dye in the Mediterranean region since antiquity. The dyestuff in its roots is soluble in alcohol, ether, and oils, but is insoluble in water. It is used to give colour to wines and alcoholic tinctures, to vegetable oils, and to varnishes.

Powdered and mixed with oil, the alkanet root is used as a wood stain. When mixed into an oily environment, it imparts a crimson color to the oil, which when applied to wood moves the wood's color towards dark-red-brown (resembling that of rosewood), and accentuates the grain of the wood.

Alkanet is also traditionally used in Indian food under the name ratan jot, and lends its red colour to some versions of the curry dish rogan josh. In Australia, alkanet is approved for use as a food colouring, but in the European Union, it is not.

It has been used as colorant for lipstick and rouge.

In alkaline environments, alkanet dye is blue; in the presence of acids it gradually changes to crimson. The colour is red at pH 6.1, purple at 8.8 and blue at pH 10.

The colouring agent in A. tinctoria root has been chemically isolated and named alkannin.

In folk medicine, it is also used to treat abscesses and inflammations.

In English in the late medieval era, the name alkanet meant A. tinctoria. In the centuries since then, the name has come to be used informally for some botanically related other plants; see Alkanet.

title: Alkanna tinctoria