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Talk:Gel electrophoresis

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Comment
Umm, this is mostly about molecules, not about electrophoresis... -- Marj Tiefert (26 March 2002)

 * as it should be - gel electrophoresis is used almost exclusively to seperte and characterize molecules; the theory is not of much intrinsic interest. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.60.137.141 (talk) 2:59, 31 September 2006 (UTC)

BS; theory is of huge interest, see the paper by Viovy in Rev of Modern Physics (I think 2000 or so)Cinnamon colbert (talk) 02:30, 5 April 2011 (UTC)

Gel electrophoresis =/ electrophoresis
This section should be deleted as the electrophoresis article makes all this moot USP cites Gel, Disk, Zone among others. Also, USP Capillary Electrophoresis, as well as Capillary Zone electrophoresis. Perhaps electrophoresis should not redirect here.

Eh, I'm an idiot, although I do still think Gel electrophoresis is still too specific for electrophoresis to redirect here.Ix 01:47, 31 May 2004 (UTC)

Its not very accurate either. Normally electrophoresis of marcomolecules separates based on size and shape, rather than charge, or at least that's the way it is used. You can also separate based upon the isoelectric point. I think it would be worthwhile redoing the article. This probably should be one place that electrophoresis is linked, but surely not the only one. srlasky 22:43, 2004 Oct 24 (UTC) Both are wrong. Electrophoresis and Gel electrophoresis seperate on a combination of NET charge and frictional resistance. The net charge of a molecule depends on the surrounding medium; the frictional resistance is mostly a function of shape - how hard it is for the molecule to flow through the gel. basically velocity = electrical force X net charge - friction. (in some cases, the two scale with size, this is why there is no size dependent seperation of dna without a gel).aditya aditya, thanks for bringing some minimal level of sophistication to this article; those of you who understand, say biased reptation, can talk knowlegeably hereCinnamon colbert (talk) 02:30, 5 April 2011 (UTC)

Electrophoresis redirect?
This section candidate for deletion now that electrophoresis article available Think electrophoresis should be seperate article. Electrophoresis refers to the movement of charge particles in a medium induced by an electric potential, and gel electrophoresis is merely the most commom application, strongly recommend that electrophoresis not redirect to this article. Does not adequately explain concepts such as the role of the zeta potential, sediment potentials, streaming potential, electrophoretic mobility etc, nor does it explain related phenomena such as electroosmosis and other electrokinetic actions. Also does not allow for proper understanding of equations modelling electrophoretic movement for example Smoluchowski equation and O'Brien and White's model.

Strongly believe electrophoresis should be a more general article linking to this page and other applications such as electrophoretic deposition.

 * Someone made electrophoresis a separate article recently, FYI. Nathan J. Yoder 22:52, 15 October 2005 (UTC)

A couple of suggestions
I think the first pragraph should give a hint of the modus operandi of the method, ie say that the separation occurs because of different velocity. I also think it would be more explanatory to say that one of the factors that determine the speed is the charge of the molecule, rather than say that it is the isoelectric point. The isoelectric point is just one of the factors that determine the charge that determines the velocity. The other factor is the pH of the medium in which it moves. The pH is normally determined by the buffer that is added. matrix is a word that is often used for the gel or medium in which the molecules move. But matrix is a word that has many meanings in different contexts. gel should be appropriate, or possibly medium. --Etxrge 13:15, 6 January 2006 (UTC)

"...applying an electric current, the molecules will move through the matrix at different rates, towards the anode if negatively charged or towards the cathode if positively charged (note that gel electrophoresis operates as an electrolytic cell; the anode is positive and the cathode is negative)."

Can this be elaborated on? I thought that electrons always ran from cathode to anode. But it seems like the terminology is reversed for electrophoresis.

Does the negatively charged DNA migrate in the same direction as the electrons?

Anode and Cathode are confusing terms. What is important is that the anode is positively charged [A good source]. The wiki article on cathode can help clear up some of the confusion. anode and cathode are a continual source of confusion; this memonic may help: anions (neg ions) run toward the anode...since DNA is negative, it runs to the cathode, although, ifyou had a pH 1 or so buffer, DNA would run to the cathode (I know depurination starts to kick in around pH 5 or so...)Cinnamon colbert (talk) 02:33, 5 April 2011 (UTC)

Spamming External Links
A lot of people spamming the wikipedia. www.westernblotting.org for example has spammed the following pages:

 * en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gel_electrophoresis
 * en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_membrane
 * en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coomassie
 * en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradford_protein_assay
 * en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blot_(biology)
 * en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_mosaic_model
 * en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyacrylamide_gel_electrophoresis
 * en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slot_blot
 * en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell-surface

And many others I got tired of pasting. For a site of a few pages large, there is very little information from this site for users especially a made for adsense site.

Factors
I think we should mention which particle factors influence migration, like electrical charge, shape, and size. 128.230.44.239 (talk) 02:39, 7 March 2008 (UTC)

Scope
The article scope is too limited. It is not _only_ limited to applications of DNA, RNA and protein molecules, eitehr in theory or practice. See e.g. LUDMILLA SHIRSHOVA and RAGNAR ÖSTERBERG; “Electrophoresis of podzol soil humic acids”;  Environment International ;  July–August 1998;  24 (5–6): pp. 625–628. . —DIV (128.250.80.15 (talk) 07:08, 23 October 2008 (UTC))

 * WP:SOFIXIT -- MarcoTolo (talk) 18:35, 23 October 2008 (UTC)
 * agree - there have been several papers recentlhy on sepration of nanoparticles by agarose gels Cinnamon colbert (talk) 04:02, 18 January 2011 (UTC)

Merge with article on Agarose Gel Electrophoresis?
Another article exists on Agarose gel electrophoresis. The content overlaps considerably with this entry. I'm putting out there the suggestion to merge the two articles. 68.194.106.90 (talk) 20:07, 10 August 2010 (UTC)

 * no; the agarose gel electrophoresis article is crappy, full of errors and typos; this article ain't so great, but its at least a startCinnamon colbert (talk) 02:30, 5 April 2011 (UTC)

I was just thinking about a merge myself. While agarose gel electrophoresis could possibly have its own article, most of the content that is actually there pertains to gel electrophoresis in general, and that material should be moved here. The same goes for Denaturing gel electrophoresis, Native gel electrophoresis, and Native PAGE. These five articles should all be merged together. Antony–22 (talk⁄contribs) 00:15, 26 October 2011 (UTC)

 * Yeah all those related pages should be merged into this article with individual sections for them. But the Agarose gel electrophoresis article should be merged into this one, not the other way around, as there are other types of gels used in gel electrophoresis, which don't only use gels made from agarose. The electrophoresis article can be the general info and overview, and can link to this one, which can provide more detailed information on gel electrophoresis. - M0rphzone (talk) 06:40, 26 October 2011 (UTC)

Okay, I've merged the five articles. You can see from the merged article how little material there was in any of these articles that talked about the specific topics they were supposed to. Antony–22 (talk⁄contribs) 17:35, 28 October 2011 (UTC)

Further remarks on article improvement

 * Continued from WT:MCB

I have a couple of comments on the recent changes. The first is that the discussion of TAE and TBE buffers is relevant to both agarose and polyacrylamide, and the article should reflect that. Also, I agree that much of the material in the Visualization section can be moved to the applications subarticles and a shorter summary written here. Be careful not to make the mistake of assuming that nucleic acids are only run in agarose gels; shorter oligonucleotides are better resolved in polyacrylamide gels. Antony–22 (talk⁄contribs) 01:20, 12 June 2013 (UTC)

I think the whole Buffers section needs some cleanup. There are patches of sentences that make it hard to read and understand. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 94.230.83.69 (talk) 21:57, 8 December 2013 (UTC)

Unmerging Agarose Gel Electrophoresis?
I see that there was a discussion on merging of the agarose gel electrophoresis which I think came to the wrong conclusion. If an article is crappy, full of errors and typos, then the article should be corrected and improved, but not merged. An important technique should have its own page, whether there are overlap in information with another important technique is not a valid reason for merging. Agarose gel electrophoresis is an important, regularly used technique in molecular biology, and its use and technique is quite distinct from polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE, now usually only used for protein and small DNA fragment). While there should be a general page on gel electrophoresis (as distinct from electrophoresis), there should also be further individual pages on agarose gel electrophoresis and PAGE (this will include the variants on the same technique - native, gradient, etc.). At the moment there is too much in one page to give all the details that might be worth putting in for each individual technique. Hzh (talk) 02:37, 22 June 2013 (UTC)
 * We have discussed this recently (see link in the comment above by Antony) and conclusion was that we should expand this article and then we'll see if it is worth unmerging. I guess it's about time to do it as there is definitely enough information for agarose gel electrophoresis article. We could polish both articles after splitting. --Faskal (talk) 07:58, 22 June 2013 (UTC)
 * I think the issue isn't about whether there is enough information to unmerge it (there is unquestionably enough), but that it is a separate technique that should not have been merged with PAGE. People wanting to know about agarose gel electrophoresis would have to pick out little bits of information scattered all over this article on why you want to use the technique, how to cast a gel, run the gel, stain and visualize the gel. This page is therefore too clunky to use, especially when there are missing information.  There wasn't that much overlap in information anyway, so while it is useful to have a general article on gel electrophoresis, agarose should have a separate article on its own. It is a distinct subject by itself.  You also now the odd situation of having a page on SDD-AGE but none on agarose gel electrophoresis. Hzh (talk) 11:09, 22 June 2013 (UTC)
 * PAGE and agarose gel electrophoresis are nearly identical procedures; the only difference is the material used for the gel matrix and the size of the analytes that each works best for. Other than these they work on the same physical principles and are stained, visualized, and analyzed in the same ways.  The reason the article were merged was not because either article was poorly written; it's because the topics overlap so much that it's hard to see what can be written about agarose electrophoresis that does not also apply to polyacrylamide electrophoresis.
 * There are currently only three paragraphs in this article that are specifically about agarose gels. If this subsection is expanded with enough material specifically about agarose electrophoresis, then a split would be warranted.  However, I think that the more appropriate divide is between procedures for electrophoresis of proteins (which nearly always uses PAGE) and of nucleic acids (which uses both types of gel).  These are actually stained and analyzed in different ways, which is why there are separate articles on those topics. Antony–22 (talk⁄contribs) 23:31, 22 June 2013 (UTC)
 * It is a distinct and important topic by itself, one that many would be interested, which is why it should have its own page. The overlap or lack of content is irrelevant, you can have a three paragraph article, and you can always extend it. The problem now is that you can't extend it because it doesn't have its own page, so you are in fact using a circular argument.  At the moment the article is clunky to use and it is a good enough reason not to merge per Merging.  The vast majority of people doing agarose gel electrophoresis don't use PAGE for DNA, so whether there is some overlap with PAGE is completely irrelevant to them.  Wikipedia is about being useful, at the moment it is not useful for its users. The fact that there are individual pages on SDD-AGE and pulsed field gel electrophoresis showed how odd the situation is.  The whole thing no longer makes sense. The structure should be -
 * Gel electrophoresis
 * Agarose gel electrophoresis
 * SDD-AGE
 * Pulse field gel electrophoresis

 * That is, SDD-AGE and Pulse field gel electrophoresis should not exist without an agarose gel electrophoresis page, they would have been merged into it. There is an argument for pulse field gel electrophoresis as a separate page because it uses a special technique, but there is none for SDD-AGE without a page for agarose gel electrophoresis first (it is a minor variation and would have been part of the content for agarose gel electrophoresis, but please don't use it as an argument to merge that article, I am merely using it to illustrate the illogicality of the present situation).  I would stress that it is a good thing to have a general page on gel electrophoresis, one that can give an overview on the subject, the different methods available, and give a discussion on when why different methods are chosen.  Agarose gel electrophoresis however is important subject by itself that should not be merged into another.  Hzh (talk) 04:04, 23 June 2013 (UTC)

 * BTW, I'm considering adding something about EEO of agarose gel, also maybe on the migration of DNA bands vs concentration of gel. If someone can make a figure by running DNA markers in 0.5%, 1%, and 2% gel, that would be great.  This would be on the page for agarose gel electrophoresis since adding it here would made it too much of a jumble of facts. This page I think can stay as it is without modification, but a separate page on agarose gel electrophoresis would be more useful for content specific to it. Hzh (talk) 12:21, 23 June 2013 (UTC)

I see what you mean about having all these short finely-defined articles on different methods. But I think the following hierarchy would be just as meaningful as yours: You see the problem: there are many ways we can divide up this topic. As I said, I think that the protein/nucleic acid divide is the most useful one to have as our top-level division, because they use quite different methodologies and are analyzed in somewhat different ways. My feeling is that someone working with DNA would probably be interested in both agarose and polyacrylamide methods, while they would be unlikely to care about protein methods. So it would make less sense to put the agarose methods for the two analytes in the same article rather than keeping the DNA parts together.
 * Gel electrophoresis
 * Gel electrophoresis of proteins
 * SDD-AGE
 * Gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids
 * Pulse field gel electrophoresis

What specifically would you intend to be the content of agarose gel electrophoresis article? Would you mainly be merging in other articles, or would you be mainly writing new material? Antony–22 (talk⁄contribs) 18:03, 23 June 2013 (UTC)

 * Of course someone working with DNA may be interested in both agarose and polyacrylamide method, that isn't the point. My point is that someone interested in agarose gel electrophoresis would be interested in that subject, and this page is too clunky for use for that purpose.  I'm also not sure why you should be concerned about an article being short, short articles abound in wikipedia, it is not an issue.  In any case any article on agarose gel electrophoresis would not be short, the page on SDS-PAGE isn't short, people have a lot of time expanding it, and there is no reason why agarose gel electrophoresis couldn't also be expanded.  I would be interested in your rationale for not merging SDS-PAGE article here because it covers exactly the same scope as this page. It's puzzling to me because I have no idea why an article on agarose gel electrophoresis got merged but not SDS-PAGE.  It makes absolutely no sense. To me both agarose gel electrophoresis and SDS-PAGE are both important techniques, which is why they should have both their own article.

 * I would likely to be starting from the original article on agarose gel electrophoresis, adding some content and deleting some. Someone with the time to make some figures can also use the SDS-PAGE article as an example on how it can be expanded. Hzh (talk) 19:31, 23 June 2013 (UTC)

 * I didn't really have a logical reason for not merging the SDS-PAGE article. Mostly, it's written in a practical how-to style that's somewhat discouraged on Wikipedia, but it is fairly well written and quite long, so I didn't want to deal with figuring out how to break it up.
 * After thinking about it, I suppose there's room for separate agarose and polyacrylamide articles that focus on methodology, while other articles focus on physical principles and analysis. I've already moved all the material from the old article to the appropriate place, and as you can see there were only three paragraphs worth that were specifically about agarose electrophoresis; everything else was redundant with polyacrylamide electrophoresis.  So I'd recommend starting essentially from scratch, and avoiding topics that are common between all types of gel electrophoresis.  It looks like the SDS-PAGE article can be easily recast to talk about PAGE in general, since the methodologies are identical except for the inclusion of SDS itself. Antony–22 (talk⁄contribs) 05:51, 24 June 2013 (UTC)

 * I think there should be separate articles agarose gel electrophoresis and SDS-PAGE. First thing that student of molecular biology usually sees is agarose gel stained by EtBr. For general public and popularization of science "gel electroporesis" is usually the agarose gel electrophoresis. While there has to be an article that describes different variants of this method, the most common variant should have its own article.

 * I would not suggest to "merge" articles but to simply cut&paste 1/3 of the content of this article to a new one. I've said it multiple times - this article is about agarose gel electrophoresis and SDS-PAGE, not about gel electrophoresis in general. Just look at the "buffers" section - it's description of the most common buffers for agarose gel electrophoresis system. What should be there is, say... why it is necessary to use buffers, something about conductivity, when use one buffer system and when discontinuous one... Currently it is such a mess that deletion of some content (... or unmerging...) would actually improve the article.

 * How can you know there couldn't be good article about agarose gel electrophoresis when there is no article about it at all? --Faskal (talk) 16:05, 24 June 2013 (UTC)

 * I think this article can stay largely as it is, it just needs some additional information to make it a general introduction to gel electrophoresis (for example, a few more sentences about 2D-electrophoresis, pulse-field gel electrophoresis, and others), and trimming parts of it. For the buffers section, it would be better to give a general description of what the buffer does, and why they are chosen for the different systems, then some common examples.  Even the buffer section on SDS-PAGE article needs improving, for example there is no mention of commonly-used Tris-tricine buffer system.  The theoretical side can be expanded here (sieving and reptation), and an article on agarose gel electrophoresis can then refer back to this article on the theory behind gel electrophoresis so that it doesn't need to concentrate on it, but can mention others specific to agarose gel like the EEO (unless I'm mistaken, I don't think EEO is important for PAGE). This way different articles can be useful for different things. Hzh (talk) 18:11, 24 June 2013 (UTC)
 * Suggestions for agarose gel electrophoresis/agarose: analysis of DNA topology, Comet assay, history (PMID:16511967), low-melting agarose&DNA isolation, TAE/TBE/TPE, immobilization of microorganisms, chondrocyte/agarose, analysis of proteins/mucopolysaccharides/..., and other topics. I'll be without internet for two weeks so please save something for me. --Faskal (talk) 16:17, 25 June 2013 (UTC)
 * I don't think I can write too much on it, but I'll just give some of the basics and you can be expanded it later. I'll probably start in a few days' time, unless someone else wants to give it ago before that.  Hzh (talk) 20:15, 25 June 2013 (UTC)

On a separate issue, I'm wondering is if gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids should be changed to electrophoresis of nucleic acids? I don't know much about capillary electrophoresis, but I gather that it may use gel as well as other polymers as sieving matrix, so perhaps using a broader term can give a broader view of electrophoresis of nucleic acids. Hzh (talk) 21:59, 25 June 2013 (UTC)

 * I like Hzh's plan: a methodology-focused article similar in scope to SDS-PAGE would be appropriate. I'm happy to make the relatively minor changes to turn the SDS-PAGE articl into one about PAGE in general.  I think capillary electrophoresis is different enough from gel electrophoresis in its physical principles and analysis that it would be awkward to put both in the same article.  Antony–22 (talk⁄contribs) 02:16, 26 June 2013 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Gel electrophoresis


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Pen name

A pen name is a pseudonym (or, in some cases, a variant form of a real name) adopted by an author and printed on the title page or by-line of their works in place of their real name.

A pen name may be used to make the author's name more distinctive, to disguise the author's gender, to distance the author from their other works, to protect the author from retribution for their writings, to merge multiple persons into a single identifiable author, or for any of several reasons related to the marketing or aesthetic presentation of the work.

The author's real identity may be known only to the publisher or may become common knowledge. In some cases, such as those of Elena Ferrante and Torsten Krol, a pen name may preserve an author's long-term anonymity.

Etymology
The French-language phrase nom de plume is occasionally still seen as a synonym for the English term "pen name", although this usage is not French; at least according to H. W. Fowler and F. G. Fowler in The King's English, it is a "back-translation" from the English, the "proper" French equivalent being nom de guerre (a more generalised term for 'pseudonym'). Since guerre means 'war' in French, nom de guerre confused some English speakers, who "corrected" the French metaphor.

Europe and the United States
An author may use a pen name if their real name is likely to be confused with that of another author or other significant individual. For instance, in 1899 the British politician Winston Churchill wrote under the name Winston S. Churchill to distinguish his writings from those of the American novelist of the same name.

An author may use a pen name implying a rank or title which they have never actually held. William Earl Johns wrote under the name "Capt. W. E. Johns" although the highest army rank he held was acting lieutenant and his highest air force rank was flying officer.

Authors who regularly write in more than one genre may use different pen names for each, either in an attempt to conceal their true identity or even after their identity is known. Romance writer Nora Roberts writes erotic thrillers under the pen name J. D. Robb (such books were originally listed as by "J. D. Robb" and are now titled "Nora Roberts writing as J. D. Robb"); Scots writer Iain Banks wrote mainstream or literary fiction under his own name and science fiction under Iain M. Banks; Samuel Langhorne Clemens used the aliases Mark Twain and Sieur Louis de Conte for different works. Similarly, an author who writes both fiction and non-fiction (such as the mathematician and fantasy writer Charles Dodgson, who wrote as Lewis Carroll) may use a pseudonym for fiction writing. Science fiction author Harry Turtledove has used the name H. N. Turtletaub for some historical novels he has written because he and his publisher felt that the presumed lower sales of those novels might hurt bookstore orders for the novels he writes under his name.

Occasionally, a pen name is employed to avoid overexposure. Prolific authors for pulp magazines often had two and sometimes three short stories appearing in one issue of a magazine; the editor would create several fictitious author names to hide this from readers. Robert A. Heinlein wrote stories under the pseudonyms of Anson MacDonald (a combination of his middle name and his then-wife's maiden name) and Caleb Strong so that more of his works could be published in a single magazine. Stephen King published four novels under the name Richard Bachman because publishers did not feel the public would buy more than one novel per year from a single author. Eventually, after critics found a large number of style similarities, publishers revealed Bachman's true identity.

Sometimes a pen name is used because an author believes that their name does not suit the genre they are writing in. Western novelist Pearl Gray dropped his first name and changed the spelling of his last name to Zane Grey because he believed that his real name did not suit the Western genre. Romance novelist Angela Knight writes under that name instead of her actual name (Julie Woodcock) because of the double entendre of her surname in the context of that genre. Romain Gary, who was a well-known French writer, decided in 1973 to write novels in a different style under the name Émile Ajar and even asked his cousin's son to impersonate Ajar; thus he received the most prestigious French literary prize twice, which is forbidden by the prize rules. He revealed the affair in a book he sent his editor just before committing suicide in 1980.

A pen name may be shared by different writers to suggest continuity of authorship. Thus the Bessie Bunter series of English boarding school stories, initially written by the prolific Charles Hamilton under the name Hilda Richards, was taken on by other authors who continued to use the same pen name.

In some forms of fiction, the pen name adopted is the name of the lead character, to suggest to the reader that the book is an autobiography of a real person. Daniel Handler used the pseudonym Lemony Snicket to present his A Series of Unfortunate Events books as memoirs by an acquaintance of the main characters. Some, however, do this to fit a certain theme. One example, Pseudonymous Bosch, used his pen name just to expand the theme of secrecy in The Secret Series.

Authors also may occasionally choose pen names to appear in more favorable positions in bookshops or libraries, to maximize visibility when placed on shelves that are conventionally arranged alphabetically moving horizontally, then upwards vertically.

Female authors
Some female authors have used pen names to ensure that their works were accepted by publishers and/or the public. Such is the case of Peru's Clarinda, whose work was published in the early 17th century. More often, women have adopted masculine pen names. This was common in the 19th century when women were beginning to make inroads into literature but, it was felt they would not be taken as seriously by readers as male authors. For example, Mary Ann Evans wrote under the pen name George Eliot; and Amandine Aurore Lucile Dupin, and Baronne Dudevant, used the pseudonym George Sand. Charlotte, Emily, and Anne Brontë published under the names Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell, respectively. French-Savoyard writer and poet Amélie Gex chose to publish as Dian de Jeânna ("John, son of Jane") during the first half of her career. Karen Blixen's very successful Out of Africa (1937) was originally published under the pen name Isak Dinesen. Victoria Benedictsson, a Swedish author of the 19th century, wrote under the name Ernst Ahlgren. The science fiction author Alice B. Sheldon for many years published under the masculine name of James Tiptree, Jr., the discovery of which led to a deep discussion of gender in the genre.

More recently, women who write in genres commonly written by men sometimes choose to use initials, such as K. A. Applegate, C. J. Cherryh, P. N. Elrod, D. C. Fontana, S. E. Hinton, G. A. Riplinger, J. D. Robb, and J. K. Rowling. Alternatively, they may use a unisex pen name, such as Robin Hobb (the second pen name of novelist Margaret Astrid Lindholm Ogden).

Collective names
A collective name, also known as a house name, is published under one pen name even though more than one author may have contributed to the series. In some cases, the first books in the series were written by one writer, but subsequent books were written by ghostwriters. For instance, many of the later books in The Saint adventure series were not written by Leslie Charteris, the series' originator. Similarly, Nancy Drew mystery books are published as though they were written by Carolyn Keene, The Hardy Boys books are published as the work of Franklin W. Dixon, and The Bobbsey Twins series are credited to Laura Lee Hope, although numerous authors have been involved in each series. Erin Hunter, the author of the Warriors novel series, is a collective pen name used by authors Kate Cary, Cherith Baldry, Tui T. Sutherland, and the editor Victoria Holmes.

Collaborative authors may also have their works published under a single pen name. Frederic Dannay and Manfred B. Lee published their mystery novels and stories under the pen name Ellery Queen, which was also used to publish the work of several ghostwriters they commissioned. The writers of Atlanta Nights, a deliberately bad book intended to embarrass the publishing firm PublishAmerica, used the pen name Travis Tea. Additionally, the credited author of The Expanse, James S. A. Corey, is an amalgam of the middle names of collaborating writers Daniel Abraham and Ty Franck respectively, while S. A. is the initials of Abraham's daughter. Sometimes multiple authors will write related books under the same pseudonym; examples include T. H. Lain in fiction. The Australian fiction collaborators who write under the pen name Alice Campion are a group of women who have so far written The Painted Sky (2015), Der Bunte Himmel (2015), and The Shifting Light (2017).

In the 1780s, The Federalist Papers were written under the pseudonym "Publius" by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay. The three men chose the name "Publius" because it recalled the founder of the Roman Republic and using it implied a positive intention.

In pure mathematics, Nicolas Bourbaki is the pseudonym of a group of mostly French-connected mathematicians attempting to expose the field in an axiomatic and self-contained, encyclopedic form.

Concealment of identity
A pseudonym may be used to protect the writer of exposé books about espionage or crime. Former SAS soldier Steven Billy Mitchell used the pseudonym Andy McNab for his book about a failed SAS mission titled Bravo Two Zero. The name Ibn Warraq ("son of a papermaker") has been used by dissident Muslim authors. Author Brian O'Nolan used the pen names Flann O'Brien and Myles na gCopaleen for his novels and journalistic writing from the 1940s to the 1960s because Irish civil servants were not permitted at that time to publish political writings. The identity of the enigmatic twentieth-century novelist B. Traven has never been conclusively revealed, despite thorough research.

A multiple-use name or anonymity pseudonym is a pseudonym open for anyone to use and these have been adopted by various groups, often as a protest against the cult of individual creators. In Italy, two anonymous groups of writers have gained some popularity with the collective names of Luther Blissett and Wu Ming.

Hong Kong
Wuxia novelist Louis Cha uses the pen name Gum Yoong (金庸) by taking apart the components of the Chinese character in his given name (鏞) from his birth name Cha Leung-yung (查良鏞).

India
In Indian languages, writers may put a pen name at the end of their names, like Ramdhari Singh Dinkar. Some writers, like Firaq Gorakhpuri, wrote only under a pen name.

In early Indian literature, authors considered the use of names egotistical. Because names were avoided, it is difficult to trace the authorship of many earlier literary works from India. Later writers adopted the practice of using the name of their deity of worship or Guru's name as their pen name. In this case, typically the pen name would be included at the end of the prose or poetry.

Composers of Indian classical music used pen names in compositions to assert authorship, including Sadarang, Gunarang (Fayyaz Ahmed Khan), Ada Rang (court musician of Muhammad Shah), Sabrang (Bade Ghulam Ali Khan), and Ramrang (Ramashreya Jha). Other compositions are apocryphally ascribed to composers with their pen names.

Japan
Japanese poets who write haiku often use a haigō (俳号). The haiku poet Matsuo Bashō had used two other haigō before he became fond of a banana plant (bashō) that had been given to him by a disciple and started using it as his pen name at the age of 36.

Similar to a pen name, Japanese artists usually have a gō or art-name, which might change a number of times during their career. In some cases, artists adopted different gō at different stages of their career, usually to mark significant changes in their life. One of the most extreme examples of this is Hokusai, who in the period 1798 to 1806 alone used no fewer than six. Manga artist Ogure Ito uses the pen name Oh! great because his real name Ogure Ito is roughly how the Japanese pronounce "oh great".

Persian and Urdu poetry

 * Note: List of Urdu language poets provides pen names for a range of Urdu poets.

A shâ'er (Persian from Arabic, for poet) (a poet who writes she'rs in Urdu or Persian) almost always has a "takhallus", a pen name, traditionally placed at the end of the name (often marked by a graphical sign placed above it) when referring to the poet by his full name. For example, Hafez is a pen-name for Shams al-Din, and thus the usual way to refer to him would be Shams al-Din Hafez or just Hafez. Mirza Asadullah Baig Khan (his official name and title) is referred to as Mirza Asadullah Khan Ghalib, or just Mirza Ghalib.

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title: Pen name


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Political economy

Political economy is a branch of political science and economics studying economic systems (e.g. markets and national economies) and their governance by political systems (e.g. law, institutions, and government). Widely studied phenomena within the discipline are systems such as labour markets and financial markets, as well as phenomena such as growth, distribution, inequality, and trade, and how these are shaped by institutions, laws, and government policy. Originating in the 16th century, it is the precursor to the modern discipline of economics. Political economy in its modern form is considered an interdisciplinary field, drawing on theory from both political science and modern economics.

Political economy originated within 16th century western moral philosophy, with theoretical works exploring the administration of states' wealth; "political" signifying the Greek word polity and "economy" signifying the Greek word ; household management. The earliest works of political economy are usually attributed to the British scholars Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, and David Ricardo, although they were preceded by the work of the French physiocrats, such as François Quesnay (1694–1774) and Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot (1727–1781).

In the late 19th century, the term "economics" gradually began to replace the term "political economy" with the rise of mathematical modeling coinciding with the publication of an influential textbook by Alfred Marshall in 1890. Earlier, William Stanley Jevons, a proponent of mathematical methods applied to the subject, advocated economics for brevity and with the hope of the term becoming "the recognised name of a science". Citation measurement metrics from Google Ngram Viewer indicate that use of the term "economics" began to overshadow "political economy" around roughly 1910, becoming the preferred term for the discipline by 1920. According to economist Clara Mattei, this shift was driven by the increasing consensus of classical liberalism as natural-law; and persisted despite evidence to the contrary during the First World War. Today, the term "economics" usually refers to the narrow study of the economy absent other political and social considerations while the term "political economy" represents a distinct and competing approach.

Etymology
Originally, political economy meant the study of the conditions under which production or consumption within limited parameters was organized in nation-states. In that way, political economy expanded the emphasis on economics, which comes from the Greek oikos (meaning "home") and nomos (meaning "law" or "order"). Political economy was thus meant to express the laws of production of wealth at the state level, quite like economics concerns putting home to order. The phrase économie politique (translated in English to "political economy") first appeared in France in 1615 with the well-known book by Antoine de Montchrétien, Traité de l'economie politique. Other contemporary scholars attribute the roots of this study to the 13th Century Tunisian Arab Historian and Sociologist, Ibn Khaldun, for his work on making the distinction between "profit" and "sustenance", in modern political economy terms, surplus and that required for the reproduction of classes respectively. He also calls for the creation of a science to explain society and goes on to outline these ideas in his major work, the Muqaddimah. In Al-Muqaddimah Khaldun states, "Civilization and its well-being, as well as business prosperity, depend on productivity and people's efforts in all directions in their own interest and profit" – seen as a modern precursor to Classical Economic thought.

Leading on from this, the French physiocrats were the first major exponents of political economy, although the intellectual responses of Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, David Ricardo, Henry George and Karl Marx to the physiocrats generally receive much greater attention. The world's first professorship in political economy was established in 1754 at the University of Naples Federico II in southern Italy. The Neapolitan philosopher Antonio Genovesi was the first tenured professor. In 1763, Joseph von Sonnenfels was appointed a Political Economy chair at the University of Vienna, Austria. Thomas Malthus, in 1805, became England's first professor of political economy, at the East India Company College, Haileybury, Hertfordshire. At present, political economy refers to different yet related approaches to studying economic and related behaviours, ranging from the combination of economics with other fields to the use of different, fundamental assumptions challenging earlier economic assumptions.

Current approaches
Political economy most commonly refers to interdisciplinary studies drawing upon economics, sociology and political science in explaining how political institutions, the political environment, and the economic system—capitalist, socialist, communist, or mixed—influence each other. The Journal of Economic Literature classification codes associate political economy with three sub-areas: (1) the role of government and/or class and power relationships in resource allocation for each type of economic system; (2) international political economy, which studies the economic impacts of international relations; and (3) economic models of political or exploitative class processes. Within the field of political science, there is generally a distinction between international political economy (studied by international relations scholars) and comparative political economy (studied by comparative politics scholars).

Public choice theory is a microfoundations theory closely intertwined with political economy. Both approaches model voters, politicians and bureaucrats as behaving in mainly self-interested ways, in contrast to a view, ascribed to earlier mainstream economists, of government officials trying to maximize individual utilities from some kind of social welfare function. As such, economists and political scientists often associate political economy with approaches using rational-choice assumptions, especially in game theory • Shubik, Martin (1981). "Game Theory Models and Methods in Political Economy," in K. Arrow and M. Intriligator, ed., Handbook of Mathematical Economics, Elsevier, v. 1, pp. 285-330. • _____ (1984). A Game-Theoretic Approach to Political Economy. MIT Press. Description and review extract. • _____ (1999). Political Economy, Oligopoly and Experimental Games: The Selected Essays of Martin Shubik, v. 1, Edward Elgar. Description and contents of Part I, Political Economy. • Peter C. Ordeshook (1990). "The Emerging Discipline of Political Economy," ch. 1 in Perspectives on Positive Political Economy, Cambridge, pp. 9–30. • _____ (1986). Game Theory and Political Theory, Cambridge. Description and preview. and in examining phenomena beyond economics' standard remit, such as government failure and complex decision making in which context the term "positive political economy" is common. Other "traditional" topics include analysis of such public policy issues as economic regulation, monopoly, rent-seeking, market protection, institutional corruption and distributional politics. • Becker, Gary S. (1983). "A Theory of Competition among Pressure Groups for Political Influence," Quarterly Journal of Economics, 98(3), pp. 371–400. • Weingast, Barry R., Kenneth A. Shepsle, and Christopher Johnsen (1981). "The Political Economy of Benefits and Costs: A Neoclassical Approach to Distributive Politics,"  Journal of Political Economy, 89(4), pp. 642–664. • Breyer, Friedrich (1994). "The Political Economy of Intergenerational Redistribution," European Journal of Political Economy, 10(1), pp. 61–84. Abstract. • Williamson, Oliver E. (1995). "The Politics and Economics of Redistribution and Inefficiency," Greek Economic Review, December, 17, pp. 115–136, reprinted in Williamson (1996), The Mechanisms of Governance, Oxford University Press, [https://books.google.com/books?id=meERBVysP6YC&pg=PR11 ch. 8], pp. 195–218. • Krusell, Per, and José-Víctor Ríos-Rull (1999). "On the Size of U.S. Government: Political Economy in the Neoclassical Growth Model," American Economic Review, 89(5), pp. 1156–1181. • Galasso, Vincenzo, and Paola Profeta (2002). "The Political Economy of Social Security: A Survey," European Journal of Political Economy, 18(1), pp. 1–29. Empirical analysis includes the influence of elections on the choice of economic policy, determinants and forecasting models of electoral outcomes, the political business cycles, central-bank independence and the politics of excessive deficits. An interesting example would be the publication in 1954 of the first manual of Political Economy in the Soviet Union, edited by Lev Gatovsky, which mixed the classsic theoretical approach of the time with the soviet political discourse.

A rather recent focus has been put on modeling economic policy and political institutions concerning interactions between agents and economic and political institutions, • Timothy, Besley (2007). Principled Agents?: The Political Economy of Good Government, Oxford. Description. • _____ and Torsten Persson (2008). "political institutions, economic approaches to," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition. Abstract. • North, Douglass C. (1986). "The New Institutional Economics," Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics, 142(1), pp. 230–237. • _____ (1990). Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance, in the Political Economy of Institutions and Decisions series. Cambridge. Description and preview. • Ostrom, Elinor (1990). Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. Cambridge University Press. Description and preview links.  ISBN 9780521405997. • _____ (2010). "Beyond Markets and States: Polycentric Governance of Complex Economic Systems," American Economic Review, 100(3), pp. 641–672. including the seeming discrepancy of economic policy and economist's recommendations through the lens of transaction costs. From the mid-1990s, the field has expanded, in part aided by new cross-national data sets allowing tests of hypotheses on comparative economic systems and institutions. Topics have included the breakup of nations, the origins and rate of change of political institutions in relation to economic growth, development, financial markets and regulation, the importance of institutions, backwardness, reform and transition economies, the role of culture, ethnicity and gender in explaining economic outcomes, macroeconomic policy, the environment, • Dietz, Simon, Jonathan Michie, and Christine Oughton (2011). Political Economy of the Environment An Interdisciplinary Approach, Routledge. Description and  preview. • Banzhaf, H. Spencer, ed. (2012). The Political Economy of Environmental Justice Stanford U.P. Description and contents links. • Gleeson, Brendan, and Nicholas Low (1998). Justice, Society and Nature An Exploration of Political Ecology, Routledge. Description and preview. • John S. Dryzek, 2000. Rational Ecology: Environment and Political Economy, Blackburn Press. B&N description. • Barry, John 2001. "Justice, Nature and Political Economy," Economy and Society, 30(3), pp. 381–394. • Boyce, James K. (2002). The Political Economy of the Environment, Edward Elgar. Description. fairness and the relation of constitutions to economic policy, theoretical and empirical.

Other important landmarks in the development of political economy include:
 * New political economy which may treat economic ideologies as the phenomenon to explain, per the traditions of Marxian political economy. Thus, Charles S. Maier suggests that a political economy approach "interrogates economic doctrines to disclose their sociological and political premises.... in sum, [it] regards economic ideas and behavior not as frameworks for analysis, but as beliefs and actions that must themselves be explained". This approach informs Andrew Gamble's The Free Economy and the Strong State (Palgrave Macmillan, 1988), and Colin Hay's The Political Economy of New Labour (Manchester University Press, 1999). It also informs much work published in New Political Economy, an international journal founded by Sheffield University scholars in 1996.
 * International political economy (IPE) an interdisciplinary field comprising approaches to the actions of various actors. According to International Relations scholar Chris Brown, University of Warwick professor, Susan Strange, was "almost single-handedly responsible for creating international political economy as a field of study." In the United States, these approaches are associated with the journal International Organization, which in the 1970s became the leading journal of IPE under the editorship of Robert Keohane, Peter J. Katzenstein and Stephen Krasner. They are also associated with the journal The Review of International Political Economy. There also is a more critical school of IPE, inspired by thinkers such as Antonio Gramsci and Karl Polanyi; two major figures are Matthew Watson and Robert W. Cox.
 * The use of a political economy approach by anthropologists, sociologists, and geographers used in reference to the regimes of politics or economic values that emerge primarily at the level of states or regional governance, but also within smaller social groups and social networks. Because these regimes influence and are influenced by the organization of both social and economic capital, the analysis of dimensions lacking a standard economic value (e.g. the political economy of language, of gender, or of religion) often draws on concepts used in Marxian critiques of capital. Such approaches expand on neo-Marxian scholarship related to development and underdevelopment postulated by André Gunder Frank and Immanuel Wallerstein.
 * Historians have employed political economy to explore the ways in the past that persons and groups with common economic interests have used politics to effect changes beneficial to their interests.
 * Political economy and law is a recent attempt within legal scholarship to engage explicitly with political economy literature. In the 1920s and 1930s, legal realists (e.g. Robert Hale) and intellectuals (e.g. John Commons) engaged themes related to political economy. In the second half of the 20th century, lawyers associated with the Chicago School incorporated certain intellectual traditions from economics. However, since the crisis in 2007 legal scholars especially related to international law, have turned to more explicitly engage with the debates, methodology and various themes within political economy texts.
 * Thomas Piketty's approach and call to action which advocated for the re-introduction of political consideration and political science knowledge more generally into the discipline of economics as a way of improving the robustness of the discipline and remedying its shortcomings, which had become clear following the 2008 financial crisis.
 * In 2010, the only Department of Political Economy in the United Kingdom formally established at King's College London. The rationale for this academic unit was that "the disciplines of Politics and Economics are inextricably linked", and that it was "not possible to properly understand political processes without exploring the economic context in which politics operates".
 * In 2012, the Sheffield Political Economy Research Institute (SPERI) was founded at The University of Sheffield by professors Tony Payne and Colin Hay. It was created as a means of combining political and economic analyses of capitalism which were viewed by the founders to be insufficient as independent disciplines in explaining the 2008 financial crisis.
 * In 2017, the Political Economy UK Group (abbreviated PolEconUK) was established as a research consortium in the field of political economy. It hosts an annual conference and counts among its member institutions Oxford, Cambridge, King's College London, Warwick University and the London School of Economics.

Related disciplines
Because political economy is not a unified discipline, there are studies using the term that overlap in subject matter, but have radically different perspectives:
 * Politics studies power relations and their relationship to achieving desired ends.
 * Philosophy rigorously assesses and studies a set of beliefs and their applicability to reality.
 * Economics studies the distribution of resources so that the material wants of a society are satisfied; enhance societal well-being.
 * Sociology studies the effects of persons' involvement in society as members of groups and how that changes their ability to function. Many sociologists start from a perspective of production-determining relation from Karl Marx. Marx's theories on the subject of political economy are contained in his book Das Kapital.
 * Anthropology studies political economy by investigating regimes of political and economic value that condition tacit aspects of sociocultural practices (e.g. the pejorative use of pseudo-Spanish expressions in the U.S. entertainment media) by means of broader historical, political and sociological processes. Analyses of structural features of transnational processes focus on the interactions between the world capitalist system and local cultures.
 * Archaeology attempts to reconstruct past political economies by examining the material evidence for administrative strategies to control and mobilize resources. This evidence may include architecture, animal remains, evidence for craft workshops, evidence for feasting and ritual, evidence for the import or export of prestige goods, or evidence for food storage.
 * Psychology is the fulcrum on which political economy exerts its force in studying decision making (not only in prices), but as the field of study whose assumptions model political economy.
 * Geography studies political economy within the wider geographical studies of human-environment interactions wherein economic actions of humans transform the natural environment. Apart from these, attempts have been made to develop a geographical political economy that prioritises commodity production and "spatialities" of capitalism.
 * History documents change, often using it to argue political economy; some historical works take political economy as the narrative's frame.
 * Ecology deals with political economy because human activity has the greatest effect upon the environment, its central concern being the environment's suitability for human activity. The ecological effects of economic activity spur research upon changing market economy incentives. Additionally and more recently, ecological theory has been used to examine economic systems as similar systems of interacting species (e.g., firms).
 * Cultural studies examines social class, production, labor, race, gender and sex.
 * Communications examines the institutional aspects of media and telecommunication systems. As the area of study focusing on aspects of human communication, it pays particular attention to the relationships between owners, labor, consumers, advertisers, structures of production and the state and the power relationships embedded in these relationships.

Journals

 * Constitutional Political Economy
 * Economics & Politics.
 * European Journal of Political Economy.
 * Latin American Perspectives
 * International Journal of Political Economy
 * Journal of Australian Political Economy.
 * New Political Economy
 * Public Choice.
 * Studies in Political Economy

title: Political economy


text: Talk:Political economy

title: Talk:Political economy


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Psychedelia

Psychedelia usually refers to a style or aesthetic that is resembled in the psychedelic subculture of the 1960s and the psychedelic experience produced by certain psychoactive substances. This includes psychedelic art, psychedelic music and style of dress during that era. This was primarily generated by people who used psychedelic drugs such as LSD, mescaline (found in peyote) and psilocybin (found in magic mushrooms) and also non-users who were participants and aficionados of this subculture. Psychedelic art and music typically recreate or reflect the experience of altered consciousness. Psychedelic art uses highly distorted, surreal visuals, bright colors and full spectrums and animation (including cartoons) to evoke, convey, or enhance the psychedelic experience.

Psychedelic music uses distorted electric guitar, Indian music elements such as the sitar, tabla, electronic effects, sound effects and reverb, and elaborate studio effects, such as playing tapes backwards or panning the music from one side to another.

A psychedelic experience is characterized by the striking perception of aspects of one's mind previously unknown, or by the creative exuberance of the mind liberated from its ostensibly ordinary fetters. Psychedelic states are an array of experiences including changes of perception such as hallucinations, synesthesia, altered states of awareness or focused consciousness, variation in thought patterns, trance or hypnotic states, mystical states, and other mind alterations.

These processes can lead some people to experience changes in mental operation defining their self-identity (whether in momentary acuity or chronic development) different enough from their previous normal state that it can excite feelings of newly formed understanding such as revelation, illumination, confusion, and psychosis. Individuals who use psychedelic drugs for spiritual purposes or self-discovery are commonly referred to as psychonauts.

Etymology
The term was first coined as a noun in 1956 by psychiatrist Humphry Osmond as an alternative descriptor for hallucinogenic drugs in the context of psychedelic psychotherapy. It is irregularly derived from the Greek words ψυχή psychḗ 'soul, mind' and δηλείν dēleín 'to manifest', with the meaning "mind manifesting," the implication being that psychedelics can develop unused potentials of the human mind. The term was loathed by American ethnobotanist Richard Schultes but championed by American psychologist Timothy Leary.

Seeking a name for the experience induced by LSD, Osmond contacted Aldous Huxley, a personal acquaintance and advocate for the therapeutic use of the substance. Huxley coined the term "phanerothyme," from the Greek terms for "manifest" (φανερός) and "spirit" (θύμος). In a letter to Osmond, he wrote: "To make this mundane world sublime, Take half a gram of phanerothyme"

To which Osmond responded: "To fathom Hell or soar angelic, Just take a pinch of psychedelic"

It was on this term that Osmond eventually settled, because it was "clear, euphonious and uncontaminated by other associations." This mongrel spelling of the word 'psychedelic' was loathed by American ethnobotanist Richard Evans Schultes, but championed by Timothy Leary, who thought it sounded better. Due to the expanded use of the term "psychedelic" in pop culture and a perceived incorrect verbal formulation, Carl A.P. Ruck, Jeremy Bigwood, Danny Staples, Jonathan Ott, and R. Gordon Wasson proposed the term "entheogen" to describe the religious or spiritual experience produced by such substances.

History
From the second half of the 1950s, Beat Generation writers like William Burroughs, Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg wrote about and took drugs, including cannabis and Benzedrine, raising awareness and helping to popularise their use. In the same period Lysergic acid diethylamide, better known as LSD, or "acid" (at the time a legal drug), began to be used in the US and UK as an experimental treatment, initially promoted as a potential cure for mental illness.

In the early 1960s the use of LSD and other hallucinogens was advocated by proponents of the new "consciousness expansion", such as Timothy Leary, Alan Watts, Aldous Huxley and Arthur Koestler, their writings profoundly influenced the thinking of the new generation of youth. There had long been a culture of drug use among jazz and blues musicians, and use of drugs (including cannabis, peyote, mescaline and LSD ) had begun to grow among folk and rock musicians, who also began to include drug references in their songs.

By the mid-1960s, the psychedelic life-style had already developed in California, and an entire subculture developed. This was particularly true in San Francisco, due in part to the first major underground LSD factory, established there by Owsley Stanley. There was also an emerging music scene of folk clubs, coffee houses and independent radio stations catering to a population of students at nearby Berkeley, and to free thinkers that had gravitated to the city.

From 1964, the Merry Pranksters, a loose group that developed around novelist Ken Kesey, sponsored the Acid Tests, a series of events based around the taking of LSD (supplied by Stanley), accompanied by light shows, film projection and discordant, improvised music known as the psychedelic symphony. The Pranksters helped popularize LSD use through their road trips across America in a psychedelically decorated school bus, which involved distributing the drug and meeting with major figures of the beat movement, and through publications about their activities such as Tom Wolfe's The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test (1968).

Leary was a well-known proponent of the use of psychedelics, as was Aldous Huxley. However, both advanced widely different opinions on the broad use of psychedelics by state and civil society. Leary promulgated the idea of such substances as a panacea, while Huxley suggested that only the cultural and intellectual elite should partake of entheogens systematically.

In the 1960s the use of psychedelic drugs became widespread in modern Western culture, particularly in the United States and Britain. The movement is credited to Michael Hollingshead who arrived in America from London in 1965. He was sent to the U.S. by other members of the psychedelic movement to get their ideas exposure. The Summer of Love of 1967 and the resultant popularization of the hippie culture to the mainstream popularized psychedelia in the minds of popular culture, where it remained dominant through the 1970s.

Modern usage
The impact of psychedelic drugs on western culture in the 1960s led to semantic drift in the use of the word "psychedelic", and it is now frequently used to describe anything with abstract decoration of multiple bright colours, similar to those seen in drug-induced hallucinations. In objection to this new meaning, and to what some consider pejorative meanings of other synonyms such as "hallucinogen" and "psychotomimetic", the term "entheogen" was proposed and is seeing increasing use. However, many consider the term "entheogen" best reserved for religious and spiritual usage, such as certain Native American churches do with the peyote sacrament, and "psychedelic" left to describe those who are using these drugs for recreation, psychotherapy, physical healing, or creative problem solving. In science, hallucinogen remains the standard term.

Visual art

Advances in printing and photographic technology in the 1960s saw the traditional lithography printing techniques rapidly superseded by the offset printing system. This and other technical and industrial innovations gave young artists access to exciting new graphic techniques and media, including photographic and mixed media collage, metallic foils, and vivid new fluorescent "DayGlo" inks. This enabled them to explore innovative new illustrative styles including highly distorted visuals, cartoons, and lurid colors and full spectrums to evoke a sense of altered consciousness; many works also featured idiosyncratic and complex new fonts and lettering styles (most notably in the work of San Francisco-based poster artist Rick Griffin). Many artists in the late 1960s and early 1970s attempted to illustrate the psychedelic experience in paintings, drawings, illustrations, and other forms of graphic design.

The counterculture music scene frequently used psychedelic designs on posters during the Summer of Love, leading to a popularization of the style. The most productive and influential centre of psychedelic art in the late 1960s was San Francisco; a scene driven in large measure by the patronage of the popular local music venues of the day like the Avalon Ballroom and Bill Graham's Fillmore West, which regularly commissioned young local artists like Robert Crumb, Stanley Mouse, Rick Griffin and others. They produced a wealth of distinctive psychedelic promotional posters and handbills for concerts that featured emerging psychedelic bands like Big Brother and the Holding Company, The Grateful Dead and Jefferson Airplane. Many of these works are now regarded as classics of the poster genre, and original items by these artists command high prices on the collector market today.

Contemporary with the burgeoning San Francisco scene, a smaller but equally creative psychedelic art movement emerged in London, led by expatriate Australian pop artist Martin Sharp, who created many striking psychedelic posters and illustrations for the influential underground publication Oz magazine, as well as the famous album covers for the Cream albums Disraeli Gears and Wheels of Fire.

Other prominent London practitioners of the style included: design duo Hapshash and the Coloured Coat, whose work included numerous famous posters, as well as psychedelic "makeovers" on a piano for Paul McCartney and a car for doomed Guinness heir Tara Browne, and design collective The Fool, who created clothes and album art for several leading UK bands including The Beatles, Cream, and The Move. The Beatles loved psychedelic designs on their albums, and designer group called The Fool created psychedelic design, art, paint at the short-lived Apple Boutique (1967–1968) in Baker St, London.

Blues rock singer Janis Joplin had a psychedelic car, a Porsche 356. The trend also extended to motor vehicles. The earliest, and perhaps most famous of all psychedelic vehicles was the famous "Further" bus, driven by Ken Kesey and The Merry Pranksters, which was painted inside and out in 1964 with bold psychedelic designs (although these were executed in primary colours, since the DayGlo colours that soon became de rigueur were then not widely available). Another very famous example is John Lennon's psychedelic Rolls-Royce – originally black, he had it repainted in 1967 in a vivid psychedelic gypsy caravan style, prompting bandmate George Harrison to have his Mini Cooper similarly repainted with logos and devices that reflected his burgeoning interest in Indian spirituality.

Music
The fashion for psychedelic drugs gave its name to the style of psychedelia, a term describing a category of rock music known as psychedelic rock, as well as visual art, fashion, and culture that is associated originally with the high 1960s, hippies, and the Haight-Ashbury neighborhood of San Francisco, California. It often used new recording techniques and effects while drawing on Eastern sources such as the ragas and drones of Indian music.

One of the first uses of the word in the music scene of this time was in the 1964 recording of "Hesitation Blues" by folk group the Holy Modal Rounders. The term was introduced to rock music and popularized by the 13th Floor Elevators 1966 album The Psychedelic Sounds of the 13th Floor Elevators. Psychedelia truly took off in 1967 with the Summer of Love and, although associated with San Francisco, the style soon spread across the US, and worldwide.

The electronic dance music scene is strongly linked to the consumption of psychedelic drugs, particularly MDMA. Drug usage in the EDM scene can primarily be traced to British acid house parties and the Second Summer of Love, which marked the beginnings of rave culture; these movements, however, were distinct from and mostly unrelated to 1960s psychedelia.

Festivals

A psychedelic festival is a gathering that promotes psychedelic music and art in an effort to unite participants in a communal psychedelic experience. Psychedelic festivals have been described as "temporary communities reproduced via personal and collective acts of transgression... through the routine expenditure of excess energy, and through self-sacrifice in acts of abandonment involving ecstatic dancing often fueled by chemical cocktails." These festivals often emphasize the ideals of peace, love, unity, and respect. Notable psychedelic festivals include the biennial Boom Festival in Portugal, Ozora Festival in Hungary, Universo Paralello in Brazil as well as Nevada's Burning Man and California's Symbiosis Gathering in the United States.

Conferences
In recent years there has been a resurgence in interest in psychedelic research and a growing number of conferences now take place across the globe. The psychedelic research charity Breaking Convention have hosted one of the world's largest since 2011. A biennial conference in London, UK, Breaking Convention: a multidisciplinary conference on psychedelic consciousness is a multidisciplinary conference on psychedelic consciousness. In the US MAPS held their first Psychedelic Science conference, devoted specifically to research of psychedelics in scientific and medical fields, in 2013. In Australia, Entheogenesis Australis has been hosting the world's longest ongoing conferences around psychedelics and ethnobotany since 2004.

title: Psychedelia


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Pope Evaristus

Pope Evaristus (Greek: Ευάριστος) was the bishop of Rome from c. 99 to his death c.  107. He was also known as Aristus and is venerated as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Catholic Church, and Oriental Orthodoxy. It is likely that John the Apostle died during his reign period, marking the end of the Apostolic Age.

Biography
According to the Liber Pontificalis, he was a Greek by birth, fathered by a Jew named Judah from the city of Bethlehem. He was elected during the reign of the Roman emperor Trajan, and succeeded Clement I in the See of Rome. He divided titles among the priests in the city of Rome, and ordained seven deacons to assist with the bishop's preaching.

According to the book, The Externals of the Catholic Church, Evaristus decreed that “in accordance with Apostolic tradition marriage should be celebrated publicly and with the blessing of the priest”.

Eusebius, in his Church History IV, I, stated that Evaristus died in the 12th year of the reign of Emperor Trajan after holding the office of bishop of the Romans for eight years.

Liber Pontificalis further describes him as the one "crowned with martyrdom". The same is indicated also by the book "The lives and times of the popes". However, in the Roman Martyrology he is listed without the martyr title, with a feast day on 26 October.

Pope Evaristus is buried near the body of Saint Peter in the Vatican, in the Saint Peter's tomb under the Saint Peter's Basilica.

title: Pope Evaristus


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Smoke testing (mechanical)

Smoke testing refers to various classes of tests of systems, usually intended to determine whether they are ready for more robust testing. The expression probably was first used in plumbing in referring to tests for the detection of cracks, leaks or breaks in closed systems of pipes.

Pre-dating the term itself, smoke tests were performed to detect leaks in wooden sailing vessels at least as early as 1836. After making a slow fire in the bottom of the hold, Richard Henry Dana writes, "Wherever smoke was seen coming out we calked and pasted and, so far as we could, make the ship smoke tight."

History of the term
The plumbing industry started using the smoke test in 1875.

Plumbing
In plumbing a smoke test forces non-toxic, artificially created smoke through waste and drain pipes under a slight pressure to find leaks. Plumes of smoke form where there are defects. This test can be performed when the plumbing is brand new, but more often it is used to find sewer gas leaks that may plague a building or an area. Any sign of smoke escaping can be considered a possible site for sewer gas to escape. Sewer gas typically has a rotten egg smell and can contain methane gas, which is explosive, or hydrogen sulfide gas, which is deadly.

Plumbing smoke tests are also used to find places where pipes will spill fluid, and to check sanitary sewer systems for places where ground water and storm runoff can enter. Smoke testing is particularly useful in places such as ventilated sanitary sewer systems, where completely sealing the system is not practical.

When smoke testing a sanitary sewer system it is helpful to partially block off the section of sewer to be tested. This can be done by using a sand bag on the end of a rope. The sand bag is lowered into the manhole and swung into position to partially block lines. Completely blocking the line can cause water to back up and prevent smoke from escaping through defects. Smoke testing may not be done after rain or when ground water is unusually high as this may also prevent detection of defects.

Large downdraft fans, usually powered by gasoline engines, are placed on top of open manholes at either end of the section to be tested. If possible all lines in the manholes except for the line between the manholes are partially blocked. Smoke is created using either a smoke bomb or liquid smoke. Smoke bombs are lit and placed on a grate or in a holder on top of each fan, while liquid smoke is injected into the fan via a heating chamber. The fans create a pressure differential that forces the smoke into the sewer at a pressure just above atmospheric. With properly installed plumbing, the traps will prevent the smoke from entering the house and redirect it out the plumbing vents. Defective plumbing systems or dry traps will allow smoke to enter the inside of the house. The area around the section being tested is searched for smoke plumes. Plumes coming from plumbing vents or the interface between the fan shroud and manhole rim are normal; however, smoke plumes outside of the manhole rim are not. Plumes are marked, usually with flags, and defects are noted using measurements from stationary landmarks like the corners of houses. The plumes or markers may also be photographed.

Woodwind instrument repair
In woodwind instrument repair, a smoke test involved plugging one end of an instrument and blowing tobacco smoke from the tester's mouth into the other to test for leaks. Escaping smoke revealed improperly seated pads and faulty joints (i.e. leaks). After this test the instrument was cleaned to remove nicotine and other deposits left by the smoke.

Described in a repair manual written in the 1930s, smoke testing is considered obsolete, and is no longer used by reputable technicians. The usual alternative to smoke is to place a bright light inside the instrument then check for light appearing around pads and joints.

Automotive repair
In the same way that plumbing and woodwind instruments are tested, the vacuum systems of automobiles may be tested in order to locate difficult-to-find vacuum leaks. Artificial smoke is deliberately introduced into the system under slight pressure and any leaks are indicated by the escaping smoke. Smoke can also be used to locate difficult-to-find leaks in the fuel evaporative emissions control (EVAP) system.

Infectious disease control
In infectious disease control a smoke test is done to see whether a room is under negative pressure. A tube containing smoke is held near the bottom of the negative pressure room door, about two inches in front of the door. The smoke tube is held parallel to the door, and a small amount of smoke is then generated by gently squeezing the bulb. Care is taken to release the smoke from the tube slowly to ensure the velocity of the smoke from the tube does not overpower the air velocity. If the room is at negative pressure, the smoke will travel under the door and into the room. If the room is not at negative pressure, the smoke will be blown outward or will stay stationary.

title: Smoke testing (mechanical)