text:
Soda

Soda or SODA may refer to:

Chemistry

 * Some chemical compounds containing sodium
 * Sodium carbonate, washing soda or soda ash
 * Sodium bicarbonate, baking soda
 * Sodium hydroxide, caustic soda
 * Sodium oxide, an alkali metal oxide
 * Soda glass, a common glass made with sodium carbonate or sodium oxide
 * Soda lake, an alternate generic name for a salt lake, with high concentration of sodium carbonates
 * Soda lime, a mixture of sodium, calcium, and potassium hydroxides
 * Soda pulping, a process for paper production using sodium compounds

Computing

 * SODA (operating system)
 * Service-oriented development of applications
 * Service-oriented device architecture, to enable devices to be connected to a service-oriented architecture
 * Simple Object Database Access, an API for database queries
 * Soda PDF, a family of applications used on .pdf files
 * Symposium on Discrete Algorithms, an annual academic conference in computer science

Entertainment

 * Czech Soda (Česká soda), a satirical Czech television show
 * Soda (comics), a popular Belgian comics series by Philippe Tome and Bruno Gazzotti
 * SODA Off-Road Racing, a 1997 video game
 * Soda (TV series), a French television show
 * Soda Pictures, a UK film distributor
 * Soda Stereo, an Argentine rock band also known as "Soda"
 * Soda (album), a 2024 album by The Rubens

Food and drink

 * Soft drink, a sweetened, carbonated, and usually flavored drink
 * Ice cream soda, a dessert dish
 * Soda bread, a variety of quick bread
 * Soda cracker, or saltine cracker
 * Soda water, carbonated water

People with the surname

 * Soda (footballer) (1901-unknown), Brazilian footballer
 * Chet Soda (1908–1989), Californian businessman associated with the Oakland Raiders
 * Kazuhiro Soda (想田 和弘), Japanese documentary filmmaker
 * Kenji Soda (宗田 研二), Japanese basketball player
 * Masahito Soda (曽田 正人), Japanese manga artist
 * Yushi Soda (曽田 雄志), retired Japanese footballer

Places

 * Soda Butte Creek, in Yellowstone National Park
 * Soda Creek, in Canada
 * Soda Gulch
 * Soda Lakes
 * Soda Mountain Wilderness
 * Soda Mountains, in the eastern Mojave Desert in California
 * Soda Springs (disambiguation), several places
 * Soda Springs, California (disambiguation)
 * Soda Springs, Idaho, a city in Caribou County, Idaho, United States
 * Soda, Rajasthan, a village in India

Other uses

 * Salsola soda, the saltwort plant
 * Short-course Off-road Drivers Association, a former off-road racing sanctioning body in the United States
 * Sibling of a deaf adult, an acronym in deaf culture for a person with a deaf sibling
 * Simple Ocean Data Assimilation, a reanalysis project
 * Soda gun, a device used by bars to serve carbonated and non-carbonated drinks
 * Soda locomotive, a variant of fireless locomotives
 * Soda straw, a cave feature
 * Specific oral direct anticoagulant, a type of anticoagulant
 * Statement of Demonstrated Ability, a document for pilots

title: Soda


text:
Snail

A snail is a shelled gastropod. The name is most often applied to land snails, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod molluscs. However, the common name snail is also used for most of the members of the molluscan class Gastropoda that have a coiled shell that is large enough for the animal to retract completely into. When the word "snail" is used in this most general sense, it includes not just land snails but also numerous species of sea snails and freshwater snails. Gastropods that naturally lack a shell, or have only an internal shell, are mostly called slugs, and land snails that have only a very small shell (that they cannot retract into) are often called semi-slugs.

Snails have considerable human relevance, including as food items, as pests, and as vectors of disease, and their shells are used as decorative objects and are incorporated into jewelry. The snail has also had some cultural significance, tending to be associated with lethargy. The snail has also been used as a figure of speech in reference to slow-moving things.

Overview
Snails that respire using a lung belong to the group Pulmonata. As traditionally defined, the Pulmonata were found to be polyphyletic in a molecular study per Jörger et al., dating from 2010. But snails with gills also form a polyphyletic group; in other words, snails with lungs and snails with gills form a number of taxonomic groups that are not necessarily more closely related to each other than they are related to some other groups.

Both snails that have lungs and snails that have gills have diversified so widely over geological time that a few species with gills can be found on land and numerous species with lungs can be found in freshwater. Even a few marine species have lungs.

Snails can be found in a very wide range of environments, including ditches, deserts, and the abyssal depths of the sea. Although land snails may be more familiar to laymen, marine snails constitute the majority of snail species, and have much greater diversity and a greater biomass. Numerous kinds of snail can also be found in fresh water.

Most snails have thousands of microscopic tooth-like structures located on a banded ribbon-like tongue called a radula. The radula works like a file, ripping food into small pieces. Many snails are herbivorous, eating plants or rasping algae from surfaces with their radulae, though a few land species and many marine species are omnivores or predatory carnivores. Snails cannot absorb colored pigments when eating paper or cardboard so their feces are also colored.

Several species of the genus Achatina and related genera are known as giant African land snails; some grow to 15 in from snout to tail, and weigh 1 kg. The largest living species of sea snail is Syrinx aruanus; its shell can measure up to 90 cm in length, and the whole animal with the shell can weigh up to 18 kg. Recently, the smallest land snails, Angustopila dominikae, have  been discovered in China, and measure 0.86mm long.

The largest known land gastropod is the African giant snail Achatina achatina, the largest recorded specimen of which measured 39.3 cm from snout to tail when fully extended, with a shell length of 27.3 cm in December 1978. It weighed exactly 900 g (about 2 lb). Named Gee Geronimo, this snail was owned by Christopher Hudson (1955–79) of Hove, East Sussex, UK, and was collected in Sierra Leone in June 1976.

Snails are protostomes. That means during development, in the gastrulation phase, the blastopore forms the mouth first. Cleavage in snails is spiral holoblastic patterning. In spiral holoblastic cleavage, the cleavage plane rotates each division and the cell divisions are complete. Snails do not undergo metamorphosis after hatching. Snails hatch in the form of small adults. The only additional development they will undergo is to consume calcium to strengthen their shell. Snails can be male, female, hermaphroditic, or parthenogenetic so there are many different systems of sexual determination.

Diet
Snails' eating habits vary widely, with some being generalists and some being specialist feeders. Snails feed at night. They feed primarily on decaying organic matter. Their diet also includes fungi, lichens, green foliage, worms, centipedes, insects, animal feces, carrion, and other slugs. Some snails feed on other snails too.

Slugs
Gastropods that lack a conspicuous shell are commonly called slugs rather than snails. Some species of slug have a maroon-brown shell, some have only an internal vestige that serves mainly as a calcium lactate repository, and others have some to no shell at all. Other than that there is little morphological difference between slugs and snails. There are however important differences in habitats and behavior.

A shell-less animal is much more maneuverable and compressible, so even quite large land slugs can take advantage of habitats or retreats with very little space, retreats that would be inaccessible to a similar-sized snail. Slugs squeeze themselves into confined spaces such as under loose bark on trees or under stone slabs, logs or wooden boards lying on the ground. In such retreats they are in less danger from either predators or desiccation. Those are often suitable places for laying their eggs.

Slugs as a group are far from monophyletic; scientifically speaking "slug" is a term of convenience with little taxonomic significance. The reduction or loss of the shell has evolved many times independently within several very different lineages of gastropods. The various taxa of land and sea gastropods with slug morphology occur within numerous higher taxonomic groups of shelled species; such independent slug taxa are not in general closely related to one another.

Human relevance
Land snails are known as an agricultural and garden pest but some species are an edible delicacy and occasionally household pets. In addition, their mucus can also be used for skin care products.

In agriculture
There is a variety of snail-control measures that gardeners and farmers use in an attempt to reduce damage to valuable plants. Traditional pesticides are still used, as are many less toxic control options such as concentrated garlic or wormwood solutions. Copper metal is also a snail repellent, and thus a copper band around the trunk of a tree will prevent snails from climbing up and reaching the foliage and fruit. A layer of a dry, finely ground, and scratchy substance such as diatomaceous earth can also deter snails.

The decollate snail (Rumina decollata) will capture and eat garden snails, and because of this it has sometimes been introduced as a biological pest control agent. However, this is not without problems, as the decollate snail is just as likely to attack and devour other gastropods that may represent a valuable part of the native fauna of the region.

Culinary use
In French cuisine, edible snails are served for instance in Escargot à la Bourguignonne. The practice of rearing snails for food is known as heliciculture. For purposes of cultivation, the snails are kept in a dark place in a wired cage with dry straw or dry wood. Coppiced wine-grape vines are often used for this purpose. During the rainy period, the snails come out of hibernation and release most of their mucus onto the dry wood/straw. The snails are then prepared for cooking. Their texture when cooked is slightly chewy and tender.

As well as being eaten as gourmet food, several species of land snails provide an easily harvested source of protein to many people in poor communities around the world. Many land snails are valuable because they can feed on a wide range of agricultural wastes, such as shed leaves in banana plantations. In some countries, giant African land snails are produced commercially for food.

Land snails, freshwater snails and sea snails are all eaten in many countries. In certain parts of the world snails are fried. For example, in Indonesia, they are fried as satay, a dish known as sate kakul. The eggs of certain snail species are eaten in a fashion similar to the way caviar is eaten.

In Bulgaria, snails are traditionally cooked in an oven with rice or fried in a pan with vegetable oil and red paprika powder. Before they are used for those dishes, however, they are thoroughly boiled in hot water (for up to 90 minutes) and manually extracted from their shells. The two species most commonly used for food in the country are Helix lucorum and Helix pomatia.

Famine food
Snails and slug species that are not normally eaten in certain areas have occasionally been used as famine food in historical times. A history of Scotland written in the 1800s recounts a description of various snails and their use as food items in times of plague.

Parasitic diseases
Snails can also be associated with parasitic diseases such as schistosomiasis, angiostrongyliasis, fasciolopsiasis, opisthorchiasis, fascioliasis, paragonimiasis and clonorchiasis, which can be transmitted to humans.

Symbolism
Because of its slowness, the snail has traditionally been seen as a symbol of laziness. In Christian culture, it has been used as a symbol of the deadly sin of sloth. Psalms uses snail slime as a metaphorical punishment. In Mayan mythology, the snail is associated with sexual desire, being personified by the god Uayeb.

Divination and other religious uses
Snails were widely noted and used in divination. The Greek poet Hesiod wrote that snails signified the time to harvest by climbing the stalks, while the Aztec moon god Tecciztecatl bore a snail shell on his back. This symbolised rebirth; the snail's penchant for appearing and disappearing was analogised with the moon.

Love darts and Cupid

Professor Ronald Chase of McGill University in Montreal has suggested the ancient myth of Cupid's arrows might be based on early observations of the love dart behavior of the land snail species Cornu aspersum.

Metaphor
In contemporary speech, the expression "a snail's pace" is often used to describe a slow, inefficient process. The phrase "snail mail" is used to mean regular postal service delivery of paper messages as opposed to the delivery of email, which can be virtually instantaneous.

In medieval and Renaissance manuscripts snails are depicted as a comic relief due to the similarity between the armour of knights and the shell of snails.

In Indonesian mythology

Keong Emas (Javanese and Indonesian for Golden Snail) is a popular Javanese folklore about a princess magically transformed and contained in a golden snail shell. The folklore is a part of popular Javanese Panji cycle telling the stories about the prince Panji Asmoro Bangun (also known as Raden Inu Kertapati) and his consort, princess Dewi Sekartaji (also known as Dewi Chandra Kirana).

Textiles
Certain varieties of snails, notably the family Muricidae, produce a secretion that is a color-fast natural dye. The ancient Tyrian purple was made in this way as were other purple and blue dyes. The extreme expense of extracting this secretion is sufficient quantities limited its use to the very wealthy. It is such dyes as these that led to certain shades of purple and blue being associated with royalty and wealth.

As pets
Throughout history, snails have been kept as pets. There are many famous snails such as Lefty (Born Jeremy) and within fiction, Gary and Brian the snail.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Snail


text:
Treaty of Nanking

The Treaty of Nanking was an unequal treaty between Great Britain and the Qing dynasty of China to end the First Opium War (1839–1842), signed on 29 August 1842.

In the wake of China's military defeat, with British warships poised to attack Nanjing (then romanized as Nanking), British and Chinese officials negotiated on board HMS Cornwallis anchored in the Yangtze at the city. On 29 August, British representative Sir Henry Pottinger and Qing representatives Keying, Yilibu, and Niu Jian signed the treaty, which consisted of thirteen articles.

The treaty was ratified by the Daoguang Emperor on 27 October and Queen Victoria on 28 December. The exchange of ratification took place in Hong Kong on 26 June 1843. The treaty required the Chinese to pay an indemnity, to cede the Island of Hong Kong to the British as a colony, to essentially end the Canton system that had limited trade to that port and allow trade at Five Treaty Ports. It was followed in 1843 by the Treaty of the Bogue, which granted extraterritoriality and most favoured nation status.

Background
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Britain faced a growing trade deficit with China. Britain could offer nothing to China to match the growing importation of Chinese goods to Britain, such as tea and porcelain. In British India, opium was grown on plantations and auctioned to merchants, who then sold it to Chinese who smuggled it into China (Chinese law forbade the importation and sale of opium). When Lin Zexu seized this privately owned opium and ordered the destruction of opium at Humen, Britain first demanded reparations, then declared what became known as the First Opium War. Britain's use of recently invented military technology produced a crushing victory and allowed it to impose a one-sided treaty.

The first working draft for articles of a treaty was prepared at the Foreign Office in London in February 1840. The Foreign Office was aware that preparing a treaty containing Chinese and English characters would need special consideration. Given the distance separating the countries, the parties realised that some flexibility and a departure from established procedure in preparing treaties might be required.

Foreign trade
The fundamental purpose of the treaty was to change the framework of foreign trade imposed by the Canton System, which had been in force since 1760. Under Article V, the treaty abolished the former monopoly of the Cohong and their Thirteen Factories in Canton. Four additional "treaty ports" opened for foreign trade alongside Canton (Shameen Island from 1859 until 1943): Xiamen (or Amoy; until 1930), Fuzhou, Ningbo and Shanghai (until 1943), where foreign merchants were to be allowed to trade with anyone they wished. Britain also gained the right to send consuls to the treaty ports, which were given the right to communicate directly with local Chinese officials (Article II). The treaty stipulated that trade in the treaty ports should be subject to fixed tariffs, which were to be agreed upon between the British and the Qing governments (Article X).

Reparations and demobilisation
The Qing government was obliged to pay the British government 6 million silver dollars for the opium that had been confiscated by Lin Zexu in 1839 (Article IV), 3 million dollars in compensation for debts that the merchants in Canton owed British merchants (Article V), and a further 12 million dollars in war reparations for the cost of the war (Article VI). The total sum of 21 million dollars was to be paid in instalments over three years and the Qing government would be charged an annual interest rate of 5 percent for the money that was not paid in a timely manner (Article VII).

The Qing government undertook to release all British prisoners of war (Article VIII), and to give a general amnesty to all Chinese subjects who had cooperated with the British during the war (Article IX).

The British on their part, undertook to withdraw all of their troops from Nanjing, the Grand Canal and the military post at Zhenhai, as well as not to interfere with China trade generally, after the emperor had given his assent to the treaty and the first instalment of money had been received (Article XII). British troops would remain in Gulangyu and Zhaobaoshan until the Qing government had paid reparations in full (Article XII).

Cession of Hong Kong
In 1841, a rough outline for a treaty was sent for the guidance of Plenipotentiary Charles Elliot. It had a blank after the words "the cession of the islands of". Pottinger sent this old draft treaty on shore, with the letter s struck out of islands and the words Hong Kong placed after it. Robert Montgomery Martin, treasurer of Hong Kong, wrote in an official report:

The terms of peace having been read, Elepoo the senior commissioner paused, expecting something more, and at length said "is that all?" Mr. Morrison enquired of Lieutenant-colonel Malcolm [Pottinger's secretary] if there was anything else, and being answered in the negative, Elepoo immediately and with great tact closed the negotiation by saying, "all shall be granted—it is settled—it is finished."

The Qing government agreed to make Hong Kong Island a crown colony, ceding it to the Queen Victoria of Great Britain, in perpetuity (常遠, Cháng yuǎn, in the Chinese version of the treaty), to provide British traders with a harbour where they could "careen and refit their ships and keep stores for that purpose" (Article III). Pottinger was later appointed the first Governor of Hong Kong.

In 1860, the colony was extended with the addition of the Kowloon peninsula under the Convention of Peking and in 1898, the Second Convention of Peking further expanded the colony with the 99-year lease of the New Territories. In 1984, the governments of the United Kingdom and the People's Republic of China (PRC) concluded the Sino-British Joint Declaration on the Question of Hong Kong, under which the sovereignty of the leased territories, together with Hong Kong Island and Kowloon (south of Boundary Street) ceded under the Convention of Peking (1860), was transferred to the PRC on 1 July 1997.

Aftermath
The treaty was sealed by interpreter John Robert Morrison for the British and Wang Tajin for the Chinese. Harry Parkes, who was a student of Chinese under Morrison, gave his account of the ceremony:

There were four copies of the Treaty signed and sealed. They were bound in worked yellow silk, one Treaty in English and the same in Chinese stitched and bound together formed a copy. This being finished they all came out of the after-cabin and sat down to tiffin, and the different officers seated themselves all round the table, making plenty of guests. Almost directly after the Treaty was signed, a yellow flag for China at the main and a Union Jack for England at the mizen were hoisted, and at the same time a royal salute of twenty-one guns was fired.

The Daoguang Emperor gave his assent for the treaty on 8 September. After his assent arrived in Nanjing on 15 September, Pottinger's secretary George Alexander Malcolm was dispatched on board the steamer Auckland the next morning to the Court of St James's with a copy for ratification by Queen Victoria. The emperor ratified the treaty on 27 October and Queen Victoria added her written assent on 28 December. Ratification was exchanged in Hong Kong on 26 June 1843.

Pottinger wrote in a letter to the Earl of Aberdeen the following year that at a feast with Keying celebrating the ratification, Keying insisted they ceremonially exchange miniature portraits of each member of each other's families. Upon receiving a miniature portrait of Pottinger's wife, Pottinger wrote that Keying "placed [the miniature] on his head—which I am told is the highest token of respect and friendship—filled a glass of wine, held the picture in front of his face, muttered some words in a low voice, drank the wine, again placed the picture on his head and then sat down" to complete the ceremony of long-term amity between the two families and the two peoples. This extravagant display has been analysed as showing an "erotically charged ... reciprocity [in] this symbolic gesture of swapping images of wives.

Because of the brevity of the Treaty of Nanking and its terms being phrased only as general stipulations, the British and Chinese representatives agreed that a supplementary treaty should be concluded to establish more detailed regulations for relations. On 3October 1843, the parties concluded the supplementary Treaty of the Bogue at the Bocca Tigris outside Canton.

Nevertheless, the treaties of 1842–43 left several unsettled issues. In particular they did not resolve the status of the opium traffic in favour of the British Empire. Although the Treaty of Wanghia with the Americans in 1844 explicitly banned Americans from selling opium, the trade continued as both the British and American merchants were only subject to the legal control of their permissive consuls. The opium traffic was later legalised in the Treaties of Tianjin, which China concluded after the Second Opium War resulted in another defeat for the Qing dynasty.

The Treaty itself contained no provision for the legalization of the opium trade. Stephen R. Platt writes that such a term would have provided the opponents of Lord Palmerston, who headed the Conservative government that launched the war, with a seeming confirmation for their claim that the war was fought to support the opium trade. Instead, Palmerston asked his negotiators to request the Chinese to legalize the sale of opium on their own initiative, outside of the treaty’s terms, which they refused.

These treaties had deep and lasting effect. Nanking Treaty, together with the following treaties of 1843, 1858, and 1860, ended the Canton System as created in 1760. These treaties created a new framework for China's foreign relations and overseas trade, which would last for almost a hundred years and marked the start of what later nationalists called China's "century of humiliation." From the perspective of modern Chinese nationalists, the most injurious terms were the fixed trade tariff, extraterritoriality, the most favoured nation provisions and freeing the importation of British opium which continued to have social and economic consequences for the Chinese people. These terms were imposed by the British and extended to other Western powers with most favoured nation status, and were conceded by the ruling Qing dynasty in order to avert continued military defeats and under the hope that most favoured nation provision would set the foreigners against each other. Although China regained tariff autonomy in the 1920s, extraterritoriality was not formally abolished until the 1943 Sino-British Treaty for the Relinquishment of Extra-Territorial Rights in China.

The stipulation of legal equality in diplomatic proceedings between Britain and China ended the centuries-long Sinocentric tributary system of interstate relations that placed China atop a formal hierarchy in its interactions with other states. Despite this stipulation, the treaty's contents featured entirely concessions from the Chinese side with no reciprocity of provisions on the British side - for instance, Britain received the right to establish consulates in treaty ports that held the right to an audience with local officials, an option denied to China should it have hypothetically wanted to send its own formal diplomatic missions to Britain. The one-sided nature of this treaty as a list of concessions, alongside the sovereignty ceded with the terms granting extraterritoriality and joint Sino-British determination of tariff, would earn the Nanking Treaty and similar settlements that followed the name, "unequal treaty," from Chinese nationalists in later centuries.

Interestingly, Joanna Waley-Cohen writes that, at the time of its signing, the Qing did not regard the treaty as “of major significance.” According to Waley-Cohen, the Treaty of Nanking’s terms remarkably resembled another treaty signed with the central Asian state of Kokand, which had also conflicted with the Qing over control of trade along Qing frontiers. Failing to achieve results with a complete trade ban, the Qing arranged a treaty with Kokand that granted Kokandis “the right to live, trade, and levy taxes […] appoint consuls with extraterritorial jurisdiction over their compatriots in China,” alongside an indemnity. The precedent set by the treaty with Kokand made the Nanking Treaty palpable enough that the Qing did not immediately regard this settlement as a disastrous capitulation.

A copy of the treaty is kept by the British government while another copy is kept by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Republic of China at the National Palace Museum in Taipei, Taiwan.

title: Treaty of Nanking


text:
Geffen Records

Geffen Records (formerly Geffen Records Inc. until 2004) is an American record label, founded in 1980 by David Geffen. Originally a music subsidiary of the now-defunct Geffen Pictures, it is owned by the Interscope Geffen A&M (IGA) faction of Universal Music Group (UMG).

Geffen has been a part of IGA since 1999 and has been used by Universal Music as a syndicating division of Interscope Records, serving its purpose to operate as a premier label for many new releases since 2003 and its 2017 reboot. At the same time, it is projected to reissue many releases from recording labels (some of which have been directly absorbed into Geffen) such as Decca Records (exclusively the American pop/rock catalog), Kapp Records, DreamWorks Records, MCA Records, Uni Records, Chess Records, Almo Sounds (Interscope has managed reissues of the label in 2015), Dot Records, ABC Records (primarily its pop, rock, and R&B recordings) and DGC Records (the label had merged into Geffen in 2021 with reissues now being handled by the parent label).

Formation (1980–1990)
Geffen Records began operations in 1980. It was created by music industry businessman David Geffen who, in the early 1970s, had co-founded Asylum Records with Elliot Roberts. Geffen stepped down from Asylum in 1975, when he crossed over to film and was named a vice president of Warner Bros. Pictures. He was fired from Warner c. 1978, but still remained locked in a five-year contract, which prevented him from working elsewhere. When that deal expired, he returned to work in 1980 and struck a deal with Warner Bros. Records (now simply Warner Records, due to the label's disassociation from Warner Bros. Pictures in 2004), to create Geffen Records. Warner Bros. Records provided 100 percent of the funding for the label's start-up and operations, while it distributed its releases in North America, with CBS's Epic Records handling distribution in the rest of the world until 1985 when Warner Music Group (parent company of Warner Records and formerly a division of Time Warner/Warner Bros. Discovery until 2004) took over distribution for the rest of the world. Profits were split 50% each between Geffen Records and its respective distributors. Despite being named for founder and original owner David Geffen, it has been acknowledged that Ed Rosenblatt, who became president of Geffen Records upon its inception in 1980, was the one who led Geffen Records during its heyday in the 1980s and 1990s.

The label's first artist signing was superstar Donna Summer, whose gold-selling album The Wanderer became the label's first release in 1980. At the time, Donna Summer was undergoing a dispersing contract with and subsequent lawsuit against Universal Music Group's Casablanca Records. The label then released Double Fantasy by John Lennon and Yoko Ono. Two weeks after it entered the charts, Lennon was murdered in New York City. Subsequently, the album went on to sell millions and gave Geffen its first number-one album and single; the rights to the album would later be taken over by EMI, which eventually would be absorbed by Geffen's then-future parent, Universal Music Group in 2012.

As the mid-1980s progressed, Geffen would go on to have extended success with such acts as Asia, Berlin, Enya, Kylie Minogue, Quarterflash, Wang Chung, and Sammy Hagar. The label also signed several established acts such as Elton John, Irene Cara, Cher, Debbie Harry, Don Henley, Joni Mitchell, Neil Young, Peter Gabriel, and Jennifer Holliday. Toward the end of the decade, the company also began making a name for itself as an emerging rock label, thanks to the success of Whitesnake (U.S. and Canada only), The Stone Roses, Guns N' Roses, Tesla, Sonic Youth and the comeback of 1970s-era rockers Aerosmith. This prompted Geffen to create a subsidiary label, DGC Records (formerly the David Geffen Company), in 1990; which focused on more progressive rock and would later embrace the emergence of alternative rock—Nirvana being an example. Geffen also briefly distributed the first incarnation of Def American Recordings (now simply American Recordings) through Warner Music Group from 1988 to 1990.

Acquisitions by MCA, Panasonic, and Seagram and departure of David Geffen (1990–1998)
After nearly a decade of operating through WMG, its contract with the company. Geffen was then sold to MCA Music Entertainment, by then, a label division of the now-defunct MCA Inc. in 1990. The deal earned founder David Geffen an estimated US$800 million in stock and an employment contract that ran until then. Following the sale, Geffen Records operated as one of MCA's leading independently managed labels. A year later, MCA was acquired by Japanese conglomerate Matsushita Electric (now Panasonic), bringing Geffen, Universal Pictures and other sister companies along. The acquisition was completed on New Year's Day 1991 for $6.6 billion USD.

Geffen stepped down as head of the label in 1995 to collaborate with Jeffrey Katzenberg and Amblin Entertainment co-founder Steven Spielberg to form DreamWorks SKG (later DreamWorks Pictures), an ambitious multimedia empire dealing in film, television, books and music. Geffen Records would distribute releases on the newly-founded company's DreamWorks Records subsidiary. That spring, Panasonic's ownership percentage of MCA was decreased to 20% when the remaining 80% was sold to Canadian distillery company Seagram in exchange for $5.7 billion USD. In January 1996, Geffen funded and distributed a short-lived boutique label, Outpost Recordings, featuring the likes of Whiskeytown, Ry Cooder, Veruca Salt, and Hayden. On December 9, 1996, Geffen's parent company, MCA Inc. was reincorporated as Universal Studios, Inc. Even so, its music division, MCA Music Entertainment Group, was also renamed Universal Music Group. However, under UMG's new ownership, Geffen's fortunes began to dwindle.

PolyGram merger and Interscope Geffen A&M (1999–2003)
On December 10, 1998, Seagram completed its seven-month $10.6 billion plan to acquire PolyGram. As a result, PolyGram's music division was merged into Universal Music Group. Geffen now became sister labels to A&M Records, Island Records, Mercury Records, Def Jam Recordings and Motown (which had previously been a part of UMG during its preceding MCA days from 1988 to 1993). In the ensuing months, a number of corporate reshufflings occurred, resulting in Geffen and A&M, on New Year's Eve 1998, being merged into Interscope Geffen A&M Records. Interscope Geffen A&M became one of Universal Music Group's four new label factions alongside the Verve Label Group, Universal Motown Republic Group and the Island Def Jam Music Group. However, the IGA merger resulted in Geffen firing 110 of its employees. Unlike A&M, which was closed entirely, Geffen was able to continue existing as a one-off brand under Interscope Records. At the same time, international distribution of Interscope and Geffen releases respectively switched from BMG Distribution and Island Records UK to ex-PolyGram label Polydor Records, which had already been distributing A&M releases overseas (in return for A&M handling Polydor releases in the U.S.); A&M was forced to remain as a one-off active label for Interscope following a lawsuit by its co-founders Jerry Moss and Herb Alpert, which was later settled in 2003.

In October 1999, Jordan Schur (of Flip Records) was declared Geffen's new president; this led to Schur stepping down as the head of Flip, but he still managed to maintain control of the label, while certain acts from Flip's roster, such as Cold and Professional Murder Music, were transferred over to Geffen. Geffen's first release under Schur's leadership was the End of Days soundtrack, released in November 1999. Geffen became a predominantly rock music-based label.

MCA, DGC and DreamWorks Records merger (2003)
Geffen continued to do steady business—even within 2003, UMG folded MCA Records into Geffen that July. Though Geffen had been substantially a pop-rock label, its absorption of MCA (and its back catalogs) led to a more diverse roster; with former MCA artists such as Mary J. Blige, The Roots, Blink-182, Rise Against, and Common now being transferred to the label. Meanwhile, DreamWorks Records, in October, also folded, with its artists roster, consisting of Nelly Furtado, Lifehouse and Rufus Wainwright, being absorbed by Geffen as well. The absorption occurred following a reorganization at DreamWorks Pictures, which resulted in DreamWorks Animation being divested and DreamWorks Records being acquired by UMG. During this time, the remains of DGC Records were also folded into Geffen, although the label was previously absorbed in 1999 following its merger with Interscope. Retained artists, Beck and Sonic Youth, were later redirected to record for Geffen afterwards; DGC was later reactivated in 2007, later operating under Interscope rather than Geffen.

With the mergers of MCA, DGC and DreamWorks into Geffen, more than 103 employees were laid off.

Continued success (2003–2009)
As the mid-2000s progressed, Geffen's absorption of the MCA, DGC and DreamWorks labels, along with the signage of new acts such as Ashlee Simpson, Angels & Airwaves and Snoop Dogg, had boosted the company to the extent that it began gaining equal footing with the main Interscope label, leading some industry insiders to speculate that it could revert to operating as an independently managed imprint at UMG again. In 2006, musician Ron Fair was named the chairman of Geffen. That same year, after disputes with Interscope co-founder Jimmy Iovine (at the time, the chairman and CEO of Interscope Geffen A&M, parent unit of Geffen), former labelmates 50 Cent and Dr. Dre, rapper The Game was dismissed from G-Unit Records and Interscope division imprint Aftermath Entertainment (the respective labels of the aforementioned latter two), but was later transferred to Geffen to avoid contractual obligations with G-Unit. His sophomore studio album (also his first under the label), Doctor's Advocate, debuted at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 upon release on November 14, 2006.

Geffen's urban division pertained even more notoriety with the IGA resigning of Keyshia Cole through the imprint, following DGC's relaunch and A&M's revitalization as A&M Octone Records in 2007; Cole was previously signed to sister label A&M early in her career from 2004 to that point. Her sophomore album, Just like You, received critical praise and debuted at number two on the Billboard 200. However, at the end of 2007, Geffen was subsided further into Interscope. The restructuring resulted in Geffen laying off sixty employees.

In 2009, it was announced that Geffen Records had signed an agreement with the Holy See to produce an album of Marian songs and prayers from Pope Benedict XVI.

Relaunches (2011–2017)
Interscope Geffen A&M chairman and CEO Jimmy Iovine relaunched Geffen in 2011, moving its headquarters from Santa Monica to New York City. Former manager of Kanye West, Gee Roberson was appointed chairman. However, in late 2013, the label went idle with a majority of Geffen's artists now recording under Interscope.

On May 28, 2014, Iovine departed from Interscope Geffen A&M as its chairman and CEO and hired Fueled by Ramen co-founder John Janick as his replacement.

In March 2017, Neil Jacobson was appointed president of Geffen Records to oversee the second relaunch of the label via new signings as well as reinvigoration of the label's legendary catalog.

Neil Jacobson's departure and 2020s success (2019–present)
In 2018, Interscope musician DJ Snake was drafted to Geffen to release his second studio album, Carte Blanche, which commenced on July 26, 2019. Its single, "Taki Taki", went on to accumulate four million equivalent units in the United States and peak at number one on Billboard's Hot Latin Songs chart.

In December 2019, Neil Jacobson vacated his position as the president of Geffen, leaving to start his own company, Crescent Drive Productions. The following month to a new year, in mid-January 2020, Lee L'Heureux was appointed the general manager of Geffen. The label then started to see more success from artists Rod Wave, Lil Durk, Yungblud and Hotboii (the former two were signed to Geffen through Todd Moscowitz's Alamo Records).

In a staff exchange that July, longtime Interscope executive Nicole Bilzerian was drafted to Geffen to become its executive vice president.

Olivia Rodrigo joined Geffen in the fall of 2020. Her single, "Drivers License", made the number one position on the Billboard Hot 100 in early 2021. That May, she released her debut album, Sour. It accumulated 295,000 album-equivalent units. Its five-week reign at number one on the Billboard 200 became the longest by a female recording artist that year. Sour also made Rodrigo the first Geffen recording artist and first female artist overall to have a number one album under the label in nearly 13 years since Mary J. Blige's Growing Pains (2007).

Rodrigo followed up Sour in 2023 with Guts. Released in September, it once again debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, though its first week units were moderately slim behind the artist's debut. Also, in 2023, Interscope artist Kali Uchis was drafted to Geffen before releasing her sophomore album, Red Moon in Venus, earlier that March. The album peaked at number four on the Billboard 200, another top five charting success for the label that year.

Since 2024, Geffen has been a part of Universal Music Group's Interscope Capitol Labels Group.

In July 2024, longtime former Geffen Records president Ed Rosenblatt, who served as president of Geffen Records from its inception in 1980 through its glory years of Guns N’ Roses, Nirvana, Don Henley and countless others, died.

Labels

 * HYBE
 * Cinematic Music Group
 * Downtown Records
 * Rebel Music
 * Simple Stupid Records
 * GoodTalk

Current artists

 * 4TUNAT (FlyTown/Geffen)
 * Abby Jasmine (Cinematic Music Group/Geffen Records; distribution formerly licensed to Foundation Media)
 * Ado (Virgin Records/Geffen)
 * Alesso (10:22PM/Geffen)
 * Ann Marie
 * BoyNextDoor (Hybe – KOZ/Geffen; distribution in the US)
 * Braden Bales
 * BTS (Hybe – Big Hit/Geffen; distribution in the US)
 * Byron Messia
 * Camila Cabello
 * Celeste
 * Cian Ducrot
 * ColintheKidd (Droolpz Records)
 * Dave (Neighbourhood/Geffen)
 * Dexter Tortoriello (Downtown Records/Geffen)
 * Easy Life
 * Enhypen (Hybe – Belift Lab/Geffen; distribution in the US)
 * Fromis 9 (Hybe – Pledis/Geffen; distribution in the US)
 * Guns N' Roses
 * Highway (Victor Victor Worldwide/Geffen)
 * Holly Humberstone
 * Hotboii (Rebel Music/Geffen)
 * Illit (Hybe – Belift Lab/Geffen; distribution in the US)
 * Inhaler
 * J-Hope (Hybe – Big Hit/Geffen; distribution in the US)
 * Jimin (Hybe – Big Hit/Geffen; distribution in the US)
 * Jungkook (Hybe – Big Hit/Geffen; distribution in the US)
 * Kali Uchis (EMI/Geffen; Previously with Interscope)
 * Katseye (Hybe/Geffen)
 * Le Sserafim (Hybe – Source Music/Geffen; distribution in the US)
 * Kenneth Cash (Cinematic Music Group/Geffen)
 * Kidd G
 * Lawsy (LISTEN TO THE KIDS/Geffen)
 * Lil Heat (Cinematic Music Group/Geffen; distribution licensed to Ingrooves and previously with Foundation Media)
 * Lola Kirke (Downtown Records/Geffen)
 * Lul Bob (Good Money Global/Cinematic Music Group/Geffen; distribution licensed to Ingrooves and previously with Foundation Media)
 * That Mexican OT
 * Michael Kiwanuka
 * midwxst (Simple Stupid/Geffen)
 * NewJeans (Hybe – ADOR/Geffen; distribution in the US)
 * Nirvana (from DGC Records) (Reissues)
 * Jace! (Simple Stupid/Geffen; distribution licensed to Ingrooves and previously with Foundation Media)
 * Ola Runt (Front Street/Cinematic Music Group/Geffen; distribution formerly licensed to Ingrooves and previously with Foundation Media)
 * Olivia Rodrigo
 * Prentiss (Cinematic Music Group/Geffen)
 * Riovaz (Darkroom/Geffen)
 * RM (Hybe – Big Hit/Geffen; distribution in the US)
 * Rob49 (Rebel Music/Geffen; distribution licensed to Ingrooves and previously with Foundation Media)
 * Seventeen (Hybe – Pledis/Geffen; distribution in the US)
 * Skaiwater (Cinematic Music Group/Geffen)
 * Skilla Baby
 * Smokingskul (Simple Stupid/Geffen Records)
 * SpotemGottem (Rebel Music/Geffen Records)
 * Suga (Hybe – Big Hit/Geffen; distribution in the US)
 * Tay Money
 * Thug Drama (BTM Music Group Inc.)
 * Tokyo's Revenge (Blac Noize!/Cypress Park Music/Geffen Records/Interscope Records; distribution licensed to Foundation Media)
 * TWS (Hybe – Pledis/Geffen; distribution in the US)
 * V (Hybe – Big Hit/Geffen; distribution in the US)
 * Yeat (Field Trip/Lyfëstyle Corporation/Geffen)
 * Yhapojj (Simple Stupid/Geffen Records)
 * Yungblud (Locomotion/Geffen Records)
 * Zack Bia (Field Trip/Geffen)

Former artists

 * A Drop in the Gray
 * Aerosmith (from Columbia Records)
 * Aimee Mann
 * Alex Salibian
 * AlunaGeorge
 * Angels & Airwaves
 * Ashlee Simpson
 * Asia
 * Avant (from Magic Johnson Music/MCA Records)
 * Avicii
 * Bipolar Sunshine
 * Big Time Rush (Downtown Records/Geffen)
 * Blaque
 * Blink-182 (from MCA Records)
 * Box Car Racer
 * Bobby Brown
 * Cher
 * Common (GOOD/Geffen, from MCA Records)
 * Counting Crows
 * Cowboy Junkies
 * Dazz Band
 * DJ Snake
 * Don Henley
 * Donna Summer
 * Eagles
 * Elton John
 * Emile Haynie
 * Enya
 * Eve (from Ruff Ryders/Interscope)
 * Field Mob (Disturbing tha Peace/Geffen, from MCA Records)
 * Finch (from Drive-Thru Records)
 * The Game (from Aftermath/G-Unit/Interscope)
 * Garbage (from Almo Sounds)
 * Girlicious
 * Greyson Chance (eleveneleven/Maverick/Geffen)
 * Gryffin
 * Guns N' Roses
 * GZA
 * Huddy
 * Jacob Collier
 * Jeff Bhasker
 * Jennifer Holliday
 * J.I the Prince of N.Y (G*STARR/Interscope/Geffen)
 * John Kilzer
 * John Lennon
 * John Waite
 * Ken Laszlo
 * Keyshia Cole
 * Klepto (from Larceny Entertainment)
 * Kylie Minogue
 * Lifehouse
 * Lil Durk (from Alamo/OTF/Interscope)
 * Lil Jon
 * Marshmello
 * Martin Terefe
 * Mary J. Blige (from MCA Records)
 * Mura Masa
 * Nelly Furtado (from DreamWorks Records)
 * Neon Trees (Thrill Forever Records/Downtown Records/Geffen)
 * New Found Glory
 * Orianthi
 * Peter Gabriel (US/Canada)
 * Quarterflash
 * The Plimsouls
 * Puddle of Mudd
 * Rise Against
 * Rod Wave (from Alamo; distribution licensed to Foundation Media and previously with EMPIRE)
 * The Roots (from DGC Records, later switched to MCA Records, then back to Geffen)
 * Torexeon
 * Sauce Money (Roc-A-Fella/Geffen, later switched to MCA Records)
 * Shaggy (from MCA Records)
 * Smokepurpp (from Alamo/Interscope)
 * Snoop Dogg (Doggy Style/Star Trak/Geffen, from MCA Records)
 * Solange (Music World/Geffen)
 * Sonic Youth
 * The Starting Line (from Drive-Thru Records)
 * Tesla
 * Tei Shi (Downtown Records/Geffen)
 * Thug Drama (BTM Music Group Inc.)
 * Tommy Keene
 * The Like
 * XTC (US)
 * Yoko Ono
 * Weezer
 * Wang Chung

title: Geffen Records


text:
Talk:Aleuts

concern
Well, I'm concerned about this entry.

According to local souces, http://arctic.net/~updhcvb/, the people call themselves Unangan. Shall we move most of the information to an article called Unangan? orcalover
 * I would think not. Aleut is the most commonly used name for them, and the one most people are familiar with. Would we put the article on Germans under Deutsch? Similarly, Apache actually means "enemy," and the people's name for themselves is Na Dineh, but it is not in common usage, so I think Apache is preferred. Certainly, the article should mention that the people calls itself/prefers to be called Unangan. Danny

Thanks. I'll try it that way. I agree that the term Aleut has a respectable history.

Old talk
The term "Aleut", commonly pronounced "Alley-youte" in my experience, is an appropriate word describing the indigenous peoples of the Aleutian chain. At the offices of The Aleut Corporation, the Regional ANCSA Corporation, the receptionist pronounces the word each time she gets a call from an Aleut shareholder, a certified descendant of the Aleuts. //Don Karabelnikoff, a Russian-Aleut and Chairman Emeritus of The CIRI Foundation, cultural heritage affiliate of Cook Inlet Region Inc. (CIRI). //Don K. (talk) 11:00, 22 August 2008 (UTC)

Balanced presentation
"Japanese forces ... transported captive Attu Islanders to Hokkaidō, where they were held as prisoners of war."

United states government, on the the other hand "evacuated" them and "placed them in internment camps where many died."

Perhaps a more balanced wording should be used. 93.103.96.231 (talk) 16:29, 7 September 2009 (UTC)

snow crash
I read in the Snow Crash book that the Aleuts (their territory?) suffered with U.S. nuclear testing in the 1970s? -- Error

It's true. Nuclear testing on Amchitka Island exposed people and sea life to radioactive fallout. Uyanga 14:06 May 5, 2003 (UTC)

Also, the US transplantation of Aleuts during WWII had disastrous effects on the culture and people. They were forced to abandon their homes with almost nothing but the clothes on their backs, and many died from starvation and sickness in extremely poor housing with little food and no knowledge of the foreign environment.

How about the other bits in Snow Crash about the glass knives and the using kayaks to surf from island to island? Are those true also, or were they made up for the story the way the same author Qghlm for Cryptonomicon?

1838 Epidemy
From 1838: * Epidemic kills half of the native population in the Aleuts If this is correct, can someone please write a bit more about it here (in particular, which disease was it?) and reinsert the entry which I removed? Thanks, Common Man 10:57, 13 January 2006 (UTC)

It was smallpox. The Russians have provided all their settlements with smallpox serum to prevent the spread of the disease. However, only the Aleuts took the serum, while the other tribes (Tlingits or Athabascans) rejected 'white man's medicine'. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 60.49.90.190 (talk) 14:41, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

Aleut Restitution Act of 1988
Reading Russian colonization of the Americas, I came across a word called Aleut, to which I was interested in finding out its definition. Upon coming to this page, I saw a red link for Aleut Restitution Act of 1988 and started researching. A little research turned into an hour of research, and I ended up with what you see now at Aleut Restitution Act of 1988. I doubt many of you would be interested, but just letting you know that that's one less red link now. Kareeser|Talk! 05:18, 3 March 2006 (UTC)

Typographical edits / Suggested changes
I'm correcting a few very minor typos in this entry. It's my first run at a wiki edit, so hopefully I'm playing by the rules here. There will still need to be a good amount of additional effort by someone that has domain knowledge of this subject. I too, just read snow crash (awesome) and wanted to read about the Aleuts, since I know nothing about them. Also, I'd suggest someone take a closer look at rewording some of the more subjective items in this article, but since this appears to be an active Native American project (from what I saw), I will leave this alone for now.

-- user:coreydaj

Anthropology and Prehistory?
We could really do with a good paragraph or two on anthropology and pre-contact history, here...

"related groups" info removed from infobox
For dedicated editors of this page: The "Related Groups" info was removed from all Infobox Ethnic group infoboxes. Comments may be left here. Ling.Nut 22:57, 18 May 2007 (UTC)

In pop culture:

Book by Janet Dailey 'The Great Alone' Sphere Books Limited, London, 1987 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 60.49.90.190 (talk) 14:33, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

name change?
after reading this article it says they prefer to be called unangan and that the name aleut was given to them by russian fur traders. Maybe it should be changed to unanangan with a redirect from aleut?

here is the link I found this information fromMatsuiny2004 (talk) 07:36, 3 May 2009 (UTC)

http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/northamerica/aleuts.html

some links
this link to a book digitized by google has some information on what seems to be the prehistory of the unangandan (Aleut)Matsuiny2004 (talk) 07:48, 3 May 2009 (UTC)

http://books.google.com/books?id=QNqtYsH4EScC&pg=PA12&dq=barabara+aleut

http://books.google.com/books?id=33hayxkqNYgC&pg=RA1-PA35&dq=barabara+aleut

the second one discusses barabaras at least the page it leads to does

this third link has some information on precontact

http://www.ankn.uaf.edu/ancr/Aleut/CulturalChange/append.a-f.html

Matsuiny2004 (talk) 07:55, 3 May 2009 (UTC)

"Homeland"
There were several factual problems with the "Location" section - Aleuts were "resettled" - not "deported", and the Pribilofs were not part of their "original homeland". I fixed these errors, and added some references. Apologies for sloppy ref formatting. - Eliezg (talk) 10:08, 13 April 2011 (UTC)

In popular culture
Here's the section from the article:

In Neal Stephenson's novel Snow Crash, the character Raven is an Aleut harpooner seeking revenge for the US's nuclear testing on Amchitka.

The Aleut tribes are also the subject of the Sue Harrison's Ivory Carver Trilogy that includes Mother Earth Father Sky, My Sister the Moon, and Brother Wind.

Aleuts are the subject of Irving Warner's 2007 historical novel about the Attuans held as prisoners of war in Japan, The War Journal of Lila Ann Smith.

Dana Stabenow has published a series of mystery novels set in Alaska. The novels' main character and detective is an Aleut woman named Kate Shugak. -Uyvsdi (talk) 21:04, 28 April 2011 (UTC)Uyvsdi

Modern place in society?
This article is excellent in terms of the history and traditional culture of the Aleut peoples but seems to say little about how they live now. Have they continued with the traditional practices of their ancestors or mostly integrated into modern culture? or is it a mix of the two? do they still live on their original islands or followed the mass migration into cities during the 20th and 21st centuries. Have they adapted to using modern technology and the internet?. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Stripy tie (talk • contribs) 20:56, 23 December 2011 (UTC)

 * This is 6 months late, and I don't have online sources, so I wouldn't think I should edit the article, but I can tell you (as someone who is over 1/4 Aleut) we've definitely adapted to modern technology. There are, of course, rural villages in AK with Aleut populations, but there are also many Aleuts in cities (e.g. Anchorage), there's definite spread. Generally the more urban the area, the less any traditions would have followed or even known much of. Even Aleut elders, who might at least speak the language, generally wouldn't have any piercings/tattoos/beliefs in old ways apart from, say, subsistence living. While there are still techniques related to hunting/preparing food in more isolated areas, for example, religion etc has been "modernized" almost entirely. I don't know if there are any sites that would have this info in a more credible way, though. I can only speak from personal experience/what I've seen. Iliamna (talk) 21:27, 20 June 2012 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Chipewyan people which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 09:14, 12 March 2014 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: Move. As with other similar moves, we seem to have an emerging consensus here that the people are the WP:PRIMARYTOPIC and should be at the base name. Cúchullain t/ c 13:36, 4 April 2014 (UTC)

Aleut people → Aleut – target moved to current title by Kwami on Jan 15 2011, then converted into two-item dab page by same editor then moved to PRIMARYTOPIC current redirect by Uysvdi on July 6 2011 citing WP:TWODABS. WP:UNDAB applies here as in other such cases. Skookum1 (talk) 06:00, 20 March 2014 (UTC)
 * Oppose until the issue is addressed properly. These should be discussed at a centralized location.
 * There was a discussion once on whether the ethnicity should have precedence for the name, and it was decided it shouldn't. That could be revisited.  But it really should be one discussion on the principle, not thousands of separate discussions at every ethnicity in the world over whether it should be at "X", "Xs", or "X people".  — kwami (talk) 12:39, 20 March 2014 (UTC)

 * Support per nom. An identified people should be the primary topic of a term absent something remarkable standing in the way. bd2412  T 02:28, 22 March 2014 (UTC)
 * Support as per the policy Article titles and the guideline Naming conventions (ethnicities and tribes). The section Article titles also applies given that Aleut is a redirect here. There is no need to redo any guideline as it already supports the un-disabiguated title. CambridgeBayWeather (talk) 03:43, 22 March 2014 (UTC)
 * Support per CambridgeBayWeather. In cases where the requested move simply eliminates the word "people", and the destination title is already a simple redirect to the current title, it is clear that guidelines favoring both precision and conciseness support the move. Xoloz (talk) 20:19, 30 March 2014 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

Unanga etymology/grammar
The article contradicts itself: '' A regional self-denomination is Unangax̂, Unangan or Unanga, meaning "original people." [...] The word Unangan (plural Unanga-x) evidently translates to "Seasider."'' So which is it, "original people" or "seasiders"?

According to language sites, Unangax is the dual, not the plural: singular Unanga{ ("{" being another transcription for "x̂", the voiceless uvular fricative), dual Unangax, plural Unangan. But sometimes Unangax seems to be used to denominate the people. --92.208.245.85 (talk) 10:17, 15 June 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
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I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Aleut. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20100604084252/https://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/northamerica/aleuts.html to http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/northamerica/aleuts.html

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Requested move 4 March 2017

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: No Consensus. Naulagmi (talk) 21:59, 10 March 2017 (UTC)

Aleut → Unangax people – The name Aleut is starting to be outdated in Alaska, and occasionally somewhat offensive. The official languages bill passed in 2014 designated the language as Unangax, not Aleut. The Alaska Native Language Center also lists the language as Unangax: Writing about the term Aleut: "This language was formerly called Aleut, a general term for introduced by Russian explorers and fur traders to refer to Native Alaskan of the Aleutian Islands, the Alaska Peninsula, Kodiak Island, and Prince William Sound". The regional non-profit APIA (Aleutian and Pribilof Islands Association, also lists there name as Unangax (or plural Unangas/Unangan), as well as the Alaska Native Heritage Center and Ounalaska Corporation. Use of Unangax has become common practice in Alaska in about the last five to ten years. It would have happened sooner, but there was disagreement about whether to use Unangax or the plural form. Naulagmi (talk) 09:04, 4 March 2017 (UTC)

 * Oppose. The article's sources overwhelmingly use "Aleut".  While "the name Aleut is starting to be outdated in Alaska" (my emphasis) may be true, this change needs to be reflected in common usage worldwide.  In addition, this article is about the Aleut people and not the Aleut language which is the subject of the linked sources above.  —  AjaxSmack   02:53, 5 March 2017 (UTC)
 * Worldwide, yes, Aleut, may still be the common name, but what percentage of people outside of Alaska are those ones using the word Aleut? It is in common use in Alaska, and I would assume that 90% of use of of Unangax/Aleut is in Alaska. Also, the only source above that is referring to language is the Alaska Native Language Center and the Official Languages Act. The other three sources refer to the people group. Please read the links again before making a decision. --Naulagmi (talk) 04:43, 5 March 2017 (UTC)

 * Oppose. "Aleut" has long been the accepted name of the people - which the people still use to designate themselves. Even if it is "occasionally somewhat offensive," surely this is dependent on the context in which it is used and not inherent in the name itself? The word itself, I contend, remains neutral - at least as far as I am aware.John Hill (talk) 03:32, 5 March 2017 (UTC)
 * You are wrong about the name which people still use to designate themselves. All major Unangax organizations (except for the Aleut Corporation) are using Unangax as common practice, as you can see in the links above, as well as the State government. To some people, the term Aleut (like Eskimo) in of itself, can be offensive. The terms common usage has shifted in Alaska in the last ten years. Please reconsider. --Naulagmi (talk) 04:43, 5 March 2017 (UTC)

 * Withdraw You may well be right - you are more up to date than I am - so I withdraw my opposition. Over to you. I hope everyone finds an acceptable solution.John Hill (talk) 05:39, 5 March 2017 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

External links modified
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Adding a main article on related content
Hello fellow Wikipedians; I will be writing a new main article on wooden hunting hats (in which there is currently a short mention under 5.3 Visual Arts). I understand there has been discussion on the usage of 'Aleut' or demonym 'Unangan'. I am planning to use Unangan, and will link my article from the Aleut page/section. Please let me know if you have any concerns. You will be able to find the page here once complete: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unangan_hunting_headgear. Thanks :) Alias112358 (talk) 01:05, 17 October 2018 (UTC)

Requested move 26 December 2023

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: moved as requested per the discussion below. Dekimasu よ! 17:10, 2 January 2024 (UTC)

Aleut → Aleuts – Name already in article. Like Catalans, Romanians, Ukrainians. Lucjim (talk) 19:29, 22 December 2023 (UTC) This is a contested technical request (permalink). Ebbedlila (talk) 14:42, 26 December 2023 (UTC)

 * Support per nom. Yorkporter (talk) 19:27, 26 December 2023 (UTC)
 * Support; this is the standard naming convention. ― novov  (t   c)  09:18, 27 December 2023 (UTC)

The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

title: Talk:Aleuts


text:
Waldwick

Waldwick may refer to the following:

Places

 * United States
 * Waldwick, New Jersey
 * Waldwick High School
 * Waldwick (NJT station)
 * Waldwick Public School District
 * Waldwick, Wisconsin, a town
 * Waldwick (community), Wisconsin, an unincorporated community

title: Waldwick


text:
Adirondack Mountains

The Adirondack Mountains are a massif of mountains in Northeastern New York which form a circular dome approximately 160 mi wide and covering about 5,000 mi2. The region contains more than 100 peaks, including Mount Marcy, which is the highest point in New York at 5,344 ft. The Adirondack High Peaks, a traditional list of 46 peaks over 4,000 ft, are popular hiking destinations. There are over 200 named lakes with the number of smaller lakes, ponds, and other bodies of water reaching over 3,000. Among the named lakes around the mountains are Lake George, Lake Placid, and Lake Tear of the Clouds. The region has over 1200 mi of river.

Although the mountains are formed from ancient rocks more than 1 billion years old, geologically, the mountains are relatively young and were created during recent periods of glaciation. Because of this, the Adirondacks have been referred to as "new mountains from old rocks." It is theorized that there is a hotspot beneath the region, which causes continued uplift at the rate of 1.5-3 cm annually.

The Adirondack mountain range has such unusual characteristics compared to the area around it that it is divided into its own province within the Appalachian Highlands physiographic division. It is bounded by three other provinces: the St. Lawrence (Champlain) on the north, northeast; the Appalachian Plateau to the south, southwest; and the Valley and Ridge to the southeast.

The entire region lies within Adirondack Park, a New York state protected area of over 6,000,000 acre. The park was established in 1892 by the state legislature to protect the region's natural resources and to provide recreational opportunities for the public. It covers over 20 percent of New York state's land area.

Etymology
The word Adirondack is thought to come from the Mohawk word ha-de-ron-dah meaning "eaters of trees". The earliest written use of the name was in 1635 by Harmen Meyndertsz van den Bogaert in his Mohawk to Dutch glossary, found in his Journey into Mohawk Country. He spelled it Adirondakx and said that it stood for Frenchmen, meaning the Algonquians who allied with the French. Another early use of the name, spelled Rontaks, was in 1729 by French missionary Joseph-François Lafitau. He explained that the word was used by the Iroquois as a derogatory term for groups of Algonquians who did not practice agriculture and therefore sometimes had to eat tree bark to survive harsh winters.

The Mohawks had no written language, so Europeans used various phonetic spellings of the word, including Achkokx, Rondaxe, and Adirondax. Such words were strongly associated with the region, but they were not yet considered a place name; an English map from 1761 labels the area simply Deer Hunting Country. In 1838, the mountains were named Adirondacks by Ebenezer Emmons, the State Geologist for the northern New York State Geological District.

History
Humans have lived in the region of the Adirondack Mountains since the Paleo-Indian period (15,000 to 7,000 BC), shortly after the last ice age. The first group to move into the area came south from the St. Lawrence River Valley and settled along the shores of the Champlain Sea around 13,000 BC. These Archaic period people, known as the Laurentian culture, were semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers. Evidence for their presence in the Adirondacks includes a projectile point of red-brown chert found in 2007 at the edge of Tupper Lake.

Over the next 11,000 or so years, the region's climate slowly warmed, and forests began to replace the original tundra. Transitioning from the Archaic Period to the Woodland period, multiple different cultures—Sylvan Lake, River, Middlesex, Point Peninsula, and Owasco cultures—replaced the Laurentian culture over time. By the time of the Owasco culture, around 0 AD, maize and beans were being cultivated in the Adirondack uplands.

The first Iroquoian peoples, the Mohawk (or Kanyengehaga) and the Oneida (or Oneyotdehaga), arrived in the Adirondack region between 4,000 and 1,200 years ago. Both groups claimed the Adirondack Mountains as hunting grounds. According to Haudenosaunee historian Rick Hill, the region was considered a 'Dish with One Spoon,' symbolizing shared hunting resources between the groups. A group of Algonquian people, known as the Mahicans, also occupied the region, particularly the Hudson River Valley.

These were the groups that the first European explorers of the area encountered. European presence in the area began with a battle between Samuel de Champlain and a group of Mohawks, in what is now Ticonderoga in 1609. The Jesuit missionary Isaac Jogues became the first recorded European to travel through the center of the Adirondacks, as the captive of a Mohawk hunting party, in 1642.

The early European perception of the Adirondacks was of a vast, inhospitable wilderness. One map of the area from 1771 shows the region as a blank space in the northeastern corner of New York. In 1784, Thomas Pownhall wrote that the Native Americans referred to the area as "the Dismal Wilderness, or the Habitation of Winter," and that the area was "either not much known to them, or, if known, very wisely by them kept from the Knowledge of the Europeans." He clearly had the impression that native people did not live within the Adirondack mountains.

Because local Iroquoian and Algonquian tribes had been decimated first by smallpox and measles in the 1600s, then by wars with encroaching European settlers, there likely were very few people living in the region by the time Pownhall wrote his description. It is only relatively recently that numerous archaeological finds have definitively shown that Native Americans were indeed very present in the Adirondacks before European contact, hunting, making pottery, and practicing agriculture.

The European impression of a wild region devoid of human connection set up a narrative about wilderness that would persist through the next 200-some years of the region's history. While society's perception of the Adirondacks' value changed, they were always seen as a land of natural resources and physical beauty, not of human history. First the area was an inhospitable tangle, then a lucrative store of lumber. After the American Revolutionary War, New York State gained ownership of most of the land in the region.

Needing money to discharge war debts, the government sold nearly all the original public acreage about 7 million acres for pennies an acre. Lumbermen were welcomed to the interior, with few restraints, resulting in massive deforestation. Later, the wilderness character of the region became popular with the rise of the Romantic movement, and the Adirondacks became a destination for those wishing to escape the evils of city life. Rising concern over water quality and deforestation led to the creation of the Adirondack Park in 1885. In 1989, part of the Adirondack region was designated by UNESCO as the Champlain-Adirondack Biosphere Reserve.

For the more recent human history of the Adirondack region, see Adirondack Park.

Geology
The rocks of the Adirondack mountains originated about two billion years ago as 50,000 feet (ca. 15,240 m) thick sediments at the bottom of a sea located near the equator. Because of plate tectonics these collided with Laurentia (the precursor of modern North America) in a mountain building episode known as the Grenville orogeny. During this time the sedimentary rock was changed into metamorphic rock. It is these Proterozoic minerals and lithologies that make up the core of the massif. Minerals of interest include:
 * wollastonite, mined near Harrisville
 * magnetite and hematite, formerly mined at the Benson Mines, Lyon Mountain, Mineville, Tahawus, and Witherbee.
 * graphite, mined near Hague and Ticonderoga.
 * garnet, mined at the Barton Mine, north of Gore Mountain.
 * anorthosite, visible in road cuts on the New York State Route 3 between Saranac Lake and Tupper Lake.
 * marble
 * zinc: The Balmat-Edwards district on the northwest flank of the massif also in St. Lawrence County was a major zinc ore deposit
 * titanium was mined at Tahawus.

Note: the Adirondacks are uplifted by a hot spot in the Canadian Shield in contrast to other mountain ranges in New York which are a part of the Appalachian chain (not to be confused with the cultural region of Appalachia).

Around 600 million years ago, as Laurentia drifted away from Baltica (European Craton), the area began to be pulled apart forming the Iapetus Ocean. Faults developed, running north to northeast which formed valleys and deep lakes. Examples visible today include the grabens Lake George and Schroon Lake. By this time the Grenville mountains had been eroded away and the area was covered by a shallow sea. Several thousand feet of sediment accumulated on the sea bed. Trilobites were the principal life-form of the sea bed, and fossil tracks can be seen in the Potsdam sandstone floor of the Paul Smiths Visitor Interpretive Center.

About 10 million years ago, the region began to be uplifted. It has been lifted about 7000 feet (ca. 2,134 meters) and is continuing at about 2 millimeters per year, which is greater than the rate of denudation. The cause of the uplift is unknown, but geologists theorize that it is caused by a hot spot in the Earth's crust. A recent study has revealed a column of seismically slow materials about 50–80 km deep beneath the Adirondack Mountains, which was interpreted to be the upwelling asthenosphere contributing to the uplift of the mountains. The occurrence of earthquake swarms near the center of the massif at Blue Mountain Lake may be evidence of this. Some of the earthquakes have exceeded 5 on the Richter magnitude scale.

Starting about 2.5 million years ago, a cycle of Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods began which covered the area in ice. During the most recent episode, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of northern North America between about 95,000 and c. 20,000 years ago. After this the climate warmed, but it took nearly 10,000 years for a 10,000 feet (ca. 3,048 m) thick layer of ice to completely melt. Evidence of this period includes:
 * Eskers: the Rainbow Lake esker bisects the eponymous lake and extends discontinuously for 85 miles (ca. 137 km). Another long discontinuous esker extends from Mountain Pond through Keese Mill, passing between Upper St. Regis Lake and the Spectacle Ponds, and continuing to Ochre, Fish, and Lydia Ponds in the St. Regis Canoe Area. A 150-foot-high esker bisects the Five Ponds Wilderness Area.
 * Glacial erratics: there is a large one at the Newcomb Visitor Information Center next to the Rich Lake Trail.
 * Kames
 * Moraines
 * The cirques that characterize the Whiteface Mountain.
 * Outwash plains: St. Regis Canoe Area is an outwash plain pitted with kettle holes.

Soils in the area are generally thin, sandy, acidic, and infertile, having developed since the glacial retreat.

Climate
The climate is strongly continental, with high humidity and precipitation year-round. The Adirondacks typically experience pleasantly warm, rainy weather in the summer (June–August), with temperatures in the range of 66 - 73 F, cooler than the rest of New York State due to the higher elevation. Summer evenings in the Adirondacks are chilly, with temperatures ranging on average between 45 - 54 F. Winters (December–March) are long, cold, snowy and harsh, with temperatures ranging from 18 to 23 F. Winter nights are frigid, with temperatures between -2 and 4 F. Spring (April–May) and fall (September–November) are short transitional seasons.

Ecology
The Adirondack Mountains form the southernmost part of the Eastern forest-boreal transition ecoregion. They are heavily forested, and contain one of the southernmost distributions of the taiga ecotype in North America. The forests of the Adirondacks include spruce, pine and deciduous trees. Lumbering, once an important industry, has been much restricted by the creation of state forest preserve.

The mountains include many wetlands, of which there are three kinds:
 * swamps, any wetland including trees and shrubs.
 * marshes, wetlands with water stagnation. These may support bullfrogs, spring peepers, spotted salamanders, great blue herons, American bitterns, and painted turtles. Pickerel weed often forms large colonies.
 * bogs, characterized by plants like sphagnum moss, orchids, and pitcher plants.

Breeding birds include northern forest specialists not found anywhere else in the state, such as boreal chickadees, Canada jays, spruce grouse, black-backed woodpeckers, common loons and crossbills. Mammals include raccoons, beavers, river otters, bobcats, moose, black bears, and coyotes. Extirpated or extinct mammals that formerly roamed the Adirondacks include the eastern cougar, eastern elk, wolverine, caribou, eastern wolf, and the Canada lynx. Attempted reintroductions of elk and lynx in the 20th century failed for numerous reasons, including poaching, vehicle collisions, and conservation incompetence.

Nearly 60 percent of the park is covered with northern hardwood forest. Above 2600 ft, conditions are too poor for hardwoods to thrive, and the trees become mixed with or replaced by balsam fir and red spruce. Above 3500 ft black spruce replace red. Higher still, only trees short enough to be covered in snow during the winter can survive.

A small area on the highest peaks exists above the tree line and has an alpine climate. These areas are covered by plants which occupied a large lowland tundra following the most recent period of glaciation. The amount of area covered by this ecosystem changes from year to year due to local climate changes, and has been estimated to only cover between 65-85 acre. The alpine ecosystem is considered extremely fragile, and was damaged by hikers prior to a 1970s campaign by the Adirondack Mountain Club to preserve it.

title: Adirondack Mountains