text:
Quick

Quick, as an adjective, refers to something moving with high speed.

Quick may also refer to:

In business

 * Quick (restaurant), a Belgian fast-food restaurant chain
 * Quick (sportswear), a Dutch manufacturer of sportswear
 * Quick (automobile), an early American automobile

Music

 * The Quick (American band), a rock band from Los Angeles
 * The Quick (British band), a pop band from England
 * Quick (dance group), a hip hop dance group
 * Quick (album), a 1994 independently released album by Far

Films

 * Quick (1932 film), a German film starring Lilian Harvey
 * Quick, a 1993 American crime film starring Teri Polo
 * Quick (2011 film), a South Korean film
 * Quick (2019 film),, also known as The Perfect Patient, a Swedish film

Publications

 * Quick (German magazine), published 1948–1992
 * Quick (newspaper), a defunct free weekly tabloid in the Dallas-Fort Worth area from 2003 to 2011

In sports

 * AHC Quick, also known as Quick Amsterdam, a baseball and softball club based in Amsterdam, the Netherlands
 * Quick 1888, also known as Quick Nijmegen, an amateur sporting club from Nijmegen, the Netherlands
 * Colloquial term for a fast bowler in cricket

People and fictional characters

 * Quick (surname), a list of people and fictional characters
 * James Murphy (gridiron football) (born 1959), retired Canadian Football League player nicknamed "Quick"
 * James "Quick" Parker (1958–2018), Canadian Football League player
 * James Tillis (born 1957), American boxer nicknamed "Quick"

Places in the United States

 * Quick, Nebraska, an unincorporated community
 * Quick, West Virginia, an unincorporated community

Other uses

 * Quick, an informal name for the hyponychium, a sensitive region of skin between the fingertip and the free edge of the fingernail
 * USS Quick (DD-490), a US Navy ship during World War II
 * QUICK scheme (Quadratic Upstream Interpolation for Convective Kinematics), in computational fluid dynamics
 * Quiz for Improving Crew Knowledge, used in railway crew management in India for evaluation of crew knowledge

title: Quick


text:
Down and Out in Paris and London

Down and Out in Paris and London is the first full-length work by the English author George Orwell, published in 1933. It is a memoir in two parts on the theme of poverty in the two cities. Its target audience was the middle- and upper-class members of society—those who were more likely to be well educated—and it exposes the poverty existing in two prosperous cities: Paris and London. The first part is an account of living in near-extreme poverty and destitution in Paris and the experience of casual labour in restaurant kitchens. The second part is a travelogue of life on the road in and around London from the tramp's perspective, with descriptions of the types of hostel accommodation available and some of the characters to be found living on the margins.

Background
After giving up his post as a policeman in Burma to become a writer, Orwell moved to rooms in Portobello Road, London at the end of 1927 when he was 24. While contributing to various journals, he undertook investigative tramping expeditions in and around London, collecting material for use in "The Spike", his first published essay, and for the latter half of Down and Out in Paris and London. In spring of 1928 he moved to Paris and lived at 6 Rue du Pot de Fer in the Latin Quarter, a bohemian quarter with a cosmopolitan flavour. American writers like Ernest Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald had lived in the same area. Following the Russian Revolution, there was a large Russian emigre community in Paris. Orwell's aunt Nellie Limouzin also lived in Paris and gave him social and, when necessary, financial support. He led an active social life, worked on his novels and had several articles published in avant-garde journals. Orwell fell seriously ill in March 1929 and shortly afterwards had money stolen from the lodging house. The thief was probably not the young Italian described in Down and Out. In a later account, he said the theft was the work of a young woman whom he had picked up and brought back with him; it has been submitted that "consideration for his parents' sensibilities would have required the suppression of this misadventure". Whoever reduced Orwell to destitution did him a good turn; his final ten weeks in Paris sowed the seed of his first published book. Whether through necessity or just to collect material, and probably both, he undertook casual work as a dishwasher in restaurants. In August 1929 he sent a copy of "The Spike" to the Adelphi magazine in London, and it was accepted for publication. Orwell left Paris in December 1929 and returned to England, going straight home to his parents' house in Southwold. Later he acted as a private tutor to a disabled child there and also undertook further tramping expeditions, culminating in a stint working in the Kent hop fields in August and September 1931. After this adventure, he ended up in the Tooley Street kip, which he found so unpleasant that he wrote home for money and moved to more comfortable lodgings.

Publication
Orwell's first version of Down and Out was called "A Scullion's Diary". Completed in October 1930, it used only his Paris material. He offered it to Jonathan Cape in the summer of 1931. Cape rejected it in the autumn. A year later he offered "a fatter typescript (the London chapters had been added)" to Faber & Faber, where T. S. Eliot, then an editorial director, also rejected it, stating, "We did find it of very great interest, but I regret to say that it does not appear to me possible as a publishing venture."

It was in the home of Mabel Fierz that Orwell then discarded the typescript. She had, with her husband, a London businessman named Francis, been for a number of years a visitor to Southwold in the summer and was on friendly terms with the Blairs. Fierz at this point took it to a literary agent, Leonard Moore, who "recognised it as a 'natural' for the new house of Gollancz." Victor Gollancz was prepared to publish the work, subject to the removal of bad language and some identifiable names, and offered an advance of £40. Orwell complained that one passage that Gollancz asked be changed or cut was "about the only good bit of writing in the book". The title improvised by Gollancz, Confessions of a Down and Outer, bothered Orwell. "Would The Confessions of a Dishwasher do as well?" he asked Moore. "I would rather answer to dishwasher than down & out." In July 1932, Orwell had suggested calling the book The Lady Poverty, in reference to a poem by Alice Meynell; in August 1932, he suggested In Praise of Poverty. At the last minute, Gollancz shortened the title to Down and Out in Paris and London. The author, after possibilities including "X," "P.S. Burton" (an alias Orwell had used on tramping expeditions), "Kenneth Miles" and "H. Lewis Allways" had been considered, was renamed "George Orwell." Orwell did not wish to publish under his own name Eric Blair, and Orwell was the name he used from then on for his main works—although many periodical articles were still published under the name Eric Blair. Down and Out in Paris and London was published on 9 January 1933 and received favourable reviews from, among others, C. Day Lewis, WH Davies, Compton Mackenzie and JB Priestley. It was subsequently published by Harper & Brothers in New York. Sales were low, however, until December 1940, when Penguin Books printed 55,000 copies for sale at sixpence.

A French translation, which Orwell admired, by RN Raimbault and Gwen Gilbert, entitled La Vache Enragée, was published by Éditions Gallimard, on 2 May 1935, with a preface by Panait Istrati and an introduction by Orwell.

Chapters 1–23 (Paris)
The scene-setting opening chapters describe the atmosphere in the Paris quarter and introduce various characters who appear later in the book. From Chapter III to Chapter X, where the narrator obtains a job at "Hotel X," he describes his descent into poverty, often in tragi-comic terms. An Italian compositor forges room keys and steals his savings and his scant income vanishes when the English lessons he is giving stop. He begins at first to sell some of his clothes, and then to pawn his remaining clothes, and then searches for work with a Russian waiter named Boris—work as a porter at Les Halles, work as an English teacher and restaurant work. He recounts his two-day experience without any food and tells of meeting Russian "Communists" who, he later concludes, on their disappearance, must be mere swindlers.

After the various ordeals of unemployment and hunger the narrator obtains a job as a plongeur (dishwasher) in the "Hôtel X" near the Place de la Concorde, and begins to work long hours there. In Chapter XIII, he describes the "caste system" of the hotel—"manager-cooks-waiters-plongeurs"—and, in Chapter XIV, its frantic and seemingly chaotic workings. He notes also "the dirt in the Hôtel X.," which became apparent "as soon as one penetrated into the service quarters." He talks of his routine life among the working poor of Paris, slaving and sleeping, and then drinking on Saturday night through the early hours of Sunday morning. In Chapter XVI, he refers briefly to a murder committed "just beneath my window [while he was sleeping .... The thing that strikes me in looking back," he says, "is that I was in bed and asleep within three minutes of the murder [....] We were working people, and where was the sense of wasting sleep over a murder?"

Misled by Boris's optimism, the narrator is briefly penniless again after he and Boris quit their hotel jobs in the expectation of work at a new restaurant, the "Auberge de Jehan Cottard," where Boris feels sure he will become a waiter again; at the Hotel X, he had been doing lower-grade work. The "patron" of the Auberge, "an ex-colonel of the Russian Army," seems to have financial difficulties. The narrator is not paid for ten days and is compelled to spend a night on a bench—"It was very uncomfortable—the arm of the seat cuts into your back—and much colder than I had expected"—rather than face his landlady over the outstanding rent.

At the restaurant, the narrator finds himself working "seventeen and a half hours" a day, "almost without a break," and looking back wistfully at his relatively leisured and orderly life at the Hotel X. Boris works even longer: "eighteen hours a day, seven days a week." The narrator claims that "such hours, though not usual, are nothing extraordinary in Paris." He adds

"by the way, that the Auberge was not the ordinary cheap eating-house frequented by students and workmen. We did not provide an adequate meal at less than twenty-five francs, and we were picturesque and artistic, which sent up our social standing. There were the indecent pictures in the bar, and the Norman decorations—sham beams on the walls, electric lights done up as candlesticks, 'peasant' pottery, even a mounting-block at the door—and the patron and the head waiter were Russian officers, and many of the customers titled Russian refugees. In short, we were decidedly chic."

He falls into a routine again and speaks of quite literally fighting for a place on the Paris Métro to reach the "cold, filthy kitchen" by seven. Despite the filth and incompetence, the restaurant turns out to be a success.

The narrative is interspersed with anecdotes recounted by some of the minor characters, such as Valenti, an Italian waiter at Hotel X, and Charlie, "one of the local curiosities," who is "a youth of family and education who had run away from home." In Chapter XXII, the narrator considers the life of a plongeur:

"[A] plongeur is one of the slaves of the modern world. Not that there is any need to whine over him, for he is better off than many manual workers, but still, he is no freer than if he were bought and sold. His work is servile and without art; he is paid just enough to keep him alive; his only holiday is the sack [.... He has] been trapped by a routine which makes thought impossible. If plongeurs thought at all, they would long ago have formed a labour union and gone on strike for better treatment. But they do not think, because they have no leisure for it; their life has made slaves of them."

Because of the stress of the long hours, he mails to a friend, "B," back in London, asking if he could get him a job that allows more than five hours' sleep a night. His friend duly replies, offering a job taking care of a "congenital imbecile," and sends him some money to get his possessions from the pawn. The narrator then quits his job as a plongeur and leaves for London.

Chapters 24–38 (London)

The narrator arrives in London expecting to have the job waiting for him. Unfortunately the would-be employers have gone abroad, "patient and all."

Until his employers return, the narrator lives as a tramp, sleeping in an assortment of venues: lodging houses, tramps' hostels or "spikes," and Salvation Army shelters. Because vagrants can not "enter any one spike, or any two London spikes, more than once in a month, on pain of being confined for a week," he is required to keep on the move, with the result that long hours are spent tramping or waiting for hostels to open. Chapters XXV to XXXV describe his various journeys, the different forms of accommodation, a selection of the people he meets, and the tramps' reaction to Christian charity: "Evidently the tramps were not grateful for their free tea. And yet it was excellent [....] I am sure too that it was given in a good spirit, without any intention of humiliating us; so in fairness we ought to have been grateful—still, we were not." Characters in this section of the book include the Irish tramp called Paddy, "a good fellow" whose "ignorance was limitless and appalling," and the pavement artist from the Embankment, Bozo, who has a good literary background and was formerly an amateur astronomer. He has a "dreadfully deformed" right foot and has fallen prey to a succession of similar misfortunes, in his trade and his life.

The final chapters provide a catalogue of various types of accommodation open to tramps, including the four penny coffin. The narrator offers some general remarks, concluding,

"At present I do not feel that I have seen more than the fringe of poverty. Still, I can point to one or two things I have definitely learned by being hard up. I shall never again think that all tramps are drunken scoundrels, nor expect a beggar to be grateful when I give him a penny, nor be surprised if men out of work lack energy, nor subscribe to the Salvation Army, nor pawn my clothes, nor refuse a handbill, nor enjoy a meal at a smart restaurant. That is a beginning."

Fact and fiction
One of the debates surrounding Down and Out is whether it was a piece of factual autobiography or part fiction. Orwell wrote in the Introduction to the 1935 French edition: "I think I can say that I have exaggerated nothing except in so far as all writers exaggerate by selecting. I did not feel that I had to describe events in the exact order in which they happened, but everything I have described did take place at one time or another." In Chapter XXIV, it is "clear that Orwell did distort facts by claiming on his return from Paris he found himself down and out in London and had not 'the slightest notion of how to get a cheap bed'. This of course heightens the tension [...] but the truth is that in Paris he had already written his first substantial essay, "The Spike", describing a night spent in a Notting Hill tramps' hostel. Before his departure from England he had voluntarily lived among tramps for some time."

In The Road to Wigan Pier, Orwell referred to the tramping experiences described in Down and Out, writing that "nearly all the incidents described there actually happened, though they have been re-arranged." Some measure of the work's veracity may be gleaned from a marked-up copy, containing sixteen annotations, which Orwell gave to Brenda Salkeld. Of the descent into poverty from Chapter III, he wrote, "Succeeding chapters are not actually autobiography but drawn from what I have seen." Of Chapter VII, however, he wrote, "This all happened;" of Hotel X, "All as exact as I could make it;" and, of the Russian restaurant, "All the following is an entirely accurate description of the restaurant." On the personalities, Orwell's own introduction to the French edition states that the characters are individuals, but are "intended more as representative types."

The luxury hotel in which Orwell worked in the autumn of 1929 was identified as the Crillon by Sonia Orwell, as recounted by Sam White, the London Evening Standard's Paris correspondent in his column for 16 June 1967. The writers Stansky and Abrahams suggested, in their study of Orwell, that it was the Hotel Lotti.

Reactions
Within a month of publication, Humbert Possenti, "a restaurateur and hotelier of forty years," had written to The Times complaining that the book was unfairly disparaging to the restaurant trade. The Times Literary Supplement had previously reviewed Down and Out in Paris and London, describing it as "a vivid picture of an apparently mad world." Orwell responded to the restaurateur's criticism with a letter to the same newspaper: "I do know that in our hotel there were places which no customer could possibly have been allowed to see with any hope of retaining his custom." In France, political outlook very much determined the reception of La Vache enragée. The left welcomed it as an indictment of health hazards in commercial kitchens. The right accused Orwell of Francophobia. A middle of the road paper surmised that Orwell's account was likely to "give a retrospective retch to Americans" who had patronized Parisian restaurants.

In the Adelphi, C. Day Lewis wrote, "Orwell's book is a tour of the underworld, conducted without hysteria or prejudice [...] a model of clarity and good sense." JB Priestley, in the Evening Standard, considered it "uncommonly good reading. An excellent book and a valuable social document. The best book of its kind I have read in a long time." Compton Mackenzie wrote of Orwell's "immensely interesting book [...] a genuine human document, which at the same time is written with so much artistic force that, in spite of the squalor and degradation thus unfolded, the result is curiously beautiful with the beauty of an accomplished etching on copper. The account of a casual ward in this country horrifies like some scene of inexplicable misery in Dante."

Following the American publication, James T. Farrell, writing in The New Republic, called it "genuine, unexaggerated and intelligent," while Herbert Gorman wrote for the New York Times Book Review, "He possesses a keen eye for character and a rough-and-ready 'styleless style' that plunges along and makes the reader see what the author wants him to see." In contrast, the reviewer for New English Weekly wrote, "This book [...] is forcefully written and is very readable, yet it fails to carry conviction. We wonder if the author was really down and out. Down certainly, but out?"

Cyril Connolly later wrote, "I don't think Down and Out in London and Paris is more than agreeable journalism; it was all better done by his friend Henry Miller. Orwell found his true form a few years later." Orwell agreed with this assessment. Henry Miller's controversial work Tropic of Cancer (1934) is based on his own experiences in Paris around the time Orwell was there.

In an essay for the 1971 The World of George Orwell, Richard Mayne considered the book as typical of something that was true of a great deal of Orwell's later writing: his "relish at revealing behind-the-scenes squalor. He was always taking the lid off things—poverty, parlour Socialism, life in a coal mine, prep-school tyranny, the Empire, the Spanish Civil War, the Russian Revolution, the political misuse of language. He might well have echoed W.H. Auden: All I have is a voice/To undo the folded lie."

The narrator's comments on Jews in the book are cited by a journalist for Haaretz when considering what he terms "Orwell’s latent anti-Semitism". Some suggest the work may have been Orwell's parody of his own social upbringing and social class, noticing the narrator has both racist and anti-racist outbursts. Another commentator cites the book as evidence that anti-Semitism was much more prevalent in Paris than in London.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Down and Out in Paris and London


text:
Letter bomb

A letter bomb is an explosive device sent via the postal service, and designed with the intention to injure or kill the recipient when opened. They have been used in terrorist attacks such as those of the Unabomber. Some countries have agencies whose duties include the interdiction of letter bombs and the investigation of letter bombings. The letter bomb may have been in use for nearly as long as the common postal service has been in existence, as far back as 1764 (see Examples).

Description
Letter bombs are usually designed to explode immediately on opening, with the intention of seriously injuring or killing the recipient (who may or may not be the person to whom the bomb was addressed). A related threat is mail containing unidentified powders or chemicals, as in the 2001 anthrax attacks.

Use by suffragettes
One of, if not the first, groups to consistently use letter bombs on a wide scale were the British suffragettes of the Women's Social and Political Union in the years before the First World War. The group were the original inventors of a form of letter bomb designed to maim or kill politicians or opponents. In 1913, numerous letter bombs were sent to politicians such as the Chancellor David Lloyd George and Prime Minister H.H. Asquith, but they invariably all exploded in post offices, post boxes or in mailbags while in transit across the country. Suffragettes also once attempted to assassinate a judge they considered to be anti-women's suffrage, Sir Henry Curtis-Bennett, with a "deadly" letter-bomb made partly out of bullets, but the bomb was intercepted by London postal workers before it could reach him.

Patentability
Letter-bombs, along with anti-personnel mines, are typical examples of subject-matter excluded from patentability under the European Patent Convention, because the publication or exploitation of such inventions are contrary to the "ordre public" and/or morality.

Examples

 * What might be the first recorded case of a device broadly similar to a modern parcel bomb featured in the 18th century affair known as the Bandbox Plot. On November 4, 1712, a bandbox (i.e. a lightweight hat-box) was sent to Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford, the British Lord Treasurer. It contained a number of loaded and cocked pistols, to whose triggers was attached a thread which would have made the pistols fire the moment the box was opened. The plot was foiled by the perspicacity of Jonathan Swift, who happened to be visiting the Earl of Oxford. Swift, perceiving the thread, seized the package and cut the thread, thus disarming the device. The attack was laid at the door of the opposition Whig party and threw enormous popular sympathy behind Harley. The precise perpetrators were never identified or apprehended.
 * One of the world's first mail bombs is mentioned in the 18th century diary of Danish official and historian Bolle Willum Luxdorph. His diary mainly consists of concise references to news from Denmark and abroad. In the entry for January 19, 1764, he writes the following: Colonel Poulsen residing at Børglum Abbey was sent by mail a box. When he opens it, therein is to be found gunpowder and a firelock which sets fire unto it, so he became very injured. The entry for February 15 same year says: Colonel Poulsen receives a letter in German, [saying] that soon the dose will be increased. It is referring to the dose of gunpowder in the box. The perpetrator was never found. In a later reference Luxdorph has found a mention of a similar bomb being used, also in 1764, but in Savona in Italy.
 * June 1889: Edward White, formerly an artist at Madame Tussauds, was alleged to have sent a parcel bomb to John Theodore Tussaud after being dismissed.
 * August 20, 1904: A Swedish man named sent a mail bomb to businessman Karl Fredrik Lundin in Stockholm. It was a box loaded with bullets and explosives.
 * 1912–1914: During the suffragette bombing and arson campaign, British suffragettes of the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) invented and then used a form of letter bomb to maim or kill political opponents during a concerted terrorist campaign.
 * 1915: Vice President of the United States Thomas R. Marshall was the target of an assassination attempt by letter bomb.
 * 1919: A series of package bombs were sent to officials, journalists, and others in the United States by the Galleanist anarchist faction there; this precipitated the 1919-1920 Red Scare.
 * 1946: Several British high officials, including Sir Stafford Cripps, Ernest Bevin, and Anthony Eden received letter bombs apparently sent by the extreme Zionist Stern Gang.
 * 1947: Several letter bombs were sent to President Harry Truman in the White House. They were intercepted by White House mail room workers, who were on alert because of the letter bombs to British officials. These also were claimed by the Stern Gang.
 * August 30, 1958: A parcel bomb sent by Ngo Dinh Nhu, younger brother and chief adviser of South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem, failed to kill King Sihanouk of Cambodia.
 * 1961: The Nazi war criminal Alois Brunner received a letter bomb that caused the loss of an eye. In 1980 another letter bomb cost him the fingers of his left hand. Two Damascus postal workers were killed. The senders are unknown but some suspect the Israeli intelligence agency Mossad.
 * November 27, 1962: A parcel sent to rocket scientist Wolfgang Pilz exploded in his office in Egypt when opened, injuring his secretary. Another parcel sent to the Heliopolis rocket factory killed five Egyptian workers.
 * 1960s, 1970s and early 1980s: Several terrorist organizations in Argentina such as Montoneros and ERP included letter bombs into their weaponry.
 * December 28, 1977: In Malta, Karin Grech, age 15, was killed when she opened a letterbomb addressed to her father Edwin Grech. On the same day, another bomb was sent to Labour MP Dr. Paul Chetcuti Caruana, but it did not detonate.
 * 1978 to 1995: Theodore Kaczynski, the "UNAbomber", killed three and injured 23 in a series of mail bombings in the United States.
 * August 27, 1980: Lyda Monteiro da Silva, secretary of Brazilian Bar Association, was killed by a letter bomb sent by anti-communist army members against the end of military dictatorship in Brazil.
 * August 17, 1982: Ruth First, a South African communist anti-apartheid activist was killed by a parcel bomb mailed by the South African government to her home in Mozambique.
 * June 28, 1984: Jeanette Schoon, a South African anti-apartheid activist and her 6-year-old daughter, Katryn Schoon, were killed by a letter bomb mailed by Craig Williamson, a spy for the South African Police who had been posing as a family friend. Jeanette Schoon collected and carried home a parcel bomb, which exploded upon opening the letter.
 * August 1985: A woman in Rotorua, New Zealand, Michele Sticovich, was instantly killed and a close friend of hers seriously injured after she opened a parcel addressed to her containing a number of sticks of gelignite. Mrs Sticovich's estranged husband, David Sticovich, was arrested and ultimately pleaded guilty to her murder.
 * October 19, 1986: Dele Giwa, a Nigerian journalist and editor of the Newswatch magazine was killed with a mail bomb, claimed to be sent by Nigeria's former dictator, Gen. Ibrahim Babangida. The general has never admitted complicity, remaining mute on the issue.
 * December 16, 1989: Robert Smith Vance, a U.S. federal judge, was killed instantly upon opening a letter bomb in the kitchen of his home in Birmingham, Alabama, with his wife, Helen, seriously injured. Walter Leroy Moody Jr was later convicted of killing both Vance and Georgia attorney Robbie Robinson by use of letter bombs delivered through the mail.
 * 1990: Priest Michael Lapsley was sent a letter bomb by South African government's death squad, the Civil Cooperation Bureau, hidden inside two religious magazines. He lost both hands and the sight in one eye in the blast, and was seriously burned.
 * Mid-1990s: Franz Fuchs, Austrian serial mail bomber, killed four and injured 15 with waves of mail bombs and improvised explosive devices.
 * January 1994: Roberto Escobar was sent a letter bomb while in jail by Medellin Cartel enemies.
 * September 1996: Singer Björk was sent a letter bomb charged with explosives and sulfuric acid by stalker Ricardo López. López then committed suicide. The bomb did not reach her, having been intercepted by the Metropolitan Police.
 * February 2007: A series of mail bombings in the United Kingdom injured nine people.
 * January 2007: A bomber calling himself "The Bishop" sent several unassembled bombs to financial firms in the United States, and was arrested in April 2007.
 * August 2007: A Lebanese immigrant, Adel Arnaout, was charged with sending three letter bombs out to residents in the Greater Ontario area.
 * April 2011: Neil Lennon and two high-profile fans of Celtic F.C. were sent parcel bombs.
 * February 2014: A series of seven letter bombs were sent to Armed Forces recruitment offices in the United Kingdom, which bore all the hallmarks of Northern Ireland-related terrorism.
 * September 2015: At least six people were killed and dozens injured in explosions at 15 locations in Liucheng County in China's Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. The explosives were reportedly concealed inside express delivery packages.
 * May 25, 2017: A suspected letter bomb exploded within the car of Lucas Papademos, former Prime Minister of Greece, causing injuries to Papademos, his driver and another official.
 * July 28, 2017: A Queens, New York, landlord opened an explosive package resembling an oatmeal container which had been sitting on his building's doorstep for several days, and died from extensive burns four days later. The USPS refused immediate comment on whether the package was mailed, citing its ongoing investigation.
 * March 2018: Multiple package bombs were detonated in Austin, Texas, over the course of a few weeks, killing 2 and seriously injuring 5. The perpetrator was subsequently identified as Mark Anthony Conditt of Pflugerville, Texas.
 * October 2018: Multiple package bombs were sent to prominent critics of the Donald Trump administration. The first bomb discovered was delivered to billionaire financier and activist George Soros' home on October 22, 2018. Additional bombs were sent to other political figures and activists including: former President Barack Obama; former President Bill Clinton and wife, former Secretary of State and 2016 presidential candidate Hillary Clinton; US Congresswoman Maxine Waters; CNN; former Attorney General Eric Holder; former Vice President Joe Biden; actor Robert De Niro also received bombs.
 * November and December 2022: Multiple letter bombs were sent to high-profile institutions and locations across Spain, including the Prime Minister of Spain Pedro Sanchez, the Ukrainian embassy in Madrid, and the Defence Ministry.

title: Letter bomb


text:
Punched tape

Punched tape or perforated paper tape is a form of data storage device that consists of a long strip of paper through which small holes are punched. It was developed from and was subsequently used alongside punched cards, the difference being that the tape is continuous.

Punched cards, and chains of punched cards, were used for control of looms in the 18th century. Use for telegraphy systems started in 1842. Punched tapes were used throughout the 19th and for much of the 20th centuries for programmable looms, teleprinter communication, for input to computers of the 1950s and 1960s, and later as a storage medium for minicomputers and CNC machine tools. During the Second World War, high-speed punched tape systems using optical readout methods were used in code breaking systems. Punched tape was used to transmit data for manufacture of read-only memory chips.

History
Perforated paper tapes were first used by Basile Bouchon in 1725 to control looms. However, the paper tapes were expensive to create, fragile, and difficult to repair. By 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard had developed machines to create paper tapes by tying punched cards in a sequence for Jacquard looms. The resulting paper tape, also called a "chain of cards", was stronger and simpler both to create and to repair. This led to the concept of communicating data not as a stream of individual cards, but as one "continuous card" (or tape). Paper tapes constructed from punched cards were widely used throughout the 19th century for controlling looms. Many professional embroidery operations still refer to those individuals who create the designs and machine patterns as punchers even though punched cards and paper tape were eventually phased out in the 1990s.

In 1842, a French patent by Claude Seytre described a piano playing device that read data from perforated paper rolls. By 1900, wide perforated music rolls for player pianos were used to distribute popular music to mass markets.

In 1846, Alexander Bain used punched tape to send telegrams. This technology was adopted by Charles Wheatstone in 1857 for the Wheatstone system used for the automated preparation, storage and transmission of data in telegraphy.

In the 1880s, Tolbert Lanston invented the Monotype typesetting system, which consisted of a keyboard and a composition caster. The tape, punched with the keyboard, was later read by the caster, which produced lead type according to the combinations of holes in up to 31 positions. The tape reader used compressed air, which passed through the holes and was directed into certain mechanisms of the caster. The system went into commercial use in 1897 and was in production well into the 1970s, undergoing several changes along the way.

Modern use
In the 21st century, punched tape is obsolete except among hobbyists. In computer numerical control (CNC) machining applications, though paper tape has been superseded by digital memory, some modern systems still measure the size of stored CNC programs in feet or meters, corresponding to the equivalent length if the data were actually punched on paper tape.

Formats
Data was represented by the presence or absence of a hole at a particular location. Tapes originally had five rows of holes for data across the width of the tape. Later tapes had more rows. A 1944 electro-mechanical programmable calculating machine, the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator or Harvard Mark I, used paper tape with 24 rows, The IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC) used paper tape with 74 rows. Australia's 1951 electronic computer, CSIRAC, used 3 in wide paper tape with twelve rows.

A row of smaller sprocket holes was always punched to be used to synchronize tape movement. Originally, this was done using a wheel with radial teeth called a sprocket wheel. Later, optical readers made use of the sprocket holes to generate timing pulses. The sprocket holes were slightly closer to one edge of the tape, dividing the tape into unequal widths, to make it unambiguous which way to orient the tape in the reader. The bits on the narrower width of the tape were generally the least significant bits when the code was represented as numbers in a digital system.

Materials
Many early machines used oiled paper tape, which was pre-impregnated with a light machine oil, to lubricate the reader and punch mechanisms. The oil impregnation usually made the paper somewhat translucent and slippery, and excess oil could transfer to clothing or any surfaces it contacted. Later optical tape readers often specified non-oiled opaque paper tape, which was less prone to depositing oily debris on the optical sensors and causing read errors. Another innovation was fanfold paper tape, which was easier to store compactly and less prone to tangling, as compared to rolled paper tape.

For heavy-duty or repetitive use, polyester Mylar tape was often used. This tough, durable plastic film was usually thinner than paper tapes, but could still be used in many devices originally designed for paper media. The plastic tape was sometimes transparent, but usually was aluminized to make it opaque enough for use in high-speed optical readers.

Dimensions
Tape for punching was usually 0.00394 in thick. The two most common widths were 11/16 in for five bit codes, and 1 in for tapes with six or more bits. Hole spacing was 0.1 in in both directions. Data holes were 0.072 in in diameter; sprocket feed holes were 0.046 in.

Chadless tape
Most tape-punching equipment used solid circular punches to create holes in the tape. This process created "chad", or small circular pieces of paper. Managing the disposal of chad was an annoying and complex problem, as the tiny paper pieces had a tendency to escape containment and to interfere with the other electromechanical parts of the teleprinter equipment. Chad from oiled paper tape was particularly problematic, as it tended to clump and build up, rather than flowing freely into a collection container.

A variation on the tape punch was a device called a Chadless Printing Reperforator. This machine would punch a received teleprinter signal into tape and print the message on it at the same time, using a printing mechanism similar to that of an ordinary page printer. The tape punch, rather than punching out the usual round holes, would instead punch little U-shaped cuts in the paper, so that no chad would be produced; the "hole" was still filled with a little paper trap-door. By not fully punching out the hole, the printing on the paper remained intact and legible. This enabled operators to read the tape without having to decipher the holes, which would facilitate relaying the message on to another station in the network. Also, there was no "chad box" to empty from time to time.

A disadvantage to this technology was that, once punched, chadless tape did not roll up well for storage, because the protruding flaps of paper would catch on the next layer of tape so it could not be coiled up tightly. Another disadvantage that emerged in time, was that there was no reliable way to read chadless tape in later high-speed readers which used optical sensing. However, the mechanical tape readers used in most standard-speed equipment had no problem with chadless tape, because they sensed the holes by means of blunt spring-loaded mechanical sensing pins, which easily pushed the paper flaps out of the way.

Encoding
Text was encoded in several ways. The earliest standard character encoding was Baudot, which dates back to the 19th century and had five holes. The Baudot code was superseded by modified five-hole codes such as the Murray code (which added carriage return and line feed) which was developed into the Western Union code which was further developed into the International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA 2), and a variant called the American Teletypewriter code (USTTY). Other standards, such as Teletypesetter (TTS), FIELDATA and Flexowriter, had six holes. In the early 1960s, the American Standards Association led a project to develop a universal code for data processing, which became the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). This seven-level code was adopted by some teleprinter users, including AT&T (Teletype). Others, such as Telex, stayed with the earlier codes.

Communications

Punched tape was used as a way of storing messages for teletypewriters. Operators typed in the message to the paper tape, and then sent the message at the maximum line speed from the tape. This permitted the operator to prepare the message "off-line" at the operator's best typing speed, and permitted the operator to correct any error prior to transmission. An experienced operator could prepare a message at 135 words per minute (WPM) or more for short periods.

The line typically operated at 75 WPM, but it operated continuously. By preparing the tape "off-line" and then sending the message with a tape reader, the line could operate continuously rather than depending on continuous "on-line" typing by a single operator. Typically, a single 75 WPM line supported three or more teletype operators working offline. Tapes punched at the receiving end could be used to relay messages to another station. Large store and forward networks were developed using these techniques.

Paper tape could be read into computers at up to 1,000 characters per second. In 1963, a Danish company called Regnecentralen introduced a paper tape reader called RC 2000 that could read 2,000 characters per second; later they increased the speed further, up to 2,500 cps. As early as World War II, the Heath Robinson tape reader, used by Allied codebreakers, was capable of 2,000 cps while Colossus could run at 5,000 cps using an optical tape reader designed by Arnold Lynch.

Minicomputers
When the first minicomputers were being released, most manufacturers turned to the existing mass-produced ASCII teleprinters (primarily the Teletype Model 33, capable of ten ASCII characters per second throughput) as a low-cost solution for keyboard input and printer output. The commonly specified Model 33 ASR included a paper tape punch/reader, where ASR stands for "Automatic Send/Receive" as opposed to the punchless/readerless KSR – Keyboard Send/Receive and RO – Receive Only models. As a side effect, punched tape became a popular medium for low-cost minicomputer data and program storage, and it was common to find a selection of tapes containing useful programs in most minicomputer installations. Faster optical readers were also common.

Binary data transfer to or from these minicomputers was often accomplished using a doubly encoded technique to compensate for the relatively high error rate of punches and readers. The low-level encoding was typically ASCII, further encoded and framed in various schemes such as Intel Hex, in which a binary value of "01011010" would be represented by the ASCII characters "5A". Framing, addressing and checksum (primarily in ASCII hex characters) information helped with error detection. Efficiencies of such an encoding scheme are on the order of 35–40% (e.g., 36% from 44 8-bit ASCII characters being needed to represent sixteen bytes of binary data per frame).

Computer-aided manufacturing
In the 1970s, computer-aided manufacturing equipment often used paper tape. A paper tape reader was smaller and less expensive than Hollerith card or magnetic tape readers, and the medium was reasonably reliable in a manufacturing environment. Paper tape was an important storage medium for computer-controlled wire-wrap machines, for example. Premium black waxed and lubricated long-fiber papers, and Mylar film tape were developed so that heavily used production tapes would last longer.

Data transfer for ROM and EPROM programming
In the 1970s through the early 1980s, paper tape was commonly used to transfer binary data for incorporation in either mask-programmable read-only memory (ROM) chips or their erasable counterparts EPROMs. A significant variety of encoding formats were developed for use in computer and ROM/EPROM data transfer. Encoding formats commonly used were primarily driven by those formats that EPROM programming devices supported and included various ASCII hex variants as well as a number of proprietary formats.

A much more primitive as well as a much longer high-level encoding scheme was also used, BNPF (Begin-Negative-Positive-Finish), also written as BPNF (Begin-Positive-Negative-Finish). In BNPF encoding, a single byte (8 bits) would be represented by a highly redundant character framing sequence starting with a single uppercase ASCII "B", eight ASCII characters where a "0" would be represented by a "N" and a "1" would be represented by a "P", followed by an ending ASCII "F". These ten-character ASCII sequences were separated by one or more whitespace characters, therefore using at least eleven ASCII characters for each byte stored (9% efficiency). The ASCII "N" and "P" characters differed in four bit positions, providing excellent protection from single punch errors. Alternative schemes named BHLF (Begin-High-Low-Finish) and B10F (Begin-One-Zero-Finish) were also available where either "L" and "H" or "0" and "1" were also available to represent data bits, but in both of these encoding schemes, the two data-bearing ASCII characters differ in only one bit position, providing very poor single punch error detection.

Cash registers
NCR of Dayton, Ohio, made cash registers around 1970 that would punch paper tape. Sweda made similar cash registers around the same time. The tape could then be read into a computer and not only could sales information be summarized, billings could be done on charge transactions. The tape was also used for inventory tracking, recording department and class numbers of items sold.

Newspaper industry
Punched paper tape was used by the newspaper industry until the mid-1970s or later. Newspapers were typically set in hot lead by devices like Linotype machines. With the wire services coming into a device that would punch paper tape, rather than the Linotype operator having to retype all the incoming stories, the paper tape could be put into a paper tape reader on the Linotype and it would create the lead slugs without the operator re-typing the stories. This also allowed newspapers to use devices, such as the Friden Flexowriter, to convert typing to lead type via tape. Even after the demise of Linotype and hot lead typesetting, many early phototypesetter devices utilized paper tape readers.

If an error was found at one position on the six-level tape, that character could be turned into a null character to be skipped by punching out the remaining non-punched positions with what was known as a “chicken plucker". It looked like a strawberry stem remover that, pressed with thumb and forefinger, could punch out the remaining positions, one hole at a time.

Cryptography
Vernam ciphers were invented in 1917 to encrypt teleprinter communications using a key stored on paper tape. During the last third of the 20th century, the National Security Agency (NSA) used punched paper tape to distribute cryptographic keys. The eight-level paper tapes were distributed under strict accounting controls and read by a fill device, such as the hand held KOI-18, that was temporarily connected to each security device that needed new keys. NSA has been trying to replace this method with a more secure electronic key management system (EKMS), but, paper tape was apparently still being employed. The paper tape canister is a tamper-resistant container that contains features to prevent undetected alteration of the contents.

Advantages and limitations
Acid-free paper or Mylar tapes can be read many decades after manufacture, in contrast with magnetic tape that can deteriorate and become unreadable with time. The hole patterns of punched tape can be decoded by eye if necessary, and even editing of a tape is possible by manual cutting and splicing. Unlike magnetic tape, magnetic fields such as produced by electric motors cannot alter the punched data. In cryptography applications, a punched tape used to distribute a key can be rapidly and completely destroyed by burning, preventing the key from falling into the hands of an enemy.

Reliability of paper tape punching operations was a concern, so that for critical applications a new punched tape could be read after punching to verify the correct contents. Rewinding a tape required a takeup reel or other measures to avoid tearing or tangling the tape. In some uses, "fan fold" tape simplified handling as the tape would refold into a "takeup tank" ready to be re-read. The information density of punched tape was low compared with magnetic tape, making large datasets clumsy to handle in punched tape form.

title: Punched tape


text:
Anne Neville

Anne Neville (11 June 1456 – 16 March 1485) was Queen of England from 26 June 1483 until her death in 1485 as the wife of King Richard III. She was the younger of the two daughters and co-heiresses of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick (the "Kingmaker"). Before her marriage to Richard, she had been Princess of Wales as the wife of Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales, the only son and heir apparent of King Henry VI.

As a member of the powerful House of Neville, Anne played a critical part in the Wars of the Roses fought between the houses of York and Lancaster for the English crown. Her father betrothed her as a girl to Prince Edward, the only son of the ousted King Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou. The marriage was to seal an alliance with the Lancastrians and halt the Wars of the Roses.

After the death of Prince Edward and defeat of the Lancastrians at the Battle of Tewkesbury in 1471, Anne married Richard, Duke of Gloucester, younger brother of King Edward IV and of George, Duke of Clarence, the husband of Anne's elder sister Isabel. Richard was also Anne's first cousin once removed; her great-aunt, Cecily Neville, was Richard's mother. Anne became queen when Richard acceded to the throne in June 1483, following the declaration that Edward IV's children by Elizabeth Woodville were illegitimate. Anne predeceased her husband by five months, dying in March 1485. Her only child, Edward of Middleham, died in 1484 at the age of seven.

Early life

Anne Neville was born at Warwick Castle, the younger daughter of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, and Anne de Beauchamp. Her father was one of the most powerful noblemen in England and the most important supporter of the House of York. Her grandfather's sister, Cecily Neville, was the wife of Richard, Duke of York, who claimed the crown for the House of York.

Much of Anne Neville's childhood was spent at Middleham Castle, one of her father's properties, where she and her elder sister, Isabel, met two younger sons of the Duke of York: Richard, Duke of Gloucester (the future Richard III) and George, Duke of Clarence. Richard especially attended his knighthood training at Middleham since mid-1461 until at least the spring of 1465, or possibly since 1465 until late 1468. It is possible that even at this early stage, a match between the Earl's daughters and the young dukes was being considered. The Duke of York was killed on 30 December 1460 but, with Warwick's help, his eldest son became King Edward IV in March 1461. In July 1469, Lady Isabel married Clarence, while in July 1470, after the Earl of Warwick's flight to France and change of allegiance, Anne Neville was betrothed to Edward of Westminster, the Lancastrian heir to the throne of England, and married to him by the end of the same year.

Princess of Wales
The Earl of Warwick had been at odds with Edward IV for some time, resenting his clandestine marriage to Elizabeth Woodville and the subsequent rise in the king's favour of the new queen's family, the Woodvilles. In 1469, the earl tried to put his son-in-law George on the throne, but met resistance from Parliament. After a second rebellion against King Edward failed in early 1470, he was forced to flee to France, where he allied himself with the ousted House of Lancaster in 1470. With King Henry VI imprisoned in the Tower of London, the de facto Lancastrian leader was his consort, Margaret of Anjou, who was suspicious of Warwick's motives. To quell these suspicions, Anne Neville was formally betrothed to the son of Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou, Edward of Westminster, at the Château d'Amboise in France. They were married in Angers Cathedral, probably on 13 December 1470, to make Anne Neville the Princess of Wales.

Warwick restored Henry VI to the throne in October 1470; Edward IV however returned to the country in March 1471 and quickly captured London and the person of Henry VI. The mentally challenged Henry VI was taken by Edward IV as a prisoner to the Battle of Barnet, where Warwick was killed on 14 April 1471. Edward IV then incarcerated Henry VI in the Tower of London. Following the decisive Yorkist victory at the Battle of Tewkesbury on 4 May, Henry was reported to have died of "pure displeasure and melancholy," although "The Great Chronicle of London" reported that Richard, Duke of Gloucester, was responsible for his death. As Constable of England, he probably delivered King Edward's order to kill Henry to the Constable of the Tower.

Margaret of Anjou had returned to England with Anne Neville and Prince Edward in April, bringing additional troops. At the Battle of Tewkesbury, Edward IV crushed this last Lancastrian army. Prince Edward was killed in or shortly after the battle, and Anne Neville was taken prisoner. She was taken first to Coventry and then to the house of her brother-in-law the Duke of Clarence in London, while her mother Anne Beauchamp, Warwick's wife, sought sanctuary in Beaulieu Abbey. When the crisis settled down and the Countess wished to be restored to her estates, Edward IV refused her safe conduct to plead her case; she wrote to Queen Elizabeth and several others to no avail.

Anne, now widowed, became the subject of some dispute between George of Clarence and his brother Richard of Gloucester, who still wanted to marry her. Anne Neville and her sister, the Duchess of Clarence, were heiresses to their parents' vast estates. Clarence, anxious to secure the entire inheritance, treated her as his ward and opposed her getting married, which would strengthen her position to claim a share.

There are various accounts of what happened subsequently, including the story that Clarence hid her in a London cookshop, disguised as a servant, so that his brother would not know where she was. Gloucester is said to have tracked her down and escorted her to sanctuary at the Church of St Martin's le Grand. In order to win the final consent of his brother George to the marriage, Richard of Gloucester renounced most of Warwick's land and property, including the earldoms of Warwick (which the earl had held in his wife's right) and Salisbury and surrendered to Clarence the office of Great Chamberlain of England.

Duchess of Gloucester
The exact date of the wedding of Anne Neville and Richard, Duke of Gloucester, is not known, although most sources agree that a ceremony took place sometime in the late spring/early summer of 1472 in St Stephen's Chapel in the Palace of Westminster, after a dispensation to marry was issued from Rome on 22 April 1472. This dispensed the impediment of affinity created when Anne married Edward of Lancaster, who was Richard's blood cousin. The couple made their marital home in the familiar surroundings of Middleham Castle, Yorkshire, after Richard was appointed Governor of the North on the king's behalf. Upon her marriage, Anne was styled Duchess of Gloucester. They had only one child, Edward, born at Middleham allegedly sometime in 1473, but more probably in 1476. Anne's mother, the Countess of Warwick, joined her daughter's household in 1473 after Richard obtained the king's permission to release his mother-in-law from her guarded sanctuary.

In 1478, Anne Neville inherited the Lordship of Glamorgan. The title had been held by her father and on his death had passed to Anne's elder sister Isabel Neville. Women could not exercise the Lordship in their own right, so the title immediately transferred to Isabel's husband, George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence. On his death in February 1478, the title passed to Anne and was henceforth exercised by her husband, Richard of Gloucester until his death, when it passed to the new king, Henry VII.

Queen of England

On 9 April 1483, Edward IV died and Anne's husband Richard was named Lord Protector for his 12-year-old nephew Edward V. But on 25 June 1483, Edward V and his siblings were declared illegitimate and Richard ascended the throne as King Richard III. Anne Neville was crowned alongside her husband on 6 July 1483 by Thomas Bourchier, Archbishop of Canterbury, the first joint coronation in England in 175 years. The queen's train was borne by Margaret, Countess of Richmond, whose son would become Henry VII after defeating Richard at the Battle of Bosworth. Almost the entire peerage of England was present at what was a magnificent spectacle. Richard and Anne's son, Edward of Middleham, was created Prince of Wales in York Minster on 8 September 1483 following their Royal Progress across England.

Anne was on good terms with her mother-in-law Cecily Neville, Duchess of York, with whom she discussed religious works, such as the writings of Mechtilde of Hackeborn.

Edward of Middleham died suddenly in April 1484 at Middleham Castle, while his parents were in Nottingham on their way to visit him. Both Richard and Anne were overwhelmed with grief at this news. Anne was particularly heartbroken, and she fell gravely ill only a few months later.

After the death of her son, Anne Neville effectively adopted her nephew Edward, Earl of Warwick. After Anne Neville died, Richard may have named another nephew, John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, as his heir presumptive.

Death
Anne Neville died on 16 March 1485, probably of tuberculosis, at Westminster. The day she died, there was an eclipse, which some took to be an omen of her husband's fall from heavenly grace. She was buried in Westminster Abbey in an unmarked grave to the right of the High Altar, next to the door to the Confessor's Chapel. Richard III is said to have wept at her funeral. Nevertheless, rumours circulated that Richard III had poisoned her in order to marry his niece Elizabeth of York.

Richard sent Elizabeth away from court to Sheriff Hutton and publicly rebutted these rumours on 30 March 1485 during an assembly of Lords he had summoned at the Hospital of St. John. Addressing them "in a loud and distinct voice", he "showed his grief and displeasure aforesaid and said it never came into his thought or mind to marry in such manner wise, nor willing nor glad of the death of his queen but as sorry and in heart as heavy as man might be …". There is no reason to doubt that Richard's grief over his wife's death was genuine. Documents later found in the Portuguese royal archives show that after Anne's death, Richard's ambassadors were sent on a formal errand to negotiate a double marriage between Richard and the Portuguese king's sister Joanna (who was of Lancastrian descent), and Elizabeth of York and Joanna's cousin Duke Manuel (the future Manuel I).

There was no memorial to Queen Anne until 1960, when a bronze tablet was erected on a wall near her grave by the Richard III Society.

Theatre and film

Anne Neville appears in three scenes in William Shakespeare's Richard III. In Act I, Scene 2, Richard III persuades her to marry him. In Act IV, Scene 1, just before Richard III's coronation, Anne Neville meets Edward IV's widow and laments her own position. In Act V, Scene 3, Anne Neville is one of the ghosts that appear to Richard III.

The role has been played in film by
 * Claire Bloom in Richard III (1955)
 * Zoe Wanamaker in the BBC television adaptation (1983)
 * Kristin Scott Thomas in Richard III (1995)
 * Winona Ryder in Looking for Richard (1996)
 * Faye Marsay in The White Queen (2013)
 * Phoebe Fox in The Hollow Crown: The Wars of the Roses (2016)

Anne Neville is also a character in the 1939 film Tower of London (played by Rose Hobart), and its 1962 remake (1962) (played by Joan Camden).

In German productions of musical Tanz Der Vampire (Dance of the Vampires) at the ball of Count von Krolock there are several historical figures among vampires, including Anne Neville and her husband King Richard III.

Novels
Anne Neville is a major character in several historical novels.

She is the title character in:
 * Gladys Malvern, The Queen's Lady (1963), historical fiction for teen readers
 * Jan Westcott, Set Her on a Throne (1972)
 * Frances Irwin, The White Pawn (1972)
 * Frances Irwin, The White Queen (1974), sequel to The White Pawn
 * Evelyn Hood, The Kingmaker’s Daughter (1974)
 * Hilda Brookman Stanier, The Kingmaker’s Daughter (1978)
 * Lesley J. Nickell, The White Queen (1978), reprinted in 2014 as "The White Queen of Middleham"
 * Maureen Peters, Beggar Maid, Queen (1980)
 * Philippa Wiat, The Kingmaker's Daughter (1989)
 * Jean Plaidy, The Reluctant Queen: The Story of Anne of York (1990)
 * Eleanor Mennim, Anne Neville, Queen of England (1999), a fictional biography
 * Anne O'Brien, The Virgin Widow (2010)
 * Philippa Gregory, The Kingmaker's Daughter (2012)
 * Julie May Ruddock, A Daughter of Warwick (2012)
 * Paula Simonds Zabka, Anne of Warwick The Last Plantagenet Queen (2012)
 * Liz Orwin, The Maid's Tale: Anne (2016)

Anne Neville is one of the main characters in:

 * Olive Eckerson, The Golden Yoke (Coward-McCann, 1961)
 * Margaret Davidson, My Lords Richard (1979)
 * Rhoda Edwards, Fortune's Wheel (1978) and The Broken Sword (also titled "Some Touch of Pity", 1977)
 * Anne Powers, The Four Queens (1977) (also known as The Royal Consorts (1978) or Queen's Ransom (1986))
 * Sharon Kay Penman, The Sunne in Splendour (1982)
 * Paula Simonds Zabka, Desire the Kingdom (2002)
 * Sandra Worth's The Rose of York trilogy - Love and War (2003), Crown of Destiny (2006), and Fall From Grace (2007)
 * Sylvia Charlewwod, King Richard III & Anne Neville: their love story (2015)
 * J.P. Reedman, I, Richard Plantagenet (2016)

Non-fiction

 * Michael Hicks, Anne Neville: Queen to Richard III (2006)
 * Amy Licence, Anne Neville: Richard III's Tragic Queen (2013)
 * J. L. Laynesmith, The Last Medieval Queens: English Queenship 1445–1503 (2004)

title: Anne Neville


text:
End-user license agreement

An end-user license agreement or EULA is a legal contract between a software supplier and a customer or end-user.

The practice of selling licenses to rather than copies of software predates the recognition of software copyright, which has been recognized since the 1970s in the United States. Initially, EULAs were often printed as shrink wrap contracts, where tearing the shrink wrap indicated acceptance. Software distributed via the internet is more commonly licensed via clickwrap (where the user clicks to agree to the license) or browsewrap (continuing to browse the website indicates agreement).

Most companies prefer to sell licenses rather than copies of the software because it enables them to enforce stricter terms on the end user in a number of domains, especially by prohibiting transfer of ownership or use on multiple computers, and by asserting ownership of the copyright of derivative works, such as user-generated content in video games.

Enforceability of EULAs has been a controversial issue and varies by jurisdiction. In the United States, it is possible to enforce a EULA that is shown to the customer after purchase, but this is not the case in Germany. European Union law only allows for enforcement of EULAs insofar as they do not breach reasonable customer expectations.

There have been numerous attempts to make fun of EULAs that are not read, for example by including a provision to sell the user's soul to the company.

Software copyright
The source code (or compiled binaries in the form of object code) of a computer program is protected by copyright law that vests the owner with the exclusive right to copy the code. The underlying ideas or algorithms are not protected by copyright law, but are often treated as a trade secret and concealed by such methods as non-disclosure agreements. Software copyright has been recognized since the mid-1970s and is vested in the company that makes the software, not the employees or contractors who wrote it.

The tendency to license proprietary software—to sell the right of use of the software rather than a copy of the software—dates from the time period before the existence, then the scope of software copyright protection was clear. These licenses have continued in use after software copyright was recognized in the courts, and are considered to grant the company extra protection compared to copyright law. Virtually all proprietary software is not sold as a copy but rather as a license with associated EULA.

Delivery of EULAs
Initially, end-user license agreement (EULAs) were printed on either the shrinkwrap packaging encasing the product (shrink wrap contract) or a piece of paper. The license often stipulated that a customer agreed if they did not return the product within a specified interval. After the advent of the internet, EULAs are more often found in clickwrap format where the user only needs to click an agree button. Without the constraints of having to print the license, the length of the agreements ballooned. Another type of license, browserwrap, intuits the user's consent after they simply visit a website and are made aware of the terms of use.

EULAs are often written in vague language, and do not inform the customer of the limitations on the agreement's enforceability. Most EULAs have been designed so that it is very difficult to read and understand them, but easy to agree to the licensing terms without reading them. Regardless of how easy it is to access, very few consumers read any part of the license agreement. Most assume the terms are unobjectionable or barely notice agreeing while installing the software. Companies take advantage of consumers' inattention to insert provisions into EULAs. Many assert that the purchaser is an adult and takes responsibility for minors' use of the product, to relieve the vendor of the issue of contracting with a minor and liability from minors' use of the product.

EULAs, almost always offered on a take-it-or-leave-it basis as a non-negotiable condition for using the software, are very far from the prototypical contract where both parties fully understand the terms and agree of their own free will. Proponents argue that the contracts streamline purchases and that savings for the company could be passed to the consumer. Enterprises buying software for a large number of employees often negotiate the licensing agreement with the vendor.

Common provisions
According to one study, economic competition from different software services leads to EULAs more favorable to the customer.

Resale
According to United States federal law, a company can restrict the parties to which it sells but it cannot prevent a buyer from reselling the product. Software licensing agreements usually prohibit resale, enabling the company to maximize revenue. Proprietary software is usually offered under a restrictive license that bans copying and reuse and often limits the purchaser to using the software on one computer. Source code is rarely available. Derivative software works and reverse engineering are usually explicitly prohibited. The issue of reuse is particularly important in the copyright law of English-speaking countries.

Data collection
Many EULAs allow the vendor to collect information about the user and use it in unrestricted ways.

Derivative works
Some EULAs restrict the ability of users to exercise copyright over derivative work made using the software, such as creative creations in the virtual worlds of video games. Although most video game EULAs assert that the developer holds the copyright on any user-generated content, this is contested by users and has not been tested in the court system. Legal scholar Anthony Michael Catton suggests that user-generated content should be considered jointly authored by the video game developers and the users.

Some companies do allow video footage of their games to be distributed online, even for profit.

License term
Traditionally, software was distributed in the form of binary object code that could not be understood or modified by the user, but could be downloaded and run. The user bought a perpetual license to use a particular version of the software. Software as service (SaaS) vendors—who have the majority market share in application software —rarely offer perpetual licenses. SaaS licenses are usually temporary and charged on a pay-per-usage or subscription basis, although other revenue models such as freemium are also used. Even if the user purchases a perpetual license, it is common for EULAs to allow unilateral termination by the vendor for any number of vague reasons or none at all. Furthermore, many EULAs allow the vendor to change the terms at any time and the customer must choose between agreeing or ceasing use of the product, without getting a refund. EULAs are also applicable to in-app purchases and microtransactions. As a result, players could lose access to purchased content if the vendor decides to terminate their license and withdraw the content.

Product liability
Most EULAs disclaim any liability for harms caused by the product, and prevent the purchaser from accessing the court system to seek a remedy.

Enforceability
There has been substantial debate on to what extent EULAs can be considered binding. Many EULAs contain stipulations that are illegal and therefore unenforceable. Software vendors keep these unenforceable provisions in the agreements, perhaps because users rarely resort to the legal system to challenge them.

European Union
Under the New Digital Content Directive effective since 2022 in the European Union, EULAs are only enforceable to the extent that they do not breach reasonable consumer expectations. The gap between expectations and the content of EULAs is especially wide when it comes to restrictions on copying and transferring ownership of digital content. In Germany, EULAs are only valid if known to the customer before purchase.

United Kingdom
The United Kingdom's National Consumer Council undertook a study published in 2008 which found issues with the way 17 major IT businesses had been using EULA's and asked the Office of Fair Trading to undertake an investigation. As of 2020, the enforceability of EULAs and provisions granting copyright of all derivative works to the developer has not been judicially tested in United Kingdom.

United States
Before the 1996 ProCD, Inc. v. Zeidenberg in the United States, shrinkwrap licenses were not held to be binding, but since then they often have been. In some shrinkwrap cases the customer was found not to have consented to the EULA and was therefore not bound by it. Clickwrap has been found generally to be enforceable—even when the license terms are provided after the sale. The enforceability of browserwrap is lower, but has been enforced in some cases where it can be proven that the user was presented with the terms of use and continued to use the website.

Translations
EULAs are primarily legal documents with IT terminology. As such, knowledge in several different domains may be necessary to produce a satisfactory translation.

Humor
There have been numerous attempts to make fun of EULAs not being read. Some EULAs bury a contract offering payment to a reader who notices the clause. As an April Fool's Day joke, Gamestation added a clause stating that users who placed an order on April 1, 2010, agreed to irrevocably give their soul to the company, which 7,500 users agreed to. Although there was a checkbox to exempt out of the "immortal soul" clause, few users checked it and thus Gamestation concluded that 88% of their users did not read the agreement. During the installation of version 4 of the Advanced Query Tool the installer measured the elapsed time between the appearance and the acceptance of the end-user license agreements to calculate the average reading speed. If the agreements were accepted fast enough, a popup congratulated the users for reading several hundred words per second. South Park parodied this in the episode "HumancentiPad", where Kyle had neglected to read the terms of service for his last iTunes update and therefore inadvertently agreed to have Apple employees experiment upon him.

title: End-user license agreement


text:
Talk:Luise Gottsched

Untitled
Immediate questions - what did Luise Gottsched write? Who was her husband? And what was this 'life's work' that she assisted him with? What did she do with her life that rates a wikipedia entry of that doesn't crosslink to anywhere else? Details please! KJ

Hi Karen -- welcome to Helga Jonat's world, where the fact that someone was born in Danzig (i.e. PRUSSIA) and was famous is enough to rate an article. The sad thing with these HJ articles is that often, as in the case of Luise Gottsched, the person really IS famous for good reason -- but HJ never seems to understand what things are important to others and to a good encyclopedia. Pity. I'll add something worthwhile to the article.JHK

title: Talk:Luise Gottsched


text:
Friendship book

Friendship books (also known as "FBs" in their abbreviated form) are small booklets made by stapling paper together, or are sometimes just sheets or strips of paper. They are usually decorated and the person who starts the book writes their name and address as the first person sending the book. People often include a list of interests as well. The FB is then passed around from penpal to penpal, and can often also become a way for one to meet new penpals. Most people hope to see the book again once it is full so they add their return address to the back cover of the book too, or inscribe "Return to Sender" on it. People also sometimes make FBs for someone else rather than themselves, in which case they write the name and address of the recipient on the front/at the top. Some people find friendship books fun because you can see where they have been in a trail back to the original sender/recipient.

The German friendship books (or poetry albums) serve a similar purpose but are kept, not sent away. Access is considered more intimate; sometimes the book even has a lock. The information given about oneself often includes quotations, poetry and worldly wisdom. Typically they are more like shared journals between two best friends or a couple and are kept at one of their houses.

Friendship books that require entrants to make drawings, use stickers or magazine photographs are known as "deco" friendship books or just simply "decos". Typically, each entrant in the "deco" must use one full page to express themselves. Glitter, sequins, feathers and other scrapbooking supplies are frequently used in "decos." Despite the artistic expressions used in these types of friendship books, the basic rules of passing the friendship book to person to person is the same.

When a 'friendship book' is only one page (no staples), it's called a 'friendship sheet.' If the page is small, like the size of a postcard, or smaller, it's called a 'cram.'  Friendship books that have a musical theme, where you have to add lyrics to your entry, are called "lyrix" or "lyrics sheets".

Slams
Slams are friendship books that include a theme of questions, either "Sign if you did/like the following", "What is your favorite" or other similar questions. These usually include one page as a "sign in", several pages of questions, and then a "sign out" or "shout out" page at the end. Slams can be themed or regular. Typically they are small like a standard friendship book. Often they have a "sign-in" page where you put your label or name, then each page will often contain a question which you answer (i.e. When was the last time you said "I love you") and the signer would write the appropriate response. At the end there is often a sign-out page as well where it's dated. Slams have many variations and can be "sign if" slams (you sign only if the statement or question applies to you). These are handled in a number of ways, but most of them become more clear when you have it in-hand.

Crams
Crams are like friendship sheets or book, but no one includes any personal information. The idea (as the name implies) is to "cram" as many names and addresses into the provided space.

Friendship sheet
As the name implies, friendship sheets are nearly the same as friendship books, but they are made on a single sheet of paper or stationery.

Deco
Decos are similar to FBs, but are often larger in size. The cover is often decorated with interesting materials like magazine pictures, rubber stamps, decorative papers, and other embellishments. Each person who signs decorates a full page in the book. Sometimes the book has a theme, for example cats. Then, each person decorates their page following the theme. As with FBs, when these are full, they are sent home to the person for whom the book was made.

Lyrix
Lyrix are much like decos except that each page is decorated using lyrics from a song. Some are more plain with the words simply written in them, others are as artistic as decos with pictures and other ornamental adornments.

Quotes
Quotes are like Lyrics, but instead of song lyrics they contain quotes from movies. These can also be themed, such as Brad Pitt movie quotes. Quotes can be plain text or decorative.

title: Friendship book


text:
High-yield debt

In finance, a high-yield bond (non-investment-grade bond, speculative-grade bond, or junk bond) is a bond that is rated below investment grade by credit rating agencies. These bonds have a higher risk of default or other adverse credit events but offer higher yields than investment-grade bonds in order to compensate for the increased risk.

Default risk
As indicated by their lower credit ratings, high-yield debt entails more risk to the investor compared to investment grade bonds. Investors require a greater yield to compensate them for investing in the riskier securities.

In the case of high-yield bonds, the risk is largely that of default: the possibility that the issuer will be unable to make scheduled interest and principal payments in a timely manner. The default rate in the high-yield sector of the U.S. bond market has averaged about 5% over the long term. During the liquidity crisis of 1989–90, the default rate was in the 5.6% to 7% range. During the COVID-19 pandemic, default rates rose to just under 9%. A recession and accompanying weakening of business conditions tends to increase the possibility of default in the high-yield bond sector.

Investors
Institutional investors (such as pension funds, mutual funds, banks and insurance companies) are the largest purchasers of high-yield debt. Individual investors participate in the high-yield sector mainly through mutual funds.

Some institutional investors have by-laws that prohibit investing in bonds which have ratings below a particular level. As a result, the lower-rated securities may have a different institutional investor base than investment-grade bonds. .

U.S. market and indices
U.S. high-yield bonds outstanding as of the first quarter of 2021 are estimated to be about $1.7 trillion, comprising about 16% of the U.S. corporate bond market, which totals $10.7 trillion. New issuances amounted to $435 billion (~$ in ) in 2020.

Indices for the high-yield market include:
 * ICE Bank of America US High Yield Total Return Index,
 * Bloomberg Barclays US Corporate High Yield Total Return Index,
 * S&P U.S. Issued High Yield Corporate Bond Index, and
 * FTSE US High-Yield Market Index.

Some investors, preferring to dedicate themselves to higher-rated and less-risky investments, use an index that only includes BB-rated and B-rated securities. Other investors focus on the lowest quality debt rated CCC or distressed securities, commonly defined as those yielding 1500 basis points over equivalent government bonds.

Corporate debt
The original speculative grade bonds were bonds that once had been investment grade at time of issue, but where the credit rating of the issuer had slipped and the possibility of default increased significantly. These bonds are called "fallen angels".

The investment banker Michael Milken realized that fallen angels had regularly been valued less than what they were worth. His experience with speculative grade bonds started with his investment in these. In the mid-1980s, Milken and other investment bankers at Drexel Burnham Lambert created a new type of high-yield debt: bonds that were speculative grade from the start, and were used as a financing tool in leveraged buyouts and hostile takeovers. In a leveraged buyout (LBO), an acquirer would issue speculative grade bonds to help pay for an acquisition and then use the target's cash flow to help pay the debt over time. Companies acquired in this manner were commonly saddled with very high debt loads, hampering their financial flexibility. Debt-to-equity ratios of at least 6 to 1 were common in such transactions. This led to controversy as to the economic and social consequences of transforming firms through the aggressive use of financial leverage.

In 2005, over 80% of the principal amount of high-yield debt issued by U.S. companies went toward corporate purposes rather than acquisitions or buyouts.

In emerging markets, such as China and Vietnam, bonds have become increasingly important as short term financing options, since access to traditional bank credits has always been proved to be limited, especially if borrowers are non-state corporates. The corporate bond market has been developing in line with the general trend of capital market, and equity market in particular.

Debt repackaging and subprime crisis
High-yield bonds can also be repackaged into collateralized debt obligations (CDO), thereby raising the credit rating of the senior tranches above the rating of the original debt. The senior tranches of high-yield CDOs can thus meet the minimum credit rating requirements of pension funds and other institutional investors despite the significant risk in the original high-yield debt. When such CDOs are backed by assets of dubious value, such as subprime mortgage loans, and lose market liquidity, the bonds and their derivatives become what is referred to as "toxic debt". Holding such "toxic" assets led to the demise of several investment banks such as Lehman Brothers and other financial institutions during the subprime mortgage crisis of 2007–09 and led the US Treasury to seek congressional appropriations to buy those assets in September 2008 to prevent a systemic crisis of the banks.

Such assets represent a serious problem for purchasers because of their complexity. Having been repackaged perhaps several times, it is difficult and time-consuming for auditors and accountants to determine their true value. As the recession of 2008–09 hit, their value decreased further as more debtors defaulted, so they represented a rapidly depreciating asset. Even those assets that might have gone up in value in the long-term depreciated rapidly, quickly becoming "toxic" for the banks that held them. Toxic assets, by increasing the variance of banks' assets, can turn otherwise healthy institutions into zombies. Potentially insolvent banks made too few good loans creating a debt overhang problem. Alternatively, potentially insolvent banks with toxic assets sought out very risky speculative loans to shift risk onto their depositors and other creditors.

On March 23, 2009, U.S. Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner announced a Public-Private Investment Partnership (PPIP) to buy toxic assets from banks' balance sheets. The major stock market indices in the United States rallied on the day of the announcement rising by over six percent with the shares of bank stocks leading the way. PPIP has two primary programs. The Legacy Loans Program will attempt to buy residential loans from banks' balance sheets. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation will provide non-recourse loan guarantees for up to 85 percent of the purchase price of legacy loans. Private sector asset managers and the U.S. Treasury will provide the remaining assets. The second program is called the legacy securities program which will buy mortgage backed securities (RMBS) that were originally rated AAA and commercial mortgage-backed securities (CMBS) and asset-backed securities (ABS) which are rated AAA. The funds will come in many instances in equal parts from the U.S. Treasury's Troubled Asset Relief Program monies, private investors, and from loans from the Federal Reserve's Term Asset Lending Facility (TALF). The initial size of the Public Private Investment Partnership is projected to be $500 billion. Nobel Prize–winning economist Paul Krugman has been very critical of this program arguing the non-recourse loans lead to a hidden subsidy that will be split by asset managers, banks' shareholders and creditors. Banking analyst Meredith Whitney argues that banks will not sell bad assets at fair market values because they are reluctant to take asset write downs. Removing toxic assets would also reduce the volatility of banks' stock prices. Because stock is akin to a call option on a firm's assets, this lost volatility will hurt the stock price of distressed banks. Therefore, such banks will only sell toxic assets at above market prices.

EU member state debt crisis
On 27 April 2010, the Greek debt rating was decreased to "junk" status by Standard & Poor's amidst fears of default by the Greek Government. They also cut Portugal's credit ratings by two notches to A, over concerns about its state debt and public finances on 28 April. On 5 July 2011, Portugal's rating was decreased to "junk" status by Moody's (by four notches from Baa1 to Ba2) saying there was a growing risk the country would need a second bail-out before it was ready to borrow money from financial markets again, and private lenders might have to contribute.

On 13 July 2012, Moody's cut Italy's credit rating two notches, to Baa2 (leaving it just above junk). Moody's warned the country it could be cut further.

With the ongoing deleveraging process within the European banking system, many European CFOs are still issuing high-yield bonds. As a result, by the end of September 2012, the total amount of annual primary bond issuances stood at €50 billion. It is assumed that high-yield bonds are still attractive for companies with a stable funding base, although the ratings have declined continuously for most of those bonds.

title: High-yield debt


text:
Talk:Free-software license

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Missing punctuation
This should be "free-software license" instead of "free software license" because "free software" is a compound modifier to the noun "license" in the English language. "free software license" refers to a software license that is free, whereas "free-software license" refers to a license for a type of software (free software). Additional confusion arises when discussing paid free-software licenses, and free free-software licenses ("paid free software licenses" and "free free software licenses" are particularly-confusing phrases). LordOfPens (talk) 17:01, 7 November 2018 (UTC)
 * Please see the complementary discussion here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:Manual_of_Style/Archive_209#Hyphenation_should_not_be_prescriptive LordOfPens (talk) 20:17, 28 December 2018 (UTC)

Requested move 30 April 2020

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: Moved; with respect to, it is pretty clear that the term "free software" is used, in this case, as a compound modifier; that is, the article is about libre license for "free software", not a licence for gratis "free software". Indeed, as and  point out, libre licenses have been used in prior discussions about compound modifiers in the first place; i.e., "free-software licence" succinctly removes the ambiguity that the lack of a hyphen creates. Additionally, given how much I swear by 's writing guide to this day, I am minded to pay attention to him on matters of grammar and syntax. Sceptre (talk) 00:47, 19 May 2020 (UTC)

Free software license → Free-software license – MOS:HYPHEN (the term is actually correctly hyphenated in the text, but not in the title). Mikhail Ryazanov (talk) 16:18, 30 April 2020 (UTC)
 * This is a contested technical request. GeoffreyT2000 (talk) 18:13, 30 April 2020 (UTC)

PAGE ]]) 16:58, 30 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Common usage is without the hyphen, as it is a free license for software, not a license for free software (see gnu.org, fsf.org). "Free software" is not a compound modifier in this case. --Ahecht ([[User talk:Ahecht|TALK
 * From that GNU list, it seems to me that they really treat "free software" as a compound modifier (and do not hyphenate compound modifiers in general). For example, in " free software license" they always link the whole "free software" part instead of just "free". They also write either "[non-]copyleft free software license", "free software, copyleft license" or "free software license, copyleft", but never "free[,] copyleft software license". That is, they never split the "free software" part. There are also examples of "GPL-Incompatible Free Software Licenses" such that "a module covered by [one license] and a module covered by [another license] cannot legally be linked together", indicating that this is really about "a license for free software" rather than a truly "free license". — Mikhail Ryazanov (talk) 00:31, 1 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose, Per Ahecht. lethargilistic (talk) 18:52, 30 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose, Per Ahecht.   Headbomb {t · c · p · b} 20:39, 30 April 2020 (UTC)
 *  Oppose  Support, although, there's already an interesting read from MoS talk page linked earlier. – K4rolB (talk) 08:44, 1 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Then why oppose? and  also provided reasonable arguments for hyphenation. And nobody there disagreed with the fact that "free-software" is a compound modifier of "license" (I don't know why  thinks that it is "free license for software", but this misunderstanding suggests that the hyphen is actually needed). — Mikhail Ryazanov (talk) 16:36, 3 May 2020 (UTC)
 * By the way,, how do you explain ? — Mikhail Ryazanov (talk) 12:39, 6 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Damn, you're good. Frankly, there wasn't much thought put into that revert – it was grammatically incorrect – bam! – reverted. I put more thought into this discussion and I didn't feel like the name change was necessary. In the first draft of this answer I went on and on why I believed it shouldn't be hyphenated, did some reading again and then I realized I misread what actually meant writing about dropping hyphen is software and car journalism in that link earlier (his post in this thread helped, too). I also thought that it's not probable to misunderstand the name as gratis license for software. Maybe I've spent too much time in free software community to appreciate how exotic the name really is. – K4rolB (talk) 16:40, 6 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Yep, it's the inverse form of the Dunning–Kruger effect: people deeply steeped in a topic are often unclear on the understanding level of others who are not so well-versed. Part of our "job" as encyclopedists is to re-train ourselves to "think like a newbie" at everything (and like a school child, and like a learner of English as a second language, and like a little old lady, etc.).  If you look at various examples of field-specific technical writing (e.g. in medical journals, law reviews, technical RFCs, and so on), you'll find that the writers of them habitually avoid hyphenation of jargon terms in their own field even when used adjectively and in ways that would be seriously confusing to non-experts; they do this because the terms are "transparent" units to their exact audience for the piece, for whom the hyphens don't serve much of a clarifying function in those particular terms.  Journalism tends to drop hyphens for the same reason they drop other punctuation and also lean toward clipped wording: expediency in meeting deadlines and in making text more easily rearrangeable by an editor.  — SMcCandlish ☏ ¢ 😼  18:54, 6 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Strong oppose - what?? Red   Slash  22:52, 2 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Support, per MOS:HYPHEN and just for basic clarity. Without the hyphen, it appears to imply "software licenses" that are "free" (i.e., legal paperwork that does not cost money). What it really means is "licensing" of "free software", which has more to do with libre than gratis. In this construction, "free software" is not only a compound modifier of "license", it is also a special conceptual unit (a term of art, "free software") that synergistically means much more than "software" and "free" by themselves would imply. Given that "software license" is also a term of art that is regularly used synonymously with "serial number"/"license code", the unhyphenated "free software license" can also be easily misinterpreted as "a give-away copy of some normally expensive commercial software" (e.g. the many millions of Windows 10 licenses given away since 2015 as an upgrade incentive from Win7 and Win8, a potentially encyclopedic topic). The opposers above are engaging in the WP:Common-style fallacy. WP doesn't care what non-encyclopedic writing styles do stylistically, and this matters twice over here, because both journalism and technical writing tend to avoid hyphenation more than other writing styles, and those are the two non-WP styles most likely to mention this topic in a reliable source.  — SMcCandlish ☏ ¢ 😼  22:02, 5 May 2020 (UTC); revised 18:59, 6 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Strong support after checking the article to be sure it's about a license for free software, not about a software license that's free. This is what the hyphen is for in English.  And it has been stable that way in the article lead for months at least (I didn't check how far back).  Dicklyon (talk) 23:23, 5 May 2020 (UTC)
 *  Oppose Support—as long as the thrust of the meaning is free software and not free license. Tony (talk)  23:44, 5 May 2020 (UTC)
 * huh? Did you read this wrong? Dicklyon (talk) 00:49, 6 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Sorry, got my wires crossed. Support, of course. Tony (talk)  10:33, 6 May 2020 (UTC)

Towards resolution
from this and the previous discussions it seems that your interpretation is incorrect, and the title must be hyphenated to avoid such misunderstanding. If you still hold your opinion, please support it with arguments other than "common usage" (which is irrelevant, as clarified above) and explain why the supporters' arguments are wrong. Otherwise, I suggest to proceed with the proposed renaming. — Mikhail Ryazanov (talk) 18:04, 18 May 2020 (UTC)

 * The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

Open-source license
I've been improving open-source license and as a result took a look at this article. I sort of get why free software and open-source software/open source could be different articles, but I'm not so clear on why this article is separate. Additionally, large sections of this article lack sources and there are statements that appear-to my knowledge-false. What is the goal of this article as distinct from the OSL page? Rjjiii (talk) 04:27, 30 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Free-software license


text:
Decatur

Decatur may refer to a number of places, streets, military establishments, schools, and others mostly named after Stephen Decatur:

Places in the United States

 * Decatur, Alabama, county seat of Morgan County
 * Decatur metropolitan area, Alabama
 * Decatur, Arkansas, a city
 * Decatur, Georgia, county seat of DeKalb County
 * Decatur, Illinois, county seat of Macon County
 * Lake Decatur, a reservoir in the city
 * Decatur, Indiana, county seat of Adams County
 * Decatur City, Iowa, a city in Decatur County
 * Decatur, Kentucky, an unincorporated community in Russell County
 * Decatur, Michigan, a village
 * Decatur, Mississippi, county seat of Newton County
 * Decatur, Missouri, a ghost town
 * Decatur, Nebraska, a village
 * Decatur, New York, a town
 * Decatur, Ohio, an unincorporated community
 * Decatur, Tennessee, county seat of Meigs County
 * Decatur, Texas, county seat of Wise County
 * Decatur, Washington, an unincorporated community
 * Decatur, Wisconsin, a town
 * Decatur County (disambiguation)
 * Decatur Township (disambiguation)
 * Decatur Island, one of the San Juan Islands in Washington state

Transportation

 * Decatur Boulevard, Las Vegas, Nevada, a north–south thoroughfare
 * Decatur Highway, U.S. Route 31 in Alabama between Decatur and Birmingham
 * Decatur Street (disambiguation)
 * Decatur (MARTA station), a railroad station in Decatur, Georgia

Military uses

 * USS Decatur, several ships of the U.S. Navy
 * Decatur (1813 ship), an American privateer of the War of 1812
 * Fort Decatur, a fort in New York during the War of 1812

Other uses

 * Decatur (name), a list of people with either the surname or given name
 * 34351 Decatur, an asteroid
 * Decatur High School (disambiguation)
 * Arizona Charlie's Decatur, a casino hotel in Las Vegas
 * "Decatur Psalm", a song from the 1996 album ATLiens by Outkast
 * "Decatur", a song from the 1992 album Headsparks by Seam
 * "Decatur, or, Round of Applause for Your Step Mother!", a song from the 2005 album Illinois by Sufjan Stevens

title: Decatur