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Timeline of ancient Greece

This is a timeline of ancient Greece from its emergence around 800 BC to its subjection to the Roman Empire in 146 BC.

For earlier times, see Greek Dark Ages, Aegean civilizations and Mycenaean Greece. For later times see Roman Greece, Byzantine Empire and Ottoman Greece.

For modern Greece after 1820, see Timeline of modern Greek history.

Archaic Period (785–481 BC)

 * 785 Pithecusae (Ischia) is settled by Euboean Greeks from Eretria and Chalcis
 * 777 Cumae is founded by Chalcis
 * 776 Traditional date for the first historic Olympic games.
 * 757 The First Messenian War starts. (Date disputed by Jerome, Pausanias and Diodorus; this estimate is based on a reading of Diodorus' Spartan king lists and Pausanias' description of the war).
 * 756 Kyzikus is settled by Ionians
 * 754 Polydorus becomes king of Sparta.
 * 753 Athens: Office of Archon reduced to 10 years. Members of the ruling family to possess the office starting with Charops. (Dating based on Pausanias).
 * 743 Rhegion is founded by Euboeans
 * 740 Zancle is founded by Euboeans
 * 738 Alternative date for the end of the First Messenian War.
 * 737 Rhegion and Zancle join in union under Zancle
 * 735 Perdiccas I of Macedon flees from Argos to Macedonia and conquers the land.
 * 734 Polydorus sends colonists to Italy.
 * 734 Syracuse is founded by Korinthians and Teneans
 * 734 Kerkyra is founded by Korinthians
 * 733 Naxos (Sicily) is founded by Euboeans
 * 733 Troliton is founded by Megarans
 * 732 Euboea splits between Chalcis and Eretria due to disputes
 * 731 Sigeion is founded by Mytilene
 * 731 Catania is founded by Chalcidians
 * 730 Leontini is founded by Naxos and controlled by the tyrant Euarchus
 * 730 Troliton is abandoned and settlers settled in Leontini
 * 728 Troliton settlers are ostracized from Leontini and settle Thapsos
 * 727–717 Hippomenes, archon of Athens, kills his daughter's adulterer by yoking him to his chariot and then locks his daughter Leimone in with a horse until she dies. (Pausanias and Aristotle).
 * c. 725 Lelantine War between Chalcis and Eretria. Many Greek cities are allied with one or the other. Dates before this time uncertain.
 * 725 Thapsos abandoned and Megara Hyblaea is settled by the Thapsos settlers
 * 720s/710s Droughts on Euboea
 * 720 Korinth removes the Liburnians from Kerkyra
 * 720: Sybaris is founded by Achaeans from Helice
 * 719 Polydorus, King of Sparta, is murdered by Polymarchus.
 * 716 Mylae is founded and annexed by Zancle
 * 716 According to legend: The reign of the Heraklids over Lydia is ended when Candaules, known as Myrsilus to the Greeks, is murdered by Gyges because of his wife's anger.
 * 715 Lydia annexes Colophon and Magnesia and sieges Smyrna
 * 712 Lydia abandons the siege of Smyrna and annexes parts of Troad and Sipylus
 * 712 Korinth annexes Perachora peninsula from Megara
 * 710s Eretrian abandonment of Andros
 * 709 Kroton is founded by Achaeans
 * 707 Taras is founded by Dorians
 * 705 Hybla Minor is annexed by Megara Hyblaea
 * 704 Korinth gives Samos 4 ships
 * 700 The town of Phaselis is founded by the Rhodians
 * 700 Erythra is annexed by Rhegion
 * 699 Metapontion is founded by Kroton and Sybaris
 * 698 Euarchus is overthrown by Leontini
 * 696 Lefkandi is occupied by Chalcis
 * 695 Polieum is founded by Ionians
 * 691 Antandrus is founded and annexed by Mytilene
 * 690 Pheidon becomes tyrant of Argos.
 * 689 Gela is founded by Cretans and Rodians
 * 688 Arisba is annexed by Methymna and Mytilene declares war on Methymna
 * 687 Annual office of Archon established in Athens. Any Athenian citizen can be elected to the office if they have the qualifications. Creon elected first annual archon. (Dating based on Pausanias).
 * 686 Methymna is annexed by Mytilene
 * 686 Megara gains independence from Korinth
 * 685 The second Messenian war begins.
 * 685 Chalcedon is founded by Megarans
 * 680 Epizephyrian Lokros is founded by Opus
 * 676 Pergamon is founded by Ionians
 * 674 Karystus is occupied by Korinth
 * 672 Abydos is settled by Miletus
 * 671 Melia is destroyed by Samos and Priene, Samos builds Fort Carium to replace it and Samos and Priene split Melia
 * 670 Miletus is sieged by Lydia, Priene is annexed by Lydia, Samos annexes former Melian territory
 * 669 or 668 Battle of Hysiae
 * 668 Lydia abandons siege of Mietus
 * 667 Byzantium is founded by Korinthians
 * 665 The second Messenian war ends.
 * 664 Corcyran Revolt and First Sea Battle in ancient Greece between Corcyra and Korinthos
 * 664 Akrai is founded and annexed by Syracuse
 * 657 Cypselus subjects Corinth to tyranny.
 * 657 Founding of Lekas by Corinth
 * 655 Akanthus and Stageira are founded by Androsi
 * 654 Abdera is founded by Klazomenaites
 * 652 Ephesus and Priene are sacked by Cimmerians
 * 651 Levantine War ends, Chalcis wins and annexes Levantine Plain
 * 650 The Pontic Pentapolis: Apollonia, Callatis, Mesembria (Nessebar), Odessos (Varna), and Tomis (Constanța), all on the Euxeinos Pontos.
 * 650 Andros, Kea and Tenos gain independence from Eretria, Cypselus leaves Karystus
 * 650 Syracuse annexes Pantalica
 * 648 Himera is founded by Zancleans
 * 645–560 Spartan wars with Tegea all unsuccessful
 * 643 Kasmenai is founded and annexed by Syracuse
 * 637–630 Drought on Thera
 * 633 Ambrakia founded by Tyrant Gorgus and Korinthians
 * 632 Cylon, Athenian noble, seizes Acropolis and tries unsuccessfully to make himself king
 * 631 Battus establishes a Greek colony in Cyrene in Libya.
 * 630 Helorus is founded and annexed by Syracuse
 * 630 Histria is established by Milesian settlers in order to facilitate trade with the native Getae.
 * 630 Founding of Tripolis by Samos
 * 630 Formal pederasty is introduced, first in Crete, as a means of population control and an educational modality.
 * 628 Selinus is founded by Hyblaea Megarans
 * 627 Epidamos is founded by Kerkyreans
 * 627 Cypselus is succeeded by Periander
 * 625 Establishment of Naucratis
 * 621 Draco, Athenian lawgiver, issues code of laws, with many crimes punishable by death.
 * 621 Epidaurus is annexed by Korinth
 * 619 Herbessus is annexed by Syracuse
 * 616 Miletus is sieged by Lydia
 * 615 Leontini is overthrown by Panaetius
 * 612 Miletus is overthrown by Thrasybulos
 * 610 Panticapaeum (modern city Kerch) is founded by Milesians
 * 609 Panaetius is oust by Leontini
 * 606 Gorgus is succeeded by Periander
 * 604 Lydia abandons the Siege of Miletus
 * 603 Athenai annexes Sigeion
 * 601 Miletus and Korinth become allies
 * 600 Massalia founded by Phocaean Greeks (approximate date).
 * 600 Segesta is Hellenized by Ionians
 * 598 Akrillai is founded and annexed by Syracuse
 * 598 Kamarina is founded and annexed by Syracuse
 * 597 Delphi gains independence from Kirrha
 * 596 Paleopoli is founded by Samosi
 * 595 Salamis is annexed by Athens
 * 595 Start of the First Sacred War
 * 594 Kirrha is sieged by Amphictyonic League
 * 594 Solon, Athenian statesman, becomes Archon pre-582 BC (cf. ML6 and Plutarch Sol. 14)—later, when member of the Areopagus is appointed to effect social reforms in order to preserve order in Athens, which include the abolition of the security of debts on a debtor's person (Aristotle Ath. Pol. 6), returning exiled Athenian slaves (Solon fr. 4 in Ath. Pol. 12), changing the value of weights and measures to the Korinthian standard, prohibiting the export of grain from Attica and encouraging the planting of olives (Plut. Sol. 22–4), established the property classes (Ar. Ath. Pol. 7) and the council of 400 (Ar. Ath. Pol. 8).
 * 592 Ephesus is sieged by Persia
 * 590 Siege of Ephesus is abandoned, Lydia annexes Smyrna and Median-Lydian war starts
 * 590 Muorica (Renamed Modica) is annexed by Syracuse
 * 590 Sappho, Greek poet, flourishes on island of Lesbos.
 * 589 Klazomenai is sieged by Lydia
 * 588 Poseidonia is founded by Sybaris
 * 587 Siege of Klazomenai is abandoned by Lydia
 * 586 Death of Lycophron tyrant of Corcyra
 * 586 Plataea gains independence from Thebai
 * 585 Kirrha is destroyed
 * 585 Lydian-Median border set at Halys River
 * 585 The philosopher Thales of Miletus predicts a solar eclipse that occurs during the Battle of Halys.
 * 585 Periander is overthrown by Psammetichus
 * 585 End of the First Sacred War
 * 583 Psammetichus is overthrown by Korinth
 * 582 Akragas is founded by Gelans
 * 582: First recorded Pythian Games
 * 581 Selinus attacks Motya
 * 581 Korinth join the Peloponnesian League
 * 580 Foundation of Parthenope
 * 580 Selinus is defeated by Carthage and withdraws from Motya
 * 580 Periander is overthrown by democrats in Ambrakia
 * 580 Elis joins the Peloponnesian League
 * 580 Lipari is founded by Knidosi
 * 578 Thrasybulos dies
 * 575 Empúries, also known as Ampurias (Greek: Ἐμπόριον, Catalan: Empúries [əmˈpuɾiəs], Spanish: Ampurias [amˈpuɾjas]), a town on the Mediterranean coast of the Catalan comarca of Alt Empordà in Catalonia, Spain is founded by Greek colonists from Phocaea with the name of Ἐμπόριον (Emporion, meaning "trading place", cf. emporion).
 * 572 Pisa and Olympia are annexed by Elis
 * 570 Akragas is overthrown by Phalaris
 * 570 Phocaeans from Massalia (modern day Marseille) founded the colony of Monoikos (Monaco).
 * 569 Pythagoras is born.
 * 565 Peisistratos, Athenian general, organizes Diakrioi, party of poor people.
 * 561 Peisistratos takes power in Athens for first time.
 * 560 Ephesus is besieged by Lydia
 * 560 Phalaris annexes Himera
 * 559 Ephesus is annexed by Lydia
 * 559-550 Lydia annexes Aeolis and Ionia
 * 559 Achilleion is founded and annexed by Mytilene
 * 557 Argos is overthrown by Perilaus
 * 556 Phlius is overthrown by Leo
 * 555 Helike (Elche) is established by Greeks from the Achaian city of Helice
 * 555 Peisistratos driven out by Lycurgus who is commander of nobles.
 * 555 Miltiades I unites Thracian Chernessos under his rule
 * 554 Phalaris is overthrown by Akragas and Himera gains independence
 * 553 Kamarina declares independence from Syracuse
 * 552 Kamarina is annexed by Syracuse
 * 551 Telemachus overthrows Akragas
 * 550 Minoa is founded by Selinus
 * 550 Odessa is established by the Greek city of Histria.
 * 550 Miltiades II is born
 * 549 Peisistratos restored by help of Megacles.
 * 549 Boeotian League is founded
 * 548 Lesbos sieges Sigeion
 * 547 Athens repulses the Lesbans and Sigeion (Now ruled by Hegesistratos) becomes an Athenian vassal
 * 546 Sparta annexes Kynouria, Thyrea and Kythera from Argos
 * 546 Croesus, rich king of Lydia, captured at Sardis by Persians.
 * 545 Miletus is overthrown by Molpagoras
 * 545 Lygdamis becomes Tyrant of Naxos
 * 545 The ancient Greek colony of Hermonassa (Krasnodar Krai, Russia) is founded by Ionians and Cretans.
 * 544 Abdera starts its Golden Age
 * 543 Phanagoria, (Krasnodar Krai, Russia), is founded by Teian colonists who had to flee Asia Minor in consequence of their conflict with Cyrus the Great.
 * 542 Peisistratos expelled, makes fortune from Thracian mines.
 * 542 The colony of Gorgippia (Krasnodar Krai, Russia) was built by Pontic Greeks.
 * 541 Telemachus is overthrown by Alcamenes
 * 540 Naxan vassalization of Paros
 * 540 Selinus is overthrown by Theron
 * 538 Sybaris conquers Siris
 * 538 Samos is overthrown by Polycrates
 * 536 Samos annexes South Mycale from Miletus
 * 535 Perilaus dies
 * 534 Athens starts extracting tribute from Ios
 * 532 Croton is overthrown by Cylonius
 * 532 Peisistratos restored by Thessaly and Lygdamis of Naxos.
 * 531 Ikaria is annexed by Samos
 * 530 Emporion becomes a Carthaginian vassal
 * 530 Maktorion is founded by exiled Gelans
 * 530 Tegea joins the Peloponnesian League
 * 529 Leo dies
 * 528 Maktorion is abandoned and the settlers move to Gela
 * 527 Peisistratos dies, succeeded by sons Hippias and Hipparchus.
 * 527 Rineia and Delos are annexed by Samos
 * 526 Cylonius is overthrown by Kroton
 * 525 Netum is annexed by Syracuse
 * 525 The ancient Greek city of Euesperides, (modern day Benghazi) is founded by people from Cyrene
 * 525 Persian Cambyses II, son of Cyrus the Great takes Egypt.
 * 524 Samos annexes Donousa
 * 524 Lgydamis of Naxos is overthrown
 * 523 Chalcedon is annexed by Persian Empire
 * 522 Death of Polycrates of Samos and succession of Maiandrios
 * 521 Overthrow of Maiandros by Persian backed Syloson
 * 520 Peithagoras overthrows Theron
 * 519 Plataea leaves the Boeotian League and is sieged by the latter
 * 519 Miltiades is overthrown by Stesagoras
 * 519 Abydos declares independence from Stesagoras and is led by the Persian Tyrant Daphnis
 * 518 Athens repulses the Boeotians from Plataea
 * 517 Sybaris is overthrown by Telys
 * 516 Miltiades II an Athenian Tyrant succeeds Stesagoras and reincorporates Abydos
 * 516 Cassaibile is annexed by Syracuse
 * 515 Molpagoras is succeeded by Histiaeos
 * 515 Hippias becomes sole ruler after the death of Hipparchus.
 * 514 Tenedos, Lesbos and Abydos is annexed by Persian Empire
 * 513 Miltiades II defects from Athens to Persia
 * 513 Myrcinos is founded by Ionians
 * 513 Persia annexes Thrace (Region)
 * 513 Cinyps, Libya, a failed Greek attempt to build a city under the leadership of Dorieus.
 * 512 Antandrus is annexed by Persian Empire
 * 512 Persian vassalization of Naxos
 * 511 Piraeus is founded and annexed by Athens
 * 511 Thracian Chernessos is annexed by Persian Empire
 * 510 Kroton annexes Sybaris and overthrows Telys
 * 510 Pythagoras establishes his own school.
 * 510 Peithagoras is overthrown by Euryleon
 * 510 Minoa is renamed Heraclea Minoa
 * 510 Cinyps is annexed by Carthage
 * 508 Andros and Naxos are annexed by Persian Empire
 * 508 Hippias is forced to leave Athens.
 * 507 Plataea is sieged by Boeotian League
 * 507 Cleisthenes, Greek reformer, takes power, increases democracy.
 * 506 Boeotian League is repulsed from Plataea by Athens
 * 506 Cumae is overthrown by Aristodemus
 * 506 Alcamenes is overthrown by Alcandros
 * 506 The Levantine Plain is conquered by Athens and becomes a Cleurchy
 * 505 Hegesistratos of Sigeion dies
 * 505 Cleander overthrows Gela
 * 504 Cleinias overthrows Croton
 * 504 Taras defeats the Iapygians
 * 503 Naxos declares independence from the Persian Empire
 * 502 Euryleon is overthrown by Selinus
 * 500 Pythagoras dies in Croton, Italy
 * 500 Heraclea Minoa is sacked by Carthage
 * 500 Morgantina and Centuripe are hellenized and Licodia is founded by Leontini
 * 499 Miletus Siege of Naxos (Naxan Victory)
 * 499 Independence of Paros
 * 499 Alcandros is overthrown by Akragas
 * 499 Ionian Revolt starts
 * 499 Éphesos, Klazomenai, Mílētos, Samos, Myus, Chios, Samos, Mytilene, Mylasa, Termera, Kyme and Priene declare independence from Persian Empire
 * 498 Cyprus (Except Amathos), Caria, Paesos, Abydos, Cios, Percote, Lampsakos, Myrcinos, Tenedos, Dardanos, and Byzantium declare independence from Persian Empire
 * 498 Amathos is sieged by Cyprus
 * 498 Cleander is overthrown by Hippocrates
 * 498 Hippocrates vassalized Leontini and puts Aenesidemus as tyrant
 * 498 Licodia is annexed by Syracuse
 * 497 Eion is sieged by Athens
 * 497 Dardanos, Myrcinos, Abydos, Kyme, Klazomenai, Percote, Lampsakos, Cyprus, Cios and Paesos are reannexed by Persian Empire
 * 497 Catania is vassalized by Hippocrates and Deinmenes is put in charge as tyrant
 * 497 Persian Empire occupies all Carian land north of Pedasos (Carian)
 * 496 Byzantium is overthrown by Histiaeos
 * 496 Myrcinos is reannexed by the Persian Empire
 * 496 Athenian Tyrant Miltiades II annexes Thracian Chernessos
 * 496 Naxos is vassalized by Hippocrates
 * 495 Cleinias dies
 * 494 Rhegium is overthrown by Anaxilas
 * 494 Zancle is vassalized by Hippocrates and Scythes put in charge
 * 494 Priene, Samos and Miletus are annexed by Persian Empire
 * 493 Byzantium sieges Thasus
 * 493 Ionian revolt crushed
 * 493 Zancle is settled by Samian refugees and renamed Messene
 * 493 Zancle is conquered by Rhegion
 * 492 Kamarina (now rebuilt) and Ergezio are vassalized by Hippocrates
 * 492 Abdera and Thracian Chernessos are annexed by the Persian Empire
 * 491 Hippocrates is overthrown by Gelon
 * 491 Fort Scyllaeum is founded by Rhegion
 * 490 Aristodemus dies
 * 490 Persian conquest of Rhodes
 * 490 Persian Siege of Naxos (Naxan Victory)
 * 490 Persian conquest of Paros
 * 490 Persian sacking of Eretria
 * 490 Themistocles and Miltiades, Athenians, defeat Darius at Marathon, Phidippides runs with news.
 * 490 Taras defeats the Iapygians in battle
 * 488 Akragas is overthrown by Theron
 * 486 Himera is overthrown by Terillus
 * 485 Gelon annexes Syracuse (Except Kamarina and Licodia), Gela is given to Hieron
 * 484 Kamarina is destroyed by Gelon
 * 484 Aeschylus, Athenian playwright wins his first victory at the City Dionysia.
 * 483 Megara Hyblaea and Licodia are destroyed by Gelon
 * 483 Theron puts his son Thrasydaeus in charge of Himera as his vassal
 * 481 Andros, Aegina and Akanthus among many other Greek Poleis declare allegiance to Persia
 * 481 The Naxos, Milos, Sparta, Athens, Korinth, Kythnos and many other Greek Poleis form the Hellenic League to fight against the Persian Empire

Classical Greece (480–323 BC)

 * 480 Aegina and Andros are impressed into the Hellenic League
 * 480 Emporion ousts Carthaginian influences
 * 480 Leonidas, Spartan, sacrifices 300 Spartan soldiers at the Battle of Thermopylae so main force can escape; Xerxes son of Darius is commanding the Persians.
 * 480 Croton, Leucas and Corcyra joins the Hellenic League
 * 480 Simultaneous with Thermopylae, the Greeks and Persians fight to a draw in the naval Battle of Artemisium.
 * 480 Boeotia, Attica and Phocis are occupied by Persia
 * 480 Battle of Salamis: Themistocles, Athenian general, lures Persians into Bay of Salamis, Xerxes loses and goes home, leaves behind Mardonius.
 * 480 Possibly simultaneous with the Battle of Salamis, Battle of Himera between Carthage and Akragas (Theron)-Syracuse (Gelon)-Himera (Thrasydaeus)
 * 479 Pausanias, Greek general routs Mardonius at the Battle of Plataea.
 * 479 Battle of Mycale
 * 479 Rhodes, Samos, Kos and many Greek cities in Persia begin to declare independence
 * 479 Paros is vassalized by Athens
 * 479 Athens annexes Tenedos
 * 479 Sestos is besieged by Athens
 * 479 Boeotian League is dissolved by Hellenic League
 * 479 Sicel Ducetius overthrows Miniu
 * 478 Byzantium is besieged by Athens
 * 478 Delian League is founded by Athens and is soon joined by Ionia, Delos, Kos, Euboea, Tilos, Rhodes, Karpathos, Athenai, Paros, Troezen, Sifnos, Doris, Aeolis, Andros, Aenea, Akanthos, Samos, Chalcis, Eretria, Chios, Methymna, Chalkidiki, Mutilḗnē, Sigeion, Éphesos and many others
 * 478 Gelon dies and is succeeded by Hieron, Polyzelos is put in control of Gela
 * 477 The Persian Empire abandons Europe except Doriskus and Eion
 * 477 Chalcedon, Byzantium, Carystus, Ainos, Perinthos and others join the Delian League
 * 477 Andros is turned into an Athenian cleurchy
 * 476 Micythus becomes Tyrant of Rhegion after Anaxilas' death
 * 476 Catania is split between Hieron and Ducetius, Catania is renamed Aetna, settled by Dorians and ruled by the Tyrant Deinmenes II
 * 476 Taras allies with Rhegion to protect themselves from the Iapygians, but later lose to them in battle
 * 476 Himera is settled by Doric colonists
 * 476 Sybaris declares independence from Kroton
 * 476–462 Cimon elected general each year
 * 475 Sybaris is annexed by Kroton
 * 475 Abdera and Eion join the Delian League
 * 475 Skyros is annexed by Athens
 * 474 Battle of Cumae
 * 474 Naxos joins the Delian League
 * 474 Hieron occupies the Parthenopean Islands
 * 474 Pindar, Greek poet relocates to Thebes (in Greece) from court at Syracuse.
 * 473 Taras is defeated by the Iapygians
 * 472 Thrasydaeus annexes Akragas after death of Theron
 * 471 Naxos leaves the Delian League and is subsequently sieged by Athens
 * 471 Themistocles ostracized.
 * 470 Dénia, Hēmeroskopeion (Ἡμεροσκοπεῖον) is founded by Massaliot Greeks. The town was situated on the cape then called Artemisium (Ἀρτεμίσιον) or Dianium (Διάνιον), named from a temple of Ephesia Artemis built upon it (goddess Artemis was called Diana in Latin).
 * 470 Naxos is impressed into the Delian League
 * 470 Ducetius annexes Ergezio
 * 470 The new urban zone of Neápolis (Νεάπολις) was founded by citizens of the nearby Greek city of Cumae on the plain of Parthenope after the victorious Battle of Cumae
 * 469 Illios is annexed by Mytilene
 * 469 Klazomenai, Phaselis, Aspendos, Doris and Priene join the Delian League
 * 468 Thrasydaeus is overthrown by Akragas
 * 468 Sophocles, Greek playwright, defeats Aeschylus for Athenian Prize for drama.
 * 467 Micythus steps down to Leophron
 * 466 Taras is defeated by the Iapygians
 * 466 Taras' monarchy is overthrown by democrats
 * 466 Thrasybulos succeeds Hieron
 * 465 Thasus leaves the Delian League and is sieged by Athens
 * 465 Abydos and Troad join the Delian League
 * 465 Thracian Chernessos is annexed by Athens
 * 465 Deinmenes II, Aenesidemus, Thrasybulos and Polyzelos are overthrown by their respective cities
 * 463 Thasus is impressed into the Delian League
 * 462 Megara leaves the Peloponnesian League
 * 461 Catania, Naxos and Catania declare independence from Syracuse, Dorian settlers are removed from Catania
 * 461 Kamarina is refounded under the Tyranny of Psaumis
 * 461 Cimon ostracized.
 * 461 Thera joins the Peloponnesian League
 * 461 Messene and Rhegion separate and oust Leophron
 * 460 Taras defeats the Iapygians
 * 460 Aetna is founded
 * 460 First Peloponnesian War Starts
 * 459 Aegina is besieged by Athens
 * 459: Morgantina is annexed by Ducetius
 * 459-455 Siege of Memphis, destruction of the Athenian fleet by Megabyzus
 * 458 Imbros is annexed by Athens
 * 457 Aegina is impressed into the Delian League
 * 457 Delphi is annexed by Phocis
 * 457 Pericles, Athenian statesman begins Golden Age, he was taught by Anaxagoras, who believed in dualistic Universe and atoms.
 * 457 Boeotia (Except Thebes), Phocis and Locris join the Delian League
 * 456 Gythium is raided by Athens
 * 456 Zakynthos joins the Delian League
 * 456 Castrugiuvanni (Enna) join Ducetius
 * 456 Aeschylus dies.
 * 455 Nafpaktos is impressed into the Delian League and settled with Messenian Helots
 * 454 Abacaenum is annexed by Ducetius
 * 454 Movement of Delian treasury to Athens and start of the First Athenian Empire
 * 454 Athenian annexation of Delos
 * 453 Palike is founded by Ducetius
 * 452 Akragas and Aetna are annexed by Ducetius, Ducetius sieges Motyon
 * 452 Nea Sybaris is founded by Sybarites
 * 451 Athens besieges Kition
 * 451 Motyon is occupied by Ducetius
 * 450 Naxos becomes a cleurchy
 * 450 Akragas and Motyon are liberated from Ducetius starting a decades long conflict between Syracuse+friends and the Sicels
 * 449 Delphi declares independence from Phocis
 * 449 Ducetius abandons the Sicel Federation he created and is forced to go into exile at Korinth
 * 449 Morgantina is annexed Syracuse
 * 449 Herodotus, Greek Historian, writes History of Greco-Persian War from 490 to 479.
 * 448 Delphi is annexed by Phocis
 * 447 Ictinus and Callicrates, Greek architects, begin construction of the Parthenon.
 * 447 Nea Sybaris is annexed by Kroton
 * 447 Chalcis leaves the Delian League and is besieged by Athens
 * 446 Phocis, Locris and Boeotia leave the Delian League, Boeotia unites into the Boeotian League and joins the Peloponnesian League
 * 446 Megara joins the Peloponnesian League
 * 446 Kale Akte is founded by Ducetius
 * 446 Achaea and Trozen leave the Peloponnesian League and join the Delian League
 * 446-445 Euboean Revolt
 * 445 Euboea is impressed into the Delian League
 * 445 Histiaea becomes an Athenian cleurchy
 * 445 First Peloponnesian War Ends
 * 445 Troezen is impressed into the Peloponnesian League
 * 443 Thurii is founded by Sybarites and Various Hellenes
 * 441 Euripides, Greek playwright, wins Athenian prize.
 * 441 Sybaris on the Traeis is founded by Sybarites exiled from Thurii
 * 440 Samos leaves the Delian League and is besieged by Athens
 * 440 Palike is destroyed, ending the Sicel Federation
 * 440 Ducetius dies
 * 439 Samos is impressed into the Delian League
 * 438 Founding of the Bosporan Kingdom
 * 437 Newly founded Amphipolis annexes Eion
 * 437 Athens allies with Messapia
 * 436 Taulantii-Epidamos War
 * 435 Phidias, Greek sculptor, completes statue of Zeus at Elis, 1 of 7 wonders of the world.
 * 434 Epidamos becomes a democracy
 * 434 Epidamos is annexed by Korinth
 * 434 Kerkyra allies with Taulantii and besiege Epidamos
 * 434 Kerkyra seizes Outer Epidamos (City)
 * 434 Battle of Leukimme
 * 434 Kerkyra raids Kyllene
 * 434 Kerkyra joins Delian League
 * 433 Battle of Sybota
 * 433 Anactorium is annexed by Korinth
 * 432 Psaumis dies
 * 432 Potidaea leaves the Delian League and is sieged by Athens
 * 432 Pydna is besieged by Athens
 * 432 End of "Golden Age" of Athens
 * 431 Sparta commanded by King Archidamus II prepares to destroy Athens thus starting the Peloponnesian War.
 * 431 Plataea is besieged by Thebes
 * 431 Pagae and Atalanta is occupied by Athens
 * 431 Aegina is annexed by Athens
 * 431 Empedocles, Greek doctor, believes body has Four Temperaments.
 * 430 Athens abandons the Siege of Pydna
 * 430 Herakleion is impressed into the Delian League
 * 430 Spartan Siege of Zakynthos (Local Victory)
 * 430 Failed peace mission by Athens, bubonic plague year, Sparta takes no prisoners.
 * 430 Leucippus, Greek philosopher, believes every natural event has natural cause. Athenian Plague begins in Athens.
 * 429 Herakleion is annexed by Macedonia
 * 429 Potidaea is impressed into the Delian League
 * 429 All Chalkidiki cities (Except Mende, Acanthus, Scione, Stagirus and Aphytis) leave the Delian League
 * 429 Athens Siege of Kydonia (Local Victory)
 * 429 Phormio, Athenian admiral, wins the Battle of Chalcis/Rhium.
 * 429 Pericles dies of Athenian Plague, possibly typhus or bubonic plague.
 * 429 Hippocrates, Greek doctor, believes diseases have physical cause.
 * 429 First Battle of Naupaktos (Athenian Victory)
 * 428 Plato born.
 * 428 Mytilene and Antissa leave the Delian league and Mytilene is sieged by Athens, Antissa is sieged by Methymna
 * 428 Illios joins the Delian League
 * 427 Suppression of Mytilene, Antissa is annexed by Methymna, Mytilene becomes an Athenian Cleurchy, Mytilene Troad joins the Delian League as independent cities
 * 427 Archidamus II dies, Alcidas, Greek admiral sent to help Lesbos, raids Ionia and flees after seeing Athenian might. Athenian Plague returns.
 * 427 Plataea is impressed into the Boeotian League and by extension, the Peloponnesian League
 * 427 Aristophanes, Greek playwright, wins Athenian Prize.
 * 427 Corcyran Civil War (Democratic Victory)
 * 427 First Athenian Intervention in Sicily begins
 * 426 Megara occupies Pegae
 * 426 Athens sieges Lecus
 * 426 Pylos, Messene, Mylae, Aegitium and Tichium are occupied by Athens, Pylos is founded by escaped Helots
 * 426 Battle of Tanagra
 * 426 Amfissa joins the Peloponnesian League
 * 426 Ozolian Locris join the Delian League
 * 426 Demosthenes, Athenian general, and Cleon, Athenian demagogue, revitalizes Athenian forces, makes bold plans opposed by Nicias, his first military campaign barely succeeds.
 * 426 Ambrakia occupies Olpae and Argos
 * 426 Acarnanian League and Amphilochian League are founded and join the Delian League
 * 425 Acarnania occupies Olpae and Argos
 * 425 Athenian fleet bottles up Spartan navy at Navarino Bay, Nicias resigns.
 * 425 Herakleion is impressed into the Delian League
 * 425 Athens occupies Sphacteria
 * 425 Morgantina is annexed by Kamarina
 * 425 Ozolian Locris joins the Peloponnesian League
 * 425 Athens withdraws from Lecas and Acarnania
 * 425 Athens withdraws from Messene and Mylae is impressed into the Delian League
 * 424 Herakleion is annexed by Makedonia
 * 424 Eion, Akanthus and Amphipolis are besieged by Sparta
 * 424 Stagira joins the Peloponnesian League
 * 424 Nisaia, and Siphae are occupied by Athenai
 * 424 Thyrea is occupied by Athens
 * 424 First Athenian Intervention in Sicily ends
 * 424 Pagondas of Thebes (in Greece) crushes Athenian army at the Battle of Delium, Brasidas a Spartan general, has a successful campaign in the Chalcidice, Cleon exiles Thucydides for 20 years for arriving late.
 * 423 Sparta occupied Amphipolis and Scione
 * 423 Torone is occupied by Makedonia
 * 423 Akanthus joins the Peloponnesian League
 * 423 Truce of Laches supposed to stop Brasidas but does not, Nicias commands Athenian forces in retaking Mende.
 * 423 Olynthus form the Chalcidian League independent of the Delian League
 * 422 Stagira is besieged by Athens
 * 422 Neapolis is annexed by Rome
 * 422 Torone and Scione are impressed into the Delian League
 * 422 Cleon meets Brasidas outside of Amphipolis, both are killed (Battle of Amphipolis).
 * 422 Syracuse annexes the now weak Leontini
 * 421 Peace of Nicias brings temporary end to war, but Alcibiades, a nephew of Pericles, makes anti-Sparta alliance.
 * 421 Herakleion is impressed into the Delian League
 * 421 Cumae is annexed by Oscans
 * 421 Athens abandons the Siege of Stagira
 * 421 Delphi declares independence from Phocis
 * 421 Argulus, Apollonia, Potidaea, Akanthus, Stageira and others join the Chalcidian League
 * 420 Mantineia, Argos, Elis, Sicyon and Achaea betray Sparta and switch to the Delian League
 * 419 Athens occupies Epidauros
 * 419 King Agis II of Sparta attacks Argos, makes treaty.
 * 418 Battle of Mantinea, greatest land battle of war, gives Sparta victory over Argos, which violated treaty, Alcibiades thrown out, alliance ended.
 * 418 Orchmenos is occupied by Argos
 * 417 Orchmenos is given to Boeotia
 * 417 Sicyon joins the Peloponnesian League
 * 417 Epidauros is occupied by Sparta
 * 416 Melos is besieged by Athens
 * 416 Alcibiades makes plans, is restored to power.
 * 416 Selinus annexes Segesta's frontier provinces
 * 416 Massacre of the Melians.
 * 415 Hermai statues are mutilated in Athens, Alcibiades accused, asks for inquiry, told to set sail for battle (Sicilian Expedition), is condemned to death in absentia, he defects to Sparta.
 * 415 Many Syracusan cities rebel
 * 415–413 Siege of Syracuse
 * 414-413 Metapontion allies with Athens
 * 414 Lamachus, Athenian commander killed at Syracuse.
 * 413 Nicias and Demosthenes killed at Syracuse
 * 413 Leontini and Kamarina are vassalized by Syracuse
 * 413 Herakleion is annexed by Makedonia
 * 413 Miletus and Khios betray Athens and join the Peloponnesian League
 * 412 Alcibiades is expelled from Sparta, conspires to come back to Athens.
 * 412 Methymna is occupied by Sparta
 * 412 Klazomenai and Kyzikus betray Athens and join the Peloponnesian League
 * 412 Chios is sieged by Athens
 * 412 Aygrion dies and is succeeded by Aygris
 * 411 Sparta allies with Persia
 * 411 Aspendos is annexed by Persia
 * 411 Kyzikus and Klazomenai are impressed into the Delian League
 * 411 Oropos is occupied by Boeotia
 * 411 Illios is annexes by Lampsacus
 * 411 Athens abandons the Siege of Chios
 * 411 Sparta leaves Methymna
 * 411 Euboea, Byzantium, Abydos, Andros, Antandrus, Lampsacus, Chalcedon and Rodos betray Athens and join the Peloponnesian League
 * 411 Abydos is overthrown by Dercylidas
 * 411 Selinus attacks Segesta once again and aggravates Carthage
 * 411 Athens is overthrown by the Four Hundred
 * 410 After several successes, Athenian demagogue Cleophon rejects Spartan peace offers.
 * 410 Segesta is annexed by Carthage
 * 410 Four Hundred are overthrown by Athens
 * 409 Antandrus is annexed by Persia
 * 409 Abydos is besieged by Athens
 * 409 Sparta sieges Klazomenai
 * 409 Selinus and Himera are sacked by Carthage
 * 409 Byzantium recaptured by Alcibiades for Athens.
 * 408 The 3 poleis of Rodos unite and build a new capital called Rodos
 * 408 Athens besieges Paleopoli
 * 408 Athens abandons Siege of Abydos
 * 408 Sparta abandons the Siege of Klazomenai
 * 408 Alcibiades reenters Athens in triumph, Lysander, a Spartan commander, has fleet built at Ephesus.
 * 407 Thermae is founded by Carthage
 * 407 Athens abandons the Siege of Paleopoli
 * 407 Lysander begins destruction of Athenian fleet, Alcibiades stripped of power.
 * 406 Sparta sieges Methymna
 * 406 Akragas is sacked by Carthage
 * 406 Callicratides, Spartan naval commander, loses Battle of Arginusae over blockade of Mitylene harbor, Sparta sues for peace, rejected by Cleophon.
 * 405 Methymna is impressed into the Peloponnesian League
 * 405 Syracuse is overthrown by Dionysius the Elder
 * 405 Melos is annexed by Sparta
 * 405 Gela, Kamarina and Akrillai is sacked by Carthage
 * 405 Carthage allow the people of the sacked cities to return as Carthaginian subjects and rebuild their cities
 * 405 Leontini and Morgantina declare independence from Syracuse
 * 405 Carthage annexes Elymi, Sicel and Sican territory
 * 405 The naval Battle of Aegospotami in which Lysander captures the Athenian fleet, Spartan king Pausanias besieges Athens, Cleophon executed, Corinth and Thebes demand destruction of Athens.
 * 405 Klazomenai and Ephesus betray Athens and join the Peloponnesian League. All Carthaginian subjects (Except Ziz, their islands, Motya, Solus, Elymi, Segesta, and Entella) gain independence
 * 404 Athens capitulates April 25. Theramenes secures terms, prevents total destruction of Athens, Theramenes and Alcibiades are killed.
 * 404 Delian League is dissolved
 * 404 Korinth leaves the Peloponnesian League
 * 404 Entella is overthrown by mercenaries loyal to Carthage
 * 404 Aygris becomes a Syracusan Subject
 * 404 Nafpaktos is annexed by Ozolian Locris
 * 404 Athens is overthrown by the Thirty
 * 404 Athens joins the Peloponnesian League
 * 403 Aeimnestus, who is loyal to Dionysius, overthrows Castrugiuvanni
 * 403 Aetna is overthrown by mercenaries loyal to Dionysius
 * 403 Dionysius destroys Naxos and Catania and Sicels split Naxos with Syracuse, Catania is ruled by Campanian mercenaries loyal to Dionysius
 * 403 Athens overthrows the Thirty
 * 403 Athens leaves the Peloponnesian League and refounds the Delian League
 * 402 Elis leaves the Peloponnesian League and is subsequently sieged by Sparta
 * 401 Euboea joins the Delian League
 * 401 Elis is sacked and impressed into the Peloponnesian League
 * 401 Dionysius free Castrugiuvanni from Aeimnestus
 * 401 Poseidonia is annexed by Lucanians
 * 401 Thucydides, Greek historian, leaves account of "Golden Age of Pericles" and Peloponnesian War at his death (History of the Peloponnesian War).
 * 400 Adranon is founded by Dionysius
 * 400 Aygris annexes Centuripe
 * 400 Democritus, Greek philosopher, develops Atomic theory, believes cause and necessity, nothing comes out of nothing
 * 399 Illios declares independence from Lampsacus
 * 399 Sparta sways Persian Controlled Greek cities near Pergamon to their side and march on Egyptian Larissa and siege it
 * 399 Socrates, Greek philosopher, condemned to death for corrupting youth.
 * 398 Ionia joins the Peloponnesian League
 * 398 All Carthaginian subjects (Except Ziz, their islands, Motya, Solus, Elymi, Segesta, and Entella) gain independence from Carthage
 * 398 Dionysius sieges Segesta and Entella
 * 398 Mainland territory of Motya is occupied by Dionysius
 * 397 Motya is destroyed by Dionysius and the Carthaginians build Lilybaion to replace it
 * 397 Dionysius abandons the Sieges of Entella and Segesta
 * 397 Eryx, Segesta, Lipari, Messene and Entella are annexed by Carthage
 * 397 Carthage allies with the Sicel cities except Assorus
 * 397 Tauormenion is founded by Carthage to be a supply base, settled by Sicels
 * 397 Carthaginian forces have to go the long way around Mount Etna due to an eruption
 * 397 Catania is occupied by Carthage
 * 397 Battle of Catania
 * 397 Syracuse is besieged by Carthage
 * 396 Carthage lifts the Siege of Syracuse and abandons Eastern Sicily except Messene and Lipari
 * 396 Himera and Selinus are annexed by Carthage
 * 396 Gela, Ergezio, Catania, Adranon, Kamarina and Leontini are annexed by Dionysius
 * 396 Tyndaris is founded by Dionysius to combat piracy and a base of operations
 * 396 Persia annexes Rodos
 * 396 Sparta campaigns in Phrygia
 * 395 Sparta campaigns in Ionia, Caria and march up to Sardis
 * 395 Orchmenus leaves the Boeotian League
 * 395 Cephaloedium is annexed by Dionysius
 * 395 Mylae is annexed by Rhegion
 * 395 Argos, Korinthos and Boeotian League leave the Peloponnesian League
 * 394 Sparta withdraws from Anatolia
 * 394 All Thracian and Anatolian Greek cities leave the Peloponnesian League (Except Sestos and Abydos)
 * 394 Virtually all Greek Anatolian cities are annexed by Persia
 * 394 Klazomenaites relocate to an island off shore
 * 394 Mylae is annexed by Syracuse
 * 393 Lipari is annexed by Syracuse
 * 393 Italiote League is formed by Sybaris on the Traeis, Croton, Caulonia, Thurii, Rhegium and Velia
 * 393 Imbros, Lemnos and Skyros are annexed by Athens
 * 393 Makedonia starts paying tribute to the newly formed Kingdom of Dardania
 * 393 Chalcidian League annexes some Makedonian land
 * 392 Sparta occupies Lechaeum
 * 392 Heraclea Minoa, Akragas and Sicani territory are annexed by Carthage
 * 392 Sicel territory is annexed by Dionysius
 * 392 Makedonia stops paying tribute to Dardania
 * 392 Makedonia reannexes the land taken by the Chalcidian League
 * 392 Damastion is annexed by Dardania
 * 391 Korinth occupies Phlius
 * 391 Tauromenion is overthrown by mercenaries loyal to Dionysius
 * 391 Makedonia starts pays tribute to Dardania
 * 390 The Acarnanian League joins the Peloponnesian League
 * 390 Dercylidas is succeeded by Anaxibios
 * 390 Himera is merged into Thermae
 * 390 Dionysius transfers control of Mylae to Messene
 * 390 Kroton is annexed by Syracuse
 * 390 Argos and Korinth unite into Argos-Korinth
 * 390 Castrugiuvani is annexed by Syracuse
 * 389 Metapontion is annexed by Syracuse
 * 389 Anaxibios is overthrown by Abydos
 * 387 Rhegion is annexed by Syracuse and renamed it to Phoebea
 * 387 Peace of Antalcidas concluded between the Greeks and the Persians that leads to virtually all Greek cities in Asia Minor being annexed by Persia
 * 387 Ancona is founded by Greek settlers from Syracuse, who gave it its name: Ancona stems from the Greek word Ἀγκών (Ankòn), meaning "elbow"
 * 387 Argos and Korinth split
 * 387 All cities gain independence and all league except the Peloponnesian League are disbanded
 * 386 Phlius becomes a democracy
 * 385 Dardania attacks Molossia
 * 385 The Greeks colonized the island of Pharos (Hvar, Croatia).
 * 384 Dionysius occupies Pyrgi and Caere
 * 384 Chalcidian League annexes Makedonia land including Pella
 * 383 Gela gains independence from Syracuse
 * 383 Dionysius leaves Eturia
 * 383 Liburnia besieges Pharos
 * 383 Potidaea leaves the Chalcidian League
 * 382 Thebes is overthrown by Leontiades and Archias
 * 382 Thebes is impressed into the Peloponnesian League
 * 380 Sparta besieges Phlius
 * 380 Makedonia recaptures their former territory
 * 379 Kroton is annexed by Dionysius
 * 379 Phlius is impressed into the Peloponnesian League
 * 379 The Chalcidian League is disbanded and its former members are impressed into the Peloponnesian League and Potidaea and Korinth also join the league
 * 379 Leontiades and Archias are overthrown and Thebes leaves the Peloponnesian League
 * 379 Sparta occupies Thespiae
 * 378 Themison overthrows Eretria
 * 377 The Boeotian League is refounded by Thebes
 * 376 Abdera is sacked by the Triballi and Maroneia
 * 376 Thespiae and the rest of Boeotia are liberated and join the Boeotian League
 * 375 The Acarnanian League defects from the Peloponnesian League and joins the Delian League
 * 375 Chalcidian League is reestablished by Olynthus and joins the Delian League
 * 373 Kerkyra is besieged by Sparta
 * 371 Sparta leaves Kerkyra
 * 370 Gythium is occupied by Thebes
 * 370 Heraclea Sintica is founded by Makedonia
 * 369 Korinth is overthrown by Timophanes
 * 368 Aetolian League is founded
 * 367 Daparria is annexed by Dardania
 * 367 Kroton is annexed by Bruttian League
 * 366 Opus declares independence from Athens with the help of Themison
 * 365 Opus requests Thebes to protect them from Athens and sends a garrison. Opus is impressed into the Boeotian League
 * 364 Timophanes is assassinated
 * 364 Orchmenus leaves the Boeotian League and is subsequently sieged by Thebes
 * 363 Orchmenus is impressed into the Boeotian League
 * 363 Pydna is impressed into the Delian League
 * 362 Themison dies and is succeeded by Plutarch
 * 361 Potidaea and Torone are impressed into the Delian League and become Athenian Cluerchies
 * 360 Tauromenion overthrows the mercenaries and falls under the tyranny of Andromache
 * 360 Illios is overthrown by Charidemos
 * 360 Abydos is overthrown by Iphiades
 * 359 Charidemos is overthrown by Illios
 * 359 Dardania annexes Lake Ohrid and Upper Macedonia
 * 359 Archelaus annexes Methone, Aegae and Pydna
 * 358 Archelaus is annexed by Makedonia
 * 358 Macedonia reannexes Lake Ohrid, Lynkestis and Upper Macedonia from Dardania
 * 358 Makedonia annexes Paeonia
 * 357 Social War Starts
 * 357 Kos, Khios, Rodos and Byzantium leave the Delian League
 * 357 Makedonia annexes Pydna and Amphipolis
 * 357 Dionysius II is overthrown by Dion
 * 356 Phocis annexes Delphi
 * 356 Locris is annexed by Dionysius II
 * 356 Lemnos, Samos and Imbros is occupied by Chios and leave the Delian League
 * 356 Makedonia annexes Crenides, renames it Philippi and settles it with Makedonians
 * 356 Makedonian border set on Nestus river
 * 356 Potidaea and Anthemus are annexed by Chalcidian League
 * 356 Makedonia besieges Methone
 * 356 Lokros is overthrown by Dionysius II
 * 355 Social War Ends
 * 355 Argolas is besieged by Phocis
 * 355 Dion is overthrown by Callipus
 * 354 Methone and Abdera are annexed by Makedonia
 * 354 Phocis abandons the Siege of Argolas
 * 354 Thessaly is vassalized by Phocis
 * 353 Catania is annexed by Callipus
 * 353 Makedonia occupied Pagasae
 * 353 Thessaly is vassalized by Makedonia
 * 352 Callipus is overthrown by Hipparinos (Callipus keeps Catania)
 * 352 Nicodemus overthrows Centuripe
 * 352 Orchmenus and Chaeronea are occupied by Phocis
 * 351 Rhegion is annexed by Callipus
 * 350 Akanthos is annexed by Makedonia
 * 350 Nice (Nicaea) is founded by the Greeks of Massalia (Marseille), and was given the name of Nikaia (Νίκαια) in honour of a victory over the neighbouring Ligurians; Nike (Νίκη) was the Greek goddess of victory.
 * 350 Hipparinos is overthrown by Aretaeus
 * 350 Mamercus ousts Callippus from Catania
 * 349 Plutarch is expelled from Eretria
 * 349 Aretaeus is overthrown by Nysaios
 * 348 Stagira is annexed by Makedonia
 * 348 Callipus is overthrown by Leptines
 * 347 Leontini is overthrown by Hicetas
 * 347 Plato, Greek philosopher, founder of Academy, dies.
 * 347 Methymna is overthrown by Kleommis
 * 346 Phocis withdraws from Boeotia
 * 346 Dionysius II leaves Locris and overthrows Nysaios
 * 346 Lyttos is besieged by Knossos
 * 346 Makedonia occupies Thermopylae and Antikyra, Nicaea is occupied by Thessaly
 * 345 Makedonia withdraws from Thermopylae and Antikyra
 * 345 Grabaei becomes a vassal of Macedonia
 * 345 Hicetas sieges Syracuse and seizes Syracuse's territory
 * 345 The Pro-Makedonian Tyrant Hipparchus overthrows Eretria
 * 345 Mainland Syracuse (City) is occupied by Hicetas leaving only the citadel in Dionysius' control
 * 344 Macedonia occupies Illios and annexes Tenedos
 * 344 Siege of Lyttos lifted by Knossos
 * 344 Knossos besieges Kydonia
 * 344 Hicetas is repulsed by Timoleon from Syracuse
 * 344 Timoleon takes control of all Syracusan forces outside the citadel
 * 343 Messene is rebuilt by Timoelon, Adranon is freed from mercenary control, Nicodemus is overthrown by Centuripe with help of Timoleon
 * 343 Timoleon annexes the citadel
 * 343 Siege of Kydonia is lifted by Knossos
 * 342 Rhegion is freed by Timoleon
 * 342 Aristotle, Greek philosopher, begins teaching Alexander, son of Philip of Macedon.
 * 341 Hipparchus is overthrown by Athenian forces and impressed into the Delian league
 * 341 Samothrace is annexed by Makedonia
 * 340 Antipolis (modern day Antibes) is founded by Phocaean Greeks from Massilia.
 * 340 Skyros is annexed by Makedonia
 * 340 Entella is freed by Timoleon
 * 339 Elateia is occupied by Makedonia
 * 339 Agyris and Aetna are freed by Timoleon
 * 339 Nicaea is occupied by Boeotia
 * 338 Amphissa is annexed by Delphi
 * 338 Thyrea is annexed by Argos
 * 338 Mamercus dies
 * 338 Cumae is annexed by Rome
 * 338 Leontini is freed by Timoleon
 * 338 Nafpaktos joins the Aetolian League
 * 338 King Philip II of Macedon defeats Athens and Thebes at Battle of Chaeronea August 2 and establishes League of Corinth during winter of 338 BC/337 BC.
 * 337 Amfissa declares independence from Delphi
 * 336 Timoleon dies
 * 336 Lesbos is annexed by Makedonia
 * 336 Alexander succeeds father Philip II, who was assassinated by Pausanias of Orestis.
 * 334 Andromache dies and his city is annexed by Syracuse
 * 334 Battle of the Granicus
 * 333 Saminum is occupied by Epirus
 * 333 Alexander defeats Persians at Battle of Issus, but Darius III escapes.
 * 332 Epirus occupies Heraclea, Metapontium, Southern Lucania, Daunia, Paestum, Terina and Sipontum
 * 332 Siege of Tyre
 * 332 Siege of Gaza
 * 332 Alexander conquers Egypt.
 * 332 Alexandria is founded by Alexander the Great
 * 331 Epirus occupies Cosentia
 * 331 Battle of Pandosia
 * 331 Gerasa (Jordan) is founded by Makedonian veterans
 * 331 at Battle of Gaugamela October 1, Alexander ends Achaemenid Dynasty and conquers Persian Empire.
 * 331 Alexander the Great enters in Babylon
 * 331 Tauromenion is freed by Carthage
 * 331 Battle of the Uxian Defile (East of Susa, Iran)
 * 330 Sparta joins the League of Corinth
 * 330 Battle of the Persian Gate, destruction of Persepolis (modern Iran)
 * 330-325 Pytheas makes the earliest Greek voyage to Great Britain and the Arctic Circle for which there is a record.
 * 329 Siege of Cyropolis
 * 329 Battle of Jaxartes
 * 329 Alexander conquers Samarkand, Uzbekistan
 * 329 Alexander the Great founds Alexandria Eschate in modern Tajikistan
 * 329-160 Dayuan Kingdom.
 * 328 Sybaris on the Traeis is annexed by Bruttian League
 * 327 Oenidae is impressed into the Aetolian League
 * 327 Under the command of Alexander the Great the forces of the Hellenic League captures the fortress of the Sogdian Rock. Sogdiana and the Kabul region came under Hellenic control
 * 327 Alexander invades northern India, but his army is despondent and refuses to march further eastwards.
 * 326 Battle of the Hydaspes
 * 326 Samos joins the Delian League
 * 326 Alexandria Bucephalous (located on the Hydaspes river, Pakistan) is founded by Alexander the Great in memory of his beloved horse Bucephalus
 * 325 Nearchus serving under Alexander the Great discovers Tylos (the name used by the Greeks to refer to Bahrain).
 * 324 Kroton is overthrown by Menedemus
 * 324 Charax Spasinu, one of Alexander's last cities before his death, is established at the head of the Persian Gulf (modern Iran) replacing a small Persian settlement, Durine.

Hellenistic Greece (323–30 BC)

 * 323 King Alexander dies, his generals vie for power in Wars of the Diadochi
 * 322–320 First War of the Diadochi.
 * 320 Partition of Triparadisus
 * 320–311 Second War of the Diadochi
 * 316 Menander, Greek playwright, wins Athenian prize.
 * 312–63 Seleucid Empire
 * 310 Zeno of Citium founds his stoic school in Athens.
 * 310 Battle of White Tunis (near modern Tunis, Tunisia)
 * 307 Epicurus founds his philosophic school in Athens.
 * 305–30 Ptolemaic Kingdom
 * 305 Seleucia, also known as Seleucia-on-Tigris or Seleucia on the Tigris (modern Iraq) is founded by Seleucus I Nicator
 * 301 Battle of Ipsus
 * 300 Antioch, is founded by Seleucus I Nicator in honor of his father Antiochus
 * 300 Euclid, Greek mathematician, publishes Elements, treating both geometry and number theory (see also Euclidean algorithm).
 * 295 Athens falls to Demetrius, Lachares killed.
 * 282–133 Kingdom of Pergamon
 * 281 Creation of the Achaean League
 * 280 The Greek colony of Aspálathos (Aσπάλαθος) is founded (modern day Split).
 * 280–275 Pyrrhic War
 * 279 Gallic invasion of the Balkans
 * 274–271 First Syrian War
 * 267–262 Chremonidean War
 * 265 Archimedes, Greek mathematician, develops Archimedes' screw, specific gravity, center of gravity; anticipates discoveries of integral calculus.
 * 260–253 Second Syrian War
 * 256–125 Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
 * 246–241 Third Syrian War
 * 235 Tanais (Rostov-on-Don, Russia) is founded by merchant adventurers from Miletus
 * 220 Euthydemus I of the Greco-Bactrians led expeditions as far as Kashgar and Ürümqi in Xinjiang, leading to the first known contacts between China and the West.
 * 219–217 Fourth Syrian War
 * 214–205 First Macedonian War
 * 203–200 Fifth Syrian War
 * 200–196 Second Macedonian War
 * 192–188 Roman–Syrian War
 * 180–10 AD Indo-Greek Kingdom
 * 172–167 Third Macedonian War
 * 170–168 Sixth Syrian War
 * 155 BC Attack of the Indo-Greeks on Pataliputra, a magnificent fortified city with 570 towers and 64 gates according to Megasthenes, who describes the ultimate destruction of the city's walls.
 * 150 BC King Attalus II of Pergamon founds the city of Attaleia or Antalya in his honour.
 * 150–148 Fourth Macedonian War
 * 146 Battle of Corinth
 * 30 Death of Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Timeline of ancient Greece


text:
Rhyolite

Rhyolite    is the most silica-rich of volcanic rocks. It is generally glassy or fine-grained (aphanitic) in texture, but may be porphyritic, containing larger mineral crystals (phenocrysts) in an otherwise fine-grained groundmass. The mineral assemblage is predominantly quartz, sanidine, and plagioclase. It is the extrusive equivalent of granite.

Its high silica content makes rhyolitic magma extremely viscous. This favors explosive eruptions over effusive eruptions, so this type of magma is more often erupted as pyroclastic rock than as lava flows. Rhyolitic ash-flow tuffs are among the most voluminous of continental igneous rock formations.

Rhyolitic tuff has been used extensively for construction. Obsidian, which is rhyolitic volcanic glass, has been used for tools from prehistoric times to the present day because it can be shaped to an extremely sharp edge. Rhyolitic pumice finds use as an abrasive, in concrete, and as a soil amendment.

Description
Rhyolite is an extrusive igneous rock, formed from magma rich in silica that is extruded from a volcanic vent to cool quickly on the surface rather than slowly in the subsurface. It is generally light in color due to its low content of mafic minerals, and it is typically very fine-grained (aphanitic) or glassy.

An extrusive igneous rock is classified as rhyolite when quartz constitutes 20% to 60% by volume of its total content of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase (QAPF) and alkali feldspar makes up 35% to 90% of its total feldspar content. Feldspathoids are not present. This makes rhyolite the extrusive equivalent of granite. However, while the IUGS recommends classifying volcanic rocks on the basis of their mineral composition whenever possible, volcanic rocks are often glassy or so fine-grained that mineral identification is impractical. The rock must then be classified chemically based on its content of silica and alkali metal oxides (K2O plus Na2O). Rhyolite is high in silica and total alkali metal oxides, placing it in the R field of the TAS diagram.

The alkali feldspar in rhyolites is sanidine or, less commonly, orthoclase. It is rarely anorthoclase. These feldspar minerals sometimes are present as phenocrysts. The plagioclase is usually sodium-rich (oligoclase or andesine). Cristobalite and trydimite are sometimes present along with the quartz. Biotite, augite, fayalite, and hornblende are common accessory minerals.

Geology
Due to their high content of silica and low iron and magnesium contents, rhyolitic magmas form highly viscous lavas. As a result, many eruptions of rhyolite are highly explosive, and rhyolite occurs more frequently as pyroclastic rock than as lava flows. Rhyolitic ash flow tuffs are the only volcanic product with volumes rivaling those of flood basalts. Rhyolites also occur as breccias or in lava domes, volcanic plugs, and dikes. Rhyolitic lavas erupt at a relatively low temperature of 800 to 1000 °C, significantly cooler than basaltic lavas, which typically erupt at temperatures of 1100 to 1200 °C.

Rhyolites that cool too quickly to grow crystals form a natural glass or vitrophyre, also called obsidian. Slower cooling forms microscopic crystals in the lava and results in textures such as flow foliations, spherulitic, nodular, and lithophysal structures. Some rhyolite is highly vesicular pumice.

Peralkaline rhyolites (rhyolites unusually rich in alkali metals) include comendite and pantellerite. Peralkalinity has significant effects on lava flow morphology and mineralogy, such that peralkaline rhyolites can be 10–30 times more fluid than typical calc-alkaline rhyolites. As a result of their increased fluidity, they are able to form small-scale flow folds, lava tubes and thin dikes. Peralkaline rhyolites erupt at relatively high temperatures of more than 1200 °C. They comprise bimodal shield volcanoes at hotspots and rifts (e.g. Rainbow Range, Ilgachuz Range and Level Mountain in British Columbia, Canada).

Eruptions of rhyolite lava are relatively rare compared to eruptions of less felsic lavas. Only four eruptions of rhyolite have been recorded since the start of the 20th century: at the St. Andrew Strait volcano in Papua New Guinea and Novarupta volcano in Alaska as well as at Chaitén and Cordón Caulle volcanoes in southern Chile. The eruption of Novarupta in 1912 was the largest volcanic eruption of the 20th century, and began with explosive volcanism that later transitioned to effusive volcanism and the formation of a rhyolite dome in the vent.

Petrogenesis
Rhyolite magmas can be produced by igneous differentiation of a more mafic (silica-poor) magma, through fractional crystallization or by assimilation of melted crustal rock (anatexis). Associations of andesites, dacites, and rhyolites in similar tectonic settings and with similar chemistry suggests that the rhyolite members were formed by differentiation of mantle-derived basaltic magmas at shallow depths. In other cases, the rhyolite appears to be a product of melting of crustal sedimentary rock. Water vapor plays an important role in lowering the melting point of silicic rock, and some rhyolitic magmas may have a water content as high as 7–8 weight percent.

High-silica rhyolite (HSR), with a silica content of 75 to 77·8% SiO2, forms a distinctive subgroup within the rhyolites. HSRs are the most evolved of all igneous rocks, with a composition very close to the water-saturated granite eutectic and with extreme enrichment in most incompatible elements. However, they are highly depleted in strontium, barium, and europium. They are interpreted as products of repeated melting and freezing of granite in the subsurface. HSRs typically erupt in large caldera eruptions.

Occurrence
Rhyolite is common along convergent plate boundaries, where a slab of oceanic lithosphere is being subducted into the Earth's mantle beneath overriding oceanic or continental lithosphere. It can sometimes be the predominant igneous rock type in these settings. Rhyolite is more common when the overriding lithosphere is continental rather than oceanic. The thicker continental crust gives the rising magma more opportunity to differentiate and assimilate crustal rock.

Rhyolite has been found on islands far from land, but such oceanic occurrences are rare. The tholeiitic magmas erupted at volcanic ocean islands, such as Iceland, can sometimes differentiate all the way to rhyolite, and about 8% of the volcanic rock in Iceland is rhyolite. However, this is unusual, and the Hawaiian Islands (for example) have no known occurrences of rhyolite. The alkaline magmas of volcanic ocean islands will very occasionally differentiate all the way to peralkaline rhyolites, but differentiation usually ends with trachyte.

Small volumes of rhyolite are sometimes erupted in association with flood basalts, late in their history and where central volcanic complexes develop.

Name
The name rhyolite was introduced into geology in 1860 by the German traveler and geologist Ferdinand von Richthofen from the Greek word rhýax ("a stream of lava") and the rock name suffix "-lite".

Uses
In North American pre-historic times, rhyolite was quarried extensively in what is now eastern Pennsylvania. Among the leading quarries was the Carbaugh Run Rhyolite Quarry Site in Adams County. Rhyolite was mined there starting 11,500 years ago. Tons of rhyolite were traded across the Delmarva Peninsula, because the rhyolite kept a sharp point when knapped and was used to make spear points and arrowheads.

Obsidian is usually of rhyolitic composition, and it has been used for tools since prehistoric times. Obsidian scalpels have been investigated for use in delicate surgery. Pumice, also typically of rhyolitic composition, finds important uses as an abrasive, in concrete, and as a soil amendment. Rhyolitic tuff was used extensively for construction in ancient Rome and has been used in construction in modern Europe.

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Breccia

Breccia is a rock composed of large angular broken fragments of minerals or rocks cemented together by a fine-grained matrix.

The word has its origins in the Italian language, in which it means "rubble". A breccia may have a variety of different origins, as indicated by the named types including sedimentary breccia, fault or tectonic breccia, igneous breccia, impact breccia, and hydrothermal breccia.

A megabreccia is a breccia composed of very large rock fragments, sometimes kilometers across, which can be formed by landslides, impact events, or caldera collapse.

Types
Breccia is composed of coarse rock fragments held together by cement or a fine-grained matrix. Like conglomerate, breccia contains at least 30 percent of gravel-sized particles (particles over 2mm in size), but it is distinguished from conglomerate because the rock fragments have sharp edges that have not been worn down. These indicate that the gravel was deposited very close to its source area, since otherwise the edges would have been rounded during transport. Most of the rounding of rock fragments takes place within the first few kilometers of transport, though complete rounding of pebbles of very hard rock may take up to 300 km of river transport.

A megabreccia is a breccia containing very large rock fragments, from at least a meter in size to greater than 400 meters. In some cases, the clasts are so large that the brecciated nature of the rock is not obvious. Megabreccias can be formed by landslides, impact events, or caldera collapse.

Breccias are further classified by their mechanism of formation.

Sedimentary
Sedimentary breccia is breccia formed by sedimentary processes. For example, scree deposited at the base of a cliff may become cemented to form a talus breccia without ever experiencing transport that might round the rock fragments. Thick sequences of sedimentary (colluvial) breccia are generally formed next to fault scarps in grabens.

Sedimentary breccia may be formed by submarine debris flows. Turbidites occur as fine-grained peripheral deposits to sedimentary breccia flows.

In a karst terrain, a collapse breccia may form due to collapse of rock into a sinkhole or in cave development. Collapse breccias also form by dissolution of underlying evaporite beds.

Fault
Fault or tectonic breccia results from the grinding action of two fault blocks as they slide past each other. Subsequent cementation of these broken fragments may occur by means of the introduction of mineral matter in groundwater.

Igneous
Igneous clastic rocks can be divided into two classes:

 * 1) Broken, fragmental rocks associated with volcanic eruptions, both of the lava and pyroclastic type;
 * 2) Broken, fragmental rocks produced by intrusive processes, usually associated with plutons or porphyry stocks.

Volcanic
Volcanic pyroclastic rocks are formed by explosive eruption of lava and any rocks which are entrained within the eruptive column. This may include rocks plucked off the wall of the magma conduit, or physically picked up by the ensuing pyroclastic surge. Lavas, especially rhyolite and dacite flows, tend to form clastic volcanic rocks by a process known as autobrecciation. This occurs when the thick, nearly solid lava breaks up into blocks and these blocks are then reincorporated into the lava flow again and mixed in with the remaining liquid magma. The resulting breccia is uniform in rock type and chemical composition.

Caldera collapse leads to the formation of megabreccias, which are sometimes mistaken for outcrops of the caldera floor. These are instead blocks of precaldera rock, often coming from the unstable oversteepened rim of the caldera. They are distinguished from mesobreccias whose clasts are less than a meter in size and which form layers in the caldera floor. Some clasts of caldera megabreccias can be over a kilometer in length.

Within the volcanic conduits of explosive volcanoes the volcanic breccia environment merges into the intrusive breccia environment. There the upwelling lava tends to solidify during quiescent intervals only to be shattered by ensuing eruptions. This produces an alloclastic volcanic breccia.

Intrusive
Clastic rocks are also commonly found in shallow subvolcanic intrusions such as porphyry stocks, granites and kimberlite pipes, where they are transitional with volcanic breccias. Intrusive rocks can become brecciated in appearance by multiple stages of intrusion, especially if fresh magma is intruded into partly consolidated or solidified magma. This may be seen in many granite intrusions where later aplite veins form a late-stage stockwork through earlier phases of the granite mass. When particularly intense, the rock may appear as a chaotic breccia.

Clastic rocks in mafic and ultramafic intrusions have been found and form via several processes:
 * consumption and melt-mingling with wall rocks, where the wall rocks are softened and gradually invaded by the hotter ultramafic intrusion (producing taxitic texture);
 * accumulation of rocks which fall through the magma chamber from the roof, forming chaotic remnants;
 * autobrecciation of partly consolidated cumulate by fresh magma injections;
 * accumulation of xenoliths within a feeder conduit or vent conduit, forming a diatreme breccia pipe.

Impact
Impact breccias are thought to be diagnostic of an impact event such as an asteroid or comet striking the Earth and are normally found at impact craters. Impact breccia, a type of impactite, forms during the process of impact cratering when large meteorites or comets impact with the Earth or other rocky planets or asteroids. Breccia of this type may be present on or beneath the floor of the crater, in the rim, or in the ejecta expelled beyond the crater.

Impact breccia may be identified by its occurrence in or around a known impact crater, and/or an association with other products of impact cratering such as shatter cones, impact glass, shocked minerals, and chemical and isotopic evidence of contamination with extraterrestrial material (e.g., iridium and osmium anomalies). An example of an impact breccia is the Neugrund breccia, which was formed in the Neugrund impact.

Hydrothermal

Hydrothermal breccias usually form at shallow crustal levels (<1 km) between 150 and 350 °C, when seismic or volcanic activity causes a void to open along a fault deep underground. The void draws in hot water, and as pressure in the cavity drops, the water violently boils. In addition, the sudden opening of a cavity causes rock at the sides of the fault to destabilise and implode inwards, and the broken rock gets caught up in a churning mixture of rock, steam and boiling water. Rock fragments collide with each other and the sides of the void, and the angular fragments become more rounded. Volatile gases are lost to the steam phase as boiling continues, in particular carbon dioxide. As a result, the chemistry of the fluids changes and ore minerals rapidly precipitate. Breccia-hosted ore deposits are quite common.

The morphology of breccias associated with ore deposits varies from tabular sheeted veins and clastic dikes associated with overpressured sedimentary strata, to large-scale intrusive diatreme breccias (breccia pipes), or even some synsedimentary diatremes formed solely by the overpressure of pore fluid within sedimentary basins. Hydrothermal breccias are usually formed by hydrofracturing of rocks by highly pressured hydrothermal fluids. They are typical of the epithermal ore environment and are intimately associated with intrusive-related ore deposits such as skarns, greisens and porphyry-related mineralisation. Epithermal deposits are mined for copper, silver and gold.

In the mesothermal regime, at much greater depths, fluids under lithostatic pressure can be released during seismic activity associated with mountain building. The pressurised fluids ascend towards shallower crustal levels that are under lower hydrostatic pressure. On their journey, high-pressure fluids crack rock by hydrofracturing, forming an angular in situ breccia. Rounding of rock fragments is less common in the mesothermal regime, as the formational event is brief. If boiling occurs, methane and hydrogen sulfide may be lost to the steam phase, and ore may precipitate. Mesothermal deposits are often mined for gold.

Ornamental uses

For thousands of years, the striking visual appearance of breccias has made them a popular sculptural and architectural material. Breccia was used for column bases in the Minoan palace of Knossos on Crete in about 1800 BC. Breccia was used on a limited scale by the ancient Egyptians; one of the best-known examples is the statue of the goddess Tawaret in the British Museum. Breccia was regarded by the Romans as an especially precious stone and was often used in high-profile public buildings. Many types of marble are brecciated, such as Breccia Oniciata.

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Kart racing

Kart racing or karting is a motorsport discipline using open-wheel, four-wheeled vehicles known as go-karts or shifter karts. They are usually raced on scaled-down circuits, although some professional kart races are also held on full-size motorsport circuits. Karting is commonly perceived as the stepping stone to the higher ranks of motorsports, with most Formula One drivers—including Ayrton Senna, Michael Schumacher, Fernando Alonso, Kimi Räikkönen, Lewis Hamilton, Sebastian Vettel, Nico Rosberg, and Max Verstappen—having begun their careers in karting.

Karts vary widely in speed, and some (known as superkarts) can reach speeds exceeding 160 km/h, while recreational go-karts intended for the general public may be limited to lower speeds.

History
American Art Ingels is generally accepted to be the father of karting. A veteran hot rodder and a race car builder at Kurtis Kraft, he built the first kart in Southern California in 1956. Early karting events were held in the Rose Bowl Stadium car park. Instantly popular, Karting rapidly spread to other countries, and currently has a large following in Europe.

The first kart manufacturer was an American company, Go Kart Manufacturing Co. (1957). In 1959, McCulloch was the first company to produce engines for karts. Its first engine, the McCulloch MC-10, was an adapted chainsaw two-stroke engine. Later, in the 1960s, motorcycle engines were also adapted for kart use, before dedicated manufacturers, especially in Italy (IAME), started to build engines for the sport.

Chassis
The chassis are made of chromoly tubing. There is no suspension, so chassis have to be flexible enough to work as a suspension and stiff enough not to break or give way on a turn. Kart chassis are classified in the United States as "Open", "Caged", "Straight" or "Offset". All Commission Internationale de Karting–, Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile–, or CIK-FIA-approved chassis are "Straight" and "Open".
 * Open karts have no roll cage.
 * Caged karts have a roll cage surrounding the driver; they are mostly used on dirt tracks.
 * In Straight chassis, the driver sits in the center. Straight chassis are used for sprint racing.
 * In Offset chassis, the driver sits on the left side. Offset chassis are used for left-turn-only speedway racing.

The stiffness of the chassis enables different handling characteristics for different circumstances. Typically, for dry conditions, a stiffer chassis is preferable, while in wet or other poor traction conditions, a more flexible chassis may work better. Temperature of the track can also affect handling and may prompt additional chassis adjustments. The best chassis allow for stiffening bars at the rear, front and side to be added or removed according to race conditions.

Braking is achieved by a disc brake mounted on the rear axle. Front disc brakes are used in most shifter kart classes and are increasingly popular in other classes; however, certain classes do not allow them. Shifter karts have dual master cylinders, one for the front and one for the rear, and are adjustable to allow for front/rear bias changes.

Professionally raced karts typically weigh 165 to 175 lb, complete without driver. Avanti, Tony Kart, Trulli, Birel, CRG, Gillard, Intrepid, Remo Racing, Kosmic, Zanardi or FA Kart and EKS are a few well-known examples of the many European manufacturers of race-quality chassis. Emmick, Coyote, Bandit, Shadow, MGM, Titan, PRC and Margay are American companies producing kart chassis.

Engines
Racing karts mostly use small two-stroke or four-stroke engines; however, as of 2022, there has been small-scale adoption of electric motors in racing karts.

 * Four-stroke engines can be standard air-cooled industrial based engines, sometimes with small modifications, developing from about 5 to 20 hp. Briggs & Stratton, Tecumseh, Kohler, Robin, Honda, and Torini are manufacturers of such engines. They are used in both lower-level racing (particularly introductory junior categories) and fun kart applications. There are also more powerful four-stroke engines available from manufacturers like Yamaha, TKM, Swissauto or Aixro (Wankel engine) offering from 15 hp up to 48 hp. They run to and around 11,000 rpm, and are manufactured specifically for karting. Those are used in some National Championship classes like the two-strokes.
 * Two-stroke kart engines are developed and built by dedicated manufacturers.ROTAX, WTP, Comer, IAME (Parilla, Komet, Woltjer), TM, Vortex, Titan, REFO, Modena Engines, TKM, Yamaha are manufacturers of such engines. These can develop from about 8 hp for a single-cylinder 60 cc unit (MiniROK by Vortex) to over 90 hp for a twin 250 cc. Today, the most popular categories worldwide are those using the TaG 125 cc units. The recent 125 cc KF1 engines are electronically limited at 16,000 rpm. Most are water-cooled today; however, previously air-cooled engines dominated the sport.
 * While electric motors have been used in low-performance amusement park karts for some time—particularly in indoor applications where fumes are a concern - higher-performance competitive racing karts are now becoming commercially available. For instance, manufacturer Blue Shock Racing offers a range of electric karts for both junior and senior competitors with performance comparable to combustion-powered karts, and has held race series for them. Combustion kart engine maker Rotax also offers an electric kart motor and has held racing events for karts fitted with it.

Transmission
Purpose of transmission: There are three reasons for having a transmission in the automotive power train or drive train. The transmission can:
 * Provide torque needed to move the vehicle under a variety of road and load conditions. It does this by changing the gear ratio between the engine crankshaft and vehicle drive wheel.
 * Be shifted into reverse so the vehicle can move backward.
 * Be shifted into neutral for starting the engine and running it without turning the drive wheels.

Karts do not have a differential. The lack of a differential means that one rear tire must slide while cornering. This is achieved by designing the chassis so that the inside rear tire lifts up slightly when the kart turns the corner. This allows the tire to lose some of its grip and slide or lift off the ground completely.

Power is transmitted from the engine to the rear axle by a chain. Both engine and axle sprockets are removable. Their ratio must be adapted to the track configuration to obtain the most performance from the engine.

In the early days, karts were direct drive, requiring push starts. The inconvenience of that configuration led to the centrifugal clutch for the club level classes. Dry centrifugal clutches are now used in many categories; Rotax Max is one example. They have become the norm as the top international classes have switched to 125 cc clutch-equipped engines as of January 2007.

Tires
Wheels and tires are much smaller than those used on a normal car. Wheels are made of magnesium alloy, aluminum, or composite materials. Tires can support cornering forces in excess of 2 g (20 m/s²), depending on chassis, engine, and motor setup. Some car tire manufacturers, such as MG Bridgestone, Dunlop, and Maxxis make tires for karts. There are also specific kart tire manufacturers, which include MG, Vega, MOJO, LeCont, Cobra, Hoosier and Burris.

Similarly to other motorsports, kart tires have different types for use appropriate to track conditions:
 * Slicks, for dry track. Slick kart tires come in many different compounds, from very soft (maximum grip) to very hard (amusement and rental karts, less grip but long life span). In international level racing, because the drivers are free to choose their tires and because of the short duration of each round (10 to 20 minutes maximum), these are some of the softest tires found in motorsport.
 * Rain tires, or "wets", for wet weather. They are grooved, made of soft compound, and are narrower than slicks. Not all racing classes allow rain tires.
 * Special, such as spiked tires for icy conditions, or "cuts/grooved" for high grip dirt/clay speedways. Cuts are slicks modified with a lathe to optimize handling. Tire manufacturers such as Hoosier and Burris also make a slightly larger grooved tire only used in dirt track racing.

Data acquisition
As in other motor sports, several data acquisition systems have been developed for kart racing. These systems allow the driver to monitor from a display fixed on the steering wheel some parameters such as RPM, timing of laps (including sectors), number of laps, best lap, cooling system temperature, exhaust gas temperature and sometimes speed or even gear for shifter karts.

Some of those systems are able to record (logging) laps data from the sensors, allowing replay of an entire running session or/and direct download to a personal computer equipped with a data analysis software. More sophisticated systems allow for more information such as lateral and longitudinal acceleration (g-force), throttle position, steering wheel position and brake pressure.

Racing
Kart racing is generally accepted as the most economical form of motorsport available on four wheels. As a free-time activity, it can be performed by almost anybody, and as a motorsport in itself, it is one of the sports regulated by FIA (under the name of CIK), permitting licensed racing for anyone from the age of 8 onward.

In the United States, there is not as much FIA involvement; instead, many organizations regulate racing, such as the IKF (International Kart Federation), WKA (World Karting Association), KART (Karters of America Racing Triad), USPKS (United States Pro Karting Series) SKUSA (SuperKartsUSA).

In the UK, the Motor Sports Association (MSA) regulates most "owner driver" Karting. Some associations, such as NatSKA (National Schools Karting Association), organize race meetings throughout the country under the authority of the MSA. Various four-stroke "hire kart" series such as EPEC (European Prokart Endurance Championship) or BRKC (British Rental Kart Championship) fall outside the governance of the MSA. Billed as the UK's first national karting league, the Elite Karting League also falls outside of MSA governance.

In Australia, kart racing is administered by one of the following Karting bodies:
 * Australian Auto Sport Alliance - 6 clubs
 * Australian Independent Dirt Kart Association - 19 clubs
 * Australian Kart Racers Alliance - 3 clubs
 * Karting Australia - 6 state associations (previously known as Australian Karting Association granted rights for CIK-FIA racing via Motorsport Australia)
 * Karting NSW - 24 clubs, separated from Australian Karting Association in 2019
 * Speedway Karting Association of Australia - 16 clubs
 * Wheatbelt Dirt Karting Association - 4 clubs
 * Unaffiliated - 8 clubs

Racing classes start at age 7 or 8 (5 in the United States with "Kid Karts") and generally run in 3-year age groupings or weight divisions until "senior" status is reached at age 15 or 16, depending on the series.

Racing formats
Typically, race formats are one of the following:

Sprint
Sprint racing takes place on dedicated kart circuits resembling small road courses, with left and right turns, Hair Pins, Chicanes, short and Long Straight a ways. Tracks range from 1/4-mile (400 metres) to over 1 mile (1,600 metres) in length.

The sprint format is a series of short-duration races, normally for a small number of laps, that qualify for a final which last 20 minutes or more, with a variety of point scoring calculations to determine the event's overall winner. Typical duration does not normally exceed 25 minutes. Here, speed and successful passing is of the most importance. It normally occurs in the format of qualifying, one to three heats and a final race for trophy positions.

Sprint Racing in the United States and Canada are held at three primary levels, Club Racing (local races at purpose-built tracks), Regional Racing - Like the California Pro Kart Challenge, The Texas Sprint Racing Series, The Florida based Sunshine Karting Championship Series, Route 66 in the Midwest and the F1 Gear Up Challenge in the Northeast. National Level Karting takes place across North America in dedicated National Series like the SKUSA Pro Tour, the USPKS Championship Series, WKA Manufacture's Cup and the ROK CUP USA. The SKUSA Pro Tour Championship is one of the most coveted, and the SKUSA Super Nats Event held in Las Vegas annually is one of the largest Kart Races in the world attracting drivers from every continent. The SKUSA SuperNats event has been run continuously for 25 years now, and a SuperNats win is considered a legendary win in Karting circles.

The FIA championships, including the Karting World Championship, SKUSA SuperNats and all SKUSA Pro Tour, USPKS and ROK Cup USA Nationals take place in this format.

Sprint Racing can be held at a dedicated purpose-built Track (most of which also rent club karts for family fun), and sprint races are also held at kart tracks that exist at many major auto sports complexes like Daytona International Speedway, Charlotte Motor Speedway, Pittsburgh Race Complex, NOLA Motorsports in New Orleans, Homestead Motor Speedway, and Road America. Sprint races are also held at temporary kart circuits that can be built in parking areas at large stadiums and casinos throughout the United States. Additionally, there are "Street Races" where racing is taking place on city streets on temporary circuits like some of the Indy car races.

Endurance
Endurance races last for an extended period, ranging from 30 minutes up to 24 hours or more, for one or more drivers. In general, consistency, reliability, and pit strategy is of greater importance than all out speed.

Called "enduro" racing in the United States, most WKA and IKF sanctioned events typically last 30 minutes (sprint enduro) or 45 minutes (laydown enduro) and are run continuously without pit stops. Enduro events are held on full-size road racing circuits that are usually between 1.5 and 4 miles in length.

As well as the famous 24 Hours of Le Mans race for automobiles there is also a 24-hours event for karts which takes place at the kart circuit Alain Prost at Le Mans, France. This race has taken place since 1986 and its winners list include four-time Champ Car champion Sébastien Bourdais (in 1996).

Endurance racing is also considered a more affordable way of getting into karting. In South Africa, the 24 Hours of Karting Festival race is held annually and lasts 24 hours with multiple classes participating. This event is hosted by the Prokart SSS Club near Johannesburg. The most popular class runs the Honda GX390 four-stroke engine, which is both affordable and durable, keeping running costs to a minimum. The Prokart Super Single Series, also known as Prokart SSS, has been running for more than 20 years and has proven to be a very popular entry platform for drivers of all ages who want to get into karting. Many clubs worldwide have taken on four-stroke endurance karting for this reason, since two-stroke karting can be very expensive.

Speedway
Speedway racing takes place on asphalt or clay oval tracks which are normally between 1/10-mile and 1/4-mile long. Tracks primarily consist of two straights and four left-turn corners, few tracks are symmetric and often the shape parallels that of an egg or a tri-oval.

"Offset" kart chassis have been developed for precise handling and adjustability in left-turn-only racing competition taking place on oval and tri-oval tracks. Depending on the track material, different tires are used on the kart.

Speedway kart races range in length from 4 laps for a trophy dash, to 20 laps for a main event.

The two chief racing formats used in dirt speedway karting are heat races and timed laps qualification:

 * The International Kart Federation (IKF) runs a racing format of two 10 lap heats followed by a 20 lap final. Finishing positions in the two heat races are used to calculate the starting position in the feature race.
 * The World Karting Association (WKA) uses time qualifying. Karts equipped with transponders are sent out onto the track in groups of 5 or less to try to achieve the fastest lap time. Positions for the 20 laps feature event are determined by qualifying time.
 * The American Kart Racing Association (AKRA) uses group transponder qualifying to calculate starting positions for 20-lap features.

Racing categories
There are many different classes in kart. One of the fastest growing in the United States is Lo206. The general classes are 125cc Shifter, 100cc tag, 125cc tag and then the X30 equivalents of these karts.

International
The CIK-FIA sanctions international championships in OK, OKJ, KZ1, KZ2 and Superkart. These are regarded as the top-level classes of karting and are also raced in national championships worldwide. The World Championship is decided here. In May 2019 it held the international under-15 championship. The driver who finished first overall was Vlad Sputzki (Russia) followed by Daniel Smith (England) and then followed by Maximilien Blank (Australia) CIK-FIA categories:
 * OK (the top level) and OKJ for a younger age group. All are using the same water-cooled no-gearbox 125 cc "long life" two-stroke engines, which are direct drive, each with different technical specifications covering mufflers, air boxes, carburetor, speed limiters, etc.
 * KZ1 and KZ2, both 125 cc gearbox categories.
 * Superkart, a 250 cc gearbox category.

Non CIK-FIA categories: The Kart World Championship (or KWC) as opposed to the FIA's "Karting World Championship" uses 4-stroke rental karts and travels to a different country each year.

National
In the UK, the most celebrated karting series is the National karting series, also known as Super One. There are three types of Super One championships:

 * MSA series: KF2, KF3, Formula KGP, Super Cadet, Cadet & Bambino
 * Rotax series: Minimax, Junior Max, Senior Max, Senior Max 177
 * TKM series: Formula Junior TKM, Formula TKM Extreme, TKM Senior 4-stroke and since 2006, Honda Cadet

Other UK National Championships include: Birel BirelART series UK: Cadet 60cc, Junior 100cc, Senior Light 125cc, Senior Heavy 125cc, British Indoor Karting Championship (BIKC)

The BRKC is the UK's rental karting National championship, and the UK's official feeder series to the rental Kart World Championship.

NatSKA is a budget karting association set up for schools and youth groups in the UK, with 13 classes.

In the United States, Dirt oval classes (which often use Briggs & Stratton industrial engines) are prominent in the Southeast and Midwest. In the West, European style sprint racing is much more common. In particular, 125cc shifter karts using Honda CR125 power units have gained tremendous popularity in recent years.

In Australia, classes include Cadet (previously called Midget),Junior KA4, Junior KA3, X30, KZ2, Senior KA3, Senior TAG (Restricted and Unrestricted). Most classes run a light and heavy category.

Many people race worldwide in Spec series such as X30 125cc (a TaG class).

Racing licences
As in other disciplines in motorsports, a license is required to drive a racing kart in competition. The licenses, issued by governing bodies, are provided by clubs or associations. Basic insurance coverage is usually included in the licence annual fee. In some countries, such as France, regulations require the drivers to pass a medical exam each year.

License classes differ between countries according to age groups or levels. Most of the time a Practice License can be easily obtained, while a Racing License might require a capability assessment.

Driver equipment
For their safety, kart drivers are required to wear proper equipment:
 * Full-face helmet (Snell SA2020 or K2020 certification is required for racing, K2020 is same as SA2020 without fire resistance)
 * Driving suit (abrasion resistant overalls with at least one Cordura external layer, CIK-FIA Level 2 homologation for top level racing)
 * Gloves
 * Driving boots (ankles must be covered)

Rib protector, racing balaclava and neck brace, although highly recommended, are optional in most countries. None of the above need to be made of fire retardant material. Superkart drivers are required to wear leather overalls, similar to those used in motorcycling.

As a learning tool
Kart racing is usually used as a low-cost and relatively safe way to introduce drivers to motor racing. Drivers can start at the age of 6 in the Motorsport UK Bambino Championship, and even from the age of 5 in the Bambino Kart Club Championship. Many Formula One drivers grew up racing karts, most prominent among them being World Champions Ayrton Senna, Michael Schumacher, Alain Prost, Fernando Alonso, Kimi Räikkönen, Jenson Button, Lewis Hamilton, Sebastian Vettel, and Max Verstappen. Many NASCAR drivers also got their start in racing from karts, such as Darrell Waltrip, Danica Patrick, Ricky Rudd, Juan Pablo Montoya, Tony Stewart, and Jeff Gordon.

In August 2009, in anticipation to a possible return to F1 with Ferrari, Formula One world champion Michael Schumacher did some preparation driving a kart in Lonato, Italy. Schumacher also raced at the SKUSA SuperNationals, an event taking place each year in Las Vegas, along with F1 drivers Sébastien Buemi and Nelson Piquet Jr. Felipe Massa also used karting in September 2009 to test his condition in Brazil, two months after his Hungarian Grand Prix accident during qualifying.

title: Kart racing