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Brocard (law)

A brocard is a legal maxim in Latin that is, in a strict sense, derived from traditional legal authorities, even from ancient Rome.

History
According to the dictionaries, the word is a variant of the Latinized name of Burchard of Worms (died AD 1025), Bishop of Worms, Germany, who compiled 20 volumes of Ecclesiastical Rules, although some sources disagree. Begun in AD 1008, the materials took Burchard four years to compile. He wrote it while living in a small structure on top of a hill in the forest outside Worms, after his defeat of Duke Otto and while raising his adopted child. The collection, which he called the Collectarium Canonum or Decretum, became a primary source for canon law.

Along with numerous documents from a variety of sources, including the Old Testament and Saint Augustine of Hippo, Burchard included the Canon Episcopi in this collection, under the belief that it dated from an episcopal "Council of Anquira" in AD 314, but no other evidence of this council exists. Because of this inclusion, Burchard has been described as something of a rationalist. As the source of canon law, Burchard's Decretum was supplanted around 1150 by the Decretum Gratiani, a much larger collection that further attempted to reconcile contradictory elements of canon law.

Burchard spent the years 1023 to 1025 promulgating Leges et Statuta Familiae S. Petri Wormatiensis, a collection of religious laws he endorsed as just and hoped to have officially approbated.

Spargo points out that early compilations of brocards sometimes contained miscellaneous trivia in Latin, and a hard association of the term "brocard" with a legal maxim came later. As an example, he quotes a 1521 work published in Toulouse: Armaria est locus ubi libri reponuntur (a bookcase is a place where the books are returned).

Although the Romans first came to Britain in 55 BC, Roman Law has had negligible influence on English common law. Latin legal phrases are used in English only because Latin was the lingua franca of the Medieval era. Although some of these phrases are in common use in law, such as res ipsa loquitur, novus actus interveniens, talem qualem, de minimis non curat lex, and consensus ad idem, the common law is not premised on the principles of civil law, and their use is being replaced by that of vernacular substitutes. For example, Black's Law Dictionary previously included numerous brocards among its entries.

Although the Romans did not conquer Scotland, Scots Law is a mixed legal system in which "brocards are regarded as part of the common law".

Etymology
Multiple sources, including the Oxford English Dictionary, derive the term from the name of Bishop Burkhardt, although contemporary Latin spelling was Burkhardus. Spargo in 1948 pointed out that Friedrich Carl von Savigny, an 18th century authority on canon law, declared association to be solely due to a similarity in sound, and stated that the origin of the term is "very uncertain". So did the Encyclopédie des sciences ecclésiastiques in 1937.

Examples

 * Actori incumbit onus probatio : "On the plaintiff rests the proving". The burden of proof falls to the plaintiff, claimant, or petitioner.
 * Actio libera in causa : "Action free in its cause". A person who voluntarily and deliberately gets himself into circumstances where he involuntary commits a crime (say, kills someone while driving drunk).
 * Audi alteram partem or audiatur et altera pars : "Listen to the other side", or "let the other side be heard as well". Refers to the idea that one cannot be fairly judged unless the cases for and against them have been heard.
 * Casum sentit dominus or res perit domino : "Accident is felt by the owner". The owner has to assume the risk of accidental harm to him or accidental loss to his property.
 * Cogitationis poenam nemo patitur : "No one suffers punishment for mere intent." A crime is only committed through some act, not through a mere thought.
 * Consensus facit legem : "Consensus makes law". Stipulates that when two or more persons arrive at a good faith agreement, the law will insist on that agreement being carried out.
 * Consuetudo pro lege servatur : "Custom is held as law." Where no laws apply to a given situation, the customs of the place and time will have the force of law.
 * Contra non valentem agere nulla [or non] currit praescriptio : A statute of limitation does not run against those who cannot act; this is the basis of the American discovery rule limiting prescriptive limitation periods.
 * Cuius est solum eius est usque ad coelum et ad inferos : "Whoever's is the soil, all the way to heaven and to the depths is theirs." Used in reference to the rights of property owners to the air above, and land below, their property.
 * Delegatus non potest delegare : "That which has been delegated cannot delegate further."
 * De minimis non curat lex : "The law does not concern itself with the smallest things". There must be a minimal level of substance or impact in order to bring a legal action.
 * Dubia in meliorem partem interpretari debent : "Doubtful things should be interpreted in the best way." Often spoken as "to give the benefit of the doubt".
 * Dura lex, sed lex : "The law [is] harsh, but [it is] the law." It follows from the principle of the rule of law that even draconian laws must be followed and enforced; if one disagrees with the result, one must seek to change the law.
 * Ei incumbit probatio qui dicit : "Proof lies on the one who asserts."
 * Ex factis jus oritur : "The law arises from the facts." A principle in international law that one must take facts on the ground into account when considering the legality of certain kinds of questions.
 * Expressio unius est exclusio alterius : "The express mention of one thing excludes all others." When items are listed, anything not explicitly stated is assumed to not be included.
 * Ex turpi causa non oritur actio : "From a dishonorable cause an action does not arise." A party cannot bring a legal action for consequences of his own illegal act.
 * Fiat justitia et pereat mundus : "Let there be justice, though the world perish." Often used as a motto, notably by Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor.
 * Fiat justitia ruat caelum : "Let justice be done though the heavens fall." Also sometimes a motto, a legal maxim that justice must be done regardless of the result otherwise.
 * Generalia specialibus non derogant : "The general does not detract from the specific." Specifies that a certain matter of law be covered by the most specific laws pertaining, in the event that broader laws conflict with the specific one.
 * Ignorantia juris non excusat : "Ignorance of the law is no excuse."
 * In claris non fit interpretatio : "In clear things no interpretation is made." When a rule is clearly intelligible, there is no need of proposing a (usually extensive) interpretation.
 * Inadimplenti non est adimplendum : "One has no need to respect his obligation if the counter-party has not respected his own." This is used in civil law to briefly indicate a principle (adopted in some systems) referred to as the synallagmatic contract.
 * Inter arma enim silent leges : "For among arms, the laws fall silent." A concept that during war, many illegal activities occur. Also taken to mean that in times of war, laws are suppressed, ostensibly for the good of the country.
 * Iudex non calculat : "The judge does not calculate." A principle that calculation errors made by the court do not invalidate the judgement on a technicality. Also taken to mean that the judge does not tally up the arguments of both sides and decide in favor of the more numerous, but rather weighs all of the evidence without regard to the number of arguments made.
 * Iura novit curia : "The court knows the law." Concept that parties to a case do not need to define how the law applies to their case. The court is solely responsible for determining what laws apply.
 * Ius civile vigilantibus scriptum est : "Civil law is written for the vigilant". It emphasises that private law is written for people who are vigilant in pursuing their interests and diligently care for their own affairs.
 * Leges humanae nascuntur, vivunt, moriuntur : "The laws of man are born, live, and die." Illustrates that laws are made, are in force for a period, and then become obsolete.
 * Lex posterior derogat priori : "A later law repeals an earlier one." More recent law overrules older law on the same matter.
 * Lex retro non agit : "The law does not operate retroactively." A law cannot make something illegal that was legal at the time it was performed. See ex post facto law.
 * Lex specialis derogat legi generali : "A law governing a specific subject matter overrides a law which only governs general matters."
 * Maleficia propositis distinguuntur : "Evil acts are distinguished from (evil) purposes" or "crimes are distinguished by evil intent".
 * Nemo auditur propriam turpitudinem allegans : "No one can be heard, who invokes his own guilt." Nobody can bring a case that stems from their own illegal act.
 * Nemo dat quod non habet: "No one gives what they do not have." The basic rule that a person who does not own property (e.g. a thief) cannot confer it on another except with the true owner's authority (i.e. as his agent). Exceptions to this rule include sales under statutory powers, and cases where the doctrine of estoppel prevents a legal owner from denying a seller's right to sell.
 * Nemo debet esse iudex in propria : "No one shall be a judge in his own case." In the past it was thought that it included just two rules, namely (1) nemo iudex in causa sua (no one shall be a judge in his own case).
 * Nemo ius ignoratur censetur : "Not knowing the law is harmful." Everyone should know the law. This is used in European Law-countries with a history of Roman law; the 'sentence' was first made by Aristotle.
 * Nemo judex in sua causa : "No one shall be a judge in his own case." Prevents conflict of interest in courts. Often invoked when there is really no conflict, but when there is even the appearance of one.
 * Nemo plus iuris ad alium transferre potest quam ipse habet : "No one can transfer a greater right than he himself has." A purchaser of stolen goods will not become the rightful owner thereof, since the seller himself was not the owner to begin with.
 * Non faciat malum, ut inde veniat bonum : "Not to do evil that good may come." Performing some illegal action is not excused by the fact that a positive result came therefrom. Often used to argue that some forms of expression, such as graffiti or pornographic films, cannot be given the protection of law (e.g. copyright) as they are or may be considered illegal or morally reprehensible.
 * Nulla poena sine culpa: "No punishment without fault." A person can not be punished for a crime that they are not guilty of.
 * Nulla poena sine lege or nullum crimen, nulla poena sine praevia lege poenali : "No penalty without law" or "no crime, no punishment without a previous penal law". (1) One cannot be prosecuted for doing something that is not prohibited by law. (2) One cannot be prosecuted for doing something that was not prohibited by law at the time and place it was committed, notwithstanding laws made since that time. A form of prohibition on retroactive laws.
 * Nunc pro tunc: "Now for then." The form of a current order intended to be effective retroactively.
 * Pacta sunt servanda: "Agreements are to be kept." Contracts are the law or contracts establish obligations (between those who sign them).
 * Par in parem non habet imperium: "Equals have no sovereignty over each other."
 * Prior tempore potior iure : "Earlier in time, stronger in right." "The law favors those who establish their rights earlier rather than later."
 * Prius quam exaudias ne iudices : "Before you hear, do not judge."
 * Probatio vincit praesumptionem : "Proof overcomes presumption."
 * Prout patet per recordum : "As appears in the record". Used to cite something that has already been admitted into the record. It was frequently used in pleadings, generally abbreviated "prout &c.", to indicate that a fact was supported by documentary evidence. Failure to use this phrase correctly could be a fatal defect and so cause a case to fail.
 * Qui facit per alium facit per se : "Who acts through another, acts himself." One who delegates a task to another, takes full responsibility for the performance of that act as if he himself had done it. Basis for the law of agency.
 * Quod est necessarium est licitum : "What is necessary is lawful."
 * Quod non est in registro, non est in Mundo : "What is not in the register is not in the world." What is not reported in the (related, referring) registry, has no legal relevance. Used when a formal act (usually a recording or a transcription) is required in order to give consistence, content or efficacy to a right.
 * Res ipsa loquitur : "The thing speaks for itself." Used in tort/delict law when there is no proof of what caused the harm, but it is most likely only the thing that could have caused the harm.
 * Res inter alios acta vel iudicata, aliis nec nocet nec prodocet : What has been agreed/decided between people (a specific group) can neither benefit nor harm a third party (meaning: two or more people cannot agree amongst each other to establish an obligation for a third party who was not involved in the negotiation; furthermore, any benefit that may be established will have to be accepted by the third party before it can be implemented).
 * Rex non potest peccare : "The king can do no wrong." Used to describe the basis for sovereign immunity.
 * Salus populi suprema lex esto : "The good of the people shall be the supreme law." Used variously as a motto, a reminder, or a notion of how the law and governments in general should be.
 * Sententia quae in rem iudicatam transit, pro veritate habetur : When a definitive sentence is declared, it is considered to be the truth. In the case of a sentence in rem iudicatam (that finally consents to consider a judgement completed), its content will then be the only legally relevant consideration of a fact.
 * Sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas : "Use your property so as not to injure that of your neighbours." While an individual is entitled to the use and enjoyment of one's estate, the right is not without limits. Restrictions can give rise to tort/delict actions including trespass, negligence, and nuisance.
 * Solve et repete : "Solve and resume." Respect your obligation first, then you can ask for reimbursement. Used in those situations in which one of the two (or more) parties needs to complete his obligation before being allowed to ask for the opposite obligation to be respected by his counter party. Usually this principle is used in fields and subjects in which a certain general steadiness or uniformity of the system is considered a particularly relevant value. The case is typical of service contracts with repeated obligations (like with gas, water, electricity providers and similars), in which irregularities on one side cannot be balanced if not in a regular situation (i.e., of payments) on the other side. The customer, for example, might be asked to pay regularly the new bill, before contesting the previous one in which he found irregular calculations, and asking for a balancement with newer bills; he thus cannot by himself determine a discount in the next payment.
 * Ubi lex voluit, dixit; ubi noluit, tacuit : "When the law wills, it speaks; when it does not will, it is silent." When the law wants to regulate a matter in further detail, it does regulate the matter; when it does not want to regulate a matter in further detail, it remained silent.
 * Ultra posse nemo obligatur : "No one is obligated (to do) more than he can." Specifies that one should do what he can to support the community, but since everyone has different levels of ability, it cannot be expected that all will perform the same.
 * Vigilantibus non dormientibus aequitas subvenit : "Equity aids the vigilant, not the sleeping." Concept that if an opposing party unreasonably delays bringing an action, that it is no longer considered just to hear their claim, due to fundamental changes in circumstance brought on by their delay.
 * Volenti non fit injuria : "Injury is not done to the willing." Notion that a person cannot bring a claim against another for injury, if said person willingly placed themselves in a situation where they knew injury could result.

title: Brocard (law)


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List of horse breeds

The following list of horse and pony breeds includes standardized breeds, some strains within breeds that are considered distinct populations, types of horses with common characteristics that are not necessarily standardized breeds but are sometimes described as such, and terms that describe groupings of several breeds with similar characteristics.

While there is no scientifically accepted definition of the term "breed", a breed is generally defined as having distinct true-breeding characteristics over a number of generations. Its members may be called purebred. In most cases, bloodlines of horse breeds are recorded with a breed registry. The concept is somewhat flexible in horses, as open stud books are created for recording pedigrees of horse breeds that are not yet fully true-breeding.

Registries are considered the authority as to whether a given breed is listed as a "horse" or a "pony". There are also a number of "color breed", sport horse, and gaited horse registries for horses with various phenotypes or other traits, which admit any animal fitting a given set of physical characteristics, even if there the trait is not a true-breeding characteristic. Other recording entities or specialty organizations may recognize horses from multiple breeds, or are recording designer crossbreds. Such animals may be classified here as a breed, a crossbreed, or a "type”, depending on the stage of breed recognition.

Horse breeds
In some cultures and for some competition-sanctioning organizations, a horse that normally matures less than about 145 cm or when fully grown may be classified as a "pony". However, unless the principal breed registry or breed standard describes the breed as a pony, it is listed in this section, even if some or all representatives are small or have some pony characteristics. Ponies are listed in the section below.

A–C
• Abaga

• Abyssinian

• Adaev

• Aegidienberger

• Akhal-Teke

• Albanian

• Altai

• Alter Real

• American Bashkir Curly

• American Belgian Draft

• American Cream Draft

• American Indian Horse

• American Paint Horse

• American Quarter Horse

• American Saddlebred

• American Warmblood

• Andalusian

• Andravida

• Anglo-Arabian

• Anglo-Kabarda

• Appaloosa

• Arabian

• Ardennais

• Arenberg-Nordkirchen

• Asturcón

• Australian Draught

• Australian Stock Horse

• Austrian Warmblood

• Auvergne

• Auxois

• Axios

• Azerbaijan

• Azteca

• Baise horse, Guangxi

• Bale

• Balearic horse, see Mallorquín and Menorquín

• Balikun horse

• Baluchi horse

• Banker horse

• Barb horse

• Bardigiano

• Bashkir horse

• Basque Mountain Horse

• Bavarian Warmblood

• Belgian Draught, also Brabant, Belgisch Trekpaard, Trait belge

• Belgian Sport Horse

• Belgian Trotter

• Belgian Warmblood (includes Belgian Half-blood)

• Bhutia Horse, also Bhotia, Bhote ghoda, Bhutan, Bhutani, Bhutua

• Black Forest Horse or Black Forest Coldblood

• Blazer horse

• Boerperd

• Borana

• Bosnian Mountain Horse

• Boulonnais horse

• Brandenburger

• Brazilian Sport Horse (Brasileiro de Hipismo)

• Breton horse, or Trait Breton

• British Warmblood

• Brumby

• Budyonny horse or Budenny

• Burguete horse

• Burmese Horse

• Byelorussian Harness Horse

• Calabrese horse

• Camargue horse

• Camarillo White Horse

• Campeiro

• Campolina

• Canadian horse

• Canadian Pacer

• Carolina Marsh Tacky

• Carthusian Spanish horse

• Caspian horse

• Castilian, see Andalusian

• Castillonnais

• Catria horse

• Cavallo Romano della Maremma Laziale

• Cerbat Mustang

• Chickasaw Horse, see Florida Cracker Horse

• Chaidamu horse

• Chernomor horse

• Chilean horse or Chilean Corralero

• Chinese Mongolian horse

• Choctaw horse

• Cleveland Bay

• Clydesdale horse

• Colorado Ranger

• Coldblood trotter

• Comtois horse

• Corsican horse

• Costa Rican Saddle Horse

• Cretan horse, see Messara

• Criollo horse

• Croatian Coldblood

• Cuban Criollo

• Cumberland Island horse

• Czech Warmblood

D–K
• Daliboz, see Azerbaijan horse

• Danish Warmblood

• Danube Delta horse

• Dareshuri

• Datong horse

• Dole Gudbrandsdal, also called Dole, or Dølahest

• Don, see Russian Don

• Dongola horse

• Draft Trotter, also called Light Dole, Dole Trotter, see Coldblood trotter

• Dutch Harness Horse

• Dutch Heavy Draft

• Dutch Warmblood

• Dzungarian horse, see Przewalski's horse

• East Bulgarian

• Estonian Draft

• Estonian Native

• Ethiopian horses

• Falabella

• Faroese or Faroe horse, see Faroe pony in pony section

• Finnhorse, or Finnish Horse

•

• Flemish Horse

• Fleuve

• Fjord horse, also Norwegian Fjord Horse

• Florida Cracker Horse

• Foutanké or Fouta

• Frederiksborger

• Freiberger

• French Trotter

• Friesian

• Furioso-North Star

• Galiceno or Galiceño

• Galician Pony (Caballo de pura raza Gallega)

• Gelderland horse

• Giara Horse

• Gidran

• Groningen Horse

• Hackney horse

• Haflinger

• Hanoverian horse

• Heck horse

• Heihe horse

• Henson horse

• Hequ horse

• Hirzai

• Hispano-Bretón

• Hispano-Árabe also known as Hispano or Spanish Anglo-Arab

• Holsteiner

• Horro

• Hungarian Warmblood

• Icelandic horse

• Indian Country-bred

• Iomud

• Irish Draught

• Irish Sport Horse or Irish Hunter

• Italian Heavy Draft

• Italian Trotter

• Jaca Navarra

• Jeju horse

• Jutland horse

• Kabarda horse, also known as Kabardian or Kabardin

• Kafa

• Kaimanawa horses

• Kalmyk horse

• Karabair

• Karabakh horse also known as Azer At

• Karossier see Ostfriesen and Alt-Oldenburger

• Karachai horse

• Kathiawari horse

• Kazakh Horse

• Kentucky Mountain Saddle Horse

• Kiger Mustang

• Kinsky horse

• Konik

• Kyrgyz Horse

• Kisber Felver

• Kiso Horse

• Kladruber

• Knabstrupper

• Kundudo horse

• Kurdish horse

• Kustanair

L–R
• Latvian horse

• Lipizzan or Lipizzaner

• Lithuanian Heavy Draught

• Ljutomer Trotter

• Lokai

• Losino horse

• Lusitano

• Luxembourg Warmblood

• Lyngshest, see Nordlandshest/ Lyngshest

• M'Bayar

• M'Par

• Malopolski

• Mallorquín

• Mangalarga

• Mangalarga Marchador

• Maremmano

• Marismeño

• Marsh Tacky, see Carolina Marsh Tacky

• Marwari horse

• Mecklenburger

• Međimurje horse

• Menorquín horse

• Mérens horse

• Messara horse

• Mezőhegyesi sport-horse (sportló), or  Mezőhegyes felver, see Hungarian Warmblood

• Metis Trotter, see Russian Trotter

• Miquelon horse

• Miniature horse

• Misaki horse

• Missouri Fox Trotter

• Monchino

• Mongolian Horse

• Mongolian Wild Horse, see Przewalski's horse

• Monterufolino

• Morab

• Morgan horse

• Mountain Pleasure Horse

• Moyle horse

• Muraközi, Murakoz, or Muraközi ló, see Međimurje horse

• Murgese

• Mustang

• Namib Desert Horse

• Nangchen horse

• National Show Horse

• New Altai

• Nez Perce Horse

• Nivernais horse

• Nokota horse

• Noma horse

• Nonius horse

• Nooitgedachter

• Nordlandshest/ Lyngshest

• Noriker horse or Pinzgauer

• Norman Cob

• Norsk Kaldblodstraver (Norwegian Coldblood Trotter), see Coldblood Trotter

• North American Single-footing Horse

• North Swedish horse

• Novoolexandrian Draught

• Novokirghiz

• Oberlander Horse

• Ogaden

• Oldenburger

• Orlov Trotter

• Ostfriesen and Alt-Oldenburger

• Paint, see American Paint Horse

• Pampa horse

• Paso Fino

• Pentro horse

• Percheron

• Persano horse

• Peruvian Paso, sometimes called Peruvian Stepping Horse

• Pintabian

• Pleven horse

• Poitevin horse also called Mulassier

• Posavac

• Pottok

• Priob

• Pryor Mountain Mustang

• Przewalski's horse, a subspecies, not a "breed"

• Pura Raza Española or PRE, see Andalusian

• Purosangue Orientale

• Pfalz-ardenner

• Qatgani

• Quarab

• Quarter Horse, see American Quarter Horse

• Racking horse

• Retuerta horse

• Rhenish German Coldblood also known as Rhineland Heavy Draft

• Rhinelander horse

• Riwoche horse

• Rocky Mountain Horse

• Romanian Sporthorse

• Rottaler, see Heavy warmblood

• Russian Don

• Russian Heavy Draft

• Russian Trotter

S–Z
• Saddlebred, see American Saddlebred

• Salernitano

• Samolaco horse

• Sanfratellano

• Santa Cruz Island horse

• Sarcidano horse

• Sardinian Anglo-Arab

• Schleswig Coldblood

• Schwarzwälder Kaltblut, see Black Forest Horse

• Selale

• Sella Italiano

• Selle Français

• Senner

• Shagya Arabian

• Shan Horse or Shan Myinn

• Shire horse

• Siciliano indigeno

• Silesian horse

• Sindhi horse

• Slovenian Cold-blood

• Sorraia

• Sokolski horse

• South German Coldblood or Süddeutsches Kaltblut

• Soviet Heavy Draft

• Spanish Barb

• Spanish Jennet Horse, modern, not to be confused with the historic Jennet or Spanish Jennet (see Archaic types, below)

• Spanish Mustang

• Spanish Tarpan, see Sorraia

• Spanish Trotter (Trotador Español)

• Spiti Horse

• Spotted Saddle Horse

• Standardbred

• Suffolk Punch

• Svensk Kallblodstravare (Swedish Coldblood Trotter), see Coldblood Trotter

• Swedish Ardennes

• Swedish Warmblood

• Swiss Warmblood

• Taishū horse

• Takhi, see Przewalski's horse

• Tawleed

• Tchernomor, see Budyonny

• Tennessee Walking Horse

• Tersk horse

• Thoroughbred

• Tiger Horse

• Tokara horse

• Tolfetano

• Tori horse

• Trait Du Nord

• Trakehner

• Tsushima, see Taishū

• Tuigpaard, see Dutch Harness Horse

• Tushetian horse

• Tuva horse

• Ukrainian Riding Horse

• Unmol Horse

• Uzunyayla

• Ventasso horse (Cavallo del Ventasso)

• Virginia highlander

• Vlaamperd

• Vladimir Heavy Draft

• Vyatka horse

• Waler or Australian Waler

• Walkaloosa

• Warlander

• Welsh Cob (Section D)

• Westphalian horse

• Wielkopolski

• Württemberger

• Xilingol horse

• Yakutian horse

• Yili horse

• Yonaguni horse

• Zangersheide

• Zaniskari

• Zakynthos horse

• Zweibrücker

• Žemaitukas, also known as Zemaituka, Zhumd, Zhemaichu, or Zhmudka

Pony breeds
If a breed is described as a "pony" by the breed standard or principal breed registry, it is listed in this section, even if some individuals have horse characteristics. All other breeds are listed in the section above.

(Because of this designation by the preference of a given breed registry, most miniature horse breeds are listed as "horses", not ponies.)

A–K
• American Shetland Pony

• American Walking Pony

• Anadolu Pony

• Assateague

• Australian Pony

• Australian Riding Pony

• Bali Pony

• Basuto pony, also spelled Basotho pony

• Batak Pony

• Bhirum pony

• Bosnian Mountain Horse

• British Spotted Pony

• Burmese pony

• Camargue horse see horse section

• Canadian rustic pony

• Carpathian Pony, see Hucul Pony

• Caspian horse see horse section

• Chincoteague Pony

• Chinese Guoxia

• Coffin Bay Pony

• Connemara pony

• Czechoslovakian Small Riding Pony

• Dales Pony

• Danish Sport Pony

• Dartmoor pony

• Deli pony

• Dülmen Pony

• Eriskay pony

• Esperia Pony

• Exmoor pony

• Falabella see horse section

• Faroe pony

• Fell Pony

• Flores pony, see Timor Pony

• French Saddle Pony

• Galician Pony

• Garrano

• Gayoe

• German Riding Pony, Deutsche Reitpony

• German Classic Pony

• Gotland Pony, Skogsruss

• Guizhou pony

• Gǔo-xìa pony, see Chinese Guoxia

• Hackney pony

• Haflinger see horse section

• Highland pony

• Hokkaido Pony

• Hucul Pony, also called Huțul Pony

• Icelandic horse see horse section

• Java Pony

• Karelian pony

• Kerry bog pony

L–Z
• Lac La Croix Indian Pony

• Landais Pony

• Lijiang pony

• Lundy Pony

• Manipuri Pony

• Merens Pony, also called Ariegeois pony, see Merens horse

• Miniature horse, see horse section

• Miyako Pony

• Namaqua Pony

• Narym Pony

• New Forest pony

• Newfoundland pony

• Peneia Pony

• Petiso Argentino

• Pindos Pony

• Poney Mousseye

• Pony of the Americas

• Quarter pony

• Sable Island Pony

• Sandalwood Pony

• Shetland pony

• Skyros Pony

• Sumba and Sumbawa Pony

• Tibetan Pony

• Timor Pony

• Welara

• Welsh Pony (sections A, B and C)

• Western Sudan pony

Color "breeds"
There are some registries that accept horses (and sometimes ponies and mules) of almost any breed or type for registration. Color is either the only criterion for registration or the primary criterion. These are called "color breeds", because unlike "true" horse breeds, there are few other physical requirements, nor is the stud book limited in any fashion. As a general rule, the color also does not always breed on (in some cases due to genetic impossibility), and offspring without the stated color are usually not eligible for recording with the color breed registry. There are breeds that have color that usually breeds "true" as well as distinctive physical characteristics and a limited stud book. These horses are true breeds that have a preferred color, not color breeds, and include the Friesian horse, the Cleveland Bay, the Appaloosa, and the American Paint Horse.

The best-known "color breed" registries that accept horses from many different breeds are for the following colors:
 * Buckskin: a color which cannot breed "true" due to the cream gene which creates it being an incomplete dominant
 * Palomino: a color which cannot breed "true" due to the cream gene which creates it being an incomplete dominant
 * Pinto: there exists a registry for Pinto-colored horses of varying breeds, distinct from the American Paint Horse registry, though some qualifying horses may be registered in both.
 * White: some of these animals are registered in the United States with the American creme and white horse registry, which was once called an "Albino" registry until it was understood that true albino does not exist in horses. (see White (horse) and Dominant white for details)

Crossbred registration
The distinction is hotly debated between a standardized breed, a developing breed with an open studbook, a registry of recognized crossbred horses, and a designer crossbred. For the purposes of this list, certain groups of horses that have an organization or registry that records individual animals for breeding purposes, at least in some nations, but does not clearly fall to either the breed or type categories are listed here. This list does not include organizations that record horses strictly for competition purposes.

• AQPS ("Autre Que Pur-Sang"), French designation for riding horses "other than Thoroughbred," usually referring to the Anglo-Arabian, Selle Français and other Thoroughbred crosses. There is a registry for AQPS horses in France.

• Arabo-friesian

• Friesian Sporthorse (a type of Friesian cross)

• German Warmblood or ZfDP, collective term for any of the various warmblood horses of Germany, of which some may be registered with the nationwide German Horse Breeding Society (ZfDP).

• Gypsy horse, also called "Gypsy Vanner," "Vanner Horse," "Gypsy Cob," "Irish Cob," "Coloured Cob", and Tinker horse.

• Indian Half-bred, a half-blood type from India

• Part-Arabian, a variety of breeds and crossbreeds with a significant amount of documentable Arabian blood, but not pure Arab.

• Spanish Norman

• ZfDP, see German Warmblood, above.

Types of horse
A "type" of horse is not a breed but is used here to categorize groups of horses or horse breeds that are similar in appearance (phenotype) or use. A type usually has no breed registry, and often encompasses several breeds. However, in some nations, particularly in Europe, there is a recording method or means of studbook selection for certain types to allow them to be licensed for breeding. Horses of a given type may be registered as one of several different recognized breeds, or a grouping may include horses that are of no particular pedigree but meet a certain standard of appearance or use.

Modern types
• Baroque horse, includes heavily muscled, powerful, yet agile Classical dressage breeds such as the Lipizzaner, Friesian, Andalusian, and Lusitano.

• Cob (horse), a body type of small, sturdy, compact and powerful riding horse with a number of breeds and partbreds falling onto the classification

• Colonial Spanish horse, descendants of the original Jennet-type horse brought to North America, now with a number of modern breed names.

• Draft horse or draught horse

• Feral horse, a horse living in the wild, but descended from once-domesticated ancestors. Most "wild" horses today are actually feral. The only true wild (never domesticated) horse in the world today is the Przewalski's horse.

• Gaited horse, includes a number of breeds with a hereditary intermediate speed four-beat ambling gait, including the Tennessee Walker, Paso Fino, and many others.

• Garron, term in Scotland and Ireland for a small sturdy horse or pony.

• Grade horse, a horse of unknown or mixed breed parentage.

• Hack, a basic riding horse, particularly in the UK, also includes Show hack horses used in competition.

• Heavy warmblood, heavy carriage and riding horses, predecessors to the modern warmbloods, several old-style breeds still in existence today.

• Hunter, a type of jumping horse, either a show hunter or a field hunter

• Hunter pony, a show hunter or show jumping animal under 14.2 hands, may be actually of a horse or pony breed, height determines category of competition.

• Iberian horse, encompassing horse and pony breeds developed in the Iberian peninsula, including the Andalusian, Lusitano and others.

• Mountain and moorland pony breeds, abbreviated "M&M," a specific group of pony breeds native to the British Isles.

• New Zealand Warmblood, a developing warmblood type based on Hanoverian and KWPF breeding.

• Oriental horse, the "hot-blooded" breeds originating in the Middle East, such as the Arabian, Akhal-Teke, Barb, and Turkoman horse

• Polo pony, a horse used in the sport of polo, not actually a pony, usually a full-sized horse, often a Thoroughbred.

• Riding horse or saddle horse; interchangeable terms for a wide variety of horses bred primarily for suitability as riding animals as opposed to draft or harness work.

• Riding Pony, a term of art used in the United Kingdom for specific types of show ponies.

• Sport horse or Sporthorse, includes any breeds suitable for use in assorted international competitive disciplines governed by the FEI.

• Stock horse, agile, heavily muscled riding horses of several different breeds, suitable for working cattle. Not to be confused with the breed Australian Stock Horse. Some representatives colloquially called "cow horse" or "cow pony" in the western United States.

• Warmblood, a group of Sport horse breeds developed for modern Dressage and other Olympic disciplines, including the Dutch Warmblood, Hanoverian, Swedish Warmblood, Westphalian, etc.

• Windsor Grey, the gray carriage horses of British Royalty.

Archaic types
Prior to approximately the 13th century, few pedigrees were written down, and horses were classified by physical type or use. Thus, many terms for Horses in the Middle Ages did not refer to breeds as we know them today, but rather described appearance or purpose. These terms included:

 * Charger, see Courser (horse)
 * Courser (horse)
 * Destrier or "Great Horse"
 * Hobby, see Irish Hobby
 * Jennet, sometimes called Spanish Jennet
 * Palfrey
 * Rouncey
 * Steppe horse, refers to various domesticated horse and wild horse species, particularly those from Siberia and other parts of western Asia

Extinct breeds
Many breeds of horse have become extinct, either because they have died out, or because they have been absorbed into another breed: • Abaco Barb

• Abtenauer

• Anglo-Norman

• Angevin

• Augeron

• Berrichon

• Bidet

• Cape Horse, see Boerperd

• Chapman horse, see Cleveland Bay, into which it developed

• Charentais, or Vendéen

• Charolais

• Cheval du Morvan

• Ferghana horse

• Galloway

• Karacabey

• Irish Hobby

• Jennet, or Spanish Jennet

• Mazury

• Narragansett Pacer

• Navarrin

• Neapolitan

• Nisean horse

• Norfolk Trotter, also called the Norfolk Roadster, Yorkshire Trotter or Yorkshire Roadster

• Öland

• Old English Black

• Pozan

• Strelets Arab

• Trait du Maine

• Turkoman Horse also known as Turkemene; the Akhal-Teke may be a direct descendant

• Yorkshire Coach Horse

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: List of horse breeds


text:
Misnay–Schardin effect

The Misnay–Schardin effect, or platter effect, is a characteristic of the detonation of a broad sheet of explosive.

Description
Explosive blasts expand directly away from, and perpendicular to, the surface of an explosive. Unlike the blast from a rounded explosive charge, which expands in all directions, the blast produced by an explosive sheet expands primarily perpendicular to its plane, in both directions. However, if one side is backed by a heavy or fixed mass, most of the blast (i.e. most of the rapidly expanding gas and its kinetic energy) will be reflected in the direction away from the mass.

Uses
The Misnay–Schardin effect was studied and experimented with by explosive experts József Misnay (sometimes spelled Misznay incorrectly), a Hungarian, and Hubert Schardin, a German, who initially sought to develop a more effective antitank mine for Nazi Germany. Some sources claim that World War II ended before their design became usable, but they and others continued their work. Misnay designed two weapons: the 43M TAK antitank mine and the 44M LŐTAK side-attack mine. The Hungarian army used these weapons in 1944–1945.

The later AT2 and M18 Claymore mines rely on this effect.

title: Misnay–Schardin effect


text:
Jus soli

Jus soli, meaning 'right of the soil', is the right of anyone born in the territory of a state to nationality or citizenship, also commonly referred to as birthright citizenship in some Anglophone countries, is a rule defining a person's nationality based on their birth in the territory of the country. Jus soli was part of the English common law, in contrast to jus sanguinis, which derives from the Roman law that influenced the civil-law systems of mainland Europe.

Jus soli is the predominant rule in the Americas; explanations for this geographical phenomenon include: the establishment of lenient laws by past European colonial powers to entice immigrants from the Old World and displace native populations in the New World, along with the emergence of successful wars of independence movements that widened the definition and granting of citizenship, as a prerequisite to the abolishment of slavery since the 19th century. Outside the Americas, jus soli is rare. Since the Twenty-seventh Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland was enacted in 2004, no European country grants nationality based on unconditional or near-unconditional jus soli.

Almost all states in Europe, Asia, Africa and Oceania grant nationality at birth based upon the principle of jus sanguinis ("right of blood"), in which nationality is inherited through parents rather than birthplace, or a restricted version of jus soli in which nationality by birthplace is automatic only for the children of certain immigrants.

Jus soli in many cases helps prevent statelessness. Countries that have acceded to the 1961 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness are obligated to grant nationality to people born in their territory who would otherwise become stateless persons. The American Convention on Human Rights similarly provides that "Every person has the right to the nationality of the state in whose territory he was born if he does not have the right to any other nationality."

National laws
Lex soli is a law used in practice to regulate who can assert the right of jus soli and under what circumstances they can do so. Most states provide a specific lex soli — in application of the respective jus soli — and it is the most common means of acquiring nationality. However, a frequent exception to lex soli is imposed when a child is born to a parent in the diplomatic or consular service of another state on a mission to the state in question.

Africa

 * 🇹🇩 Chad (the choice to take Chadian citizenship, or that of the parents is made at 18 years of age)
 * 🇱🇸 Lesotho
 * 🇹🇿 Tanzania: Per the Tanzania Citizenship Act of 1995, "any child born within the borders of the United Republic of Tanzania, on or after Union Day, 26 April 1964, is granted citizenship of Tanzania, except for children of foreign diplomats." While Tanzania technically observes birthright citizenship, it is official practice that birth in Tanzania has to be further supported by descent from a Tanzanian parent to be recognized as a citizen by birth. This practice has gone uncontested in courts of law. Also, dual citizenship is not allowed after turning 18 years old. At 18 years old, Tanzanian citizenship will cease unless other citizenships are renounced.

North America

 * 🇦🇬 Antigua and Barbuda: Guaranteed by the Constitution.
 * 🇧🇧 Barbados: Guaranteed by the Constitution.
 * 🇧🇿 Belize
 * 🇨🇦 Canada: Subsection 3(2) of the Citizenship Act states that Canadian citizenship by birth in Canada – including Canadian airspace and territorial waters – is granted to a child born in Canada even if neither parent was a Canadian citizen or permanent resident except if either parent was a diplomat, in service to a diplomat, or employed by an international agency of equal status to a diplomat. However, if neither parent was a diplomat, the nationality or immigration status of the parents do not matter. Some Conservative Party members wish to end birthright citizenship in Canada to the children of tourists and unauthorized immigrants.
 * 🇨🇷 Costa Rica: Jus soli requires registration with the Costa Rican government before the age of 25.
 * 🇨🇺 Cuba On July 7, 2005, the Law Library indicated that individuals born outside Cuba to one Cuban citizen parent must have been physically present in Cuba for at least three months to be eligible to apply for citizenship.
 * 🇩🇲 Dominica
 * 🇸🇻 El Salvador
 * 🇬🇩 Grenada
 * 🇬🇹 Guatemala
 * 🇭🇳 Honduras
 * 🇯🇲 Jamaica
 * 🇲🇽 Mexico: Article 30 of the Constitution of Mexico states that persons born in Mexican territory are natural-born citizens of Mexico regardless of their parents' nationality. The definition of "territory" includes vessels/aircraft flagged to Mexico travelling in international waters or airspace.
 * 🇳🇮 Nicaragua
 * 🇵🇦 Panama
 * 🇰🇳 Saint Kitts and Nevis
 * 🇱🇨 Saint Lucia
 * 🇻🇨 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
 * 🇹🇹 Trinidad and Tobago
 * 🇺🇸 United States: The Citizenship Clause of the 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1868, provides: "All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside." The concept of birthright citizenship applying to the child born of a foreign national in the country without proper credentials has never been formally litigated, but the U.S. Supreme Court's decision in United States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898) allowed the government to deny citizenship to U.S.-born children only in the cases of children born to foreign diplomats and children born to enemy forces engaged in hostile occupation of the country's territory, and, thus, this decision is most often interpreted as barring the government from denying citizenship to those born in the U.S. based on the alienage of their parents. (See United States nationality law.)

 * The U.S. Constitution's natural-born-citizen clause, which determines the eligibility of those running for the office of President, has been at the center of a number of controversies and subject to various interpretations. Some of these interpretations entail a strict jus soli, barring anyone who was not born on U.S. soil from attaining the presidency, while others are more permissive.

 * From 24 January 2020, the Trump administration adopted a new policy to make it more difficult for foreign nationals to obtain a nonimmigrant visa to travel to the U.S. to give birth on U.S. soil to ensure their children become U.S. citizens, a practice commonly known as "birth tourism". Some citizens in the United States have often called for legislative reforms, including an amendment to the Citizenship Clause of the 14th Amendment, to end jus soli in the United States – particularly for children born to persons unlawfully present in the country. However, this may be difficult to accomplish, as the general consensus among American lawyers and legal scholars, regardless of personal ideology, is that the 14th Amendment grants jus soli citizenship to any child born in the United States.

 * Persons born in American Samoa (a U.S. territory) are not U.S. citizens at birth (they are non-citizen U.S. nationals, unless one of their parents is a U.S. citizen). In 2019, a federal court ruled that American Samoans are U.S. citizens, but the ruling was put on hold, and the litigation is ongoing.

South America

 * 🇦🇷 Argentina
 * 🇧🇴 Bolivia
 * 🇧🇷 Brazil (requires that the foreign parents are not working for their country's government in Brazil at the time the child is born).
 * 🇨🇱 Chile's Constitution grants nationality to "those born in Chilean territory, with the exception of the children of foreigners who are in Chile in service of their government, and the children of transient foreigners, all of which, however, may opt for the Chilean nationality."
 * 🇪🇨 Ecuador
 * 🇬🇾 Guyana
 * 🇵🇾 Paraguay
 * 🇵🇪 Peru (registration required at 18 years of age)
 * 🇺🇾 Uruguay
 * 🇻🇪 Venezuela

Oceania

 * 🇫🇯 Fiji
 * 🇹🇻 Tuvalu

Asia

 * 🇵🇰 Pakistan: The main law on nationality, the Pakistan Citizenship Act, was passed by the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan on 13 April 1951. Pakistan is the only country in Asia with unconditional jus soli citizenship rights.

Restricted jus soli
There is a trend in some countries toward restricting jus soli by requiring that at least one of the child's parents be a citizen, national or legal permanent resident of the state in question at time of the child's birth. Modification of jus soli has been criticized as contributing to economic inequality, the perpetuation of unfree labour from a helot underclass and statelessness. Jus soli has been restricted in the following countries:

Africa

 * 🇪🇬 Egypt: According to Article 4 of the Nationality Law of the Arab Republic of Egypt, children born in Egypt gain citizenship at birth if their father or mother was an Egyptian citizen.
 * 🇲🇦 Morocco: A person who was born in Morocco to parents also born in Morocco and whose immigration is legal, can register as a Moroccan two years prior to becoming adult.
 * 🇳🇦 Namibia: A person born in Namibia to a Namibian citizen parent or a foreign parent who is ordinarily resident in Namibia, is a Namibian citizen at birth (see Namibian nationality law).
 * São Tomé and Príncipe: A person born in São Tomé and Príncipe acquires São Toméan nationality, as long as the parents are residents of the country. The only exception is if any of the parents have diplomatic immunity (see São Toméan nationality law).
 * 🇿🇦 South Africa: Since 6 October 1995, a person born in South Africa to South African citizens or permanent residents is automatically granted South African citizenship (see South African nationality law).
 * 🇸🇩 Sudan: A person born before 1994 gains Sudanese nationality at birth if his father was also born in Sudan. If his father was not born in Sudan, they can apply to the Minister to be granted Sudanese nationality.
 * 🇹🇳 Tunisia: Individuals born in Tunisia are citizens by birth if their father and grandfather were born in Tunisia. Additionally, the person must declare before becoming an adult (20 years) that they want to be a citizen.

North America

 * 🇩🇴 Dominican Republic: The constitution was amended on 26 January 2010. The amendment broadened the definition of the 2004 migration law – which excluded from citizenship children born to individuals that were "in transit" – to include "non-residents" (including individuals with expired residency visas and undocumented workers).

South America

 * 🇨🇴 Colombia: Article 96 of the constitution grants Colombian nationality by birth provided that at least one of the parents is a Colombian national or a legal resident. By presidential decree, in August 2019 nationality was granted to children of Venezuelan migrants born in Colombia regardless of residential status of their parents.

Asia

 * 🇧🇭 Bahrain: Children born to a foreign father with valid residency permits who himself was born in Bahrain have right to citizenship.
 * 🇰🇭 Cambodia: In 1996, Cambodia changed the law to grant citizenship to children born to foreign parents only if they are living legally in the Kingdom of Cambodia (under Article 4(2)(a) of the 1996 Nationality Law).
 * 🇭🇰 Hong Kong: Since the July 1997 transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong, most political rights and eligibility for most benefits are conferred to permanent residents regardless of citizenship. Conversely, PRC citizens who are not permanent residents (such as residents of Mainland China and Macao) are not conferred these rights and privileges. The Basic Law provides that all citizens of the People's Republic of China (PRC) born in the territory are permanent residents of the territory and have the right of abode in Hong Kong. The 2001 case Director of Immigration v. Chong Fung Yuen clarified that the parents need not have right of abode and as a consequence many women from Mainland China began coming to Hong Kong to give birth. By 2008, the number of babies in the territory born to Mainland China mothers had grown to twenty-five times the number five years prior. Furthermore, persons of Chinese ethnicity (wholly or partly) with PRC nationality born in Hong Kong are PRC nationals with Hong Kong permanent residence, even if their parents are non-PRC citizens (e.g. overseas-born Chinese). Non-PRC citizens born to non-PRC citizen Hong Kong permanent resident parents in Hong Kong also receive permanent residence of Hong Kong at birth. Other persons must have "ordinarily resided" in Hong Kong for seven continuous years in order to gain permanent residence (Articles 24(2) and 24(5)).
 * 🇮🇩 Indonesia: Children birth in Indonesia. It can also be granted to a permanent resident who has lived in Indonesia for a given period of time through naturalization, as long as the parents are stateless, or unknown.
 * 🇮🇷 Iran: Article 976(4) of the Civil Code of Iran grants citizenship at birth to persons born in Iran of foreign parents if one or both of the parents were themselves born in Iran. See Iranian nationality law.
 * 🇮🇱 Israel: Children born in Israel who have never acquired another citizenship are eligible to apply for Israeli citizenship between their 18th and 21st birthday if they have lived in Israel for over 5 years (see Israeli citizenship law).
 * 🇯🇵 Japan: Children born in Japan to stateless or unknown parents are Japanese nationals at birth.
 * Macau: Similar to Hong Kong, most political rights and eligibility for most benefits are conferred to permanent residents regardless of citizenship since the December 1999 transfer of sovereignty over Macau, according to the Basic Law of Macau. Becoming a Macau permanent resident has slightly different requirements depending on an individual's nationality. Acquisition by birth operates on a modified jus soli basis; individuals born in Macau to Chinese nationals or to Portuguese citizens domiciled there are automatically permanent residents, while those born to other foreign nationals must have at least one parent who possesses right of abode (see Right of abode in Macau).
 * 🇲🇾 Malaysia: A person born in Malaysia on or after 16 September 1963 with at least one parent being a Malaysian citizen or permanent resident is automatically a Malaysian citizen (see Malaysian nationality law).
 * 🇲🇳 Mongolia: A person born in Mongolia to foreign parents with valid residency permits can apply for Mongolian nationality when they turn the age of 16. A child in Mongolian territory with unidentified parents can receive Mongolian citizenship (see Mongolian nationality law).
 * 🇵🇰 Pakistan: Pakistan generally applies jus soli; the primary law governing nationality regulations is the Pakistan Citizenship Act, 1951. Individuals born in the country are automatically citizens at birth, however there are some exceptions to refugees.
 * 🇹🇼 Taiwan: Any child born to parents with Taiwanese citizenship, even those living abroad, can acquire Taiwanese nationality at birth. Children born in Taiwan to stateless parents or have unknown parentage are considered Taiwanese nationals at birth (see Taiwanese nationality law).
 * 🇹🇭 Thailand: Thailand operated a system of pure jus soli prior to 1972. Due to illegal immigration from Burma, the Nationality Act was amended to require that both parents be legally resident and domiciled in Thailand for at least five years for their child to be granted Thai citizenship at birth. Furthermore, someone who has Thai citizenship by sole virtue of jus soli may be stripped of Thai citizenship under various conditions (such as living abroad), which does not apply to people who have Thai citizenship by virtue of jus sanguinis.

Europe

 * 🇫🇷 France: Children born in France (including overseas territories) to at least one parent who is either (i) a French national or (ii) born in France, are automatically granted French nationality at birth. Children born in France to foreign parents who do not fulfil either of these two conditions may acquire citizenship from age 13 subject to residence conditions (see French nationality law). A child born in France to foreign parents becomes a French citizen automatically upon turning 18, provided that they reside in France on their 18th birthday and have had their primary residence in France for a total (but not necessarily continuous) period of at least 5 years since the age of 11. Children born in France to two stateless parents receive French nationality automatically at birth.
 * 🇩🇪 Germany: prior to 2000 Germany's nationality law was based entirely on jus sanguinis, but now children born in Germany on or after 1 January 2000 to non-German parents acquire German citizenship at birth if at least one parent has a permanent residence permit (and had this status for at least three years) and resided in Germany for at least eight years prior to the child's birth. However, jus soli citizens will lose their German citizenship upon turning 23 unless they: (i) reside in Germany for at least 8 years during their first 21 years of life; or (ii) attend school in Germany for at least 6 years; or (iii) graduate from high school/college in Germany; or (iv) complete professional/vocational training in Germany.
 * 🇬🇷 Greece: Apart from regulations in past and historic nationality laws of Greece granting nationality jus soli, Greek Nationality Code of 2004 states that "A person born in Greek territory acquires by birth the Greek nationality if not acquiring alien nationality or is of unknown nationality". Additionally, as from 2015's amendment of 2004 Cod (Law 4332 of 2015, G.G. A/76/9 July 2015), a child born in Greece by foreign parents, shall acquire the right of Greek nationality with a combination of preliminary school attendance and parents' legal residence in Greece (5 years, 10 if the child is born prior to 5 years of legal residence). One year after the implementation of the law (as from July 2016), 6,029 children had been granted Greek nationality, out of 27,720 submitted applications.
 * Republic of Ireland: On 1 January 2005, the law was amended to require that at least one of the parents be an Irish citizen; a British citizen; a resident with a permanent right to reside in Ireland or in Northern Ireland; or a legal resident residing three of the last four years in the country (excluding students and asylum seekers) (see Irish nationality law). The amendment was prompted by the case of Man Chen, a Chinese woman living in mainland United Kingdom who traveled to Belfast (Northern Ireland, part of the UK) to give birth in order to benefit from the previous rule whereby anyone born on any part of the island of Ireland was automatically granted Irish citizenship. The Chinese parents used their daughter's Irish (and thereby European Union) citizenship to obtain permanent residence in the UK as parents of a dependent EU citizen. Ireland was the last country in Europe to abolish unrestricted jus soli. (see Irish nationality law).
 * 🇮🇹 Italy: The law that regulates this right is n. 91 of 5 February 1992. Article 4 paragraph 2 grants this possibility to a person born in Italy, who has legally resided there without interruption until reaching the age of majority, and becomes a citizen if they declare that they wish to acquire Italian citizenship within one year from the aforementioned date. They can make use of this right by submitting a simple declaration of will to the Civil Status Office of their municipality of residence. It is important to know that the Municipality of belonging is required, according to article 33 of Law 98/2013, to inform foreign citizens, during the 6 months preceding the age of 18, of the possibility of applying for Italian citizenship by the age of 19. In the absence of such communication, the request can be made even after the age of 19. In the event that, despite having been born in Italy, one has not had continuous residence from birth, but has resided in Italy for at least three years, at the age of 18, the application can be presented at the Prefecture with all the necessary documentation. Furthermore, in application of art. 1 of the same law and which aims to prevent statelessness, in Italy the jus soli is applied in other cases: – by birth in Italy of unknown or stateless parents; – by birth on Italian territory of foreign parents unable to transmit their citizenship to the subject according to the law of the country of origin; – the child of unknown persons found in the territory of the Republic is considered a citizen by birth, if the possession of another citizenship is not proven.
 * 🇱🇺 Luxembourg: A person born in Luxembourg is automatically a Luxembourg citizen if at least one of their parents was also born in Luxembourg. Additionally, a person born in Luxembourg to foreign, non-Luxembourg-born parents can become a Luxembourg citizen from the age of 12 if they have resided uninterrupted in Luxembourg for at least 5 years immediately prior to submitting the application, and if at least one of their parents lived in Luxembourg uninterrupted for at least 12 months immediately preceding their birth. Furthermore, a person born in Luxembourg to foreign, non-Luxembourg-born parents gains Luxembourg citizenship automatically upon reaching the age of 18, provided that they have lived uninterrupted in Luxembourg for the preceding 5 years and at least one of their parents lived uninterrupted in Luxembourg for at least 12 months immediately preceding their birth.
 * 🇲🇹 Malta: A person born in Malta on or after 1 August 1989 is automatically a Maltese citizen if at least one of their parents is Maltese or was born in Malta. Anyone born in Malta before 1 August 1989, regardless of their parents' circumstances, is automatically a Maltese citizen, as the country conferred unconditional jus soli until this date (see Maltese nationality law).
 * 🇵🇹 Portugal: A child born in Portuguese territory to parents who do not possess another nationality is a Portuguese citizen. Also, a person born to foreign parents who were not serving their respective states at the time of birth is a Portuguese citizen if the person declares that they want to be Portuguese and provided that one of the parents has resided in Portugal for at least one year at the time of birth.
 * 🇪🇸 Spain: A child born in Spain to foreign parents may acquire Spanish citizenship jus soli under certain conditions, for example, if either one of the parents was also born in Spain or if neither of the parents can transmit their nationality to the child (such as stateless parents).
 * : A child born on the territory of Ukraine may acquire Ukrainian citizenship jus soli, if they do not acquire foreign nationality by jus sanguinis from parents, or if their parents have been granted refugee or asylum status in Ukraine, or if the child is stateless or of unknown nationality (see Ukrainian citizenship law, articles 6 and 7).
 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom: Since 1 January 1983, at least one parent must be a British citizen or be legally "settled" in the country for a child born in the UK to automatically be a British citizen. If neither parent is British or settled, then a child born in the UK can apply for British citizenship if they have spent the first ten years of their life in the UK (see British nationality law).
 * 🇳🇱 Netherlands: After 31 December 1984, the following conditions apply: "The child's mother has Dutch nationality at the time of birth, or the child's parents both have Dutch nationality at the time of birth, or the father of the child has Dutch nationality at the time of birth and is married/registered partner to the non-Dutch mother or acknowledged the child, or the child and the child's mother have their principal residence in the Kingdom of the Netherlands at the time of birth. One of the mother's parents also had her main residence in the Kingdom on the day the mother was born, or the child and the child's father have their principal residence in the Kingdom of the Netherlands at the time of birth. One of the father's parents also had his main residence in The Kingdom on the day the father was born."

Oceania

 * 🇦🇺 Australia: Since 20 August 1986, a person born in Australia acquires Australian citizenship by birth only if at least one parent was an Australian citizen or permanent resident; or else after living the first ten years of their life in Australia, regardless of their parents' citizenship status (see Australian nationality law).
 * 🇳🇿 New Zealand: Since 1 January 2006, a person born in New Zealand acquires New Zealand citizenship by birth only if at least one parent was a New Zealand citizen or permanent resident (includes Australian citizens and Permanent Residents) (see New Zealand nationality law), or if to prevent being stateless.
 * 🇺🇸 United States (🇦🇸 American Samoa): As mentioned above, people born in American Samoa do not acquire U.S. citizenship at birth, unless one of their parents is a U.S. citizen.

Abolition

 * 🇮🇳 India: A person who was born in India from 26 January 1950 until 1 July 1987 is a citizen by birth, regardless of the parents' nationality. It was restricted in 1987 to people with at least one parent who was a citizen. As of today, a person born in India is a citizen only if at least one parent is a citizen, and the other parent is a citizen or a legal migrant. These measures were brought in largely in reaction to illegal migration from Bangladesh.

title: Jus soli


text:
Jus sanguinis

Jus sanguinis (, , ; 'right of blood') is a principle of nationality law by which nationality is determined or acquired by the nationality of one or both parents. Children at birth may be nationals of a particular state if either or both of their parents have nationality of that state. It may also apply to national identities of ethnic, cultural, or other origins. Citizenship can also apply to children whose parents belong to a diaspora and were not themselves citizens of the state conferring citizenship. This principle contrasts with jus soli ('right of soil'), which is solely based on the place of birth.

In the 21st century, almost all states apply some combination of jus soli and jus sanguinis in their nationality laws to varying degrees, in contrast to largely pure forms of either as used in the 19th and 20th centuries. Historically, the most common application of jus sanguinis is a right of a child to their father's nationality. Today, majority of countries extend this right on an equal basis to the mother. Some apply this right irrespective of the place of birth, while others may limit it to those born in the state. Some countries provide that a child acquires the nationality of the mother if the father is unknown or stateless, and some irrespective of the place of birth. Some such children may acquire the nationality automatically while others may need to apply for a parent's nationality. Children acquiring nationality is overseen by many laws. Parents being married and parents being unmarried, this can complicate the process of citizenship transmission from father to child. However, will promptly recognize the child of an American mother as a citizen. Statelessness can occur, which prevents human beings health care rights, education rights and employment within a country. Off spring of an adult that is experiencing statelessness can inherit this state. However, jus soli prevents this from happening.

Modern development
Originally, the term nation was synonymous with ethnicity. However, at the end of the 19th century, the French-German debate on nationality saw the French, such as Ernest Renan, oppose the German conception, exemplified by Johann Fichte, who believed in an 'objective nationality', based on blood, race or language. Renan's republican conception, but perhaps also the presence of a German-speaking population in Alsace-Lorraine, explains France's early adoption of jus soli.

Mixed standards
Many nations have a mixture of jus sanguinis and jus soli. For example, the United States grants citizenship based on jus soli to almost all people born within its borders, and also grants citizenship based on jus sanguinis to children born outside its borders to U.S. citizen parents subject to the parents meeting certain residency or physical presence criteria. The United Kingdom usually applies jus sanguinis, but also has a jus soli principle for children of foreign citizens living in the U.K. depending on the parents' nationality and legal residence status.

About 60% of all countries worldwide have a limited jus soli principle that extends citizenship to children born within their borders who do not qualify for citizenship in any other country. The United Nations encourages all countries to enact similar laws as a solution for statelessness.

Complications due to imposed boundaries
Some modern European states which arose out of the dissolved Austro-Hungarian or Ottoman empires have huge numbers of ethnic populations outside of their new 'national' boundaries, as do most of the former Soviet states. Such long-standing diasporas do not conform to codified 20th-century European rules of citizenship.

In many cases, jus sanguinis rights are mandated by international treaty, with citizenship definition imposed by the national and international community. In other cases, minorities are subject to legal and extra-legal persecution and choose to immigrate to their ancestral home country. States offering jus sanguinis rights to ethnic citizens and their descendants include Italy, Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Lebanon, Armenia, Hungary and Romania.

Current Leges sanguinis states
Many countries provide citizenship on preferential terms to individuals with ethnic ties to these countries (so-called leges sanguinis).

title: Jus sanguinis


text:
Colosseum (disambiguation)

The Colosseum is an elliptical amphitheater in Rome, Italy.

Colosseum or coliseum may also refer to:

Geography

 * Colosseum, Queensland, a locality in the Gladstone Region, Queensland, Australia

Coliseum

 * Arizona Veterans Memorial Coliseum, in Phoenix, Arizona
 * Baltimore Coliseum, Baltimore, Maryland (demolished)
 * Barton Coliseum, Little Rock, Arkansas
 * Bojangles Coliseum, Charlotte, North Carolina
 * Bronx Coliseum, The Bronx, New York City (defunct)
 * Carolina Coliseum, Columbia, South Carolina
 * Charlotte Coliseum, Charlotte, North Carolina (demolished)
 * Chicago Coliseum, Chicago, Illinois
 * Climate Pledge Arena (formerly known as "Seattle Center Coliseum"), Seattle, Washington
 * Coliseum, original name of the Grand Opera House (Chicago)
 * Coliseum, original name of the O2 Academy Leeds
 * Coliseum Building and Hall, Minneapolis, Minnesota
 * Denver Coliseum, Denver, Colorado
 * El Paso County Coliseum, El Paso, Texas
 * Fair Park Coliseum (Dallas)
 * Fant–Ewing Coliseum, Monroe, Louisiana
 * Freeman Coliseum, San Antonio
 * Garrett Coliseum, Montgomery, Alabama
 * Greensboro Coliseum Complex, Greensboro, North Carolina
 * Hampton Coliseum, Hampton, Virginia
 * Humphrey Coliseum, Starkville, Mississippi
 * Hong Kong Coliseum, Kowloon, Hong Kong
 * Indiana Farmers Coliseum, formerly Pepsi Coliseum, Indianapolis
 * Kansas Coliseum, Wichita, Kansas (defunct)
 * Knoxville Civic Coliseum, Knoxville, Tennessee
 * Jacksonville Coliseum, an arena in Jacksonville, Florida from 1960 to 2003
 * José Miguel Agrelot Coliseum, San Juan, Puerto Rico
 * London Coliseum, London, England (since 1904), home of English National Opera and English National Ballet
 * Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, Exposition Park, Los Angeles, California
 * Miami Coliseum, Coral Gables, Florida (demolished)
 * Michigan State Fairgrounds Coliseum, Detroit
 * Mid-South Coliseum, in Memphis, Tennessee
 * Mississippi Coast Coliseum, Biloxi, Mississippi
 * Mississippi Coliseum, Jackson, Mississippi
 * Moody Coliseum, Dallas
 * Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum, Uniondale, New York
 * New Haven Coliseum, New Haven, Connecticut (demolished)
 * New York Coliseum, New York City (demolished)
 * Nissan Stadium (formerly known as "Adelphia Coliseum" and "The Coliseum" and later as "LP Field"), Nashville, Tennessee
 * North Charleston Coliseum, North Charleston, South Carolina
 * Northlands Coliseum, Edmonton, Alberta (defunct)
 * Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum, Oakland, California, or its associated BART station
 * Omni Coliseum, Atlanta, Georgia (demolished)
 * Oracle Arena (formerly known as "Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum Arena"), Oakland, California
 * Pacific Coliseum, in Vancouver, Canada
 * Rapides Parish Coliseum, Alexandria, Louisiana
 * Reynolds Coliseum, Raleigh, North Carolina
 * Richfield Coliseum, Richfield, Ohio (demolished)
 * Richmond Coliseum, Richmond, Virginia
 * Riverfront Coliseum, Cincinnati
 * Sam Houston Coliseum, Houston (demolished)
 * St. Louis Coliseum, St. Louis, Missouri (demolished)
 * St. Louis Exposition and Music Hall, St. Louis, Missouri (demolished)
 * Smart Araneta Coliseum, Manila, Philippines
 * Stegeman Coliseum, Athens, Georgia
 * Strahan Coliseum, San Marcos, Texas
 * Tad Smith Coliseum, Oxford, Mississippi
 * Tingley Coliseum, Albuquerque, New Mexico
 * Toyota Coliseum, now State Fair Coliseum, Syracuse, New York
 * Tulsa Coliseum, Tulsa, Oklahoma (destroyed by fire in 1952)
 * Washington Coliseum, Washington, DC (historic and defunct)
 * Williams Arena at Minges Coliseum, Greenville, North Carolina

Colosseum

 * Colosseum kino, Oslo, Norway
 * Colosseum Mall, retail park in Bucharest, Romania
 * Colosseum Theater, performance venue in Essen, Germany
 * London Colosseum, London, UK (1827–74)
 * The Colosseum (Manhattan), apartment building on Riverside Drive in New York
 * The Colosseum at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas
 * Regensburg subcamp, also known as the Colosseum subcamp, a subcamp of the Flossenbürg concentration camp in Stadtamhof, Regensburg, Bavaria, Germany
 * Bristol Motor Speedway, also known as "The Last Great Colosseum", an auto racing venue

Sports arenas

 * Coliséum, Amiens, France
 * Calumet Colosseum, ice hockey arena in Calumet, Michigan
 * Coliseum Burgos, an indoor arena in Burgos, Spain
 * Hilton Park (stadium), home of the Leigh rugby league club, was until recently known as the Coliseum
 * Copps Coliseum, home of the Hamilton Bulldogs hockey team
 * Northlands Coliseum, ice hockey arena in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
 * WVU Coliseum, a multi-purpose arena on the campus of West Virginia University
 * Arena Coliseu Mateus Aquino, a controversial football stadium in Alto Santo, Ceará, Brazil
 * Estadio Coliseum, a football stadium in Getafe, Spain

Games

 * Colosseum (board game), a board game released by Days of Wonder
 * Colosseum: Road to Freedom, a video game
 * Pokémon Colosseum, a video game

Music

 * Coliseum (album), the 2004 self-titled debut album by Coliseum
 * Coliseum (band), a punk rock band formed in 2003
 * Colosseum (band), a British progressive jazz-rock band formed in 1968
 * Colosseum II, a jazz fusion band
 * Colosseum (album)

Television

 * Colosseum: Rome's Arena of Death, a 2003 BBC Television and France 2 docudrama

Brands and enterprises

 * Coliseum Video, a video distribution company founded by Vince McMahon
 * Colosseum Tournament, a Romanian-based kickboxing promotion company
 * Coliseum, a brand name of theatre chains owned by Famous Players

Transportation

 * Coliseum station (Edmonton), light rail station in Alberta, Canada
 * Oakland Coliseum station, rapid transit station in California, United States
 * Colosseum (train), an express train linking Rome, Milan, and Frankfurt am Main 1984–1997

title: Colosseum (disambiguation)