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Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast

Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast is a 2002 first- and third-person shooter video game. The Microsoft Windows version was developed by Raven Software, the Mac OS X version by Westlake Interactive, and the Xbox and GameCube versions by Vicarious Visions; most versions were published by LucasArts, with only the Mac version published by Aspyr. The game is a sequel to 1997's Star Wars Jedi Knight: Dark Forces II, and the third main installment in the Star Wars: Jedi Knight series. The single-player campaign, set in the fictional Star Wars expanded universe two years after the Mysteries of the Sith expansion for Dark Forces II, follows returning protagonist Kyle Katarn, a mercenary working for the New Republic and former Jedi who cut his connection to the Force. Katarn must return to his Jedi ways to stop a branch of the Imperial Remnant led by the Dark Jedi Desann from empowering their army with the Force.

Jedi Outcast was developed using a more powerful game engine, id Tech 3. The hack and slash combat introduced in Dark Forces II was heavily reworked, becoming the main focus of the gameplay instead of the shooter elements, which are prominent only during the first few missions of the game. Players may wield blasters, lightsabers, and Force powers to engage enemies, with the latter being recommended in later stages of the game, as numerous lightsaber-wielding enemies are introduced. Jedi Outcast also features a multiplayer mode that allows players to compete in several different game modes online or over a local area network.

Upon release, the game received generally positive reviews from critics, with its story and lightsaber combat being the main praised elements. A sequel and the final installment in the Jedi Knight series, Star Wars Jedi Knight: Jedi Academy, was released in 2003. In September 2009, the game was re-released onto Steam and Direct2Drive alongside the rest of the Jedi Knight series. A Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4 port with no multiplayer mode was released in September 2019. In 2021, Jedi Outcast was made backwards compatible on Xbox One and Xbox Series X/S.

Gameplay
Jedi Outcast allows the player to wield a variety of firearms from the Star Wars franchise, as well as lightsabers and Force powers. The player can choose whether to use first or third-person perspective for each weapon, including the lightsaber. Combat is standard for the shooter genre, offering players an array of energy and projectile weapons, plus a variety of explosives. Players have health and shield meters, each of which is replenished separately.

Jedi Outcast places a strong emphasis on lightsaber combat. As in the films, lightsabers can be used to deflect shots from blasters. The game offers three lightsaber styles; fast, medium and strong, with each style differing from the others in terms of the speed of attacks and damage dealt. There are also a number of combos, many of which are unique to the selected saber style.

Force powers (such as Push, Jump, and Lightning) are available in both single-player and multiplayer modes, but more powers can be used in the latter. The use of powers is restricted by a "Force Meter", which depletes with each use and gradually refills over time. The "level" of a Force power determines the strength of that power and the amount depleted from the Force meter during its use. The multiplayer mode divides players into Light Siders and Dark Siders, pitting each side against the other in team battles. Each side has access to both shared "Neutral" Force powers, which are mostly focused on increasing speed and athletic ability. There are also numerous powers unique to both Light and Dark sides. As in the previous games, Light Side powers are mainly focused around protection and healing, while Dark Side powers are openly aggressive. Unlike previous games, however, Kyle does not exclusively select Light or Dark powers in the single-player, instead receiving a selection of both.

Single-player
The single-player campaign follows Kyle Katarn as he moves through the levels in a linear manner, meeting friendly and hostile non-player characters (NPCs). Friendly NPCs will occasionally assist the player in combat. In addition to combat, the campaign features a variety of puzzles.

When the game starts, Kyle has forsaken The Force after the events of the previous game, and as such, the player has no access to a lightsaber or any Force powers. However, after the first two missions, Kyle regains his Force abilities. As the game progresses the number of powers available, and their strength, increase. Progression of Force abilities is fixed, and cannot be customized. Having previously fallen to the Dark Side, Kyle has access to both Light Side powers (such as Force Heal and Jedi Mind Trick) and Dark Side powers (such as Force Lightning and Force Grip), along with neutral ones (such as Force Speed, Force Jump, Force Pull and Force Push).

Multiplayer
Jedi Outcast features a set of multiplayer modes. In the PC and Macintosh versions, these can be played over a LAN or the Internet, but combat is limited to two players on the console versions. Multiplayer works by allowing members of the community to run their own dedicated servers that players can join via the in-game Multiplayer Server List, with server owners being able to dictate custom mods, maps and player models for their server. There are a variety of standardized game modes in Multiplayer (such as "Free-for-All", "Team Deathmatch" and "Capture the flag") which can be played with other players, bots, or both. Server owners can also build their own game modes for their server if they wish to do so. Players have limited customization control over their avatars, however there is the ability for players to import custom models on participating servers. They can choose the player model (with access to nearly every character in the game, as well as some characters from the films not seen in the single-player mode) and lightsaber color. Before a match, the server specifies the game rules, including "Force ranking", which controls how many points the players have available to allocate into Force powers. Players then customize their powers for the match. The server can also choose to disable normal weapons so as to create lightsaber-only matches.

Setting and characters
The single-player story is set in 12 ABY, eight years after the events of Return of the Jedi and around two years after Mysteries of the Sith. As with the previous installments in the series, the player controls Kyle Katarn (voiced by Jeff Bennett ), a former Jedi who has cut his links with the Force after almost succumbing to the Dark Side. At the start of the game he is a mercenary working for the New Republic.

Over the course of the game, Kyle is joined by several characters that assist him in varying measures, including his mercenary partner and love interest Jan Ors (Vanessa Marshall ); the sophisticated administrator of Cloud City, Lando Calrissian (Billy Dee Williams ); and Jedi Grandmaster and leader of the Jedi Academy on Yavin IV, Luke Skywalker (Bob Bergen ). The player also receives help from other Jedi and New Republic soldiers, while Mon Mothma (Carolyn Seymour ), Chief-of-State of the New Republic, assigns Kyle and Jan missions during the early stages of the game.

The story features four major antagonists and bosses: Desann (Mark Klastorin ), a former student of the Jedi Academy, who turned to the Dark Side after killing a fellow student and leaving the Order; Tavion (Kath Soucie ), Desann's apprentice; Galak Fyyar (Steve Blum ), an admiral in the Imperial Remnant and Desann's second-in-command; and Reelo Baruk (Kevin Michael Richardson ), a crime lord with ties to the Imperial Remnant who poses as a "respectable garbage collector" on Nar Shaddaa. Throughout the game, players fight different types of enemies, including mercenaries and Imperial stormtroopers. Halfway through the story, lightsaber-wielding enemies are introduced, namely the Reborn (thugs and soldiers who have been artificially infused with the Force), and Shadowtroopers (who sport lightsaber-resistant cortosis armor that also allows them to briefly turn invisible).

Plot
The game begins with Kyle Katarn and Jan Ors investigating a supposedly abandoned Imperial outpost on Kejim, finding it to be crawling with Imperial forces. They fight their way through the base, discovering a research center studying crystals similar to those used to power lightsabers. Tracing the crystals' origin, Kyle and Jan travel to Artus Prime, a mining colony turned into an Imperial stronghold, where the miners have been enslaved and experimented upon. Katarn thwarts the Imperial operation, but Jan is captured by the Dark Jedi Desann and his apprentice Tavion. Kyle tries to rescue her, but, having forsaken the ways of the Jedi, he is easily defeated by Desann, who orders Tavion to kill Jan before they leave.

An enraged Kyle travels to the Valley of the Jedi (a major plot element in Dark Forces II) to regain his Force powers, and then to the Jedi Academy to reclaim his lightsaber, which he had left with Luke Skywalker. Luke reveals Desann's origins to Kyle, and senses his anger through the Force, so he requests that Kyle complete a series of trials to prove he will not succumb to the Dark Side again. Kyle passes the tests and obtains his lightsaber, before travelling to Nar Shaddaa, where Luke told him to seek out Reelo Baruk, a Rodian gangster. While searching for him, Kyle runs into Lando Calrissian, who has been imprisoned in Reelo's dungeons. Lando reveals that Reelo is part of a cortosis smuggling operation in Cloud City, which has been taken over by the Empire and Reelo's men. After Kyle frees Lando, the pair make their escape in the latter's ship, the Lady Luck; killing Reelo when he tries to stop them.

On Bespin, Lando drops Kyle off at the bottom of Cloud City, and while making his way up the city structure, the latter has his first encounters with the Reborn, Desann's Force-wielding soldiers. After helping Lando's men reclaim control of the city, Kyle finds and defeats Tavion, who, fearing for her life, reveals that Jan is alive and onboard Galak Fyyar's Star Destroyer, the Doomgiver. Jan's faked death was just a ploy to trick Kyle into going to the Valley of the Jedi, which allowed Desann to follow him there and tap its power. Kyle spares Tavion and takes her ship to infiltrate the Doomgiver, which is docked at the Cairn Installation, an Imperial base hidden on an asteroid in the Lenico Belt.

At the base, Kyle runs into Luke, who informs him that Desann has used the Valley's energy to empower an army of Reborn which could number in the thousands. After fighting several Reborn together, Kyle and Luke split up to find the Doomgiver. Along the way, the former has his first encounter with the Shadowtroopers, and discovers that the base is actually an assault ship construction facility, which is preparing for a full-scale planetary assault. As Kyle boards the Doomgiver, he sees Luke fighting Desann outside the ship, but can't intervene because the Star Destroyer jumps into hyperspace. Kyle uses the ship's communications array to contact Rogue Squadron, and finds Jan in the detention block, who reveals that Desann was not specifically interested in the Valley of the Jedi, but rather the Jedi Academy, which he is invading just now to harvest its Force power. After killing Fyyar and destroying the Doomgiver's shield reactor, which leaves the ship open for attack, Kyle escapes with Jan in a safe pod, moments before Rogue Squadron destroy the Doomgiver.

Kyle and Jan arrive on Yavin IV, in the middle of the Imperial invasion, and split up: the latter goes to assist the New Republic starfighters, while the former makes his way to the Jedi Academy on foot. After helping the Jedi students and Republic soldiers fend off the assault, Kyle ventures into the Academy's underground maze, and confronts Desann as he tries to absorb the power from the Force nexus at the centre. Kyle informs Desann of the Doomgiver's destruction and the Imperial army's defeat, and offers him the chance to rejoin the Jedi, but an enraged Desann refuses and attacks him. Kyle kills Desann and returns to the surface, where he reunites with Jan, as the New Republic arrests the surviving Imperial forces. Later, Luke thanks Kyle and Jan for their assistance, and offers to safeguard the former's lightsaber once more, but Kyle politely refuses, saying he is not ready to forsake the Force again.

Voice cast

 * Jeff Bennett as Kyle Katarn, Stormtrooper Officer 1
 * Billy Dee Williams as Lando Calrissian
 * Mark Klastorin as Desann
 * Vanessa Marshall as Jan Ors
 * Kath Soucie as Tavion
 * Nick Jameson as Bartender, Imperial Worker 3
 * Gregg Berger as Bespin Cop 1, Shadow Trooper 1, Stormtrooper 2
 * Charles Martinet as Bespin Cop 2, Civilian Male, Imperial Officer 2
 * Steven Jay Blum as Galak Fyyar, Reborn 1
 * Jess Harnell as Gran 1, Rogue Leader
 * Kevin Michael Richardson as Gran 2, Reelo
 * Guy Siner as Imperial Officer 1, Imperial Worker 2
 * Roger Jackson as Imperial Worker 1, Rebel Shock Troop 1
 * Dominic Armato as Jedi 1, Prisoner 1, Protocol Droid
 * Milton James as Jedi 2
 * Bob Bergen as Luke Skywalker
 * Carolyn Seymour as Mon Mothma
 * Jacob Witkin as Morgan Katarn
 * David Berón as Prisoner 2
 * Michael Sorich as Prisoner 3, Rebel Shock Trooper
 * Tom Kane as Reborn 2, Rodian 1, Shadow Trooper
 * Aron Kincaid as Reborn 3
 * Michael Gough as Rodian 2, Stormtrooper Officer 2
 * Fred Coffin as Stormtrooper 1

Development
On May 17, 2001, at E3 2001, LucasArts announced that Raven Software were developing a third game in the Jedi Knight series. Some plot details were given, such as the locations visited in the game; Cloud City, Yavin IV, Smuggler's Moon and some planets original to the game. The following day at E3, LucasArts gave a demonstration of the game, showing the lightsaber and Force combat as well as the "buddy" system: in which certain NPCs would fight alongside the player. Technical details were also revealed: the game would use id Software's Quake III Arena engine, and the GHOUL 2 animation system, seen in Raven's Soldier of Fortune II: Double Helix. The polygon capacity of the engine had also been doubled. The game was also on display at id's QuakeCon 2001, where enemy AI and combat were demonstrated. LucasArts announced that the game would feature multiplayer, although due to being early in development little information was revealed.

On July 17, 2001, multiplayer developer Pat Lipo made a post on his .plan file, revealing that Rich Whitehouse had been brought onto the development team to handle development of the game's multiplayer bots. Whitehouse moved on to tackle the entirety of the game's multiplayer codebase, and was subsequently credited as the game's sole multiplayer programmer. Designer Chris Foster has stated that most members of the team had many responsibilities due to its small size. One of the main tools used to design levels was Radiant.

On January 16, 2002, LucasArts launched a new website for Jedi Outcast featuring an overview of the game and information regarding characters, weapons and Force powers. An FAQ, screenshots, concept art, images of player models and downloadable wallpapers were also available. A teaser trailer was released on February 8, showing the game's combat, weapons, characters and environments. On March 13, 2002, LucasArts announced that the game was on track for release later in the month. Two days later, they announced Jedi Outcast was ready for release, set to go on sale by March 29. A new trailer was also released. After the release, game programmer Mike Gummelt revealed that a request from the management led the team to disable the ability to sever the heads of non-droid enemies. He has also cited Bushido Blade as the inspiration for a lightsaber combat system which requires players to wait and strike at the right moment.

Release
Jedi Outcast shipped on March 26, 2002, and was released on March 28, 2002.

The game's SDK was released on April 22, 2002. This included a level editor, map compiler, model viewer, and shader editor and viewer. Since its release, hundreds of mods have been submitted to sites such as FileFront. A 66 MB demo of the game was released on May 10, 2002, featuring the same level shown in an incomplete form at E3 2001, which did not feature in the final version. Two patches were subsequently released: version 1.03 and 1.04.

At E3 2002, LucasArts announced that Jedi Outcast would be released on the GameCube and Xbox. On May 31, 2002, LucasArts and Aspyr announced that a Macintosh version of the game would be released. Developed by Westlake Interactive, a version for Mac OS X was released on October 28, 2002. The Xbox and GameCube versions were released on November 19 in North America and three days later on November 22 in Europe.

On November 15, 2006, LucasArts announced that Jedi Outcast would feature with Star Wars: Battlefront, Star Wars: Empire at War, Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic, Star Wars: Republic Commando and a 14-day trial of Star Wars Galaxies in a compilation release entitled Star Wars: The Best of PC. It was released during the 2006 holiday season.

A Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4 port was announced on September 4, 2019; with a release date of September 24, 2019.

Source-code release
Following Disney's decision to close LucasArts on April 3, 2013, the developers at Raven Software released the source code for the game on SourceForge under GNU GPL-2.0-only. A few days after release, the source code disappeared from SourceForge without explanation. SourceForge later explained to media outlet Kotaku that Raven Software had requested its removal. Kotaku speculated this was due to the presence of licensed code, such as for the Bink Video format from Rad Game Tools, that was not intended to be made public.

However, prior to the removal a fork called "OpenJK" was created on GitHub with the problematic code parts already excised. The goal of the OpenJK community project is to "maintain and improve Jedi Academy + Jedi Outcast released by Raven Software." This includes the unification of the Jedi Outcast and Jedi Academy engines, maintaining the compatibility of previous releases, and providing source ports for Mac and Linux. Daily builds for Windows and early Linux builds are also available.

PC
Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast received "universal acclaim" from critics. The PC version holds an aggregate score of 89 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on thirty-five reviews.

Game Informer scored the game 9.5 out of 10, with reviewer Andrew Reiner calling it "the quintessential Star Wars game and a feast for all FPS devotees." He also wrote, "without question, Jedi Outcast is the most enjoyable and accomplished Star Wars game yet." He was also extremely impressed with multiplayer, calling it "a highly addictive, over-the-top experience that all FPS players must see to believe." Brian Gee of Game Revolution gave the game an A−. He praised how authentically Star Wars the game felt, as well as the lightsaber interface, writing "I've played a ton of Star Wars games in my time, and I don't think any of them can match the excitement and fun of lightsaber play in Jedi Outcast."

IGN were also impressed, scoring the game 9 out of 10 and giving it an "Editor's Choice" award. Reviewer Steve Butts lauded the "tightly written, mature plot," and wrote "not only is this one of the greatest Star Wars games I've ever played, it's one of the best action games period." He also commended the "fantastic" graphics and "intelligent" level design, although he was critical of the puzzles, the lightsaber interface, and complained that "the game starts too slowly." GameSpot also scored the game 9 out of 10 and, like IGN, also gave it an "Editor's Choice" award. Reviewer Amer Ajami echoed IGN's criticisms of the "slow start" and "too much puzzle-solving." However, he was very impressed with the interface, arguing "never before has melee combat in a shooter been so effectively executed," and he concluded by saying "the game's strong points - especially its combat - overshadow whatever problems Jedi Outcast may have early on," calling it "simply one of the easiest games to recommend this year."

Game Over Online gave the game 93%, calling it "an intriguing juxtaposition of pieces of incredibly intense FPS action that had me on the edge of my seat combined with puzzle-like sections of such opacity that they made me want to kill myself." Entertainment Weekly gave it an A, stating that "the Force is strong with this one." Maxim, however, gave it an eight out of ten and stated that "The Force is strong with this polished first-person shooter."

In a negative review, X-Play criticized the game as a "disturbance in the Force." Although reviewer Jason D'Aprile called the story "pretty good," the graphics "fantastic" and the audio effects "just right," he complained that the level design "succumbs to the Dark Side," citing "illogical and frustrating situations." He also considered the multiplayer mode "not very impressive" and gave the game 2 out of 5 stars. Eurogamer were also underwhelmed, scoring the game 7 out of 10. They criticized the slow start, the lightsaber interface and the AI. However, they did commend the atmosphere and some of the level design. They concluded that "Jedi Outcast is a rather patchy game, with moments of genius let down by a lack of consistency. The guns are derivative and rarely used once you get hold of your lightsaber, the melee combat clumsy and chaotic, the AI poor and some of the locations derivative and poorly designed."

In June 2007, GameTrailers's list of the 10 best Star Wars games saw Jedi Outcast rank at number one, with the editorial commenting that "This was certainly not the first time players had the opportunity to play as a Jedi in a video game, it was the first time you actually felt like one." They also praised the lightsaber and Force combat systems, a story which they felt was consistent with the films, and the cameos from some key Star Wars characters (namely Luke Skywalker and Lando Calrissian).

Jedi Outcast was nominated for Computer Gaming World's 2002 "Action Game of the Year" award, which ultimately went to Medal of Honor: Allied Assault. The editors wrote, "Jedi Knight II is a blast, and the force powers and lightsaber control are perfectly executed." However, they found it too lacking in originality and consistency to win the award. During the 6th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, Jedi Outcast received a nomination for "Computer Action/Adventure Game of the Year" by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences.

Xbox and GameCube
The Xbox version holds an aggregate score of 81 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on twenty-four reviews. The GameCube version holds scores of 75 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on seventeen reviews.

The Xbox version was described as "truly fantastic" by the Official Xbox Magazine, who scored it 9 out of 10. IGN were also impressed, scoring it 8.8 out of 10 and calling it "the best Star Wars experience on the Xbox". Reviewer Aaron Boudling praised how the controls had been mapped onto the Xbox Controller, but was highly critical of the game's lack of support for Xbox Live, and the absence of an online multiplayer mode. He also felt the graphics in the cutscenes were significantly weaker than the PC version. GameSpot scored it 8.3 out of 10, with reviewer Amer Ajami saying the port "retains the essence of what it must feel like to be an all-powerful Jedi, which was so well conveyed in the original PC game, without sacrificing much in the way of graphics, playability, or overall value. In fact, the game's complicated control scheme is better served on an Xbox controller than it is in the PC's typical mouse and keyboard setup." However, he too criticized the lack of Xbox Live support and the poor graphical quality of the cutscenes. Game Revolution gave the game a B+, praising the controls and atmosphere, but criticizing the AI and lack of Xbox Live support. Eurogamer were as unimpressed with the Xbox version as they had been with the PC version, scoring it 6 out of 10. Reviewer Kristan Reed found a lot of the problems with the game to be inherent to the original, not problems with the port - a slow beginning, poor AI, bad level design, repetitive puzzles. Reed called the lack of Xbox Live support "plain unacceptable" and concluded "Jedi Outcast is certainly an entertaining package when it gets things right, but it's also riddled with design flaws, technical flaws and various minor irritations that conspire to detract from your overall enjoyment. Given that it's also not Live (or even LAN) enabled, Xbox owners don't even have that crumb of comfort to elevate its status."

GameSpot scored the GameCube version 8.2 out of 10. As with the Xbox version, Ajami was critical of the cutscene graphics, but concluded that "Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast makes a fine addition to the Nintendo console's gradually growing list of action games." GameSpy gave the same version three-and-a-half stars out of five. Reviewer Scott Steinberg was critical of the game's slow start and the nature of some of the puzzles. Of the port, he wrote "This game was an award-winning game on a prior platform, so you'd be in the right to demand more. But from the perspective of a GameCube owner just getting your first taste of the galactic goodie that is the Jedi Knight series, things could have been a lot worse [...] Jedi Knight II: Outcast stands as a respectable effort, but disappointing reminder that when you swap content from platform to platform, something often gets lost in the transition." IGN scored it 7.2 out of 10, with reviewer Aaron Boudling arguing that the graphics and controls were significantly poorer than in either the PC or Xbox versions. Of the controls, Boulding wrote "While the Xbox version allows you to map your favorite moves to the black and white buttons for quick access, GameCube owners are out of luck and will have to fumble around with the D-Pad in the heat of battle." He concluded "It's obvious that no work at all went into trying to get this game to properly run on GameCube. The framerate is erratic and constantly alternates between smooth and choppy, further complicating the already clunky control system [...] If you're a multi-console owner, get the superior Xbox version to see a better realized port." Nintendo World Report scored it 6 out of 10, also citing the inferior controls and poorer graphics than the PC and Xbox versions; "Jedi Outcast ends up being a pretty terrible port of an excellent PC title. The trick to enjoying the GameCube incarnation will be coming to terms with the control and graphic inadequacies in the game and then being able to make yourself get over the "hump" so that you can enjoy the meat and potatoes of the whole experience."

It was a runner-up for GameSpot's annual "Best Shooter on GameCube" award, which went to TimeSplitters 2.

Sales
In the United States, Jedi Outcast's computer version sold 390,000 copies and earned $17 million (~$ in ) by August 2006. At the time, this led Edge to declare it the country's 39th-best-selling computer game, and best-selling Jedi Knight computer title, released since January 2000. Combined sales of all Jedi Knight computer games released during the 2000s, including Jedi Outcast, reached 920,000 units in the United States by August 2006. Jedi Outcast's computer version also received a "Silver" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 100,000 copies in the United Kingdom.

In the German market, Jedi Knight II debuted as the best-selling full-price computer game of April 2002. It dropped to fifth place in May, 11th in June and 21st in July. In August, the Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland (VUD) presented Jedi Knight II with a "Gold" certification, for sales of at least 100,000 units across Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Despite the early success of Jedi Knight II's computer version in the German market, it lost momentum at retail, reaching around 150,000 units sold by May 2003. The game's distributor attributed this to widespread illegal copying.

title: Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast


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Talk:Harry Potter and the Sorceror's Stone

ARRRRRGGGGHHHHHH!!!!! Is it sorcerOr or SorcerEr? I've seen it both ways on about 10 different pages, sometimes on the same page. - User:MMGB

Sorcerer according to Amazon.com

Merriam-Webster says "sorcerer" with the ER ending, too

Is it better to have a separate entry explaining the different titles? Or just have a redirect, with the variant titles explained in the first paragraph?

For example
 * Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (published as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone in the U.S.)

I think a redirect will save time for the reader. Ed Poor

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Talk:February 22

Lindsay
Missing from list. Norman Alfred William Lindsay (born Creswick, Victoria February 22, 1879) - Prolific artist, sculptor, author and scale modeler, Lindsay is widely regarded as one of Australia's greatest artists

Moved
Moved the following stuff from February 22 here:

This is not a case in Tzol'kin calendar as this calendar counts days from the year [0. 0. 0. 0. 0] and has no strong similar term for a year as Gregorian calendar has. We must add days sequentialy and to watch for the leap years as astronomers do with Julian days. Thus we have for the years 2000 2001 2002 and 2003:

Julian day #: 2 451 598 and 207 499 316 days since the year [13. 0. 0. 0. 0] <- [12.19. 6.17.11] (leap year) Julian day #: 2 451 598+364 and 207 499 680 days since the year [13. 0. 0. 0. 0] <- [12.19. 8. 0. 0] Julian day #: 2 452 328    and 207 500 045 days since the year [13. 0. 0. 0. 0] <- [12.19. 9. 0. 5] Julian day #: 2 452 693    and 207 500 410 days since the year [13. 0. 0. 0. 0] <- [12.19.10. 0.10] -- Tobias Hövekamp

 * Yes you can do this - but I don't see any sence on it. You've been talking somethings about noospheres and such and as it seems to me you contradict yourself. Time will tell (I deeply believe) that Tzol'kinlike datums will have some further meanings on our own reality... That was just my attempt to show some other ways on doing calendrix outta time. But obviously I didn't succeed. And perhaps I shall never. Another black spot on my birth day, he, he. Sorry for living, mon. --XJam [2002.04.12] 5 Friday (0).

Shannon
What does this mean: 2001 - Claude Elwood Shannon, mathematician (according to K. Devlin)? Who is K. Devlin, and why is there doubt about Shannon's death? -- Zoe

Baden-Powell
Why is the birthday of Sir Lord Baden-Powell mentioned twice? I don't think it is important here that there are two or more scouting assossiciations out there, but that this is the birthday of b.p. and his wife. --Claudio Röthlisberger

No Dolly?
I would have thought that The announcement of the first successful cloning of a mammal from adult cells would have been a bit more significant to put in the main page anniversaries than some of the things chosen. In fact one could argue that the announcement of the cloning of Dolly the Sheep was THE most important thing that has happened on this date.--Shearluck (talk) 21:18, 22 February 2010 (UTC)

I have noticed recently that events that have happened in the last few days/hours are turning up in both on this day and did you know. Should this be allowed to continue? I think articles should have a one year waiting period before they end up in the afore mentioned sections. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.45.12.148 (talk) 11:48, 22 February 2011 (UTC)

Removal of birth and death entries
Continuing the ongoing effort to reduce the size of the Births and Deaths sections to make them manageable, I've removed some celebrities with few or no articles in other wikipedias, moving the entries to the appropriate Year in Topic article if they were not already present.Deb (talk) 11:44, 20 August 2015 (UTC)

Not clear
1889 – President Grover Cleveland signs a bill admitting North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and Washington as U.S. states. None of those states became states on this day in 1889 ND and SD (Nov 2, 1889) Mont (Nov 8, 1889) and Wash (Nov 11 1889) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.59.82.105 (talk) 18:17, 22 February 2018 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 22 February 2019
There's a period missing at the end of this sentence: "Battle of Picotin between Ferdinand of Majorca and the forces of Matilda of Hainaut" 98.210.124.96 (talk) 22:05, 22 February 2019 (UTC)
 * Yes check.svg Done - FlightTime  ( open channel ) 22:12, 22 February 2019 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 15 November 2019
Remove the fact listed under year 1924, as President Calvin Coolidge made his address to the American people over a radio broadcast for the first time on Dec 6th 1923 https://history.house.gov/Exhibitions-and-Publications/Electronic-Technology/Radio/ Noxxarian (talk) 21:08, 15 November 2019 (UTC)

 * ❌. The entry refers to the first address from the White House (although it could use a source), while what you give talks about an address to Congress from the House chamber. –Deacon Vorbis (carbon • videos) 21:41, 15 November 2019 (UTC)

Cleopatra’s Needle
Can some one remove the entry about the Cleopatra’s Needle in New York?

Its entry shows it was installed there on January 22nd.

Cheers, in advance! — Preceding unsigned comment added by Cuddy2977 (talk • contribs) 13:34, 10 February 2022 (UTC)

2022
palindrome — Preceding unsigned comment added by Sci09272 (talk • contribs) 18:48, 14 February 2022 (UTC)

Twosday
This February (second month) this twenty second this year, it will be 2/22/22,

[under this text is a story, this is fictional]

The Legendary Day Of Twos. The Day Of The Twin Gods, The Day Of The Second Battle, The Day of The Twenty Two Elements, The Day Of The Second Coming, The Day Of The Second Dragon, The Day Of The Second Dynasty, this day, shall be a new day of the two. Perhaps it will be the second earth, perhaps the second genesis, perhaps something entirely different, like the Two Hundred Twenty Second Aeon or the second half of the Kali Kalpa.

[the story is over now]

so anyways, a school i live near is having a twins day that day.

title: Talk:February 22


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Caratacus

Caratacus (Brythonic *Caratācos, Middle Welsh Caratawc; Welsh Caradog; Breton Karadeg; Καράτακος; variants Latin: Caractacus, Greek: Καταράκατος) was a 1st-century AD British chieftain of the Catuvellauni tribe, who resisted the Roman conquest of Britain.

Before the Roman invasion, Caratacus is associated with the expansion of his tribe's territory. His apparent success led to Roman invasion, nominally in support of his defeated enemies. He resisted the Romans for almost a decade, using guerrilla warfare, but when he offered a set-piece battle he was defeated by Roman forces. After defeat he fled to the territory of Queen Cartimandua, who captured him and handed him over to the Romans. He was sentenced to death, but made a speech before his execution that persuaded the Emperor Claudius to spare him. Caratacus' speech to Claudius has been a popular subject in visual art.

Name
Caratacus' name appears as both Caratacus and Caractacus in manuscripts of Tacitus, and as Καράτακος and Καρτάκης in manuscripts of Dio. Older reference works tend to favour the spelling "Caractacus", but modern scholars agree, based on historical linguistics and source criticism, that the original Common Brittonic form was *Karatākos, pronounced, cognate with Welsh Caradog, Breton Karadeg, and Irish Carthach, meaning "loving, beloved, dear; friend".

Claudian invasion
Caratacus is named by Dio Cassius as a son of the Catuvellaunian king Cunobelinus. Based on coin distribution Caratacus appears to have been the protégé of his uncle Epaticcus, who expanded Catuvellaunian power westwards most likely from his palace in Verulam, the heartland of the Catuvellauni, into the territory of the Atrebates. After Epaticcus died in about AD 35, the Atrebates, under Verica, regained some of their territory, but it appears Caratacus completed the conquest, as Dio tells us Verica was ousted, fled to Rome and appealed to the emperor Claudius for help. This was the excuse used by Claudius to launch his invasion of Britain in the summer of 43. The invasion targeted Caratacus' stronghold of Camulodunon (modern Colchester), previously the seat of his father Cunobelinus. Cunobelinus had died some time before the invasion. Caratacus and his brother Togodumnus led the initial defence of the country against Aulus Plautius's four legions, thought to have been around 40,000 men, primarily using guerrilla tactics.  They lost much of the south-east after being defeated in two crucial battles, the Battle of the River Medway and River Thames. Togodumnus was killed (although both Miles Russell and John Hind argue that Dio was mistaken in reporting Togodumnus's death, that he was defeated but survived, and was later appointed by the Romans as a friendly king over a number of territories, becoming the loyal king referred to by Tacitus as Cogidubnus or Togidubnus) and the Catuvellauni's territories were conquered. Their stronghold of Camulodunon was converted into the first Roman colonia in Britain, Colonia Victricensis.

Resistance to Rome
We next hear of Caratacus in Tacitus's Annals, leading the Silures and Ordovices of Wales against Plautius's successor as governor, Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 50, Scapula managed to defeat Caratacus in a set-piece battle somewhere in Ordovician territory, capturing Caratacus' wife and daughter and receiving the surrender of his brothers. Caratacus himself escaped, and fled north to the lands of the Brigantes (modern Yorkshire) where the Brigantian queen, Cartimandua, handed him over to the Romans in chains. This was one of the factors that led to two Brigantian revolts against Cartimandua and her Roman allies, once later in the 50s and once in 69, led by Venutius, who had once been Cartimandua's husband. With the capture of Caratacus, much of southern Britain from the Humber to the Severn was pacified and garrisoned throughout the 50s.

Legends place Caratacus' last stand at either Caer Caradoc near Church Stretton or British Camp in the Malvern Hills, but the description of Tacitus makes either unlikely:

"[Caratacus] resorted to the ultimate hazard, adopting a place for battle so that entry, exit, everything would be unfavourable to us and for the better to his own men, with steep mountains all around, and, wherever a gentle access was possible, he strewed rocks in front in the manner of a rampart. And in front too there flowed a stream with an unsure ford, and companies of armed men had taken up position along the defences."

Although the Severn is visible from British Camp, it is nowhere near it, so this battle must have taken place elsewhere. A number of locations have been suggested, including a site near Brampton Bryan. Bari Jones, in Archaeology Today in 1998, identified Blodwel Rocks at Llanymynech in Powys as representing a close fit with Tacitus's account.

Captive in Rome
After his capture, Caratacus was sent to Rome as a war prize, presumably to be killed after a triumphal parade. Although a captive, he was allowed to address the Roman Senate. Tacitus records a version of his speech in which he says that his stubborn resistance made Rome's glory in defeating him all the greater: "If the degree of my nobility and fortune had been matched by moderation in success, I would have come to this City as a friend rather than a captive, nor would you have disdained to receive with a treaty of peace one sprung from brilliant ancestors and commanding a great many nations. But my present lot, disfiguring as it is for me, is magnificent for you. I had horses, men, arms, and wealth: what wonder if I was unwilling to lose them? If you wish to command everyone, does it really follow that everyone should accept your slavery? If I were now being handed over as one who had surrendered immediately, neither my fortune nor your glory would have achieved brilliance. It is also true that in my case any reprisal will be followed by oblivion. On the other hand, if you preserve me safe and sound, I shall be an eternal example of your clemency."

He made such an impression that he was pardoned and allowed to live in peace in Rome. After his liberation, according to Dio Cassius, Caratacus was so impressed by the city of Rome that he said "And can you, then, who have got such possessions and so many of them, still covet our poor huts?"

Medieval Welsh traditions
Caratacus' memory may have been preserved in medieval Welsh tradition. A genealogy in the Welsh Harley MS 3859 (c. 1100) includes the generations "Caratauc map Cinbelin map Teuhant", corresponding, via established processes of language change, to "Caratacus, son of Cunobelinus, son of Tasciovanus", preserving the names of the three historical figures in correct relationship.

Caratacus does not appear in Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain (1136), although he appears to correspond to Arviragus, the younger son of Kymbelinus, who continues to resist the Roman invasion after the death of his older brother Guiderius. In Welsh versions his name is Gweirydd, son of Cynfelyn, and his brother is called Gwydyr; the name Arviragus is taken from a poem by Juvenal.

Caradog, son of Bran, who appears in medieval Welsh literature, has also been identified with Caratacus, although nothing in the medieval legend corresponds except his name. He appears in the Mabinogion as a son of Bran the Blessed, who is left in charge of Britain while his father makes war in Ireland, but is overthrown by Caswallawn (the historical Cassivellaunus, who lived a century earlier than Caratacus). The Welsh Triads agree that he was Bran's son, and name two sons, Cawrdaf and Eudaf.

Two hills in Shropshire bear the name Caer Caradoc (Welsh – Caer Caradog), meaning fort of Caradoc, and have popular associations with him. One is an Iron Age hill fort and Scheduled Monument near the town of Clun. It overlooks the village of Chapel Lawn. The other Caer Caradoc is a prominent hill and Iron Age hill fort near Church Stretton, 16 miles (26 km) to the north-east.

Modern traditions
Caradog only began to be identified with Caratacus after the rediscovery of the works of Tacitus, and new material appeared based on this identification. An 18th-century tradition, popularised by the Welsh antiquarian and forger Iolo Morganwg, credits Caradog, on his return from imprisonment in Rome, with the introduction of Christianity to Britain. Iolo also makes the legendary king Coel Hen a son of Caradog's son Saint Cyllin. Richard Williams Morgan claimed that a reference to Cyllin as a son of Caratacus was found in the family records of Iestyn ab Gwrgant and used this as evidence of the early entry of Christianity to Britain: "Cyllin ab Caradog, a wise and just king. In his days many of the Cymry embraced the faith in Christ through the teaching of the saints of Cor-Eurgain, and many godly men from the countries of Greece and Rome were in Cambria. He first of the Cymry gave infants names; for before, names were not given except to adults, and then from something characteristic in their bodies, minds, or manners."

Another tradition, which has remained popular among British Israelites and others, makes Caratacus already a Christian before he came to Rome, Christianity having been brought to Britain by either Joseph of Arimathea or St. Paul, and identifies a number of early Christians as his relatives.

One is Pomponia Graecina, wife of Aulus Plautius, the conqueror of Britain, who as Tacitus relates, was accused of following a "foreign superstition", which the tradition considers to be Christianity. Tacitus describes her as the "wife of the Plautius who returned from Britain with an ovation", which led John Lingard (1771–1851) to conclude, in his History and Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church, that she was British; however, this conclusion is a misinterpretation of what Tacitus wrote. An ovation was a military parade in honour of a victorious general, so the person who "returned from Britain with an ovation" is clearly Plautius, not Pomponia. This has not prevented the error being repeated and disseminated widely.

Another is Claudia Rufina, a historical British woman known to the poet Martial. Martial describes Claudia's marriage to a man named Pudens, almost certainly Aulus Pudens, an Umbrian centurion and friend of the poet who appears regularly in his Epigrams. It has been argued since the 17th century that this pair may be the same as the Claudia and Pudens mentioned as members of the Roman Christian community in 2 Timothy in the New Testament. Some go further, claiming that Claudia was Caratacus' daughter, and that the historical Pope Linus, who is described as the "brother of Claudia" in an early church document, was Caratacus' son. Pudens is identified with St. Pudens, and it is claimed that the basilica of Santa Pudenziana in Rome, and with which St. Pudens is associated, was once called the Palatium Britannicum and was the home of Caratacus and his family.

This theory was popularised in a 1961 book called The Drama of the Lost Disciples by George Jowett, but Jowett did not originate it. He cites renaissance historians such as Archbishop James Ussher, Caesar Baronius and John Hardyng, as well as classical writers like Caesar, Tacitus and Juvenal, although his classical citations at least are wildly inaccurate, many of his assertions are unsourced, and many of his identifications entirely speculative. He also regularly cites St. Paul in Britain, an 1860 book by R. W. Morgan, and advocates other tenets of British Israelism, in particular that the British are descended from the lost tribes of Israel.

In the arts

 * Caratach is anachronistically depicted as Boudica's general in John Fletcher's play Bonduca (1613). The historical Caratach was exiled from Britain nearly a decade prior to Boudica's war.
 * Caratacus is the subject of William Mason's 1759 poem of the same name and the 1776 play based on it.
 * Caratacus is the title character of the Italian opera Carattaco by Johann Christian Bach, first performed in London in 1767
 * A detailed knowledge of Caractacus' uniform is claimed by Major-General Stanley in "The Major-General's Song" from Gilbert and Sullivan's 1879 comic opera "The Pirates of Penzance".
 * "Caractacus" is the title of a cantata by Edward Elgar in 1897–98 devoted to the defeat and capture of the king by the Romans. It was first performed at the Leeds choral festival in 1898.
 * Caractacus is the subject of a Victorian poem called Caractacus the Briton by William Stewart Ross, published 1881 in a collection titled Lays of Romance and Chivalry, and distinguished by the refrain, "Caractacus the Briton, the bravest of the brave!"
 * The defeat of Caradoc (Caratacus) by the Romans is the subject of Henry Treece's 1952 adult novel, The Dark Island, the second book in his Celtic Tetralogy.  As well, a poem titled Caratacus appears in Treece's Exiles, a collection of poetry published in the same year.
 * Caractacus briefly appears as a minor character in the Robert Graves novel, Claudius the God. In the television adaptation of Graves's novels, he is portrayed in a brief appearance by Peter Bowles.
 * Caratacus' capture and life as a captive in Rome is told from the point of view of his fictional daughter, Eigon, in Barbara Erskine's time-slip novel, The Warrior's Princess, pub. 2008.
 * Caratacus is a major character in Douglas Jackson's 2008 novel Claudius, the sequel to Caligula (2008).
 * Caradoc is a major character in author Pauline Gedge's 1978 novel, The Eagle and The Raven.
 * Caratacus appears in several volumes of Simon Scarrow's Eagle series, including Under the Eagle, The Eagle's Conquest, When the Eagle Hunts, The Eagle and the Wolves, The Eagle's Prey, Blood Crows and Brothers In Blood.
 * Caradoc is a main character in Manda Scott's series "Boudica" ("Dreaming the Eagle", "Dreaming the Bull", "Dreaming the Hound", "Dreaming the Serpent-Spear").
 * Caratach appears as a stage character in Harry Turtledove's alternate history novel Ruled Britannia. In this novel, a fictional version of William Shakespeare writes a play called Boudicca, which is almost identical to John Fletcher's Bonduca. In the book's afterword Turtledove acknowledges Fletcher's influence, but in the novel itself he mistakenly suggests that Caratach was depicted as Boudicca's man in Tacitus's Annals.
 * "The Court of King Caractacus" is a nonsense song by Rolf Harris. The single reached No 9 in the Australian Singles Chart in 1964.
 * Caratacus is referenced in the Paradox Interactive video game Crusader Kings II in the form of bloodline inherited by some characters in the game, the "Bloodline of Caradog".
 * Caradog before Caesar in Rome is a painting by Ellis Owen Ellis (Ellis Bryn-Coch), a Welsh portrait painter who won a number of prizes in London art galleries after moving there in 1834.

title: Caratacus


text:
Ernest Jones

Alfred Ernest Jones (1 January 1879 – 11 February 1958) was a Welsh neurologist and psychoanalyst. A lifelong friend and colleague of Sigmund Freud from their first meeting in 1908, he became his official biographer. Jones was the first English-speaking practitioner of psychoanalysis and became its leading exponent in the English-speaking world. As President of both the International Psychoanalytical Association and the British Psycho-Analytical Society in the 1920s and 1930s, Jones exercised a formative influence in the establishment of their organisations, institutions and publications.

Early life and career
Ernest Jones was born in Gowerton (formerly Ffosfelin), Wales, an industrial village on the outskirts of Swansea, the first child of Thomas and Ann Jones. His father was a self-taught colliery engineer who went on to establish himself as a successful businessman, becoming accountant and company secretary at the Elba Steelworks in Gowerton. His mother, Mary Ann (née Lewis), was from a Welsh-speaking Carmarthenshire family which had relocated to Swansea. Jones was educated at Swansea Grammar School, Llandovery College, and Cardiff University in Wales. Jones studied at University College London and meanwhile he obtained the Conjoint diplomas LRCP and MRCS in 1900. A year later, in 1901, he obtained an M.B. degree with honours in medicine and obstetrics. Within five years he received an MD degree and a Membership of the Royal College of Physicians (MRCP) in 1903. He was particularly pleased to receive the University's gold medal in obstetrics from his distinguished fellow-Welshman, Sir John Williams.

After obtaining his medical degrees, Jones specialised in neurology and took a number of posts in London hospitals. It was through his association with the surgeon Wilfred Trotter that Jones first heard of Freud's work. Having worked together as surgeons at University College Hospital, he and Trotter became close friends, with Trotter taking the role of mentor and confidant to his younger colleague. They had in common a wide-ranging interest in philosophy and literature, as well as a growing interest in Continental psychiatric literature and the new forms of clinical therapy it surveyed. By 1905 they were sharing accommodation above Harley Street consulting rooms with Jones's sister, Elizabeth, installed as housekeeper. Trotter and Elizabeth Jones later married. Appalled by the treatment of the mentally ill in institutions, Jones began experimenting with hypnotic techniques in his clinical work.

Jones first encountered Freud's writings directly in 1905, in a German psychiatric journal in which Freud published the famous Dora case-history. It was thus he formed "the deep impression of there being a man in Vienna who actually listened with attention to every word his patients said to him...a revolutionary difference from the attitude of previous physicians..."

Jones's early attempts to combine his interest in Freud's ideas with his clinical work with children resulted in adverse effects on his career. In 1906 he was arrested and charged with two counts of indecent assault on two adolescent girls whom he had interviewed in his capacity as an inspector of schools for "mentally defective" children. At the court hearing Jones maintained his innocence, claiming the girls were fantasising about any inappropriate actions by him. The magistrate concluded that no jury would believe the testimony of such children and Jones was acquitted. In 1908, employed as a pathologist at a London hospital, Jones accepted a colleague's challenge to demonstrate the repressed sexual memory underlying the hysterical paralysis of a young girl's arm. Jones duly obliged but, before conducting the interview, he omitted to inform the girl's consultant or arrange for a chaperone. Subsequently, he faced complaints from the girl's parents over the nature of the interview and he was forced to resign his hospital post.

Personal life
Jones's first serious relationship was with Loe Kann, a wealthy Dutch émigré referred to him in 1906 after she had become addicted to morphine during treatment for a serious kidney condition. Their relationship lasted until 1913. It ended with Kann in analysis with Freud and Jones, at Freud's behest, undergoing analysis with Sándor Ferenczi.

A tentative romance with Freud's daughter, Anna, did not survive the disapproval of her father. Before her visit to Britain in the autumn of 1914, which Jones chaperoned, Freud advised him: "She does not claim to be treated as a woman, being still far away from sexual longings and rather refusing man. There is an outspoken understanding between me and her that she should not consider marriage or the preliminaries before she gets 2 or 3 years older."

In 1917, Jones married the Welsh musician Morfydd Llwyn Owen. They were holidaying in South Wales the following year when Morfydd became ill with acute appendicitis. Jones hoped to get his former colleague and brother-in-law, the leading surgeon Wilfred Trotter, to operate but when this proved impossible emergency surgery was carried out at his father's Swansea home by a local surgeon, with chloroform administered as the anaesthetic. As Jones recounts: "after a few days [she] became delirious with a high temperature. We thought there was blood poisoning till I got Trotter from London. He at once recognized delayed chloroform poisoning ... We fought hard, and there were moments when we seemed to have succeeded, but it was too late." Jones arranged for his wife to be buried in Oystermouth Cemetery on the outskirts of Swansea with her gravestone bearing an inscription from Goethe's Faust: Das Unbeschreibliche, hier ist's getan.

Following some inspired matchmaking by his Viennese colleagues, in 1919 Jones met and married Katherine Jokl, a Jewish economics graduate from Moravia. She had been at school in Vienna with Freud's daughters. They had four children in what proved to be a long and happy marriage, though both struggled to overcome the loss of their eldest child, Gwenith, at the age of 7, during the interwar influenza epidemic. Their son Mervyn Jones became a writer.

Psychoanalytical career
Whilst attending a congress of neurologists in Amsterdam in 1907, Jones met Carl Jung, from whom he received a first-hand account of the work of Freud and his circle in Vienna. Confirmed in his judgement of the importance of Freud's work, Jones joined Jung in Zürich to plan the inaugural Psychoanalytical Congress. This was held in 1908 in Salzburg, where Jones met Freud for the first time. Jones travelled to Vienna for further discussions with Freud and introductions to the members of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. Thus began a personal and professional relationship which, to the acknowledged benefit of both, would survive the many dissensions and rivalries which marked the first decades of the psychoanalytic movement, and would last until Freud's death in 1939. With his career prospects in Britain in serious difficulty, Jones sought refuge in Canada in 1908. He took up teaching duties in the Department of Psychiatry of the University of Toronto (from 1911, as Associate Professor of Psychiatry). In addition to building a private psychoanalytic practice, he worked as pathologist to the Toronto Asylum and Director of its psychiatric outpatient clinic. Following further meetings with Freud in 1909 at Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts, where Freud gave a series of lectures on psychoanalysis, and in the Netherlands the following year, Jones set about forging strong working relationships with the nascent American psychoanalytic movement. He gave some 20 papers or addresses to American professional societies at venues ranging from Boston, to Washington and Chicago. In 1910 he co-founded the American Psychopathological Association and the following year the American Psychoanalytic Association, serving as its first Secretary until 1913.

Jones undertook an intensive programme of writing and research, which produced the first of what were to be many significant contributions to psychoanalytic literature, notably monographs on Hamlet and On the Nightmare. A number of these were published in German in the main psychoanalytic periodicals published in Vienna; these secured his status in Freud's inner circle during the period of the latter's increasing estrangement from Jung. In this context in 1912 Jones initiated, with Freud's agreement, the formation of a Committee of loyalists charged with safeguarding the theoretical and institutional legacy of the psychoanalytic movement. This development also served the more immediate purpose of isolating Jung and, with Jones in strategic control, eventually manoeuvring him out of the Presidency of the International Psychoanalytical Association, a post he had held since its inception. When Jung's resignation came in 1914, it was only the outbreak of the Great War that prevented Jones from taking his place.

Returning to London in 1913, Jones set up in practice as a psychoanalyst, founded the London Psychoanalytic Society, and continued to write and lecture on psychoanalytic theory. A collection of his papers was published as Papers on Psychoanalysis, the first account of psychoanalytic theory and practice by a practising analyst in the English language.

By 1919, the year he founded the British Psychoanalytical Society, Jones could report proudly to Freud that psychoanalysis in Britain "stands in the forefront of medical, literary and psychological interest" (letter 27 January 1919 (Paskauskas 1993)). As President of the Society – a post he would hold until 1944 – Jones secured funding for and supervised the establishment in London of a Clinic offering subsidised fees, and an Institute of Psychoanalysis, which provided administrative, publishing and training facilities for the growing network of professional psychoanalysts.

Jones went on to serve two periods as President of the International Psychoanalytic Association from 1920 to 1924 and 1932 to 1949, where he had significant influence. In 1920 he founded the International Journal of Psychoanalysis, serving as its editor until 1939. The following year he established the International Psychoanalytic Library, which published some 50 books under his editorship. Jones soon obtained from Freud rights to the English translation of his work. In 1924 the first two volumes of Freud's Collected Papers was published in translations edited by Jones and supervised by Joan Riviere, his former analysand and, at one stage, ardent suitor. After a period in analysis with Freud, Riviere worked with Jones as the translation editor of the International Journal of Psychoanalysis. She then was part of a working group Jones set up to plan and deliver James Strachey's translations for the standard edition of Freud's work. Largely through Jones' energetic advocacy, the British Medical Association officially recognised psychoanalysis in 1929. The BBC subsequently removed him from a list of speakers declared to be dangerous to public morality. In the 1930s Jones and his colleagues made a series of radio broadcasts on psychoanalysis.

After Adolf Hitler took power in Germany, Jones helped many displaced and endangered Jewish analysts to resettle in England and other countries. Following the Anschluss of March 1938, Jones flew into Vienna at considerable personal risk to play a crucial role in negotiating and organising the emigration of Freud and his circle to London.

Jones–Freud controversy
Jones's early published work on psychoanalysis had been devoted to expositions of the fundamentals of Freudian theory, an elaboration of its theory of symbolism, and its application to the analysis of religion, mythology, folklore and literary and artistic works. Under the influence of Melanie Klein, Jones' work took a new direction.

Klein had made an impact in Berlin in the new field of child analysis and had impressed Jones in 1925 when he attended her series of lectures to the British Society in London. At Jones's invitation she moved to London the following year; she soon acquired a number of devoted and influential followers. Her work had a dramatic effect on the British Society, polarising its members into rival factions as it became clear that her approach to child analysis was seriously at odds with that of Anna Freud, as set out in her 1927 book An Introduction to the Technique of Child Analysis. The disagreement centred around the clinical approach to the pre-Oedipal child; Klein argued for play as an equivalent to free association in adult analyses. Anna Freud opposed any such equivalence, proposing an educative intervention with the child until an appropriate level of ego development was reached at the Oedipal stage. Klein held this to be a collusive inhibition of analytical work with the child.

Influenced by Klein, and initiating what became known as the Jones–Freud controversy, Jones set out to explore a range of interlinked topics in the theory of early psychic development. These included the structure and genesis of the superego and the nature of the feminine castration complex. He coined the term phallocentrism in a critique of Freud's account of sexual difference. He argued together with Klein and her Berlin colleague, Karen Horney, for a primary femininity, saying that penis envy arose as a defensive formation rather than arising from the fact, or "injury", of biological asymmetry. In a corresponding reformulation of the castration complex, Jones introduced the concept of "aphanisis" to refer to the fear of "the permanent extinction of the capacity (including opportunity) for sexual enjoyment".

These departures from orthodoxy were noted in Vienna and were topics that were featured in the regular Freud–Jones correspondence, the tone of which became increasingly fractious. Faced with accusations from Freud of orchestrating a campaign against him and his daughter, Jones sought to allay Freud's concerns without abandoning his new critical standpoint. Eventually, following a series of exchange lectures between the Vienna and London societies, which Jones arranged with Anna Freud, Freud and Jones resumed their usual cordial exchanges.

With the arrival in Britain of refugee German and Viennese analysts in the 1930s, including Anna Freud in 1938, the hostility between the orthodox Freudians and Kleinians in the British Society grew more intense. Jones chaired a number of "extraordinary business meetings" with the aim of defusing the conflict, and these continued into the war years. The meetings, which became known as the controversial discussions, were established on a more regular basis from 1942. By that time, Jones had removed himself from direct participation, owing to ill health and the difficulties of war-time travel from his home in Elsted, West Sussex. He resigned from the presidency of the British Society in 1944, the year in which, under the presidency of Sylvia Payne, there finally emerged a compromise agreement which established parallel training courses providing options to satisfy the concerns of the rival groups that had formed: followers of Anna Freud, followers of Melanie Klein and a non-aligned group of Middle or Independent Group analysts. It was agreed further that all the key policy making committees of the BPS should have representatives from the three groups.

Later life and death
After the end of the war, Jones gradually relinquished his many official posts whilst continuing his psychoanalytic practice, writings and lecturing. The major undertaking of his final years was his monumental account of Freud's life and work, published to widespread acclaim in three volumes between 1953 and 1957. In this he was ably assisted by his German-speaking wife, who translated much of Freud's early correspondence and other archive documentation made available by Anna Freud. His uncompleted autobiography, Free Associations, was published posthumously in 1959.

Always proud of his Welsh origins, Jones became a member of the Welsh Nationalist Party, Plaid Cymru. He had a particular love of the Gower Peninsula, which he had explored extensively in his youth. Following the purchase of a holiday cottage in Llanmadoc, this area became a regular holiday retreat for the Jones family. He was instrumental in helping secure its status in 1956, as the first region of the UK to be designated an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.

Both of Jones's main leisure pursuits resulted in significant publications. A keen ice skater since his schooldays, Jones published an influential textbook on the subject. His passion for chess inspired a psychoanalytical study of the life of American chess genius, Paul Morphy.

Jones was made a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians (FRCP) in 1942, Honorary President of the International Psychoanalytical Association in 1949, and was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Science degree at Swansea University (Wales) in 1954.

Jones died in London on 11 February 1958, and was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium. His ashes were buried in the grave of the oldest of his four children in the churchyard of St Cadoc's Cheriton on the Gower Peninsula.

Works
includes a comprehensive bibliography of Jones' writings.

 * 1912. Papers on Psycho-Analysis. London: Balliere Tindall & Cox. Revised and enlarged editions, 1918, 1923, 1938, 1948 (5th edition).
 * 1920. Treatment of the Neuroses. London: Balliere Tindall & Cox
 * 1921. Psycho-Analysis and the War Neuroses. With Karl Abraham, Sándor Ferenczi and Ernst Simmel. London: International Psycho-Analytical Press
 * 1923. Essays in Applied Psycho-Analysis. London: International Psycho-Analytical Press. Revised and enlarged edition, 1951, London: Hogarth Press. Reprinted (1974) as Psycho-Myth, Psycho-History. 2 vols. New York: Hillstone.
 * 1924 (editor). Social Aspects of Psycho-Analysis: Lectures Delivered under the Auspices of the Sociological Society. London: Williams and Norgate.
 * 1928. Psycho-Analysis. London: E. Benn. Reprinted (1949) with an Addendum as What is Psychoanalysis ?. London: Allen & Unwin
 * 1931a. On the Nightmare. London: Hogarth Press and Institute of Psycho-Analysis.
 * 1931b. The Elements of Figure Skating. London: Methuen. Revised and enlarged edition, 1952. London: Allen and Unwin.
 * 1949. Hamlet and Oedipus. London: V. Gollancz.
 * 1953. Sigmund Freud: Life and Work. Vol 1: The Young Freud 1856–1900. London: Hogarth Press.
 * 1955. Sigmund Freud: Life and Work. Vol 2: The Years of Maturity 1901–1919. London: Hogarth Press.
 * 1957. Sigmund Freud: Life and Work. Vol 3: The Last Phase 1919–1939. London: Hogarth Press.
 * 1961. Sigmund Freud: Life and Work. An abridgment of the preceding 3 volume work, by Lionel Trilling and Stephen Marcus, with Introduction by Lionel Trilling. New York: Basic Books.
 * 1956. Sigmund Freud: Four Centenary Addresses. New York: Basic Books
 * 1959. Free Associations: Memories of a Psycho-Analyst. Epilogue by Mervyn Jones. London: Hogarth Press. Reprinted (1990) with a New Introduction by Mervyn Jones. New Brunswick and London: Transaction Publishers.

Correspondence

 * Paskauskas, R Andrew (ed), The Complete Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Ernest Jones, 1908–1939., Belknap Press, Harvard University Press, 1995, ISBN 978-0-674-15424-7
 * Sándor Ferenczi – Ernest Jones: Letters 1911–1933. London: Karnac Books, 2013. ISBN 978-1-7804917-6-9

title: Ernest Jones


text:
Talk:Quantum suicide and immortality

Lead section conveys almost no information
From reading the lead section, all I know is that this is about a thought experiment and that it involves quantum mechanics.

Some more specific concerns:

 * "Quantum suicide is a thought experiment in quantum mechanics and the philosophy of physics." - This is fine as far as it goes, but insufficient. What kind of thought experiment? What are the subjects of the thought experiment?
 * "Purportedly, it can falsify any..." - In the second sentence before even explaining what this is, we're already getting to its claimed applications.
 * "Quantum immortality refers to the subjective experience of surviving quantum suicide." - Now we get a second phrase defined in terms of the first without a definition of the first.
 * "Hugh Everett did not mention quantum suicide or quantum immortality in writing" - The second section starts with this phrase... this really makes me think that this article is a rebuttal to the actual Wikipedia article. Can we get that one instead? Who is Hugh Everett and why is what he DIDN'T say relevant?
 * "The quantum suicide thought experiment involves a similar apparatus to Schrödinger's cat – a box which kills the occupant in a given time frame with probability one-half due to quantum uncertainty. The only difference is to have the experimenter recording observations be the one inside the box. The significance of this is that someone whose life or death depends on a qubit could possibly distinguish between interpretations of quantum mechanics. By definition, fixed observers cannot." - Start of the 3rd section. Definitely should have led with this!

I'd suggest re-writing the intro as:

"Quantum suicide is a thought experiment in quantum mechanics and the philosophy of physics which involves a similar apparatus to Schrödinger's cat–a box which kills the occupant in a given time frame with probability one-half due to quantum uncertainty. In this variation the experimenter recording observations is the also the subject inside the box which could theoretically allow for differences between the interpretations of quantum mechanics to be observed."

"Quantum suicide and immortality/Archive 1" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect Quantum suicide and immortality/Archive 1 and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Regards, SONIC 678 06:26, 30 December 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Quantum suicide and immortality


text:
Richard Llewellyn

Richard Dafydd Vivian Llewellyn Lloyd ( 8 December 1906, London – 30 November 1983, Dublin), known by his pen name Richard Llewellyn, was a British novelist of a Welsh background, who is best remembered for his 1939 novel How Green Was My Valley, which chronicles life in a coal mining village in the South Wales Valleys.

Biography
Richard Herbert Vivian Lloyd (he later used the name "Richard Dafydd Vivian Llewellyn Lloyd") was born in Hendon, Middlesex in 1906, the second child and only son of William Llewellyn Lloyd, a hotel clerk and later the assistant secretary to a club, and Sarah Anne, née Thomas. Only after his death was it discovered that Llewellyn's claim that he was born in St Davids, West Wales, was false.

In the U.S., Llewellyn won the National Book Award for favourite novel of 1940, voted by members of the American Booksellers Association.

He lived a peripatetic existence, travelling widely throughout his life. Before World War II he spent periods working in hotels, wrote a play, worked as a coal miner and produced his best-known novel. During World War II he rose to the rank of Captain in the Welsh Guards. His sister Gwladys (a Royal Red Cross commandant) and her two daughters were killed during the bombing of London, in June 1944. Following the war he worked as a journalist, covering the Nuremberg Trials, and then as a screenwriter for MGM. During his lifetime, he lived in a variety of countries, including Italy, China, Brazil, Argentina, Kenya and Israel, in addition to Britain and Ireland.

Llewellyn married twice: his first wife was Nona Theresa Catherine Sonsteby, whom he married in 1952 and divorced in 1968; his second wife was editor Susan Frances Heimann, whom he married in 1974.

Richard Llewellyn died of a heart attack in St. Vincent's Hospital, Dublin on 30 November 1983.

Themes
Several of his novels dealt with a Welsh theme, the best-known being How Green Was My Valley (1939), which won international acclaim and was made into a classic Hollywood film. It immortalised the way of life of the South Wales Valleys coal mining communities, where Llewellyn spent a small amount of time with his grandfather. Three sequels followed.

title: Richard Llewellyn


text:
Richard Hughes (British writer)

Richard Arthur Warren Hughes (19 April 1900 – 28 April 1976) was a British writer of poems, short stories, novels and plays.

He was born in Weybridge, Surrey. His father was Arthur Hughes, a civil servant, and his mother Louisa Grace Warren who had been brought up in the West Indies in Jamaica. He was educated first at Charterhouse School and graduated from Oriel College, Oxford in 1922.

A Charterhouse schoolmaster had sent Hughes's first published work to the magazine The Spectator in 1917. The article, written as a school essay, was an unfavourable criticism of The Loom of Youth, by Alec Waugh, a recently published novel which caused a furore for its account of homosexual passions between British schoolboys in a public school. At Oxford he met Robert Graves, also an Old Carthusian, and they co-edited a poetry publication, Oxford Poetry, in 1921. Hughes's short play The Sisters' Tragedy was being staged in the West End of London at the Royal Court Theatre by 1922. He was the author of the world's first radio play, A Comedy Of Danger, commissioned from him for the BBC by Nigel Playfair and broadcast on 15 January 1924.

Hughes was employed as a journalist and travelled widely before he married the painter Frances Bazley (1905–1985) in 1932. They settled for a period in Norfolk and then in 1934 at Castle House, Laugharne in South Wales. Dylan Thomas stayed with Hughes and wrote his book Portrait of the Artist as a Young Dog whilst living at Castle House. Hughes was instrumental in Thomas relocating permanently to the area.

He wrote only four novels, the most famous of which is The Innocent Voyage (1929), or A High Wind in Jamaica, as Hughes renamed it soon after its initial publication. Set in the 19th century, it explores the events which follow the accidental capture of a group of English children by pirates: the children are revealed as considerably more amoral than the pirates (it was in this novel that Hughes first described the cocktail Hangman's Blood). In 1938, he wrote an allegorical novel, In Hazard, based on the true story of the S.S. Phemius that was caught in the 1932 Cuba hurricane for four days during its maximum intensity. He wrote volumes of children's stories, including The Spider's Palace.

During the war, Hughes had a desk job in the Admiralty. He met the architects Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry, whose children stayed with the Hughes family for much of that time. After the end of the war, he spent ten years writing scripts for Ealing Studios, and published no more novels until 1961. Of the trilogy The Human Predicament, only the first two volumes, The Fox in the Attic (1961) and The Wooden Shepherdess (1973), were complete when he died; twelve chapters, less than 50 pages, of the final volume are now published. In these he describes the course of European history from the 1920s through World War II, including real characters and events—such as Hitler's escape after the abortive Munich putsch—as well as fictional.

Later in life Hughes relocated to Ynys in Gwynedd. He was churchwarden of Llanfihangel-y-traethau, the village church, where he was buried when he died at home in 1976.

Hughes was a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature and, in the United States, an honorary member of both the National Institute of Arts and Letters and the American Academy of Arts and Letters. He was awarded the OBE (Officer of the Order of the British Empire) in 1946.

Family
Richard and Frances Hughes had five children. Their second child, Penelope Hughes, published a memoir, Richard Hughes: Author, Father, in 1984.

Novels

 * A High Wind in Jamaica (1929)
 * In Hazard (1938)
 * The Human Predicament:
 * Volume 1: The Fox in the Attic (1962)
 * Volume 2: The Wooden Shepherdess (1973)

Poetry

 * Gypsy-Night and other poems (1922)
 * Confessio Juvenis: Collected Poems (1926)

Plays

 * The Sisters' Tragedy (1922)
 * Danger: a Play (1924)
 * A Comedy of Good and Evil (1924)
 * The Man Born to be Hanged (1924)
 * The Sisters' Tragedy, and Three Other Plays (1924)

Short story collections

 * A Moment of Time (1926)
 * In the Lap of Atlas: Stories of Morocco (1979)

Stories for children

 * The Spider’s Palace and Other Stories (1931)
 * Don’t Blame Me! and Other Stories (1940)
 * Gertrude’s Child (1966)
 * The Wonder Dog: Collected Children’s Stories (1977)

Criticism

 * John Skelton: Poems (1924, editor)
 * Fiction as Truth: Selected Literary Writings of Richard Hughes (1983)

Screenplays
Hughes also ghost-wrote The Story of the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith (1925) for Nigel Playfair, and collaborated with J. D. Scott on an official government publication, The Administration of War Production (1955).
 * A Run for Your Money (1949) (with Clifford Evans, Leslie Norman, Diana Morgan and Charles Frend)
 * The Divided Heart (1954) (with Jack Whittingham)

title: Richard Hughes (British writer)


text:
Leptis Magna

Leptis or Lepcis Magna, also known by other names in antiquity, was a prominent city of the Carthaginian Empire and Roman Libya at the mouth of the Wadi Lebda in the Mediterranean.

Established as a Punic settlement prior to 500 BC, the city experienced significant expansion under Roman Emperor Septimius Severus ((r. 193 – 211)), who was born in the city. The 3rd Augustan Legion was stationed here to defend the city against Berber incursions. After the legion's dissolution under Gordian III in 238, the city was increasingly open to raids in the later part of the 3rd century. Diocletian reinstated the city as provincial capital, and it grew again in prosperity until it fell to the Vandals in 439. It was reincorporated into the Eastern Empire in 533 but continued to be plagued by Berber raids and never recovered its former importance. It fell to the Muslim invasion in c. 647 and was subsequently abandoned.

After being abandoned, the city was remarkably preserved as it lay buried beneath layers of sand dunes. In the 1920s, the city was unearthed by Italian archaeologists during Italy's occupation of Libya. Its ruins are within present-day Khoms, Libya, 130 km east of Tripoli. They are among the best-preserved Roman sites in the Mediterranean.

Names
The Punic name of the settlement was written  or  (𐤋𐤐𐤒𐤉). This has been tentatively connected to the Semitic root (present in Arabic), meaning "to build" or "to piece together", presumably in reference to the construction of the city.

This name was hellenized as Léptis (Λέπτις), also known as Léptis Megálē (Λέπτις μεγάλη, "Greater Leptis") distinguishing it from the "Lesser Leptis" closer to Carthage in modern-day Tunisia. It was also known by the Greeks as Neápolis (Νεάπολις, "New Town"). The latinization of these names was Lepcis or Leptis Magna ("Greater Leptis"), which also appeared as the "Leptimagnese City" (Leptimagnensis Civitas). The Latin demonym was "Leptitan" (Leptitanus). It was also known as UlpiaTraiana as a Roman colony, after Emperor Trajan of the Ulpia gens. Its Italian name is LeptiMaggiore, and in Arabic it is named Labdah (لَبْدَة).

Punics
The Punic city was founded in the second half of the 7th centuryBC. Little is known about Leptis during this time, but it appears to have been powerful enough to repel Dorieus's attempt to establish a Greek colony nearby around 515BC. Like most Punic settlements, Leptis became part of the Carthaginian Empire and fell under Rome's control with Carthage's defeat in the Punic Wars. Leptis remained highly independent for a period after about 111BC.

Roman Republic
The Roman Republic sent some colonists together with a small garrison in order to control the city. The city prospered and was even allowed to coin its own money in silver and bronze. Reflecting its blend of cultures, its coins bore Punic inscriptions but images of Hercules and Dionysus. Soon Italian merchants settled in the city and started a profitable commerce with the Libyan interior. The city depended primarily on the fertility of its surrounding farmland, where many olive-presses have been excavated. By 46BC, its olive oil production was of such an extent that the city was able to provide three million pounds of oil annually to Julius Caesar as tax.

Roman Empire
Kenneth D. Matthews Jr. writes: "During the reign of Augustus, Leptis Magna was classified as a civitas libera et immunis, or a free community, over which the governor had an absolute minimum of control. As such Leptis retain its two suphetes at the head of its government, with the mhzm, similar to the Roman aediles, as minor magistrates. In addition there were such sacred officials as the ʾaddir ʾararim or praefectus sacrorum, the nēquim ēlīm, and probably a sacred college of fifteen members."

Leptis Magna remained as such until the reign of the Roman emperor Tiberius, when the city and the surrounding area were formally incorporated into the empire as part of the province of Africa. It soon became one of the leading cities of Roman Africa and a major trading post. The city grew rapidly under Roman administration. During the reign of Nero, an amphitheater was constructed. The settlement was elevated to municipium in AD 64 or 65 and to colonia under Trajan ((r. 98 – 117))

Leptis achieved its greatest prominence beginning in AD193, as the hometown of emperor Septimius Severus. Septimius favored his hometown above all other provincial cities, and the buildings and wealth he lavished on it made Leptis Magna the third-most important city in Africa, rivaling Carthage and Alexandria. In AD205, he and the imperial family visited the city and bestowed great honors. Among the changes that Severus introduced were the creation of a magnificent new forum and the rebuilding of the docks. The natural harbor had a tendency to silt up, but the Severan changes made this worse, and the eastern wharves are extremely well preserved, since they were scarcely used.

Leptis prospered through trans-Saharan trade in various valuable goods, including ivory, wild animals for the gladiatorial arena, gold dust, carbuncle, precious woods like ebony, and ostrich feathers.

Leptis overextended itself during this period. During the Crisis of the 3rd Century, when trade declined precipitously, Leptis Magna's importance also fell into a decline, and by the middle of the 4th century, even before it was completely devastated by the 365 tsunami, large parts of the city had been abandoned. Ammianus Marcellinus recounts that the crisis was worsened by a corrupt Roman governor named Romanus, who demanded bribes to protect the city during a major tribal raid. The ruined city could not pay these and complained to the emperor Valentinian I. Romanus then bribed people at court and arranged for the Leptan envoys to be punished "for bringing false accusations". It enjoyed a minor renaissance beginning in the reign of the emperor Theodosius I.

Vandal Kingdom
In 439, Leptis Magna and the rest of the cities of Tripolitania fell under the control of the Vandals when their king, Gaiseric, captured Carthage from the Romans and made it his capital. Unfortunately for the future of Leptis Magna, Gaiseric ordered the city's walls demolished so as to dissuade its people from rebelling against Vandal rule. The people of Leptis and the Vandals both paid a heavy price for this in AD523 when a group of Berber raiders sacked the city.

Byzantine Empire
Belisarius, general of Emperor Justinian I, recaptured Leptis Magna in the name of the Roman Empire ten years later, and in 533–4 it was re-incorporated into the empire. Leptis became a provincial capital of the Eastern Empire, but never recovered from the destruction wreaked upon it by the Berbers. In 544, under the prefecture of Sergius, the city came under intensified attack of Berber tribes, and after some successes, Sergius was reduced to retreating into the city, with the Leuathae tribal confederation camped outside the gate demanding payments. Sergius admitted eighty deputies into the city to present their demands, but when Sergius moved to leave the conference he was detained by the robe by one deputy and crowded by others. This provoked an officer of the prefect's guard to kill the deputy laying hands on the prefect, which resulted in a general massacre. The Berbers reacted with an all-out attack and Sergius was eventually forced to abandon Leptis and retreat to Carthage.

Islamic conquest
By the 6th century, the city was fully Christianized. During the decade 565–578 AD Christian missionaries from Leptis Magna even began to move once more among the Berber tribes as far south as the Fezzan in the Libyan desert and converted the Garamantes. Numerous new churches were built in the 6th century, but the city continued to decline, and by the time of the Arab conquest around 647 the city was mostly abandoned except for a Byzantine garrison force and a population of less than 1,000 inhabitants. By the 10th century, the city of Al-Khums had fully absorbed it.

Excavation
Today, the site of Leptis Magna is the site of some of the most impressive ruins of the Roman period.

Part of an ancient temple was brought from Leptis Magna to the British Museum in 1816 and installed at the Fort Belvedere royal residence in England in 1826. It now lies in part of Windsor Great Park. The ruins are located between the south shore of Virginia Water and Blacknest Road close to the junction with the A30 London Road and Wentworth Drive. When Italians conquered Italian Libya in the early 20th century, they dedicated huge efforts to the rediscovery of Leptis Magna. In the early 1930s Italian archeological research was able to show again the buried remains of nearly all the city. A 4th to 3rd centuryBC necropolis was found under the Roman theatre.

In June 2005, it was revealed that archaeologists from the University of Hamburg had been working along the coast of Libya when they uncovered a 30 ft length of five colorful mosaics created during the 1st or 2nd century. The mosaics show with exceptional clarity depictions of a warrior in combat with a deer, four young men wrestling a wild bull to the ground, and a gladiator resting in a state of fatigue and staring at his slain opponent. The mosaics decorated the walls of a cold plunge pool in a balneae within a Roman villa at Wadi Lebda in Leptis Magna. The gladiator mosaic is noted by scholars as one of the finest examples of representational mosaic art ever seen—a "masterpiece comparable in quality with the Alexander Mosaic in Pompeii." The mosaics were originally discovered in the year 2000 but were kept secret in order to avoid looting. They are currently on display in the Leptis Magna Museum.

There were reports that Leptis Magna was used as a cover for tanks and military vehicles by pro-Gaddafi forces during the First Libyan Civil War in 2011. When asked about the possibility of conducting an air-strike on the historic site, NATO refused to rule out the possibility of such an action saying that it had not been able to confirm the rebels' report that weapons were being hidden at the location. Shortly after the war, Libyan archaeologist Hafed Walda reported that Leptis Magna, along with nearby Rasaimergib Fort and the western Tripolis of Sabratha, had "so far seen no visible loss" from either fighting on the ground or bombings conducted by international forces.

In the midst of the Second Libyan Civil War and the disappearance of governmental and international support for the site, people living in the area organized to voluntarily protect and maintain Leptis Magna.

Climate change
Since they are located on the coast, Leptis Magna ruins are vulnerable to sea level rise. In 2022, the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report included them in the list of African cultural sites which would be threatened by flooding and coastal erosion by the end of the century, but only if climate change followed RCP 8.5, which is the scenario of high and continually increasing greenhouse gas emissions associated with the warming of over 4°C., and is no longer considered very likely. The other, more plausible scenarios result in lower warming levels and consequently lower sea level rise: yet, sea levels would continue to increase for about 10,000 years under all of them. Even if the warming is limited to 1.5°C, global sea level rise is still expected to exceed 2-3 m after 2000 years (and higher warming levels will see larger increases by then), consequently exceeding 2100 levels of sea level rise under RCP 8.5 (~0.75 m with a range of 0.5-1 m) well before the year 4000. Thus, it is a matter of time before the Leptis Magna ruins are threatened by rising water levels, unless they can be protected by adaptation efforts such as sea walls.

title: Leptis Magna


text:
Jack Jones (novelist)

Jack Jones (24 November 1884 – 7 May 1970) was a Welsh miner, Trade Union official, politician, novelist and playwright.

Background
Jack Jones was born in 1884 at Tai-Harri-Blawdd in Merthyr Tydfil, the eldest of nine surviving children of David Jones, a coal miner, and his wife Sarah Ann. He was educated at St David’s Elementary School, Merthyr Tydfil, Glamorgan. He married Laura Grimes Evans in 1908. They had four sons (two died young) and one daughter.

Career
In 1896 he joined his father to work in the mines aged 12. In 1901 at the age of 17 he joined the army and was posted to South Africa with his regiment the Militia Battalion of the Welch. However he was very unhappy there and ended up deserting. Once recaptured, he was transferred to India. When he eventually returned to Wales he went back to working in the coal mines. In 1914 Jones was summoned back to his regiment and sent to the front lines in France and later on Belgium. After suffering shrapnel wounds he was invalided home and appointed as recruiting officer for Merthyr Tydfil. He became honorary secretary of his local miners lodge. In 1923 he was appointed as the full-time secretary-representative of the miners at Blaengarw. In 1926 during the General Strike as part of his job as a miners agent, he travelled around South Wales urging miners to continue supporting the strike. In 1927 he resigned from his full-time post with the miners union. In early 1928 he was employed by Liberal Party headquarters as a speaker. He continued in this job until 1930. By 1934 he had started to earn a living as a writer. He went on two lecture tours in America and the European battlefronts during the Second World War (1939-1945).

Politics
In 1920 Jones became a member of the Communist Party. He attended a convention in Manchester on behalf of his local miners lodge with the purpose of establishing the party; at this meeting he was chosen to be Corresponding Secretary for the South Wales Region. He later founded a branch at Merthyr Tydfil. In 1923 he left the Communist Party and joined the Labour Party. He undertook a number of speaking engagements for the party including speaking in support of Labour leader Ramsay MacDonald at Aberavon. In 1927 he produced his first article for the press entitled "The Need for a Lib-Lab Coalition". He was becoming disenchanted with the Labour party and its support for nationalisation. He was drawn to support the Liberal Party through its new policies on coal and power. and had joined by the beginning of 1928. Liberal leader David Lloyd George who had been impressed by his rhetoric, recruited him to the Liberal headquarters speaking staff. He travelled around Britain speaking in support of the Liberal party's new industrial policies. In May 1928 he was selected by Neath Liberal Association to be their prospective parliamentary candidate. Neath was a safe Labour seat that the Liberals last won in 1918; at the last election in 1924 the Liberals had not run a candidate. He stood as Liberal candidate for Neath at the 1929 General Election and polled nearly 30%;

He did not stand for parliament again. He was retained by Liberal headquarters as a speaker for another 12 months after the election. During the 1930s he made another political change and was a speaker for Oswald Mosley's New Party. In the 1945 election he supported 'National' candidate Sir James Grigg.

Writing career
During his 20s Jack Jones began to educate himself and develop his love of the theatre and writing, often taking part in local dramatic productions. In 1926 he successfully entered a short play he had written entitled Dad's Double into a competition in Manchester. He began writing seriously during a period of unemployment. His first novel, Saran, was never published, but a reduced version of it appeared as Black Parade (1935). By 1939, he had written the novels Rhondda Roundabout (1934), and Bidden to the Feast (1938), a play, Land of my Fathers (1937), and his first autobiography, Unfinished Journey (1937). The London stage version of Rhondda Roundabout was acclaimed. He wrote the dialogue for the film The Proud Valley, in which he also had a minor acting role. During the Second World War he was a speaker for the Ministry of Information and the National Savings Movement. He wrote The Man David (1944), a life of David Lloyd George.

After the war he wrote two volumes of autobiography, Me and Mine (1946) and Give Me Back My Heart (1950), three novels, Off to Philadelphia in the Morning (1947) made into a BBC drama of the same name in 1978, Some Trust in Chariots (1948), and River Out of Eden (1951), and a play Transatlantic Episode (1947). His later works, Lily of the Valley and Lucky Year (1952), Time and the Business (1953), Choral Symphony (1955) and Come, Night; End, Day (1956) were less well received. In 1954, he married his second wife, Gladys Morgan. He was elected first President of the English section of Yr Academi Gymreig. Until his death in May 1970 he continued writing; these works remained unpublished, including a biographical novel, A Burnt Offering, based on the life of Dr William Price (1800–1893), Llantrisant, pioneer of cremation.

Honours
In 1948 he was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire for his services to the community and to literature. In February 1970 he won an award from the Arts Council of Wales for `his distinguished contribution to the literature of Wales'. Jack Jones died on 7 May 1970.

Writings

 * Film
 * The Proud Valley (1940)
 * Plays
 * Land of my Fathers (1937)
 * Rhondda Roundabout (1934)
 * Transatlantic Episode (1947)
 * Books
 * Saran (unpublished)
 * Rhondda Roundabout (1934)
 * Black Parade (1935)
 * Unfinished Journey (autobiography) (1937)
 * Bidden to the Feast (1938)
 * The Man David (1944)
 * Me and Mine: Further Chapters in the Autobiography of Jack Jones (1946)
 * Give Me Back My Heart (1950)
 * Off to Philadelphia in the Morning (1947)
 * Some Trust in Chariots (1948)
 * River out of Eden (1951)
 * Lily of the Valley (1952)
 * Lucky Year (1952)
 * Time and the Business (1953)
 * Choral Symphony (1955)
 * Come, Night; End, Day (1956)
 * A Burnt Offering (unpublished)

title: Jack Jones (novelist)