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Military incompetence

Military incompetence refers to incompetencies and failures of military organisations, whether through incompetent individuals or through a flawed institutional culture.

The effects of isolated cases of personal incompetence can be disproportionately significant in military organisations. Strict hierarchies of command provide the opportunity for a single decision to direct the work of thousands, whilst an institutional culture devoted to following orders without debate can help ensure that a bad or miscommunicated decision is implemented without being challenged or corrected.

However, the most common cases of "military incompetence" can be attributable to a flawed organisational culture. Perhaps the most marked of these is a conservative and traditionalist attitude, where innovative ideas or new technology are discarded or left untested. A tendency to believe that a problem can be solved by applying an earlier (failed) solution "better", be that with more men, more firepower, or simply more zeal, is common. A strict hierarchical system often discourages the devolution of power to junior commanders, and can encourage micromanagement by senior officers.

The nature of warfare provides several factors which exacerbate these effects; the fog of war means that information about the enemy forces is often limited or inaccurate, making it easy for the intelligence process to interpret the information to agree with existing assumptions, or to fit it to their own preconceptions and expectations. Communications tend to deteriorate in battlefield situations, with the flow of information between commanders and combat units being disrupted, making it difficult to react to changes in the situation as they develop.

After operations have ceased, military organisations often fail to learn effectively from experience. In victory, whatever methods have been usedno matter how inefficientappear to have been vindicated (see victory disease), whilst in defeat there is a tendency to select scapegoats and to avoid looking in detail at the broader reasons for failure.

title: Military incompetence


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Lashing (ropework)

A lashing is an arrangement of rope, wire, or webbing with linking device used to secure and fasten two or more items together in a somewhat rigid manner. Lashings are most commonly applied to timber poles, and are commonly associated with cargo, containerisation, the Scouting movement, and sailors.

It has been imagined that the first lashing made by humans was wrapping a few strips of bark around a stone to hold it to a tree branch to make an ax to hunt and build with. In modern times, the same methods are used, but strips of bark and vines have been replaced with natural and synthetic fiber ropes. Scouts and campers use lashings to build camp gadgets and improve their campsites for comfort and convenience, including the building of rafts for transport and competitive events. Lashings are also used in pioneering, the art of creating structures such as bridges and towers, using ropes and wooden spars.

There are still areas in the world where lashing spars (or poles) is the basic means of building.

Square lashing
Square lashing is a type of lashing used to bind spars together, at right angles to one another. There are different types, but all consist of a series of wraps around the spars, and frapping around the line running between the spars.

Diagonal lashing
Diagonal lashing is a type of lashing used to bind spars or poles together, to prevent racking. It gets its name from the fact that the wrapping turns cross the poles diagonally and is used to spring poles together where they do not touch as in the X-brace of a trestle.

Shear lashing
Shear lashing (two-spar shear lashing) also spelled "sheer lashing" is used for lashing together two parallel spars which will be opened out of the parallel to form sheer legs as in the formation of an A-frame. The clove hitch is tied around one leg only and frapping turns are taken between the poles.

Round lashing
The round lashing is most frequently used to join two poles together to extend their length. Typically, two lashings are used a reasonable distance apart for extra strength. In the simple version, a clove hitch is tied around both poles and there are no frapping turns.

The nautical term gammon means a round lashing of rope or iron hardware to attach a mast to a boat or ship.

Tripod lashing
The tripod lashing (also known as gyn lashing, figure of eight lashing, and three-spar shear lashing) is used to join several spars together to form a self supporting structure. If the lashing is tied around three spars, then the structure is called a tripod, but quadpods can also be made by using four spars.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Lashing (ropework)


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Plait

Plait may refer to:

 * Plait, also called a braid, intertwined strands of, for example, textile or hair
 * Plait, now called a pleat, a fold of fabric, used in clothing and upholstery
 * Plait (gastropod), a fold in the columella of a gastropod mollusc
 * Plaiting in basketry
 * Phil Plait, American astronomer, skeptic and blogger

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Talk:Psychosurgery

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 18:08, 7 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Icepicks1.jpg

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Ramallah

Ramallah (, ; رام الله  ) is a Palestinian city in the central West Bank, that serves as the de facto administrative capital of the State of Palestine. It is situated on the Judaean Mountains, 10 km north of Jerusalem, at an average elevation of 872 meters above sea level, adjacent to al-Bireh.

Ramallah has buildings containing masonry from the period of Herod the Great, but no complete building predates the Crusades of the 11th century. The modern city was founded during the 16th century by the Hadadeens, an Arab Christian clan descended from Ghassanids. In 1517, the city was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire, and in 1920, it became part of British Mandatory Palestine after it was captured by the United Kingdom during World War I. The 1948 Arab–Israeli War saw the entire West Bank, including Ramallah, occupied and annexed by Transjordan. Ramallah was later captured by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War. Since the 1995 Oslo Accords, Ramallah has been governed by the PNA (Palestinian National Authority) as part of Area A of the West Bank.

In recent years, Ramallah has emerged as a key political, cultural, and economic center. It houses various Palestinian governmental bodies, including the Mukataa, the official residence of the President of the Palestinian National Authority, the Palestinian Legislative Council, and the headquarters of the Palestinian Security Services. It is also home to several museums and cultural centers, and has a notable nightlife scene. While historically a predominantly Christian town, Muslims constituted a majority of Ramallah's 38,998 residents by 2017, with Christians making up a significant minority.

Early history
Ramallah was founded in the 16th century by the Hadadeens, an Arab Christian clan. The city boasts archaeological remnants from earlier epochs. Ancient rock-cut tombs have been found near Ramallah. Located just south of the built-up area is Tell en-Nasbeh, an archeological site where biblical Mizpah in Benjamin is likely to have been located.

Several Ramallah buildings incorporate masonry dating back to the reign of Herod the Great (37–4 BCE). Potsherds from the Crusader/Ayyubid and early Ottoman period have also been found there. Ramallah has been identified with the Crusader place called Ramalie. Remains of a building with an arched doorway from the Crusader era, called al-Burj, have been identified, but the original use of the building is undetermined.

Ottoman period
The area of Ramallah was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1517 with all of Palestine. Modern Ramallah was founded in the mid-1500s by the Haddadins (also: Haddadeen), a clan of brothers descended from Ghassanid Christians. The Haddadins (ancestors of the present-day Jadallah family, among others), and their leader Rashid el-Haddadin, arrived from east of the Jordan River from the areas of Karak and Shoubak. The Haddadin migration is attributed to fighting and unrest among clans in that area.

Haddadin was attracted to the mountainous site of Ramallah because it was similar to the mountainous areas he came from. In addition, the heavily forested area could supply him with plenty of fuel for his forges. In 1596, Ramallah was listed in the tax registers as being in the nahiya of Quds (Jerusalem), part of the Liwa of Quds. It had a population of 71 Christian households and 9 Muslim households. It paid a fixed tax rate of 25% on wheat, barley, olives, vines or fruit trees, and goats or beehives; a total of 9,400 akçe. All of the revenue went to a waqf.

In 1838, American biblical scholar Edward Robinson visited the area, noting that the inhabitants were Christian "of the Greek rite". There were 200 taxable men, which gives an estimated total population of 800–900 people. The village "belonged" to the Haram al-Sharif, Jerusalem, to which it paid an annual tax of 350 Mids of grain. In 1883, the PEF's Survey of Western Palestine described Ramallah as

"A large Christian village, of well-built stone houses, standing on a high ridge, with a view on the west extending to the sea. It stands amongst gardens and olive-yards, and has three springs to the south and one on the west; on the north there are three more, within a mile from the village. On the east there is a well. There are rock-cut tombs to the north-east with well-cut entrances, but completely blocked with rubbish. In the village is a Greek church, and on the east a Latin convent and a Protestant schoolhouse, all modern buildings. The village lands are Wakuf, or ecclesiastical property, belonging to the Haram of Jerusalem. About a quarter of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics, the rest Orthodox Greeks."Ramallah was declared a modern city in 1908. It had an elected municipality as well as partnership projects with the adjacent town of al-Bireh. The Friends Boys School became a temporary hospital during World War I.

Christian presence, 17th–21st century

Ramallah grew dramatically throughout the 17th and 18th centuries as an agricultural village, attracting more (predominantly Christian) inhabitants from all around the region. In 1700, Yacoub Elias was the first Ramallah native to be ordained by the Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem, the Christian denomination that prevailed in the Holy Land at the time. In the early 19th century, the first Jerusalemite Greek Orthodox Christian church was built. Later, in 1852, the Greek Orthodox Church of the Transfiguration, was built to replace it; it is the sole Eastern Orthodox Church in Ramallah today.

There is also a Melkite Greek Catholic Church in Ramallah, built in 1895. The Roman Catholic Church also established its presence in Ramallah the 19th century and constitutes today the second-largest Christian denomination in the city. The Roman Catholic Church established the St. Joseph's Girls' School run by St. Joseph sisters, as well as the co-educational Al-Ahliyyah College high school run by Rosary sisters. In 1913, construction of the Catholic Holy Family Church was started.

Currently, Ramallah also has a Coptic Orthodox Church, an Evangelical Lutheran Church and an Episcopalian (Anglican) Church. In the 19th century, the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) established a presence in Ramallah and built the Ramallah Friends Schools, one for girls and later a boys' school, to alleviate the dearth of education for women and girls. Eli and Sybil Jones opened "The Girls Training Home of Ramallah" in 1869. A medical clinic was established in 1883, with Dr. George Hassenauer serving as the first doctor in Ramallah. In 1889, the girls academy became the Friends Girls School (FGS). As the FGS was also a boarding school, it attracted a number of girls from surrounding communities, including Jerusalem, Lydda, Jaffa, and Beirut. The Friends Boys School (FBS) was founded in 1901 and opened in 1918. The Quakers opened a Friends Meeting House for worship in the city center in 1910. According to the school's official website, most high school students choose to take the International Baccalaureate exams (IBE) instead of the traditional "Tawjihi" university exams.

The activity of foreign churches in Palestine in the late 19th century increased awareness of prosperity in the West. In Ramallah and Bethlehem, a few miles south, local residents began to seek economic opportunity overseas. In 1901, merchants from Ramallah emigrated to the United States and established import-export businesses, selling handmade rugs and other exotic wares across the Atlantic. Increased trade dramatically improved living standards for Ramallah's inhabitants. American cars, mechanized farming equipment, radios, and later televisions became attainable luxuries for upper-class families. As residents of Jaffa and Lydda moved to Ramallah, the balance of Muslims and Christians began to change.

In the 21st century, a large community of people with direct descent from the Haddadins who founded Ramallah live in the United States. The town is now predominately Muslim, but still contains a Christian minority. The change in demographics is due mostly to new migration of Muslims to the area, and emigration of Christians from the area.

British Mandate
During World War I, the British Army captured and occupied Ramallah in December 1917. The city remained occupied until the designation of the Palestine Mandate in 1920, resulting in Ramallah falling under British Mandatory control until 1948. In the 1920s, the economy of Ramallah started to improve, resulting in the local Arab upper class (consisting primarily of landowners and merchants) ordering the construction of several multi-storied villas, many of which still stand today. In 1939, the Jerusalem Electric Company introduced electricity to Ramallah, and a majority of the city's homes became wired shortly thereafter. On the same year, the British Mandatory authorities inaugurated the state-owned Palestine Broadcasting Service in Ramallah, with BBC members training local radio staff to deliver daily broadcasts in Arabic, Hebrew, and English. The station was later renamed Jerusalem Calling.

In 1936, an Arab revolt against the British Mandate broke out in Palestine, and Ramallah soon became a center of insurgent activity. The rebels subsequently established a court near Ramallah, in order to provide legal alternatives to the courts of the British Mandate. One British schoolteacher noted that the Ramallah court judge began to produce "news sheets on typewriters and duplicators, aimed at publicizing the alternative rebel regime."

Jordanian and Israeli occupation: 1948—1993
Following the creation of the State of Israel and the ensuing conflict, Jordan seized the part of Palestine they named the West Bank. This included Ramallah. The West Bank was relatively peaceful during the years of Jordanian rule between 1948 and 1967, with its residents enjoying freedom of movement between the West Bank, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria. Jordan annexed the West Bank, applying its national law to the conquered territory. However, many Palestinians were jailed for being members of "illegal political parties", which included the Palestine Communist Party and other socialist and pro-independence groups. By 1953, Ramallah's population had doubled, but the economy and infrastructure could not accommodate the influx of poor villagers. Natives of Ramallah began to emigrate, primarily to the United States. By 1956, about one fourth of Ramallah's 6,000 natives had left, with Arabs from the surrounding towns and villages (particularly Hebron) buying the homes and land the émigrés left behind. During the Six-Day War in 1967, Israel captured Ramallah from Jordan, imposing a military closure and conducting a census a few weeks later. Every person registered in the census was given an Israeli identity card which allowed the bearer to continue to reside there. Those who were abroad during the census lost their residency rights. For residents of Ramallah, the situation had now been reversed. For the first time in 19 years, residents could freely visit Israel and the Gaza Strip and engage in commerce there.

Unlike the Jordanians, Israel did not offer citizenship to the residents. Ramallah residents were issued permits to work in Israel, but did not gain the rights associated with Israeli citizenship. The city remained under Israeli military rule for more than four decades. The Israeli Civil Administration (CA), established in 1981, was in charge of civilian and day-to-day services such as issuing permission to travel, build, export or import, and host relatives from abroad. The CA reprinted Jordanian textbooks for distribution in schools but did not update them. The CA was in charge of tax collection and land expropriation, which sometimes included Israeli seizure of olive groves that Arab villagers had tended for generations.

According to the Israeli Human Rights activists, the development of Jewish settlements in the Ramallah area, such as Beit El and Psagot, prevented the expansion of the city and cut it off from the surrounding Arab villages. As resistance increased, Ramallah residents who were members of the Palestine Liberation Organization were jailed or deported to neighboring countries. In December 1987, the popular uprising known as the Intifada erupted, protesting against the continued Israeli occupation.

Ramallah residents were among the early joiners of the First Intifada. The Intifada Unified Leadership, an umbrella organization of various Palestinian factions, distributed weekly bulletins on the streets of Ramallah with a schedule of the daily protests, strikes and action against Israeli patrols in the city. At the demonstrations, tires were burned in the street, and the crowds threw stones and Molotov cocktails. The IDF responded with tear gas and rubber bullets. Schools in Ramallah were forcibly shut down, and opened gradually for a few hours a day. The Israelis conducted house arrests, imposing curfews that restricted travel and exports in what Palestinians regarded as collective punishment. In response to the closure of schools, residents organized home schooling sessions to help students make up missed material; this became one of the few symbols of civil disobedience. The Intifada leadership organized "tree plantings" and resorted to the tactics used in pre-1948 Palestine, such as ordering general strikes in which no commercial businesses were allowed to open and no cars were allowed on the streets.

In 1991, the Palestinian delegation to the Madrid International Peace Conference included many notables from Ramallah. As the Intifada wound down and the peace process moved forward, normal life in Ramallah resumed. On September 13, 1993, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Palestinian Leader Yasser Arafat shook hands at a meeting at the White House. Schoolchildren in Ramallah handed out olive branches to Israeli soldiers patrolling the streets. In December 1995, in keeping with the Oslo Accords, the Israeli army abandoned the Mukataa and withdrew to the city outskirts. The newly established Palestinian Authority assumed civilian and security responsibility for the city, which was designated "Area A" under the accords.

Palestinian Authority rule
The years between 1993 and 2000 (known locally as the "Oslo Years") brought relative prosperity to Ramallah. Ramallah and its immediate environs were classified as Area A in the Oslo Accords, under full civil and security control of the Palestinian Authority (PA) administration in September 1995. Many expatriates returned to establish businesses there, and the atmosphere was one of optimism. In 2000, unemployment began to rise and the economy of Ramallah declined. The Israel Defense Forces remained in control of the territories and its government did not restore the freedom of movement enjoyed by Ramallah residents prior to the first Intifada. Travel to Jerusalem required special permits. The number and size of Israeli settlements around Ramallah increased dramatically. A network of bypass roads for use of Israeli citizens only was built around Ramallah, and Israel expropriated land for settlements. Many official documents previously handled by the Israeli Civil Administration were now handled by the Palestinian Authority but still required Israeli approval. A Palestinian passport issued to Ramallah residents was not valid unless the serial number was registered with the Israeli authorities, who controlled border crossings.

The failure of the Camp David summit in July 2000 led to the outbreak of the Second Intifada (al-Aqsa Intifada) in September 2000. Young Ramallah residents demonstrated daily against the Israeli army, with marches to the Israeli checkpoints at the outskirts of the city. Over time, the marches were replaced by sporadic use of live ammunition against Israeli soldiers; and various attacks targeting Jewish settlers, particularly on the Israeli-only bypass roads. Army checkpoints were established to restrict movement in and out of Ramallah.

On October 12, 2000, two Israeli army reservists, Vadim Norzhich and Yosef Avrahami were lynched in Ramallah. They had taken a wrong turn, and were set upon by a mob, enraged in particular by the Muhammad al-Durrah incident in Gaza. A frenzied crowd killed the two IDF reservists, mutilated their bodies, and dragged them through the streets. Later that afternoon, the Israeli army carried out an air strike on Ramallah, demolishing the police station. Israel later succeeded in capturing and prosecuting some of those involved in the deaths of the reservists.

The IDF has occasionally operated inside Ramallah, in breach of the 1995 Oslo Accords. The first and largest incursion was the 2002 Operation Defensive Shield, with a more recent intervention coming in March 2017 while attempting to arrest a suspected terrorist. In 2002, the army imposed curfews, electricity cuts, school closures and disruptions of commercial life. Many Ramallah institutions, including government ministries, were vandalized, and equipment was destroyed or stolen. The IDF took over local Ramallah television stations, and social and economic conditions deteriorated. Many expatriates left, as did many other Palestinians who complained that the living conditions had become intolerable. Construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier has added to Ramallah's isolation.

Yasser Arafat established his West Bank headquarters, the Mukataa, in Ramallah. Although considered an interim solution, Ramallah became the de facto capital of the Palestinian Authority, now officially known as the State of Palestine. It hosts almost all governmental headquarters. In December 2001, Arafat held meetings at the Mukataa, but lived with his wife and daughter in Gaza City. After suicide bombings in Haifa, Arafat was confined to the Ramallah compound. In 2002, the compound was partly demolished by the Israeli Defense Forces and Arafat's building was cut off from the rest of the compound.

On November 11, 2004, Arafat died at the Percy training hospital of the Armies near Paris. He was buried in the courtyard of the Mukataa on November 12, 2004. The site still serves as the Ramallah headquarters of the Palestinian Authority, as well the official West Bank office of Mahmoud Abbas. Throughout 2005, while the Disengagement Plan was underway, some US government officials suggested to the Palestinian leadership to move the provisional capital back to Gaza, where it had been when the Palestinian Authority was first established in 1994. President Abbas, however, refrained from doing so, arguing that at this point, it was important to keep the administrative center in the West Bank in order to remind the international community that the West Bank was still awaiting a territorial solution.

In December 2005, local elections were held in Ramallah in which candidates from three different factions competed for the 15-seat municipal council for a four-year term. The council elected Janet Mikhail as mayor, the first woman to hold the post.

Munir Hamdan, a member of Fatah and a Ramallah businessman, discussed the concentration of government offices with a journalist. He said, "The president and prime minister have their offices here. So do the parliament and all the government ministries", representing a "collusion" between the Palestinian Authority and Israel to turn Ramallah into the political as well as the financial capital of the Palestinians. He is particularly worried by the construction of a large new governmental complex by the PA. Hatem Abdel Kader, a Jerusalem resident, Fatah legislator and former Minister for Jerusalem Affairs, complained that "If they are building a new government compound here, that means they have no plans to be based in Jerusalem... Unfortunately, the Palestinian government of Salam Fayyad has abandoned Jerusalem in favor of Ramallah." In November 2011, King Abdullah II of Jordan visited Ramallah for the first time since 2000.

Geography and climate

This area enjoys a Mediterranean climate of a dry summer and mild, rainy winter with occasional snowfall. The recorded average of Ramallah's rainfall is about 615 mm and minimum rainfall is 307 mm and maximum rainfall is 1591 mm.

The Köppen climate classification places Ramallah in the Csa category. Climates of this class generally occur on the western sides of continents between the latitudes of 30° and 45°. These climates are in the polar front region in winter, and thus have moderate temperatures and changeable, rainy weather. Summers are hot and dry, due to the domination of the subtropical high pressure systems, except in the immediate coastal areas, where summers are milder due to the nearby presence of cold ocean currents that may bring fog but prevent rain.

Economy
Ramallah have emerged as a financial hub of Palestine and hosts numerous banking and financial institutions. Currently Ramallah is seat of power of the Palestinian Authority, whose most of the offices are located within the city. The city serves as the headquarters for most international NGOs and embassies. Hundreds of millions of dollars in aid flowing into the city have boosted Ramallah's economy greatly since the end of the Second Intifada. The Ramallah construction boom is one of the most obvious signs of West Bank economic growth, estimated at an annual rate of 8 percent. This has been attributed to relative stability and Western donor support to the Palestinian Authority. Ramallah's buoyant economy continues to draw Palestinians from other West Bank towns where jobs are fewer. The built-up area has grown fivefold since 2002. Today, the economy of Ramallah is mainly dominated by services, government and local industries. Since 2008, Ramallah experienced an economic boom, primarily in the construction and technology sectors. Ramallah experienced economic boom, with construction of shopping malls, luxury hotels, business parks and industrial zones.

Since 1999, Ramallah have emerged as a leading hub for information technology (IT). A large number of multinational companies have been outsourcing Palestinians from facilities around Ramallah. Ramallah has highest concentration of high-tech companies. ASAL technologies, an information technology company in Ramallah, has 120 employees and is looking forward to "exponential growth". In collaboration with the Republic of India, a new tech park named, the India Palestine Techno Park is located in Birzeit. Apple Inc operates a research & development center in Rawabi with ASAL Technologies. A large number multinational companies operates facilities in Ramallah, which outsource Palestinians.

Palestine Investment Fund, the sovereign wealth fund of Palestine is headquartered in the city and have launched various projects in Ramallah. Palestine Investment Fund and Jerusalem District Electricity Company is constructing a solar power plant in Ramallah. Amaar Group, a subsidiary of PIF, is constructing Ersal Commercial Center, with an investment of US$67 million. It currently house headquarter of Paltel Group, a leading telecommunication provider in the country.

By 2010, Ramallah had become the leading center of economic and political activity in the territories under the control of the Palestinian Authority. During a building boom in the early years of the 21st century, apartment buildings and "five-star" hotels were erected, particularly in the Al-Masyoun neighborhood. In 2010, "more than one hundred" Palestinian businesses were reported to have moved to Ramallah from East Jerusalem, because "Here they pay less taxes and have more customers." One local boasted to a journalist that "Ramallah is becoming the de facto capital of Palestine." This boast was seconded by The New York Times which, in 2010, called Ramallah the "de facto capital of the West Bank. According to Sani Meo, the publisher of This Week in Palestine, "Capital or no capital, Ramallah has done well and Palestine is proud of its achievements." Some Palestinians allege that Ramallah's prosperity is part of an Israeli "conspiracy" to make Ramallah the capital of a Palestinian state, instead of Jerusalem.

Demographics
An Ottoman village list of about 1870 showed that Ramallah had 249 houses and a population of 635, though the population count included men only. The village was described as being in the Bire area,"north of Mikhmas, on a rocky hill." In 1896, the population of Ramallah was estimated to be about 2,061 persons.

In the 1922 census of Palestine conducted by the British Mandate authorities, Ramallah had a population of 3,104 (2,972 Christians, 125 Muslims, and seven Jews ), the Christians consisting of 2,162 Orthodox, 1 Syriac Orthodox (Jacobite), 332 Roman Catholics, 144 Greek Catholic (Melkite Catholic), 211 Church of England, and 122 "other". The population increased at the time of the 1931 census to 4,286 (3,766 Christians, 519 Muslims and one Jew) in a total of 1,014 houses. In the 1938 village statistics, the population is listed as 4,900. In the 1945 statistics, the population stood at 5,080, with Christians forming the majority of the population (4,440 Christians and 640 Muslims).

However, the demographic makeup of the town changed drastically between 1948 and 1967, when considerable emigration of Christians took place. Slightly more than half of the city's 12,134 inhabitants were Christian by 1967, the other half Muslim.

Ramallah's population drastically decreased in the late 20th century from 24,722 inhabitants in 1987 to 17,851 in 1997. In the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) census in 1997, Palestinian refugees accounted for 60.3% of the population, which was 17,851. There were 8,622 males and 9,229 females. People younger than 20 years of age made up 45.9% of the population, while those aged between 20 and 64 were 45.4%, and residents aged over 64 constituted 4.7%.

Only in 2005 did the population reach more than 24,000. In a PCBS projection in 2006, Ramallah had a population of 25,467 inhabitants. In the 2007 PCBS census, there were 27,460 people living in the city. Sources vary about the current Christian population in the city, ranging around 25%.

Health
In the aftermath of the 1936–1939 Arab revolt, the Ramallah Hospital Foundation was established and registered as a tax exempt organization in New York in 1944. It bought large pieces of land in the south-eastern fringes of the city dedicated for the future hospital. In 1963, a hospital was opened. The present Ramallah Government Hospital and the Palestine Medical Centered are located on the land purchased by the Foundation. In January 1987, the first open-heart surgery was performed at the Hospital under the direction of Dr. Shehadeh (Shawki) Harb, a Palestinian surgeon trained in the United States.

Religious institutions
The Jamal Abdel Nasser Mosque is one of the city's largest mosques. The Orthodox Church of Ramallah, an Orthodox Christian convent, Melkite Catholic Church, Evangelical Lutheran Church, Arab Episcopal (Anglican) Church, Ramallah Local Church (Evangelical\Born Again) and Ramallah Baptist Church all operate schools in the city. A large new church has been built on top of one of the highest hills of Ramallah, belonging to the Coptic Orthodox Church. A small group of Jehovah Witnesses are present in the area as well and others.

During the annual "Saturday of Light" religious festival, which occurs on the Saturday between Good Friday and Easter Sunday to celebrate the light that tradition holds shines forth from the tomb of Jesus, the scouts hold a parade through the city streets to receive the flame from Jerusalem. The flame is ignited in Jerusalem's Church of the Holy Sepulchre and is passed on through candles and lanterns to regional churches.

A variety of mosques and churches of different denominations dot the landscape.

Culture

Ramallah is generally considered the most affluent and cultural, as well as the most liberal, of all Palestinian cities, and is home to a number of popular Palestinian activists, poets, artists, and musicians. It boasts a lively nightlife, with many restaurants including the Stars and Bucks Cafe, a branch of the Tche Tche Cafe and the Orjuwan Lounge, described in 2010 as two among the "dozens of fancy restaurants, bars and discotheques that have cropped up in Ramallah in the last three years".

One hallmark of Ramallah is Rukab's Ice Cream, which is based on the resin of chewing gum and thus has a distinctive taste. Another is the First Ramallah Group, a boy- and girl-scout club that also holds a number of traditional dance (Dabka) performances and is also home to men's and women's basketball teams that compete regionally. International music and dance troupes occasionally make a stop in Ramallah, and the renowned Argentinian-Israeli pianist Daniel Barenboim performs there often. The Khalil Sakakini Cultural Center, founded in 1996, is a popular venue for such events. The Al-Kasaba Theatre is a venue for plays and movies. In 2004, the state-of-the art Ramallah Cultural Palace opened in the city. The only cultural center of its kind in the Palestinian-governed areas, it houses a 736-seat auditorium, as well as conference rooms, exhibit halls, and movie-screening rooms. It was a joint venture of the Palestinian Authority, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the Japanese government. Ramallah hosted its first annual international film festival in 2004.

Ramallah folklore
Ramallah, like most Palestinian areas, has a rich folklore of song and dance. Songs accompanied people in every occasion, whether it was the harvest season, roofing a house, traveling, coming back from travel, engagement, wedding, or even death. Most of the songs were sung by the women with the exception of Zaffeh and Mal'ab, which are sung by the men at wedding celebrations. Palestinian educator Bahia Khalil's book "Ramallah Folklore Songs and Traditions" documents to a great extent this oral tradition inherited from one generation to another. The second edition of the book was published in 2002 by the American Federation of Ramallah, Palestine, an organization for Palestinian-Americans from the Ramallah region living in the US.

Palestinian costume
Foreign travelers to Palestine in late-19th and early-20th centuries often commented on the rich variety of costumes among the Palestinian people, and particularly among the fellaheen or village women. Until the 1940s, a woman's economic status, whether married or single, and the town or area they were from could be deciphered by most Palestinian women by the type of cloth, colors, cut, and embroidery motifs, or lack thereof, used for the robe-like dress or "thoub" in Arabic.

Though experts in the field trace the origins of Palestinian costumes to ancient times, there are no surviving clothing artifacts from this early period against which the modern items might be definitively compared. Influences from the various empires to have ruled Palestine, such as Ancient Egypt, Ancient Rome, the Byzantine Empire, and Ayyubids, among others, have been documented by scholars largely based on the depictions in art and descriptions in literature of costumes produced during these times.

Hanan Munayyer, collector and researcher of Palestinian clothing, sees examples of proto-Palestinian attire in artifacts from the Canaanite period (1500 BCE), such as Egyptian paintings depicting Canaanites in A-shaped garments. Munayyer says that from 1200 BC to AD 1940, all Palestinian dresses were cut from natural fabrics in a similar A-line shape with triangular sleeves. This shape is known to archaeologists as the "Syrian tunic" and appears in artifacts such as an ivory engraving from Megiddo dating to 1200 BC.

Until the 1940s, traditional Palestinian costumes reflected a woman's economic and marital status and her town or district of origin, with knowledgeable observers discerning this information from the fabric, colours, cut, and embroidery motifs (or lack thereof) used in the apparel.

Due to the difficulty of travel in the 19th century, villages in Palestine remained isolated. As a result, clothing and accessories became a statement of region. In Ramallah, the back panels of dresses often incorporated a palm tree motif embroidered in cross-stitch. Ramallah women were famous for their distinctive dress of white linen fabric embroidered with red silk thread. The headdress or smadeh worn in Ramallah was common throughout northern Palestine: a small roundish cap, padded and stiffened, with gold and silver coins set in a fringe with a long veil pinned to the back, sometimes of silk and sometimes embroidered.

International relations
Many foreign nations have located their diplomatic missions to the Palestinian Authority in Ramallah, including,, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Korea, South Africa, Norway, Sri Lanka, Switzerland, China, Poland, Portugal, The Netherlands, Russia, Jordan, Brazil, Finland, Denmark, Ireland, Germany, India, Japan, the Czech Republic, Canada and Mexico.

Twin towns – sister cities
Ramallah is twinned with:

 * 🇫🇷 Bordeaux, France
 * 🏴 Hounslow, England, United Kingdom
 * Johannesburg, South Africa
 * 🇧🇪 Liège, Belgium
 * 🇺🇸 Muscatine, Iowa, United States
 * 🏴 Oxford, England, United Kingdom
 * 🇹🇷 Sur, Turkey
 * 🇳🇴 Trondheim, Norway
 * 🇮🇪 Dublin, Ireland

Notable people

 * Paul Ajlouny (b. 1933), Palestinian-American publisher and businessman
 * Mahmoud Eid (b. 1993), professional footballer
 * Amber Fares, Lebanese Canadian filmmaker
 * Jibril Rajoub (b. 1953), Palestinian political leader, former militant
 * Mosab Hassan Yousef (b. 1978), Palestinian ex-militant and defector

title: Ramallah


text:
Overture

Overture (from French ouverture, lit. "opening") is a music instrumental introduction to a ballet, opera, or oratorio in the 17th century. During the early Romantic era, composers such as Beethoven and Mendelssohn composed overtures which were independent, self-existing, instrumental, programmatic works that foreshadowed genres such as the symphonic poem. These were "at first undoubtedly intended to be played at the head of a programme".

The idea of an instrumental opening to opera existed during the 17th century. Peri's Euridice opens with a brief instrumental ritornello, and Monteverdi's L'Orfeo (1607) opens with a toccata, in this case a fanfare for muted trumpets. More important was the prologue, consisting of sung dialogue between allegorical characters which introduced the overarching themes of the stories depicted.

French overture
As a musical form, the French overture first appears in the court ballet and operatic overtures of Jean-Baptiste Lully, which he elaborated from a similar, two-section form called Ouverture, found in the French ballets de cour as early as 1640. This French overture consists of a slow introduction in a marked "dotted rhythm" (i.e., exaggerated iambic, if the first chord is disregarded), followed by a lively movement in fugato style. The overture was frequently followed by a series of dance tunes before the curtain rose, and would often return following the Prologue to introduce the action proper. This ouverture style was also used in English opera, most notably in Henry Purcell's Dido and Æneas. Its distinctive rhythmic profile and function thus led to the French overture style as found in the works of late Baroque composers such as Johann Sebastian Bach, Georg Friedrich Händel, and Georg Philipp Telemann. The style is most often used in preludes to suites, and can be found in non-staged vocal works such as cantatas, for example in the opening chorus of Bach's cantata Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland, BWV 61. Handel also uses the French overture form in some of his Italian operas such as Giulio Cesare.

Italian overture
In Italy, a distinct form called "overture" arose in the 1680s, and became established particularly through the operas of Alessandro Scarlatti, and spread throughout Europe, supplanting the French form as the standard operatic overture by the mid-18th century. Its stereotypical form is in three generally homophonic movements: fast–slow–fast. The opening movement was normally in duple metre and in a major key; the slow movement in earlier examples was usually quite short, and could be in a contrasting key; the concluding movement was dance-like, most often with rhythms of the gigue or minuet, and returned to the key of the opening section. As the form evolved, the first movement often incorporated fanfare-like elements and took on the pattern of so-called "sonatina form" (sonata form without a development section), and the slow section became more extended and lyrical. Italian overtures were often detached from their operas and played as independent concert pieces. In this context, they became important in the early history of the symphony.

18th century
Prior to the 18th century, the symphony and the overture were almost interchangeable, with overtures being extracted from operas to serve as stand-alone instrumental works, and symphonies being tagged to the front of operas as overtures. With the reform of opera seria, the overture began to distinguish itself from the symphony, and composers began to link the content of overtures to their operas dramatically and emotionally. Elements from the opera are foreshadowed in the overture, following the reform ideology that the music and every other element on stages serves to enhance the plot. One such overture was that of La Magnifique by André-Ernest-Modeste Grétry, in which several of the arias are quoted. This "medley form" persists in the overtures to many works of musical theatre written in the 20th and 21st centuries.

19th-century opera
In 19th-century opera the overture, Vorspiel, Einleitung, Introduction, or whatever else it may be called, is generally nothing more definite than that portion of the music which takes place before the curtain rises. Richard Wagner's Vorspiel to Lohengrin is a short self-contained movement founded on the music of the Grail.

In Italian opera after about 1800, the "overture" became known as the sinfonia. Fisher also notes the term Sinfonia avanti l'opera (literally, the "symphony before the opera") was "an early term for a sinfonia used to begin an opera, that is, as an overture as opposed to one serving to begin a later section of the work".

Early 19th century
Although by the end of the eighteenth century opera overtures were already beginning to be performed as separate items in the concert hall, the "concert overture", intended specifically as an individual concert piece without reference to stage performance and generally based  on some literary theme, began to appear early in the Romantic era. Carl Maria von Weber wrote two concert overtures, Der Beherrscher der Geister ('The Ruler of the Spirits', 1811, a revision of the overture to his unfinished opera Rübezahl of 1805), and Jubel-Ouvertüre ('Jubilee Overture', 1818, incorporating God Save the King at its climax).

However, the overture A Midsummer Night's Dream (1826) by Felix Mendelssohn is generally regarded as the first concert overture. Mendelssohn's other contributions to this genre include his Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage overture (1828), his overture The Hebrides (1830; also known as Fingal's Cave) and the overtures Die schöne Melusine (The Fair Melusine, 1834) and Ruy Blas (1839). Other notable early concert overtures were written by Hector Berlioz (e.g., Les Francs juges (1826), and Le corsaire (1828)).

Later 19th century
In the 1850s the concert overture began to be supplanted by the symphonic poem, a form devised by Franz Liszt in several works that began as dramatic overtures. The distinction between the two genres was the freedom to mould the musical form according to external programmatic requirements. The symphonic poem became the preferred form for the more "progressive" composers, such as César Franck, Camille Saint-Saëns, Richard Strauss, Alexander Scriabin, and Arnold Schoenberg, while more conservative composers like Anton Rubinstein, Tchaikovsky, Johannes Brahms, Robert Schumann and Arthur Sullivan remained faithful to the overture. In the age when the symphonic poem had already become popular, Brahms wrote his Academic Festival Overture, Op. 80, as well as his Tragic Overture, Op. 81. An example clearly influenced by the symphonic poem is Tchaikovsky's 1812 Overture. His equally well-known Romeo and Juliet is also labelled a 'fantasy-overture'.

20th century
In European music after 1900, an example of an overture displaying a connection with the traditional form is Dmitri Shostakovich's Festive Overture, Op. 96 (1954), which is in two linked sections, "Allegretto" and "Presto" (Temperley 2001). Malcolm Arnold's A Grand, Grand Overture, Op. 57 (1956), is a 20th-century parody of the late 19th century concert overture, scored for an enormous orchestra with organ, additional brass instruments, and obbligato parts for four rifles, three Hoover vacuum cleaners (two uprights in B♭, one horizontal with detachable sucker in C), and an electric floor polisher in E♭; it is dedicated "to President Hoover".

One song of the Who's rock opera Tommy is designated as "Underture".

Film
In motion pictures, an overture is a piece of music setting the mood for the film before the opening credits start. Famous examples include Gone with the Wind (1939) and Lawrence of Arabia (1962). For a comprehensive list, see the list of films with overtures.

List of standard repertoire
Some well-known or commonly played overtures:

 * Anton Arensky: A Dream on the Volga
 * Malcolm Arnold:
 * Beckus the Dandipratt
 * A Grand, Grand Overture
 * Peterloo
 * Tam O'Shanter
 * Daniel Auber: Fra Diavolo
 * Samuel Barber: Overture to The School for Scandal
 * Arnold Bax: Overture to a Picaresque Comedy
 * Ludwig van Beethoven:
 * Leonora Nr 1
 * Leonora Nr 2
 * Leonora Nr 3
 * Fidelio
 * Coriolan Overture
 * Creatures of Prometheus
 * Egmont
 * The Ruins of Athens
 * ''The Consecration of the House
 * Arthur Benjamin
 * Overture to an Italian Comedy
 * Hector Berlioz:
 * Benvenuto Cellini
 * Le carnaval romain
 * Le corsair
 * Les Francs-Juges
 * King Lear
 * Waverley
 * Leonard Bernstein: Candide
 * Georges Bizet: Carmen
 * Alexander Borodin: Prince Igor
 * Johannes Brahms:
 * Academic Festival Overture
 * Tragic Overture
 * Anton Bruckner: Overture in G minor (WAB 98)
 * Aaron Copland: An Outdoor Overture
 * Antonín Dvořák: Carnival Overture
 * Edward Elgar:
 * In the South (Alassio)
 * Cockaigne
 * Froissart
 * George Gershwin:
 * Cuban Overture
 * Overture to Strike Up the Band
 * Philip Glass:
 * Overture 2012
 * King Lear Overture
 * Mikhail Glinka: Ruslan and Lyudmila
 * Christoph Willibald Gluck:
 * Iphigénie en Tauride
 * Orfeo ed Euridice
 * Alceste
 * Antônio Carlos Gomes: Il Guarany
 * Edvard Grieg: In Autumn
 * George Frideric Handel
 * Overture to the Music for the Royal Fireworks
 * Overture to the Water Music
 * Overture to Messiah and other Oratorios
 * Joseph Haydn: Armida
 * Ferdinand Hérold: Zampa
 * John Ireland:
 * A London Overture
 * Satyricon Overture
 * Édouard Lalo: Le roi d'Ys
 * Franz Lehár: The Merry Widow
 * Andrew Lloyd Webber:
 * "Overture from Phantom of the Opera"
 * Hamish MacCunn: The Land of the Mountain and the Flood
 * Felix Mendelssohn:
 * The Hebrides (or Fingal's Cave)
 * Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage
 * A Midsummer Night's Dream
 * Ruy Blas
 * Die schöne Melusine (The Fair Melusine)
 * Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart:
 * The Marriage of Figaro
 * La clemenza di Tito
 * Così fan tutte
 * Don Giovanni
 * Idomeneo
 * Die Entführung aus dem Serail
 * The Magic Flute
 * Modest Mussorgsky: Khovanshchina
 * Nikolai Myaskovsky:
 * Pathetic Overture
 * Salutation Overture
 * Otto Nicolai: The Merry Wives of Windsor
 * Carl Nielsen:
 * Maskarade
 * Helios Overture
 * Jacques Offenbach: Orpheus in the Underworld
 * Sergei Prokofiev: Overture on Hebrew Themes
 * Emil von Reznicek: Donna Diana
 * Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov:
 * Russian Easter Festival Overture
 * The Maid of Pskov
 * May Night
 * Gioachino Rossini:
 * La cambiale di matrimonio
 * Tancredi
 * Il signor Bruschino
 * Il turco in Italia
 * La Cenerentola
 * Semiramide
 * Il viaggio a Reims
 * The Barber of Seville
 * La gazza ladra
 * L'italiana in Algeri
 * La scala di seta
 * William Tell
 * Franz Schubert:
 * Overture in Italian Style, D590
 * Rosamunde
 * Robert Schumann:
 * Overture, Scherzo and Finale, Op 52
 * Manfred
 * Genoveva
 * Faust
 * Julius Caesar
 * Hermann und Dorothea
 * The Bride of Messina
 * Dmitri Shostakovich: Festive Overture
 * Bedřich Smetana: The Bartered Bride
 * Johann Strauss: Die Fledermaus
 * Jean Sibelius: Overture to The Tempest
 * Arthur Sullivan:
 * The Mikado
 * The Gondoliers
 * The Yeomen of the Guard
 * Franz von Suppé
 * Light Cavalry Overture
 * The Beautiful Galatea
 * Poet and Peasant
 * Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky:
 * 1812 Overture
 * Hamlet (Overture-Fantasy)
 * Romeo and Juliet (Overture-Fantasy)
 * The Nutcracker (Miniature Overture)
 * Giuseppe Verdi:
 * La forza del destino
 * Nabucco
 * I vespri siciliani
 * Richard Wagner:
 * Faust Overture
 * The Flying Dutchman
 * Lohengrin (both Act and Act III Preludes)
 * Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg
 * Rienzi
 * Tannhäuser
 * Ralph Vaughan Williams: The Wasps
 * William Walton
 * Johannesburg Festival Overture
 * Scapino Overture
 * Portsmouth Point Overture
 * Carl Maria von Weber:
 * Euryanthe
 * Der Freischütz
 * Oberon

title: Overture


text:
Talk:Overture

Sonata form?
The article states, "the final version of the overture to Leonora (that known as No. 3) is the most gigantic single orchestral movement ever based on the sonata style." I can't come up with any interpretation of this statement that makes sense. The first movement of "Eroica" is longer, and if you look later than Leonora #3, you also get the first movement of the Ninth, never mind the massive sonata structures of Mahler (e.g. Symphony #3:I). I can't correct the sentence without knowing what was intended. 71.119.192.125 05:18, 29 September 2007 (UTC)

'''Article originally from 1911 enc. '''
 * And doesn't it show... --Camembert

 * LOL. Camembert, we miss you. Antandrus 04:26, 13 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Musical overtures have also appeared in motion pictures, mostly science fiction movies. Notable examples include 2001: A Space Odyssey, Space Cruiser Yamato (which had the distinction of a vocal overture instead of instrumental)Star Trek:The Motion Picture?, and Disney's The Black Hole.

Does this mean that these films start with a bit of music over a black screen, with nothing else happening at all (no credits, no establishing shots, nothing at all)? (I know 2001 does, but I've not seen the others.) If so, we should probably make that clearer. --Camembert

 * Thanks to that knowledgable guy, Anonymous, for clarifying this :) --Camembert

In popular music: The Who's rock opera "Tommy" has both an Overture and an "Underture." (o}) --gailcats —Preceding unsigned comment added by Gailcats (talk • contribs) 23:29, 29 June 2008 (UTC)

POV?
Is it just I, or is this article POV? Maybe we should fix it up a bit.--Stratford15 21:16, 12 August 2006 (UTC)

Trivia
I am going to delete the trivia section of this article. All video games have introductory audio tracks; simply because that track is entitled "overture" does not make its game notable. Mbkatz 11:37, 9 June 2007 (UTC)

um... actually I think maybe for the trivia section we should insert something about who plays the overture and where they sit 79.66.59.150 (talk) 19:41, 3 October 2008 (UTC)

Opening Sentence
Why in God's name is "presaged@ in the first sentence, and what is it supposed to mean, presaging a genre? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.39.32.66 (talk) 19:36, 16 July 2010 (UTC)

Lead
Why is the lead restricted to opera? It's often the opening of a (dance) suite, sometimes even a synonym for them. Mention ballet? Incidental music? --Gerda Arendt (talk) 22:33, 14 December 2015 (UTC)
 * Are we looking at the same thing? I see an opening sentence declaring that the form originated with opera, but this is followed by: "During the early Romantic era, composers such as Beethoven and Mendelssohn began to use the term to refer to independent, self-existing instrumental, programmatic works that presaged genres such as the symphonic poem. These were 'at first undoubtedly intended to be played at the head of a programme'[ref omitted]". The article itself asserts that the form actually originated in Lully's ballets (which would seem to contradict the first sentence of the lead), though in the context of French 17th-century theatrical genres, boundary lines are often difficult to draw. Nevertheless, ballet and the dance suite could be mentioned in a sentence inserted before lurching into the excesses of the 19th century. I think (off the top of my head) that "incidental music" as a concept belongs to the 19th century, but since it is not at present mentioned anywhere, has no place in the lead, which should merely summarize the article's contents. Of course this should be added to the article, since there are many distinguished overtures that were written for stage plays (not always with associated incidental music).—Jerome Kohl (talk) 01:36, 15 December 2015 (UTC)

English
Odventure 158.62.10.26 (talk) 11:34, 6 September 2022 (UTC)

Why is Mendelssohn given primacy?

 * Carl Maria von Weber wrote two concert overtures, Der Beherrscher der Geister ('The Ruler of the Spirits', 1811, a revision of the overture to his unfinished opera Rübezahl of 1805), and Jubel-Ouvertüre ('Jubilee Overture', 1818, incorporating God Save the King at its climax). However, the overture A Midsummer Night's Dream (1826) by Felix Mendelssohn is generally regarded as the first concert overture.

Why is this the case? If we know and freely acknowledge that Weber beat him to the punch, so to speak, why do we still say Mendelssohn was the first to write a concert overture? --  Jack of Oz   [pleasantries]  02:02, 14 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Overture