text:
Maluku Islands

The Maluku Islands (Indonesian: Kepulauan Maluku) or the Moluccas are an archipelago in the eastern part of Indonesia. Tectonically they are located on the Halmahera Plate within the Molucca Sea Collision Zone. Geographically they are located east of Sulawesi, west of New Guinea, and north and east of Timor. Lying within Wallacea (mostly east of the biogeographical Weber Line), the Moluccas have been considered a geographical and cultural intersection of Asia and Oceania.

The islands were known as the Spice Islands because of the nutmeg, mace, and cloves that were exclusively found there, the presence of which sparked European colonial interests in the 16th century.

The Maluku Islands formed a single province from Indonesian independence until 1999, when they were split into two provinces. A new province, North Maluku, incorporates the area between Morotai and Sula, with the arc of islands from Buru and Seram to Wetar remaining within the existing Maluku Province. North Maluku is predominantly Muslim, and its capital is Sofifi on Halmahera island. Maluku province has a larger Christian population, and its capital is Ambon. Though originally Melanesian, many island populations, especially in the Banda Islands, were massacred in the 17th century during the Dutch–Portuguese War, also known as the Spice War. A second influx of immigrants primarily from Java began in the early 20th century under the Dutch and continues in the Indonesian era, which has also caused a lot of controversy as the Transmigrant programs are thought to be a contributing factor to the Maluku Riots.

Etymology
The etymology of the word Maluku is unclear and has been a matter of debate for many experts.

The first recorded word that can be identified with Maluku comes from Nagarakretagama, an Old Javanese eulogy of 1365. Canto 14 stanza 5 mentioned Maloko, which Pigeaud identified with Ternate or Moluccas.

A theory holds that Maluku comes from the phrase Moloko Kie Raha or Moloku Kie Raha. In the Ternate language, raha means "four", while kie here means "mountain". Kie raha or "four mountains" refers to Ternate, Tidore, Bacan, and Jailolo (the name Jailolo has been used in the past to refer to Halmahera island), all of which have their kolano (a local title for kings rooted in Panji tales).

It is unclear what the meaning of Moloko or Moloku is. One possible meaning is in Ternate language, it meant "to hold or grasp", in which case Moloko Kie Raha could be understood to mean "Confederation of the Four Mountains". Another possibility is that the word originates from the word maloko, which is a combination of the particle ma- and the root loko in North Halmahera languages means the variety of words relating to the location of mountains, in which case "Maloko Kie Raha" in the phrase "Ternate se Tidore, Moti se Mara Maloko Kie Raha" means "Ternate, Tidore, Moti, and Mara the place of the four mountains" or with the shifting of pronunciation of loko towards luku, means "Ternate, Tidore, Moti, and Mara the world of the four mountains".

Early history
Australo-Melanesians were the first people to inhabit the islands at least 40,000 years ago, and then a later migration of Austronesian speakers around 2000 BC. Other archaeological finds showed possible Arab merchants began to arrive in the fourteenth century, bringing Islam. The conversion to Islam occurred in many islands, especially in the centres of trade, while aboriginal animism persisted in the hinterlands and more isolated islands. Archaeological evidence here relies largely on the occurrence of pigs' teeth, as evidence of pork eating or abstinence therefrom. Remnants of Majapahit expeditions were also found in oral as well as archaeological sites. A story from Letvuan on Kai Kecil island, tells of a Balinese envoy of Gajah Mada by the name of Kasdev, his wife Dit Ratngil, and eight of their children. Archaeological sites of ancient tombs found in Sorbay Bay south of Letvuan seemed to support the story as well as some cultural practices of Kei of Balinese origin. Other archaeological finds in Kei islands include Shiva statue from Kei Besar island. Another oral story was of 14th century Majapahit expedition to Negeri Ema, Ambon Island, by an envoy named Nyi Mas Kenang Eko Sutarmi alongside 22 of her retinues, and a spear bearer trying to form an alliance and trading relationship with Negeri Ema's leader by the name of Kapitan Ading Adang Anaan Tanahatuila. The meeting was facilitated by Malessy Soa Lisa Maitimu; however, it failed to reach an agreement. As Sutarmi failed, she decided to stay in exile while her retinues settled and married locals of Ema, and her spear bearer settled on the coast but was killed later by Gunung Maut troops. Archaeological finds relating to this expedition include a water source with Sun symbols with nine rays, and heirlooms of spears and Totobuang kept by the Maitimu family and village office of Negeri Ema, alongside many potteries.

Portuguese

In August 1511 the Portuguese conquered the city-state of Malacca. The most significant lasting effects of the Portuguese presence were the disruption and reorganization of the Southeast Asian trade, and in eastern Indonesia—including Maluku—the introduction of Christianity.

One Portuguese diary noted, "It is over thirty years since they became Moors".

Afonso de Albuquerque learned of the route to the Banda Islands and other 'Spice Islands', and sent an exploratory expedition of three vessels under the command of António de Abreu, Simão Afonso Bisigudo, and Francisco Serrão. On the return trip, Serrão was shipwrecked at Hitu island (northern Ambon) in 1512. There he established ties with the local ruler who was impressed with his martial skills. The rulers of the competing island states of Ternate and Tidore also sought Portuguese assistance and the newcomers were welcomed in the area as buyers of supplies and spices during a lull in the regional trade due to the temporary disruption of Javanese and Malay sailings to the area following the 1511 conflict in Malacca. The spice trade soon revived but the Portuguese would not be able to fully monopolize or disrupt this trade.

Allying himself with Ternate's ruler, Serrão constructed a fortress on that tiny island and served as the head of a mercenary band of Portuguese seamen under the service of one of the two local feuding sultans who controlled most of the spice trade. Both Serrão and Ferdinand Magellan, however, perished before they could meet one another. The Portuguese first landed in Ambon in 1513, but it only became the new centre for their activities in Maluku following the expulsion from Ternate. European power in the region was weak and Ternate became an expanding, fiercely Islamic, and anti-European state; the Portuguese-Ternate wars raged throughout the reigns of Sultan Baab Ullah (r. 1570–1583) and his son Sultan Saidi Berkat (r. 1583–1606).

Following Portuguese missionary work, there have been large Christian communities in eastern Indonesia through to contemporary times, which has contributed to a sense of shared interest with Europeans, particularly among the Ambonese.

Dutch
The Dutch arrived in 1599 and competed with the Portuguese in the area for trade. The Dutch East India Company in the course of Dutch–Portuguese War allied with the Sultan of Ternate and conquered Ambon and Tidore in 1605, expelling the Portuguese. A Spanish counterattack from the Philippines restored Iberian rule in parts of North Maluku up to 1663. However, the Dutch monopolized the production and trade of spices through a ruthless policy. This included the genocidal conquest of the nutmeg-producing Banda Islands in 1621, the elimination of the English in Ambon in 1623, and the subordination of Ternate and Tidore in the 1650s. An anticolonial resistance movement led by a Tidore prince, the Nuku Rebellion, engulfed large parts of Maluku and Papua in 1780-1810 and co-opted the British. During the French Revolutionary Wars and again in the Napoleonic Wars, British forces captured the islands in 1796–1801 and 1810, respectively, and held them until 1817. In that time they uprooted many of the spice trees for transplantation throughout the British Empire.

After Indonesian independence
With the declaration of a single republic of Indonesia in 1950 to replace the federal state, a Republic of South Maluku (Republik Maluku Selatan, RMS) was declared and attempted to secede, led by Chris Soumokil (former Supreme Prosecutor of the Eastern Indonesia state) and supported by the Moluccan members of the Netherlands KNIL special troops. This movement was defeated by the Indonesian army and by special agreement with the Netherlands the Moluccan troops were ordered to move to the Netherlands.. Decades later, descendants of these Moluccan KNIL soldiers participated in the 1975 Dutch train hostage crisis, the 1977 Dutch train hijacking, and the 1977 Dutch school hostage crisis to bring attention to their plight for an independent Republic of South Maluku.

Maluku is one of the first provinces of Indonesia, proclaimed in 1945 and lasting until 1999 when the Maluku Utara and Halmahera Tengah Regencies were split off as a separate province of North Maluku. Its capital used to be Ternate, on a small island to the west of the large island of Halmahera, but has been moved to Sofifi on Halmahera itself. The capital of the remaining part of Maluku province remains at Ambon.

1999–2003 inter-communal conflict
Religious and ethnic conflict erupted across the islands in January 1999. The subsequent 18 months were characterized by fighting between local groups of Muslims and Christians against jihadist groups from Java and the Indonesian military backing them leading to the destruction of thousands of houses, the displacement of approximately 500,000 people, the loss of thousands of lives, and the segregation of Muslims and Christians.

Geography
The Maluku Islands have a total area of 850,000 km2, 90% of which is sea. There are an estimated 1027 islands. The largest two islands, Halmahera and Seram, are sparsely populated, while the most developed, Ambon and Ternate, are small.

The majority of the islands are forested and mountainous. The Tanimbar Islands are dry and hilly, while the Aru Islands are flat and swampy. Mount Binaiya (3027 m) on Seram is the highest mountain. Several islands, such as Ternate (1721 m) and the TNS islands, are volcanoes emerging from the sea with villages sited around their coasts. There have been over 70 serious volcanic eruptions in the last 500 years and earthquakes are common.

Geology
The geology of the Maluku Islands shares much similar history, characteristics, and processes with the neighbouring Nusa Tenggara region. There is a long history of geological study of these regions since Indonesian colonial times; however, the geological formation and progression are not fully understood, and theories of the island's geological evolution have changed extensively in recent decades. The Maluku Islands comprise some of the most geologically complex and active regions in the world, resulting from their position at the meeting point of four geological plates and two continental blocks.

Ecology
Biogeographically, all of the islands apart from the Aru group lie in Wallacea, the region between the Sunda Shelf (part of the Asia block), and the Arafura Shelf (part of the Australian block). More specifically, they lie between Weber's Line and Lydekker's Line and thus have a fauna that is rather more Australasian than Asian. Malukan biodiversity and its distribution are affected by various tectonic activities; most of the islands are geologically young, being from 1 million to 15 million years old, and have never been attached to the larger landmasses. The Maluku islands differ from other areas in Indonesia; they contain some of the country's smallest islands, coral island reefs scattered through some of the deepest seas in the world, and no large islands such as Java or Sumatra. Flora and fauna immigration between islands is thus restricted, leading to a high rate of endemic biota evolving.

The ecology of the Maluku Islands has fascinated naturalists for centuries; Alfred Wallace's book, The Malay Archipelago, was the first significant study of the area's natural history and remains an important resource for studying Indonesian biodiversity. Maluku is the subject of two major historical works of natural history by Georg Eberhard Rumphius: the Herbarium Amboinense and the Amboinsche Rariteitkamer.

Rainforest covered most of northern and central Maluku, which, on the smaller islands has been replaced by plantations, including the region's endemic cloves and nutmeg. The Tanimbar Islands and other southeastern islands are arid and sparsely vegetated, much like nearby Timor. In 1997 the Manusela National Park, and in 2004, the Aketajawe-Lolobata National Park, were established, for the protection of endangered species.

Nocturnal marsupials, such as cuscus and bandicoots, make up the majority of the mammal species and introduced mammals include Malayan civets and feral pigs. Bird species include approximately 100 endemics with the greatest variety on the large islands of Halmahera and Seram. North Maluku has two species of endemic birds of paradise. Uniquely among the Maluku Islands, the Aru Islands have a purely Papuan fauna including kangaroos, cassowaries, and birds of paradise.

While many ecological problems affect both small islands and large landmasses, small islands suffer their particular problems. Development pressures on small islands are increasing, although their effects are not always anticipated. Although Indonesia is richly endowed with natural resources, the resources of the small islands of Maluku are limited and specialised; furthermore, human resources, in particular, are limited.

General observations about small islands that can be applied to the Maluku Islands include:

 * A higher proportion of the landmass will be affected by volcanic activity, earthquakes, landslips, and cyclone damage;
 * Climates are more likely to be maritime influenced;
 * Catchment areas are smaller and the degree of erosion higher;
 * A higher proportion of the landmass is made up of coastal areas;
 * A higher degree of environmental specialisation, including a higher proportion of endemic species in an overall depauperate community;
 * Societies may retain a strong sense of culture having developed in relative isolation;
 * Small island populations are more likely to be affected by economic migration.

Climate
Central and southern Maluku Islands experience the dry monsoon between October and March and the wet monsoon from May to August, which is the reverse of the rest of Indonesia. The dry monsoon's average maximum temperature is 30 C while the wet's average maximum is 23 C. Northern Maluku has its wet monsoon from December to March in line with the rest of Indonesia. Each island group has its climatic variations, and the larger islands tend to have drier coastal lowlands and their mountainous hinterlands are wetter.

Population
The population of Maluku Province in 2020 was 1,848,923 and that of North Maluku Province was 1,282,937. Hence the total population of the Maluku Islands as a region in 2020 was 3,131,860.

Ethnic groups
A long history of trade and seafaring has resulted in a high degree of mixed ancestry in Malukans. Austronesian peoples added to the native Melanesian population around 2000 BCE. Melanesian features are strongest in the islands of Kei and Aru and amongst the interior people of the islands Seram and Buru. Later added to this Austronesian-Melanesian mix were some Indian and Arab strain. More recent arrivals include Bugis trader settlers from Sulawesi and Javanese transmigrants.

Languages
Over 130 languages were once spoken across the islands; however, many have now switched to the creoles of Ternate and Ambonese, the lingua franca of northern and southern Maluku, respectively.

Administrative divisions
The Maluku Islands are divided into two provinces: Maluku and North Maluku.

Economy
Cloves and nutmeg are still cultivated, as are cocoa, coffee and fruit. Fishing is a big industry across the islands but particularly around Halmahera and Bacan. The Aru Islands produce pearls, and Seram exports lobsters. Logging is a significant industry on the larger islands with Seram producing ironwood and teak and ebony are produced on Buru.

General and cited references

 * Andaya, Leonard Y. (1993). The World of Maluku: Eastern Indonesia in the Early Modern Period. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 0-8248-1490-8.
 * Bellwood, Peter (1997). Prehistory of the Indo-Malaysian archipelago. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 0-8248-1883-0.
 * Donkin, R. A. (1997). Between East and West: The Moluccas and the Traffic in Spices Up to the Arrival of Europeans. American Philosophical Society. ISBN 0-87169-248-1.
 * Milton, Giles (1999). Nathaniel's Nutmeg. London: Sceptre. ISBN 978-0-340-69676-7.
 * Monk, Kathryn A., Yance De Fretes, Gayatri Reksodiharjo-Lilley (1997). The Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku. Singapore: Periplus Press. ISBN 962-593-076-0.
 * Van Oosterzee, Penny (1997). Where Worlds Collide: The Wallace Line. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-8497-9.
 * Wallace, Alfred Russel (2000; originally published 1869). The Malay Archipelago. Singapore: Periplus Press. ISBN 962-593-645-9.

title: Maluku Islands


text:
Maluku

Maluku may refer to:

Places

 * Maluku Islands, an archipelago that is part of Indonesia
 * List of the Maluku Islands
 * Maluku (province), a province of Indonesia comprising the central and southern parts of the archipelago
 * North Maluku, a province of Indonesia comprising the northern parts of the archipelago
 * Republic of South Maluku, 1950s insurgency in central Maluku Province and its government in exile
 * Maluku, Kinshasa, a commune in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo

Other uses

 * Central Maluku languages, a group of fifty Austronesian languages

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Maluku


text:
Spice Islands (disambiguation)

The Spice Islands, now known as the Maluku Islands, are an archipelago in the eastern part of Indonesia.

Spice Island, Island of Spice, or Spice Isle may also refer to:
 * Zanzibar Archipelago off the coast of mainland Tanzania, Africa
 * Grenada in the Antilles
 * Portsmouth Point, in Portsmouth, Hampshire, England
 * Spice Islands (brand), an American brand of spice

title: Spice Islands (disambiguation)


text:
Translation memory

A translation memory (TM) is a database that stores "segments", which can be sentences, paragraphs or sentence-like units (headings, titles or elements in a list) that have previously been translated, in order to aid human translators. The translation memory stores the source text and its corresponding translation in language pairs called “translation units”. Individual words are handled by terminology bases and are not within the domain of TM.

Software programs that use translation memories are sometimes known as translation memory managers (TMM) or translation memory systems (TM systems, not to be confused with a translation management system (TMS), which is another type of software focused on managing the process of translation).

Translation memories are typically used in conjunction with a dedicated computer-assisted translation (CAT) tool, word processing program, terminology management systems, multilingual dictionary, or even raw machine translation output.

Research indicates that many companies producing multilingual documentation are using translation memory systems. In a survey of language professionals in 2006, 82.5% out of 874 replies confirmed the use of a TM. Usage of TM correlated with text type characterised by technical terms and simple sentence structure (technical, to a lesser degree marketing and financial), computing skills, and repetitiveness of content.

Using TMs
The program breaks the source text (the text to be translated) into segments, looks for matches between segments and the source half of previously translated source-target pairs stored in a translation memory, and presents such matching pairs as translation full and partial matches. The translator can accept a match, replace it with a fresh translation, or modify it to match the source. In the last two cases, the new or modified translation goes into the database.

Some translation memory systems search for 100% matches only, i.e. they can only retrieve segments of text that match entries in the database exactly, while others employ fuzzy matching algorithms to retrieve similar segments, which are presented to the translator with differences flagged. Typical translation memory systems only search for text in the source segment.

The flexibility and robustness of the matching algorithm largely determine the performance of the translation memory, although for some applications the recall rate of exact matches can be high enough to justify the 100%-match approach.

Segments where no match is found will have to be translated by the translator manually. These newly translated segments are stored in the database where they can be used for future translations as well as repetitions of that segment in the current text.

Translation memories work best on texts which are highly repetitive, such as technical manuals. They are also helpful for translating incremental changes in a previously translated document, corresponding, for example, to minor changes in a new version of a user manual. Traditionally, translation memories have not been considered appropriate for literary or creative texts, for the simple reason that there is so little repetition in the language used. However, others find them of value even for non-repetitive texts, because the database resources created have value for concordance searches to determine appropriate usage of terms, for quality assurance (no empty segments), and the simplification of the review process (source and target segment are always displayed together while translators have to work with two documents in a traditional review environment).

Main benefits
Translation memory managers are most suitable for translating technical documentation and documents containing specialized vocabularies. Their benefits include:

 * Ensuring that the document is completely translated (translation memories do not accept empty target segments)
 * Ensuring that the translated documents are consistent, including common definitions, phrasings and terminology. This is important when different translators are working on a single project.
 * Enabling translators to translate documents in a wide variety of formats without having to own the software typically required to process these formats.
 * Accelerating the overall translation process; since translation memories "remember" previously translated material, translators have to translate it only once.
 * Reducing costs of long-term translation projects; for example the text of manuals, warning messages or series of documents needs to be translated only once and can be used several times.
 * For large documentation projects, savings (in time or money) thanks to the use of a TM package may already be apparent even for the first translation of a new project, but normally such savings are only apparent when translating subsequent versions of a project that was translated before using translation memory.

Main obstacles
The main problems hindering wider use of translation memory managers include:

 * The concept of "translation memories" is based on the premise that sentences used in previous translations can be "recycled". However, a guiding principle of translation is that the translator must translate the message of the text, and not its component sentences.
 * Translation memory managers do not easily fit into existing translation or localization processes. In order to take advantage of TM technology, the translation processes must be redesigned.
 * Translation memory managers do not presently support all documentation formats, and filters may not exist to support all file types.
 * There is a learning curve associated with using translation memory managers, and the programs must be customized for greatest effectiveness.
 * In cases where all or part of the translation process is outsourced or handled by freelance translators working off-site, the off-site workers require special tools to be able to work with the texts generated by the translation memory manager.
 * Full versions of many translation memory managers can cost from US$500 to US$2,500 per seat, which can represent a considerable investment (although lower cost programs are also available). However, some developers produce free or low-cost versions of their tools with reduced feature sets that individual translators can use to work on projects set up with full versions of those tools. (Note that there are freeware and shareware TM packages available, but none of these has yet gained a large market share.)
 * The costs involved in importing the user's past translations into the translation memory database, training, as well as any add-on products may also represent a considerable investment.
 * Maintenance of translation memory databases still tends to be a manual process in most cases, and failure to maintain them can result in significantly decreased usability and quality of TM matches.
 * As stated previously, translation memory managers may not be suitable for text that lacks internal repetition or which does not contain unchanged portions between revisions. Technical text is generally best suited for translation memory, while marketing or creative texts will be less suitable.

Effects on quality
The use of TM systems might have an effect on the quality of the texts translated. Its main effect is clearly related to the so-called "error propagation": if the translation for a particular segment is incorrect, it is in fact more likely that the incorrect translation will be reused the next time the same source text, or a similar source text, is translated, thereby perpetuating the error. Traditionally, two main effects on the quality of translated texts have been described: the "sentence-salad" effect (Bédard 2000; cited in O'Hagan 2009: 50) and the "peep-hole" effect (Heyn 1998). The first refers to a lack of coherence at the text level when a text is translated using sentences from a TM which have been translated by different translators with different styles. According to the latter, translators may adapt their style to the use of TM system in order for these not to contain intratextual references, so that the segments can be better reused in future texts, thus affecting cohesion and readability (O'Hagan 2009).

There is a potential, and, if present, probably an unconscious effect on the translated text. Different languages use different sequences for the logical elements within a sentence and a translator presented with a multiple clause sentence that is half translated is less likely to completely rebuild a sentence. Consistent empirical evidences (Martín-Mor 2011) show that translators will most likely modify the structure of a multiple clause sentence when working with a text processor rather than with a TM system.

There is also a potential for the translator to deal with the text mechanically sentence-by-sentence, instead of focusing on how each sentence relates to those around it and to the text as a whole. Researchers (Dragsted 2004) have identified this effect, which relates to the automatic segmentation feature of these programs, but it does not necessarily have a negative effect on the quality of translations.

These effects are closely related to training rather than inherent to the tool. According to Martín-Mor (2011), the use of TM systems does have an effect on the quality of the translated texts, especially on novices, but experienced translators are able to avoid it. Pym (2013) reminds that "translators using TM/MT tend to revise each segment as they go along, allowing little time for a final revision of the whole text at the end", which might be the ultimate cause of some of the effects described here.

Types of TM systems

 * Desktop: Desktop translation memory tools are typically what individual translators use to complete translations. They are programs that a freelance translator downloads and installs on a desktop computer.
 * Server-based or centralised: Centralized translation memory systems store TM on a central server. They work together with desktop TM and can increase TM match rates by 30–60% more than the TM leverage attained by desktop TM alone.

Functions
The following is a summary of the main functions of a translation memory.

Import
This function is used to transfer a text and its translation from a text file to the TM. Import can be done from a raw format, in which an external source text is available for importing into a TM along with its translation. Sometimes the texts have to be reprocessed by the user. There is another format that can be used to import: the native format. This format is the one that uses the TM to save translation memories in a file.

Analysis
The process of analysis involves the following steps:
 * Textual parsing
 * It is very important to recognize punctuation correctly in order to distinguish between for example a full stop at the end of a sentence and a full stop in an abbreviation. Thus, mark-up is a kind of pre-editing. Usually, materials which have been processed through translators' aid programs contain mark-up, as the translation stage is embedded in a multilingual document production line. Other special text elements may be set off by mark-up. There are special elements which do not need to be translated, such as proper names and codes, while others may need to be converted to native format.

 * Linguistic parsing
 * The base form reduction is used to prepare lists of words and a text for automatic retrieval of terms from a term bank. On the other hand, syntactic parsing may be used to extract multi-word terms or phraseology from a source text. So parsing is used to normalise word order variation of phraseology, this is which words can form a phrase.

 * Segmentation
 * Its purpose is to choose the most useful translation units. Segmentation is like a type of parsing. It is done monolingually using superficial parsing and alignment is based on segmentation. If the translators correct the segmentations manually, later versions of the document will not find matches against the TM based on the corrected segmentation because the program will repeat its own errors. Translators usually proceed sentence by sentence, although the translation of one sentence may depend on the translation of the surrounding ones.

 * Alignment
 * It is the task of defining translation correspondences between source and target texts. There should be feedback from alignment to segmentation and a good alignment algorithm should be able to correct initial segmentation.

 * Term extraction
 * It can have as input a previous dictionary. Moreover, when extracting unknown terms, it can use parsing based on text statistics. These are used to estimate the amount of work involved in a translation job. This is very useful for planning and scheduling the work. Translation statistics usually count the words and estimate the amount of repetition in the text.

Export
Export transfers the text from the TM into an external text file. Import and export should be inverses.

Online functions
When translating, one of the main purposes of the TM is to retrieve the most useful matches in the memory so that the translator can choose the best one. The TM must show both the source and target text pointing out the identities and differences.

Retrieval
Several different types of matches can be retrieved from a TM.

 * Exact match: Exact matches appear when the match between the current source segment and the stored one is a character by character match. When translating a sentence, an exact match means the same sentence has been translated before. Exact matches are also called "100 % matches".
 * In-Context Exact (ICE) match or Guaranteed Match: An ICE match is an exact match that occurs in exactly the same context, that is, the same location in a paragraph. Context is often defined by the surrounding sentences and attributes such as document file name, date, and permissions.
 * Fuzzy match: When the match is not exact, it is a "fuzzy" match. Some systems assign percentages to these kinds of matches, in which case a fuzzy match is greater than 0% and less than 100%. Those figures are not comparable across systems unless the method of scoring is specified.
 * Concordance: When the translator selects one or more words in the source segment, the system retrieves segment pairs that match the search criteria. This feature is helpful for finding translations of terms and idioms in the absence of a terminology database.

Updating
A TM is updated with a new translation when it has been accepted by the translator. As always in updating a database, there is the question what to do with the previous contents of the database. A TM can be modified by changing or deleting entries in the TM. Some systems allow translators to save multiple translations of the same source segment.

Automatic translation
Translation memory tools often provide automatic retrieval and substitution.

 * Automatic retrieval: TM systems are searched and their results displayed automatically as a translator moves through a document.
 * Automatic substitution: With automatic substitution, if an exact match comes up in translating a new version of a document, the software will repeat the old translation. If the translator does not check the translation against the source, a mistake in the previous translation will be repeated.

Networking
Networking enables a group of translators to translate a text together faster than if each was working in isolation, because sentences and phrases translated by one translator are available to the others. Moreover, if translation memories are shared before the final translation, there is an opportunity for mistakes by one translator to be corrected by other team members.

Text memory
"Text memory" is the basis of the proposed Lisa OSCAR xml:tm standard. Text memory comprises author memory and translation memory.

Translation memory
The unique identifiers are remembered during translation so that the target language document is 'exactly' aligned at the text unit level. If the source document is subsequently modified, then those text units that have not changed can be directly transferred to the new target version of the document without the need for any translator interaction. This is the concept of 'exact' or 'perfect' matching to the translation memory. xml:tm can also provide mechanisms for in-document leveraged and fuzzy matching.

History
1970s is the infancy stage for TM systems in which scholars carried on a preliminary round of exploratory discussions. The original idea for TM systems is often attributed to Martin Kay's "Proper Place" paper, but the details of it are not fully given. In this paper, it has shown the basic concept of the storing system: "The translator might start by issuing a command causing the system to display anything in the store that might be relevant to .... Before going on, he can examine past and future fragments of text that contain similar material". This observation from Kay was actually influenced by the suggestion of Peter Arthern that translators can use similar, already translated documents online. In his 1978 article he gave fully demonstration of what we call TM systems today: Any new text would be typed into a word processing station, and as it was being typed, the system would check this text against the earlier texts stored in its memory, together with its translation into all the other official languages [of the European Community]. ... One advantage over machine translation proper would be that all the passages so retrieved would be grammatically correct. In effect, we should be operating an electronic 'cut and stick' process which would, according to my calculations, save at least 15 per cent of the time which translators now employ in effectively producing translations.

The idea was incorporated from ALPS (Automated Language Processing Systems) Tools first developed by researcher from Brigham Young University, and at that time the idea of TM systems was mixed with a tool called "Repetitions Processing" which only aimed to find matched strings. Only after a long time, did the concept of so-called translation memory come into being.

The real exploratory stage of TM systems would be 1980s. One of the first implementations of TM system appeared in Sadler and Vendelmans' Bilingual Knowledge Bank. A Bilingual Knowledge Bank is a syntactically and referentially structured pair of corpora, one being a translation of the other, in which translation units are cross-coded between the corpora. The aim of Bilingual Knowledge Bank is to develop a corpus-based general-purpose knowledge source for applications in machine translation and computer-aided translation (Sadler & Vendelman, 1987). Another important step was made by Brian Harris with his "Bi-text". He has defined the bi-text as "a single text in two dimensions" (1988), the source and target texts related by the activity of the translator through translation units which made a similar echoes with Sadler's Bilingual Knowledge Bank. And in Harris's work he proposed something like TM system without using this name: a database of paired translations, searchable either by individual word, or by "whole translation unit", in the latter case the search being allowed to retrieve similar rather than identical units.

TM technology only became commercially available on a wide scale in the late 1990s, through the efforts made by several engineers and translators. Of note is the first TM tool called Trados (SDL Trados nowadays). In this tool, when opening the source file and applying the translation memory so that any "100% matches" (identical matches) or "fuzzy matches" (similar, but not identical matches) within the text are instantly extracted and placed within the target file. Then, the "matches" suggested by the translation memory can be either accepted or overridden with new alternatives. If a translation unit is manually updated, then it is stored within the translation memory for future use as well as for repetition in the current text. In a similar way, all segments in the target file without a "match" would be translated manually and then automatically added to the translation memory.

In the 2000s, online translation services began incorporating TM. Machine translation services like Google Translate, as well as professional and "hybrid" translation services provided by sites like Gengo and Ackuna, incorporate databases of TM data supplied by translators and volunteers to make more efficient connections between languages provide faster translation services to end-users.

Recent trends
One recent development is the concept of 'text memory' in contrast to translation memory. This is also the basis of the proposed LISA OSCAR standard. Text memory within xml:tm comprises 'author memory' and 'translation memory'. Author memory is used to keep track of changes during the authoring cycle. Translation memory uses the information from author memory to implement translation memory matching. Although primarily targeted at XML documents, xml:tm can be used on any document that can be converted to XLIFF format.

Second-generation translation memories
Much more powerful than first-generation TM systems, they include a linguistic analysis engine, use chunk technology to break down segments into intelligent terminological groups, and automatically generate specific glossaries.

TMX
Translation Memory eXchange (TMX) is a standard that enables the interchange of translation memories between translation suppliers. TMX has been adopted by the translation community as the best way of importing and exporting translation memories. The current version is 1.4b - it allows for the recreation of the original source and target documents from the TMX data.

TBX
TermBase eXchange. This LISA standard, which was revised and republished as ISO 30042, allows for the interchange of terminology data including detailed lexical information. The framework for TBX is provided by three ISO standards: ISO 12620, ISO 12200 and ISO 16642. ISO 12620 provides an inventory of well-defined “data categories” with standardized names that function as data element types or as predefined values. ISO 12200 (also known as MARTIF) provides the basis for the core structure of TBX. ISO 16642 (also known as Terminological Markup Framework) includes a structural meta-model for Terminology Markup Languages in general.

UTX
Universal Terminology eXchange (UTX) format is a standard specifically designed to be used for user dictionaries of machine translation, but it can be used for general, human-readable glossaries. The purpose of UTX is to accelerate dictionary sharing and reuse by its extremely simple and practical specification.

SRX
Segmentation Rules eXchange (SRX) is intended to enhance the TMX standard so that translation memory data that is exchanged between applications can be used more effectively. The ability to specify the segmentation rules that were used in the previous translation may increase the leveraging that can be achieved.

GMX
GILT Metrics. GILT stands for (Globalization, Internationalization, Localization, and Translation). The GILT Metrics standard comprises three parts: GMX-V for volume metrics, GMX-C for complexity metrics and GMX-Q for quality metrics. The proposed GILT Metrics standard is tasked with quantifying the workload and quality requirements for any given GILT task.

OLIF
Open Lexicon Interchange Format. OLIF is an open, XML-compliant standard for the exchange of terminological and lexical data. Although originally intended as a means for the exchange of lexical data between proprietary machine translation lexicons, it has evolved into a more general standard for terminology exchange.

XLIFF
XML Localisation Interchange File Format (XLIFF) is intended to provide a single interchange file format that can be understood by any localization provider. XLIFF is the preferred way of exchanging data in XML format in the translation industry.

TransWS
Translation Web Services. TransWS specifies the calls needed to use Web services for the submission and retrieval of files and messages relating to localization projects. It is intended as a detailed framework for the automation of much of the current localization process by the use of Web Services.

xml:tm
The xml:tm (XML-based Text Memory) approach to translation memory is based on the concept of text memory which comprises author and translation memory. xml:tm has been donated to Lisa OSCAR by XML-INTL.

PO
Gettext Portable Object format. Though often not regarded as a translation memory format, Gettext PO files are bilingual files that are also used in translation memory processes in the same way translation memories are used. Typically, a PO translation memory system will consist of various separate files in a directory tree structure. Common tools that work with PO files include the GNU Gettext Tools and the Translate Toolkit. Several tools and programs also exist that edit PO files as if they are mere source text files.

title: Translation memory


text:
Mohamed Farrah Aidid

Mohamed Farrah Hassan Garad, popularly known as General Aidid (Maxamed Faarax Xasan Garaad, 'Caydiid Garaad'; محمد فرح حسن عيديد; 15 December 1934 – 1 August 1996), was a Somali military officer and diplomat.

Educated in both Rome and Moscow, he first served as a chief in the Italian colonial police force and later as a brigadier general in the Somali National Army. He would eventually become chairman of the United Somali Congress (USC), and soon after the Somali National Alliance (SNA). Along with other armed opposition groups, he succeeded in toppling President Siad Barre's 22 year old regime following the outbreak of the Somali Civil War in 1991.

Aidid possessed aspirations for presidency of the new Somali government, and would begin to seek alliances and unions with other politico-military organizations in order to form a national government.

Following the 5 June 1993 attack on the Pakistanis, the SNA—and by extension, Aidid—were blamed for the death of 25 UNOSOM II peacekeepers, causing him to become one of the first "Wanted Men" of the United Nations. After the US-led 12 July 1993 Abdi House raid, which resulted in the death of many eminent members of his Habr Gidr clan, Aidid began deliberately targeting American troops for the first time. President Bill Clinton responded by implementing Operation Gothic Serpent, and deploying Delta Force and Task Force Ranger to capture him. The high American casualty rate of the ensuing Battle of Mogadishu on 3–4 October 1993, led UNOSOM to cease its four month long mission.

In 1995, Aidid declared himself president of Somalia. He was killed the following year in Mogadishu on 1 August 1996, aged 61.

Early years
Aidid was born in 1934 in Beledweyne, Italian Somaliland. He is from the Habar Gidir subclan of the greater Hawiye clan. During the era of the British Military Administration he moved to Galkayo in the Mudug region to stay with a cousin, a policeman who would teach Aidid to both type and speak in Italian.

Soon after, during the period of the Italian ruled UN trusteeship, a young Aidid enlisted in the Corpo di Polizia della Somalia (Police Corps of Somalia) and in 1954 he was sent to Italy to be trained at an infantry school in Rome, after which he was appointed to work under several high ranking Somali police officers. In 1958 Aidid would serve as Chief of Police in Banaadir Province, and the following year he returned to Italy to receive further education. In 1960, Somalia gained independence and Aidid joined the newly formed Somali National Army. He was promoted to lieutenant and became aide-de-camp of Maj. Gen. Daud Abdulle Hirsi, the first commander of the Somali National Army.

Requiring more formal training, Aidid, having been recognized as a highly qualified officer, was selected to study advanced post graduate military science at the Frunze Military Academy (Военная академия им. М. В. Фрунзе) in the Soviet Union for three years, an elite institution reserved for the most qualified officers of the Warsaw Pact armies and their allies.

October 1969 Coup d'état, Imprisonment and Ogaden War
In 1969, a few days after the assassination of Somalia's President Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke, a military junta known as the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC), led by Major General Mohamed Siad Barre, would take advantage of the disarray and stage a bloodless coup d'état on the democratically elected Somali government. At the time Aidid was serving as Lieutenant Colonel in the army with 26th Division in Hargeisa. He was also the Head of Operations for the Central and Northern Regions of Somalia. After the assassination, he was relieved of his duties and was recalled to Mogadishu to lead the troops guarding the burial of the deceased President. By November 1969, he had quickly fallen under suspicion by high ranking members of the Supreme Revolutionary Council, including Barre. Without trial, he was subsequently detained in Mandhera Prison along with Colonel Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed for nearly six years. Aidid and Yusuf were both widely regarded to be politically ambitious officers, and potential figureheads in a future coup attempt. Aidid claimed that his imprisonment was a result of encouraging President Barre to transfer power over from the Somali military to civilian technocrats.

Aidid was eventually released in October 1975, and he returned to service in the Somali National Army to take part in the 1977-1978 Ogaden War against Ethiopia. During the war, he was promoted to brigadier general and became an aide-de-camp to President Mohammed Siad Barre. Headquartered in Hargeisa, Brig Gen Aidid and Maj Gen Gallel would command the 26th Division on the Dire Dawa Front. After the war, having served with distinction, Aidid worked as a presidential staffer to Barre before being appointed intelligence minister.

Under pressure from President Barre, Aidid gave a written guarantee in 1978 that Col Abdullahi Yusuf would not attempt a coup d'eat. Yusuf would go on to break the pledge in a failed coup attempt and escaped to Ethiopia. Aided was left stranded but was rescued by a high ranking ally in the regime, and was consequently saved from any punishment.

Somali Rebellion and Civil War
In 1979, Barre appointed Aidid to parliament, but in 1984, after perceiving him as a potential rival, sent him away to India by making Aidid the ambassador for Somalia. He would use his time in the country to frequently attend lectures at the University of Delhi and, with the aid of Indian lecturers at the University of Delhi, completed three books (A Vision of Somalia, The Preferred Future Development in Somalia and Somalia from the Dawn of Human Civilization to Today).

United Somali Congress
By the late 1980s, Barre's regime had become increasingly unpopular. The State took an increasingly hard line, and insurgencies, encouraged by Ethiopia's communist Derg administration, sprang up across the country. Being a member of the Hawiye clan, a high ranking government official and an experienced soldier, Aidid was deemed a natural choice for helping lead the military campaign for the United Somali Congress against the regime, and he was soon persuaded to leave New Delhi and return to Somalia.

Aidid defected from the embassy to India in 1989 and then left the country to join the growing opposition against the Barre regime. Following his defection, he had received an invitation from Ethiopian President Mengistu Haile-Mariam, who would go on to give Aidid permission to create and run a USC military operation from Ethiopian soil. From base camps near the Somali-Ethiopian border, he began directing the final military offensive of the newly formed United Somali Congress to seize Mogadishu and topple the regime.

The USC was at that time split into three factions: USC-Rome, USC-Mogadishu, later followed by USC-Ethiopia; as neither the first two former locations were a suitable launching pad to topple the Barre regime. Ali Mahdi Mohamed, an influential member of the congress who would later become Aidid's prime rival, opposed Aidid's involvement in the USC and supported the Rome faction of the Congress, who also resented Aidid. The first serious signs of fractures within the USC came in June 1990, when Mahdi and the USC-Rome faction rejected the election of Aidid to chairman of the USC, disputing the validity of the vote. That same month Aidid would go on to form a military alliance with the northern Somali National Movement (SNM) and the Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM). In October 1990, the SNM, SPM and USC would sign an agreement to hold no peace talks until the complete and total overthrow of the Barre regime. They further agreed to form a provisional government following Barres removal, and then to hold elections.

By November 1990, the news of Gen. Aidid's USC forces overrunning President Siad Barres 21st army in the Mudug, Galgudud and Hiran regions convinced many that a war in Mogadishu was imminent, leading the civilian population of the city to begin rapidly arming itself. This, combined with actions of other rebel organizations, eventually led to the full outbreak of the Somali civil war, the gradual breakup of the Somali Armed Forces, and the toppling of the Barre regime in Mogadishu on 26 January 1991. Following the power vacuum left by the fall of Barre, the situation in Somalia began to rapidly spiral out of control, and rebel factions subsequently began to fight for control of the remnants of the Somali state. Most notably, the split between the two main factions of the United Somali Congress (USC), led by Aidid and his rival Ali Mahdi, would result in serious fighting and vast swathes of Mogadishu would consequently destroyed as both factions attempted to exert control over the city.

Both Ali Mahdi and Aidid claimed to lead national unity governments, and each vied to lead the reconstruction of the Somali state.

Somali National Alliance
Aidid's wing of the USC would morph into the Somalia National Alliance (SNA) or USC/SNA. During the spring and summer of 1992, Former President Siad Barres army attempted to retake Mogadishu, but successful joint defence and counterattack by Aidid's USC wing, the Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM), the Somali Southern National Movement (SSNM) and Somali Democratic Movement (SDM) (all united under the banner of the Somali Liberation Army) to push the last remnants of Barres troops out of southern Somalia into Kenya on June 16, 1992 would lead to the formation of the political union known as the Somali National Alliance. This absorption of different political organizations was critical to Aidid’s approach to taking the presidency.

As leader of the Somali National Alliance, Aidid, with presidential aspirations, expressed the goal of using the SNA as a base for working toward forming a national reconciliation government and claimed to also be aiming for an eventual multi-party democracy. To this end Aidid required and sought political agreements with the only two remaining major factions, the Somali National Movement (SNM) and Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF), to leave his main rival Ali Mahdi Mohamed isolated in an enclave in North Mogadishu.

Aidid's grip on power in the SNA was fragile, as his ability to impose decisions on the organization was limited. A council of elders held decision making power for most significant issues and elections were held that threatened Aidid's chairmanship.

United Nations Intervention
In April 1992 the United Nations intervened in Somalia, creating UNOSOM I. United Nations Security Council Resolution 794 was unanimously passed on 3 December 1992, which approved a coalition led by the United States. Forming the Unified Task Force (UNITAF), the alliance was given the task of assuring security until humanitarian efforts were transferred to the UN.

Aidid initially publicly opposed the deployment of United Nations forces to Somalia, but eventually relented. He and UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros Ghali both despised one another. Before being Secretary-General, Boutros Ghali had been an Egyptian diplomat that had supported President Siad Barre against the USC in the late 80s and early 90s.

In January 1993, Special Representative of the UN in Somalia, Ismat Kittani, requested the Aidid come to the Addis Abba Peace Conference set to be held in March.

Presidency declaration
Aidid subsequently declared himself President of Somalia in June 1995. However, his declaration received no international recognition, as his rival Ali Mahdi Muhammad had already been elected interim president at a conference in 1991 in Djibouti and recognized as such by the international community.

Death
On 24 July 1996, Aidid and his men clashed with the forces of former allies Ali Mahdi Muhammad and Osman Ali Atto. Atto was a former supporter and financier of Aidid, and of the same subclan. Atto is alleged to have masterminded the defeat of Aidid. Aidid suffered a gunshot wound in the ensuing battle. He later died from a heart attack on 1 August 1996, either during or after surgery to treat his injuries.

Family
During the leading up to the civil war, Aidid's wife Khadiga Gurhan sought asylum in Canada in 1989, taking their four children with her. Local media shortly afterwards alleged that she had returned to Somalia for a five-month stay while still receiving welfare payments. Gurhan admitted in an interview to collecting welfare and having briefly traveled to Somalia in late 1991. However, it was later brought to light that she had been granted landed immigrant status in June 1991, thereby making her a legal resident of Canada. Additionally, Aidid's rival President Barre had been overthrown in January of that year. This altogether ensured that Gurhan's five-month trip would not have undermined her initial 1989 claim of refugee status. An official probe by Canadian immigration officials into the allegations also concluded that she had obtained her landing papers through normal legal processes.

Hussein Mohamed Farrah, son of General Aidid, emigrated to the United States when he was 17 years old. Staying 16 years in the country, he eventually became a naturalized citizen and later a United States Marine who served in Somalia. Two days after his father's death, the Somali National Alliance declared Farrah as the new president, although he too was not internationally recognized.

title: Mohamed Farrah Aidid


text:
Talk:Prince-bishop

Bishopric?
I stumbled onto this topic, and have heard of prince-bishops numerous times, but "bishopric"? I'd flag this as possible vandalism but I just don't know enough about the topic - would a clarifying statement for the word-usage not be a useful inclusion? Tom Meakin (talk) 22:41, 25 February 2009 (UTC)
 * Bishopric is valid, use Google, Merriam-Webster etc.--Yopie 23:52, 25 February 2009 (UTC)

this is not a dictionary, but since there was a dismally inept attempt to include this, the definition has now been turned into English. JHK

Well, this page could usefully be improved by giving a list of Prince-Bishops. olivier 06:28 Oct 28, 2002 (UTC)
 * Work in progress, and including several fascinating cases. Feel free to join is, there must me more cases not yet listed Fastifex 18:40, 5 February 2006 (UTC)
 * It would be helpful if we could be told how Prince-Bishops came to attain their positions, by appointment, by succession? Xxanthippe (talk) 10:17, 12 February 2009 (UTC).

Section "In Switzerland" is misleading
Having this as a separate section is misleading. The prince-bishopric of Basel was never part of Switzerland. The city of Basel and the bishopric were two separate political entities. The city joined Switzerland but the bishopric remained part of the Holy Roman Empire, until it ceased to exist when it was annexed by Napolean and became part of France. Only in 1815 did (most) of the territory of the former bishopric become part of Switzerland. I have moved the entry. TiffaF 06:56, 12 February 2007 (UTC)
 * I added it again, because the titel says "in what is now Switzerland" - almost all the territory ruled by the prince-bishops are situated in nowadays Switzerland. Furthermore also the bishops where allies of the confederacy between 16th and 18th century. Apart from this - the Swiss Confederacy was part of the Roman Empire as well until 1648. The prince-abbot of St. Gall and the prince-bishop of Chur remained princes of the empire even after that time until 1806, their territory being part of the Confedercy simultaneously. Sidonius (talk) 10:42, 21 April 2009 (UTC)

Division of the Holy Roman Empire is a mess
The division of the Holy Roman Empire by what modern countries the bishoprics were in is not a very good way to do it, especially as it's not consistent. I think it should all be listed together. john k 18:09, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

Also, were Seckau, Gurk, and Lavant, actually prince-bishoprics? If they were, they were not in the same category as the others, since they were presumably not immediate principalities, but rather owed allegiance to the emperor as Duke of Carinthia, or Duke of Styria, or whatever - they never had seats in the diet, certainly. john k 18:12, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

 * They were indeed prince-bishops, but this was a mere title: they were not territorial rulers.

 * All prince-bishops were not born equal. HRE prince-bishops (such as the p-b of Liège, Passau, etc) who were Imperial states and enjoyed imperial immediacy were powerful territorial rulers, but p-b, such as the Prince-Bishops of Breslaw, Lavant or Olomuc, were not territorial rulers since they did not have imperial immediacy. As is said above, they owed allegiance to their master the Duke of Styria or the King of Prussia or whatever (the King of Prussia even ordered a p-b of Breslaw who had displeased him arrested, but the fellow fled and never came back...)

 * This article makes a poor job of showing the difference between the two types of p-b. It's confused and has a tendency to irrelevant trivia (such as an alleged "prince-bishop" in England)

 * Diplomacy, foreign affairs and war - Here is an example of what a real prince-bishop could do and a prince-bishop of Breslaw or Gurk or Olomuc could not:

--Lubiesque (talk) 14:15, 22 June 2012 (UTC)

National history
This article splits its coverage by political units which did not exist. It also created the impression that, for instance Austria, wasn't in Germany at the time when it was. A similar concern was left above. If the problem is not resolved I will restore the edit I made which was reverted without discussion. Deacon of Pndapetzim ( Talk ) 05:34, 6 February 2009 (UTC)

Over your solution (which is certainly better than the previous status quo), I'd prefer listing all the entities that were within the Holy Roman Empire together, since they form a natural group - the modern countries can be talked about in notes on each individual case. john k (talk) 12:59, 6 February 2009 (UTC)

 * Your solution is without knowledge of this matter. Status of Prince-Bishop in HRE was different from Prince-Bishop in France, but all "P-B" in HRE have similar status, and this isnt depending on locality in modern Belgium, northern Italy, Germany or Austria. So, please, understand, that edit is unwelcomed. --Yopie 19:03, 8 February 2009 (UTC)
 * I think we are saying the same thing. john k (talk) 00:42, 9 February 2009 (UTC)
 * Yes, I answered to Deacon of Pndapetzim. --Yopie 11:10, 9 February 2009 (UTC)
 * I think Deacon is saying the same thing, as well - that it is anachronistic to suggest that these prince-bishoprics were, at the time, in different countries. john k (talk) 15:35, 10 February 2009 (UTC)
 * HRE covered definitiv the todays Kingdoms of Belgium and the Netherlands for a long time, I think untill 30-years-war (sorry, I should read first, but the book is not here this moment), aswell big parts of eastern French Kingdom (until Marseill and Lyon) in that time was no difference between PBs there and other parts of the HRE. If the PB afterwards only behold the title or if they really could stay in a status a ruling duke sorry, I don't know. Nevertheless I don't think that they had in fact a PBs power, for it doesn't agree to Netherlands or Belgiums staate-philosophy, nor to the french absolutism, to give a dukes power to a Bishops or Archbishops See. --Skipper Michael (talk) 00:27, 7 April 2010 (UTC)

"National history" problems
I have boldly reformatted the section for prince-bishoprics that were in the Holy Roman Empire into a large table, including listing the current nation(s) in which those territories existed and including a column of "Notes", that mention where these prince-bishops were not territorial sovereigns. I think this should resolved the problems caused by the artificial divisions of the bishoprics into modern nation states (particularly given that some of them cross our modern borders) and the inclusion of bishoprics such as Gurk, which were fiefs of Austrian duchies. In a similar vein, I have thus included the Livonian bishoprics of Terra Mariana, making clear that these were never (with the exception of Riga) a part of the Empire. — OwenBlacker (Talk) 11:53, 18 July 2010 (UTC)

Nationalist / anti-nationalist place naming
We're having a minor revert war over the name used for the prince-bishop of the place now known as Olomouc, which was known as Olmütz in German. This prince-bishopric was a vassal of the Bohemian Crown within the Holy Roman Empire.

The revert war is over this specific change. The direction of the change, to or from using German is unimportant to the issue at hand, we merely ought find consensus on whether the German name should be used at all.

Frustratingly, Google isn't helping us either way: we get 15 hits for Olmütz and 30 hits for Olomouc in a regular Google search and 35 hits for Olmütz against 34 hits for Olomouc on Google Scholar, none of which is really a significant sample size.

My take on the issue is that we should this abide by WP:PLACE and the precedent established at Talk:Gdansk/Vote, which was a similar issue, thus using the German-language term in the article, but making it very clear that the place is now known exclusively by its Czech-language name and is in the Czech Republic and explicitly mentioning that the bishopric was a vassal of the Bohemian Crown. My rationale is that the German-language name is, thus, given a mention, but that it is clear that there are understandable issues of nationalism around the terminology used here. A couple of other editors are insisting on removing all mention of the German names, which I believe to contravene the WP:NPOV policy, as well as WP:PLACE.

Opinions, please. — OwenBlacker (Talk) 13:43, 17 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Olmütz is how the city is normally known in English prior to 1918. The elites of Bohemia were German speaking until the 19th century, and it is under the German names that most of these places became familiar to English-speakers.  Radeksz' edit, in my view, was wrong.  Just looking at sources that happen to be around me at the moment, Robert A. Kann's History of the Habsburg Empire 1526-1918 uses "Olmütz," as does James Sheehan's German History, 1770-1866, Derek Beales's Joseph II, Arnold Blumberg's A Carefully Planned Accident: The Italian War of 1859, Brendan Simms', The Struggle for Mastery in Germany, 1779-1850, and Alan Sked's The Decline and Fall of the Habsburg Empire 1815-1918, 2nd ed.  "Olmütz" is standard usage for the period before the creation of Czechoslovakia, and we should use it. john k (talk) 16:04, 17 August 2010 (UTC)
 * What is the publishing date for these works? It's true that prior to 1989 German variations on Eastern European names were sometimes used in English language literature. But that was more than 21 years ago. Since then the actual names, like Olomouc, have gained pre dominance in English language sources, if they weren't in use already. For example, google books gives 40 (41 - 1 non English) hits for "prince-bishop of Olomouc"  but only 20 (25 - 4 non English - 1 duplicate) "prince-bishop of  Olmütz" . So Olomouc seems to outnumber Olmutz for the bishopric, 2 to 1.radek (talk) 22:21, 17 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Firstly, it is wrong to say the Czech names were the "actual names" while the German names were not; prior to 1945 there was a long-standing German presence in what is now the Czech Republic. Secondly - several of those books are from before 1989; Sked, though, is from 2001; Simms is from 1998.  Both however refer to the diplomatic meeting which occurred in the city in 1850, not specifically to the bishops.  Looking at JSTOR since 1990, there's about twice as many hits for "Olomouc" in historical journals as for "Olmutz".  However, that is going to include many references to Olomouc since 1918, so that's pretty inconclusive.  john k (talk) 22:51, 17 August 2010 (UTC)
 * I'd add that after 1620, at least, it is incorrect to say that Czech was the official language of Bohemia. john k (talk) 16:06, 17 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Oy, that is not true at all - even if we can settle on what "official language" means in this context. The Czech language certainly didn't appear ex nihilo with the founding of Czechoslovakia.radek (talk) 22:21, 17 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Of course Czech existed long before 1918. But "official language" means "language of government" if it means anything.  From 1620 to the late nineteenth century German was the primary language of government and administration in Bohemia and Moravia.  Czech was primarily a language of peasants through the eighteenth century, and a Czech identity was rediscovered by a nascent Czech intelligentsia in Prague in the early nineteenth century.  From the mid-late nineteenth century until 1918, it probably makes most sense to view German and Czech as joint official languages (this was explicitly the case in Moravia from around the turn of the century, iirc).  As far as it goes, my general feeling is that the prince-bishops themselves were almost all German, and the place was known in English by its German name for the period in question.  Most references to the place in English, once you take into account older works, are going to use Olmütz.  The article as it stood before this dispute seems fine to me; it uses the more familiar German name in the historical context and explains the city's modern Czech name as well.  john k (talk) 22:51, 17 August 2010 (UTC)
 * But "official language" means "language of government" if it means anything. - this is a fallacious argument as far as the naming of people and places in Europe is concerned. The "language of government" in most of Europe for good chunk of its history was Latin. But that doesn't mean we move all articles on European medieval history to their latin names. Furthermore, given the nature of European history it was not uncommon for the rulers to be of different ethnicity/language then the subjects they ruled. The "language of government" in Tsarist Russia was often French or German. But that doesn't mean we move 18th and 19th century Russian historical events to French or German titles. From the Battle of Hastings well into the 13th century the "language of government" of England (Scotland too for some time) was French (I might be off a few decades) but it's still Battle of Hastings not "Bataille d'Hastings". And Hugh d'Orevalle is still called "Bishop of London" rather than "Évêque de Londres". There's a half dozen other examples that can be given (Turkish names for places in modern day Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania and Balkans?).radek (talk) 23:12, 17 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Add: the fact that many of the prince-bishops were German (they may have been) is a reason to give their names in German rather than Anglicize it (so Johann rather than John) but it is not a reason to make Olomouc into Olmütz, just like it's no reason to make Hugh of London be Hugh of Londres.radek (talk) 23:19, 17 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Much of this is sensible, but I still disagree. The language of the central government in St. Petersburg might have been German or French, for instance (although increasingly less so over the course of the nineteenth century), but the language of local administration was always Russian. In Bohemia and Moravia, the language of local administration tended to be German. But you're right that this is probably irrelevant; you, however, are the one who brought up official language originally; I just don't think it cuts very clearly. Beyond that, the issue is not what the cities were called at the time. It's what the cities are still called in English when referring to that time period. Olmütz was for virtually the whole 20th century the name used in historical references to the city; usage of Olomouc is increasing, but Olmütz remains, I think, more common. john k (talk) 00:21, 18 August 2010 (UTC)

 * According to WP:PLACES, we have four solutions:
 * Present name: Olomouc, Grodków, Nysa and Wroclaw.
 * Most used name: Olomouc 7 920 000 ghits > Olmütz 280 000 ghits; Wroclaw 41 100 000 ghits > Breslau 4 150 000 ghits.
 * Official names of both principalities: Of course mediaeval Latin or Slavic.
 * Names relating to particular historical periods: Because this is only list of duchies, only meaningful date is establishing of these duchies. Duchy of Nysa was established in 1199 by Polish Piast and duchy was extended and vassalised by Bohemia in 1350. In 1199 or 1350 was used Slavic name, not German. Bishopric of Olomouc was established in 1063 and was elevated to principality 1588 and related name is Czech, not German.--Yopie (talk) 23:56, 17 August 2010 (UTC)
 * This all seems pointless. Obviously Olomouc is more used, but the vast majority of references to Olomouc are to the city since 1918.  What is important is what reliable sources use to refer to the city in the eighteenth century and earlier, not what name gets more google hits.  Wroclaw is even more ridiculous, because Breslau was not even a city particularly inhabited by Poles until after 1945.  john k (talk) 00:21, 18 August 2010 (UTC)

 * Why all is pointless? And why we must use references about city in the eighteenth century? Do you have special reason for it? Only meaningful time for references is time of establishing, because this article only inform about existence of these principalities.--Yopie (talk) 10:40, 18 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Sorry, my language was unnecessarily harsh. What I should have said is that this is all beside the point.  We should be looking at usage in reliable sources in English that discuss the city in the eighteenth century and earlier, not google hits. john k (talk) 13:48, 18 August 2010 (UTC)

I can see where john k is coming from about pointless, but I don'think he made the point very well. I agree that the details you gave in that list, Yopie, are completely right about the modern city. It would be wrong and, frankly, offensive, for the article about the modern city to be using the German name. But we're talking about the prince-bishopric in the late-mediæval and early modern age. For the purposes of this article, we only care about the names in that period of history. Are you able to source the same statistics for that era specifically? Because if you have evidence to back up your last two numbered points and comparable data for the previous ones, you may well be about to persuade me :o) — OwenBlacker (Talk) 11:54, 18 August 2010 (UTC)
 * On that note, I see that the following maps, which are all the English-language maps of the region I could find by looking through commons:Category:Maps by century shown and going from the 12th century to the 19th, all use Olmütz as the English-language name of the city. I deliberately excluded all maps that were captioned in German, as that would obviously skew the results.

 * Maps by William Robert Shepherd:
 * commons:File:Central europe 1648 sheperd.jpg — Central Europe in 1648, created 1926
 * commons:File:Europe 1911.jpg — Europe at the Present Time, created 1911
 * commons:File:Europe 1914 Shepherd.jpg — Europe, 1871–1914, created 1926
 * commons:File:Germans in western Austro-Hungaria.gif — cropped from Distribution of Races in Austria-Hungary, created 1911

 * Maps by H.F. Helmolt:
 * commons:File:Helmholt - Western Europe early 18th century.jpg — Western Europe in the period of the formation of the Great Powers, created 1902
 * commons:File:Brandenburg_1806.jpg — Prussia in the year 1806, created 1902

 * If you can find any contemporaneous maps published in English, using Olomouc, rather than Olmütz, then I'm open to persuasion, but it's looking like Olmütz is the name customarily used in the English language for that time period, to me. — OwenBlacker (Talk) 13:24, 18 August 2010 (UTC)
 * This is true. Before 1918 the city would have always been called Olmütz/Olmutz/Olmuetz in English.  That said, I think the key issue should be what more recent English language sources use in references to the city before 1918.  These are more mixed, but also, I think, favor Olmütz. john k (talk) 13:48, 18 August 2010 (UTC)

 * Again, why you use as reference point 18th century or 19th century? Do you have any reason for it? --Yopie (talk) 14:30, 18 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Well, it hardly makes sense to use the 20th century as a reference, since the prince-bishopric didn't exist then. On the whole, the standardization of English-language geographical references took place in the eighteenth/nineteenth centuries.  In the seventeenth century, you'll find a bewildering variety of different spellings used in English, and probably, on the whole, not much written in English about central European cities at all.  At any rate, my point is "what names are used in recent English-language works to refer to the city during the period when the prince-bishopric existed?"  john k (talk) 02:37, 19 August 2010 (UTC)
 * What john k said. Basically, we don't care about the 21st century name of the city, we care about how it that entity is referred to in English, not how the modern city is (which is unambiguously Olomouc). — OwenBlacker (Talk) 10:54, 19 August 2010 (UTC)
 * As WP:NCGN says: " If the place does not exist anymore, or the article deals only with a place in a period when it held a different name, the widely accepted historical English name should be used." The prince-bishopric doesn't exist anymore, and the city has changed name - in English - since it was a part of the Kingdom of Bohemia (which is why the nineteenth century matters) Observe that this list includes the Bishoprics of Breslau and Constance, both so spelt; Basle would probably be an improvement here. Septentrionalis PMAnderson 03:01, 22 August 2010 (UTC)
 * I think Basle falls into the category with Ratisbon and Mayence of name forms which are archaic. Mayence was the English name of Mainz until the early twentieth century, but since then it has fallen out of use for both historical and contemporary reference.  Compare to Breslau, which is virtually always called Breslau when referring to it before 1945. john k (talk) 04:24, 22 August 2010 (UTC)
 * I'd agree — we just don't use those names in English any more. Though it only just occurred to me to check my grandfather's 1930-dated school atlas. It shows both Ratisbon and Mayence (though Basel). But it also shows Olmütz, despite it being in Czechoslovakia (which still had Ruthenia in its territory at the time). Fwiw, it also lists Pressburg, rather than Bratislava, too. — OwenBlacker (Talk) 21:52, 22 August 2010 (UTC)
 * I would agree about Regensburg, although not about Basle. But I apologize for the digression; the point, on which we seem to agree, is that Olmütz is like Pressburg or Breslau: the historic name currently in use for the past state of a city now known by a different name. If it would salve any wounded feelings, I would have no objection to adding (now Olomouc), (now Wroclaw) and so on. Septentrionalis PMAnderson 22:48, 22 August 2010 (UTC)
 * I believe that "now Olomouc" and "now Wroclaw" are already in the article. john k (talk) 00:16, 23 August 2010 (UTC)

If we're going to rename the Prince-Bishoprice of Olmütz the Prince-Bishopric of Olomouc, then I think that we better rename the Kingdom of Bohemia the Kingdom of Czech Republic. There are lots more Google hits for Czech Republic than there are for Bohemia. Noel S McFerran (talk) 00:09, 23 August 2010 (UTC)

[In response to Septentrionalis]: Quite. Indeed, the compromise I was originally advocating is the status quo in the article (this version), where the text reads (for this example) The Czech bishopric (later Metropolitan) of Olmütz (now Olomouc), as a vassal principality of the Bohemian crown.... This is definitely my favoured text — it uses the contemporary terms, but makes the modern names clear. This is, apart from anything, how I would extrapolate the decision of Talk:Gdansk/Vote, which is a pretty sensible compromise consensus, imho. — OwenBlacker (Talk) 09:08, 23 August 2010 (UTC); Edited formatting to clarify the discussion — OwenBlacker (Talk) 23:23, 21 November 2010 (UTC)

Gurk and Seckau
My understanding is that these bishoprics were principalities, but were subject not to the emperor, but to the Duke of Styria or Carinthia. That is, they were principalities, but not Reichsunmittelbar; this is comparable to the Prince-Bishops of Olmütz and Breslau, who were subject to the Bohemian crown. I'm not completely sure of that, though. john k (talk) 16:33, 11 September 2010 (UTC)

Breslau and Olmütz, France
In my understanding, a prince-bishopric (Fürstbistum) is a reichsfrei principality ruled by a bishop. I've excluded Gurk, Landau, and Seckau from the list, because I couldn't find any evidence they did rule a principality, certainly not a reichsfrei state. If they ruled any estates, it probably was as a vicar/representative or vassal of Salzburg, or some other lord.

Olmütz (Olomouc) and Breslau (Wrocław) might also be excluded, since they weren't reichsunmittelbar. Olmütz seems to have been gefürstet, but it was probably merely titular, since no territory or principality was named. If it did receive some principality, it would have been a vassal of the margraviate of Moravia (Mähren), which was subject to the Bohemian Crown. Breslau had some territories within the duchy of Silesia (including the duchy of Nysa, Otmuchów (Ottmachau) and Grodków (Grottkau), but not the duchy of Breslau), but these principalities were ultimately subject to the Polish (until 1335) and Bohemian crown (afterwards), certainly not Reichsfrei. Should we also include the bishopric of Kraków (Krakau), since it owned the duchy of Siewierz?

And what about France? The archbishop of Rheims and the bishops of Langres, Laon, Beauvais, Châlons, and Noyon were made counts and vassals of the French crown in the 11th C, as well as pair de France. (Rheims, Langres, and Laon were later elevated to duchies, for symmetrical reasons). Tournai and other bishops also ruled counties, although I'm unsure whether these were royal domains, or fiefs from some other lord. Have a look at these maps for the "princely states" of these bishops:

File:Shepherd-c-061.jpg File:France 12thC.jpg File:Conquetes Philippe Auguste.gif

If every bishopric owning some principalities or estates would count as a prince-bishopric, then we should certainly not forget the Papal States, which were owned and enfeoffed by the bishop of Rome (i.e. the Pope). Furthermore, various Norman, Italian, and Spanish (arch)bishops controlled territory, often temporarily, sometimes as vicars, sometimes as vassals "owning" a fief.

I think the only feasible option would be to use "prince-bishop" only in a strict sense, i.e. only include those bishoprics which clearly ruled a principality with imperial immediacy.

Michael! (talk) 22:00, 18 October 2013 (UTC)

 * Ad I understand, the article is about "Prince-bishop" (person), not about "Principality-bishopric" and nowhere is that MUST be reichsfrei. They must be bishops and princes, and in part about HRE, must be in territory of HRE, no more or less. Olomouc was diocese and bishop was prince. He was direct vassal of king of Bohemia, not Margrave, as counterweight. Of course, there was not principality, but system of lesser vassals around Olomouc, with own judicial court. He had right of mintage . Wrocław, was different story. They own duchy of Nysa, as vassals of king of Bohemia, with similar rights as reichsunmittelbar - own laws, coins, army, taxes etc.

I agree with you, that will be better to include French bishop-princes.--Yopie (talk) 00:41, 19 October 2013 (UTC)

 * Well, Prince-bishopric redirects here. The major parts (maps and tables of the HRE and TO sections) are about the prince-bishoprics, not about prince-bishops. Besides, this article doesn't include lists of prince-bishops, but it does include lists of prince-bishoprics.
 * Both concepts are closely interwoven: a prince-bishopric is a state ruled by a prince-bishop, and a prince-bishop is the ruler of a prince-bishopric. It would be a bad idea to separate the two concepts and artificially split this article in half.
 * No, prince-bishoprics are not reichsfrei by definition, but in practice all prince-bishoprics were reichsfrei. Besides, those "titular prince-bishops" (Breslau, etc.) were not part of the Reichsfürstenrat/Fürstenbank, nor were the "normal bishops" (Wien, etc.), while the "true" prince-bishops were Reichsfürsten. Have a look at this document for a member list as of 1792.
 * The pope and those French bishops are seldom called prince-bishops, although they held both spiritual authority and temporal possessions. The term "prince-bishop" is almost exclusively used within the context of the HRE, as a translation of German Fürstbischof (it is sometimes used for the bishop of Durham, though).

 * To summarize, I'm not arguing that Brescia, Breslau, Olmütz, Gurk, Landau, and Seckau should be excluded from the article, only that they should be excluded from the list, to discuss them briefly as "special cases", because they were different. Perhaps in a separate "Titular prince-bishops" subsection.
 * The pope, the bishop of Urgell (co-prince of Andorra), Durham, etc. are also briefly discussed at the end of the article, but are excluded from the lists of "true" prince-bishops.
 * Michael! (talk) 17:07, 19 October 2013 (UTC)

 * PS: In the equivalent French Wikipedia article, it is reserved for the "Saint-Empire"; the French évêque-duc and évêque-comte are notably absent.

Merger proposal
I propose merging Lord Bishop into Prince-bishop. The former is very short (three sentences) and seems like it could easily be covered here. — Moriwen (talk) 14:00, 12 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Oppose "Lord Bishop" is a form of address for all bishops in some cases. It has nothing to do with the specific institution of prince-bishop, where the bishop has both secular and ecclesiastical functions. "Lord Bishop" should be merged with Bishop, since it is merely a form of address for bishops. --Macrakis (talk) 15:31, 12 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Comment As I say above, I would support merging Lord Bishop with Bishop., do you agree? --Macrakis (talk) 17:22, 28 June 2023 (UTC)
 * yeah, that sounds legit to me! support — Moriwen (talk) 18:01, 28 June 2023 (UTC)

OK, thanks for withdrawing your proposal. I will put the merger proposal on the Lord Bishop page. --Macrakis (talk) 20:42, 1 July 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Prince-bishop


text:
User talk:BF

Past * Recent Past  * Purple Graffiti * Pink Graffiti  Now

AfD Nomination: Dakini
I've nominated the article Dakini for deletion under the Articles for deletion process. We appreciate your contributions, but in this particular case I do not feel that Dakini satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion. I have explained why in the nomination space (see What Wikipedia is not and Deletion policy). Your opinions on the matter are welcome; please participate in the discussion by adding your comments at Articles for deletion/Dakini. Don't forget to add four tildes ( ~ ) at the end of each of your comments to sign them. You are free to edit the content of Dakini during the discussion, but please do not remove the "Articles for Deletion" template (the box at the top). Doing so will not end the discussion.

Right now this article is a merge/redirect from Dakini(Buddhism) by someone else. View the history. Not sure which version, reversion, merge or remerge you nominated for deletion. Recntly I restored the original article written 5 years ago. The people want to hijack this article and erase content. Originally this article was short, without the picture or the unsatisfactory criteria. Perhaps you are mistaking me for the others. ~ BF 23:45, 3 October 2006 (UTC)

Einstein-de Haas effect
how did i damage it? you're right, i don't know very much quantum electrodynamics... so i modified its structure, fixed some links, and put it in what i thought were the right categories. Can you tell me what I did wrong?

Old user pages
Hi BF, I discovered your old user pages while checking out some old edits. I've moved them to User:BF/Pink Graffiti and User:BF/Purple Graffiti to approximate how they were originally before Karen Johnson moved them from the main namespace. Hope you don't mind. Graham 87 16:43, 20 December 2009 (UTC)

Re: A bowl of strawberries for you!
Thanks, yummy! Graham 87 02:19, 16 July 2011 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 08:51, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

Invitation to join the Fifteen Year Society
Dear ,

I'd like to extend a cordial invitation to you to join the Fifteen Year Society, an informal group for editors who've been participating in the Wikipedia project for fifteen years or more.

Best regards, Urhixidur (talk) 19:52, 6 June 2019 (UTC)

Nomination of Introduction to M-theory for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article Introduction to M-theory is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/Introduction to M-theory& until a consensus is reached, and anyone, including you, is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article until the discussion has finished. Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus| reply here 13:15, 6 November 2023 (UTC)

title: User talk:BF