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Donkey

The donkey is a domesticated equine. It derives from the African wild ass, Equus africanus, and may be classified either as a subspecies thereof, Equus africanus asinus, or as a separate species, Equus asinus. It was domesticated in Africa some $5,000$ years ago, and has been used mainly as a working animal since that time.

There are more than 40 million donkeys in the world, mostly in underdeveloped countries, where they are used principally as draught or pack animals. While working donkeys are often associated with those living at or below subsistence, small numbers of donkeys or asses are kept for breeding or as pets in developed countries.

An adult male donkey is a jack or jackass, an adult female is a jenny or jennet,  and an immature donkey of either sex is a foal. Jacks are often mated with female horses (mares) to produce mules; the less common hybrid of a male horse (stallion) and jenny is a hinny.

Nomenclature
Traditionally, the scientific name for the donkey is Equus asinus asinus, on the basis of the principle of priority used for scientific names of animals. However, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature ruled in 2003 that if the domestic and the wild species are considered subspecies of a common species, the scientific name of the wild species has priority, even when that subspecies was described after the domestic subspecies. This means that the proper scientific name for the donkey is Equus africanus asinus when it is considered a subspecies and Equus asinus when it is considered a species.

At one time, the synonym ass was the more common term for the donkey. The first recorded use of donkey was in either 1784 or 1785. While the word ass has cognates in most other Indo-European languages, donkey is an etymologically obscure word for which no credible cognate has been identified. Hypotheses on its derivation include the following:

 * perhaps from Spanish for its don-like gravity; the donkey was also known as "the King of Spain's trumpeter".
 * perhaps a diminutive of dun (dull grayish-brown), a typical donkey colour.
 * perhaps from the name Duncan.
 * perhaps of imitative origin.

From the 18th century, donkey gradually replaced ass and jenny replaced she-ass, which is now considered archaic. The change may have come about through a tendency to avoid pejorative terms in speech and may be comparable to the substitution in North American English of rooster for cock, or that of rabbit for coney, which was formerly homophonic with cunny (a variation of the word cunt). By the end of the 17th century, changes in pronunciation of both ass and arse had caused them to become homophones in some varieties of English. Other words used for the ass in English from this time include cuddy in Scotland, neddy in southwestern England and dicky in southeastern England; moke is documented in the 19th century and may be of Welsh or Romani origin.

Burro is a word for donkey in both Spanish and Portuguese. In the United States, it is commonly applied to the feral donkeys that live west of the Rocky Mountains; it may also refer to any small donkey.

History

The genus Equus, which includes all extant equines, is believed to have evolved from Dinohippus, via the intermediate form Plesippus. One of the oldest species is Equus simplicidens, described as zebra-like with a donkey-shaped head. The oldest fossil to date is approximately 3.5 million years old, and was located in the US state of Idaho. The genus appears to have spread quickly into the Old World, with the similarly aged Equus livenzovensis documented from western Europe and Russia.

Molecular phylogenies indicate the most recent common ancestor of all modern equids (members of the genus Equus) lived ~5.6 (3.9–7.8) mya. Direct paleogenomic sequencing of a 700,000-year-old middle Pleistocene horse metapodial bone from Canada implies a more recent 4.07 Myr before present date for the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) within the range of 4.0 to 4.5 Myr BP. The oldest divergencies are the Asian hemiones (subgenus E. (Asinus), including the kulan, onager, and kiang), followed by the African zebras (subgenera E. (Dolichohippus), and E. (Hippotigris)). All other modern forms including the domesticated horse (and many fossil Pliocene and Pleistocene forms) belong to the subgenus E. (Equus) which diverged ~4.8 (3.2–6.5) million years ago.

The ancestors of the modern donkey are the Nubian and Somalian subspecies of African wild ass. Remains of domestic donkeys dating to the fourth millennium BC have been found in Ma'adi in Lower Egypt, and it is believed that the domestication of the donkey was accomplished long after the domestication of cattle, sheep and goats in the seventh and eighth millennia BC. Donkeys were probably first domesticated by pastoral people in Nubia, and they supplanted the ox as the chief pack animal of that culture. The domestication of donkeys served to increase the mobility of pastoral cultures, having the advantage over ruminants of not needing time to chew their cud, and were vital in the development of long-distance trade across Egypt. In the Dynasty IV era of Egypt, between 2675 and 2565 BC, wealthy members of society were known to own over 1,000 donkeys, employed in agriculture, as dairy and meat animals and as pack animals. In 2003, the tomb of either King Narmer or King Hor-Aha (two of the first Egyptian pharaohs) was excavated and the skeletons of ten donkeys were found buried in a manner usually used with high ranking humans. These burials show the importance of donkeys to the early Egyptian state and its ruler.

By the end of the fourth millennium BC, the donkey had spread to Southwest Asia, and the main breeding centre had shifted to Mesopotamia by 1800 BC. The breeding of large, white riding asses made Damascus famous, while Syrian breeders developed at least three other breeds, including one preferred by women for its easy gait. The Muscat or Yemen ass was developed in Arabia. By the second millennium BC, the donkey was brought to Europe, possibly at the same time as viticulture was introduced, as the donkey is associated with the Syrian god of wine, Dionysus. Greeks spread both of these to many of their colonies, including those in what are now Italy, France and Spain; Romans dispersed them throughout their empire.

The first donkeys came to the Americas on ships of the Second Voyage of Christopher Columbus, and were landed at Hispaniola in 1495. The first to reach North America may have been two animals taken to Mexico by Juan de Zumárraga, the first bishop of Mexico, who arrived there on 6 December 1528, while the first donkeys to reach what is now the United States may have crossed the Rio Grande with Juan de Oñate in April 1598. From that time on they spread northward, finding use in missions and mines. Donkeys were documented as present in what today is Arizona in 1679. By the Gold Rush years of the 19th century, the burro was the beast of burden of choice of early prospectors in the western United States. By the end of the placer mining boom, many of them escaped or were abandoned, and a feral population established itself.

Conservation status
About 41 million donkeys were reported worldwide in 2006. China had the most with 11 million, followed by Pakistan, Ethiopia and Mexico. As of 2017, however, the Chinese population was reported to have dropped to 3 million, with African populations under pressure as well, due to increasing trade and demand for donkey products in China. Some researchers believe the actual number may be somewhat higher since many donkeys go uncounted. The number of breeds and percentage of world population for each of the FAO's world regions was in 2006:

In 1997 the number of donkeys in the world was reported to be continuing to grow, as it had steadily done throughout most of history; factors cited as contributing to this were increasing human population, progress in economic development and social stability in some poorer nations, conversion of forests to farm and range land, rising prices of motor vehicles and fuel, and the popularity of donkeys as pets. Since then, the world population of donkeys is reported to be rapidly shrinking, falling from 43.7 million to 43.5 million between 1995 and 2000, and to only 41 million in 2006. The fall in population is pronounced in developed countries; in Europe, the total number of donkeys fell from 3 million in 1944 to just over 1 million in 1994.

The Domestic Animal Diversity Information System (DAD-IS) of the FAO listed 189 breeds of ass in June 2011. In 2000 the number of breeds of donkey recorded worldwide was 97, and in 1995 it was 77. The rapid increase is attributed to attention paid to identification and recognition of donkey breeds by the FAO's Animal Genetic Resources project. The rate of recognition of new breeds has been particularly high in some developed countries. In France only one breed, the Baudet du Poitou, was recognised until the early 1990s; by 2005, a further six donkey breeds had official recognition.

In developed countries, the welfare of donkeys both at home and abroad has become a concern, and a number of sanctuaries for retired and rescued donkeys have been set up. The largest is The Donkey Sanctuary near Sidmouth, England, which also supports donkey welfare projects in Egypt, Ethiopia, India, Kenya, and Mexico.

In 2017, a drop in the number of Chinese donkeys, combined with the fact that they are slow to reproduce, meant that Chinese suppliers began to look to Africa. As a result of the increase in demand, and the price that could be charged, Kenya opened three donkey abattoirs. Concerns for donkeys' well-being, however, have resulted in a number of African countries (including Uganda, Tanzania, Botswana, Niger, Burkina Faso, Mali, and Senegal) banning China from buying their donkey products.

In 2019, The Donkey Sanctuary warned that the global donkey population could be reduced by half over the next half decade as the demand for ejiao increases in China.

Characteristics
Donkeys vary considerably in size, depending on both breed and environmental conditions, and heights at the withers range from less than 90 cm to approximately 150 cm. Working donkeys in the poorest countries have a life expectancy of 12 to 15 years; in more prosperous countries, they may have a lifespan of 30 to 50 years.

Donkeys are adapted to marginal desert lands. Unlike wild and feral horses, wild donkeys in dry areas are solitary and do not form harems. Each adult donkey establishes a home range; breeding over a large area may be dominated by one jack. The loud call or bray of the donkey, which typically lasts for twenty seconds and can be heard for over three kilometres, may help keep in contact with other donkeys over the wide spaces of the desert. Donkeys have large ears, which may pick up more distant sounds, and may help cool the donkey's blood. Donkeys can defend themselves by biting, striking with the front hooves or kicking with the hind legs. Their vocalization, called a bray, is often represented in English as "hee haw".

Cross on back
Most donkeys have dorsal and shoulder stripes, primitive markings which form a distinctive cross pattern on their backs.

Breeding

A jenny is normally pregnant for about 12 months, though the gestation period varies from 11 to 14 months, and usually gives birth to a single foal. Births of twins are rare, though less so than in horses. About 1.7 percent of donkey pregnancies result in twins; both foals survive in about 14 percent of those. In general jennies have a conception rate that is lower than that of horses (i.e., less than the 60–65% rate for mares).

Although jennies come into heat within 9 or 10 days of giving birth, their fertility remains low, and it is likely the reproductive tract has not returned to normal. Thus it is usual to wait one or two further oestrous cycles before rebreeding, unlike the practice with mares. Jennies are usually very protective of their foals, and some will not come into estrus while they have a foal at side. The time lapse involved in rebreeding, and the length of a jenny's gestation, means that a jenny will have fewer than one foal per year. Because of this and the longer gestation period, donkey breeders do not expect to obtain a foal every year, as horse breeders often do, but may plan for three foals in four years.

Donkeys can interbreed with other members of the family Equidae, and are commonly interbred with horses. The hybrid between a jack and a mare is a mule, valued as a working and riding animal in many countries. Some large donkey breeds such as the Asino di Martina Franca, the Baudet du Poitou and the Mammoth Jack are raised only for mule production. The hybrid between a stallion and a jenny is a hinny, and is less common. Like other inter-species hybrids, mules and hinnies are usually sterile. Donkeys can also breed with zebras, in which case the offspring is called a zonkey (among other names).

Behaviour
Donkeys have a notorious reputation for stubbornness, but this has been attributed to a much stronger sense of self-preservation than exhibited by horses. Likely based on a stronger prey instinct and a weaker connection with humans, it is considerably more difficult to force or frighten a donkey into doing something it perceives to be dangerous for whatever reason. Once a person has earned their confidence they can be willing and companionable partners and very dependable in work.

Although formal studies of their behaviour and cognition are rather limited, donkeys appear to be quite intelligent, cautious, friendly, playful, and eager to learn.

Use
The donkey has been used as a working animal for at least $5,000$ years. Of the more than 40 million donkeys in the world, about 96% are in underdeveloped countries, where they are used principally as pack animals or for draught work in transport or agriculture. After human labour, the donkey is the cheapest form of agricultural power. They may also be ridden, or used for threshing, raising water, milling and other work. Some cultures that prohibit women from working with oxen in agriculture do not extend this taboo to donkeys.

In developed countries where their use as beasts of burden has disappeared, donkeys are used to sire mules, to guard sheep, for donkey rides for children or tourists, and as pets. Donkeys may be pastured or stabled with horses and ponies, and are thought to have a calming effect on nervous horses. If a donkey is introduced to a mare and foal, the foal may turn to the donkey for support after it has been weaned from its mother.

A few donkeys are milked or raised for meat. Approximately 3.5 million donkeys and mules are slaughtered each year for meat worldwide. In Italy, which has the highest consumption of equine meat in Europe and where donkey meat is the main ingredient of several regional dishes, about 1,000 donkeys were slaughtered in 2010, yielding approximately 100 tonnes of meat. Asses' milk may command good prices: the average price in Italy in 2009 was €15 per litre, and a price of €6 per 100 ml was reported from Croatia in 2008; it is used for soaps and cosmetics as well as dietary purposes. The niche markets for both milk and meat are expanding. In the past, donkey skin was used in the production of parchment. In 2017, the UK based charity The Donkey Sanctuary estimated that 1.8 million skins were traded every year, but the demand could be as high as 10 million.

In China, donkey meat is considered a delicacy with some restaurants specializing in such dishes, and Guo Li Zhuang restaurants offer the genitals of donkeys in dishes. Donkey-hide gelatin is produced by soaking and stewing the hide to make a traditional Chinese medicine product. Ejiao, the gelatine produced by boiling donkey skins, can sell for up to $388 per kilogram, at October 2017 prices.

In warfare
During World War I John Simpson Kirkpatrick, a British stretcher bearer serving with the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, and Richard Alexander "Dick" Henderson of the New Zealand Medical Corps used donkeys to rescue wounded soldiers from the battlefield at Gallipoli.

According to British food writer Matthew Fort, donkeys were used in the Italian Army. The Mountain Fusiliers each had a donkey to carry their gear, and in extreme circumstances the animal could be eaten.

Donkeys have also been used to carry explosives in conflicts that include the war in Afghanistan and others.

Shoeing
Donkey hooves are more elastic than those of horses, and do not naturally wear down as fast. Regular clipping may be required; neglect can lead to permanent damage. Working donkeys may need to be shod. Donkey shoes are similar to horseshoes, but usually smaller and without toe-clips.

Nutrition
In their native arid and semi-arid climates, donkeys spend more than half of each day foraging and feeding, often on poor quality scrub. The donkey has a tough digestive system in which roughage is efficiently broken down by hind gut fermentation, microbial action in the caecum and large intestine. While there is no marked structural difference between the gastro-intestinal tract of a donkey and that of a horse, the digestion of the donkey is more efficient. It needs less food than a horse or pony of comparable height and weight, approximately 1.5 percent of body weight per day in dry matter, compared to the 2–2.5 percent consumption rate possible for a horse. Donkeys are also less prone to colic. The reasons for this difference are not fully understood; the donkey may have different intestinal flora to the horse, or a longer gut retention time.

Donkeys obtain most of their energy from structural carbohydrates. Some suggest that a donkey needs to be fed only straw (preferably barley straw), supplemented with controlled grazing in the summer or hay in the winter, to get all the energy, protein, fat and vitamins it requires; others recommend some grain to be fed, particularly to working animals, and others advise against feeding straw. They do best when allowed to consume small amounts of food over long periods. They can meet their nutritional needs on 6 to 7 hours of grazing per day on average dryland pasture that is not stressed by drought. If they are worked long hours or do not have access to pasture, they require hay or a similar dried forage, with no more than a 1:4 ratio of legumes to grass. They also require salt and mineral supplements, and access to clean, fresh water. In temperate climates the forage available is often too abundant and too rich; over-feeding may cause weight gain and obesity, and lead to metabolic disorders such as founder (laminitis ) and hyperlipaemia, or to gastric ulcers.

Throughout the world, working donkeys are associated with the very poor, with those living at or below subsistence level. Few receive adequate food, and in general donkeys throughout the Third World are under-nourished and over-worked.

Feral populations

In some areas domestic donkeys have returned to the wild and established feral populations such as those of the burro of North America and the Asinara donkey of Sardinia, Italy, both of which have protected status. Feral donkeys can also cause problems, notably in environments that have evolved free of any form of equid, such as Hawaii. In Australia, where there may be 5 million feral donkeys, they are regarded as an invasive pest and have a serious impact on the environment. They may compete with livestock and native animals for resources, spread weeds and diseases, foul or damage watering holes and cause erosion.

Donkey hybrids
The earliest documented donkey hybrid was the kunga, which was used as a draft animal in the Syrian and Mesopotamian kingdoms of the second half of the 3rd millennium BCE. A cross between a captive male Syrian wild ass and a female domesticated donkey (jenny), they represent the earliest known example of human-directed animal hybridization. They were produced at a breeding center at Nagar (modern Tell Brak) and were sold or given as gifts throughout the region, where they became significant status symbols, pulling battle wagons and the chariots of kings, and also being sacrificed to bury with high-status people. They fell out of favor following the introduction of the domestic horse and its donkey hybrid, the mule, into the region at the end of the 3rd millennium BCE.

A male donkey (jack) crossed with a female horse produces a mule, while a male horse crossed with a jenny produces a hinny. Horse–donkey hybrids are almost always sterile because of a failure of their developing gametes to complete meiosis. The lower progesterone production of the jenny may also lead to early embryonic loss. In addition, there are reasons not directly related to reproductive biology. Due to different mating behavior, jacks are often more willing to cover mares than stallions are to breed jennies. Further, mares are usually larger than jennies and thus have more room for the ensuing foal to grow in the womb, resulting in a larger animal at birth. It is commonly believed that mules are more easily handled and also physically stronger than hinnies, making them more desirable for breeders to produce.

The offspring of a zebra–donkey cross is called a zonkey, zebroid, zebrass, or zedonk; zebra mule is an older term, but still used in some regions today. The foregoing terms generally refer to hybrids produced by breeding a male zebra to a female donkey. Zebra hinny, zebret and zebrinny all refer to the cross of a female zebra with a male donkey. Zebrinnies are rarer than zedonkies because female zebras in captivity are most valuable when used to produce full-blooded zebras. There are not enough female zebras breeding in captivity to spare them for hybridizing; there is no such limitation on the number of female donkeys breeding.

title: Donkey


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User:Jennifer~enwiki

Are these dress illustrations public domain? Vicki Rosenzweig, Saturday, June 8, 2002

Jennifer, where are you getting these dress illustrations? Please respond before posting any more. Koyaanis Qatsi, Sunday, June 9, 2002

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Jennifer~enwiki


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Clam

Clam is a common name for several kinds of bivalve molluscs. The word is often applied only to those that are edible and live as infauna, spending most of their lives halfway buried in the sand of the seafloor or riverbeds. Clams have two shells of equal size connected by two adductor muscles and have a powerful burrowing foot. They live in both freshwater and marine environments; in salt water they prefer to burrow down into the mud and the turbidity of the water required varies with species and location; the greatest diversity of these is in North America.

Clams in the culinary sense do not live attached to a substrate (whereas oysters and mussels do) and do not live near the bottom (whereas scallops do). In culinary usage, clams are commonly eaten marine bivalves, as in clam digging and the resulting soup, clam chowder. Many edible clams such as palourde clams are ovoid or triangular; however, razor clams have an elongated parallel-sided shell, suggesting an old-fashioned straight razor.

Some clams have life cycles of only one year, while at least one has been aged to over 500 years old. All clams have two calcareous shells or valves joined near a hinge with a flexible ligament and all are filter feeders.

Anatomy

A clam's shell consists of two (usually equal) valves, which are connected by a hinge joint and a ligament that can be internal or external. The ligament provides tension to bring the valves apart, while one or two adductor muscles can contract to close the valves. Clams also have kidneys, a heart, a mouth, a stomach, and a nervous system. Many have a siphon.

Food source and ecology
Clams are shellfish that make up an important part of the web of life that keeps the seas functioning, both as filter feeders and as a food source for many different animals. Extant mammals that eat clams include both the Pacific and Atlantic species of walrus, all known subspecies of harbour seals in both the Atlantic and Pacific, most species of sea lions, including the California sea lion, bearded seals and even species of river otters that will consume the freshwater species found in Asia and North America. Birds of all kinds will also eat clams if they can catch them in the littoral zone: roseate spoonbills of North and South America, the Eurasian oystercatcher, whooping crane and common crane, the American flamingo of Florida and the Caribbean Sea, and the common sandpiper are just a handful of the numerous birds that feast on clams all over the world. Most species of octopus have clams as a staple of their diet, up to and including the giants like the Giant Pacific octopus.

Culinary
Cultures around the world eat clams along with many other types of shellfish.

North America
In culinary use, within the eastern coast of the United States and large swathes of the Maritimes of Canada, the term "clam" most often refers to the hard clam, Mercenaria mercenaria. It may also refer to a few other common edible species, such as the soft-shell clam, Mya arenaria, and the ocean quahog, Arctica islandica. Another species commercially exploited on the Atlantic Coast of the United States is the surf clam, Spisula solidissima. Scallops are also used for food nationwide, but not cockles: they are more difficult to get than in Europe because of their habit of being farther out in the tide than European species on the West Coast, and on the East Coast they are often found in salt marshes and mudflats where mosquitoes are abundant. There are several edible species in the Eastern United States: Americardia media, also known as the strawberry cockle, is found from Cape Hatteras down into the Caribbean Sea and all of Florida; Trachycardium muricatum has a similar range to the strawberry cockle; and Dinocardium robustum, which grows to be many times the size of the European cockle. Historically, they were caught on a small scale on the Outer Banks, barrier islands off North Carolina, and put in soups, steamed or pickled.

Up and down the coast of the Eastern U.S., the bamboo clam, Ensis directus, is prized by Americans for making clam strips, although because of its nature of burrowing into the sand very close to the beach, it cannot be harvested by mechanical means without damaging the beaches. The bamboo clam is also notorious for having a very sharp edge of its shell, and when harvested by hand must be handled with great care.

On the U.S. West Coast, there are several species that have been consumed for thousands of years, evidenced by middens full of clamshells near the shore and their consumption by nations including the Chumash of California, the Nisqually of Washington state and the Tsawwassen of British Columbia. The butter clam, Saxidomus gigantea, the Pacific razor clam, Siliqua patula, gaper clams Tresus capax, the geoduck clam, Panopea generosa and the Pismo clam, Tivela stultorum are all eaten as delicacies.

Clams can be eaten raw, steamed, boiled, baked or fried. They can also be made into clam chowder, clams casino, clam cakes, or stuffies, or they can be cooked using hot rocks and seaweed in a New England clam bake. On the West Coast, they are an ingredient in making cioppino and local variants of ceviche.

India
Clams are eaten more in the coastal regions of India, especially in the Konkan, Kerala, Bengal and coastal regions of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu regions.

In Kerala, clams are used to make curries and fried with coconut. In the Malabar region it is known as "elambakka" and in middle kerala it is known as "kakka". Clam curry made with coconut is a dish from Malabar especially in the Thalassery region. On the southwestern coast of India, also known as the Konkan region of Maharashtra, clams are used in curries and side dishes, like Tisaryachi Ekshipi, which is clams with one shell on. Beary Muslim households in the Mangalore region prepare a main dish with clams called Kowldo Pinde. In Udupi and Mangalore regions, it is called marvai in the local Tulu language. It is used to prepare many dishes like marvai sukka, marvai gassi, and marvai pundi.

Japan
In Japan, clams are often an ingredient of mixed seafood dishes. They can also be made into hot pot, miso soup or tsukudani. The more commonly used varieties of clams in Japanese cooking are the Shijimi (Corbicula japonica), the Asari (Venerupis philippinarum) and the Hamaguri (Meretrix lusoria).

Great Britain
The rocky terrain and pebbly shores of the seacoast that surrounds the entire island provide ample habitat for shellfish, and clams are most definitely included in that description. The oddity here is that for a nation whose fortunes have been tied to the sea for hundreds of years, 70% of the seafood cultivated for aquaculture or commercial harvesting is exported to the continent. Historically, Britain has been an island most famous for its passion for beef and dairy products, although there is evidence going back to before most recorded history of coastal shell middens near Weymouth and present day York. (There is also evidence of more thriving local trade in sea products in general by noting the Worshipful Company of Fishmongers was founded in 1272 in London.) Present-day younger populations are eating more of the catch than a generation ago, and there is a prevalence of YouTube videos of locavore scavenging. Shellfish have provided a staple of the British diet since the earliest occupations of the British Isles, as evidenced by the large numbers of remains found in midden mounds near occupied sites.

Staple favourites of the British public and local scavengers include the razorfish, Ensis siliqua, a slightly smaller cousin of the bamboo clam of eastern North America. These can be found for sale in open-air markets like Billingsgate Market in London; they have a similar taste to their North American cousin. Cockles, specifically the common cockle, are a staple find on beaches in western Wales and farther north in the Dee Estuary. The accidentally introduced hard-shell quahog is also found in British waters, mainly those near England, and does see some use in British cuisine. The Palourde clam by far is the most common native clam and it is both commercially harvested as well as locally collected, and Spisula solida, a relative of the Atlantic surf clam on the other side of the Atlantic, is seeing increased interest as a food source and aquaculture candidate; it is mainly found in the British Isles in Europe.

Italy
In Italy, clams are often an ingredient of mixed seafood dishes or are eaten together with pasta. The more commonly used varieties of clams in Italian cooking are the vongola (Venerupis decussata), the cozza (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and the tellina (Donax trunculus). Though dattero di mare (Lithophaga lithophaga) was once eaten, overfishing drove it to the verge of extinction (it takes 15 to 35 years to reach adult size and could only be harvested by smashing the calcarean rocks that form its habitat) and the Italian government has declared it an endangered species since 1998 and its harvest and sale are forbidden.

Religion
Clams are considered halal in Islam, but treif (non-kosher) in Judaism.

As currency
Some species of clams, particularly Mercenaria mercenaria, were in the past used by the Algonquians of Eastern North America to manufacture wampum, a type of sacred jewellery; and to make shell money.

Species

Edible:
 * Ark clams, family Arcidae (most popular in Indonesia and Singapore)
 * Atlantic jackknife clam: Ensis directus
 * Atlantic surf clam: Spisula solidissima
 * Common cockle: Cerastoderma edule (Native to most of Europe, with very large populations in Ireland and Great Britain)
 * Atlantic Giant Cockle: Dinocardium robustum
 * Geoduck: Panopea abrupta or Panope generosa (largest burrowing clam in the world)
 * Gould's razor shell, Solen strictus (popular in Korea, Japan, and Taiwan)
 * Grooved carpet shell: Ruditapes decussatus
 * Hard clam or Northern Quahog: Mercenaria mercenaria (Native to Eastern USA and Maritime Canada)
 * Lyrate Asiatic hard clam: Meretrix lyrata
 * Manila clam: Venerupis philippinarum
 * Ocean quahog: Arctica islandica
 * Pacific razor clam: Siliqua patula
 * Pipis, Plebidonax deltoides and Paphies australis
 * Pismo clam: Tivela stultorum
 * Pod razor clam: Ensis siliqua
 * Spoot: Ensis magnus
 * Soft clam: Mya arenaria

Not usually considered edible:
 * Nut clams or pointed nut clams, family Nuculidae
 * Duck clams or trough shells, family Mactridae
 * Marsh clams, family Corbiculidae
 * File clams, family Limidae
 * Giant clam: Tridacna gigas This clam is native to East Asia and is edible, but should be avoided at all costs because of slow reproduction.
 * Asian or Asiatic clam: genus Corbicula
 * Peppery furrow shell: Scrobicularia plana

title: Clam


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Jumper (dress)

A jumper (in American English), jumper dress, or pinafore dress is a sleeveless, collarless dress intended to be worn over a blouse, shirt, T-shirt or sweater. Hemlines can be of different lengths and the type of collar and whether or not there is pleating are also variables in the design.

In British English, the term jumper describes what is called a sweater in American English. Also, in more formal British usage, a distinction is made between a pinafore dress and a pinafore. The latter, though a related garment, has an open back and is worn as an apron. In American English, pinafore always refers to an apron.

A sundress, like a jumper, is sleeveless and collarless; however, such articles are not worn over a blouse or sweater, and are of distinctly different cuts and fashions. The apron dress may be viewed as a special case of the jumper. If the design of the dress is directly inspired by an apron (having a bib in front and ties in the back, for example), the garment is typically described as an apron dress.

History
Jumpers for fall were described in The Fort Wayne Sentinel in 1906. The dresses were "imported from Paris" and featured "original lines."

Jumpers in the United States were part of the sportswear collections of Jean Patou, Coco Chanel and Paul Poiret. Suzanne Lenglen wore Patou's jumper design in the 1920s. The dresses, worn over blouses, became popular during the decade of the 1920s. Jumpers were often worn in the summer and made out of various types of fabrics.

Jumpers were touted as an "American" and a "sports fashion" in 1930 by the Pittsburgh Press. The dresses were also praised for allowing women to create color combinations through the choice of blouse worn underneath.

Jumpers were again popularized in 1953, when Hubert de Givenchy promoted his own jumper. Jumpers, now considered a "classic" look, were considered "suitable to all ages."

title: Jumper (dress)


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Personal protective equipment

Personal protective equipment (PPE) is protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other garments or equipment designed to protect the wearer's body from injury or infection. The hazards addressed by protective equipment include physical, electrical, heat, chemical, biohazards, and airborne particulate matter. Protective equipment may be worn for job-related occupational safety and health purposes, as well as for sports and other recreational activities. Protective clothing is applied to traditional categories of clothing, and protective gear applies to items such as pads, guards, shields, or masks, and others. PPE suits can be similar in appearance to a cleanroom suit.

The purpose of personal protective equipment is to reduce employee exposure to hazards when engineering controls and administrative controls are not feasible or effective to reduce these risks to acceptable levels. PPE is needed when there are hazards present. PPE has the serious limitation that it does not eliminate the hazard at the source and may result in employees being exposed to the hazard if the equipment fails.

Any item of PPE imposes a barrier between the wearer/user and the working environment. This can create additional strains on the wearer, impair their ability to carry out their work and create significant levels of discomfort. Any of these can discourage wearers from using PPE correctly, therefore placing them at risk of injury, ill-health or, under extreme circumstances, death. Good ergonomic design can help to minimise these barriers and can therefore help to ensure safe and healthy working conditions through the correct use of PPE.

Practices of occupational safety and health can use hazard controls and interventions to mitigate workplace hazards, which pose a threat to the safety and quality of life of workers. The hierarchy of hazard controls provides a policy framework which ranks the types of hazard controls in terms of absolute risk reduction. At the top of the hierarchy are elimination and substitution, which remove the hazard entirely or replace the hazard with a safer alternative. If elimination or substitution measures cannot be applied, engineering controls and administrative controls – which seek to design safer mechanisms and coach safer human behavior – are implemented. Personal protective equipment ranks last on the hierarchy of controls, as the workers are regularly exposed to the hazard, with a barrier of protection. The hierarchy of controls is important in acknowledging that, while personal protective equipment has tremendous utility, it is not the desired mechanism of control in terms of worker safety.

History
Early PPE such as body armor, boots and gloves focused on protecting the wearer's body from physical injury. The plague doctors of sixteenth-century Europe also wore protective uniforms consisting of a full-length gown, helmet, glass eye coverings, gloves and boots (see Plague doctor costume) to prevent contagion when dealing with plague victims. These were made of thick material which was then covered in wax to make it water-resistant. A mask with a beak-like structure was filled with pleasant-smelling flowers, herbs and spices to prevent the spread of miasma, the prescientific belief of bad smells which spread disease through the air. In more recent years, scientific personal protective equipment is generally believed to have begun with the cloth facemasks promoted by Wu Lien-teh in the 1910–11 Manchurian pneumonic plague outbreak, although some doctors and scientists of the time doubted the efficacy of facemasks in preventing the spread of that disease since they didn't believe it was transmitted through the air.

Types
Personal protective equipment can be categorized by the area of the body protected, by the type of hazard, and by the type of garment or accessory. A single item – for example, boots – may provide multiple forms of protection: a steel toe cap and steel insoles for protection of the feet from crushing or puncture injuries, impervious rubber and lining for protection from water and chemicals, high reflectivity and heat resistance for protection from radiant heat, and high electrical resistivity for protection from electric shock. The protective attributes of each piece of equipment must be compared with the hazards expected to be found in the workplace. More breathable types of personal protective equipment may not lead to more contamination but do result in greater user satisfaction.

Respirators
Respirators are protective breathing equipment, which protect the user from inhaling contaminants in the air, thus preserving the health of their respiratory tract. There are two main types of respirators. One type of respirator functions by filtering out chemicals and gases, or airborne particles, from the air breathed by the user. The filtration may be either passive or active (powered). Gas masks and particulate respirators (like N95 masks) are examples of this type of respirator. A second type of respirator protects users by providing clean, respirable air from another source. This type includes airline respirators and self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). In work environments, respirators are relied upon when adequate ventilation is not available or other engineering control systems are not feasible or inadequate.

In the United Kingdom, an organization that has extensive expertise in respiratory protective equipment is the Institute of Occupational Medicine. This expertise has been built on a long-standing and varied research programme that has included the setting of workplace protection factors to the assessment of efficacy of masks available through high street retail outlets.

The Health and Safety Executive (HSE), NHS Health Scotland and Healthy Working Lives (HWL) have jointly developed the RPE (Respiratory Protective Equipment) Selector Tool, which is web-based. This interactive tool provides descriptions of different types of respirators and breathing apparatuses, as well as "dos and don'ts" for each type.

In the United States, The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) provides recommendations on respirator use, in accordance to NIOSH federal respiratory regulations 42 CFR Part 84. The National Personal Protective Technology Laboratory (NPPTL) of NIOSH is tasked towards actively conducting studies on respirators and providing recommendations.

Surgical Masks
Surgical masks are sometimes considered as PPE, but are not considered as respirators, being unable to stop submicron particles from passing through, and also having unrestricted air flow at the edges of the masks.

Surgical masks are not certified for the prevention of tuberculosis.

Skin protection
Occupational skin diseases such as contact dermatitis, skin cancers, and other skin injuries and infections are the second-most common type of occupational disease and can be very costly. Skin hazards, which lead to occupational skin disease, can be classified into four groups. Chemical agents can come into contact with the skin through direct contact with contaminated surfaces, deposition of aerosols, immersion or splashes. Physical agents such as extreme temperatures and ultraviolet or solar radiation can be damaging to the skin over prolonged exposure. Mechanical trauma occurs in the form of friction, pressure, abrasions, lacerations and contusions. Biological agents such as parasites, microorganisms, plants and animals can have varied effects when exposed to the skin.

Any form of PPE that acts as a barrier between the skin and the agent of exposure can be considered skin protection. Because much work is done with the hands, gloves are an essential item in providing skin protection. Some examples of gloves commonly used as PPE include rubber gloves, cut-resistant gloves, chainsaw gloves and heat-resistant gloves. For sports and other recreational activities, many different gloves are used for protection, generally against mechanical trauma.

Other than gloves, any other article of clothing or protection worn for a purpose serve to protect the skin. Lab coats for example, are worn to protect against potential splashes of chemicals. Face shields serve to protect one's face from potential impact hazards, chemical splashes or possible infectious fluid.

Many migrant workers need training in PPE for Heat Related Illnesses prevention (HRI). Based on study results, research identified some potential gaps in heat safety education. While some farm workers reported receiving limited training on pesticide safety, others did not. This could be remedied by incoming groups of farm workers receiving video and in-person training on HRI prevention. These educational programs for farm workers are most effective when they are based on health behavior theories, use adult learning principles and employ train-the-trainer approaches.

Eye protection
Each day, about 2,000 US workers have a job-related eye injury that requires medical attention. Eye injuries can happen through a variety of means. Most eye injuries occur when solid particles such as metal slivers, wood chips, sand or cement chips get into the eye. Smaller particles in smokes and larger particles such as broken glass also account for particulate matter-causing eye injuries. Blunt force trauma can occur to the eye when excessive force comes into contact with the eye. Chemical burns, biological agents, and thermal agents, from sources such as welding torches and UV light, also contribute to occupational eye injury.

While the required eye protection varies by occupation, the safety provided can be generalized. Safety glasses provide protection from external debris, and should provide side protection via a wrap-around design or side shields.
 * Goggles provide better protection than safety glasses, and are effective in preventing eye injury from chemical splashes, impact, dusty environments and welding. Goggles with high air flow should be used to prevent fogging.
 * Face shields provide additional protection and are worn over the standard eyewear; they also provide protection from impact, chemical, and blood-borne hazards.
 * Full-facepiece respirators are considered the best form of eye protection when respiratory protection is needed as well, but may be less effective against potential impact hazards to the eye.
 * Eye protection for welding is shaded to different degrees, depending on the specific operation.

Hearing protection
Industrial noise is often overlooked as an occupational hazard, as it is not visible to the eye. Overall, about 22 million workers in the United States are exposed to potentially damaging noise levels each year. Occupational hearing loss accounted for 14% of all occupational illnesses in 2007, with about 23,000 cases significant enough to cause permanent hearing impairment. About 82% of occupational hearing loss cases occurred to workers in the manufacturing sector. In the US the Occupational Safety and Health Administration establishes occupational noise exposure standards. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health recommends that worker exposures to noise be reduced to a level equivalent to 85 dBA for eight hours to reduce occupational noise-induced hearing loss.

PPE for hearing protection consists of earplugs and earmuffs. Workers who are regularly exposed to noise levels above the NIOSH recommendation should be provided with hearing protection by the employers, as they are a low-cost intervention. A personal attenuation rating can be objectively measured through a hearing protection fit-testing system. The effectiveness of hearing protection varies with the training offered on their use.

Protective clothing and ensembles
This form of PPE is all-encompassing and refers to the various suits and uniforms worn to protect the user from harm. Lab coats worn by scientists and ballistic vests worn by law enforcement officials, which are worn on a regular basis, would fall into this category. Entire sets of PPE, worn together in a combined suit, are also in this category.

Ensembles
Below are some examples of ensembles of personal protective equipment, worn together for a specific occupation or task, to provide maximum protection for the user:
 * PPE gowns are used by medical personnel like doctors and nurses.
 * Chainsaw protection (especially a helmet with face guard, hearing protection, kevlar chaps, anti-vibration gloves, and chainsaw safety boots).
 * Bee-keepers wear various levels of protection depending on the temperament of their bees and the reaction of the bees to nectar availability. At minimum, most beekeepers wear a brimmed hat and a veil made of fine mesh netting. The next level of protection involves leather gloves with long gauntlets and some way of keeping bees from crawling up one's trouser legs. In extreme cases, specially fabricated shirts and trousers can serve as barriers to the bees' stingers.
 * Diving equipment, for underwater diving, constitutes equipment such as a diving helmet or diving mask, an underwater breathing apparatus, and a diving suit.
 * Firefighters wear PPE designed to provide protection against fires and various fumes and gases. PPE worn by firefighters include bunker gear, self-contained breathing apparatus, a helmet, safety boots, and a PASS device.

In sports
Participants in sports often wear protective equipment. Studies performed on the injuries of professional athletes, such as that on NFL players, question the effectiveness of existing personal protective equipment.

Limits of the definition
The definition of what constitutes personal protective equipment varies by country. In the United States, the laws regarding PPE also vary by state. In 2011, workplace safety complaints were brought against Hustler and other adult film production companies by the AIDS Healthcare Foundation, leading to several citations brought by Cal/OSHA. The failure to use condoms by adult film stars was a violation of Cal/OSHA's Blood borne Pathogens Program, Personal Protective Equipment. This example shows that personal protective equipment can cover a variety of occupations in the United States, and has a wide-ranging definition.

United States
The National Defense Authorization Act for 2022 defines personal protective equipment as "Equipment for use in preventing spread of disease, such as by exposure to infected individuals or contamination or infection by infectious material (including nitrile and vinyl gloves, surgical masks, respirator masks and powered air purifying respirators and required filters, face shields and protective eyewear, surgical and isolation gowns, and head and foot coverings) or clothing, and the materials and components thereof, other than sensors, electronics, or other items added to and not normally associated with such personal protective equipment or clothing."

Under this Act, US military services are prohibited from purchasing PPE from suppliers in North Korea, China, Russia or Iran, unless there are problems with the supply or cost of PPE of "satisfactory quality and quantity".

European Union
At the European Union level, personal protective equipment is governed by Directive 89/686/EEC on personal protective equipment (PPE). The Directive is designed to ensure that PPE meets common quality and safety standards by setting out basic safety requirements for personal protective equipment, as well as conditions for its placement on the market and free movement within the EU single market. It covers "any device or appliance designed to be worn or held by an individual for protection against one or more health and safety hazards". The directive was adopted on 21 January 1989 and came into force on 1 July 1992. The European Commission additionally allowed for a transition period until 30 June 1995 to give companies sufficient time to adapt to the legislation. After this date, all PPE placed on the market in EU Member States was required to comply with the requirements of Directive 89/686/EEC and carry the CE Marking.

Article 1 of Directive 89/686/EEC defines personal protective equipment as any device or appliance designed to be worn or held by an individual for protection against one or more health and safety hazards. PPE which falls under the scope of the Directive is divided into three categories:
 * Category I: simple design (e.g. gardening gloves, footwear, ski goggles)
 * Category II: PPE not falling into category I or III (e.g. personal flotation devices, dry and wet suits, motorcycle personal protective equipment)
 * Category III: complex design (e.g. respiratory equipment, harnesses)

Directive 89/686/EEC on personal protective equipment does not distinguish between PPE for professional use and PPE for leisure purposes.

Personal protective equipment falling within the scope of the Directive must comply with the basic health and safety requirements set out in Annex II of the Directive. To facilitate conformity with these requirements, harmonized standards are developed at the European or international level by the European Committee for Standardization (CEN, CENELEC) and the International Organization for Standardization in relation to the design and manufacture of the product. Usage of the harmonized standards is voluntary and provides presumption of conformity. However, manufacturers may choose an alternative method of complying with the requirements of the Directive.

Personal protective equipment excluded from the scope of the Directive includes:
 * PPE designed for and used by the armed forces or in the maintenance of law and order;
 * PPE for self-defence (e.g. aerosol canisters, personal deterrent weapons);
 * PPE designed and manufactured for personal use against adverse atmospheric conditions (e.g. seasonal clothing, umbrellas), damp and water (e.g. dish-washing gloves) and heat;
 * PPE used on vessels and aircraft but not worn at all times;
 * helmets and visors intended for users of two- or three-wheeled motor vehicles.

The European Commission is currently working to revise Directive 89/686/EEC. The revision will look at the scope of the Directive, the conformity assessment procedures and technical requirements regarding market surveillance. It will also align the Directive with the New Legislative Framework. The European Commission is likely to publish its proposal in 2013. It will then be discussed by the European Parliament and Council of the European Union under the ordinary legislative procedure before being published in the Official Journal of the European Union and becoming law.

Research
Research studies in the form of randomized controlled trials and simulation studies are needed to determine the most effective types of PPE for preventing the transmission of infectious diseases to healthcare workers.

There is low certainty evidence that supports making improvements or modifications to PPE in order to help decrease contamination. Examples of modifications include adding tabs to masks or gloves to ease removal and designing protective gowns so that gloves are removed at the same time. In addition, there is low certainty evidence that the following PPE approaches or techniques may lead to reduced contamination and improved compliance with PPE protocols: Wearing double gloves, following specific doffing (removal) procedures such as those from the CDC, and providing people with spoken instructions while removing PPE.

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User talk:Hxaoso

Welcome, welkom, bienvenu kaj bonvenon, Hxaoso! Cxu vi jam trovis la esperantan version de la Vikipedio? Il y a aussi des versions française et néerlandaise, naturellement. --Brion VIBBER

title: User talk:Hxaoso


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Conventional sex

Conventional sex, colloquially known as vanilla sex, is sexual behavior that is within the range of normality for a culture or subculture, and typically involves sex which does not include elements of BDSM, kink, fetishism, and/or happens within a marriage or relationship.

Description
What is regarded as conventional sex depends on cultural and subcultural norms. Among heterosexual couples in the Western world, for example, conventional sex often refers to sexual intercourse in the missionary position. It can also describe penetrative sex which does not have any element of BDSM, kink or fetish.

The British Medical Journal regards conventional sex between homosexual couples as "sex that does not extend beyond affection, mutual masturbation, and oral and anal sex." In addition to mutual masturbation (including manual sex), penetrative sexual activity among same-sex pairings is contrasted by non-insertive acts such as intercrural sex, frot and tribadism, although tribadism has been cited as a common but rarely discussed sexual practice among lesbians.

Vanilla sexuality
The term "vanilla" in "vanilla sex" leverages the polysemic nature of the term, meaning both literally "vanilla" or "conventional", depending on the context. It originally derives from the use of vanilla extract as the basic flavoring for ice cream, and by extension, meaning plain or conventional. In relationships where only one partner enjoys less conventional forms of sexual expression, the partner who does not enjoy such activities as much as the other is often referred to as the vanilla partner. As such, it is easy for them to be erroneously branded unadventurous in sexual matters. Through exploration with their partner, it may be possible for a more vanilla-minded person to discover new facets of their sexuality. As with any sexually active person, they may find their preferences on the commonly termed "vanilla-kink spectrum" are sufficient for their full satisfaction.

title: Conventional sex


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User:B-gallagher

Hello, and welcome to wikipedia. I notice in the documentation for traveler.zip, which you uploaded, that it says: "Copyright © 2002 Bernard Gallagher

This document may be freely reproduced and distributed, provided that no changes are made to it and full credit is given to the author on any web sites where it may be downloaded from."

A few points: this file cannot be uploaded to wikipedia, since its terms of distribution do not fit wikipedia's (materials must be freely modifiable). For that reason I have removed it--else you have re-released your games under terms you did not intend.

Cheers, and I hope I haven't discouraged you from contributing, Koyaanis Qatsi, Saturday, June 8, 2002

title: User:B-gallagher


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Timeslip

Timeslip is a British children's science fiction television series made by ATV for the ITV network, and broadcast in 1970 and 1971. It was first shown on Monday evenings at around 5:15-5:20pm, beginning on 28 September 1970, in all ITV regions, apart from Thames (London) and Southern which broadcast the series the following Friday.

Overview
What is a Time Bubble? You can't see it, of course, but it might help you visualise it to think of a balloon... Supposing some little patch of information – some little patch of history – gets slowed down, and instead of flashing backwards and forwards it floats, gently, as if in a bubble... Supposing you could get into that bubble – that bubble of history – and travel with it. Then you could move forwards and backwards in time at will...

The series is centred on two children, Simon Randall (Spencer Banks) and Liz Skinner (Cheryl Burfield), who discover a strange anomaly, known as the Time Barrier, which enables them to travel in time, and visit the past as well as alternative futures. The time barrier, which operates in a field at a disused military base, moves the children not only through time but also through space: for example, they travel from St Oswald's in the UK in 1940 to the Antarctic in one projection of 1990.

The children have contrasting personalities: Simon is studious, but Liz is something of a crybaby. This often leads to conflict, but as the series progresses, their antagonism matures into a deep bond of friendship.

The main theme of the series is the way humankind uses and abuses science and technology, and tends to support the idea that the pursuit of scientific knowledge and advancement leads to the depersonalisation of individuals and the abandonment of moral principles. A secondary theme, explored in the instances where Liz and Simon encounter potential future versions of themselves, is the extent to which an individual can change, or be changed, depending on the situations he or she encounters.

Wrong End of Time
Simon, whose mother has died recently, has been taken on holiday in 1970 by the Skinner family – father Frank (Derek Benfield), mother Jean (Iris Russell) and daughter Liz – to the village of St Oswald. Frank had served at the (now abandoned) naval research base in St Oswald during World War II, where he had suffered amnesia. This has left him with no recollection of what happened during his time there. A local girl, Sarah, disappears through an invisible time barrier, witnessed by a local man, but nobody believes him when he tells the story in the pub where the Skinners are staying; but his story attracts a man called Charles Traynor (Denis Quilley), who arrives in the village and reveals that he was Skinner's commanding officer at the base during the war. Traynor had ordered Skinner to destroy the apparatus which the scientists at the base were working on, and he is eager to learn from Skinner if he succeeded in the task. This is because a German expeditionary team attacked and took over the base for a short time in 1940. The German commander, Gottfried (Sandor Elès), is now a prominent scientist, kidnapped and forced to work on the other side of the Iron Curtain, and Traynor is concerned that if the research work done at the base had fallen into his hands, it could be used against the West. While out playing near the ruins of the naval base, Liz and Simon encounter the Time Barrier for the first time. They are transported back to 1940, to the very day the Germans took over the base. There they encounter both Traynor, who is commander of the base, and Liz's father, a young naval recruit (played by John Alkin). A link is maintained to the present via Liz's mother, who is able to communicate telepathically with her daughter. After crossing the Time Barrier Liz and Simon encounter the teenage girl Sarah who fell through the barrier and help her return to the present day. When the Germans arrive, Liz and Simon are initially captured, but then escape and succeed in helping young Frank Skinner carry out Traynor's orders to destroy the secret apparatus – a prototype laser weapon – before the Germans can seize it. They escape back through the Time Barrier, but instead of returning to St Oswald in their time of 1970, they find themselves in an icy wilderness.

During their experience in 1940, Liz is shot yet the bullet does not harm her, which seems to confirm Traynor's advice to Liz's parents (in 1970) that the children are not actually in any danger from the time travel because they are only hallucinating about it and the past cannot harm them.

The Time of the Ice Box
The icy wilderness is revealed to be Antarctica in the year 1990. Liz and Simon are rescued from the ice and brought to a research base – the International Institute for Biological Research, nicknamed the "Ice Box" - headed by Morgan C. Devereaux (John Barron). Liz and Simon manage to escape and return to the present time, but only just after Liz believes she has seen her mother in the Ice Box. In the present, Traynor is amazed to learn of Devereaux's presence in the future; he had been a student of Devereaux's and believed he had died in 1969. Using Simon's curiosity about these events, Traynor persuades the children to return to the Ice Box and Liz is stunned when she encounters first her mother, and then her future self – a cold, emotionless, scientist going by the name Beth (Mary Preston) – working in the Ice Box. The staff of the Ice Box are conducting controlled experiments on human volunteers, including tests of longevity drug called HA57. A catalogue of failures has been plaguing the research effort, but Devereaux refuses to entertain the possibility that the base computer is making errors. The failures get worse, and Devereaux's behaviour becomes more and more erratic. Liz and Simon learn that Devereaux is a clone of the original Devereaux, the first in the world. Investigating further, Liz and Simon discover that the purpose of the computer is to create a new clone of Devereaux. This is so that the formula for the longevity drug, which is known only to Devereaux and not written down, can be preserved and kept secret. Liz discovers to her horror and disgust that her father Frank is also in the Ice Box, but has been buried under the ice for ten years as part of an experiment, but the experiment fails when the Ice Box temperature controls fail. The Ice Box researchers confront Devereaux, attempting to convince him that the computer is malfunctioning. Devereaux is unable to accept his failing and, suffering a mental breakdown, escapes out into the Antarctic ice. As the computer fails, the base begins to freeze over. The staff, including Jean and Beth, each take a dose of an anti-freeze formula in the hope of surviving the cold until rescue arrives. Liz and Simon depart; as they approach the Time Barrier, they discover the frozen body of Devereaux.

The Year of the Burn Up
The Time Barrier returns Simon and Liz to 1970. Traynor warns them not to use the Time Barrier again. Determined to prevent the future of the Ice Box that they have witnessed, and curious as to what Traynor is afraid they might discover, they disobey him and once more enter the Time Barrier. Once again, they end up in 1990, but in an alternate future from that of the Ice Box. In this future, England is covered in tropical rainforest. Once again, Liz encounters her future self, Beth (once more played by Mary Preston). This time, however, she is a hippy Earth mother type who has rebelled against the technocracy that rules this future world, and lives in a primitive village with similar misfits. Simon also encounters his future self – a technocrat known as Controller 2957 (David Graham), charged with implementing the Master Plan intended to reshape the Earth to the benefit of humankind. The Master Plan had originally been devised in 1970 by Traynor. However, 2957 has since usurped him, and now Traynor, who is still alive in 1990, is determined to wreak his revenge. Traynor sabotages the computer managing the Master Plan. His interference ruins the Earth's climate, causing global temperatures to soar and leading to an environmental collapse of devastating proportions. Beth aids Liz and Simon in returning through the Time Barrier before heading for the safety of some caves with the misfits and 2957, who has seen the error of his ways, where there is water and they might stand a chance of survival.

The Day of the Clone
The final serial ties together many of the elements of the previous serials. Believing that Beth needs her help, Liz attempts to return to 1990 via the Time Barrier, but is kidnapped by Traynor. Simon goes looking for Liz and tracks her to R1, a secret research establishment under Traynor's command, that is located at St. Oswald's and next to the Time Barrier. The children learn that R1 was established by Morgan C. Devereaux to research into the longevity drug – HA57 – that the children previously encountered in the Ice Box. They break out of R1 and, with Traynor in pursuit, they make their escape through the Time Barrier, which transports them to the year 1965. Realising that Devereaux would have been alive in this time, they return to R1. There the children learn that R1 is not only researching longevity, but also cloning. Devereaux believes that for the cloning and longevity process to be a success, subjects must also undergo psychological reconditioning, but Traynor, who is working at R1 as the Government's representative, disagrees, believing that Devereaux is turning the volunteer subjects into brainwashed puppets. When Traynor threatens to shut down R1, Devereaux has him detained and replaced by a clone. Devereaux's experiments fail and the young people Simon and Liz encounter at R1 in 1965, they meet again in 1970 only now they are all very old men and women on the point of dying. Simon realises that it is Devereaux who is the source of the dystopian futures they have witnessed, and that the Traynor they know has been a clone all along. The Time Barrier created a clone projection of Devereaux in the Ice Box in the hope that the children could return a working formula for HA57 to the Traynor clone in 1970. The Traynor clone is also a projection of the Time Barrier, charged with implementing Devereaux's vision of the future: the catastrophic Master Plan that will lead to the "Burn Up". Returning to 1970, Liz and Simon discover the real Traynor, locked up in a secret room in R1 since 1965. The children and the real Traynor confront the clone Traynor at the Time Barrier at St Oswald. Traynor tells the clone that he does not exist, that he is a projection. As the clone nears the Barrier, an invisible force grabs him and he disappears into the Time Barrier. Liz and Simon return to their families, leaving the real Traynor alone.

Production
Timeslip was devised by ATV script editor Ruth Boswell, who developed the format and the outline of the first story with her husband James. Its development was instigated by ATV producer Renee Goddard, who wanted to produce a programme that could challenge the popularity among children of the BBC's science fiction series Doctor Who (1963–89; 1996; 2005–present). Boswell was determined to come up with a show that was rooted more firmly in everyday life than Doctor Who, which at the time she felt had become progressively more outlandish. Much of the show's time travel concepts were based on the book An Experiment with Time by J. W. Dunne. However, in order to give the series as authentic a veneer as possible, Geoffrey Hoyle, son of physicist Fred Hoyle and a noted science fiction author in his own right, gave his advice regarding how time travel might be possible. In addition, the opening episodes of the first two serials - "The Wrong End of Time" and "The Time of the Ice Box" - were introduced by Peter Fairley, who was science correspondent for ITN.

The plot of the first serial, "The Wrong End of Time", was inspired by an – initially apocryphal (but according to some accounts confirmed after remaining a State Secret for more than 70 years) – story of a German Expeditionary Force that landed in Britain to carry out a raid on an Isle of Wight radar station in 1940 (or 1943), during World War II. The later stories were inspired by ecological concerns that were beginning to make headlines at the time – this has led to Jeff Arnold in the telefantasy journal Timescreen to draw parallels between Timeslip and the similarly inspired adult drama series Doomwatch (1970–72). This view was echoed by an article in TV Zone magazine, which noted that Timeslip "was probably the general public's first introduction to what are now everyday scientific concepts, such as cloning and climate change".

Although Boswell originally conceived Timeslip as a single-story six-part serial, the concept was soon expanded into a much longer series of 26 episodes. New Zealander Bruce Stewart, who had adapted various science fiction short stories for the anthology series Out of this World (1962) and Out of the Unknown (1965–71), was tasked with developing Boswell's outline into scripts. Eighteen of the scripts were written by Stewart, before pressure of other work meant that Stewart had to move on, and the final serial, "The Day of the Clone", was written by Victor Pemberton. Pemberton is also credited with the script of the final episode of "The Year of the Burn Up", which acts as a bridge into "The Day of the Clone". Pemberton had previously served as script editor of Doctor Who and had penned the serial "Fury from the Deep".

The iconic opening titles for the series, using 3D lettering altered for each of the four stories. The light source moving round the letters to give shadows reminiscent of a sun dial. A standard 2D graphic of the same type face was used for the "End of Part One", "Part Two" and the closing credit captions in all four stories. In all cases, there was no consistency in the way the letter 'I' was arranged. It varied for each use, providing inconsistent 'logos' for the programme name. The first story's typeface used Westminster, a typeface designed for Westminster Bank to be used on cheques as it is easily recognisable by optical character recognition.

Timeslip was recorded mainly in the studio. The most notable location used was that of the Ministry Field where Liz and Simon discover the Time Barrier – this was in fact the Burnt Farm Army Camp near Goff's Oak, Hertfordshire. The effect of the children passing through the Time Barrier was achieved by way of a simple split screen effect.

A sequel series was mooted, but was not made, as John Cooper felt that the idea had run its natural course. Additionally, the series went well over budget, and the potential for sales of the series was lost because some episodes were made in black and white.

Victor Pemberton acquired the rights to Timeslip in the early 1990s, intending to produce either a re-make or sequel series. Nothing came of this attempt, however.

Cast and crew
Cheryl Burfield, who played Liz Skinner, had begun her career as a child model. For her audition as Liz, she dressed in trousers and sported a pigtail to emphasise the tomboy nature of the character – an image that stuck for the duration of the series. The character of Liz was originally written as a 13-year-old; however, when the 18-year-old Burfield was cast, Liz's age was upped to 15.

Timeslip was the first major television role for Spencer Banks, who played Simon Randall. Unlike his co-star, no change was needed to the age of his character; even though he was 15 at the time, he was able to pass as younger. Regarding the age difference between the two, Banks recalled that on their first meeting Cheryl Burfield remarked that she looked "positively matronly beside him". However, over the course of production, Banks grew and matured and his voice broke. Banks went on to star in the children's series Tightrope (1972) (made by the same team behind Timeslip) and The Georgian House (1976). He also starred in the highly acclaimed TV drama Penda's Fen (1974) by David Rudkin.

In 2015, Banks and Burfield played characters called Rev. Simon Randall and Liz Randall in The Amityville Playhouse.

Denis Quilley went on to become a leading figure in the National Theatre and was awarded the O.B.E. He died in 2003.

Iris Russell was best known for her role as Matron Stevenson in Emergency - Ward 10 (1957–67) and appeared in the role of "Father" in The Avengers episode "Stay Tuned" (1969).

Derek Benfield later went on to appear in regular roles in The Brothers (1972–76) and Hetty Wainthropp Investigates (1996–98). He also enjoyed a successful career as a playwright. He died in 2009.

David Graham (Controller 2957/Simon Randall) was a regular voice artist in the Gerry Anderson Century 21 Supermarionation series. He voiced Parker, Brains and Gordon Tracy as well as others in Thunderbirds; also voicing characters in Stingray, Fireball XL5, Four Feather Falls, The Secret Service and Supercar. He appeared in Doctor Who in the stories The Gunfighters and City of Death, in addition to voicing Daleks in several episodes.

Ian Fairbairn (Alpha 4 and Doctor Frazer) had minor roles on Doctor Who, including the Patrick Troughton stories The Macra Terror and The Invasion, Inferno with Jon Pertwee and Tom Baker's The Seeds of Doom, the latter three directed by Douglas Camfield.

Continuing Cast:
 * Simon Randall: Spencer Banks
 * Liz Skinner: Cheryl Burfield
 * Frank Skinner: Derek Benfield
 * Jean Skinner: Iris Russell
 * Commander Charles Traynor: Denis Quilley

The Wrong End of Time:
 * Frank: John Alkin
 * Gottfried: Sandor Elès
 * Graz: Paul Humpoletz
 * Arthur Griffiths: John Garrie
 * George Bradley: Royston Tickner
 * Ferris: Peter Sproule
 * Phipps: John Abbott
 * Dr. Fordyce: Kenneth Watson
 * Alice Fortune: Virginia Balfour
 * Sarah: Sally Templer
 * German Sailor: Hilary Minster

The Time of the Ice Box:
 * Morgan C. Devereaux: John Barron
 * Beth: Mary Preston
 * Dr. Bukov: John Barcroft
 * Dr. Edith Joynton: Peggy Thorpe-Bates
 * Larry: Robert Oates

The Year of the Burn Up:
 * Beth: Mary Preston
 * 2957: David Graham
 * Miss Stebbins/Alpha 16: Teresa Scoble
 * Alpha 17: Lisa Scoble
 * Vera: Merdel Jordine
 * Paul: Brian Pettifer
 * Alpha 4: Ian Fairbairn
 * Delta 22: Patrick Durkin

The Day of the Clone:
 * Morgan C. Devereaux: John Barron
 * Dr. Frazer: Ian Fairbairn
 * Dr. Pitman: John Swindells
 * Miss Stebbins: Teresa Scoble
 * Maria: Mary Larkin
 * De Seram: Derek Sydney
 * Dr. Ferguson: Keith Grenville
 * Mr. Randall: John Cazabon
 * George Pointer: Richard Thorp
 * Desk Attendant: Bruce Beeby
 * Ward Sister: Hilary Liddell
 * Commissionaire: Harry Davis
 * Driver: Dennis Balcombe
 * News Vendor: John Herrington

Ruth Boswell went on to adapt Catherine Storr's novel Marianne Dreams, as the children's television serial Escape Into Night (1972) and produced the first season of The Tomorrow People (1973–79; 1992–95).

Critical reception
Reviewing the first episode in The Stage, John Lawrence said, "I always feel wary of programmes that are announced as "science fiction" since too often the description is applied to something that uses wild and improbable events to jump gaps in otherwise badly conceived stories... Judging by the first episode of ATV's new series, Timeslip, by Bruce Stewart, however, this programme looks like it might prove to be a welcome exception. [...] Its strength lies in the fact that it is imaginatively conceived in terms of the detailed development of the plot, and well written. ...if the standard is maintained, it will be a series well worth watching, and not just by the children, either". Later, during the broadcast of "The Time of the Ice Box", many of the children watching were frightened by the scene where Edith Joynton (Peggy Thorpe-Bates) ages to death thanks to an incorrect dosage of HA57; this scene was edited slightly when the series was repeated in 1973.

Timeslip has generally remained well-regarded in the years since first broadcast. A retrospective of the series in Dreamwatch magazine in 1996 concluded that Timeslip was "a series that demanded much of the viewer over 26 weeks and rewarded those who persevered". In 1999, when science fiction magazine SFX asked an expert panel from the SF field, including Terry Pratchett and Stephen Baxter, to compile a list of the top 50 SF shows of all time, Timeslip came thirtieth on the list. Later, in 2005, SFX went on to poll its readers for their list of the top 50 British telefantasy shows and Timeslip was voted into twenty-eighth position on the list, the magazine describing it as "surprisingly intelligent and thoughtful SF with some ambitious ideas" and a series that "dared to be more adventurous with its science fiction than most so-called grown-up SF shows".

Archive status
Most of Timeslip was originally recorded on colour videotape. An exception was episodes 23 and 24, which were recorded in black and white due to the so-called colour strike, an industrial action by technicians that affected many ITV programmes at this time. Today, only the final episode of "The Time of the Ice Box" survives in its original colour format. The remaining episodes exist as black and white telerecordings. Research for the 2009 documentary 'Timeslip: Behind the Barrier' revealed that only two episodes were recorded in black and white. An extra scene for episode 25 had to be taped during the same recording session, meaning that this episode was broadcast only in black and white.

It is believed the original videotapes for the wiped episodes were wiped and reused by Central in 1982 or '83 after they took over from ATV providing ITV programmes to the Midlands during an archive purge of programmes of their predecessors. At the time, these programmes were seen to have no commercial value and were deemed worthless. Other sources claim that when Central had taken over, it was found that the videotapes had been badly damaged by age and poor storage conditions and were disposed of on the grounds of poor technical quality unsuitable for broadcast.

Home video release
Timeslip was released on VHS videotape by ITC Home Entertainment in 1992. Each serial was issued as a double-pack videocassette. The complete series – including the surviving colour episode – was released in a four disc region 2 DVD boxset by Carlton in 2004. A region 1 DVD, containing a restored and uncut version of the series, included the documentary Beyond the Barrier. This was issued in 2005 by A&E Home Video, under license from Granada International Media Limited. A new DVD release by Network Distributing was released in 2016 in black and white.

Timeslip: Behind the Barrier, an independent documentary chronicling the making of Timeslip was produced in 2009. It features interviews with many of the surviving cast members, including Cheryl Burfield, Spencer Banks, David Graham, Ian Fairbairn and Iris Russell as well as creator Ruth Boswell, writers Bruce Stewart and Victor Pemberton and director Ron Francis. It was produced by the owners of the official Timeslip website.

Other media
A comic strip, which depicted several new adventures for Liz and Simon, appeared concurrently with the broadcast of the series in Look-In, a juvenile spin-off of the listings magazine TV Times. The comic strip was drawn by Mike Noble. Look-In also published a number of interviews with the show's two young stars.

A novelisation of the first two serials - "The Wrong End of Time" and "The Time of the Ice Box" - was written by James Boswell and published by Pan Books to coincide with the broadcast of the series in 1970. It is visible on-screen in episode 6 of the series Tightrope on a rack of books.

Big Finish
In 2020, Big Finish Productions released a new series of Timeslip. This comprised two box sets as full cast audio productions with original cast members Spencer Banks and Cheryl Burfield. The first box set was released on Timeslip's 50th Anniversary in May 2020, with the second set following in June 2020.

title: Timeslip