text:
Talk:History of modern Greece

Three Sources that would help
I recommend "Greece since 1945" as a source on the economic history of Greece simply because of how clear and detailed it is concerning the Greece's development during and after WWII. It covers Greece's politics, economy and society during 1945. The year 1945 and the years after were critical in the development modern day Greece.

I recommend "Greece: A Modern Sequel" because of its meticulous research and great collection of information and logical analysis of Greece's economy, nation-state, foreign policy, geography, society and culture. It goes into all of this from 1833 to present and offers exhaustive information and bibliographies.

I recommend "The Greek Economy: Past, Present and future" by Nicholas Pirounakis. His book takes both a broad and detailed overview of Greece's economy after WWII to where it is now. It is a comprehensive analysis that is quite enlightening and would help fill in some important information left out.

greece
The links to foreign versions of this page are relevant. As are the Amnesty International reports as are Philip Deane's comments. Ruy Lopez 22:05, 22 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * The foreign links still exist. For the others, see my and AK's comments above. Very Verily  22:56, 22 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Grigoris Lambrakis
There's no mention of Lambrakis or EDA in this article!!! Etz Haim 12:10, 24 Oct 2004 (UTC)

To Aris Katsaris
I'm not reverting your stuff; I'm reverting VeryVerily's reversion. Shorne 23:51, 25 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * The problem is that you people should be seeing all your changes sentence by sentence. You should be caring about the article rather than *whose* changes they were.

 * Second point! You also removed my bit about America's support for the junta contributing to Greek anti-americanism. Did you delete that intentionally because you thought its removal improved the article, or just as part of your "reversions"? If the former then let's discuss it. If the latter, then put it *also* back in when you are reverting someone else's changes.

 * Third point! Lang links are better going at the *bottom* of the articles as a practice. You keep on reverting that as well. Why? Just because VV likes them the other way? The other way is the done practice. First article, then categ links and lang links.

 * I've justified my own reversions point-by-point. You are justifying them only by naming the person who made the changes in the first place.

Aris Katsaris 00:09, 26 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * I've discussed this seven or eight times in the past two days. This will be the last time. If these words don't penetrate your skull, don't ask me again; seek assistance from someone who owns a trephine.
 * I asked you and Ruy Lopez to discuss the issues of substance, although I believed that they had already been adequately discussed on this talk page. I said that I was going to stay out of the matter for the time being, and I did. You did not discuss anything; you just reverted the article. Ruy Lopez restored his changes, which were undisputed and, in my view, quite fair, although you felt that they presented "tangential" facts that left an impression of POV. VeryVerily, who follows me around and interferes with almost every article that I touch, came and reverted Ruy Lopez's changes without comment. That was not a contribution; it was sheer vandalism, as a reversion by VeryVerily almost always is. So I reverted it.
 * Now, if you want to improve this article instead of covering up the US's significant interference in Greek politics (yes, I saw your thing about anti-Americanism, but I don't consider it adequate), I suggest that you and Ruy Lopez discuss the issues and try to reach a compromise. I shall not be back until that discussion has started. Shorne 06:36, 26 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Nobody ever responded to a single comment I made in this talk page, so if you think that they were "adequately discussed" that shows your own insanity. I did not discuss anything? I've repeatedly *asked* people to explain why they think supposed Papadopoulos' Nazi collaboration belongs to this article rather than Papadopoulos own, but neither you nor Ruy Lopez explained anything, as you could see if you glanced above or if you glanced at the history page. I've *started* the discussion that both you and Ruy Lopez refused to participate in. Now you are playing the sainted innocent party? Now you are labelling as "tangential" issues all those pieces of your action without which the problem would be much more limited spacially and consensus would have been atleast partially reached a long time ago? When you and Lopez repeatedly showed that you couldn't accept a proper resolution to *even* tangential issues but you were revert-warring for the sake of revert-warring?

 * I explained *all* my reverts. You explained none of them, except with the hypocrite lying claim "There's been no discussion". I *did* discuss it, and you did not, liar Shorne.

 * Oh, *definitely* there's been significant USA interference in Greek affairs - atleast up to the 1970s. But only a USA-obsessed *clown* would waste three or four paragraphs on American interference during the 7-year junta, when there's barely a sentence about e.g. European Union's relationship with Greece in the 30 years following that. Aris Katsaris 15:50, 26 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * You and Ruy Lopez have not conducted the discussion that I requested. I am therefore abandoning this article. Go ahead and suppress important information about modern Greek politics as long as other people will let you get away with that. And thank you for calling me "liar Shorne" and "a USA-obsessed *clown*". How very endearing. Shorne 03:46, 17 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * I've listed my points, I don't know how else to be part of a "discussion" except through listing arguments -- why don't *you* take part in the discussion that Ruy Lopez refused to enter? This is the first time I hear people that have refused discussing an issue ask others to discuss it for them. For example why haven't you ever cared to respond on my multiple-times asked question of why Nazi-collaboration of Papadopoulos is relevant enough to list here rather than on Papadopoulos' own article? Aris Katsaris 04:19, 17 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * I've already said that I don't care to waste even more time on this article while you're frothing at the mouth. Your disagreement is with Ruy Lopez, who made the changes that you want to squelch.
 * But I'll rise to the bait. The mention of Papadapoulos as a Nazi collaborator is both relevant and short. Extensive discussion would belong in his own article; a quick mention is hardly objectionable. It informs the context: he collaborated with the Nazis when that was convenient, and he collaborated with the Yanks twenty years later, when the winds had changed. The fact that this Nazi captain responsible for the killing off of Greek communists during World War II was rehabilitated as a US puppet rather than being hauled in for war crimes is also significant.
 * What I would like to know is how you justify suppressing this information. I hope there's a reason better than wanting to improve Papadopoulos's image. Shorne 11:47, 17 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * My disagreement is with everyone who makes the changes, regardless of whether they were the first or the second to make them -- so you naming Ruy Lopez as the party responsible is an immature shifting of blame. Nazi collaboration may inform the context on Papadopoulos, which is why it belongs in Papadopoulos article, but if it informs any context on the history of Modern Greece (which is what the article is about I ought to remind you) the connection is so obscure that you need a talk page to explain it. Especially since "collaborator" doesn't actually explain much. Collaborated how? Here the function of the word seems to be an *epithet*, rather than a piece of info -- which is actually also the way you've just explained its role. You might just as well add "husband and father" in an attempt to humanize arbitrary criminals, or in an attempt to push the POV of how ordinary family-men can also break the law. Such things are *not* relevant, unless it directly relates to the situation itself.

 * As for so-called "suppressing" of information, I've already given my reasons repeatedly and in detail. Three and four paragraphs exclusively on the details of US involvement in a 7-year period is ridiculously out of balance with the summary nature of the rest of the article (hardly any comment about the 25-year relationship with EU, but half a page about a 7-year period with US. hardly any comment about Cyprus, but long paragraphs and obscure reports about the USA) Why haven't you taken up my offer of creating an article about the Junta where *all* such trivialities can be detailed in length, alongside issues that are more significant?

 * You could then add long paragraphs about the relationship with the USA, I could add long paragraphs about the rest of Europe, you being USA-obsessed can add long paragraphs about the cooperation with the USA, I could add paragraphs about the more significant and still lingering events relating to Cyprus.

 * But such detail doesn't belong here. When you so foolishly insert it without any measure or restraint you end up implying the USA's importance was far greater than it was in comparison to other elements.

 * Thanks for repeating insinuations btw that have already been made against me in the edit summaries. It puts into proper context your offense at being called a "USA-obsessed clown" when you accuse me of junta-sympathizing instead. Aris Katsaris 15:08, 17 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Your ad hominem attacks show that there is no point in talking with you. Indeed, this is my last reply until you apologise publicly for those vile insinuations. If you think that "Nazi collaborator" is vague, suggest "former Nazi captain" or something else. The information is relevant, for reasons that I and others have discussed more than adequately, and it is disgusting of you to suppress it. In fact, the hue and cry that you have waged over two little words that are entirely true suggests some sort of private agenda on your part, as it is far out of proportion to the two little words in question. Shorne 16:49, 17 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * If you're going to lie, make it something not easily refuted. I was here weeks before you; you followed me here, after "Ruy Lopez" had also followed me here.  The page history attests to my version of events; perhaps if you spoke the truth ever you would penetrate more skulls. Very Verily  08:20, 26 Oct 2004 (UTC)

User:213.5.97.8
User:213.5.97.8 seems to be having a bit of fun fudging around with articles and not telling anybody. some of his changes seem to be shady. check out the history to see what i mean.

Project2501a 21:18, 1 Jan 2005 (UTC) -><- Nikolas Asimos: Rest In Peace, man :) (EIMASTE OLOI TROMOKRATES!)

 * I have reverted his/her changes. Apart from pushing POV, suggesting that there could be an article that depicts specifically the "right" views of the Civil War, as an opposition to the current article, is simply out of the question. The VfD has a long history of cases similar to this. If one thinks an article is not balanced, then creating an article that reflects his way in of thinking and that is POV by definition ("the right view"...) is not the answer. He should discuss its contents and edit the article to NPOV through collaboration and consensus. Etz Haim 22:14, 1 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * User:213.5.97.8 insists on injecting his POV into the article. I think he should first ought to register and then we can talk about it the talk page... Project2501a 16:57, 2 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * He also went on to create an article called Greek Civil War the right wing view, in disregard of what I've said above. Now it's on the VfD. Etz Haim 18:18, 2 Jan 2005 (UTC)

User:213.5.97.8
Hi

Excuse me for the mess I created. I didn't know the rules of Wikipedia and obviously I spent my time rewriting the whole article on the Greek civil war. I created an account named "newcomer".

Does it create something like a maibox where I could answer you?

 * please read the wikipedia welcome article. It would be a good thing if you understood the basics of how wikipedia works, before doing any further editing Project2501a 17:15, 3 Jan 2005 (UTC)

I do not think that I am prejudiced. Obviously I have a certain view but the article has a certain view also. Different one. I really think that it would be very democratic to have both articles. Or one article on which both views should be written (ie they say this they say this). It is a controversial subject. You can not be as objective as you'd like.

The article (Greek civil war) as written is trying to justify the communist view.

I will mention some of my objections for the beginning of the talk.

Was pre war Greek government "illegal"? the term illegal seems funny for a government. You may say that it didn't had the support of the whole people or even that only royalists supported it but illegal no. If not then we are not going to find any legal government. Even EL.VENIZELOS took the power with a coup in 1916 was he illegal? or was illegal the soviet government?

Another point is the "Aspida case" There can still be found newspapers of the era. It happened almost 2 years before the right wing junta. The center wing party said it was a provocative case organized by the right wing. Someone tried to present the court martialled officers as anti junta heroes. Mercy. Also there is not any proof the the ex-dictator Papadopoulos was a nazi collaborator or CIA agent.

The most important point is when the conflict started and by whom. I say that ELAS started the conlict in the middle of 1942 recruiting people by force. The most prominent case is the case of Stefanos Sarafis who later became the military leader of ELAS. At the end of 1942 Sarafis tried to join the non-communist resistance group of Costopoulos along with some other Greek officers. Communists arrested them in Thessaly. After a few days and when all his comrades had been executed he agreed to join ELAS. THIS IS A FACT. And also an example of the methods used by ELAS.

Another point is that in the whole article there was not a single word about OPLA (organization for the protection of the people's fighters) and it's crimes even during the German occupation against Greek civilians. Two weeks ago there was a letter on this subject at the newspaper "KATHIMERINI" There are many books (in Greek)written by ex-communists who depict the terror imposed by party members on them.

I think it is enough for today. I'll check this page for answers. I understand that you'll read my "prejudiced article" carefully in order to "corner" me.

 * As modern greek history was not my field in my history minor, I'll have to find a couple of books on the greek civil war, read them and i'll have to get back to you on the subject :) I'm not backing out, just saying i need more time to read up.

 * Your objections are dully noted, thought. Please, login next time you want to discuss the subject. I vote that the article stands as is, till some of us get off our ass and read a book or two. If the information you provide is true, I'll have no problem incorporating it into the main article. The main point of wikipedia is neutrality, always. till then, if you would like to help, i suggest you list the ISBN of 4-5 books on the subject of REPUTABLE historians (as much as that is possible in Greece ;) Project2501a 17:16, 3 Jan 2005 (UTC)

I do not know if you can speak Greek. I can give you some titles in Greek and some titles in English.

 * I am Greek, as i mention in my user page. I'm typing from my friendly neighbourhood cafe right now, since two weeks ago i recieved an epifany and wanted to try and add watercooling to my motherboard. (WARNING: WATER AND ELECTRONICS DO NOT MIX ;) hehehe, bzzzzzzzt, fried to a crisp. Project2501a 18:15, 3 Jan 2005 (UTC)

You already know some of them since they are suggested as further reading. like the books of W. S. Churchill, The Second World War, or C. M. Woodhouse, Apple of Discord: A Survey of Recent Greek Politics in their International Setting, London 1948

Some others not mentioned here are the following

"After the war was over" Princeton University press 2000 introduction by Mark Mazower.

"The Greek civil war 1943,1950" studies of polarization. 1993 Routledge.

"Les Kapetanios" by Dominique Eude (in French). Artheme Fayard 1970

"corpses, corpses, corpses" by Elias Petropoulos (ISBN 960-211-081-3)

If you can read Greek I propose the following.

"H αθέατη πλευρά του εμφυλίου" ISBN 960-426-187-8

"Φωτιά και τσεκούρι" written by ex New Democracy leader EV. AVEROF initially in French. ISBN 960-05-0208-0

"Σύγχρονη πολιτική ιστορία της Ελλάδος" by S.MARKEZINIS an initially left politician who ended as the last prime minister of Papadopoulo's junta. ATHENS 1994 PAPYROS PRESS

"Γιασασίν Μιλλέτ" by ΝΙΚΟΣ ΜΑΡΑΝΤΖΙΔΗΣ UNIVERSITY OF CRETE. ISBN 960-524-131-5

"Οι δύο όχθες" by ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ ΖΑΟΥΣΗΣ. ΕΚΔΟΣΕΙΣ ΠΑΠΑΖΗΣΗ ATHENS

"Η τραγική αναμέτρηση" by ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ ΖΑΟΥΣΗΣ. ΕΚΔΟΣΕΙΣ ΩΚΕΑΝΙΔΑ 1992 ATHENS.

 * Cool, I'll have a go, since i got some free time, these days.

 * by the way, please make a habit of signing your comments in the talk pages. thanks :)

Project2501a 18:15, 3 Jan 2005 (UTC)

I apologize again. I am not familiar with WIKIPEDIA. I thought that since I logged in a signature would be automatically added. I tried to sign writing the user name. Is there a more automated way?

I also would like to apologize for the incovinience I created but since I didn't know that in order to edit an article it should be discussed, when I saw every edit I did to be simply deleted by ETZ HAIM I considered it a kind of censorship.

Could you please be more specific as to which of my objections are dully noted? I would be happy to answer.

And by the way perastika for your computer. I understand you very well. Two months ago my hd crashed and I lost all of my documents

NEWCOMER

''At the time being, that is, while the "Greek Civil War the right wing view" is on the VfD and a verdict is being processed, this discussion has little or no use. I promise to respond later, when things will have cleared out. "Newcomer" can take advantage of this time by learning how to use his account and more important, what are Wikipedia's policies and if they are good for his purpose. See you soon. -- Etz Haim 15:43, 4 Jan 2005 (UTC)''

There are certain things that must be corrected/added. Alexander died in October of 1920. Venizelos lost the elections of NOVEMBER 1 1920 and Constantinos returned to the throne. This is the turning point for the Allied support. Although the main slogan of the royalist was the discontinuation of war with Turkey (ikade which means bach to homes)they continued the war against Mustafa Kemal going deeper and deeper in Asia.

Venizelos was never discredited for the 1922 disaster. This can be seen by the fact that most of the refugees from Asia Minor were pro Venizelos while most Peloponnesians were royalists.

It deserves to be written (maybe in a separate article) the reasons for which Venizelos lost the elections of 1920Newcomer 23:30, 12 Feb 2005 (UTC)

If you think there are errors in the article, then make corrections - preferably in good English, but that can be fixed by someone else. But please confine your edits to facts and not your political opinions, or they will be reverted. The reasons why someone lost an election are almost always a matter of opinion, so you need to be careful. It would be much better if you can quote other people (eg, "Venizelos blamed his defeat on xxx, but his opponents said zzz.") Adam 00:09, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)

I'll go on making the edits I mentioned before. I'll create a connection  for a separate article on the 1920 election and I will start writing the article. I consider these elections very important for the history of modern Greece. Newcomer 10:06, 15 Feb 2005 (UTC)

About the Slav-Macedonians at the beginning of the century
I think it is wrong to use the term Slav-Macedonians when we talk about the "struggle for Macedonia" at the beginning of the century. The people of the region were either pro-exarchic (the bulgarian religious authority) or pro-patriarchate (the Greek religious authority). There are not reports on Slav-Macedonians on contemporary Ottoman or European newspapers.Newcomer 08:15, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Greece's enlargement in 1913
This page shows a map of the territory Greece gained in 1913. It shows that Greece's land area approximately doubled. This page is one of many giving area and population figures. This research took approxomately two minutes. I recommend research before reversion. Adam 03:25, 18 May 2005 (UTC)

Thanks, Adam! The claim seemed a bit extreme, that's all. It's good to know that when asked for a checkable source, you can provide one. Good on you. I wish all editors had your professional attitude. Pete 03:36, 18 May 2005 (UTC)

Nationalism
I also recommend research before reversion.How exactly do you claim that 50000 Albanians were expelled from Greece after WW2?On an Albanian site?Or just because some Albanian nationalist reverted this number gives you the right to justify his claims?Odysseas

Dear Adam,you continue to revert the number of Albanians expelled from greece after WW2,without giving any reason.As I have said before the number was reverted from an unknown editor to reach 50000 and you continue to defent this number without providing explenations.Odysseas 20:06, 25 May 2005 (UTC)

Junta 1967 -1974
Michalis Famelis 1 July 2005 13:30 (UTC) I have created an article on the Junta of the Colonels. Anyone interested to help?

Papadopulos was in KYP, greek counterinteligence, which shared offices with CIA in greece. He at some point also worked as liason between the two organisations. My understanding of the coup is that it was supported or at least that there was support for it in the CIA. The american embassy in athens was ignorant of this coup and I belive also opposed to the kings plan for a coup (different one). Washington I belive was favorable or at least accepting of the kings and generals coup but ignorant of the colonels coup, as indead was everyone except, I belive, CIA. What is certain is that the CIA knew and sent a report to washington about the colonels group and the fact that they where planing a coup. But then they sent no more rapports about this group in the two following months prior to the coup.

So Washington was favorable or at least not against the kings coup coup, the embassy was againt all coups and the CIA was favorable or at least not against the colonels coup. The greek church knew nothing ;)

But no matter what there was going to be a coup. America could not tolerate a leftist governement. The king could not tolerate a governement wanting to lessen his power. The military could not tolerate a cleansing of ultrarightwing elements from the army. The resignation of Papapandreou two years, I belive, earlier was because the king refused him to take over the ministry of defence. However, the only factor that could have stopped the colonels coup, and thus probably make the coup of the king happen instead, was the CIA. Sorry for the lack of sources, I am using a compendium from the University of Copenhage which has several texts on the subject. Ptalatas 02:53, 29 May 2006 (UTC)

Greece in WWI
I recently read about the French bombardment of Athens from the Princess Alice of Battenberg article, and went poking around through the WWI articles looking for more information until i eventually stumbled onto this page from history of greece. It might be nice create more links here from appropriate places in the WWI articles as it seems like this little episode has been entirley left out. I know, I know, I should just go ahead and do it (and i might latter), but this has sucked up too much of my time allready. Just leaving a note in case anyone else wants a project.--john.james (talk) 03:45, 14 August 2008 (UTC)

"Demogratic Army"?
In the map caption....is that a typo or deliberate? There's nothing in the Democratic Army of Greece article I can see that has the 'g'.....and why should that have quotation marks around it?Skookum1 (talk) 12:26, 10 August 2014 (UTC)

US Marines in 1947?
I note the passage about the US taking over from Britain in terms of supporting the anti-communist side, but see no citation for that; reason I came here was to check for a cite for this removal, as to whether such a citation might be here; that strikes me as censorship if it's true....someone here might be able to provide one there.Skookum1 (talk) 12:28, 10 August 2014 (UTC)

"Consideration" in the construction business?
Consideration, a Greek invention, favoured the creation of a class of small-medium contractors on one hand and settled the housing system and property status on the other. What does that mean? How is consideration a Greek invention? Is it a name for a specifically Greek economic policy, or just florid language that needs to be rewritten for objectivity and clarity? --176.6.126.165 (talk) 12:46, 7 September 2016 (UTC)

 * That was someone's attempt to translate "antiparochi" using Google Translate. Needless to say, it failed. I've rewritten the relevant part, thanks for pointing it out. Constantine  ✍  15:47, 7 September 2016 (UTC)

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Page preview needs fixed
If you look at the "anti-americanism" page preview it says "stupid donner 60 get a life", whatever that means. I don't know how to edit page previews so someone else do it. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2603:9001:4F01:F800:38E7:BB39:54A1:72A8 (talk) 12:10, 21 February 2021 (UTC)

Problem with an Unsourced Heading ('Oligarchic Dictatorship')
Following 'Transition and Democracy' was the header 'Oligarchic dictatorship era 2009–.' I could not find any basis for this header, the content beneath is primarily on the Greek economic crisis and information on recent Greek governments. From what information is available, it seems like an unfounded claim that the current Greek government, post-2009, constitutes an oligarchy or a dictatorship. This should probably be changed?

Assuming so, I have temporarily changed it to 'Greek Government and Economic Crisis (2009-)' as a placeholder for a more experienced editor to correct if need be. So as not to cause redundant section headings I have also changed the subheading from 'Economic crisis (2009–2018)' to 'Government-Debt Crisis (2009-2018).' RunicBarrel (talk) 10:33, 21 October 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:History of modern Greece


text:
Accidental (music)

In musical notation, an accidental is a symbol that indicates an alteration of a given pitch. The most common accidentals are the flat (♭) and the sharp (♯), which represent alterations of a semitone, and the natural (♮), which cancels a sharp or flat. Accidentals alter the pitch of individual scale tones in a given key signature; the sharps or flats in the key signature itself are not considered accidentals.

An accidental applies the note that follows it. It also applies to subsequent instances of that note in the same measure unless it is canceled by another accidental. A sharp raises a note's pitch by a semitone and a flat lowers it by a semitone. Double sharps or flats (𝄫) may also be used, which alter the unmodified note by two semitones. If a note with an accidental is tied, the accidental continues to apply, even if the note it is tied to is in the next measure. If a note has an accidental and the note is repeated in a different octave within the same measure the accidental is usually repeated, although this convention was not always universal.

The modern accidental signs derive from the two forms of the lower-case B|letter b used in Gregorian chant manuscripts to signify the two pitches of B, the only note that could be altered. The "round" b became the flat sign, while the "square" b diverged into the sharp and natural signs.

Standard use
In most cases, a sharp raises the pitch of a note one semitone while a flat lowers it one semitone. A natural is used to cancel the effect of a flat or sharp. This system of accidentals operates in conjunction with the key signature, whose effect continues throughout an entire piece, or until another key signature is indicated. An accidental can also be used to cancel a previous accidental or reinstate the flats or sharps of the key signature.

Accidentals apply to subsequent notes on the same staff position for the remainder of the measure where they occur, unless explicitly changed by another accidental. Once a barline is passed, the effect of the accidental ends, except when a note affected by an accidental is tied to the same note across a barline. An accidental that carries past the barline through a tied note does not apply to subsequent notes.

Under this system, the notes in the example above are:

 * m. 1: G♮, G♯, G♯ (the sharp carries over)
 * m. 2: G♮ (with courtesy accidental), G♭, G♭ (the flat carries over)
 * m. 3: G♭ (which is tied from the previous note), G♯, G♮ (the natural sign cancels the sharp sign)

Though this convention is still in use particularly in tonal music, it may be cumbersome in music that features frequent accidentals, as is often the case in atonal music. As a result, an alternative system of note-for-note accidentals has been adopted, with the aim of reducing the number of accidentals required to notate a bar. According to Kurt Stone, the system is as follows:

 * 1) Accidentals affect only those notes which they immediately precede.
 * 2) Accidentals are not repeated on tied notes unless the tie goes from line to line or page to page.
 * 3) Accidentals are not repeated for repeated notes unless one or more different pitches (or rests) intervene.
 * 4) If a sharp or flat pitch is followed directly by its natural form, a natural is used.
 * 5) Courtesy accidentals or naturals (in parentheses) may be used to clarify ambiguities but are kept to a minimum

Because seven of the twelve notes of the chromatic equal-tempered scale are naturals (the "white notes", A; B; C; D; E; F; and G on a piano keyboard) this system can significantly reduce the number of naturals required in a notated passage.

Occasionally, an accidental may change the note by more than a semitone: for example, if a G♯ is followed in the same measure by a G♭, the flat sign on the latter note means it is two semitones lower than if no accidental were present. Thus, the effect of the accidental must be understood in relation to the "natural" meaning of the note's staff position.

In some atonal scores (particularly by composers of the Second Viennese School), an accidental is notated on every note, including natural notes and repeated pitches. This system was adopted for "the specific intellectual reason that a note with an accidental was not simply an inflected version of a natural note but a pitch of equal status."

Double sharps and flats
Double accidentals raise or lower the pitch of a note by two semitones (or a whole tone). This applies to the written note, ignoring key signature. An F with a double sharp applied raises it a whole step so it is enharmonically equivalent to a G.

Usage varies on how to notate the situation in which a note with a double flat (or sharp) is followed in the same octave in the same measure in the same staff by a note with a single sharp (or flat). Some publications canceling the double accidental, such as simply using the conventional sign like a flat or sharp, etc., for the latter note, (as the modern practice,) whereas others use a combination such as a natural and flat or natural and sharp (shown below), instead, (as the older practice). Also refer to the documentation: 'Double natural'

Courtesy accidentals
In modern scores, a barline cancels an accidental, with the exception of tied notes. Courtesy accidentals, also called cautionary accidentals or reminder accidentals are used to remind the musician of the correct pitch if the same note occurs in the following measure. The rules for applying courtesy accidentals (sometimes enclosed in parentheses) vary among publishers, though in a few situations they are customary:

 * When the first note of a measure had an accidental in the previous measure
 * After a tie carries an accidental across a barline, and the same note appears in the next measure
 * When a chord contains a diminished or augmented octave
 * When there is a cross relation with another part

Publishers of free jazz music and some atonal music sometimes eschew all courtesy accidentals.

Microtonal notation
Composers of microtonal music have developed a number of notations for indicating the various pitches outside of standard notation. One such system for notating quarter tones, used by the Czech Alois Hába and other composers, is shown.

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, when Turkish musicians switched from their traditional notation systems—which were not staff-based—to the European staff-based system, they refined the European accidental system so they could notate Turkish scales that use intervals smaller than a tempered semitone. There are several such systems, which vary as to how they divide the octave they presuppose or the graphical shape of the accidentals. The most widely used system (created by Rauf Yekta Bey) uses a system of four sharps (roughly +25 cents, +75 cents, +125 cents and +175 cents) and four flats (roughly −25 cents, −75 cents, −125 cents and −175 cents), none of which correspond to the tempered sharp and flat. They presuppose a Pythagorean division of the octave taking the Pythagorean comma (about an eighth of the tempered tone, actually closer to 24 cents, defined as the difference between seven octaves and 12 just-intonation fifths) as the basic interval. The Turkish systems have also been adopted by some Arab musicians.

Ben Johnston created a system of notation for pieces in just intonation where the unmarked C, F, and G major chords are just major chords (4:5:6) and accidentals create just tuning in other keys. Between 2000 and 2003, Wolfgang von Schweinitz and Marc Sabat developed the Extended Helmholtz-Ellis Just Intonation (JI) pitch notation, a modern adaptation and extension of the notation principles first used by Hermann von Helmholtz, Arthur von Oettingen, and Alexander John Ellis that some other musicians use for notating extended just intonation.

History of notation
The three principal symbols indicating whether a note should be raised or lowered in pitch are derived from variations of the small letter b: the sharp (♯) and natural (♮) signs from the square "b quadratum", and the flat sign (♭) from the round "b rotundum".

The different kinds of B were eventually written differently, so as to distinguish them in music theory treatises and in notation. The flat sign ♭ derives from a round b that signified the soft hexachord, hexachordum molle, particularly the presence of B♭. The name of the flat sign in French is bémol from medieval French bé mol, which in modern French is bé mou ("soft b"). The natural sign ♮ and the sharp sign ♯ derive from variations of a square b that signified the hard hexachord, hexachordum durum, where the note in question is B♮. The name of the natural sign in French is bécarre from medieval French bé quarre, which in modern French is bé carré ("square b"). In German music notation, the letter B or b always designates B♭ while the letter H or h – a deformation of a square b – designates B♮.

In the High Middle Ages, a widespread musical tradition was based on the hexachord system defined by Guido of Arezzo. The basic system, called musica recta, had three overlapping hexachords. Change from one hexachord to another was possible, called a mutation. A major problem with the system was that mutation from one hexachord to another could introduce intervals like the tritone that musicians of the time considered undesirable. To avoid the dissonance, a practice called musica ficta arose from the late 12th century onward. This introduced modifications of the hexachord, so that "false" or "feigned" notes could be sung, partly to avoid dissonance. At first only B could be flattened, moving from the hexachordum durum (the hard hexachord) G–A–B–C–D–E where B is natural, to the hexachordum molle (the soft hexachord) F–G–A–B♭–C–D where it is flat. The note B is not present in the third hexachord hexachordum naturale (the natural hexachord) C–D–E–F–G–A.

Strictly speaking the medieval signs ♮ and ♭ indicated that the melody is progressing inside a (fictive) hexachord of which the signed note is the mi or the fa respectively. That means they refer to a group of notes around the marked note, rather than indicating that the note itself is necessarily an accidental. For example, when a semitone relationship is indicated between F and G, either by placing a mi-sign (♮) on F or a fa-sign (♭) on G, only the context can determine whether this means, in modern terms, F♯-G or F-G♭, or even F♭–G𝄫. The use of either the mi-sign on F or the fa-sign on G means only that "some kind of F goes to some kind of G, proceeding by a semitone".

As polyphony became more complex, notes other than B required alteration to avoid undesirable harmonic or melodic intervals (especially the augmented fourth, or tritone, that music theory writers referred to as diabolus in musica, i.e., "the devil in music"). Nowadays "ficta" is used loosely to describe any such un-notated accidentals. The implied alterations can have more than one solution, but sometimes the intended pitches can be found in lute tablatures where a fret is specified.

The convention of an accidental remaining in force through a measure developed only gradually over the 18th century. Before then, accidentals only applied to immediately repeated notes or short groups when the composer felt it was obvious that the accidental should continue. The older practice continued in use well into the 18th century by many composers, notably Johann Sebastian Bach. The newer convention did not achieve general currency until early in the 19th century.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Accidental (music)


text:
List of sports history organisations

The following is a list of sports history organizations.

Athletics Track & Field

 * Association of Track and Field Statisticians

Baseball

 * Society for American Baseball Research

Basketball

 * Association for Professional Basketball Research

American football

 * Professional Football Researchers Association

Association football

 * English National Football Archive
 * International Federation of Football History & Statistics
 * Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation

Canadian football

 * Canadian Football Historical Association

Ice hockey

 * Hockey Research Association
 * Society for International Hockey Research

Olympic Games

 * International Society of Olympic Historians

General sports

 * H.J. Lutcher Stark Center for Physical Culture and Sports at The University of Texas at Austin
 * North American Society for Sport History

title: List of sports history organisations


text:
Léon: The Professional

Léon: The Professional (titled Leon outside the United States) is a 1994 English-language French action-thriller film  written and directed by Luc Besson. It stars Jean Reno and Gary Oldman, and features the film debut of Natalie Portman. The plot centers on Léon (Reno), a professional hitman who reluctantly takes in twelve-year-old Mathilda Lando (Portman) after her family is murdered by corrupt Drug Enforcement Administration agent Norman Stansfield (Oldman). Léon and Mathilda form an unusual relationship, as she becomes his protégée and learns the hitman's trade. The film was released in France by Gaumont and internationally through Gaumont Buena Vista International on 14 September 1994 and received mostly positive reviews from critics.

Plot
Léon is an Italian-American hitman (or "cleaner", as he refers to himself) working for a mafioso named "Old Tony" in the Little Italy neighborhood of New York City. One day, Léon meets Mathilda Lando, a lonely twelve-year-old who lives with her dysfunctional family in an apartment down the hall from Léon and has stopped attending class at her school for troubled girls.

Mathilda's abusive father attracts the ire of corrupt DEA agents, who have been paying him to stash cocaine in his apartment. After they discover that he has been stealing from their stash, DEA agents invade the apartment, led by their boss, drug-addict Norman Stansfield. During their search for the missing drugs, Stansfield murders Mathilda's family while she is out shopping for groceries. When she returns, Mathilda realizes what has happened just in time to continue down the hall to Léon's apartment; he hesitantly gives her shelter.

Mathilda quickly discovers that Léon is a hitman. She begs him to take care of her and to teach her his skills, as she wants to avenge the murder of her four-year-old brother. At first, Léon is unsettled by her presence and considers killing her in her sleep but he eventually trains Mathilda and shows her how to use various weapons. In exchange, she runs his errands, cleans his apartment, and teaches him how to read. Mathilda looks up to Léon and quickly develops a crush on him, often telling him she loves him but he does not reciprocate.

When Léon is out on a job, Mathilda fills a bag with guns from Léon's collection and sets out to kill Stansfield. She bluffs her way into the DEA office by posing as a delivery girl and is ambushed by Stansfield in a bathroom. One of his men arrives and informs him that Léon killed Malky, one of the corrupt DEA agents, in Chinatown that morning. Léon, after discovering her plan in a note left for him, rescues Mathilda, killing two more of Stansfield's men in the process. An enraged Stansfield confronts Tony, who is tortured for Léon's whereabouts.

Léon tells Mathilda about how he became a hitman. When Léon was nineteen in Italy, he fell in love with a girl from a wealthy family, but Léon's family was poor. The two made plans to elope but when the girl's father discovered them, he killed her out of anger. Léon killed the father in revenge and fled to New York, where he met Tony and trained to become a hitman.

Later, while Mathilda returns home from grocery shopping, an NYPD ESU team sent by Stansfield captures her and infiltrates Léon's apartment. Léon ambushes the ESU team and rescues Mathilda. Léon creates a quick escape for Mathilda by smashing a hole in an air shaft. He tells her that he loves her and to meet him at Tony's place in an hour, moments before the ESU team blows up the apartment. In the chaos, a wounded Léon sneaks out of the building disguised as a wounded ESU officer. He goes unnoticed by everyone except Stansfield, who follows him and shoots him in the back. As Léon dies, he presses a grenade pin in Stansfield's palm, saying that it is from Mathilda. Stansfield opens Léon's vest to find a cluster of grenades, which detonate, killing Stansfield.

Mathilda goes to Tony and tries to convince him to hire her, but Tony flatly refuses to hire a twelve-year-old and tells Mathilda that Léon told him to give his money to her if anything happened to him. Tony gives Mathilda $100 as an allowance and sends her back to school, where the headmistress re-admits her after Mathilda reveals what has happened. Mathilda walks onto a field near the school to plant Léon's houseplant, as she had told Léon, to "give it roots".

Production

Léon: The Professional is to some extent an expansion of an idea in Besson's earlier 1990 film, La Femme Nikita (in some countries Nikita). In La Femme Nikita, Jean Reno plays a similar character named Victor. Besson described Léon as "Now maybe Jean is playing the American cousin of Victor. This time he's more human."

While most of the interior footage was shot in France, the rest of the film was shot on location in New York City. The final scene at school was filmed at Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken, New Jersey.

Soundtrack
A soundtrack for the film was released in October 1994 by TriStar Music. It was commercially successful in Japan, being certified gold for 100,000 copies shipped in December 1999.

 * "Shape of My Heart" by Sting
 * "The Experience of Love" by Éric Serra
 * "Venus as a Boy" by Björk
 * "I Like Myself" from It's Always Fair Weather

Release
Léon: The Professional was released in France on 14 September 1994. The film was a commercial success, sold 18,662,979 tickets on worldwide. It grossed 26.8 million French francs ($5.1 million) in its opening week in France and was number one for three weeks. In France, it sold 3,623,153 tickets in total.

Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 74% based on 66 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "Pivoting on the unusual relationship between seasoned hitman and his 12-year-old apprentice—a breakout turn by young Natalie Portman—Luc Besson's Léon is a stylish and oddly affecting thriller." At Metacritic, the film received an average score of 64 out of 100 based on 12 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".

Mark Salisbury of Empire magazine awarded the film a full five stars. He said, "Oozing style, wit and confidence from every sprocket, and offering a dizzyingly, fresh perspective on the Big Apple that only Besson could bring, this is, in a word, wonderful". Mark Deming at AllMovie awarded the film four stars out of five, describing it as "As visually stylish as it is graphically violent", and featuring "a strong performance from Jean Reno, a striking debut by Natalie Portman, and a love-it-or-hate-it, over-the-top turn by Gary Oldman".

Richard Schickel of Time magazine lauded the film, writing, "This is a Cuisinart of a movie, mixing familiar yet disparate ingredients, making something odd, possibly distasteful, undeniably arresting out of them". He praised Oldman's performance as "divinely psychotic". Hal Hinson, of The Washington Post, also praised Oldman's acting, saying "Reno plays it minimally; Oldman splatters his performance all over the screen. Oldman is the least inhibited actor of his generation, and as this deranged detective, he keeps absolutely nothing in reserve. When the camera gets close to him, you feel as if you want to back away."

Roger Ebert awarded the film two-and-a-half stars out of four, writing: "It is a well-directed film because Besson has a natural gift for plunging into drama with a charged-up visual style. And it is well acted." However, he was not entirely complimentary: "Always at the back of my mind was the troubled thought that there was something wrong about placing a 12-year-old character in the middle of this action. ... In what is essentially an exercise—a slick urban thriller—it seems to exploit the youth of the girl without really dealing with it."

The New York Times' Janet Maslin wrote, "The Professional is much too sentimental to sound shockingly amoral in the least. Even in a finale of extravagant violence, it manages to be maudlin ... Mr. Oldman expresses most of the film's sadism as well as many of its misguidedly poetic sentiments."

Controversy
The film has been critically re-examined in the wake of the "#MeToo" movement (French: #BalanceTonPorc or "expose your pig") after sexual assault allegations were levied against Luc Besson in 2018. Maïwenn, Luc Besson's sixteen year old wife at the time of filming, says the film was inspired by their relationship. She says "When Luc Besson did Léon, the story of a 13-year-old girl in love with an older man, it was very inspired by us"; Besson met Maïwenn when she was 12 and he was 29, and he officially started dating her when she was 15, the legal age of consent in that country. Besson married her at age 33 when she fell pregnant at 16. At the time of the accusations, Natalie Portman discussed her "complicated feelings" about the film and her associated Lolita-like sexualization as a child.

Year-end lists

 * Honorable mention – Betsy Pickle, Knoxville News-Sentinel

Legacy
In the 2013 book, Poseur: A Memoir of Downtown New York City in the '90s, Marc Spitz wrote that the film is "considered a cult classic". In 2014, Time Out polled several film critics, directors, actors, and stunt actors to list their top action films; Léon: The Professional was listed at No. 42. The character Norman Stansfield has since been named as one of cinema's greatest villains.

The English band Alt-J released a song about the film, titled "Matilda". The first line in the lyrics, "This is from Matilda", refers to Léon's last words, shortly before his grenades detonate and kill Stansfield.

South Korean comedian Park Myeong-su and singer-songwriter IU released and performed a song inspired by the film, "Leon", for a bi-annual music festival of South Korea's highly popular variety show, Infinite Challenge, in 2015.

In 2022, UK rapper Knucks released his song "Leon the Professional" as part of his Alpha Place album.

Sequel
Besson wrote a script for a sequel, Mathilda, but filming was delayed until Portman was older. In the script, Mathilda was described as "older" and "more mature", and was working as a cleaner. However, in the meantime, Besson left Gaumont Film Company to start his own movie studio, EuropaCorp. Unhappy at Besson's departure, Gaumont Film Company "has held The Professional rights close to the vest—and will not budge".

In 2011, director Olivier Megaton told reporters that he and Besson used the script for Mathilda as the basis for Colombiana, a film about a young 'cleaner' played by Zoe Saldaña. Like Mathilda, her character goes to war with a drug cartel as revenge for the murder of her family when she was a child.

Extended version
There is an extended version of the film, referred to as the "international version", "version longue", or "version intégrale". Containing 25 minutes of additional footage, it is sometimes called the "Director's Cut" but Besson refers to the original version as the Director's Cut and the new version as "The Long Version".

According to Besson, this is the version he wanted to release, but for the fact that the extra scenes tested poorly with Los Angeles preview audiences. The additional material is found in the film's second act, and it depicts more of the interactions and relationship between Léon and Mathilda, as well as explicitly demonstrating how Mathilda accompanies Léon on several of his hits as "a full co-conspirator", to further her training as a contract killer.

title: Léon: The Professional


text:
American goldfinch

The American goldfinch (Spinus tristis) is a small North American bird in the finch family. It is migratory, ranging from mid-Alberta to North Carolina during the breeding season, and from just south of the Canada–United States border to Mexico during the winter.

The only finch in its subfamily to undergo a complete molt, the American goldfinch displays sexual dichromatism: the male is a vibrant yellow in the summer and an olive color during the winter, while the female is a dull yellow-brown shade which brightens only slightly during the summer. The male displays brightly colored plumage during the breeding season to attract a mate.

The American goldfinch is a granivore and adapted for the consumption of seedheads, with a conical beak to remove the seeds and agile feet to grip the stems of seedheads while feeding. It is a social bird and will gather in large flocks while feeding and migrating. It may behave territorially during nest construction, but this aggression is short-lived. Its breeding season is tied to the peak of food supply, beginning in late July, which is relatively late in the year for a finch. This species is generally monogamous and produces one brood each year.

Human activity has generally benefited the American goldfinch. It is often found in residential areas because it is attracted to bird feeders, which increase its survival rate in these areas. Deforestation also creates open meadow areas, which are its preferred habitat.

Taxonomy
The American goldfinch was one of the many species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in the landmark 1758 10th edition of his work, Systema Naturae, where he classified it in the genus Fringilla. It was later placed in the genus Spinus, a group containing New World goldfinches and siskins. In 1976, Spinus was merged into the genus Carduelis as a subgenus. Recent studies have resurrected the genus Spinus. Its closest relatives are the lesser goldfinch (S. psaltria), Lawrence's goldfinch (S. lawrencei), and the siskins. Although it shares a name with the European goldfinch, the two are in separate genera and are not closely related. Carduelis is derived from carduus, the Latin word for 'thistle'; the species name tristis is Latin for 'sorrowful'. There are four recognized subspecies of the American goldfinch:
 * The eastern goldfinch (S. t. tristis) is the most common of the subspecies. Its summer range is from southern Canada to Colorado, and east to the Carolinas. Its winter range is from southern Canada south to Florida and central Mexico.
 * The pale goldfinch (S. t. pallidus) is differentiated from other subspecies by its paler body color, stronger white markings and, in males, a larger black cap. It is slightly larger than S. t. tristis. The summer range is from British Columbia to western Ontario, south to Colorado and west to Oregon. In winter, the range extends from southern Canada and northern California, south to Mexico.
 * The northwestern goldfinch (S. t. jewetti) is smaller and darker than the other subspecies. It occurs on the coastal slope of the Cascade Mountains from southern British Columbia to central California, overlapping with the range of S. t. pallidus.
 * The willow goldfinch (S. t. salicamans) occurs west of the Sierra Nevada range during the summer and in the central and southern Baja California Peninsula to the Mojave Desert and the Colorado Desert in the winter. In winter, the plumage of both sexes is browner than the other subspecies and in summer, the male's black cap is smaller than that of the other subspecies.

Description
The American goldfinch is a small finch, 11 - 14 cm long, with a wingspan of 19 - 22 cm. It weighs between 11 - 20 g. Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 6.5 to 7.8 cm, the tail is 4.2 to 5.1 cm, the culmen is 0.9 to 1.1 cm and the tarsus is 1.2 to 1.4 cm. The beak is small, conical, and pink for most of the year, but turns bright orange with the spring molt in both sexes. The shape and size of the beak aid in the extraction of seeds from the seed heads of thistles, sunflowers, and other plants.

The American goldfinch undergoes a molt in the spring and autumn. It is the only cardueline finch to undergo molting twice a year. During the winter molt it sheds all its feathers; in the spring, it sheds all but the wing and tail feathers, which are dark brown in the female and black in the male. The markings on these feathers remain through each molt, with bars on the wings and white under and at the edges of the short, notched tail. The sexual dimorphism displayed in plumage coloration is especially pronounced after the spring molt, when the bright color of the male's summer plumage is needed to attract a mate.

Once the spring molt is complete, the body of the male is a brilliant lemon yellow, a color produced by carotenoid pigments from plant materials in its diet, with a striking jet black cap and white rump that is visible during flight. The female is mostly brown, lighter on the underside with a yellow bib. After the autumn molt, the bright summer feathers are replaced by duller plumage, becoming buff below and olive-brown above, with a pale yellow face and bib. The autumn plumage is almost identical in both sexes, but the male has yellow shoulder patches.

The immature bird has a dull brown back, and the underside is pale yellow. The shoulders and tail are a dull black with buff-colored, rather than white, markings on wings and rump. This coloration is the same in both sexes.

The song is a series of musical warbles and twitters, often with a long note. A tsee-tsi-tsi-tsit call is often given in flight; it may also be described as per-chic-o-ree. While the female incubates the eggs, she calls to her returning mate with a soft continuous tee-tee-tee-tee-tee sound. The young begin to use a call of chick-kee or chick-wee shortly before fledging, which they use until they have left the nest entirely. There are two defense calls made by adults during nesting; a sweet call made to rally other goldfinches to the nest and distract predators, and a bearbee used to signal to the nestlings to quiet them and get them to crouch down in the nest to become less conspicuous.

Distribution and habitat
The American goldfinch prefers open country where weeds thrive, such as fields, meadows, flood plains, as well as roadsides, orchards, and gardens. It may also be found in open deciduous and riparian woodlands and areas of secondary growth. This habitat preference continues during the spring and autumn migrations.

The summer breeding range stretches across North America from coast to coast. It is bounded on the north by Saskatchewan and stretches south across North America to North Carolina on the east coast, and northern California on the west coast. The American goldfinch is a short-distance migrant, moving south in response to colder weather and lessened food supply. According to ornithologist Marc Parnell, this responsive, southerly migratory pattern is thought to begin to occur as daily low temperatures approach freezing, and particularly as these temperatures near 0 °F. The migration is completed in compact flocks, which travel in an erratic, wavelike flight pattern.

Its winter range includes southern Canada and stretches south through the United States to parts of Mexico. In winter, in the northern part of its range, the finch may move nearer to feeders if they are available. In southern ranges, during winter, they remain in areas like fields and flood plains where they live during the summer months.

Attempts were made to introduce the American goldfinch into Bermuda in the 19th century and Tahiti in 1938, but the species failed to become established in either place.

Behavior
The American goldfinch flies in a distinctive undulating pattern, creating a wave-shaped path. This normally consists of a series of wing beats to lift the bird, then folding in the wings and gliding in an arc before repeating the pattern. Birds often vocalize during the flapping phase of the pattern and then go silent during the coasting phase. The call made during flight is "per-twee-twee-twee", or "ti-di-di-di", punctuated by the silent periods. They communicate with several distinct vocalizations, including one that sounds like "po-ta-to-chip" to the listener.

Birds do not act aggressively toward predators within their territory; their only reaction is alarm calling. Predators include snakes, weasels, squirrels, and blue jays, which may destroy eggs or kill young, and hawks and cats, which pose a threat to both young and adults. The oldest known American goldfinch was 10 years and 5 months old.

Sociality
The American goldfinch is gregarious during the nonbreeding season when it is often found in large flocks, usually with other finches. The social hierarchy, measured by how many aggressive encounters are won by each individual, tends towards the male being dominant in the nonbreeding season. During the breeding season, this finch lives in loose colonies. While the nest is being constructed, the male will act aggressively toward other males who intrude into his territory, driving them away, and the female reacts in the same way toward other females. This aggressiveness subsides once the eggs have been laid. The social hierarchy in the breeding season generally has the female dominant over the male. Dominance may change based on the value of a resource; a study published in 1987 found that starved subordinate birds were sometimes dominant in competitions over feeder access.

Birds indicate their level of aggression through a range of displays. The head-up display, where the neck and legs are slightly extended, shows mild aggression and is often performed by the victor of an encounter. The carpals-raised display has the neck retracted and the carpals raised; displayers are likely to attack their opponent. The head-forward display is where the legs are flexed, the neck extended, and the beak closed. At higher intensities, the neck is lowered, the beak is pointed at the opponent, and one or both wings are raised. In extreme cases, the neck is retracted, the bill opened, the body feathers sleeked, and the tail is fanned and raised slightly. Aggression is also displayed by showing the front of the body to another individual. Attacks include pecking at feathers, supplanting the opponent by landing next to it, and flying vertically with legs and feet extended, beaks open, and necks extended. Avoidance behaviors include showing only the side of the body to an aggressor, leaning away, and flexing the legs, retracting the neck, and pointing the beak down.

Breeding
The breeding season begins later in the year than for any other finch and later than any other native North American bird, besides occasionally the sedge wren. This may be related to the abundance of seeds in the late summer months, as seeds represent most of their diet.

The courtship rituals include aerial maneuvers and singing by males, who begin courtship in late July. The flight displays begin as the male pursues the female, who flies in zigzagging evasive patterns. The male can signal his quality and fitness, both in the short term (current body condition) and long term (genes), through ornamentation (bill color and plumage). If a female accepts the male as a mate, the pair will fly in wide circles, as the male warbles throughout the flight.

Once a male has found a mate, he selects a territory, marking the boundaries by warbling as he flies from perch to perch. After circling the perimeter, he performs two flight displays, first repeating a low, flat flight, then flying in an exaggerated version of normal flight, tucking his wings close to his body, plummeting earthwards and catching himself as he spreads his wings to glide upward in a series of loops. Two or three pairs may group their territories together in a loose colony, perhaps to aid in defense against predators.

The nest is built in late summer by the female in the branches of a deciduous shrub or tree at a height of up to 10 m. The nest-building lasts approximately six days, during which time the female works in 10–40 minute increments. The male frequently flies with the female as she collects nesting materials, and though he may carry some materials back to the nest, he leaves its construction to the female. The outer shell of the nest is built of bark, weeds, vines, and grass. The inside diameter of the finished nest is about 6.5 cm. The rim is reinforced with bark bound by spiderwebs and caterpillar silk, and the cup is lined with plant down from milkweed, thistle, or cattail. The nest is so tightly woven that it can hold water, and it is possible for nestlings to drown following a rainstorm if the parents do not cover the nest.

The clutch is four to six bluish-white eggs, which are oval in shape and about 16 x, roughly the size of a peanut. It is thought that they are laid during the night. The eggs are incubated by the female alone, though the male brings her food as she nests, and most mating pairs raise only one brood each year.

The chicks hatch 12–14 days after incubation begins. Like all passerines, the chicks are altricial; they are hatched naked, with reddish bodies, pale grey down, and closed eyes. The mother bird feeds her young regurgitated seeds and insects as they grow. The hatchlings develop quickly, opening their eyes after three days, and completing the growth of olive-brown juvenile plumage after 11–15 days, at which time they begin to practice short flights close to the nest. For up to three weeks after fledging, they are still fed by the male, who locates them by listening for their fledging call. The chicks stop giving this call when they become entirely independent.

The American goldfinch is occasionally victim to brood parasites, particularly brown-headed cowbirds. One study found that 9% of nests had brown-headed cowbird eggs in them. It likely evades parasitism partly because of its late breeding season. The American goldfinch also makes a very poor host for brood parasites, with studies showing low hatching rates of brown-headed cowbird eggs and no fledging success. This is despite the lack of known behavioral adaptations against brood parasites in this finch. It is thought that the inability of brown-headed cowbird chicks to survive is due to a failure to get enough nutrition; the seed-rich diet of American goldfinch chicks varies from the usual insect-rich diet of other hosts.

Feeding
The American goldfinch is a diurnal feeder. According to the Cornell Lab of Ornithology, the species is one of the strictest vegetarians in the bird world. It is mainly granivorous, but will occasionally eat insects, which are also fed to its young to provide protein. Its diet consists of the seeds from a wide variety of plants, often those of weeds, grasses, and trees, such as thistle, teasel, dandelion, ragweed, mullein, cosmos, goatsbeard, sunflower, and alder. However, it also consumes tree buds, maple sap, and berries. It will eat at bird feeders provided by humans, particularly in the winter months, preferring Niger seed (commonly and erroneously called thistle seed).

Unlike some finch species, the American goldfinch uses its feet extensively in feeding. It frequently hangs from seedheads while feeding to reach the seeds more easily. In the spring, the American goldfinch feeds on the catkins hanging from birches and alders by pulling one up with its beak and using its toes to hold the catkin still against the branch. This dexterity enables it to take advantage of food sources relatively inaccessible to potential competitors, increasing its chances of survival.

Status
The American goldfinch has a large range, with an estimated global extent of about 11300000 km2 and an increasing population. The species is evaluated as least concern on the 2016 IUCN Red List.

Relationship with humans
The American goldfinch is found in residential areas throughout its range. Backyard birders attract it using feeders containing niger seed, or by planting grasses and perennial plants, such as zinnias, cosmos, bee balm, or globe thistle, which produce seedheads favored by finches.

The American goldfinch is not threatened by human activity and is widespread throughout its range. The clearing of forests by humans, though harmful to many species, has benefited the American goldfinch. Clearing of woodlands causes declines in numbers of neotropical migrants while favoring short-distance migrants and permanent residents. This benefits the American goldfinch both because it is a short-distance migrant and because the created open areas are the preferred environment of the bird, where weeds thrive which produce the primary food source of the American goldfinch.

State bird
The American goldfinch is the state bird of Iowa and New Jersey, where it is called the eastern goldfinch, and Washington, where it is called the willow goldfinch. It was chosen by schoolchildren in Washington in 1951.

title: American goldfinch


text:
Meissen

Meissen (Meißen, ), is a town of approximately 30,000 about 25 km northwest of Dresden on both banks of the Elbe river in the Free State of Saxony, in eastern Germany. Meissen is the home of Meissen porcelain, the Albrechtsburg castle, the Gothic Meissen Cathedral and the Meissen Frauenkirche. The Große Kreisstadt is the capital of the Meissen district.

History
It grew out of the early West Slavic settlement of Miśni inhabited by Glomatians and was founded as a German town by King Henry the Fowler in 929. In 968, the Diocese of Meissen was founded, and Meissen became the episcopal see of a bishop. The Catholic bishopric was suppressed in 1581 after the diocese accepted the Protestant Reformation (1559), but re-created in 1921 with its seat first at Bautzen and now at the Katholische Hofkirche in Dresden.

In 965, the Margraviate of Meissen, a frontier march of the Holy Roman Empire, was founded, with Meissen as its capital. A market town by 1000, Meissen passed to the Duchy of Poland in 1002 under Boleslaw I the Brave, afterwards into hands of Henry II a few months later and to the House of Wettin in 1089. In 1015, Meissen was besieged by the Poles led by future King Mieszko II.

In 1241, the town was attacked in the Mongol raid on Meissen. The small Mongol force under Orda Khan defeated Meissens's defenders and much of the town was destroyed. The Mongols withdrew from Germany after the death of Ögedei Khan, sparing the region from further destruction.

The town was at the forefront of the Ostsiedlung, or intensive German settlement of the rural Slavic lands east of the Elbe, and its reception of town rights dates to 1332.

The construction of Meissen Cathedral was begun in 1260 on the same hill as the Albrechtsburg castle. The resulting lack of space led to the cathedral being one of the smallest cathedrals in Europe. The church is also known as being one of the purest examples of Gothic architecture.

In 1423, Meissen became capital of the Electorate of Saxony. In 1464, the capital was moved to Dresden.

In 1759, the Austrians defeated the Prussians at the Battle of Meissen.

During World War II, a subcamp of Flossenbürg concentration camp was located in Meissen.

Meissen served as an important place of religious dialogue in 1988 when the agreement on mutual recognition between the German Evangelical Church (both East and West German) and the Church of England was signed in the town.

Porcelain
Meissen is famous for the manufacture of porcelain, based on extensive local deposits of china clay (kaolin) and potter's clay (potter's earth). Meissen porcelain was the first high-quality porcelain to be produced outside of the Orient.

The first European porcelain was manufactured in Meissen in 1710, when by decree of King Augustus II the Strong the Royal-Polish and Electoral-Saxon Porcelain Factory (Königlich-Polnische und Kurfürstlich-Sächsische Porzellan-Manufaktur) was opened in the Albrechtsburg. In 1861, it was moved to the Triebisch river valley of Meissen, where the porcelain factory can still be found today. Along with porcelain, other ceramics are also manufactured in the town. In the old town streets, there have been set up numerous porcelain stores, often selling antique Meissen porcelain and sometimes offering repair of broken porcelain. In Meissen and the surrounding area, several former painters from the manufacturer have set up porcelain painting workshops and galleries with their own pieces of porcelain art.

Main sights
The Albrechtsburg, the former residence of the House of Wettin, is regarded as being the first castle to be used as a royal residence in the German-speaking world. Built between 1472 and 1525, it is a fine example of late Gothic style. It was redecorated in the 19th century with a range of murals depicting Saxon history. Today the castle is a museum. Nearby is the 13th-century Gothic Meissen Cathedral (Meißner Dom), whose chapel is one of the most famous burial places of the Wettin family. The hill on which the castle and the cathedral are built offers a view over the roofs of the old town.

Meissen's historical district is located mostly around the market at the foot of the castle hill. It contains many buildings of Renaissance architecture. Also imposing is the view from the 57-metre-high tower of the Frauenkirche (Church of Our Lady), situated in the old market-place. This church, not to be confused with the Dresden Frauenkirche, was first mentioned in a 1205 deed issued by Bishop Dietrich II and after a blaze about 1450 rebuilt in the Late Gothic style of a hall church. Its tower hosts the world's first porcelain carillon, manufactured in 1929 on the occasion of the town's 1000-years-jubilee. Another popular tourist sight is the world-famous Meissen porcelain factory.

From spring to autumn, several festivals take place in Meissen, such as the pottery market or the Weinfest, which celebrates the wine harvest. Meissen wine is produced at the vineyards in the river valley (Elbtal) around the town, part of the Saxonian wine region, one of the northernmost in Europe.

Educational institutions
Meissen is the home of the Saxon public elite college Sächsisches Landesgymnasium Sankt Afra zu Meißen.

Also the Saxon Civil Servants Academy and the Academy of the Evangelical Church of Saxony are located in the town.

Sport
Meissen Speedway Stadium is located on the eastern side of the town, on the Zaschendorfer Straße. The stadium was the venue for a round of the Speedway World Team Cup in 1965 and multiple qualifying rounds of the Speedway World Championship (the first in 1966).

Notable people

 * Saint Benno (c. 1010–1106), Bishop of Meissen
 * Adam of Bremen (before 1050 – 1081/1085), medieval chronicler
 * Heinrich Frauenlob (1250/60–1318), poet
 * Anna of Saxony, Landgravine of Hesse (1420–1462)
 * Heinrich von Sachsen (1422–1435), Margrave of Meissen and Duke of Saxony
 * Johann Klaj (1616–1656), poet
 * Johann Elias Schlegel (1719–1749), critic and poet
 * Johann Adolf Schlegel (1721–1793), poet and clergyman
 * Samuel Hahnemann (1755–1843), physician and founder of Homoeopathy
 * Louise Otto-Peters (1819–1895), suffragist and women's rights movement activist
 * Karl G. Maeser (1828–1901), Mormon academic
 * Erich Naumann (1905–1951), Nazi SS-Brigadeführer and Einsatzgruppe commander, executed for war crimes
 * Hans Philipp (1917–1943), combat pilot
 * Peter Schreier (1935–2019), opera singer and conductor
 * Ralf Schumann (born 1962), shooter, Olympic winner
 * Stefan Schuster (born 1961), biophysicist and bioinformatician
 * Jörg Urban (born 1964), politician (AfD)
 * Stephan Matthias Lademann, classical pianist

Worked in the town

 * Kaspar Eberhard (1523–1575), superintendent of Meissen 1564–1574
 * Johann Friedrich Böttger (1682–1719), co-inventor of the European porcelain
 * Johann Gregor Herold (1696–1775), porcelain painter and superintendent of the factory
 * Johann Joachim Kändler (1706–1775), porcelain modeller
 * Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729–1781), writer, pupil of the Sächsisches Landesgymnasium
 * Willy Ascherl (1902–1929), footballer
 * Erich Schmidt (1910–2005), church musician, in 1950–1980 Domkantor in Meissen
 * Hans-Ulrich Thomale (born 1944), football player and manager
 * Matthias Müller (born 1954), football player and manager

Names

 * Meißen
 * Miśnia
 * Meissen; archaically Misnie
 * Misnia, Misena, Misnensium
 * Míšeň
 * Mišno
 * Mišnjo
 * 迈森 (pinyin: Màisēn)

Twin towns – sister cities

Meissen is twinned with:

 * 🇫🇷 Vitry-sur-Seine, France (1973)
 * 🇯🇵 Arita, Japan (1979)
 * 🇩🇪 Fellbach, Germany (1987)
 * 🇨🇿 Litoměřice, Czech Republic (1996)
 * 🇬🇷 Corfu, Greece (1996)
 * 🇺🇸 Provo, United States (2001)
 * 🇵🇱 Legnica, Poland (2017)

title: Meissen


text:
Luc Besson

Luc Paul Maurice Besson (born 18 March 1959) is a French filmmaker. He directed or produced the films Subway (1985), The Big Blue (1988), and La Femme Nikita (1990). Associated with the Cinéma du look film movement, he has been nominated for a César Award for Best Director and Best Picture for his films Léon: The Professional (1994) and The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc (1999). He won Best Director and Best French Director for his sci-fi action film The Fifth Element (1997). He wrote and directed the 2014 sci-fi action film Lucy and the 2017 space opera film Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets.

In 1980, near the beginning of his career, he founded his own production company, Les Films du Loup, later renamed Les Films du Dauphin. It was superseded in 2000 when he co-founded EuropaCorp with longtime collaborator. As writer, director, or producer, Besson has been involved in the creation of more than 50 films.

Early life
Besson was born in Paris, to parents who both worked as Club Med scuba-diving instructors. Influenced by this milieu, as a child, he planned to become a marine biologist. He spent much of his youth traveling with his parents to tourist resorts in Italy, Yugoslavia, and Greece. The family returned to France when he was 10. His parents divorced, and both remarried; of this, he said:

"'Here there is two families, and I am the only bad souvenir of something that doesn't work,' he said in the International Herald Tribune. 'And if I disappear, then everything is perfect. The rage to exist comes from here. I have to do something! Otherwise I am going to die.'"

At age 17, Besson had a diving accident that left him unable to dive. In a 2000 interview with The Guardian, he described how this influenced his choice of career:

"'I was 17 and I wondered what I was going to do. ... So I took a piece of paper and on the left I put everything I could do, or had skills for, and all the things I couldn't do. The first line was shorter and I could see that I loved writing, I loved images, I was taking a lot of pictures. So I thought maybe movies would be good. But I thought that to really know I should go to a set. And a friend of mine knew a guy whose brother was a third assistant on a short film. It's true. So, I said: 'OK, let's go on the set.' So I went on the set...The day after I went back to see my mum and told her that I was going to make films and stop school and 'bye. And I did it! Very soon after I made a short film and it was very, very bad. I wanted to prove that I could do something, so I made a short film. That was in fact my main concern, to be able to show that I could do one.'"

Career
Besson reportedly worked on the first drafts of Le Grand Bleu while still in his teens. Out of boredom, he started writing stories, including the background to what he later developed as The Fifth Element (1997), one of his most popular movies, inspired by the French comic books he read as a teenager. He directed and co-wrote the screenplay of this science fiction thriller with American screenwriter Robert Mark Kamen.

At 18, Besson returned to his birthplace of Paris, where he took odd jobs in film to get a feel for the industry. He worked as an assistant to directors including Claude Faraldo and Patrick Grandperret. He directed three short films, a commissioned documentary, and several commercials. He then moved to the United States for three years, but returned to Paris, where he formed his own production company. He first named it Les Films du Loup, then changed it to Les Films du Dauphin.

In the early 1980s, Besson met Éric Serra and asked him to compose the score for his first short film, L'Avant dernier. He subsequently had Serra compose for other films. Since the late 20th century, Besson has written and produced numerous action movies, including the Taxi series (1998–2007), the Transporter series (2002–2008; another collaboration with Robert Mark Kamen), and the Jet Li films Kiss of the Dragon and Unleashed. His English-language films Taken, Taken 2, and Taken 3, all co-written with Kamen and starring Liam Neeson, have been major successes, with Taken 2 becoming the largest-grossing export French film. Besson produced the promotional movie for the Paris 2012 Olympic bid. Besson won the Lumières Award for Best Director and the César Award for Best Director, for his film The Fifth Element (1997). He was nominated for Best Director and Best Picture César Awards for his films Léon: The Professional (1994) and The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc (1999). French actor Jean Reno has appeared in several films by Besson, including Le dernier combat (1983), Subway (1985), The Big Blue (1988), La Femme Nikita (1990), and Léon: The Professional (1994).

Cinéma du look
Critics such as Raphaël Bassan and Guy Austin cite Besson as a pivotal figure in the Cinéma du look movement—a specific, highly visual style produced from the 1980s into the early 1990s. Subway (1985), The Big Blue (1988) and La Femme Nikita (1990) are all considered of this stylistic school. The term was coined by critic Raphaël Bassan in a 1989 essay in La Revue du Cinema n° 449. A partisan of the experimental cinema and friend of New Wave ("nouvelle vague") directors, Bassan grouped Besson with Jean-Jacques Beineix and Leos Carax as three directors who shared the style of "le look". These directors were later critically described as "favouring style over substance, and spectacle over narrative".

Besson, and most of the filmmakers so categorised, were uncomfortable with the label. He contrasted their work with France's New Wave. "Jean-Luc Godard and François Truffaut were rebelling against existing cultural values and used cinema as a means of expression simply because it was the most avant-garde medium at the time," said Besson in a 1985 interview in The New York Times. "Today, the revolution is occurring entirely within the industry and is led by people who want to change the look of movies by making them better, more convincing and pleasurable to watch.

"Because it's becoming increasingly difficult to break into this field, we have developed a psychological armor and are ready to do anything in order to work," he added. "I think our ardor alone is going to shake the pillars of the moviemaking establishment."

Besson directed a biopic of Aung San Suu Kyi called The Lady (2011) (original title Dans la Lumiere). He also worked on Lockout (2012).

Work
Many of Besson's films have achieved popular, if not critical, success. One such release was Le Grand Bleu. "'When the film had its premiere on opening night at the 1988 Cannes Film Festival, it was mercilessly drubbed, but no matter; it was a smash,' observed the International Herald Tribune in a 2007 profile of Besson. 'Embraced by young people who kept returning to see it again, the movie sold 10 million tickets and quickly became what the French call a 'film générationnel,' a defining moment in the culture.'"

Besson created the Arthur series, which comprises Arthur and the Minimoys, Arthur and the Forbidden City, Arthur and the Vengeance of Maltazard and Arthur and the War of the Two Worlds. He directed Arthur and the Invisibles, an adaptation of the first two books of the collection. A film with live action and animation, it was released in the UK and the US.

Critical evaluation
Besson has been described as "the most Hollywood of French filmmakers". Scott Tobias wrote that his "slick, commercial" action movies were "so interchangeable—drugs, sleaze, chuckling supervillainy, and Hong Kong-style effects—that each new project probably starts with white-out on the title page."

American film critic Armond White has praised Besson, whom he ranks as one of the best film producers, for refining and revolutionizing action film. He wrote that Besson dramatizes the struggle of his characters "as a conscientious resistance to human degradation".

Personal life
Besson has been married four times; first, in 1986, to actress Anne Parillaud. They had a daughter, Juliette, born in 1987. Parillaud starred in Besson's La Femme Nikita (1990). They divorced in 1991.

Besson's second wife was actress and director Maïwenn Le Besco, whom he started dating when he was 32 and she was 15. They married in late 1992 when Le Besco, 16, was pregnant with their daughter Shanna, who was born on 3 January 1993. Le Besco later claimed that their relationship inspired Besson's film Léon (1994), where the plot involved the emotional relationship between an adult man and a 12-year-old girl. Their marriage ended in 1997, when Besson became involved with actress Milla Jovovich during the filming of The Fifth Element (1997).

He married the 21-year-old Jovovich on 14 December 1997, when he was 38. They divorced in 1999.

On 28 August 2004, at age 45, Besson married film producer Virginie Silla, 32. They have three children.

Rape accusation
In 2018, actress Sand Van Roy, who appeared in Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets, accused Besson of rape. The director's lawyer Thierry Marembert stated that Besson "categorically denies these fantasist accusations" and that the accuser was "someone he knows, towards whom he has never behaved inappropriately".

In February 2019, French prosecutors dropped the case against him, citing lack of evidence. In December 2021, a judge dismissed the case against Besson following a second investigation. The public prosecutor's office in Paris stated that "the investigations clearly establish that the criminal facts of rape were not committed, that the absence of consent of the civil party is not established and the existence of a constraint, threat, violence, is not characterized". In April 2022, Van Roy submitted a complaint against the magistrate in charge of the case. In June 2023, Besson was definitively cleared of all charges, following a ruling by the Court of Cassation, the highest judicial court in France. This ruling prevents Van Roy from suing him on the same charges in France or elsewhere in Europe.

Several other women, including a former assistant, two students of Cité du Cinéma studio, and a former employee of Besson's EuropaCorp, who all wished to remain anonymous, described "inappropriate sexual behavior" by the director. Having no evidence to support their stories, they did not press charges and avoided a defamation countersuit. Their stories were not used by the investigating judge.

Selected filmography
Directed features • L'Avant Dernier (1981)

• Le dernier combat (1983)

• Subway (1985)

• The Big Blue (1988)

• La Femme Nikita (1990)

• Atlantis (1991)

• Léon: The Professional (1994)

• The Fifth Element (1997)

• The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc (1999)

• Angel-A (2005)

• Arthur and the Minimoys (2006)

• Arthur and the Revenge of Maltazard (2009)

• The Extraordinary Adventures of Adèle Blanc-Sec (2010)

• Arthur 3: The War of the Two Worlds (2010)

• The Lady (2011)

• The Family (2013)

• Lucy (2014)

• Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets (2017)

• Anna (2019)

• Dogman (2023)

• Dracula: A Love Tale (TBA)

Legacy and honours
Among Besson's awards are the Brussels International Festival of Fantasy Film Critics Prize, Fantasporto Audience Jury Award-Special Mention, Best Director, and Best Film, for Le Dernier Combat in 1983; the Italian National Syndicate of Film Journalists Silver Ribbon-Best Director-Foreign Film, for La Femme Nikita, 1990; the Alexander Korda Award for Best British Film, Nil by Mouth, 1997; and the Best Director Cesar Award, for The Fifth Element, 1997.

Besson was awarded the Inkpot Award in 2016.

Film company
In 2000, Besson superseded his production company by co-founding EuropaCorp with Pierre-Ange Le Pogam, with whom he had frequently worked since 1985. Le Pogam had then been Distribution Director with Gaumont. EuropaCorp has had strong growth based on several English-language films, with international distribution. It has production facilities in Paris, Normandy, and Hollywood, and is establishing distribution partnerships in Japan and China.

Music videos

 * "Pull Marine": Isabelle Adjani (1983)
 * "Mon légionnaire": Serge Gainsbourg (1988)
 * "Que mon cœur lâche": Mylène Farmer (1992)
 * "Love Profusion": Madonna (2003)
 * "I Feel Everything": Cara Delevingne (2017)

title: Luc Besson


text:
Cornish

Cornish is the adjective and demonym associated with Cornwall, the most southwesterly part of the United Kingdom. It may refer to:
 * Cornish language, a Brittonic Southwestern Celtic language of the Indo-European language family, spoken in Cornwall
 * Cornish people
 * Cornish Americans
 * Cornish Australians
 * Cornish Canadians
 * Cornish diaspora
 * Culture of Cornwall

Cornish may also refer to:

United States

 * Cornish, Colorado
 * Cornish, Maine, a town
 * Cornish (CDP), Maine, the primary village
 * Cornish, New Hampshire
 * Cornish, Oklahoma
 * Cornish, Utah
 * Cornish Township, Aitkin County, Minnesota
 * Cornish Township, Sibley County, Minnesota

People

 * Cornish (surname)

Animals and plants

 * Cornish Aromatic, apple cultivar
 * Cornish chicken
 * Cornish chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax), a species in the family Corvidae
 * Cornish game hen
 * Cornish Rex, a breed of cat
 * Lucas Terrier, a Cornish breed of dog

Sports

 * Cornish Wrestling, the ancient martial art, the "national sport of Cornwall"
 * Cornish Pirates, a rugby union team
 * Launceston RUFC, known as the Cornish All Blacks

Other uses

 * Cornish Art Colony, in Cornish, New Hampshire
 * Cornish Assembly
 * Cornish College of the Arts, an institution in Seattle, Washington
 * Cornish pilot gig, a type of rowing boat
 * The Cornish Trilogy, three related novels by Canadian novelist Robertson Davies

title: Cornish


text:
Abort

Abort can mean:

Termination
The early termination of some process or relationship:
 * Abort (computing), to terminate a computer processing or data transfer activity
 * Aeronautics, a last-minute decision to cancel a landing attempt is referred to as a go-around or an aborted landing
 * Abortion, the termination of pregnancy
 * Late-term abortion at an advanced stage of gestation
 * Abortion debate, ongoing debate surrounding abortion
 * Paper abortion (also known as a financial abortion or a statutory abort), the proposed ability of a biological father, before the birth of the child, to opt out of any rights, privileges, and responsibilities toward the child, including financial support

 * Spaceflight, particularly a mode resulting in the return of the spacecraft to Earth:
 * Apollo abort modes
 * Space Shuttle abort modes
 * Soyuz abort modes
 * Orion abort modes

Arts, entertainment, and media

 * Abort (album), a 1991 album by the band Tribe
 * Abort (film), a 1970 Norwegian film

Other uses

 * Abort, antiquated German for a toilet

title: Abort


text:
Absolute gain

Absolute gain may refer to:

 * Gain (electronics), an increase in power or amplitude of a signal across a two-port circuit
 * Antenna gain, a performance measure combining an antenna's directivity and electrical efficiency
 * Absolute gain (international relations), in liberal international relations theory

title: Absolute gain


text:
Access

Access may refer to:

Companies and organizations

 * ACCESS (Australia), an Australian youth network
 * Access (credit card), a former credit card in the United Kingdom
 * Access Co., a Japanese software company
 * Access International Advisors, a hedge fund
 * AirCraft Casualty Emotional Support Services
 * Arab Community Center for Economic and Social Services
 * Access, the Alphabet division containing Google Fiber
 * Access, the Southwest Ohio Regional Transit Authority's paratransit service

Sailing

 * Access 2.3, a sailing keelboat
 * Access 303, a sailing keelboat
 * Access Liberty, a sailing keelboat

Television

 * Access Hollywood, formerly Access, an American entertainment newsmagazine
 * Access (British TV programme), a British entertainment television programme
 * Access (Canadian TV series), a Canadian television series (1974–1982)
 * Access TV, a former Canadian educational television channel (1973–2011)
 * Access Television Network, an American infomercial channel
 * "Access" (The West Wing), an episode of The West Wing

Other uses

 * Access (comics), a character from Amalgam Comics
 * Access (EP), a 2022 EP by Acid Angel from Asia
 * Access (group), a Japanese pop duo
 * "Access" (song), a 2018 song by Martin Garrix
 * Access 5, a NASA program
 * Access Linux Platform, an operating system for mobile devices
 * Access network, the process of signing onto a network
 * Access Virus, a German musical device
 * Experimental Assembly of Structures in EVA and Assembly Concept for Construction of Erectable Space Structures (EASE and ACCESS), a pair of space shuttle flight experiments
 * Internet access, the hardware and connections needed to use the internet
 * Microsoft Access, a database program which is part of the Office suite

title: Access