text:
Tractor beam

A tractor beam is a device that can attract one object to another from a distance. The concept originates in fiction: The term was coined by E. E. Smith (an update of his earlier "attractor beam") in his novel Spacehounds of IPC (1931). Since the 1990s, technology and research have labored to make it a reality, and have had some success on a microscopic level. Less commonly, a similar beam that repels is known as a pressor beam or repulsor beam. Gravity impulse and gravity propulsion beams are traditionally areas of research from fringe physics that coincide with the concepts of tractor and repulsor beams.

Physics
A force field confined to a Collimated beam with clean borders is one of the principal characteristics of tractor and repulsor beams. Several theories that have predicted that repulsive effects do not fall within the category of tractor and repulsor beams because of the absence of field collimation. For example, Robert L. Forward of Hughes Research Laboratories showed that general relativity theory allowed the generation of a very brief impulse of a gravity-like repulsive force along the axis of a helical torus containing accelerated condensed matter. The mainstream scientific community has accepted Forward's work.

A variant of Burkhard Heim's theory by Walter Dröscher, Institut für Grenzgebiete der Wissenschaft (IGW), Innsbruck, Austria, and Jocham Häuser, University of Applied Sciences and CLE GmbH, Salzgitter, Germany, predicted a repulsive force field of gravitophotons could be produced by a ring rotating above a very strong magnetic field. Heim's theory, and its variants, have been treated by the mainstream scientific community as fringe physics. But the works by Forward, Dröscher, and Häuser could not be considered as a form of repulsor- or tractor-beam because the predicted impulses and field effects were not confined to a well-defined, collimated region.

The following are summaries of other notable experiments and theories that resemble repulsor and tractor beam concepts:

1960s
In July 1960, trade magazine Missiles and Rockets reported that Martin N. Kaplan, a research engineer at Ryan Aeronautical Company, had conducted experiments that could lead to an ability to direct an anti-gravitational force toward or away from a second body.

In 1964, physicists Leopold Halpern of the Niels Bohr Institute and B. Laurent of the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics indicated general relativity theory and quantum theory allowed the generation and amplification of gravitons in a manner like the laser. They showed, in principle, gravitational radiation in the form of a beam of gravitons could be generated and amplified by using induced, resonant emissions.

1990s – Podkeltnov experiment
In 1992, Professor Yevgeny Podkletnov and R. Nieminen, of the Tampere University of Technology, discovered weight fluctuations in objects above an electromagnetically levitated, massive, composite superconducting disk. Three years later, Podkletnov reported the results of additional experiments with a toroidal disk superconductor. They reported the weight of the samples would fluctuate between −2.5% and +5.4% as the angular speed of the superconductor increased. Certain combinations of disk angular speeds and electromagnetic frequencies caused the fluctuations to stabilize at a 0.3% reduction. The experiments with the toroidal disk yielded reductions that reached a maximum of 1.9–2.1%. Reports about both sets of experiments stated the weight loss region was cylindrical, extending vertically for at least three meters above the disk. Qualitative observations of an expulsive force at the border of the shielded zone were reported in the Fall of 1995. Several groups around the world tried to replicate Podkletnov's gravity shielding observations.

Italian physicist Giovanni Modanese, while a Von Humboldt Fellow at the Max Planck Institute for Physics, made the first attempt to provide a theoretical explanation of Podkletnov's observations. He argued that the shielding effect and slight expulsive force at the border of the shielded zone could be explained in terms of induced changes in the local cosmological constant. Modanese described several effects regarding responses to modifications to the local cosmological constant within the superconductor. Ning Wu of the Institute of High Energy Physics (Beijing), used the quantum gauge theory of gravity he had developed in 2001 to explain Podkletnov's observations. Wu's theory approximated the relative gravity loss as 0.03% (an order of magnitude smaller than the reported range of 0.3–0.5%).

C. S. Unnikrishan, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai, showed that if the effect had been caused by gravitational shielding, the shape of the shielded region would be similar to a shadow from the gravitational shield. For example, the shape of the shielded region above a disk would be conical. The height of the cone's apex above the disk would vary directly with the height of the shielding disk above the earth. Podkeltnov and Nieminen described the shape of the weight loss region as a cylinder that extended through the ceiling above the cryostat.

2010s
A team of scientists at the Australian National University (ANU) led by Professor Andrei Rode created a device similar to a tractor beam to move small particles 1.5 meters through the air. Rather than create a new gravitational field, however, the device utilizes a doughnut-shaped Laguerre-Gaussian laser beam, which has a high-intensity ring of light that surrounds a dark core along the beam axis. This method confines particles to the center of the beam using photophoresis, whereby illuminated sections of the particle have a higher temperature and thus impart more momentum to air molecules incident on the surface. Owing to this method, such a device cannot work in space due to lack of air. Rode states that there are practical applications for the device on Earth, for example, the transportation of microscopic hazardous materials and other microscopic objects.

John Sinko and Clifford Schlecht researched a form of reversed-thrust laser propulsion as a macroscopic laser tractor beam. Intended applications include remotely manipulating space objects at distances up to about 100 km, removal of space debris, and retrieval of adrift astronauts or tools on-orbit.

Functioning tractor beams based on solenoidal modes of light were demonstrated in 2010 by physicists at New York University. The spiraling intensity distribution in these non-diffracting beams tends to trap illuminated objects and thus helps to overcome the radiation pressure that ordinarily would drive them down the optical axis. Orbital angular momentum transferred from the solenoid beam's helical wavefronts then drives the trapped objects upstream along the spiral. Both Bessel-beam and solenoidal tractor beams are being considered for applications in space exploration by NASA.

In March 2011, Chinese scientists posited that a specific type of Bessel beam (a special kind of laser that does not diffract at the center) is capable of creating a pull-like effect on a given microscopic particle, forcing it toward the beam-source. The underlying physics is the maximization of forward scattering via interference of the radiation multipoles. They show explicitly that the necessary condition to realize a negative (pulling) optical force is the simultaneous excitation of multipoles in the particle. If the total photon momentum projection along the propagation direction is small, attractive optical force is possible. The Chinese scientists suggest this possibility may be implemented for optical micromanipulation.

In 2013, scientists at the Institute of Scientific Instruments (ISI) and the University of St Andrews created a tractor beam that pulls objects on a microscopic level. The study states that this technique may have potential for bio-medical research. Professor Zemanek said: "The whole team have spent a number of years investigating various configurations of particles delivery by light." Dr. Brzobohaty said: "These methods are opening new opportunities for fundamental photonics as well as applications for life-sciences." Dr Cizmar said: "Because of the similarities between optical and acoustic particle manipulation we anticipate that this concept will inspire exciting future studies in areas outside the field of photonics."

Physicists from ANU built a reversible tractor beam, capable of transporting particles "one fifth of a millimetre in diameter a distance of up to 20 centimetres, around 100 times further than previous experiments." According to Professor Wieslaw Krolikowski, of the Research School of Physics and Engineering, "demonstration of a large scale laser beam like this is a kind of holy grail for laser physicists." The work was published in Nature in 2014. In the same year, Dr. Horst Punzmann and his team at ANU developed a tractor beam that works on water, which could potentially be used to contain oil spills, control floating objects, or study the formation of rips on beaches.

In 2015, a team of researchers built the world's first sonic tractor beam that can lift and move objects using sound waves. An Instructables webpage was made available with instructions to build a rudimentary device.

In 2016, Rice University scientists discovered that Tesla coils can generate force fields able to manipulate matter through a process called teslaphoresis.

In December 2016, researchers were able to manipulate the movement of bacterial cells using a tractor beam, thereby opening the possibility that tractor beams could have future applications in biological sciences.

In 2018, a research team from Tel-Aviv University, led by Dr. Alon Bahabad, experimentally demonstrated an optical analog of the Archimedes' screw where the rotation of a helical-intensity laser beam is transferred to the axial motion of optically trapped micrometer-scale, airborne, carbon-based particles. With this optical screw, particles were easily conveyed with controlled velocity and direction, upstream or downstream of the optical flow, over half a centimeter.

In 2019, researchers at the University of Washington used a tractor beam to assemble nanoscale materials in a process they describe as "photonic nanosoldering".

Fiction
Science fiction movies and telecasts normally depict tractor and repulsor beams as audible, narrow rays of visible light covering a small target area. Tractor beams are most commonly used on spaceships and space stations. They are generally used in three ways:
 * 1) As a device for securing or retrieving cargo, passengers, shuttlecraft, etc. This is analogous to cranes on modern ships.
 * 2) As a device to harness objects that can then be used as impromptu weapons by the craft
 * 3) As a means of preventing an enemy from escaping, analogous to grappling hooks.

In the latter case, countermeasures can usually be employed against tractor beams. These may include pressor beams (a stronger pressor beam will counteract a weaker tractor beam) or plane shears a.k.a. shearing planes (a device to "cut" the tractor beam and render it ineffective). In some fictional realities, shields can block tractor beams, or the generators can be disabled by sending a large amount of energy along the beam to its source.

Tractor beams and pressor beams can be used together as a weapon: by attracting one side of an enemy spaceship while repelling the other, one can create severely damaging shear effects in its hull. Another mode of destructive use of such beams is rapid alternating between pressing and pulling force in order to cause structural damage to the ship as well as inflicting lethal forces on its crew.

Two objects being brought together by a tractor beam are usually attracted toward their common center of gravity. This means that if a small spaceship applies a tractor beam to a large object such as a planet, the ship will be drawn toward the planet, rather than vice versa.

In Star Trek, tractor beams are imagined to work by placing a target in the focus of a subspace/graviton interference pattern created by two beams from an emitter. When the beams are manipulated correctly the target is drawn along with the interference pattern. The target may be moved toward or away from the emitter by changing the polarity of the beams. The range of the beam affects the maximum mass that the emitter can move, and the emitter subjects its anchoring structure to significant force.

Literature

 * Rudyard Kipling's As Easy as A.B.C. (1912) made use of the "flying loop", generated by one of the airships of the Aerial Board of Control, when a woman tried, as a political statement, to publicly kill herself. The loop pulled the knife from her hand and, instead of drawing it toward the airship, flung it fifty yards away; it also continued to hold her arm rigid for a second or so afterward. John Brunner, in the foreword to a collection of Kipling's science fiction, said this may be the first depiction of a tractor beam.
 * E. E. Smith coined the term "tractor beam" (an update of his earlier "attractor-beam") in his novel Spacehounds of IPC, originally serialized in Amazing Stories magazine in 1931. The hero of his Skylark of Space books (1929 onwards) had invented "attractor beams" and "repellor beams". Repellors can also be emitted isotropically as a defensive force field against material projectiles. The device also appears in Smith's Lensman books.
 * In Philip Francis Nowlan's Buck Rogers novel Armageddon 2419 A.D. (1928), the enemy airships used "repellor beams" for support and propulsion, similar to the "eighth ray" beams used for support and propulsion of Martian airships in the Barsoom/John Carter of Mars series (first published 1912–1943) by Edgar Rice Burroughs.
 * Tom Swift – In the Tom Swift Jr. book Tom Swift and The Deep-Sea Hydrodome (1958), Tom invents the "repellatron". The device can be set to repel specific chemical elements. It was used to create a bubble habitat on the ocean floor, and as the propulsion system for his spacecraft Challenger.
 * The Sector General books by James White: The 1963 novel Star Surgeon is the source of the combined tractor/pressor beam weapon called the Rattler. The weapon attracts then repels the target (an entire ship or a segment of the ship's hull) at 80 gs, several times a minute. The novel also featured a type of force field called a "repulsion screen".
 * The Trigger by Arthur C. Clarke involves the development of tractor beams in the early part of the novel.
 * Sixth Column by Robert A. Heinlein describes tractor/pressor beams as a product of the physics of a "newly-discovered magneto-gravitic or electro-gravitic spectra" featured in the novel.

Comics

 * Buck Rogers comic strip – originally just repulsor-beams; tractors appeared by the 1970s
 * Iron Man's various armor suits usually feature repulsor beam projectors mounted in the palms as one of the main weapon systems.

Movies and television series

 * Star Trek (TV series, films, books and games). One of the most visible and iconic uses of the concept. One of the few prominent fictitious depictions which used such beams repeatedly and referred to them consistently as tractor beams.

title: Tractor beam


text:
Rostrum

Rostrum may refer to:

 * Any kind of a platform for a speaker:
 * dais
 * pulpit
 * podium
 * Rostrum (anatomy), a beak, or anatomical structure resembling a beak, as in the mouthparts of many sucking insects
 * Rostrum (ship), a form of bow on naval ships
 * Rostrum Records, an American record label
 * The Rostrum, the official monthly magazine of the National Forensic League
 * Australian Rostrum, public speaking clubs

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Rostrum


text:
Wilhelm Johannsen

Wilhelm Johannsen (3 February 1857 – 11 November 1927) was a Danish pharmacist, botanist, plant physiologist, and geneticist. He is best known for coining the terms gene, phenotype and genotype, and for his 1903 "pure line" experiments in genetics.

Biography
Johannsen was born in Copenhagen. While very young, he was apprenticed to a pharmacist and worked in Denmark and Germany beginning in 1872 until passing his pharmacist's exam in 1879. In 1881, he became assistant in the chemistry department at the Carlsberg Laboratory under the chemist Johan Kjeldahl. Johannsen studied the metabolism of dormancy and germination in seeds, tubers and buds. He showed that dormancy could be broken by various anesthetic compounds, such as diethyl ether and chloroform.

In 1892, he was appointed lecturer at Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University and later became professor of botany and plant physiology. He taught plant physiology. His best-known research concerned so-called pure lines of the self-fertile common bean. He was able to show that even in populations homozygous for all traits, i.e. without genetic variation, seed size followed a normal distribution. This was attributable to resource provision to the mother plant and to the position of seeds in pods and of pods on the plant. This led him to coin the terms phenotype and genotype.

Johannsen's findings led him to oppose contemporary Darwinists, most notably Francis Galton and Karl Pearson, who held the occurrence of normal distributed trait variation in populations as proof of gradual genetic variation on which selection could act. Only with the modern synthesis, was it established that variation needed to be heritable to act as the raw material for selection.

He created the terms phenotype and genotype, first using them in his book in German as Elemente der exakten Erblichkeitslehre (Elements of the exact theory of heredity). This book was based in large part on Om arvelighed i samfund og i rene linier ("On heredity in society and in pure lines") and in his book Arvelighedslærens Elementer. It was in this book Johannsen also introduced the term gene. From p. 124: "Dieses "etwas" in den Gameten bezw. in der Zygote, … – kurz, was wir eben Gene nennen wollen – bedingt sind."  (This "something" in the gametes or in the zygote, which has crucial importance for the character of the organism, is usually called by the quite ambiguous term Anlagen [primordium, from the German word Anlage for "plan, arrangement ; rough sketch"].  Many other terms have been suggested, mostly unfortunately in closer connection with certain hypothetical opinions.  The word "pangene", which was introduced by Darwin, is perhaps used most frequently in place of Anlagen.  However, the word "pangene" was not well chosen, as it is a compound word containing the roots pan (the neuter form of Πας all, every) and gen (from γί-γ (ε)ν-ομαι, to become).  Only the meaning of this latter [i.e., gen] comes into consideration here ; just the basic idea – [namely,] that a trait in the developing organism can be determined or is influenced by "something" in the gametes – should find expression. No hypothesis about the nature of this "something" should be postulated or supported by it. For that reason it seems simplest to use in isolation the last syllable gen from Darwin's well-known word, which alone is of interest to us, in order to replace, with it, the poor, ambiguous word Anlage. Thus we will say simply "gene" and "genes" for "pangene" and "pangenes". The word gene is completely free of any hypothesis ; it expresses only the established fact that in any case many traits of the organism are determined by specific, separable, and thus independent "conditions", "foundations", "plans" – in short, precisely what we want to call genes.) This term was coined in opposition to the then common pangene that stemmed from Darwin's theory of pangenesis. The book became one of the founding texts of genetics.

Also in 1905, Johannsen was appointed professor of plant physiology at the University of Copenhagen, becoming vice-chancellor in 1917. In December 1910, Johannsen was invited to give an address before the American Society of Naturalists. This talk was printed in the American Naturalist. In 1911, he was invited to give a series of four lectures at Columbia University.

Johannsen was a corresponding member of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia (elected 1915). He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1916.

title: Wilhelm Johannsen


text:
The Great Ziegfeld

The Great Ziegfeld is a 1936 American musical drama film directed by Robert Z. Leonard and produced by Hunt Stromberg. It stars William Powell as the theatrical impresario Florenz "Flo" Ziegfeld Jr., Luise Rainer as Anna Held, and Myrna Loy as Billie Burke.

The film, shot at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studios in Culver City, California in the fall of 1935, is a fictionalized and sanitized tribute to Florenz Ziegfeld Jr. and a cinematic adaptation of Broadway's Ziegfeld Follies, with highly elaborate costumes, dances and sets. Many of the performers of the theatrical Ziegfeld Follies were cast in the film as themselves, including Fanny Brice and Harriet Hoctor, and the real Billie Burke acted as a supervisor for the film. The "A Pretty Girl Is Like a Melody" set alone was reported to have cost US$220,000 (US$0 in dollars), featuring a towering rotating volute of 70 ft diameter with 175 spiral steps, weighing 100 tons. The music to the film was provided by Walter Donaldson, Irving Berlin, and lyricist Harold Adamson, with choreographed scenes. The extravagant costumes were designed by Adrian, taking some 250 tailors and seamstresses six months to prepare them using 50 lb of silver sequins and of white ostrich plumes. Over a thousand people were employed in the production of the film, which required 16 reels of film after the cutting.

One of the biggest successes in film in the 1930s and the pride of MGM at the time, it was acclaimed as the greatest musical biography to be made in Hollywood and still remains a standard in musical film making. It won three Academy Awards, including Best Picture for producer Hunt Stromberg, Best Actress for Luise Rainer, and Best Dance Direction for Seymour Felix, and was nominated for four others.

MGM made two more Ziegfeld films – one titled Ziegfeld Girl (1941), starring James Stewart, Judy Garland, Hedy Lamarr and Lana Turner, which recycled some footage from The Great Ziegfeld, and in 1946, Ziegfeld Follies by Vincente Minnelli. In 1951, the studio produced a Technicolor remake of Show Boat, which Ziegfeld had presented as a stage musical.

Plot
The son of a highly respected music professor, Florenz "Flo" Ziegfeld Jr. yearns to make his mark in show business. He begins by promoting Eugen Sandow, the "world's strongest man", at the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, overcoming the competition of rival Jack Billings and his popular attraction, belly dancer Little Egypt, with savvy marketing (allowing women to feel Sandow's muscles).

Ziegfeld returns to his father and young Mary Lou at the Chicago Musical College, and departs to San Francisco, where he and Sandow are deemed frauds for putting on a show in which Sandow faces a lion who falls asleep as soon as it is let out of the cage. Flo travels to England on an ocean liner, where he runs into Billings again who is laughing at a newspaper article denouncing him as a fraud.

Flo discovers that Billings is on his way to sign a contract with beautiful French star Anna Held. Despite losing all his money gambling at Monte Carlo, Flo charms Anna into signing with him instead, pretending that he doesn't know Billings. Anna twice almost sends him away for his rudeness and for being broke, before revealing that she appreciates his honesty. Ziegfeld promises to give her "more publicity than she ever dreams of" and to feature her alongside America's most prominent theatrical performers.

At first, Anna's performance at the Herald Square Theatre is not a success. However, Flo manages to generate publicity by sending 20 gallons of milk to Anna every day for a fictitious milk bath beauty treatment, then refusing to pay the bill. The newspaper stories soon bring the curious to pack his theater, and Ziegfeld introduces eight new performers to back her. Audience members comment on how the milk must make her skin beautiful and the show is a major success. Flo sends Anna flowers and jewelry and a note saying "you were magnificent my wife", and she agrees to marry him, flaunting her new diamonds to her fellow performers.

However, one success is not enough for the showman. He has an idea for an entirely new kind of show featuring a bevy of blondes and brunettes, one that will "glorify" the American girl. The new show, the Ziegfeld Follies, an opulent production filled with beautiful women and highly extravagant costumes and sets, is a smash hit, and is followed by more versions of the Follies.

Ziegfeld tries to make a star out of Audrey Dane, who is plagued with alcoholism, and he lures Fanny Brice from vaudeville, showering both with lavish gifts. He gives stagehand Ray Bolger his break as well. Mary Lou, now a young woman, visits Ziegfeld, who doesn't recognize her initially, and hires her as a dancer.

The new production upsets Anna, who realizes that Flo's world does not revolve around just her, and she becomes envious of the attention he pays to Audrey. She divorces him after walking in on Flo and a drunk Audrey at the wrong moment. Audrey walks out on Flo and the show after an angry confrontation. Broke, Flo borrows money from Billings for a third time for the new show.

Flo meets the red-headed Broadway star Billie Burke and soon marries her. When she hears the news, a heartbroken Anna telephones Flo and pretends to be glad for him. Flo and Billie eventually have a daughter named Patricia.

Flo's new shows are a success, but after a while, the public's taste changes, and people begin to wonder if the times have not passed him by. After a string of negative reviews in the press, Flo overhears three men in a barber's shop saying that he'll "never produce another hit". Stung, he vows to have four hits on Broadway at the same time.

He achieves his goal, with the hits Show Boat (1927), Rio Rita (1927), Whoopee! (1928), and The Three Musketeers, and invests over $1 million (US$0 in dollars) of his earnings in the stock market. However, the stock market crash of 1929 bankrupts him, forcing Billie to return to the stage.

Shaken by the reversal of his financial fortunes and the growing popularity of movies over live stage shows, he becomes seriously ill. Billings pays him a friendly visit, and the two men agree to become partners in a new, even grander production of The Ziegfeld Follies. But the reality is that both men are broke and Ziegfeld realizes this. In the final scene in his apartment overlooking the Ziegfeld Theatre, in a half-delirium, he recalls scenes from several of his hits, exclaiming, "I've got to have more steps, higher, higher", before dying in his chair.

Cast

 * William Powell as Florenz Ziegfeld Jr.
 * Myrna Loy as Billie Burke
 * Luise Rainer as Anna Held
 * Frank Morgan as Jack Billings
 * Fannie Brice as herself
 * Virginia Bruce as Audrey Dane
 * Reginald Owen as Sampson
 * Ray Bolger as himself
 * Ernest Cossart as Sidney
 * Joseph Cawthorn as Dr. Ziegfeld
 * Nat Pendleton as Sandow
 * Harriet Hoctor as herself
 * Jean Chatburn as Mary Lou
 * Robert Greig as Butler
 * Herman Bing as Costumer
 * Charles Judels as Pierre
 * Marcelle Corday as Marie
 * Raymond Walburn as Sage
 * A. A. Trimble as Will Rogers
 * Buddy Doyle as Eddie Cantor
 * Mae Questel as Rosie (uncredited)
 * William Demarest as Gene Buck (uncredited)
 * Edwin Maxwell as Charles Frohman (uncredited)
 * Charles Trowbridge as Julian Mitchell (uncredited)

Ziegfeld Girls (uncredited)

 * Wanda Allen
 * Lynn Bailey
 * Monica Bannister
 * Bonnie Bannon
 * Lynn Bari
 * Sheila Browning
 * Edna Callahan
 * Diane Cook
 * Pauline Craig
 * Hester Dean
 * Susan Fleming
 * Virginia Grey
 * Mary Halsey
 * Jeanne Hart
 * Patricia Havens-Monteagle
 * Marcia Healy
 * Mary Lange
 * Toni Lanier (Toni Mannix)
 * Margaret Lyman
 * Frances MacInerney
 * Julie Mooney
 * Pearlie Norton
 * Carlita Orr
 * Claire Owen
 * Wanda Perry
 * Evelyn Randolph
 * Pat Ryan
 * Georgia Spence
 * Venetia Varden
 * Dolly Verner

Production
Ziegfeld's widow, Billie Burke, was keen to pay off Ziegfeld's debts without filing for bankruptcy, and sold the rights to a biopic of him to Universal Pictures in late 1933. As a result, the film went into the pre-production phase in January 1934. In the early stages of script development, Burke was listed as coauthor with Macguire. Macguire had initially proposed the biographical film to them in the form of a "filmusical entertainment" set in a "theatrical tradition" and William Powell was cast as Ziegfeld. However, by February 1935, Macguire had fallen into disagreement with Universal over financial problems at the studio, and the entire production, including some already constructed sets and musical arrangements, was sold to MGM for US$300,000 (US$0 in dollars). As part of the deal however, Universal retained the services of Powell for the classic screwball comedy My Man Godfrey, which was released the same year as The Great Ziegfeld.

The film was shot at MGM Studios in Culver City, California mostly in the latter half of 1935 under a budget of US$1,500,000 (US$0 in dollars), produced by Hunt Stromberg. The cost exceeded US$2 million (US$0 in dollars) by the end of the production in early 1936, exorbitant for the period, and it was MGM's most expensive film to date after Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ (1925). The principal cinematography was shot by Oliver T. Marsh, and George J. Folsey and Karl Freund were brought in to shoot the Ziegfeld Roof numbers. Ray June shot the "Melody" number and Merritt B. Gerstad is credited for the Hoctor Ballet.

In the advertising for the film, MGM boasted of the film's ostentatious nature, bragging that it was "SO BIG that only MGM could handle it", with its "countless beauties, trained lions, ponies, dogs and other animals". Busby Berkeley, who had led Warner Brothers to become the leading producer of musicals in Hollywood in the 1930s, was a major influence on the producers which had "glamorous, excessive 1930s cinematic musical numbers". The film also came at a time when producers had begun seeing the economic and cultural importance of the cinematic medium in comparison to theater. Variety notes that the film producers were likely very concerned with the presentation of the film after production was wrapped up, and that the long length of the film at 176 minutes was understandable in that they probably "wanted to preserve as much footage as possible". William S. Gray was responsible for the editing of the film. Over a thousand people were employed in the production, and The Great Ziegfeld required 16 reels of film after the cutting.

By coincidence, Universal's 1936 film version of the Ziegfeld musical "Show Boat", the most faithful of all the film versions of the stage production, was filmed at the same time as The Great Ziegfeld and released in the same year.

Screenplay
The screenplay by William Anthony McGuire was a "novelty" to many audiences who were familiar with the theatrical Broadway shows of the follies. The script, although fictionalized with embellishments needed for the motion picture, did show some accuracies in the life of Ziegfeld. Frank S. Nugent of The New York Times said of the script: "What William Anthony McGuire has attempted in his screen play, and with general success, is to encompass not merely the fantastic personal history of Ziegfeld but the cross-sectional story of the development of the Follies, the Midnight Frolic on the New Amsterdam Roof and the other theatrical enterprises floated under the Glorifier's aegis during a span of about forty years. The two biographies—of the man and of his creations—are, naturally, inseparable; but both have been told with such wealth of detail and circumstance (real and imaginative) that even the three-hour film narrative is fragmentary and, in some places, confused."

Although it has some accuracies, The Great Ziegfeld takes many key liberties with Ziegfeld's life and the history of the Follies, resulting in many inaccuracies. The earlier scenes with Sandow, the milk bath advertising scenario, and many other sequences including several of the dramatic ups and downs of the film were fictional. George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue was never featured in the Follies, and the number "A Pretty Girl Is Like a Melody" was written for the 1919 Follies, not the first edition of the revue, as shown in the film. Ray Bolger was never cast in a "Follies" show, and although she was born in the U.S., Billie Burke grew up in England and spoke with a Mid-Atlantic accent throughout her life; Loy who portrays her clearly has an American accent in the film.

In the film, the last few lines of the song "Ol' Man River" (from Show Boat) are sung by what sounds like a tenor, while the song was intended for bass Paul Robeson and sung in the original production by bass-baritone Jules Bledsoe. Further, the screenplay also gives the impression that the successful original production of Show Boat, which Ziegfeld produced, closed because of the Great Depression. In fact Show Boat ended its original 1927 run in the spring of 1929 and the stock market crash did not occur until October of that year. It was the 1932 revival of the show (also produced by Ziegfeld shortly before his death), not the original production, that was affected by the Depression.

In real life, Ziegfeld did not die in his room at the Hotel Warwick (not mentioned) which stood in front of the Ziegfeld Theatre; he actually died in Los Angeles and had not even spent his last years in New York. However, McGuire did capture a number of Ziegfeld's traits, such as sending telegrams to people even in close proximity, his belief that elephants were a symbol of good luck, his exquisite taste in costumes and design, and perfectionism over his productions, especially lighting and rostrum pedestaling. McGuire's script, now in the Henry E. Huntington Library, San Marino, California, is dated September 21, 1935, probably the date when it was finalized.

Casting
Initially, the main cast proposed for the film included Marilyn Miller, Gilda Gray, Ann Pennington, and Leon Errol. Featured in the film are William Powell as Ziegfeld, Myrna Loy as Billie Burke, Luise Rainer as Anna Held, Nat Pendleton as Eugen Sandow, and Frank Morgan. Powell admitted to being "amazed" with the film after viewing it and was very grateful at having had the privilege to portray Ziegfeld, considering it to be a very important moment in his career. He said "After seeing this film I can see that most of the characters I have played before were contrived. They had no 'folks', as the character of Ziegfeld had in this picture. Their father was a pen and their mother was a bottle of ink. Here was a character with flesh, blood and sinews. I felt for the first time in my acting career I had tried the full measure of a man, regardless of my shortcomings in playing him."

Many of the performers of the earlier Broadway version of the Ziegfeld Follies were cast in the film as themselves, including Fanny Brice and Harriet Hoctor, the ballet dancer and contortionist. The Great Ziegfeld marked Rainer's second Hollywood film role after Escapade (also with Powell). Fanny Brice appears as a comedian in the abridged song sequence "My Man" and played an effective version of herself in addition to her routine comic role as the funny girl. Nat Pendleton, a freestyle wrestler who had won the silver medal at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp and had appeared alongside Powell in The Thin Man (1934), was cast as the circus strongman Eugen Sandow.

Billie Burke objected to her role being cast with another actress (Myrna Loy) since she was also an actress under contract to the studio and could play herself, but the producers concluded that at that point she was not a big enough star to play herself in The Great Ziegfeld. However, according to Emily W. Leider, Burke was not keen on playing her younger self and says that Billie Burke's biographer stated that Miriam Hopkins would have been her first choice to play her part, not Loy. Burke herself worked as technical consultant, and although she did not object to Marilyn Miller performing a number, she was influential in the studio's refusal to give her the higher billing and salary she had demanded, which led to Miller walking away from the film.

Both Miller and Lillian Lorraine threatened legal action if their names were so much as mentioned in the film. Thus Miller's character was renamed Sally Manners, and Lorraine's character was renamed Audrey Dane (played by Virginia Bruce). In real life, Ziegfeld reportedly was obsessed with Miller, and was involved in numerous sex scandals. In 1922, Miller had given an interview in which she accused him of "making love to chorus girls" and sending her a diamond ring as "big as her hand"; this essence of Ziegfeld's character is captured in the film. Incidentally, Miller died from toxicity complications after surgery just before the release of the film on April 7, 1936, which led one reviewer writing in Liberty to denounce an urban legend which had arisen surrounding the timing of her death, writing "It's not true that Marilyn Miller died of a broken heart at not getting the lead in this." Another myth surrounding her untimely death at the age of 37 is that she had contracted syphilis.

Frank Morgan, a stage and film character actor, played the role of promoter Billings in the film. Dennis Morgan, in an uncredited role, performs in "A Pretty Girl Is Like a Melody" (dubbed by Allan Jones). Pat Ryan, the future Pat Nixon, wife of Richard Nixon and First Lady of the United States, was an extra in the film. Will Rogers was to appear in the film, but he was killed in a plane crash in August 1935. He was played by stand-in A.A. Trimble.

Costumes
The extravagant costumes, which even Ziegfeld initially considered too flamboyant, were designed by Adrian, who had worked with many of the greatest actresses of the period, including Greta Garbo, Norma Shearer, Jeanette MacDonald, Jean Harlow, Katharine Hepburn and Joan Crawford, and later designed for films such as Marie Antoinette (1938), The Women (1939), and The Wizard of Oz (1939). Howard Gutner documents that due to MGM's wealth and the high budget, Adrian indulged in "sheer lavishness" in making the costumes, surpassing anything he had done previously. It took 250 tailors and seamstresses six months to sew the costumes that Adrian had designed for the film, using 50 lb of silver sequins and 12 yd of white ostrich plumes. The costumes worn by women in the film are diverse, varying from "puffy hooped skirts to catlike leotards" to "layers of tulle and chiffron", with the men mostly wearing black tuxedos.

Mise en scène and music
Leonard, a film director who specialized in melodrama and musicals, anchored the music for the film, working with Walter Donaldson, Irving Berlin, and lyricist Harold Adamson. The extravagant dances and ensemble sequences were choreographed by Seymour Felix and Harold Adamson, including the song sequence of "A Pretty Girl Is Like a Melody" (it was Irving Berlin's 13th annual edition in 1919). The "A Pretty Girl Is Like a Melody" set, known as the "Wedding Cake", involved several weeks of shooting time and was reported to have cost US$220,000 (US$0 in dollars). As many as 180 performers were involved in the scenes which included singers, dancers and musicians. The sequence starts with Stanley Morner (soon to be known as Dennis Morgan) alone in front of the curtain, apparently singing “A Pretty Girl…” Apparently because, although he was an excellent singer “the song had previously been recorded by Allan Jones, another M-G-M contract player, and the studio apparently decided not to re-record the number.” After he sings the entire first verse and refrain, the front curtain begins to pull away and the stage begins to rotate, revealing people in 18th century costumes. The chorus continues to sing as the stage rotates through excerpts from romantic musical history, eventually reaching “Rhapsody in Blue” and an elaborate dance number. Then Morgan re-appears, standing among a crowd of pretty girls who are seated on the stairs. As he finishes the song, Virginia Bruce is revealed seated atop the tower, wearing a voluminous gown that spills over the edge. She faces front as the tower continues to turn. The camera pulls back to show the entire structure, and the satin curtain descends, enclosing each level in turn until the stage curtain closes.

The curtains, made of rayon silk, measured 4300 yd. Sheldon Hall and Stephen Neale note the theatrical sense that the cinematographers achieved through shooting the sequence in virtually a single take. They mention that "the camera traverses an enormous platform set contained within a curtained proscenium (also enormous)", and that the "set itself revolves to meet the camera, rather than the camera entering the space of the set." Linda Mizejewski, author of a book on the Ziegfeld girls, argues that the Pretty Girl sequence is more than just about being showy; it is symbolic of womanhood which "powerfully visualizes women as the raw material for male aesthetic vision and design". In the film she believes that womanhood is defined by the "young, white, blond and slender" female, which in the sequence are "delineated as the fluffy, artificial tiers of costuming and staging".

The Harriet Hoctor ballet music was scored by Con Conrad to lyrics written by Herb Magidson. The circus ballet was an adaptation from the old Ziegfeld stage shows. Variety called the Hoctor ballet "in itself intricate with its maneuverings of six Russian wolfhounds in terp formations", and said that the "A Pretty Girl Is Like a Melody" sequence in the film is a "nifty Berlin tune [which] becomes the fulcrum for one of Frank Skinner's best arrangements as Arthur Lange batons the crescendos into a mad, glittering potpourri of Saint-Saëns and Gershwin, Strauss and Verdi, beautifully blended against the Berlinesque background. It's a scenic flash which makes the auditor wonder 'What can they do to follow that?' meaning in this or future film production." Juan Antonio Ramírez refers to the wedding cake as a "famous spiral column", citing it as one of the best known pieces of mobile architecture in film, but notes that in design the cake was not exclusive to The Great Ziegfeld, explaining that a wedding cake, albeit less flamboyant, had appeared in previous films such as King of Jazz (1930), The Kid from Spain (1932), Top Hat (1935), and Follow the Fleet (1936). Ramírez describes the film's Mise en scène as representing "the last word in flashy vulgarity, Surrealist kitsch, or perhaps both at once".

 * Selected songs

Finale:
 * 1) "Won't You Come and Play With Me" by Anna Held
 * 2) "It's Delightful to Be Married" by Vincent Scotto–Anna Held
 * 3) "If You Knew Susie" by Buddy G. DeSylva–Joseph Meyer
 * 4) "Shine On, Harvest Moon" by Nora Bayes–Jack Norworth
 * 5) "A Pretty Girl Is Like a Melody" by Irving Berlin
 * 6) "You Gotta Pull Strings"
 * 7) "She's a Follies Girl"
 * 8) "You" by Walter Donaldson–Harold Adamson
 * 9) "You Never Looked So Beautiful" by Walter Donaldson-Harold Adamson
 * 10) "Yiddle on Your Fiddle" by Irving Berlin
 * 11) "Mon homme" ("My Man") by Maurice Yvain, Jacques Charles–Albert Willemetz
 * 12) "Queen of the Jungle" by Walter Donaldson-Harold Adamson
 * 13) "Harriet Hoctor Ballet" (also known as "A Circus Must Be Different in a Ziegfeld Show") by Con Conrad–Herb Magidson
 * 1) "March of the Musketeers" from "The Three Musketeers" (Rudolf Friml)
 * 2) "Ol’ Man River" from "Showboat" (Jerome Kern)
 * 3) "Making Whoopee" from "Whoopee!" (Walter Donaldson–Gus Kahn)
 * 4) "Rio Rita" (Harry Tierney–Joseph McCarthy)
 * 5) Look for the Silver Lining" from "Sally" (Jerome Kern)

Aftermath
Farida Mazar filed a lawsuit against the filmmakers shortly before her death, claiming that they "presented Little Egypt as a lewd character". 14 witnesses who had seen the act at the 1893 Chicago World Fair supported this, although the lawsuit was dropped after Mahzar died from a heart attack. Burke caused much controversy and upset among many of Ziegfeld's friends and colleagues when she sold the rights to a production on Broadway, the Ziegfeld Follies, also starring Fanny Brice, at the time the film was released in 1936, due to the fact that the show was produced by the Shubert brothers, whom Ziegfeld detested. Worse still for his associates, was that the show was a bigger success than Ziegfeld's last production of the Follies in 1931. The Ziegfeld Follies under Vincente Minnelli initially was performed in December 1935 before making its Broadway debut on January 30, 1936. It was performed in Boston and Philadelphia until the production was postponed after Brice collapsed on stage with exhaustion. When it reopened on Broadway in September 1936, five months after the release of the film, it was retitled The New Ziegfeld Follies of 1936–1937, and was revamped considerably, with changes to the show's humor.

In 1941, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer produced a sequel titled Ziegfeld Girl, starring James Stewart, Judy Garland, Hedy Lamarr, and Lana Turner, which recycled some film from The Great Ziegfeld. In 1946, MGM made another sequel, Ziegfeld Follies, directed by Vincente Minnelli, director of the stage show.

Box office
According to MGM records, the film earned a then-massive $3,089,000 in the US and Canada and $1,584,000 elsewhere resulting in a profit of $822,000.

It was the 5th most popular film at the British box office in 1935–36.

Critical response at the time of release
The film, which premiered in Los Angeles at the Carthay Circle Theatre, was the first musical film in history for which one of its cast members won an Academy Award. Luise Rainer received the Best Actress Oscar for her portrayal of Anna Held, Ziegfeld's first wife. The film, the pride of MGM at a time when Warner Brothers and RKO Pictures were the leading studios in Hollywood for musical production, was a major commercial and critical success and one of the most successful films of the 1930s, grossing US$4,673,000 (US$0 in dollars) worldwide at the box office. It was acclaimed upon release as the greatest musical biography to be made in Hollywood and still remains a standard in musical film making. At just over three hours, The Great Ziegfeld was also the longest talking film of the time. (D.W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation and Intolerance, both silent films, had each run over three hours.) TCM has acclaimed the "A Pretty Girl Is Like a Melody" sequence as one of "the most famous musical numbers ever filmed". Thomas S. Hischak has said that the film has rarely been topped for pure showmanship and glamor, and Variety considered it an "outstanding picture", a "symbol of a tradition of show business". Variety praised the performances of the cast, remarking that as Ziegfeld, William Powell "endows the impersonation with all the qualities of a great entrepreneur and sentimentalist without sacrificing the shades and moods called for" and noting that Luise Rainer is "tops of the femmes with her vivacious Anna Held". Stanley Green cited The Great Ziegfeld as "the first of a number of elaborate show-business screen biographies". Otis Ferguson, writing for New Republic magazine, remarked that the "musical numbers seem as irresistible as Ziegfeld himself". The New York American said that the film is "pretty nearly everything such an extravaganza should be", with "romance and reality, song and dance, gaiety and beauty, pathos and bathos". Time qualified it as "Pretentious, packed with hokum and as richly sentimental as an Irving Berlin lyric, it is, as such, top-notch entertainment." A reviewer for the Spokane Chronicle praised the film for its superb acting, writing that "[even] the great producer [Ziegfeld] would have been unable to produce scenes of magnitude and splendor that are given as part of the picture telling his life." Frank S. Nugent of The New York Times was also highly praising of the film, noting that it had "more stars than there are in the heavens" and remarking that "the picture achieves its best moments in the larger sequences devoted to the Girls — ballet, chorus and show. At least one of these spectacular numbers, filmed to the music of Irving Berlin's 'A Pretty Girl Is Like a Melody', with overtones of 'Rhapsody in Blue', never has been equaled on the musical comedy stage or screen." John Mosher of The New Yorker called it "the most lavish display the screen has had to offer" with chorus numbers that were "gigantic and effective", though he found the romance to be "peculiarly average screen-story stuff." Both The New York Times and Film Daily rated the film in the "Ten Best" of the year.

However, not all critics were as enthusiastic about the film; Graham Greene of the British Spectator called it a "huge inflated gas-blown object" and criticized its length, comparing it to the feat of a flagpole sitter. A number of critics, although praising the film in general, felt that Myrna Loy, who appears rather late on in the film, gave a lackluster performance as Billie Burke. Nugent said that "Miss Loy is a stately Bille Burke, and somewhat lacking, we fear, in Miss Burke's effervescence and gaiety", and Cecilia Agner thought she came across as "stilted, like her rigidly waxed and set blonde wig". Harrison Carroll of the Los Angeles Herald-Express, however, sympathized with the difficulty of her role in portraying a prominent living actress, confessing that he was pleased that Loy did not attempt to imitate Burke's mannerisms. Emily W. Leider believes that any of her character flaws were due to a "mushy" script, rather than her performance as an actress.

Critical re-evaluation
Although the film is still viewed as a symbol of glamour and excess during the Golden Age of Hollywood, the film's contemporary reception is mixed. Since its release, the film has been criticized in particular for its reliance on extravagance, being unnecessarily lengthy, and its overacting (particularly by Rainer). Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports a 71% approval rating based on 70 reviews, with a weighted average of 6.2/10. The site's consensus reads: "This biopic is undeniably stylish, but loses points for excessive length, an overreliance on clichés, and historical inaccuracies". On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 69 out of 100 based on 16 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".

Christopher Null stated that The Great Ziegfeld is a "textbook case of how a film can lose its appeal over the years". The film is occasionally cited as a "prime example of the Academy's fallibility" in a year when other critically acclaimed pictures such as Mr. Deeds Goes to Town were released, which some argue was more deserving of Best Picture.

Emily W. Leider claims the film to be "more remarkable for its "legs and tinsel" extravagance than for its excellence." David Parkinson of Empire gave the film three out of five stars and concluded that it "Drags in places and doesn't even try for a true-to-life portrait of the great theatre entrepreneur but it's shiny and big spectacle with impressive choreography."

Dave Kehr of the Chicago Reader called it "amazingly dull, even with William Powell in the lead and guest appearances by the likes of Ray Bolger and Fanny Brice." Emanuel Levy gave it a C grade and stated that it was "overlong and overblown but ultimately mediocre as a musical movie and as a biopic of the legendary showman."

James Berardinelli awarded it two and a half out of four stars, stating that "although some of the production's technical aspects remain impressive, the dramatic elements come across as trite and many of the musical numbers are dated", but said that it was a "reasonably competent – albeit "airbrushed" – presentation of the main character's life."

Accolades
The seven Academy Award nominations were announced on February 7, 1937, and on March 4, 1937, The Great Ziegfeld won three Oscars at the 9th Academy Awards for 1936:

Although he was not nominated for an Academy Award for his performance, Powell did receive the Screen Actor's Guild award for Best Actor in a tie with C. Aubrey Smith who was in Little Lord Fauntleroy. In addition, the Guild's Best Actress was given to Luise Rainer.

title: The Great Ziegfeld


text:
Gosnells

The name Gosnells may refer to:

Places

 * City of Gosnells, a local government area in Western Australia
 * Gosnells, Western Australia, a suburb located 20 km south-southeast of Perth

Other uses

 * Electoral district of Gosnells, represented in the Western Australian Legislative Assembly
 * Gosnells railway station, Perth, located on the Armadale railway line

title: Gosnells


text:
Erotic spanking

Erotic spanking is the act of spanking another person for the sexual arousal or gratification of either or both parties. The intensity of the act can vary in both its duration and severity, and may include the use of one or more spanking implements (such as the wooden spoon or cane). Activities range from a spontaneous smack on bare buttocks during sexual activity to sexual roleplaying, such as ageplay or domestic discipline. Erotic spanking is often found within and associated with BDSM, however the activity is not exclusive to it. The term spankee is commonly used within erotic spanking to refer to the individual receiving a spanking.

Pre 19th century
One of the earliest depictions of erotic spanking is found in the Etruscan Tomb of the Whipping from the fifth century BC.

Early sex manuals such as the Indian Kama Sutra (circa 400 BC), Indian Koka Shastra (ca. 1150 AD) and Arabic The Perfumed Garden (ca. 1400 AD) have among their recommendations the use of spanking to enhance sexual arousal.

19th century
An increase in interest in erotic spanking can be observed during the 19th century in the form of spanking literature and spanking photography, particularly in France and the United Kingdom. Numerous limited edition spanking novels were published, many of which are now classified as novellas.

Early 20th century
This interest for spanking (both in regards to literature and photography) followed into the next century, with the early 20th century being considered the "Golden Age" of spanking literature. This period of spanking literature is marked by three notable characteristics. First, greater audiences were reached with the availability of less expensive editions and greater print runs. Second, many of the spanking novels contained numerous illustrations (many of which have fallen under public domain and are easily available online). Third, this period saw a gradual increase in the output and publication of spanking literature, growing particularly within the 1920s and peaking within the 1930s. Much of the output of spanking literature during this period was by French publishers, writers and illustrators. For example, Jules Malteste, known as Louis Malteste (1862–1928) was a French writer, painter, engraver, lithographer, draughtsman, and illustrator, commonly known for his depictions of spanking. Similarly, within the context of spanking photography, France was also the home to the creation of much content, with the most notable studios being the Biederer Studio and the Ostra Studio. This "Golden Age" of spanking literature (and French spanking photography) came to an end as a result of the Second World War, more specifically due to the German occupation of France between 1940 and 1944 and later the enforcement of censorship laws. A somewhat notable exception to the decline of spanking literature during this period was John Willie's bondage Bizarre magazine (published between 1946 and 1959).

Of the many French works from the "Golden Age" few at the time were translated into other languages within which spanking literature was popular, namely English and German, but beginning during the mid-1960s a number of these French works were translated into English and published, along with these works being republished in French and older British works also being republished. The occurrence of this was facilitated by the availability of mass-produced paperbacks and changes in censorship laws.

Late 20th century
During the latter half of the 20th century changes in both censorship laws and improvements within technology enabled greater accessibility for those interested in obtaining content related to erotic spanking.

As an extension of the earlier developments within spanking literature and photography, during this period various fetish magazines devoted to stories and imagery of erotic spanking became legally available.

This period also saw an important development in both the production and consumer accessibility of erotic spanking films. Whilst recordings of erotic spanking had been produced as early as the 1920s, until the 1980s technology limited the quality of their recording and the ability for consumers to easily watch them. In addition to changes in censorship laws, the introduction of the videocassette recorder enabled creators to produce and distribute erotic spanking films that were far easier for consumers to both obtain and watch.

21st century
The proliferation of the internet has enabled individuals, of various level of pre-existing interest and/or knowledge, more ease then ever to explore and consume content relating to erotic spanking.

Partially developing from earlier erotic spanking magazine and video producers, numerous pornographic websites (primary American or British based) within the 21st century are devoted to producing spanking films of various lengths and about various scenarios.

The internet has also resulted in the creation of various blogs which discuss the topic of erotic spanking and non-profit websites which publish erotic spanking stories.

Implements
Whilst a spanking may be simply given with the palm of the hand, the use of spanking implements is common within erotic spanking. Spanking implements which are commonly used within erotic spanking are a reflection of the traditional spanking implements that were/are used in corporal punishment more broadly. Common and traditional spanking implements include those which have been specifically manufactured for such purpose (i.e. the cane, paddle, strap, tawse and martinet),(bathbrush) and those which have been adapted/improvised from available items (such as the slipper, wooden spoon, hairbrush, carpet beater, riding crop, switch and birch). Other less common and atypical spanking implements include the (handle of a) feather duster (common, however, in China), fly swatter and stinging nettles.

Some spanking implements can be characterised as being either 'stingy' or 'thuddy'. Stingy implements (such as a cane) produce a sharp and quick burning sensation which is mostly felt on the skin. Thuddy implements (such as a paddle), in contrast, whilst not producing a stinging sensation penetrate deeper into tissue of the buttocks. As a general rule, the heavier a spanking implement is the greater thud it will produce. A person receiving an erotic spanking may have a preference for either a stingy or thuddy sensation.

Safety
For safety, during a spanking, particularly with spanking implements, care should be taken to avoid striking the tailbone and hipbones.

Apparatuses
Erotic spanking can include the use of apparatuses, both those which are adapted/improvised and those which are specifically created for such use.

The use of adapted/improvised apparatuses within erotic spanking derives from how such apparatuses were used in non-erotic spanking. The gymnastic vaulting-buck (which sees the receiver of the spanking bent-over it) was often employed during non-erotic school slipperings and canings; consequently erotic spanking, particularly that which involves school roleplay, may incorporate use of a vaulting-buck.

A spanking bench or spanking horse is a piece of erotic furniture explicitly created for erotic spanking. It is used to position a spankee on, with or without restraints. They come in many sizes and styles, the most popular design of which is similar to a sawhorse (used in woodworking) with a padded top and rings for restraints. The 19th-century British dominatrix Mrs. Theresa Berkley became famous for her invention of the Berkley Horse, a similar form of BDSM apparatus.

Fetish wear
Often erotic spanking will be combined with sexual roleplay which may see one or more party dress-up in certain clothing, for example a female spankee wearing a schoolgirl uniform in a Teacher – Student scenario.

A spank skirt or spanking skirt is a skirt that has an additional opening in back designed to expose the buttocks. While the name spank skirt suggests the intention that the wearer be spanked "bare bottom" without removing or repositioning the skirt, this item may be worn for reasons other than spanking (for instance, exposure). Considered fetish wear, these kind of skirts are typically tight-fitting and made of fetishistic materials (such as leather, PVC or latex). Regardless of the gender of the wearer, spank skirts are usually considered female attire. The male gender role equivalent might be motorcycle chaps (a.k.a. "assless chaps").

Self-spanking
Self-spanking is the practice in which the individual spanks themselves, thus making the spankee and the spanker one and the same. This can occur for a number of reasons: the individual is experimenting with spanking; the individual may lack someone (who is willing and the spankee is comfortable with doing so) to give them a spanking; the individual spank themselves during masturbation; the individual is a submissive in a BDSM relationship and is self-spanking on orders of the dominant partner.

Psychology and prevalence
A number of explanations have been put forward to account why an individual may enjoy erotic spanking, although there is almost certainly no universal explanation. Interest and gratification in spanking varies per the individual: an individual may gain gratification in spanking another and gain no gratification in being spanked themself; an individual may gain gratification in being spanked and gain no gratification in spanking another; an individual may gain gratification in both spanking another and being spanked themself.

A scientific survey of 152 people who claimed to practice sadomasochism — of which spanking is a subset — categorised the origin of such interest to be either extrinsic (i.e. the interest originating from a source external to the person) or intrinsic (i.e. emerged naturally). 22% of those surveyed reported origins that were categorised by researchers as extrinsic, such as parental discipline or being introduced to sadomasochism in adulthood by another. In contrast, 78% reported intrinsically having such an interest. Most commonly an intrinsic interest was reported to have emerged in either childhood or adolescence (though at such age the interest was not necessarily sexualised); a small sub-group reported that only in adulthood did they accept or acknowledge what they now recognise to be an intrinsic interest. The majority of those that reported an intrinsic interest were unable to explain the origin of such interest.

From the same scientific survey as above, a third of testimonies reported enjoying receiving pain as to why they practiced sadomasochism; researchers noted that practitioners commonly stressed the difference between "bad" and "good" pain. Interpersonal power (either through giving or exchanging power) was also a commonly reported reason as to why people practice sadomasochism, and researchers noted that this taking place with a trusted partner was a recurring specified need.

Journalist Jillian Keenan has argued that spanking fetishism is a form of sexual orientation, which should not be considered a mental illness. Whilst there has been an increasing ability to talk openly about erotic spanking within mainstream society, individuals may still find it difficult to express that they have an interest in erotic spanking.

title: Erotic spanking


text:
Talk:Erotic spanking

Comment
When in an article on erotic spanking four out of five illustrations are of women being spanked/dominated, and the only one of a man is a drawing, not a photo, one wonders to what extent this kind of pseudo-encyploaedic presentation is actually reiterating the idea that women should be dominated, and encouraging domestic violence.

Bring the number of subs in accordance with reality = reverse it: 4 men and 1 woman as a sub in spanking play.

Is this topic worthy of a seperate article, or is it adequately covered in BDSM? --Robert Merkel

LOL, only in wikipedia can we find authoritative articles on topics such as this. (Dan (talk) 01:12, 26 April 2008 (UTC))

spank
spanking is normal dudes... nothing weird about it, its not even a fetish. Dont believe me? Hit your girl on her butt when you are having sex and see for yourself. Afraid to do that? Rent a porn movie, chances are pretty big that someone is getting spanked in it. 82.92.111.48 16:36, 13 May 2006 (UTC)

There now is an article, see Erotic_spanking --145.254.75.239 23:54, 26 Jan 2004 (UTC)

This topic is worthy of a seperate article, since 'spankos' often do not find themselves practising a form of BDSM. This is at least an indication that BDSM and erotic spanking are more loosely related than is assumed.

Younger men who have a fetish for being spanked by older men
I was wondering what anyone thought about young people who want to get spanked normally by someone who also has a fetish to spank younger guys. Role-play is normally engaged in such encounters involving an authority figure like a headmaster, uncle, grandfather, priest. Does a guy that has a fetish for spanking or being spanked by another man have to be homosexuality?

Good question. I would say perhaps not.

Some people might get off on just being spanked by anyone or anything. If you fell into a mixing vat and got paddled and liked it. The pain is the point of arousal not the gender.

Some people might get off on just being able to control or be controlled. Not really about gender but on the acceptance or rejection of control. Childhood and innocence regained. Empowerment. Anything that would releave a hang up or provide an ego boost would be bound to stimulate sexual impulse.

I think another question you have to ask is how much the other person is involved in erotic spanking/ sm. Are you really having a sexual encounter with your self and your own ideals/ issues? Are there any feelings for the other person involved? Are you truly getting off on seeing, touching the anatomy? Or are you really just getting yourself off.

I dunno if there is an erotic element in fraternity hazing with a paddle or jocks swatting each others butts on the field and so on. Men showing affection, erotic or otherwise, with other men has always been tricky.

rofl, not a single person signed their comments on this page.

Over the shoulder spanking.
I was just going to ask,is it possible for the spanker to hoist his or her spankee over one shoulder,and then spank him or her with his/her free hand? if it's possible,chances are it's been done before. added to article.
 * which goes some way to explaining why large parts of this read as if they have been made up. it has been.  have removed over shoulder comment as pure fiction. raining girl 18:28, 20 November 2006 (UTC)

Spankable nurse
User:Mdwh removed a link I added here and called it spam. The link was to a free program, created with opensource software and was a perfect illustration for this article's topic. In what universe is that considered spam? see http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erotic_spanking&diff=81637194&oldid=81636998

 * If the topic were interactive 3D spanking programs then it would be appropriate. The link doesn't inform readers in any significant way about the phenomenon of erotic spanking. -Will Beback 21:32, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Ok, I see where you're coming from and respect your opinion. On the other hand, the link does illustrate the article's topic really well and it isn't spam. I feel the link is an excellent addition.

 * Okay, it's not commercial spam, but I was using spam in the looser "advertising" sense which you posted to a couple of articles. I'm not sure what this link would add to the article (see External links) - surely a 2D image (which we already have) is far more accessible and easier as an illustration than someone having to download a 3D model? Mdwh 21:50, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

this article is erotic fiction in itself
large parts of this article read as they have been made up - especially all the non-erotic play stuff - paddles hung on children's walls? C'mon. This is an encyclopaedia. If no-one objects I am going to prune this back severely. raining girl 18:30, 20 November 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree with you -- well said. Problems with items of fact, as well as word choices that say something very different than what the author probably intended, e.g., "spanking is a reflex, like sitting down or making dinner." [User:NicoSuave] 23 November 2006

I have edited out a great deal of that. It still needs alot more editing, and citations to make it a reference rather than opinion. Atom 12:47, 4 January 2007 (UTC)

Speedy deletion
I've removed the previous speedy deletion notice that was put up by a someone who was not an administrator. While the article might be considered for deletion, it should be done in accordance with proper Wiki policies. Zotdragon 20:34, 3 January 2007 (UTC)

Errrm, you do not have to be an admin to nominate an article for speedy deletion. Only an admin can actually carry out the deletion, but anyone can request it. See WP:SPEEDY for more information.--NeoNerd 20:28, 6 May 2007 (UTC)

Great site for info on erotic spanking
Master The Art Of Erotic Spanking

This website goes through some of the biological and psychological reasons for woman (or men) to become sexually stimulated from the act of spanking. Really this is an overall better overview of the fetish, in my opinion, than the wikipedia article. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 68.79.11.112 (talk) 02:54, 18 March 2007 (UTC).

Miss Martindale nominated for deletion
The article on Miss Martindale has been nominated for deletion. Interested parties are encouraged to weigh in with a vote at Articles_for_deletion/Miss_Martindale. Thank you! Joie de Vivre 22:43, 21 May 2007 (UTC)

Title
Shouldn't this article be titled "Erotic flagellation" or something similar?-Wafulz (talk) 17:36, 27 December 2007 (UTC)

 * I've moved the article. If you have any objections, feel free to voice them.-Wafulz (talk) 05:33, 9 January 2008 (UTC)
 * Actually strike that, I'm second-guessing myself, so I'll give it some more time.-Wafulz (talk) 05:37, 9 January 2008 (UTC)

Marginally relevant image
I removed Image:spank2.jpg which had the caption "Erotic spanking can sometimes go hand in hand with other paraphilia, such as for erotic clothes or erotic humiliation." An image of something which isn't actually erotic spanking but might be associated with it seems to me to add little to this article. Kenilworth Terrace (talk) 21:27, 27 June 2010 (UTC)

Terminology
I don't see the need for a section on terminology -- that should be in Wiktionary. The explanation of some terms could conveniently be integrated into the article: the others probably don't belong. Kenilworth Terrace (talk) 17:36, 14 August 2010 (UTC)

 * If you could find a way to implement the remaining terms into the article effectively then I would be fine with removing the terminology section. If not I might add the term figging to terminology(since I don't know where else to put it).Wikiposter0123 (talk) 19:05, 16 August 2010 (UTC)

Victorian novels
I find it impossible to verify "Wezzellian Behaviors" or "Yerbouti Ermine" as Victorian spanking literature. Kenilworth Terrace (talk) 16:46, 16 August 2010 (UTC)

is spanking considered legal?
I've been trying for the longest to find out some legal questions about adult spanking. mainly, is it leagal. If Hooters is legal, and ultimate fighting is legal, then why not spanking? Can I call it ultimate fighting and then have it be legal. If anyone knows the answer, please hit me up. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Sgeeray (talk • contribs) 03:27, 14 September 2010 (UTC)

 * yes it is most certainly legal. Unless you accidently kill or mutilate someone (not a common event), theres nothing even sort of illegal (So long that its consentual). By the way, you wasted a lot of time since of course, it isnt illegal at all. so everything you asked after the second sentence was a waste of time. Please don't ask questions with what you clearly think is the answer on talk pages. Its stupid for a lot of reasons. 74.132.249.206 (talk) 22:05, 19 August 2011 (UTC)

Removal of notable people
Is there a policy or reason for the removal of this information? The comment said no need for British scandals, but this wasn't trying to portray them as being scandals, but notable people who practiced this.--AerobicFox (talk) 23:59, 12 January 2011 (UTC)

 * This is an article about erotic spanking in an international reference work. How does it help the reader gain a knowledge of erotic spanking to name-check a bunch of minor British celebrities who were caught up in scandals? What does the fact that Harvey Proctor (who most readers will not have heard of) liked to spank young boys? The material is simply not relevant here.--Scott Mac 00:57, 13 January 2011 (UTC)
 * Tend to agree with Scott here; it's tabloid trivia. -- JN 466  05:33, 13 January 2011 (UTC)

The inclusion of a military hero, sports announcer, English critic, screenwriter, and a conservative member of Parliament all help to illustrate that the predisposition for erotic spanking occurs within a multitude of social groups within society, as well as illustrate that it is not as rare as the reader may believe.

As for the exclusion of trivia from Wikipedia; it is usually to prevent the accumulation of long lists of random information that could better be inserted into the article. All this information is only present in one sentence though, and as stated by WP:TRIVIA: A trivia section is one that contains a disorganized and "unselective" list. However, a selectively populated list with a relatively narrow theme is not necessarily trivia, and can be the best way to present some types of information. Also, the term "minor British celebrities" is a bit inappropriate considering the people listed. Lawrence of Arabia is a near legendary figure in military history, and the film made after him is considered the 4th greatest film of all time by the American Film Institute, and any military history buff, or British person, or film buff should instantly recognize his name. Frank Bough used to have high visibility when he was on TV. The others are similarly recognized within their perspective fields as well.

Perhaps some representation from some outside of Britain would help add to it, or a sentence explaining why they are being listed to make it seem less trivial, but the inclusion of this information I feel enhances the article.--AerobicFox (talk) 08:09, 13 January 2011 (UTC)

 * A preference for spanking is similar to any other sexual preference involving consenting adults. Like other sexual preferences, we should only attribute it people who have self-identified has having that proclivity. So if someone has written a memoir in which they discuss it, then I don't see any problem with listing their name here, even if the people are only barely notable enough for a Wikipedia biography. But if it's only surmised or inferred by a by a pop biographer then it's probably not appropriate to include.   Will Beback    talk    08:28, 13 January 2011 (UTC)
 * Agreed. I believed the biography of T.E. Lawrence to be legitimate since it is entitled "The Authorized Biography of T. E. Lawrence", but I did not check the others. If any seem suspect we should remove them as mentioning that there is speculation they may have enjoyed erotic spanking would not add much to the article especially considering there are plenty of notable people that are open about it, or that there is clear evidence of it. --AerobicFox (talk) 08:32, 13 January 2011 (UTC)
 * Do any of the sources list notable examples of practitioners? Or aren't there perhaps sexual surveys commenting on its prevalence? Citing such a source might be a better approach than compiling a list from disparate sources. By the way, I feel this article has too many illustrations relative to the amount of text. Two or three images and a Commons link to the rest would do just as well. -- JN 466  16:04, 13 January 2011 (UTC)
 * Most surveys on this typically deal with BDSM activities in general, and do not specifically survey erotic spanking. I havn't checked the sources for a list of notable practioners yet, but I will look into finding such a list. Agreed there are currently too many images especially since they are all bunched up. I have removed and reorganized some. --AerobicFox (talk) 07:00, 14 January 2011 (UTC)
 * There's no requirement that lists in articles have appeared previously in sources. That's true for stand-alone lists. I agree that few illustrations are necessary.   Will Beback    talk    07:05, 14 January 2011 (UTC)

Where are the photos of men being spanked?
Why is it always photos of women who are nude or sexually involved in photos on Wikipedia? Are the WikiProject Pornography patrol squeamish about photos of men? 69.125.134.86 (talk) 01:43, 31 July 2013 (UTC)

Images
Why is it necessary for this article to ignore the gneral rule: "As a general rule, images should not be set to a larger fixed size than the 220px default (users can adjust this in their preferences)."--Felix Folio Secundus (talk) 19:11, 17 October 2013 (UTC)

s/p
Say if "s/p" means. Jidanni (talk) 12:33, 30 November 2013 (UTC)

Hard/heavy vs soff/light erotic spanking
It seems to me that among those that like to be spanked, they differ as to how hard they like their spankings. In some cases, they may prefer lighter spankings that what you would expect if you were a kid receiving a spanking as punishment. I believe this is something that people who practice erotic spanking between each other discuss beforehand, just as with any other form of S&M practice. Shouldn't this sort of info be included in the article? --50.152.139.176 (talk) 09:47, 4 November 2014 (UTC)

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Spanking positions
I have added a refimprove tag to the Spanking positions section. The section has no references at all and is the section even needed in the first place? I would just delete it but I would also see others' thoughts on it too. Sirkablaam Talk 11:16, 20 February 2017 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Erotic spanking


text:
Pax Romana

The Pax Romana (Latin for "Roman peace") is a roughly 200-year-long period of Roman history which is identified as a golden age of increased and sustained Roman imperialism, relative peace and order, prosperous stability, hegemonic power, and regional expansion. This is despite several revolts and wars, and continuing competition with Parthia. It is traditionally dated as commencing with the accession of Augustus, founder of the Roman principate, in 27 BC and concluding in AD 180 with the death of Marcus Aurelius, the last of the "Five Good Emperors".

During this period of about two centuries, the Roman Empire achieved its greatest territorial extent in AD 117 (Emperor Trajan), and its population reached a maximum of up to 70 million people, which was around 33% of the world's population. According to Cassius Dio, the dictatorial reign of Commodus, later followed by the Year of the Five Emperors and the Crisis of the Third Century, marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust".

Overview

The Pax Romana, spanning from 27 BC to 180 AD, stands as one of the most enduring periods of peace in the annals of civilization. However, Walter Goffart wrote: "The volume of the Cambridge Ancient History for the years AD 70–192 is called 'The Imperial Peace', but peace is not what one finds in its pages". Arthur M. Eckstein writes that the period must be seen in contrast to the much more frequent warfare in the Roman Republic in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. Eckstein also notes that the incipient Pax Romana appeared during the Republic, and that its temporal span varied with geographical region as well: "Although the standard textbook dates for the Pax Romana, the famous 'Roman Peace' in the Mediterranean, are 31 BC to AD 250, the fact is that the Roman Peace was emerging in large regions of the Mediterranean at a much earlier date: Sicily after 210 [BC], the Italian Peninsula after 200 [BC]; the Po Valley after 190 [BC]; most of the Iberian Peninsula after 133 [BC]; North Africa after 100 [BC]; and for ever longer stretches of time in the Greek East."

The first known record of the term Pax Romana appears in a writing by Seneca the Younger in AD 55. The concept was highly influential, and the subject of theories and attempts to copy it in subsequent ages. Arnaldo Momigliano noted that "Pax Romana is a simple formula for propaganda, but a difficult subject for research."

The Pax Romana began when Octavian (Augustus) defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in the Battle of Actium on 2 September 31 BC and became Roman emperor. He became princeps, or first citizen. Lacking a good precedent of successful one-man rule, Augustus created a junta of the greatest military magnates and stood as the front man. By binding together these leading magnates in a coalition, he eliminated the prospect of civil war. The Pax Romana was not immediate, despite the end of the civil wars, because fighting continued in Hispania and in the Alps. Nevertheless, Augustus closed the Gates of Janus (a ceremony indicating that Rome was at peace) three times, first in 29 BC and again in 25 BC. The third closure is undocumented, but Inez Scott Ryberg (1949) and Gaius Stern (2006) have persuasively dated the third closure to 13 BC with the commissioning of the Ara Pacis. At the time of the Ludi Saeculares in 17 BC the Concept of Peace was publicized, and in 13 BC was proclaimed when Augustus and Agrippa jointly returned from pacifying the provinces. The order to construct the Ara Pacis was no doubt part of this announcement.

Augustus faced a problem making peace an acceptable mode of life for the Romans, who had been at war with one power or another continuously for 200 years. Romans regarded peace not as an absence of war, but as a rare situation which existed when all opponents had been beaten down and lost the ability to resist. Augustus' challenge was to persuade Romans that the prosperity they could achieve in the absence of warfare was better for the Empire than the potential wealth and honor acquired when fighting a risky war. Augustus succeeded by means of skillful propaganda. Subsequent emperors followed his lead, sometimes producing lavish ceremonies to close the Gates of Janus, issuing coins with Pax on the reverse, and patronizing literature extolling the benefits of the Pax Romana.

After Augustus' death in AD 14, most of his successors as Roman emperors continued his politics. The last five emperors of the Pax Romana are known as the "Five Good Emperors".

Influence on trade
Roman trade in the Mediterranean increased during the Pax Romana. Romans sailed East to acquire silks, gems, onyx and spices. Romans benefited from large profits and incomes in the Roman empire were raised due to trade in the Mediterranean.

As the Pax Romana of the western world by Rome was largely contemporaneous to the Pax Sinica of the eastern world by Han China, long-distance travel and trade in Eurasian history was significantly stimulated during these eras.

Pax imperia: analogous peaces
The prominence of the concept of the Pax Romana led to historians coining variants of the term to describe other systems of relative peace that have been established, attempted, or argued to have existed. Some variants include:
 * Pax Americana
 * Pax Assyriaca
 * Pax Atomica
 * Pax Britannica
 * Pax Europaea
 * Pax Guptana
 * Pax Hispanica
 * Pax Khazarica
 * Pax Kushana
 * Pax Mafiosa (Pax Narcotica)
 * Pax Mongolica
 * Pax Ottomana
 * Pax Porfiriana
 * Pax Sinica
 * Pax Sovietica
 * Pax Syriana
 * Pax Tokugawana

More generically, the concept has been referred to as pax imperia (sometimes spelled as pax imperium ), meaning imperial peace,  or—less literally—hegemonic peace. Raymond Aron notes that imperial peace—peace achieved through hegemony can—sometimes, but not always— become civil peace. As an example, the German Empire's imperial peace of 1871 (over its internal components like Saxony) slowly evolved into the later German state. As a counter-example, the imperial peace of Alexander the Great's empire dissolved because the Greek city states maintained their political identity. Aron notes that during the Pax Romana, the First Jewish–Roman War was a reminder that the overlapping of the imperial institutions over the local ones did not erase them and the overlap was a source of tension and flare-ups. Aron summarizes that, "In other words, imperial peace becomes civil peace insofar as the memory of the previously independent political units are effaced, insofar as individuals within a pacified zone feel themselves less united to the traditional or local community and more to the conquering state."

The concept of Pax Romana was highly influential, and there were attempts to imitate it in the Byzantine Empire, and in the Christian West, where it morphed into the Peace and Truce of God (pax Dei and treuga Dei). A theoretician of the imperial peace during the Middle Ages was Dante Aligheri. Dante's works on the topic were analyzed at the beginning of the 20th century by William Mitchell Ramsay in the book The Imperial Peace: An Ideal in European History (1913).

title: Pax Romana