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Glossary of communication disorders

This is a glossary of medical terms related to communication disorders which are psychological or medical conditions that could have the potential to affect the ways in which individuals can hear, listen, understand, speak and respond to others.

A
Acoustic neuroma: Tumor, usually benign, which may develop on the hearing and balance nerves and can cause gradual hearing loss, tinnitus, and/or dizziness. (sometimes called vestibular schwannoma). Also see Neurofibromatosis Type 2.

Acquired deafness: Loss of hearing that occurs or develops some time during the lifespan but is not present at birth.

Alport syndrome: Hereditary condition characterized by kidney disease, sensorineural hearing loss, and sometimes eye defects.

American Sign Language: Manual language with its own syntax and grammar, used primarily by people who are deaf.

Aphasia: Total or partial loss of the ability to use or understand language; usually caused by stroke, brain disease, or injury.

Aphonia: Complete loss of voice.

Apraxia: Inability to execute a voluntary movement despite being able to demonstrate normal muscle function.

Articulation disorder: Inability to correctly produce speech sounds (phonemes) because of imprecise placement, timing, pressure, speed, or flow of movement of the lips, tongue, or throat.

Assistive devices: Technical tools and devices such as alphabet boards, text telephones, or text-to-speech conversion software used to aid individuals who have communication disorders perform actions, tasks, and activities.

Audiologist: Health care professional who is trained to evaluate hearing loss and related disorders, including balance (vestibular) disorders and tinnitus, and to rehabilitate individuals with hearing loss and related disorders. An audiologist uses a variety of tests and procedures to assess hearing and balance function and to fit and dispense hearing aids and other assistive devices for hearing.

Auditory Brainstem Response test: A test for brain functioning in comatose, unresponsive, etc., patients, and for hearing in infants and young children; involves attaching electrodes to the head to record electrical activity from the hearing nerve and other parts of the brain.

Auditory nerve: Eighth cranial nerve that connects the inner ear to the brainstem and is responsible for hearing and balance.

Auditory perception: Ability to identify, interpret, and attach meaning to sound.

Auditory prosthesis: Device that substitutes or enhances the ability to hear.

Augmentative devices: Tools that help individuals with limited or absent speech to communicate, such as communication boards, pictographs (symbols that look like the things they represent), or ideographs (symbols representing ideas).

Aural rehabilitation: Techniques used with people who are hearing impaired to improve their ability to speak and communicate.

Autoimmune deafness: Individual's immune system produces abnormal antibodies that react against the body's healthy tissues.

Autism: Can refer to autistic disorder a psychiatric syndrome featuring restricted and repetitive behaviors, and impaired social interaction and communication; or the group of syndromes to which autistic disorder belongs - the autism spectrum disorders.

B
Babbling: Prelinguistic sound play by infants; characterized by labial consonants(/b/p/m/).

Balance: Biological system that enables individuals to know where their bodies are in the environment and to maintain a desired position. Normal balance depends on information from the labyrinth in the inner ear, from other senses such as sight and touch, and from muscle movement.

Balance disorder: Disruption in the labyrinth, the inner ear organ that controls the balance system, which allows individuals to know where their bodies are in the environment. The labyrinth works with other systems in the body, such as the visual and skeletal systems, to maintain posture.

Barotrauma: Injury to the middle ear caused by a reduction of air pressure.

Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo: Balance disorder that results in sudden onset of dizziness, spinning, or vertigo when moving the head.

Brainstem implant: Auditory prosthesis that bypasses the cochlea and auditory nerve. This type of implant helps individuals who cannot benefit from a cochlear implant because the auditory nerves are not working.

C
Captioning: Text display of spoken words, presented on a television or a movie screen, that allows a deaf or hard-of-hearing viewer to follow the dialogue and the action of a program simultaneously.

Central auditory processing disorder: Inability to differentiate, recognize, or understand sounds; hearing and intelligence are normal.

Chemosensory disorders: Diseases or problems associated with the sense of smell or the sense of taste.

Cholesteatoma: Accumulation of dead cells in the middle ear, caused by repeated middle ear infections.

Cochlea: Snail-shaped structure in the inner ear that contains the organ of hearing.

Cochlear implant: Medical device that bypasses damaged structures in the inner ear and directly stimulates the auditory nerve, allowing some deaf individuals to learn to hear and interpret sounds and speech.

Cognition: Thinking skills that include perception, memory, awareness, reasoning, judgment, intellect, and imagination.

Conductive hearing impairment: Hearing loss caused by dysfunction of the outer or middle ear.

Cued speech: Method of communication that combines speech reading with a system of hand-shapes placed near the mouth to help deaf or hard-of-hearing individuals differentiate words that look similar on the lips (e.g., bunch vs. punch) or are hidden (e.g., gag).

Cytomegalovirus: One group of herpes viruses that infects humans and can cause a variety of clinical symptoms, including deafness or hearing impairment; infection with the virus may be either before or after birth.

D
Decibel: Unit that measures the intensity or loudness of sound.

Dyspraxia of speech: In individuals with normal muscle tone and speech muscle coordination, partial loss of the ability to consistently pronounce words.

Dizziness: Physical unsteadiness, imbalance, and lightheadedness associated with balance disorders.

Dysarthria: Group of speech disorders caused by disturbances in the strength or coordination of the muscles of the speech mechanism as a result of damage to the brain or nerves.

Dysequilibrium: Any disturbance of balance.

Dysfluency: Disruption in the smooth flow or expression of speech.

Dysgeusia: Distortion or absence of the sense of taste.

Dyslexia: Learning disability characterized by reading difficulties. Some individuals may also have difficulty writing, spelling, or working with numbers.

Dysosmia: Distortion or absence of the sense of smell.

Dysphagia: Difficulty swallowing.

Dysphonia: Any impairment of the voice or speaking ability.

Dystonia: Abnormal muscle tone of one or more muscles.

E
Ear infection: Presence and growth of bacteria or viruses in the ear.

Earwax: Yellow secretion from glands in the outer ear (cerumen) that keeps the skin of the ear dry and protected from infection.

Echolalia: Repeating what one has already said or heard; often associated with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Endolymph: Fluid in the labyrinth (the organ of balance located in the inner ear that consists of three semicircular canals and the vestibule).

G
Grammar: System of rules used by speakers of a language to produce and understand spoken language.

Gustation: Act or sensation of tasting.

Glaucoma: Disease related to eyes due to increase in IOP(intraorbicular pressure)

H
Hair cells: Sensory cells of the inner ear, which are topped with hair-like structures, the stereocilia, and which transform the mechanical energy of sound waves into nerve impulses.

Haptic sense: Sense of physical contact or touch.

Haptometer: Instrument for measuring sensitivity to touch.

Hearing: Series of events in which sound waves in the air are converted to electrical signals, which are sent as nerve impulses to the brain, where they are interpreted.

Hearing aid: Electronic device that brings amplified sound to the ear. A hearing aid usually consists of a microphone, amplifier, and receiver.

Hearing disorder: Disruption in the normal hearing process that may occur in outer, middle, or inner ear, whereby sound waves are not conducted to the inner ear, converted to electrical signals and/or nerve impulses are not transmitted to the brain to be interpreted.

Hereditary hearing impairment: Hearing loss passed down through generations of a family.

Hoarseness: Abnormally rough or harsh-sounding voice caused by vocal abuse and other disorders such as gastroesophageal reflux, thyroid problems, or trauma to the larynx (voice box).

Hyper neurotic diafragma contractions: The hiccups

Hypogeusia: Diminished sensitivity to taste.

Hyposmia: Diminished sensitivity to smell.

I
Inflection: Alterations in the pitch and prosody of spoken language to convey meaning.

Inner ear: Part of the ear that contains both the organ of hearing (the cochlea) and the organ of balance (the labyrinth).

Intensity: Refers to the energy flow per unit area (audiology).

K
Kallmann's syndrome: Disorder that can include several characteristics such as absence of the sense of smell and decreased functional activity of the gonads (organs that produce sex cells), affecting growth and sexual development.

L
Labyrinth: Organ of balance located in the inner ear. The labyrinth consists of three semicircular canals and the vestibule.

Labyrinthine hydrops: Excessive fluid in the organ of balance (labyrinth); can cause pressure or fullness in the ears, hearing loss, dizziness, and loss of balance.

Labyrinthitis: Viral or bacterial infection or inflammation of the inner ear that can cause dizziness, loss of balance, and temporary hearing loss.

Landau-Kleffner syndrome: Childhood disorder of unknown origin which often extends into adulthood and can be identified by gradual or sudden loss of the ability to understand and use spoken language.

Language: System for communicating ideas and feelings using sounds, gestures, signs, or marks.

Language disorders: Any of a number of problems with verbal communication and the ability to use or understand a symbol system for communication.

Laryngeal neoplasms: Abnormal growths in the larynx (voice box) that can be cancerous or noncancerous.

Laryngeal nodules: Noncancerous, callous-like growths on the inner parts of the vocal folds (vocal cords); usually caused by vocal abuse or misuse.

Laryngeal paralysis: Loss of function or feeling of one or both of the vocal folds caused by injury or disease to the nerves of the larynx.

Laryngectomy: Surgery to remove part or all of the larynx (voice box).

Laryngitis: Hoarse voice or the complete loss of the voice because of irritation to the vocal folds (vocal cords).

Laryngoplasty: Laryngeal framework surgery of a paralysed vocal cord to help strengthen the voice - a window in the thyroid cartilage is created and an implant is inserted into the para-glottic space via an open approach.

Larynx: Valve structure between the trachea (windpipe) and the pharynx (the upper throat) that is the primary organ of voice production.

Learning disabilities: Childhood disorders characterized by difficulty with certain skills such as reading or writing in individuals with normal intelligence.

M
Mastoid: Back portion of the temporal bone that contains the inner ear.

Mastoid surgery: Surgical procedure to remove infection from the mastoid bone.

Meige syndrome: Movement disorder that can involve excessive eye blinking (blepharospasm) with involuntary movements of the jaw muscles, lips, and tongue (oromandibular dystonia).

Ménière's disease: Inner ear disorder that can affect both hearing and balance. It can cause episodes of vertigo, hearing loss, tinnitus, and the sensation of fullness in the ear.

Meningitis: Inflammation of the meninges, the membranes that envelop the brain and the spinal cord; may cause hearing loss or deafness.

Middle ear: Part of the ear that includes the eardrum and three tiny bones of the middle ear, ending at the round window that leads to the inner ear.

Misarticulation: Innacurately produced speech sound (phoneme) or sounds.

Motor speech disorders: Group of disorders caused by the inability to accurately produce speech sounds (phonemes) because of muscle weakness or incoordination or difficulty performing voluntary muscle movements.

N
Neuroplasticity: Ability of the brain and/or certain parts of the nervous system to adapt to new conditions, such as an injury.

Neural prostheses: Devices that substitute for an injured or diseased part of the nervous system, such as the cochlear implant.

Neural stimulation: To activate or energize a nerve through an external source.

Neurofibromatosis Type 1: Group of inherited disorders in which noncancerous tumors grow on several nerves that may include the hearing nerve. The symptoms of NF-1 include coffee-colored spots on the skin, enlargement, deformation of bones, and neurofibromas.

Neurofibromatosis Type 2: Group of inherited disorders in which noncancerous tumors grow on several nerves that usually include the hearing nerve. The symptoms of NF-2 include tumors on the hearing nerve which can affect hearing and balance. NF-2 may occur in the teenage years with hearing loss. Also see acoustic neurinoma.

Neurogenic communication disorder: Inability to exchange information with others because of hearing, speech, and/or language problems caused by impairment of the nervous system (brain or nerves).

Noise-induced hearing loss: Hearing loss caused by exposure to harmful sounds, either very loud impulse sound(s) or repeated exposure to sounds over 90-decibel level over an extended period of time that damage the sensitive structures of the inner ear.

Nonsyndromic hereditary hearing impairment: Hearing loss or deafness that is inherited and is not associated with other inherited clinical characteristics.

O
Odorant: Substance that stimulates the sense of smell.

Olfaction: The act of smelling.

Olfactometer: Device for estimating the intensity of the sense of smell.

Open-set speech recognition: Understanding speech without visual clues (speech reading).

Otitis externa: Inflammation of the outer part of the ear extending to the auditory canal.

Otitis media: Inflammation of the middle ear caused by infection.

Otoacoustic emissions: Low-intensity sounds produced by the inner ear that can be quickly measured with a sensitive microphone placed in the ear canal.

Otolaryngologist: Physician/surgeon who specializes in diseases of the ears, nose, throat, and head and neck.

Otologist: Physician/surgeon who specializes in diseases of the ear.

Otosclerosis: Abnormal growth of bone of the inner ear. This bone prevents structures within the ear from working properly and causes hearing loss. For some people with otosclerosis, the hearing loss may become severe.

Ototoxic drugs: Drugs such as a special class of antibiotics, aminoglycoside antibiotics, that can damage the hearing and balance organs located in the inner ear for some individuals.

Outer ear: External portion of the ear, consisting of the pinna, or auricle, and the ear canal.

P
Papillomavirus: Group of viruses that can cause noncancerous wart-like tumors to grow on the surface of skin and internal organs such as the respiratory tract; can be life-threatening.

Parosmia: Any disease or perversion of the sense of smell, especially the subjective perception of odors that do not exist.

Perception: Process of knowing or being aware of information through the ear.

Perilymph fistula: Leakage of inner ear fluid to the middle ear that occurs without apparent cause or that is associated with head trauma, physical exertion, or barotrauma.

Pervasive developmental disorders: Disorders characterized by delays in several areas of development that may include socialization and communication.

Pheromones: Chemical substances secreted by an animal that elicit a specific behavioral or physiological response in another animal of the same species.

Phonology: Study of speech sounds.

Postlingually deafened: Individual who becomes deaf after having acquired language.

Prelingually deafened: Individual who is either born deaf or who lost their hearing early in childhood, before acquiring language.

Presbycusis: Loss of hearing that gradually occurs because of changes in the inner or middle ear in individuals as they grow older.

R
Reading disorders: Any of a group of problems characterized by difficulty using or understanding the symbol system for written language.

Round window: Membrane separating the middle ear and inner ear.

S
Sensorineural hearing loss: Hearing loss caused by damage to the sensory cells and/or nerve fibers of the inner ear.

Sign language: Method of communication for people who are deaf or hard of hearing in which hand movements, gestures, and facial expressions convey grammatical structure and meaning. rhinitis.

Sound vocalization: Ability to produce voice.

Spasmodic dysphonia: Momentary disruption of voice caused by involuntary movements of one or more muscles of the larynx or voice box.

Specific language impairment: Difficulty with language or the organized-symbol system used for communication in the absence of problems such as mental retardation, hearing loss, or emotional disorders.

Speech: Spoken communication.

Speech disorder: Any defect or abnormality that prevents an individual from communicating by means of spoken words. Speech disorders may develop from nerve injury to the brain, muscular paralysis, structural defects, hysteria, or mental retardation.

Speech processor: Part of a cochlear implant that converts speech sounds into electrical impulses to stimulate the auditory nerve, allowing an individual to understand sound and speech.

Speech-language pathologist: Health professional trained to evaluate and treat people who have voice, speech, language, or swallowing disorders (including hearing impairment) that affect their ability to communicate.

Stroke: Also known as a cerebrovascular accident (CVA); caused by a lack of blood to the brain, resulting in the sudden loss of speech, language, or the ability to move a body part, and, if severe enough, death.

Stuttering: Frequent repetition of words or parts of words that disrupts the smooth flow of speech.

Sudden deafness: Loss of hearing that occurs quickly due to such causes as explosion, a viral infection, or the use of some drugs.

Swallowing disorders: Any of a group of problems that interferes with the transfer of food from the mouth to the stomach.

Syndromic hearing impairment: Hearing loss or deafness that, along with other characteristics, is inherited or passed down through generations of a family.

T
Tactile: Related to touch or the sense of touch.

Tactile devices: Mechanical instruments that make use of touch to help individuals who have certain disabilities, such as deaf-blindness, to communicate.

Throat disorders: Disorders or diseases of the larynx (voice box), pharynx, or esophagus.

Thyroplasty: Surgical technique(s) to improve the human voice by altering single or multiple structures of the larynx, which houses the vocal folds (vocal cords) with the related controlling nerves, muscles, and cartilage. Typically, this surgery is considered to improve the position or tension of the vocal folds which can improve vocal volume and production. This is also known as laryngeal framework surgery. The most common technique may be to insert small blocks of custom-shaped silastin just inside of the tracheal wall, pushing the vocal fold muscle inward (medialization). This typically strengthens the output of a weaker voice but it also reduces the exchange volume of pulmonary function, as the tracheal opening has been permanently reduced. This surgery is named for its proximity to the thyroid gland.

Tinnitus: Sensation of a ringing, roaring, or buzzing sound in the ears or head. It is often associated with many forms of hearing impairment. Noise exposure and inner ear infections are but two predisposing conditions which can lead to the development of tinnitus.

Tongue: Large muscle on the floor of the mouth that manipulates food for chewing and swallowing. It is the main organ of taste, and assists in forming speech sounds.

Touch: Tactile sense; the sense by which contact with the skin or mucous membrane is experienced.

Tourette syndrome: Neurological disorder characterized by recurring movements and sounds (called tics).

Tracheostomy: Surgical opening into the trachea (windpipe) to help someone breathe who has an obstruction or swelling in the larynx (voice box) or upper throat or who has had the larynx surgically removed.

Tuberous Sclerosis: Hereditary disease with multiorgan manifestation. Typical symptoms are epileptic seizures, autism, skin disorders, and renal tumors.

Tympanoplasty: Surgical repair of the eardrum (tympanic membrane) or bones of the middle ear.

U
Umami: Taste of substances such as L-glutamate salts (MSG) that are found in foods like bouillon and other stocks. (reference:Yamaguchi S, Ninomiya K. J Nutr. 2000 Apr:130(4S Suppl):921S-926S.)

Usher syndrome: Hereditary disease that affects hearing and vision and sometimes balance.

Ulna: Long bone in the arm on the pinky side that goes from the humerus to the carpal.

V
Velocardiofacial syndrome: Inherited disorder characterized by cleft palate (opening in the roof of the mouth), heart defects, characteristic facial appearance, minor learning problems, and speech and feeding problems.

Vertigo: Illusion of movement; a sensation as if the external world were revolving around an individual (objective vertigo) or as if the individual were revolving in space (subjective vertigo).

Vestibular Neuronitis: Infection at the vestibular nerve.

Vestibular system: System in the body that is responsible for maintaining balance, posture, and the body's orientation in space. This system also regulates locomotion and other movements and keeps objects in visual focus as the body moves.

Vestibule: Bony cavity of the inner ear.

Vibrotactile aids: Mechanical instruments that help individuals who are deaf to detect and interpret sound through the sense of touch.

Vocal cord paralysis: Inability of one or both vocal folds (vocal cords) to move because of damage to the brain or nerves.

Vocal cords: Muscularized folds of mucous membrane that extend from the larynx (voice box) wall. The folds are enclosed in elastic vocal ligament and muscle that control the tension and rate of vibration of the cords as air passes through them.

Vocal folds: See Vocal cords.

Vocal tremor: Trembling or shaking of one or more of the muscles of the larynx, resulting in an unsteady-sounding voice.

Voice: Sound produced by air passing out through the larynx and upper respiratory tract.

Voice disorders: Group of problems involving abnormal pitch, loudness, or quality of the sound produced by the larynx (voice box).

W
Waardenburg syndrome: Hereditary disorder that is characterized by hearing impairment, a white shock of hair and/or distinctive blue color to one or both eyes, and wide-set inner corners of the eyes. Balance problems are also associated with some types of Waardenburg syndrome.

title: Glossary of communication disorders


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Talk:Jumper (dress)

Cultural conitations
I've added a line about the popularity of jumpers in more conservitive circles in the US. I think this is appropriate as other clothing articles mention who wears that clothing and/or what subcultures it is associated with.

--IsaacSapphire (talk) 23:30, 28 March 2008 (UTC)

 * Only if you can cite a source. Removed here, with the spelling corrected, until it can be sourced.
 * Jumpers are popular with conservative groups, particularly homeschoolers, in the United States.
 * Also, new talk page contributions should be added to the end of the talk page.76.27.94.3 (talk) 05:17, 30 March 2008 (UTC)

Jumper dress?
I don't know enough about the subject to make the changes myself, but I would consider renaming the article to "Jumper (dress)". It seems to me that it is usual to use the word "jumper" by itself when referring to the item, and that "jumper dress" would be limited in use to circumstances where it is necessary to distinguish between different types of dresses. --Eclecticology, Monday, June 10, 2002

 * In clothing, a "jumper" is a kind of dress in the US, but it's a sweater in the UK, and then of course there are jumper cables for automobiles and jumpers in electronics and sport... I've never heard the article of clothing referred to as a "jumper dress" in the US, FWIW. -- Marj Tiefert, Monday, June 10, 2002

Gymslip?
What are the opinions on whether British gymslips should be mentioned in this article? In my scant observations, I haven't noticed much distinction between gymslips and jumpers/pinnies. President Lethe 22:06, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

Sundress is a false joining
This article and sundress should not be joined together. A sundress is never worn over a blouse, perhaps a blouse or a jacket could be worn over a sundress but it isn't so common. And the picture of the jumper looks pretty much nothing like what a sundress looks like in terms of typical cut or design.

Factual Inaccuracy, Citations Needed
Needs citations.

A jumper is any, shoulder to thigh length woman's clothes that one "jumps into" to get dressed. Meaning, one commonly pulls them up from the ankles to put them on. Jumpers are not just dresses, but include overalls.

The similarity to a sundress is inaccurate. Yes, women might wear either style during the summer, but a sundress typically has very thin cloth and, more importantly, a sundress typically applied over the shoulder while dressing. One does not "jump into" a sundress.

The best similar clothing to a jumper are mens' overalls. Think Dickey's, farm clothing, etc.

Squonk64 (talk) 17:35, 9 March 2012 (UTC) Squonk64

Moved from Jumper dress to Jumper (dress)
(cur | prev) 04:28, 22 June 2009 Bookworm857158367 (talk | contribs) m. . (2,331 bytes) (0). . (moved Talk:Jumper dress to Talk:Jumper (dress): Americans don't call this item of clothing a jumper dress. They call it a jumper.) (undo | thank)
 * Really? Print sources seem to have "Jumper dress". In ictu oculi (talk) 02:07, 30 January 2017 (UTC)
 * Can you give some print sources? I have never heard it called a jumper dress.Kdammers (talk) 14:48, 18 March 2021 (UTC)

Pinafore dress vs. Dirndl
I have removed the comment that the Dirndl is an Austrian version of the pinafore dress, since this is factually wrong and is not supported by any source. A dirndl is a four-piece dress with a tight bodice and gathered skirt worn in German-speaking Alpine areas. It has little resemblance to a pinafore dress, which is a loose one-piece garment worn over something else; the only similarity is the layered effect. Nor is there any cultural connection: the dirndl developed in the 19th century from traditional Alpine folk costume, whereas the pinafore dress developed in the 20th century; according to this page, the first mention is in the United States, although it is said to be based on French designs.

SRamzy (talk) 13:37, 18 June 2021 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Jumper (dress)


text:
Talk:Glossary of communication disorders

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 7 January 2019 and 31 May 2019. Further details are available on the course page. Peer reviewers: Hannanettles.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 22:28, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

Untitled
The original text of this page is from a public domain resource at http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/glossary/glos1.htm

Maybe this should be moved to wikitionary.

2007-02-1 Automated pywikipediabot message
--CopyToWiktionaryBot 15:47, 1 February 2007 (UTC)

I dispute certain articles that remain included
Dystonia, loss of balance. etc.? These things are not directly related to communication disorders as far as I can tell. Therefore I have tagged the article.  Lighthead  þ 03:31, 20 July 2011 (UTC)

 * Dystonia is a problem for speaking, and loss of balance can be related to hearing problems. WhatamIdoing (talk) 17:37, 7 December 2023 (UTC)

Online glossaries of communication disorders
I have found one external online glossary of communication disorders. —Wavelength (talk) 15:43, 23 May 2014 (UTC)
 * Glossary of medical terms related to communications disorders [sic]

 * I've removed this (archived now available here) as per the small text at the end of the article it's just an old mirror of Wikipedia's own article. -- LCU ActivelyDisinterested «@» °∆t° 22:59, 7 December 2023 (UTC)

References and copyright
I've add a reference to the NIH glossary as this article is a copy paste of that source. As I understand it US federal government works are not copyrighted, but NIH own page on copyright links to an article that states under "Misconception #3: I grabbed it from a government site, so it must be free to use." NIH often licenses privately owned material for display on its website, but the scope of the licenses are rarely broad enough to allow the public to use the material for other than a fair use. NIH sites typically alert the public to this fact in their standard disclaimers. So if someone with better knowledge of US copyright could clarify it would be good. Earwigs also flags it as a copy of Medical College of Georgia, which is copyright 2023 but I think this is also a copy from NIH. -- LCU ActivelyDisinterested «@» °∆t° 23:07, 7 December 2023 (UTC)

 * This was pointed out to me, which makes it clear it wouldn't be copyright. -- LCU ActivelyDisinterested «@» °∆t° 00:53, 8 December 2023 (UTC)


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Nulla poena sine lege

Nulla poena sine lege (Latin for "no penalty without law", Anglicized pronunciation: ) is a legal formula which, in its narrow interpretation, states that one can only be punished for doing something if a penalty for this behavior is fixed in criminal law. As some laws are unwritten (e.g. in oral law or customary law) and laws can be interpreted broadly, it does not necessarily mean that an action will not be punished simply because a specific rule against it is not codified.

The variant nullum crimen sine lege ("no crime without law") establishes that conduct is not criminal if not found among the behavior/circumstance combinations of a statute. The other interpretations of the formula include the rules prohibiting retroactive criminalization and prescribing laws to be strictly construed.

Despite the use of Latin language and brocard-like appearance, the formula was mostly born in 18th century liberalism (some elements of non-retroactivity of laws and limiting the punishment to the one prescribed in the statute date back to Roman times). This principle is accepted and codified in modern democratic states as a basic requirement of the rule of law. It has been described as "one of the most 'widely held value-judgement[s] in the entire history of human thought.

Requirements
In modern European criminal law, e.g. of the Constitutional Court of Germany, the principle of nulla poena sine lege has been found to consist of four separate requirements:

 * Nulla poena sine lege praevia: There is to be no penalty without previous law. This prohibits ex post facto laws, and the retroactive application of criminal law. It is a basic maxim in mainland European legal thinking. It was written by Paul Johann Anselm Ritter von Feuerbach as part of the Bavarian Criminal Code in 1813.
 * Nulla poena sine lege scripta: There is to be no penalty without written law. That is, criminal prohibitions must be set out in written legal instruments of general application, normally statutes, adopted in the form required by constitutional law. This excludes customary law as a basis of criminal punishment.
 * Nulla poena sine lege certa: There is to be no penalty without well-defined law. This provides that a penal statute must define the punishable conduct and the penalty with sufficient definiteness. This to allow citizens to foresee when a specific action would be punishable, and to conduct themselves accordingly, a rule expressed in the general principle of legal certainty in matters of criminal law. It is recognised or codified in many national jurisdictions, as well as e.g. by the European Court of Justice as a "general principle of Union law".
 * Nulla poena sine lege stricta: There is to be no penalty without exact law. This prohibits the application by analogy of statutory provisions in criminal law.

In common law
One complexity is the lawmaking power of judges under common law. Even in civil law systems that do not admit judge-made law, it is not always clear when the function of interpretation of the criminal law ends and judicial lawmaking begins.

In English criminal law there are offences of common law origin. For example, murder is still a common law offence and lacks a statutory definition. The Homicide Act 1957 did not include a statutory definition of murder (or any other homicidal offence). Therefore, the definition of murder was the subject of no fewer than six appeals to the House of Lords within the following 40 years (Director of Public Prosecutions v. Smith [1961] A.C. 290; Hyam v. Director of Public Prosecutions [1975] A.C. 55; Regina v. Cunningham [1982] A.C. 566; Regina v. Moloney [1985] A.C. 905; Regina v. Hancock [1986] A.C. 455; Regina v. Woollin [1998] 4 A11 E.R. 103 (H.L.)).

In natural law
The legal principle nulla poena sine lege as principle in natural law is due to the contention of scholars of the Scholasticism about the preconditions of a guilty conscience. In relation to the Ezekiel-commentary of Jerome, Thomas Aquinas and Francisco Suárez analysed the formal conditions of the punishment of conscience. Thomas located the conditions within the synderesis. For him it is a formal and active part of the human soul. Understanding of activity, which is in accordance with the human nature, is formal possible due to the synderesis. Hence the synderesis contains in the works of patristic authors a law which commands how the human as human has to act. In the individual case this law is contentual definite. For the scholastic this is shown in the action of the intellect. This action is named since Thomas conscientia. A possible content of the conscientia is the punishment in concordance with the content of the synderesis, in case the human has had not act in concordance with the human nature. An example for the punishment is madness, which since antiquity is a punishment of conscience. The Oresteia is a famous example for this.

According Suárez the punishment of conscience is the insight in an obligation to act in concordance with the human nature to undo a past misdeed. This insight obligates to impossible actions due to the fact that the misdeed is in the past and hence it is unchangeable. Therefore the conscientia obligates in concordance with the synderesis to do an impossible action. Hence the conscientia restricts conscientious persons by doing a limitation on their own will. For they are unable to think about any other action than to fulfil their obligation. Inasmuch the conscientia restricts the intellect the scholastic speak of it as a malum or malum metaphysicum, because the limitation is related to a metaphysical quality of a human. The law is constituted by the human nature itself from what the malum metaphysicum is inflicted. Therefore the punishment of the conscience is executed because of a violation of natural law.

When coming to terms with the Nazi crimes after World War II in Austria, the Austrian legal scholar and judge Wilhelm Malaniuk justified the admissibility of the non-application of the "nulla poena sine lege" with regard to the Austrian Verbotsgesetz 1947: "Because these are crimes that are so grossly violate the laws of humanity!" Regarding war crimes law and war crimes related to command structures, Malaniuk said: “In the war instigated by the National Socialists, the requirements of humanity as well as the principles of international law and martial law were violated to such an extent that it was no longer just the government that was believed to be responsible for this, but also the individual citizens, because they knew had to that their actions grossly violate the principles, compliance with which must be demanded from every member of the occidental culture."

In cases of universal jurisdiction
The question of jurisdiction may sometimes come to contradict this principle. For example, customary international law allows the prosecution of pirates by any country (applying universal jurisdiction), even if they did not commit crimes at the area that falls under this country's law. A similar principle has appeared in the recent decades with regard to crimes of genocide (see genocide as a crime under domestic law); and UN Security Council Resolution 1674 "reaffirms the provisions of paragraphs 138 and 139 of the 2005 World Summit Outcome Document regarding the responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity" even if the State in which the population is being assaulted does not recognise these assaults as a breach of domestic law. However, it seems that universal jurisdiction is not to be expanded substantially to other crimes, so as to satisfy Nulla poena sine lege.

Since the Nuremberg Trials, penal law is taken to include the prohibitions of international criminal law, in addition to those of domestic law. Thus, prosecutions have been possible of such individuals as Nazi war criminals and officials of the German Democratic Republic responsible for the Berlin Wall, even though their deeds may have been allowed or even ordered by domestic law. Also, courts when dealing with such cases will tend to look to the letter of the law at the time, even in regimes where the law as it was written was generally disregarded in practice by its own authors.

However, some legal scholars criticize this, because generally, in the legal systems of mainland Europe where the maxim was first developed, "penal law" was taken to mean statutory penal law, so as to create a guarantee to the individual, considered as a fundamental right, that he would not be prosecuted for an action or omission that was not considered a crime according to the statutes passed by the legislators in force at the time of the action or omission, and that only those penalties that were in place when the infringement took place would be applied. Also, even if one considers that certain actions are prohibited under general principles of international law, critics point out that a prohibition in a general principle does not amount to the establishment of a crime, and that the rules of international law also do not stipulate specific penalties for the violations.

In an attempt to address those criticisms, the statute of the recently established International Criminal Court provides for a system in which crimes and penalties are expressly set out in written law, that shall only be applied to future cases. See Article 22 of the Rome Statute, however this is under the proviso, in Article 22(3) that this only applies to the ICC, and "doesn't affect the characterization of any conduct as criminal under international law independently of [the Rome Statute]".

The principle of nulla poena sine lege, insofar as it applies to general criminal law, is enshrined in several national constitutions, and international instruments, see European Convention on Human Rights, article 7(1). However, when applied to international criminal/humanitarian law, the same legal instruments often allow for ex post facto application of the law. See ECHR, article 7(2), which states that article 7(1) "shall not prejudice the trial and punishment of any person for any act or omission which, at the time when it was committed, was criminal according to the general principles of law recognised by civilised nations."

title: Nulla poena sine lege


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Jabber

Jabber may refer to:
 * The original name of the Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP), the open technology for instant messaging and presence.
 * Jabber.org, the public, free instant messaging and presence service based on XMPP.
 * Jabber XCP, a commercial product which is an implementation of XMPP. Acquired by Cisco Systems in 2008.
 * An abnormally long transmission on an Ethernet network or link.

title: Jabber


text:
Special Air Service

The Special Air Service (SAS) is a special forces unit of the British Army. It was founded as a regiment in 1941 by David Stirling, and in 1950 it was reconstituted as a corps. The unit specialises in a number of roles including counter-terrorism, hostage rescue, direct action and special reconnaissance. Much of the information about the SAS is highly classified, and the unit is not commented on by either the British government or the Ministry of Defence due to the secrecy and sensitivity of its operations.

The corps currently consists of the 22 Special Air Service Regiment, which is the regular component, as well as the 21 Special Air Service Regiment (Artists) (Reserve) and the 23 Special Air Service Regiment (Reserve), which are reserve units, all under the operational command of United Kingdom Special Forces (UKSF). Its sister unit is the Royal Navy's Special Boat Service, which specialises in maritime counter-terrorism. Both units are under the operational control of the Director Special Forces.

The Special Air Service traces its origins to 1941 and the Second World War. It was reformed as part of the Territorial Army in 1947, named the 21st Special Air Service Regiment (Artists Rifles). The 22nd Special Air Service Regiment, which is part of the regular army, gained fame and recognition worldwide after its televised rescue of all but two of the hostages held during the 1980 Iranian Embassy siege.

Second World War
The Special Air Service was a unit of the British Army during the Second World War that was formed in July 1941 by David Stirling and originally called "L" Detachment, Special Air Service Brigade – the "L" designation and Air Service name being a tie-in to a British disinformation campaign, trying to deceive the Axis into thinking there was a paratrooper regiment with numerous units operating in the area (the real SAS would "prove" to the Axis that the fake one existed). It was conceived as a commando force to operate behind enemy lines in the North African Campaign and initially consisted of five officers and 60 other ranks. Its first mission, in November 1941, was a parachute drop in support of the Operation Crusader offensive, codenamed Operation Squatter. Due to German resistance and adverse weather conditions, the mission was a disaster; 22 men, a third of the unit, were killed or captured. Its second mission was a major success. Transported by the Long Range Desert Group, it attacked three airfields in Libya, destroying 60 aircraft without loss. In September 1942, it was renamed 1st SAS, consisting at that time of four British squadrons, one Free French, one Greek, and the Folboat Section.

In January 1943, Colonel Stirling was captured in Tunisia and Paddy Mayne replaced him as commander. In April 1943, the 1st SAS was reorganised into the Special Raiding Squadron under Mayne's command and the Special Boat Squadron was placed under the command of George Jellicoe. The Special Raiding Squadron fought in Sicily and Italy along with the 2nd SAS, which had been formed in North Africa in 1943 in part by the renaming of the Small Scale Raiding Force. The Special Boat Squadron fought in the Aegean Islands and Dodecanese until the end of the war. In 1944 the SAS Brigade was formed. The unit was formed from:
 * 1st Special Air Service
 * 2nd Special Air Service
 * 3rd Special Air Service – 2e Régiment de Chasseurs Parachutistes
 * 4th Special Air Service – 3e Régiment de Chasseurs Parachutistes
 * 5th Special Air Service – lineage continued by Belgian Special Forces Group
 * F Squadron – responsible for signals and communications

It was tasked with parachute operations behind the German lines in France and carried out operations supporting the Allied advance through France, (Operations Houndsworth, Bulbasket, Loyton and Wallace-Hardy) Belgium, the Netherlands (Operation Pegasus), and eventually into Germany (Operation Archway and Operation Howard). As a result of Hitler's issuing of the Commando Order on 18 October 1942, the members of the unit faced the additional danger that they would be summarily executed if captured by the Germans. In July 1944, following Operation Bulbasket, 34 captured SAS commandos were indeed summarily executed by the Germans. In October 1944, in the aftermath of Operation Loyton, another 31 captured SAS commandos were summarily executed by the Germans.

The last original member of the Special Air Service and the last survivor of the Long Range Desert Group, Mike Sadler, died on 4 January 2024, at the age of 103.

Post-war
At the end of the war the British government saw no further need for the force and disbanded it on 8 October 1945.

The following year it was decided there was a need for a long-term deep-penetration commando unit and a new SAS regiment was to be raised as part of the Territorial Army. Ultimately, the Artists Rifles, raised in 1860 and headquartered at Dukes Road, Euston, took on the SAS mantle as 21st SAS Regiment (V) on 1 January 1947.

Malayan Scouts

In 1950, a 21 SAS squadron was raised to fight in the Korean War. After three months of training in Britain, it was informed that the squadron would no longer be required in Korea and so it instead volunteered to fight in the Malayan Emergency. Upon arrival in Malaya, it came under the command of "Mad Mike" Mike Calvert who was forming a new unit called the Malayan Scouts (SAS). Calvert had already formed one squadron from 100 volunteers in the Far East, which became A Squadron; the 21 SAS squadron then became B Squadron; and after a recruitment visit to Rhodesia by Calvert, C Squadron was formed from 100 Rhodesian volunteers. The Rhodesians returned home after three years' service and were replaced by a New Zealand squadron. By this time the need for a regular army SAS regiment had been recognised; the 22 SAS Regiment was formally added to the army list in 1952 and has been based at Hereford since 1960. In 1959 the third regiment, the 23 SAS Regiment, was formed by renaming the Reserve Reconnaissance Unit, which had succeeded MI9 and whose members were experts in escape and evasion.

22 SAS Regiment
Since serving in Malaya, men from the regular army 22 SAS Regiment have taken part in reconnaissance patrols and large scale raiding missions in the Jebel Akhdar War in Oman and conducted covert reconnaissance and surveillance patrols and some larger scale raiding missions in Borneo. They returned to Oman in operations against Communist-backed rebels in the Dhofar Rebellion including the Battle of Mirbat. They have also taken part in operations in the Aden Emergency, Northern Ireland, and Gambia. Their Special projects team assisted the West German counterterrorism group GSG 9 at Mogadishu. The SAS counter terrorist wing famously took part in a hostage rescue operation during the Iranian Embassy Siege in London. SAS were involved throughout Britain's covert involvement in the Soviet–Afghan War; they acted through private military contractor Keenie Meenie Services (or KMS Ltd), training the Afghan Mujaheddin in weapons, tactics and using explosives. Not only did they train the Mujaheddin in Afghanistan but also sent them to be trained in Pakistan, Oman and even parts of the UK. During the Falklands War B squadron were prepared for Operation Mikado before it was subsequently cancelled while D and G squadrons were deployed and participated in the raid on Pebble Island. Operation Flavius was a controversial operation in Gibraltar against the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA). 22 SAS also directed NATO aircraft onto Serb positions and hunted war criminals in Bosnia. They were also involved in the Kosovo War helping KLA guerillas behind Serbian lines. According to Albanian sources one SAS sergeant was killed by Serbian special forces.

The Gulf War, in which A, B and D squadrons deployed, was the largest SAS mobilisation since the Second World War, also notable for the failure of the Bravo Two Zero mission. In Sierra Leone it took part in Operation Barras, a hostage rescue operation, to extract members of the Royal Irish Regiment.

Following the September 11 attacks on the United States by al-Qaeda in 2001, two squadrons of 22 SAS, later reinforced by members of both the Territorial SAS units, deployed to Afghanistan as part of the Coalition invasion at the start of the War in Afghanistan, to dismantle and destroy al-Qaeda and to deny it a safe base of operations in Afghanistan by removing the Taliban from power in the War on Terror. The Regiment carried out Operation Trent, the largest operation in its history, which included its first wartime HALO parachute jump. Following the invasion, the Regiment continued to operate in Afghanistan against the Taliban and other insurgents until 2006, when its deployment to Iraq became its focus of operations, until 2009 when the SAS redeployed to Afghanistan.

The regiment took part in the Iraq War, notably carrying out operations in Iraq before the 2003 invasion. Following the invasion, it formed part of Task Force Black/Knight to combat the postinvasion insurgency; in late 2005/early 2006, the SAS were integrated into JSOC and focused its counterinsurgency efforts on combating al-Qaeda in Iraq and the Sunni insurgency alongside Delta Force. The counter-insurgency was successful, and the UKSF mission in Iraq ended in May 2009. Overall, more than 3,500 terrorists were "taken off the streets" of Baghdad by 22 SAS.

Various British newspapers have speculated on SAS involvement in Operation Ellamy and the 2011 Libyan civil war. The Daily Telegraph reports that "defence sources have confirmed that the SAS has been in Libya for several weeks, and played a key role in coordinating the fall of Tripoli." While The Guardian reports "They have been acting as forward air controllers – directing pilots to targets – and communicating with NATO operational commanders. They have also been advising rebels on tactics."

Members of the Special Air Service were deployed to Northern Iraq in late August 2014, and according to former SIS chief Richard Barrett, would also be sent to Syria, tasked with trying to track down the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) terrorist group that the press labelled the Beatles. In 2024 it was acknowledged that five SAS members had been arrested by the Royal Military Police on suspicion of committing war crimes in Syria, though details have not been disclosed.

In recent years SAS officers have risen to senior appointments in the British Army and Armed Forces. General Peter de la Billière was the commander in chief of the British forces in the 1990 Gulf War. General Michael Rose became commander of the United Nations Protection Force in Bosnia in 1994. In 1997 General Charles Guthrie became Chief of the Defence Staff the head of the British armed forces. Lieutenant-General Cedric Delves was appointed commander of the Field Army and deputy commander in chief NATO Regional Headquarters Allied Forces North in 2002–2003.

21 and 23 SAS
For much of the Cold War, the role of 21 SAS and 23 SAS was to provide stay-behind parties in the event of a Warsaw Pact invasion of western Europe, forming together I Corps' Corps Patrol Unit. In the case of an invasion, this Special Air Service Group would have let themselves be bypassed and remained behind in order to collect intelligence behind Warsaw Pact lines, conduct target acquisition, and thus try to slow the enemy's advance.

By early 2003 a composite squadron of 21 and 23 SAS, was operating in Helmand for roles against Al Qaeda forces, 'with the emphasis on long range reconnaissance' In 2007–08 a squadron-sized sub-unit was deployed first from 23 and then from 21 SAS to Helmand for roles including training the Afghan Police and working with the intelligence services.

Influence on other special forces
Following the post-war reconstitution of the Special Air Service, other countries in the Commonwealth recognised their need for similar units. The Canadian Special Air Service Company was formed in 1947, being disbanded in 1949. The New Zealand Special Air Service squadron was formed in June 1955 to serve with the British SAS in Malaya, which became a full regiment in 2011. Australia formed the 1st SAS Company in July 1957, which became a full regiment of the Special Air Service Regiment (SASR) in 1964. On its return from Malaya, the C (Rhodesian) Squadron formed the basis for creation of the Rhodesian Special Air Service in 1961. It retained the name "C Squadron (Rhodesian) Special Air Service" within the Rhodesian Security Forces until 1978, when it became 1 (Rhodesian) Special Air Service Regiment.

Non-Commonwealth countries have also formed units based on the SAS. The Belgian Army's Special Forces Group, which wears the same capbadge as the British SAS, traces its ancestry partly from the 5th Special Air Service of the Second World War. The French 1st Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment (1er RPIMa) can trace its origins to the Second World War 3rd and 4th SAS, adopting its "who dares wins" motto. The American unit, 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment-Delta, was formed by Colonel Charles Alvin Beckwith, who served with 22 SAS as an exchange officer, and recognised the need for a similar type of unit in the United States Army. The Israeli Sayeret Matkal and Shaldag units have also been modelled after the SAS, sharing its motto. Ireland's Army Ranger Wing (ARW) has also modelled its training on that of the SAS. The Philippine National Police's Special Action Force was formed along the lines of the SAS.

The former Royal Afghan Army's 666th Commando Brigade was formed by Colonel Ramatullah Safi in the 1970s after he received his training with the SAS before it was disbanded through purges after the coups in 1973 and 1978.

Organisation
Little publicly verifiable information exists on the contemporary SAS, as the British government usually does not comment on special forces matters due to the nature of their work. The Special Air Service comprises three units: one Regular and two Army Reserve (AR) units. The regular army unit is 22 SAS Regiment and the reserve units are 21 Special Air Service Regiment (Artists) (Reserve) (21 SAS(R)) and 23 Special Air Service Regiment (23 SAS (R)), collectively, the Special Air Service (Reserve) (SAS(R)).

Special Forces Parachute Support Squadron (Para Sp Sqn) is a sub-unit of the Airborne Delivery Wing (ADW) based at RAF Brize Norton.

Supplementary to the SAS, together with the Special Boat Service and the Special Reconnaissance Regiment is 18 (UKSF) Signal Regiment.

Squadrons
22 SAS normally has a strength of 400 to 600. The regiment has four operational squadrons: A, B, D and G. Each squadron consists of approximately 65 members commanded by a major, divided into four troops (each troop being commanded by a captain) and a small headquarters section. Troops usually consist of 16 members (Members of the SAS are variously known as "blade" or "Operator") and each patrol within a troop consists of four members, with each member possessing a particular skill e.g. signals, demolition, medic or linguist in addition to basic skills learned during the course of his training. The term "squadron" dates back to the unit's earliest days when the unit's name was intended to confuse German intelligence. The four troops specialise in four different areas:
 * Boat troop – specialists in maritime skills including diving using rebreathers, using kayaks (canoes) and rigid-hulled inflatable boats and often train with the Special Boat Service.
 * Air troop – experts in free fall parachuting and high-altitude parachute operations including High-Altitude Low Opening (HALO) and High-Altitude High Opening (HAHO) techniques.
 * Mobility troop – specialists in using vehicles and are experts in desert warfare. They are also trained in an advanced level of motor mechanics to field-repair any vehicular breakdown.
 * Mountain troop – specialists in Arctic combat and survival, using specialist equipment such as skis, snowshoes and mountain climbing techniques.

In 1980 R Squadron (which has since been renamed L Detachment) was formed; its members are all ex-regular SAS regiment soldiers who have a commitment to reserve service.

22 SAS squadron duty rotations are set up as such that one squadron is maintained on Counter-Terrorism duty in the UK; a second will be on a deployment; a third will be preparing for deployment whilst conducting short term training; and the fourth will be preparing for long-term overseas training such as jungle or desert exercises. In times of war, such as the 2003 invasion of Iraq, it is not uncommon for two squadrons to be deployed.

Squadron Structure:
 * A Squadron: 1 (Boat) Troop – 2 (Air) Troop – 3 (Mobility) Troop – 4 (Mountain) Troop
 * B Squadron: 6 (Boat) Troop – 7 (Air) Troop – 8 (Mobility) Troop – 9 (Mountain) Troop
 * D Squadron: 16 (Air) Troop – 17 (Boat) Troop – 18 (Mobility) Troop – 19 (Mountain) Troop
 * G Squadron: 21 (Mobility) Troop – 22 (Mountain) Troop – 23 (Boat) Troop – 24 (Air) Troop

Counter Terrorist Wing
The SAS has a subunit called the Counter Terrorist Wing (CTW) that fulfils its counterterrorism (CT) role. It has previously been known as the Counter Revolutionary Warfare (CRW) Wing and special projects team. The SAS receives aviation support from No. 658 Squadron AAC to carry out their CT role.

The CTW is trained in Close Quarter Battle (CQB), sniper techniques and specialises in hostage rescue in buildings or on public transport. The team was formed in the early 1970s after the Prime Minister, Edward Heath, asked the Ministry of Defence to prepare for any possible terrorist attack similar to the massacre at the 1972 Summer Olympics therefore ordering that the SAS Counter Revolutionary Warfare (CRW) wing be raised.

Squadrons refresh their training every 16 months, on average. The CRW's first deployment was during the Balcombe Street siege. The Metropolitan Police had trapped a PIRA unit; it surrendered when it heard on the BBC that the SAS were being sent in. The first documented action abroad by the CRW wing was assisting the West German counter-terrorism group GSG 9 at Mogadishu.

The CT role was shared amongst the squadrons, initially on a 12-month and later six-month rotation basis to ensure that all members are eventually trained in CT and CQB techniques. The SAS train for the CT role at Pontrilas Army Training Area in a facility that includes the Killing House (officially known as Close Quarter Battle House) and part of a Boeing 747 airliner that can be reconfigured to match the internal layouts of virtually any commercial aircraft. The on-call CT squadron is split into four troops, two of which are on immediate notice to move and are restricted to the Hereford-Credenhill area, whilst the other two conduct training and exercises across the UK, but are available for operational deployment should the need arise.

Commanding Officers

 * 1950 Lt Col Mike Calvert, Royal Engineers
 * 1951 Lt Col John Slone, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
 * 1953 Lt Col Oliver Brooke, Welch Regiment
 * 1954 Lt Col Michael Osborn, West Yorkshire Regiment
 * 1955 Lt Col George Lea, Lancashire Fusiliers and Parachute Regiment
 * 1957 Lt Col Tony Deane-Drummond, Royal Signals
 * 1960 Lt Col Ronald Wilson, Royal Northumberland Fusiliers
 * 1962 Lt Col John Woodhouse, Dorset Regiment and East Surreys
 * 1965 Lt Col Michael Wingate-Gray, Black Watch
 * 1967 Lt Col John Slim, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
 * 1969 Lt Col John Watts, Royal Irish Rangers
 * 1972 Lt Col Peter de la Billière, Light Infantry
 * 1974 Lt Col Anthony Jeapes, Devonshire and Dorset Regiment
 * 1977 Lt Col Mike Wilkes, Royal Artillery
 * 1982 Lt Col Mike Rose, Coldstream Guards
 * 1984 Lt Col Andrew Massey, Royal Corps of Transport
 * 1986 Lt Col Cedric Delves, Devonshire and Dorset Regiment
 * 1989 Lt Col John Holmes, Scots Guards
 * n/k Lt Col Jonathan "Jacko" Page, Parachute Regiment
 * 2001 Lt Col Ed Butler, Royal Green Jackets
 * 2002 Lt Col Mark Carleton-Smith, Irish Guards
 * 2007 Lt Col Richard Williams, Parachute Regiment
 * 2012 Lt Col Nick Perry, King's Royal Hussars

Regular
22 SAS is under the operational command of the Director Special Forces (DSF), a major-general grade post. Previously ranked as a brigadier, the DSF was promoted from brigadier to major-general in recognition of the significant expansion of the United Kingdom Special Forces (UKSF).

Reserve
On 1 September 2014, 21 and 23 SAS were moved from UKSF They were placed under command of 1st Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Brigade. In 2019 they were moved back to UKSF.

Recruitment and training

The United Kingdom Special Forces do not recruit directly from the general public. All current members of the UK Armed Forces can apply for Special Forces selection, but the majority of candidates have historically come from a Royal Marines or Parachute Regiment background. Selections are held twice a year, once in summer and again in winter.

Typically only 10% of candidates make it through the initial selection process. Between 2014 and 2022 there were more deaths in training and exercises than in combat against armed threats. In a group of approximately 200 candidates, most will drop out within the first few days, and fewer than 30 will remain by the end. Those who complete all phases of selection are transferred to an operational squadron.

For applicants to the reserve component, 21 SAS and 23 SAS, the pathway involves comparable elements, apart from jungle training, but taken in blocks, spread out over a longer period, to fit in with the demands of participants' civilian careers.

In October 2018, recruitment policy changed to allow women to become members of the SAS for the first time. In August 2021, two women became the first to pass the pre-selection course, making them eligible for the full course.

Aptitude phase a.k.a. mountains or hills phase (4 weeks)
The first phase of selection, aptitude phase, lasts 4 weeks and takes place in the Brecon Beacons. This phase also involves training in Sennybridge, and normally starts with approximately 200 potential candidates. Candidates complete a Personal Fitness Test (PFT) upon arrival, which consists of at least 50 sit-ups in two minutes, 60 press-ups in two minutes, and a 1.5 mi run in 10 minutes and 30 seconds. They then complete an Annual Fitness Test (AFT), which consists of marching 8 mi in two hours while carrying 25 lb of equipment.

Candidates then march cross-country against the clock, increasing the distance covered each day; this culminates in an endurance test known as the "Endurance", in which candidates march 40 mi with full equipment before climbing up and down the mountain Pen y Fan (886 m; 2,907 ft) in 20 hours. By the end of this phase, candidates must then be able to run 4 mi in 30 minutes or less and swim 2 mi in 90 minutes or less.

Officers week (1 week)
After completing aptitude phase, officer candidates are required to spend a week assessing their ability to carry out planning for UKSF operations while fatigued and stressed.

Jungle phase
Following mountain training, the jungle phase takes place in Belize, Brunei, or Malaysia. Candidates are taught navigation, patrol formation and movement, and jungle survival skills.

Combat survival
Candidates then return to the UK to begin training in battle plans and foreign weapons, and then take part in combat survival exercises, ending in week-long escape and evasion training. Candidates are formed into patrols and, with nothing more than a tin can filled with survival equipment, are dressed in World War II-era uniforms and told to head for a particular destination by sunrise. The final selection test, resistance to interrogation (RTI), lasts for 36 hours.

Uniform distinctions
Normal barracks headdress is the sand-coloured beret, its cap badge is a downward pointing Excalibur, wreathed in flames (often incorrectly referred to as a winged dagger) worked into the cloth of a Crusader shield with the motto Who Dares Wins. SAS pattern parachute wings, designed by Lieutenant Jock Lewes and based on the stylised sacred ibis of Isis of Egyptian iconography depicted in the décor of Shepheard's Hotel in Cairo, are worn on the right shoulder. Its ceremonial No 1 dress uniform is distinguished by a light-blue stripe on the trousers. Its stable belt is a shade of blue similar to the blue stripe on the No 1 dress uniform.

Battle honours
In the British Army, battle honours are awarded to regiments that have seen active service in a significant engagement or campaign, generally with a victorious outcome. The Special Air Service Regiment has been awarded the following battle honours:
 * North-West Europe 1944–45
 * Tobruk 1941
 * Benghazi Raid
 * North Africa 1940–43
 * Landing in Sicily
 * Sicily 1943
 * Termoli
 * Valli di Comacchio
 * Italy 1943–45
 * Greece 1944–45
 * Adriatic
 * Middle East 1943–44
 * Falkland Islands 1982
 * Western Iraq
 * Gulf 1991

Memorials
The names of those members of the Regular SAS who have died on duty were inscribed on the regimental clock tower at Stirling Lines. Originally funded by contributions of a day's pay by members of the regiment and a donation from Handley Page in memory of Cpl. R.K. Norry who was killed in a freefall parachuting accident, this was rebuilt at the new barracks at Credenhill. Those whose names are inscribed are said by surviving members to have "failed to beat the clock". At the suggestion of the then Commanding Officer, Dare Wilson, inscribed on the base of the clock is a verse from The Golden Journey to Samarkand by James Elroy Flecker:

The other main memorial is the SAS and Airborne Forces memorial in the cloisters at Westminster Abbey. The SAS Brigade Memorial at Sennecey-le-Grand in France commemorates the wartime dead of the Belgian, British and French SAS and recently a memorial plaque was added to the David Stirling Memorial in Scotland. There are other smaller memorials "scattered throughout Europe and in the Far East".

The local church of St Martin's, Hereford has part of its graveyard set aside as an SAS memorial, over twenty SAS soldiers are buried there. There is also a wall of remembrance displaying memorial plaques to some who could not be buried, including the 18 SAS men who lost their lives in the Sea King helicopter crash during the Falklands Campaign on 19 May 1982 and a sculpture and stained glass window dedicated to the SAS.

On 17 October 2017 Ascension, a new sculpture and window honouring the Special Air Service Regiment in Hereford Cathedral, was dedicated by the Bishop of Hereford at a service attended by Prince William.

In popular culture

 * Books and films about the SAS:
 * Eastern Approaches – Fitzroy Maclean's memoir provides his personal experiences in the fledgling SAS in the Western Desert Campaign.
 * Bravo Two Zero – a memoir about a failed SAS mission by Andy McNab
 * Bravo Two Zero - a film based on the book of the same name by Andy McNab.
 * Red Notice, a novel by Andy McNab, part of his Tom Buckingham Series
 * SAS: Red Notice - a 2021 film based on Andy McNab's novel Red Notice.
 * The One That Got Away - another memoir about the Bravo Two Zero mission by Chris Ryan
 * The One That Got Away - a film based on the book
 * The Feather Men a novel by Sir Ranulph Fiennes - claimed by the author to be a partly non-fictional story involving the SAS
 * Killer Elite - film based on The Feathermen, about a mercenary hired to kill SAS troopers (fictional story surrounding real events and people from SAS history).
 * 6 Days - film about the SAS involvement in the Iranian Embassy siege in 1980
 * Who Dares Wins, 1982 film - released in the United States as The Final Option
 * SAS: Rogue Heroes, 2016 book
 * Television shows about the SAS:
 * SAS: Are You Tough Enough? (2002-2004)
 * SAS: Who Dares Wins – a reality quasi-military training television programme which pits contestants against harsh environments in a two-week-long training course that is designed to replicate Special Air Service selection
 * Ultimate Force – an ITV action drama series following the operations of the fictitious 'Red Troop' of the Special Air Service. (2002-2008)
 * SAS: Rogue Heroes – a BBC historical drama series which depicts the formation of the Special Air Service during World War II. (2022)

Alliances

 * 🇦🇺 Australia – Special Air Service Regiment
 * 🇳🇿 New Zealand – New Zealand Special Air Service

title: Special Air Service


text:
Eh

Eh ( or ) is a spoken interjection used in many varieties of English. The oldest Oxford English Dictionary defines eh as an "interjectional interrogative particle often inviting assent to the sentiment expressed." Today, while eh has many different uses, it is most popularly used in a manner similar in meaning to "Excuse me?", "Please repeat that", "Huh?", or to otherwise mark a question. It is also commonly used as an alternative to the question tag "right?", as a method for inciting a reply, as in "Don't you think?", "You agree with me, right?", as in, "It's nice here, eh?" (instead of "It's nice here, right?"). In the Americas, it is most commonly associated with Canada and Canadian English, though it is also common in England, Scotland, and New Zealand. It is also known in some American regions bordering Canada, including the area stretching from northern Wisconsin up to Michigan's Upper Peninsula. Similar interjections exist in many other languages, such as Azerbaijani and Italian and Dutch.

The spelling of this sound in English is quite different from the common usage of these letters. The vowel is sounded in one of the continental manners (as in French, only missing the apostrophe), and the letter h is used to indicate it is long, as though the origin of the spelling were German.

While evidence suggests that eh initially may have been considered as an onomatopoeic sound, the earliest uses of eh found so far, date back to Early Modern English in 1662, but first mentions of it are found in Middle English. In 1707, it was first used in a play, functioning "to create or confirm agreement." Later, in 1773, its earliest quotation, s.v. "eh" was in a play by Irish playwright Oliver Goldsmith.

It can also convey a lack of strong emotion and a neutral response. For example, if when asked how a movie was one replies with "Eh," this indicates that they did not find it particularly great or terrible. In this example, eh is used as a way to convey a middle-ground feeling or invite further discussion.

United States
Eh is also used in situations to describe something bad or mediocre. In which, it is often pronounced with a short "e" sound and the "h" may even be noticeable. Eh also has the same pronunciation as æ.

It is quite prevalent in the New York area to use the term "ey" as a general substitute for such basic greetings, such as "hey" or "hello".

In the Upper Midwest, it is used to end sentences.

History
The first clear evidence of eh 's usage in Canada was in 1836, through the writings of Thomas Chandler Haliburton, a Nova-Scotian district judge and comical writer. Eh was first recognized as being a marker of being Canadian in 1959 by Harold B. Allen; he stated that eh is "so exclusively a Canadian feature that immigration officials use it as an identifying clue. " However, despite mainly being perceived as a stereotypical marker of Canadian identity, eh was not recognized initially as a Canadianism in the Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles (DCHP-1). Chief editor of the DCHP-1, Walter Avis, argued that it should not be included due to its historical use in British English and its frequency in American, Australian, and New Zealand English. However, despite eh 's origins, it has become more frequently used in Canada than in the UK and the US, and in a broader variety of contexts. Due to this frequency, it has since been included in the DCHP-2 as a Preservation of British English that is Culturally Significant.

Uses
According to the DCHP-2, there are five main uses of eh with four subtypes. The first is used to elicit confirmation (1a), which can be used in sentences like "So that's what he thinks, eh?" A subtype of this use is to elicit acknowledgement (1b). This applies to the acknowledgment of a fact in contrast to belief or opinion. For example, one could say "I have a new dog, eh?" The second subtype (1c) is to confirm agreement. This is used to increase the chance of acceptance of a suggestion, toning down statements. The fourth, (1d), is used as an exclamative over a shared experience, for example "What a great game, eh?" The final (1e) is to confirm compliance, like asking "Will you?" The belief is that this tones down a command or request.

The second main use of eh is as an expression of disbelief to express one's surprise over the offered information (2). Use 3 is to elicit repetition, and is referred to as the "Pardon eh." It is used synonymously with "I beg your pardon?" in the sense of asking for a repetition of what was said. The fourth use is a distinctly Canadian use, identified as the narrative eh. It is a rarer form, and is claimed to be found primarily in oral evidence of Canadian origin. The final use of eh is as a metalinguistic commentary to express a link with Canada or rural Canada (5). This form is commentary on the Canadian status of eh and has contributed its share to the registration of eh and commodification of the form in association with Canada. A popular example of its use is in the phrase "How's it goin', eh?"

Due to English and French being Canada's official languages, the popularity of eh 's usage in Canada is believed to be influenced by French. The French Canadian hein sounds similar to a nasalized Canadian eh, and the two share similar functions. Due to this, the increased use of eh in Canada may have been influenced by the frequent use of hein in Canadian French.

The term is used most frequently among blue-collar workers, and the most popular form used is for opinions and exclamations. While there is a prevalent stereotype that men use eh more than women, survey results suggest similar use frequencies. Overall, between both men and women, the pardon-eh is used much less than the observation-eh. The most positively viewed usage of eh is the imperative "I know, eh?" form with the exclamation-eh and opinion-eh close behind. The most negatively viewed usage is the anecdotal, narrative-eh. This perception is due to opinions surrounding the speakers of the narrative-eh, who are categorized as uneducated, lower-class, rural, and male, akin to the McKenzie brothers from the comedy sketch "Great White North," which first appeared during Second City Television's (SCTV) third season.

Regionally, while usage is similar across the ten provinces, with the use of eh not having changed significantly over the past 25 years, there is some variation. For example, in Quebec, respondents use eh for 'pardon' more than other Canadians. While usage has not changed significantly across Canada, the overall frequency of eh has declined among speakers born in the 1960s or later. This decrease has been prevalent in big cities such as Vancouver and Toronto. Despite this decline, there have been high recognition rates and uptake of the Canadian eh among immigrant populations.

Iconography
Eh has gained such recognition among Canadians that it is used consciously and frequently by newspaper journalists and others in informal articles and reports. Also, eh is attributed freely in reported conversations with all men, including athletes, professors, and politicians, such as Pierre Trudeau.

The prevalence of eh in Canadian iconography is strongly associated with its recognition as part of the Canadian national or regional identity. In print, it is used primarily to signify 'Canadian,' with many websites incorporating eh into their URLs to indicate a Canadian connection. It is also popularly incorporated into Canadian-targeted marketing campaigns, such as when Smarties' Canadian-themed packaging was labelled "SMARTIES eh?"

The usage of eh in Canada is occasionally mocked in the United States, where some view its use as a stereotypical Canadianism. Such stereotypes have been reinforced in popular culture and were famously lampooned in South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut. Singer Don Freed, in his song "Saskatchewan," declares, "What is this 'Eh?'-nonsense? I wouldn't speak like that if I were paid to". There are many products displaying the phrase, such as T-shirts and coffee mugs.

Future usage
The future of eh in Canada is vague but promising. Three critical factors that will shape the future of this expression include speaker attitudes, the possible replacement of the expressions by young speakers, and new Canadians' adoption of eh. Students account for a large percentage of eh users and continue to contribute to the growing community. Because of this projected increase in the usage of eh, the previous negative connotation surrounding the narrative-eh will most likely dwindle. The future of eh is quite optimistic and there is room for expansion due to the various uses possible. In addition to the popularity amongst students, immigrants are essential to the future of eh. Survey results on immigrant recognition of eh show that immigrants had high rates of recognition for most types of eh, with opinion-eh and exclamation-eh at the top. The data shows that while the usage of eh in immigrant countries is different, it is still common. This shows that even though native speakers still use eh more frequently, the future of eh is still optimistic. Altogether, Canada's link with bilingualism has contributed to eh 's common usage, and its recognition amongst immigrants shows that eh will continue to be prevalent in Canadian culture.

New Zealand
While not as commonly lampooned as the Canadian eh, there are few features that are more eagerly recognized by New Zealanders as a marker of their identity than the tag particle eh (commonly spelt as ay, although this has been contentious). New Zealanders use eh much more than Canadians, who are more famous for the word. This commonly used and referenced feature of New Zealand English (NZE) is one of great controversy to many communication scholars as it is both a mark of cultural identity and simultaneously a means to parody those of a lower socioeconomic status. The use of eh in New Zealand is very common among all demographics.

Communications scholar Miriam Meyerhoff describes eh as a "validation checker" to create connections between speakers. She says that there are two main uses of the phrase: to signify a question, such as "You went to school in Christchurch, eh?"; or to confirm that the listener understands new information, such as "He was way bigger than me, eh". It is believed that eh became common in New Zealand due to similarity with the Māori word nē, which has a similar use and rhymes with eh.

A 1994 study by Meyerhoff sought to examine the function of eh in New Zealand culture. She hypothesized that eh did not function as a clarification device as frequently believed, but instead served as a means of establishing solidarity between individuals of similar ethnic descent. In her research, Meyerhoff analyzed conversations between an interviewer and an interviewee of either Pākehā or Māori descent and calculated the frequency of eh in the conversation. In order to yield the most natural speech, Meyerhoff instructed the interviewers to introduce themselves as a "friend of a friend", to their respective interviewees. Her results showed Māori men as the most frequent users of eh in their interviews. As Māori are typically of a lower socio-economic status, Meyerhoff proposed that eh functioned as a verbal cue that one reciprocated by another individual signified both shared identity and mutual acceptance. Therefore, in the context of Meyerhoff's research, eh can be equated as a device to establish and maintain a group identity. This phenomenon sheds light on the continuous scholarly debate questioning if language determines culture or culture determines language. In New Zealand eh is used more often by males than females, more by younger generations than older generations, and more by the middle class than the working class. Māori use eh about twice as much than Pākehā, irrespective of their gender, age or class.

England, Scotland and Ireland
The usage of the word is widespread throughout much of the UK, particularly in Eastern Scotland, the north of England, Northern Ireland, and Wales. It is normally used to mean 'what?'. In Scotland, mainly around the Tayside region, eh is also used as a shortened term for 'yes'. For example, "Are you going to the disco?" "Eh". In Aberdeen and the wider Doric Scots speaking area of Grampian, eh is often used to end a sentence, as a continuation or sometimes, inflection is added and it's used as a confirmation, or with different inflection, a question. For example, "I was walking home, eh, and I saw a badger, eh", "It was a big car, eh" or "We're going to the co-op, eh?".

Rest of the world
Eh? used to solicit agreement or confirmation is also heard regularly amongst speakers in Australia, Trinidad and Tobago and the United Kingdom (where it is sometimes spelled ay on the assumption that eh would rhyme with heh or meh). In the Caribbean island of Barbados the word nuh acts similarly, as does noh in Surinamese Dutch and Sranantongo. The usage in New Zealand is similar, and is more common in the North Island. It is also heard in the United States, especially Minnesota, Wisconsin, the Upper Peninsula of Michigan (although the Scandinavian-based Yooperism ya is more common), Oklahoma, and the New England region. In New England and Oklahoma, it is also used as a general exclamation as in Scotland and the Channel Islands of Jersey and Guernsey. It is occasionally used to express indifference, in a similar way to meh.

Since usage of the word eh is not as common in the United States as it is in Canada, it is often used by Americans, and indeed Canadians themselves, to parody Canadian English.

The equivalent in South African English is hey. This usage is also common in Western Canada.

Eh is also used in Guernsey English and Jersey English.

Eh is very common in the English spoken in the Seychelles.

In Singapore, the use of medium Singlish often includes eh as an interjection, but it is not as popularly used as lah. An example of a sentence that uses eh is "Dis guy Singlish damn good eh", meaning "this guy's Singlish is very good".

Similar to Singapore, Malaysia also uses eh in Manglish as an interjection. It is also used as an exclamation to express surprise, depending on the length and context of the eh. It also depends how one sounds uses it as a short eh can be a sarcastic shock or a genuine one. Sometimes it can be used as the equivalent as oi when the speaker is being angry to the listener such as "Eh, hello!?" or "Eh, can you not!?". A long eeeh can be a disgusted shock, annoyance, or greater surprise. The eh usage here is similar to the Japanese usage. It is used by all Malaysians regardless of what language they are using.

Similar terms in other languages

 * Hè ('heh' ) (not to be confused with hé ('hey' ), an informal greeting and (potentially rude) way of getting someone's attention is an informal yet very common Dutch interjection that can be used as a brief exclamation to indicate confusion or surprise ('huh?'), in a prolonged manner when disappointed or annoyed ('aww'), or at the end of any sentence to form a tag question. The third usage is arguably the most popular. It very closely compares with "Eh" in Canadian English. In the regional dialects of Zealand and West Flanders, the corresponding and frequently used interjection hé, is in fact pronounced the same as in English (note that the equivalent of Dutch is silent in Zealandic and West Flemish).
 * Japanese Hé?/え？ is a common exclamation in Japanese and is used to express surprise. It is also used when the listener did not fully understand or hear what the speaker said. It can be lengthened to show greater surprise (e.g. Heeeeee?!). Ne and naa are extremely similar to the Canadian eh, being statement ending particles which solicit or assume agreement, confirmation, or comprehension on the part of the listener.
 * Portuguese né?, a contraction of não é? meaning 'isn't it?', is used to turn a statement in to a question, even if no answer is expected, for emphasis or other objectives.
 * Hein is used in French and in Portuguese in much the same way as in English.
 * Hain is used in Mauritian Creole and it can express a variety of ideas. It is generally used in context of a conversation and is generally interpreted very quickly.
 * Gell/gelle or oder, wa, wat or wahr ('true' or 'correct') or nä/ne/net (from nicht, 'not') are used in (very) colloquial German to express a positive interrogative at the end of a sentence, much as eh is used in Canadian English. Statements expressed in Standard German are more commonly phrased in negative terms, and outside of colloquial usage the ending interrogative is often nicht wahr, which invites a response of stimmt ('agreed', literally 'that's right').
 * Nietwaar is used in Dutch in the same way as nicht wahr is in German.
 * Spanish ¿No?, literally translated to English as 'no', is often put at the end of a statement to change it into a question and give emphasis, i.e. Hace buen tiempo, ¿no? ('The weather is nice, isn't it? ' ) Eh is also used as well for emphasis, as in ¡Te vas a caer de la silla, eh! ('You're going to fall from the chair, if you keep doing that!') Che also has a similar function.
 * In Catalan, eh? is also commonly used.
 * Swiss German oder meaning 'or' in English, is commonly used interrogatively as '... or what?' and gäll/gell at the end of sentences in German-speaking Switzerland, especially in the Zurich area. It is used more as a matter of conversational convention than for its meaning. The expression ni is used in highest Alemannic-speaking parts, and is used similarly to net in German. The term Äh is also used, which is pronounced similarly to eh in English and has the same meaning.
 * Azerbaijani ha?, hı?, hay?, and hıy? are commonly used as 'huh?'. Alternatively, hə? 'yes?', and düzdür? 'is it correct?' can be used as 'isn't it?'.
 * Pakistani Urdu ہیں؟ is used to mean 'what? say it again'.
 * Egyptian Arabic ايه؟ is used to mean 'what? say it again'. It could also mean 'what's wrong?' either in a concerned manner or a more aggressive one, depending on the tone used to pose the question. Besides, it could refer to an exclamation.
 * Levantine Arabic ايش or شو (esh, shoo) as 'what?'.
 * Gulf Arabic وشو (wisho) is used to mean 'what?'.
 * Regional Italian neh is used in regional Northern Italian as spoken in Piedmont, Western Lombardy (Northwestern Italy), and the Ticino (Southern Switzerland), with the meaning of "isn't it true?". It comes from the expression in the local languages (Piedmontese and Lombard) N'è (mia/pa) vera?, which means, once again, 'isn't it true?'

title: Eh