text:
Talk:Reliabilism

comment
I appreciate the work that went into the earlier drafts of this article, but basically, they were obviously written by someone who lacks the philosophical sophistication to do this topic justice. It would have been OK if I had to rearrange a little here and there, change a few words, add a few qualifiers. In fact, I had to completely rewrite the thing--nary a sentence was left standing in its original form. Maybe I'm a little sensitive since Swain was on my dissertation committee, but jeez.

Basically, I think we should write articles about what we know enough about to be able to do an acceptable job, where "acceptable job" means "a job such that an expert on the topic would not have to completely rewrite the article from the beginning and change every sentence in it." Unless we have this attitude when we work on the 'pedia, it's going to get filled up with a lot of really bad cruft. --Larry_Sanger

 * Plantinga at least, would resist your assertion that reliabilism can be understood as just a further analysis of what justificaiton means. His book "Warrant the Current Debate" clearly possitions his views as a departure from the classical view of justification.  In fact, he intentionally refuses to use the word justification in describing his own theory of knowlege.Mark Christensen

 * It's been a while since I've read that book, but I disagree that it offers a radical departure from the classical view of justification. He says, as most epistemologists do, that justification is a deontological concept (as I say in Ch. 1, Sect. 1 of my dissertation), and says that warrant, allegedly not a deontological concept, is a more interesting concept to analyze--that's how I remember it.  In fact, I believe it's of the concept of warrant that Plantinga gives his account, not either of knowledge or of justification.  Besides, on any account Plantinga would certainly not deny that reliabilism can be understood as an analysis of what justification means; any epistemologist knows that. --Larry_Sanger

 * That's true as far as it goes, but you have to admit that warrant, knowlege and justification are inherently going to be bound together conceptually, so that one cannot give a full acount of one of the three without at least commenting on the other two. If my memory serves, Plantinga argues that the deontological nature of classical justification is an inherent flaw, which can best be addressed by accepting his particular brand of externalist reliabilism based on an analysis of proper function.  His account of warrant is thus intended to be free from both the normative and internalist aspects of classical justification (which he takes to be the two essential components of a theory of justification), and is therefore intended as an account of a reliabilism as a theory of knowledge which is explicitly not just a clarification of the classical notion of justification.

 * It may be that Plantinga is wrong, and that his view is actually compatible with the classical understanding of justification, or it may be that Plantinga's view is inherently problematic, but unless my memory is very faulty, Plantinga is very intentional about attempting to offer a critique of, and an alternative to, the classical view of justification. Mark Christensen

 * I'm not sure what your point with this long discussion is, Mark. Yes, your interpretation of Plantinga is correct.  It doesn't have a lot of bearing on the present article, though. --LMS

 * My point is that Plantinga and other reliablists sometimes seem to me to believe that they are providing an alternitive to the clasical JTB theory, and we should probably take them at their word. Certianly to say they are wrong is a controvercial claim which should be attributed.  I have changed the article to reflect this point.

 * The article didn't, or at least shouldn't have, said that they're wrong to regard reliabilism as an alternative to the JTB analysis. Yes, many people have so regarded it.  Apparently, a line or part of a line I wrote was deleted somehow--the claim in question wasn't even grammatical. --Larry_Sanger

 * Perhaps there was a missing line -- how would I know? But the article is better now, so thanks. One thing is still not clear in that paragraph  -- some versions of reliablisim may be compatable with JTB theory, while others may not.  This is not just a matter of some reliablists believing and others not beliving relaiablism to be compatable.  As it is I think the paragraph suggests that these acounts can all be seen as compatable, but some reliablists, aren't willing to do this.

If "Reliabilism" is the correct spelling why isn't "reliabilist" instead of realiablist"? Ted Longstaffe
 * Plantinga isn't a reliabilist, he's a proper-functionalist. One can be a reliabilist without being a proper-functionalist and one can be a proper-functionalist without being a reliabilist.  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 188.220.247.19 (talk) 18:18, 21 July 2012 (UTC)

oops?
visual sense-perception through opaque surfaces in daylight

This seems too obvious of a mistake to not have been corrected, so I must be mistaken about it being a mistake, right?? -- SS 18:24, 23 Aug 2004 (UTC)

---

Good call. That "opaque" should be a word in the range of "semi-opaque" up to "transparent." I'm putting my money on "semi-transparent" because "full-transparency" would unnecessarily weaken the argument. Who's going to be the bold one to change the text? Not I, said anonymous. 193.45.244.11 09:36, 23 February 2006 (UTC)killyourself

I changed it to "non-opaque," since I'm 99% certain that's what it should be. Motorneuron 22:34, 19 March 2006 (UTC)motorneuron

Citations???
Extensive discussion of Brandom's parrot example but no citation. Please provide. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 152.16.225.228 (talk) 19:33, 7 March 2008 (UTC)

Page intro
Can anyone confirm source for this part of the intro:

One knows that p (p stands for any proposition--e.g., that the sky is blue) if and only if p is true, one believes that p is true, and one has arrived at the belief that p through some reliable process.

I only ask as this base principle seems to be shown lacking as per the 'Farmer Field' scenario. Also, I dont think Ive ever read Goldman (or any published reliabilist) proposing this principle. Foolosofur (talk) 02:50, 25 August 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:Reliabilism


text:
List of religions and spiritual traditions

While the word religion is difficult to define, one standard model of religion used in religious studies courses defines it as "[a] system of symbols which acts to establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic."

Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to explain the origin of life or the universe. They tend to derive morality, ethics, religious laws, or a preferred lifestyle from their ideas about the cosmos and human nature. According to some estimates, there are roughly 4,200 religions, churches, denominations, religious bodies, faith groups, tribes, cultures, movements, or ultimate concerns.

The word religion is sometimes used interchangeably with the words "faith" or "belief system", but religion differs from private belief in that it has a public aspect. Most religions have organized behaviours, including clerical hierarchies, a definition of what constitutes adherence or membership, congregations of laity, regular meetings or services for the purposes of veneration of a deity or for prayer, holy places (either natural or architectural) or religious texts. Certain religions also have a sacred language often used in liturgical services. The practice of a religion may also include sermons, commemoration of the activities of a God or gods, sacrifices, festivals, feasts, trance, rituals, liturgies, ceremonies, worship, initiations, funerals, marriages, meditation, invocation, mediumship, music, art, dance, public service, or other aspects of human culture. Religious beliefs have also been used to explain parapsychological phenomena such as out-of-body experiences, near-death experiences, and reincarnation, along with many other paranormal and supernatural experiences.

Some academics studying the subject have divided religions into three broad categories: world religions, a term which refers to transcultural, international faiths; Indigenous religions, which refers to smaller, culture-specific or nation-specific religious groups; and new religious movements, which refers to recently developed faiths. One modern academic theory of religion, social constructionism, says that religion is a modern concept that suggests all spiritual practice and worship follows a model similar to the Abrahamic religions as an orientation system that helps to interpret reality and define human beings, and thus believes that religion, as a concept, has been applied inappropriately to non-Western cultures that are not based upon such systems, or in which these systems are a substantially simpler construct.

Eastern religions
Eastern religions are the religions which originated in East, South and Southeast Asia encompassing a diverse range of eastern and spiritual traditions.

East Asian religions
World religions that originated in East Asia, also known as Taoic religions; namely Taoism and Confucianism and religions and traditions descended from them.

Chinese philosophy schools

 * Taojia ("School of the Tao")
 * Fajia ('School of Law")
 * Zonghengjia ("School of Diplomacy")
 * Huang–Lao
 * Mojia ("School of Mo")
 * Mingjia ("School of Names")
 * Nongjia ("School of Agrarianism")
 * Ruijia ("School of Scholars")
 * Yangism
 * Yinyangjia ("School of Yin Yang")
 * Zajia ("School of Syncretism")

Confucianism

 * Confucian ritual religion
 * Han Learning
 * Korean Confucianism
 * Donghak
 * Lingnan Confucianism
 * Neo-Confucianism
 * Cheng-Zhu school
 * Edo Neo-Confucianism
 * Yangmingism
 * New Confucianism
 * Progressive Confucianism
 * New Text
 * Changzhou school
 * Old Text

Taoism
Syncretic Taoism
 * Korean Taoism
 * Quanzhen School ("School of the Fulfilled Virtue")
 * Shangqing School ("School of the Highest Clarity")
 * Way of the Five Pecks of Rice
 * Way of the Celestial Masters
 * Zhengyi Dao ("Way of the Right Oneness")
 * Dragon Gate Taoism
 * Wuliupai ("School of Wu-Liu")
 * Kōshin
 * Xuanxue ("Neo-Taoism")
 * Yao Taoism ("Meishanism")

Indian religions
The four world religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent, also known as Dharmic religions; namely Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and Buddhism and religions and traditions descended from them.

Buddhism

 * Pre-sectarian Buddhism (theorized)
 * Mahayana
 * Chinese Buddhism
 * Tiantai
 * Tendai
 * Cheontae
 * Huayan school
 * Daśabhūmikā
 * Chan Buddhism
 * Seon Buddhism
 * Thiền Buddhism
 * Trúc Lâm (syncretic)
 * Zen Buddhism
 * Japanese Zen
 * Caodong school
 * Sōtō
 * Keizan line
 * Jakuen line
 * Giin line
 * Linji school
 * Otokan line
 * Rinzai
 * Ōbaku
 * Fuke-shū
 * Sanbo Kyodan
 * Madhyamaka
 * Sanlun
 * Jonang
 * Prasaṅgika
 * Svatantrika
 * Nichiren Buddhism
 * Fuju-fuse
 * Honmon Butsuryū-shū
 * Kempon Hokke
 * Nichiren Shōshū
 * Nichiren Shū
 * Pure Land Buddhism
 * Jōdo Shinshū
 * Honganji-ha
 * Ōtani-ha
 * Yuzu Nembutsu
 * Seizan
 * Jōdo-shū
 * Yogācāra
 * East Asian Yogācāra
 * Nikaya Buddhism (also called "Hinayana")
 * Theravada
 * Sangharaj Nikaya
 * Mahasthabir Nikaya
 * Dwara Nikaya
 * Shwegyin Nikaya
 * Thudhamma Nikaya
 * Amarapura–Rāmañña Nikāya
 * Galduwa Forest Tradition
 * Siam Nikaya
 * Sri Lankan Forest Tradition
 * Dhammayuttika Nikaya
 * Thai Forest Tradition
 * Maha Nikaya (Thailand)
 * Dhammakaya Movement
 * Vipassana movement (United States)
 * Vajrayana
 * Azhaliism
 * Bongthingism
 * Chinese Esoteric Buddhism
 * Newar Buddhism
 * Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism
 * Shingon Buddhism
 * Tachikawa-ryū
 * Southern Esoteric Buddhism
 * Tibetan Buddhism
 * Bon (syncretic)
 * Gelug
 * Yellow Shamanism (syncretic)
 * Kagyu
 * Dagpo Kagyu
 * Karma Kagyu
 * Drukpa Kagyu
 * Shangpa Kagyu
 * Nyingma
 * Sakya
 * Jonang
 * Bodongpa
 * Navayana

Dharmic philosophy schools

 * Āstika (Orthodox schools)
 * Nyaya
 * Mimamsa
 * Samkhya
 * Vaisheshika
 * Vedanta
 * Advaita Vedanta
 * Akshar-Purushottam Darshan
 * Bhedabheda
 * Achintya Bheda Abheda
 * Dvaitadvaita
 * Dvaita Vedanta
 * Pratyabhijna
 * Shaiva Siddhanta
 * Shiva Advaita
 * Shuddhadvaita
 * Vishishtadvaita
 * Yoga (philosophy)
 * Nāstika (Heterodox schools)
 * Ajivika
 * Ajñana
 * Akiriya
 * Buddhism
 * Charvaka
 * Jainism
 * Sassatavada

Hinduism
Syncretic Hinduism
 * Ganapatya
 * Sant Mat
 * Dadupanth
 * Kabir panth
 * Ravidassia religion
 * Sadh
 * Satya Mahima Dharma
 * Saura
 * Shaivism
 * Aghori
 * Kapalika
 * Kashmir Shaivism
 * Kaumaram
 * Nath
 * Adinath Sampradaya
 * Inchegeri Sampradaya
 * Pashupata Shaivism
 * Shaiva Siddhanta
 * Veerashaivism
 * Lingayatism
 * Shaktism
 * Srikula
 * Smartism
 * Śrauta
 * Tantra
 * Kaula
 * Vaishnavism/Krishnaism
 * Balmikism
 * Bhagavata tradition
 * Brahma Sampradaya
 * Madhva tradition
 * Gaudiya Vaishnavism
 * Manipuri Vaishnavism
 * Haridasa
 * Ekasarana Dharma
 * Kapadi Sampradaya
 * Mahanubhava
 * Nimbarka Sampradaya
 * Pranami/Pranami Sampraday
 * Radha Vallabh Sampradaya
 * Ramsnehi Sampradaya
 * Rudra Sampradaya
 * Pushtimarg
 * Sri Vaishnavism
 * Ramanandi Sampradaya
 * Thenkalais
 * Manavala Mamunigal Sabha
 * Vaishnava-Sahajiya
 * Warkari
 * Zunism (disputedly Hindu)

 * Banjara Hinduism
 * Baul
 * Bhil Hinduism
 * Folk Hinduism
 * Dyaoism
 * Indonesian Hinduism
 * Balinese Hinduism
 * Javanese Hinduism
 * Tenggerese Hinduism
 * Kaharingan
 * Naurus
 * Nuaulu religion

Jainism

 * Digambara
 * Kanji Panth
 * Taran Panth
 * Śvētāmbara
 * Murtipujaka
 * Sthānakavāsī
 * Yapaniya (Historical)

Sikhism
Sects such as the Nirankari, Ramraiya and Namdhari are not accepted within the Sikh Rehat Maryada (Sikh Code of Conduct) as they believe in a current human Satguru which goes against Guru Gobind Singh Ji's Dohra in Ardaas.

 * Tat Khalsa
 * Udasi
 * Nanakpanthi
 * Nirankari
 * Nirmala
 * Sewapanthi
 * Nihang
 * Taksali
 * Mina
 * Ramraiya
 * Namdhari
 * Akhand Kirtani
 * 3HO
 * Sanatan Sikh

Yoga

 * Ananda Yoga
 * Bhakti yoga
 * Hatha yoga
 * Bihar School of Yoga
 * Integral Yoga
 * Jivamukti Yoga
 * Jnana yoga
 * Karma yoga
 * Kripalu Yoga
 * Kriya Yoga
 * Kundalini yoga
 * Raja yoga
 * Sahaja Yoga
 * Siddha Yoga
 * Sivananda yoga
 * Surat Shabd Yoga
 * Tantric Yoga

Christianity
Early Christianity

Eastern Christianity
 * Arianism
 * Jewish Christianity
 * Pauline Christianity
 * Proto-orthodox Christianity
 * Great Church
 * Nicene Christianity
 * Chalcedonian Christianity
 * Neo-Chalcedonism
 * Johannine Community
 * Proto-Gnosticism
 * Gnosticism
 * Bogomilism
 * Catharism
 * Paulicianism
 * Sethianism
 * Valentinianism
 * Simonians
 * Marcionism

Western Christianity
 * Church of the East (called "Nestorianism")
 * Ancient Church of the East
 * Assyrian Church of the East
 * Chaldean Syrian Church
 * Eastern Catholic Churches
 * Albanian Greek Catholic Church
 * Belarusian Greek Catholic Church
 * Bulgarian Greek Catholic Church
 * Byzantine Catholic Church of Croatia and Serbia
 * Chaldean Catholic Church
 * Greek Byzantine Catholic Church
 * Hungarian Byzantine Catholic Church
 * Italo-Albanian Catholic Church (a.k.a. the "Italo-Greek Catholic Church")
 * Macedonian Catholic Church
 * Maronite Church
 * Melkite Greek Catholic Church
 * Romanian Catholic Church
 * Russian Greek Catholic Church
 * Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church (a.k.a. the "Byzantine Catholic Church" in the United States)
 * Slovak Greek Catholic Church
 * Syriac Catholic Church
 * Syro-Malankara Catholic Church
 * Syro-Malabar Catholic Church
 * Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church
 * (Independent Eastern Catholic Churches)
 * Ukrainian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church
 * Eastern Orthodox Church (officially the "Orthodox Catholic Church")
 * Albanian Orthodox Church
 * Bulgarian Orthodox Church
 * Georgian Orthodox Church
 * Greek Orthodox Church
 * Romanian Orthodox Church
 * Russian Orthodox Church
 * Belarusian Orthodox Church
 * Serbian Orthodox Church
 * Ukrainian Orthodox Church
 * Russian Old Believers (a.k.a. "Old Ritualists")
 * Oriental Orthodox Churches (a.k.a. "Non-Chalcedonian" or "Miaphysite"/"Monophysite")
 * Armenian Apostolic Church
 * Coptic Orthodox Church
 * Syriac Orthodox Church
 * Malankara Jacobite Syrian Church (of the St. Thomas Christians in India)
 * Ethiopian Orthodox Church
 * Eritrean Orthodox Church
 * Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (of the St. Thomas Christians in India)
 * Spiritual Christianity

Syncretic Other
 * Proto-Protestantism
 * Brethren of the Free Spirit (Historical)
 * Hussites (Historical)
 * Czech Brethren
 * Moravians
 * Lollardy (Historical)
 * Strigolniki (Historical)
 * Waldensians
 * Protestantism
 * Anabaptists (Radical Protestants)
 * Amish
 * Hutterites
 * Mennonites
 * River Brethren
 * Schwarzenau Brethren
 * Anglicanism
 * Anglo-Catholicism
 * Continuing Anglican movement
 * Evangelical Anglicanism
 * Baptists
 * Black church
 * Black theology
 * Charismatic Christianity
 * Pentecostalism ("First wave")
 * Oneness Pentecostalism
 * Word of Faith
 * Charismatic movement ("Second wave")
 * Neo-charismatic movement ("Third wave")
 * Christian deism
 * Confessing Movement
 * Evangelicalism
 * Progressive Christianity
 * Protestant fundamentalism
 * Lutheranism
 * Evangelical Catholic
 * Neo-Lutheranism
 * Pietism
 * Methodism
 * Calvinistic Methodists
 * Holiness movement
 * Wesleyanism
 * Puritans
 * Quakers
 * Reformed churches
 * Amyraldism (a.k.a."four-point Calvinism")
 * Arminianism
 * Christian reconstructionism
 * Congregational churches
 * Continental Reformed churches
 * Swiss Reformed
 * Dutch Reformed
 * French Huguenot
 * Neo-Calvinism
 * New Calvinism
 * Presbyterianism
 * Zwinglianism
 * Reformed Eastern Christianity
 * Restoration movement
 * Adventism
 * Seventh-day Adventist Church
 * Churches of Christ
 * Bible Student movement
 * Jehovah's Witnesses
 * Latter Day Saint movement
 * The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
 * Mormon fundamentalism
 * Swedenborgianism (a.k.a. "The New Church")
 * Unitarianism
 * Roman Catholic Church/Latin Church (a.k.a. "Roman Catholicism" or "Catholicism")
 * Charismatic Catholics
 * Gallicanism
 * Independent Catholic churches
 * Old Catholic Church
 * Liberal Catholicism
 * Modernist Catholics
 * Traditionalist Catholics
 * Sedevacantism
 * Sedeprivationism
 * Ultramontanism
 * Esoteric Christianity
 * Christian Theosophy
 * Christopaganism
 * Martinism
 * Folk Christianity
 * Folk Catholicism
 * Folk Orthodoxy
 * God Worshipping Society (Historical)
 * Judaizers (Judeo-Christian)
 * Christian Kabbalah
 * Messianic Judaism
 * Rizalista
 * Spiritual Baptist
 * American Civil Religion
 * Christian Universalism
 * Nondenominational Christianity
 * Nontrinitarianism

Islam
Khawarij

Shia Islam
 * Azraqi (Historical)
 * Haruriyyah (Historical)
 * Ibadi
 * Najdat (Historical)
 * Sufri (Historical)

Sufism
 * Alevism
 * Alians
 * Bektashism
 * Kurdish Alevism
 * Alawites (Nusayris)
 * Isma'ilism
 * Mustaali
 * Dawoodi Bohra
 * Alavi Bohra
 * Atba-i-Malak
 * Atba-i-Malak Badar
 * Atba-i-Malak Vakil
 * Hebtiahs Bohra
 * Progressive Dawoodi Bohra
 * Sulaymani
 * Nizari
 * Twelver
 * Ja'fari jurisprudence
 * Akhbari
 * Shaykhism
 * Usuli
 * Zaidiyyah
 * Jarudiyah
 * Batriyya

Sunni Islam
 * Bektashi Order
 * Chishti Order
 * Kubrawiya
 * Khufiyya
 * Mevlevi Order
 * Mouride
 * Naqshbandi
 * Jahriyya
 * Ni'matullāhī
 * Qadiriyya
 * Roshani
 * Shadhili
 * Suhrawardiyya
 * Sufi Order International
 * Tijaniyyah
 * Universal Sufism

Syncretic Other
 * Kalam/Fiqh
 * Ash'ari
 * Maliki
 * Shafi'i
 * Hanbali
 * Maturidi
 * Hanafi
 * Barelvi
 * Deobandi
 * Gedimu
 * Athari
 * Salafi
 * Madkhalism
 * Wahhabism
 * Ahle Hadith
 * Islamism
 * Islamic Modernism
 * Muʿtazila
 * Abangan
 * Ali-Illahism
 * Din-i Ilahi
 * Kafirism
 * Wetu Telu
 * Satpanth
 * Barmati Panth
 * Ahmadiyya
 * Avicennism
 * European Islam
 * Illuminationism
 * Jadid
 * Liberal movements within Islam
 * Mahdavia
 * Mahdist movement
 * Quranism
 * Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi
 * Messiah Foundation International
 * Transcendent Theosophy
 * Zikrism

Judaism
Historical Judaism Kabbalah Non-Rabbinic Judaism Rabbinic Judaism
 * Biblists
 * Essenes
 * Bana'im
 * Hemerobaptists (possible ancestor of Mandaeism)
 * Maghāriya
 * Nasoraeans (ancestor of Mandaeism)
 * Hellenistic Judaism
 * Houses of Hillel and Shammai
 * Hypsistarianism
 * Magarites
 * Messianic sects
 * Ebionites
 * Elcesaites
 * Nazirite
 * Okbarites
 * Pharisees (ancestor of Rabbinic Judaism)
 * Sabbateans
 * Frankism
 * Sadducees (possible ancestor of Karaite Judaism)
 * Boethusians
 * Second Temple Judaism
 * Therapeutae
 * Yudghanites
 * Zealots (Judea)
 * Sicarii
 * Folk Judaism
 * Haymanot
 * Karaite Judaism
 * Qemant Judaism
 * Samaritanism
 * Conservative Judaism (a.k.a. Masorti Judaism)
 * Humanistic Judaism
 * Jewish Renewal
 * Orthodox Judaism
 * Carlebach movement
 * Haredi Judaism (a.k.a. ultra-Orthodox)
 * Dor Daim
 * Hardal
 * Haredi burqa sect
 * Hasidic Judaism
 * Misnagdim
 * Sephardic Haredi
 * Modern Orthodox Judaism
 * Open Orthodox Judaism
 * Musar movement
 * Zionism
 * Religious Zionism
 * Reconstructionist Judaism
 * Reform Judaism

Other Abrahamic

 * Bábism
 * Azali
 * Baháʼí Faith
 * Caravan of East and West
 * Free Baháʼís
 * Orthodox Baháʼí Faith
 * Druze
 * Mandaeism

Manichaeism

 * Athinganoi (Historical)
 * Chinese Manichaeism

Yazdânism

 * Ishikism
 * Shabakism
 * Yarsanism
 * Yazidism

Zoroastrianism

 * Behafaridians (Historical)
 * Ilm-e-Khshnoom
 * Sepasian (Historical)
 * Khurramites (Historical)
 * Mazdakism (Historical)
 * Mazdaznan
 * Zurvanism
 * Blagovery

Indigenous (ethnic, folk) religions
Religions that consist of the traditional customs and beliefs of particular ethnic groups, refined and expanded upon for thousands of years, often lacking formal doctrine. Some adherents do not consider their ways to be "religion", preferring other cultural terms.

Traditional African

 * ǃKung religion
 * Abwoi religion
 * Acholi religion
 * Afizere traditional religion
 * Akan religion
 * Asante religion
 * Azande traditional religion
 * Bafia religion
 * Baka traditional religion
 * Bantu religion
 * Abagusii religion
 * Akamba traditional religion
 * AmaMpondomise traditional religion
 * Badimo
 * Balondo religion
 * Baluba religion
 * Bamileke religion
 * Bamum traditional religion
 * Banyole traditional beliefs
 * Bubi spirituality
 * Bushongo religion
 * Bwiti
 * Chaga faith
 * Chokwe spiritual beliefs
 * Duala traditional religion
 * Fipa religion
 * Furiiru traditional religion
 * Giriama traditional religion
 * Herero traditional faith
 * Himba religion
 * Kikuyu traditional religion
 * Kongo religion
 * Kwe faith
 * Lozi religion
 * Luvale religion
 * Makua traditional religion
 * Mbole religion
 * Nyakyusa religion
 * Ovambo traditional religion
 * Pedi traditional religion
 * Songye religion
 * Suku religion
 * Swazi traditional religion
 * Tonga religion
 * Tsonga traditional religion
 * Tumbuka religion
 * Xhosa traditional religion
 * Zulu traditional religion
 * Baoule traditional religion
 * Bari traditional religion
 * Bassa traditional religion
 * Biri traditional religion
 * Bobo religion
 * Bori
 * Bwa religion
 * Chamba traditional religion
 * Dahomean religion
 * Damara religion
 * Dan religion
 * Dinka religion
 * Dogon religion
 * Ebira traditional religion
 * Edo traditional religion
 * Efik religion
 * Ekoi religion
 * Esan traditional religion
 * Fali traditional religion
 * Frafra beliefs
 * Gbagyi traditional religion
 * Hadza religion
 * Hyel
 * Idoma traditional religion
 * Ijaw traditional religion
 * Inam
 * Jola traditional religion
 * Asisian religion
 * Khoekhoen religion
 * Kissi traditional religion
 * Kono traditional religion
 * Koore religion
 * Krahn religion
 * Kuku traditional beliefs
 * Lobi animism
 * Lotuko ethnic religion
 * Lugbara religion
 * Maasai religion
 * Madi traditional religion
 * Manjak religion
 * Mbuti religion
 * Moba ethnic religion
 * Mursi animism
 * Nso religion
 * Nuer religion
 * Nyongo Society
 * Bakossi beliefs
 * Odinala / Odinani
 * Oropom religion
 * Safwa religion
 * Samburu religion
 * San religion
 * N'um
 * Serer religion
 * Sidama religion
 * Surma religion
 * Tammari traditional religion
 * Temne traditional religion
 * Traditional Berber religion
 * Turkana traditional religion
 * Urhobo traditional religion
 * Vodun
 * Waaqeffanna
 * Yoruba religion
 * Ifá
 * Indigenous religion in Zimbabwe
 * Shona traditional religion

Diasporic African

 * Abakuá
 * Arara religion
 * Batuque
 * Candomblé
 * Candomblé Bantu
 * Candomblé Jejé
 * Candomblé Ketu
 * Comfa
 * Convince
 * Cuban Vodú
 * Dominican Vudú
 * Espiritismo
 * Haitian Vodou
 * Hoodoo
 * Kélé
 * Kumina
 * Louisiana Voodoo
 * Montamentu
 * Myal
 * Obeah
 * Palo
 * Quimbanda
 * Santería
 * Tambor de Mina
 * Trinidad Orisha
 * Umbanda
 * Winti
 * Saramaka religion

Altaic

 * Evenki shamanism
 * Manchu shamanism
 * Turko-Mongolic religion
 * Altaic shamanism
 * Burkhanism
 * Dukha shamanism
 * Mongolian shamanism
 * Black shamanism
 * Tengrism
 * Aiyy
 * Tengir Ordo
 * Vattisen Yaly
 * Nanai shamanism
 * Oroqen shamanism
 * Shor shamanism
 * Soyot shamanism
 * Ulch shamanism
 * Yakut shamanism

American

 * Ache traditional tribal religion
 * Achuar religious beliefs
 * Acoma traditional religion
 * Aguaruna traditional beliefs
 * Akawaio religion
 * Alaska Native religion
 * Inuit religion
 * Tanana shamanism
 * Yupik shamanism
 * Yuit shamanism
 * Sirenik shamanism
 * Ancestral Pueblo religion (Basketmaker III) (Pueblo II) (Pueblo III) (Pueblo IV)
 * Andoque religion
 * Anishinaabe traditional beliefs
 * Ojibwe spirituality
 * Apache traditional tribal religion
 * Arhuaco spirituality
 * Atacama religious culture
 * Blackfoot religion
 * Bororo totemism
 * Caddo religion
 * Californian traditional religions
 * Achomawi religion
 * Acjachemen religion
 * Cahuilla religion
 * Hupa traditional narratives
 * Kuksu
 * Cahto religion
 * Esselen spirituality
 * Miwok religion
 * Ohlone spirituality
 * Pomo religion
 * Northern Paiute shamanism
 * Mohave religion
 * Wiyot spirituality
 * Calusa native religion
 * Chaná religion
 * Cherokee spiritual beliefs
 * Chilote religion
 * Choctaw religion
 * Creek religion
 * Croatan religious beliefs
 * Crow religion
 * Fuegian spirituality
 * Selk'nam religion
 * Garifuna spirituality
 * Guarani religion
 * Guarayos traditional religious beliefs
 * Guayupe traditional religion
 * Gwich'in traditional beliefs
 * Haida religion
 * Ho-Chunk religion
 * Hopi religion
 * Huaorani traditional animism
 * Hupda cosmgony
 * Incan religion
 * Chauvin religion
 * Nazca religious beliefs
 * Taki Unquy
 * Wari' beliefs
 * Illinois religion
 * Innu religion
 * Iroquois religion
 * Mohawk traditional religion
 * Seneca religion
 * Wyandot religion
 * Jivaroan religion
 * Karankawa indigenous religion
 * Kayabi traditional tribal religion
 * Kalapalo beliefs
 * Kalinago religion
 * Kichwa religion
 * Kogi traditional religion
 * Kuikoro religion
 * Kwakwakaʼwakw religion
 * Lakota religion
 * Lenape religion
 * Lokono animist spirituality
 * Maleku animism
 * Mandan religion
 * Mapuche religion
 * Marajoara religion
 * Matses animism
 * Mesoamerican religion
 * Aztec religion
 * Classical Veracruz religion
 * Cora religion
 * Huichol traditional religion
 * Maya religion
 * Chuj traditional beliefs
 * Huastec religion
 * Lacandon traditional beliefs
 * Mazatec traditional religion
 * Maximon
 * Mopan traditional religion
 * Pech traditional religion
 * Q'eqchi' religion
 * Tzeltal religion
 * Tzotzil native religion
 * Tzʼutujil traditional religion
 * Mixe religion
 * Nagualism
 * Olmec religion
 * Purépecha religion
 * Teotihuacan religion
 * Tepehuan religious beliefs
 * Tlapanec religion
 * Totonac traditional religion
 * Zapotec religion
 * Midewiwin
 * Abenaki religious beliefs
 * Mi'kmaq traditional religion
 * Old Miskito religion
 * Muisca religion
 * Muzo traditional religion
 * Navajo spirituality
 * Nuu-chah-nulth religion
 * Omaha religion
 * Osage traditional spirituality
 * Pawnee religion
 * Parakanã shamanism
 * Pech traditional religion
 * Pemon traditional tribal religion
 * Penobscot spirituality
 * Pericues religion
 * Piaroa traditional religion
 * Powhatan native religion
 * Puruhá traditional religion
 * Q'ero spirituality
 * Quechua traditional beliefs
 * Rikbaktsa traditional beliefs
 * Salish narratives
 * Seminole traditional native religion
 * Seri religion
 * Shuar shamanism
 * Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (religion of the Mississippian culture)
 * Taensa native tribal religion
 * Taino spirituality
 * Tairona religion
 * Talamancan religion
 * Tapirape shamanism
 * Tehuelche beliefs
 * Ticuna shamanism
 * Toba belief system
 * Tlingit religion
 * Tsimshian religion
 * Ute religion
 * Wai-Wai religion
 * Wapishana religion
 * Warao traditional beliefs
 * Wayuu religion
 * Yaruro traditional tribal religion
 * Zuni religion

Austroasiatic

 * Asur religion
 * Birhor traditional religion
 * Bru religion
 * Đạo Lương
 * Đạo Mẫu
 * Four Palaces
 * Thánh Trần worship
 * Ka Niam Khasi
 * Mon religion
 * Muong ethnic religion
 * Nicobarese traditional religion
 * Ka Niamtre
 * Paoch animism
 * Santal religion
 * Sarnaism
 * Senoi ethnic religion
 * Sora traditional beliefs
 * Tampuan animism
 * Ta Oi animism

Austronesian

 * Amis native religion
 * Aliran Kepercayaan/Mythology of Indonesia
 * Adat Pu'un
 * Aluk
 * Batak Parmalim
 * Dayak religion
 * Kaharingan
 * Jingi Tiu
 * Kejawèn
 * Kapitayan
 * Kangeanese religion
 * Karo Pemena
 * Kendayan religion
 * Marapu
 * Rejang religion
 * Rotenese religion
 * Saminism Movement
 * Sangirese religion
 * Sumbawa religion
 * Sundanese Wiwitan
 * Wai Apu religion
 * Dayawism
 * Batak folk religion
 * Bicolano religion
 * Blaan folk religion
 * Capiznon folk religion
 * Cuyunon folk religion
 * Gaddang folk religion
 * Ifugao folk religion
 * Ilocano folk religion
 * Itneg folk religion
 * Kalinga folk religion
 * Kankanaey folk religion
 * Karay-a folk religion
 * Mangyan folk religion
 * Palawan folk religion
 * Pangasinan folk religion
 * Sama Bajau folk religion
 * Sambal folk religion
 * Subanon folk religion
 * Tagalog folk religion
 * Tagbanwa folk religion
 * Pulahan
 * Tboli folk religion
 * Teduray folk religion
 * Visayan folk religion
 * Fomba Gasy
 * Jarai religion
 * Kanakanavu native religion
 * Malaysian folk religion
 * Datuk Keramat
 * Jakun religion
 * Pengarap Iban
 * Melanau religion
 * Momolianism
 * Murut religion
 * Orang Kanaq religion
 * Orang Seletar religion
 * Semai religion
 * Semaq Beri religion
 * Temuan religion
 * Micronesian religion
 * Carolinian religion
 * Chamorro religion
 * Chuukese religion
 * Nauruan indigenous religion
 * Polynesian narrative
 * Cook Islands narrative
 * Hawaiian religion
 * Mangarevan narrative
 * Māori religion
 * Niuean narrative
 * Rapa Nui narrative
 * Samoan narrative
 * Tahitian narrative
 * Tongan narrative
 * Tuvaluan narrative
 * Paiwan shamanism
 * Sakizaya native religion
 * Taivoan animism
 * Tao native religion

Caucasian

 * Khabzeism
 * Vainakh religion

Dravidian

 * Khond traditional religion
 * Kota religion
 * Koyapunem
 * Sauria Paharia religion
 * Tamil religion
 * Toda religion

Indo-European

 * Kalashism
 * Nagpuria religion
 * Ossetian native religion
 * Punjabi folk religion
 * Tharu religion

Koreanic and Japonic

 * Koshintō (Historical)
 * Shinto
 * Izumo-taishakyo
 * Shinbutsu-shugo
 * Konkōkyō
 * Shugendō
 * State Shinto
 * Matagi spirituality
 * Muism
 * Gasin faith
 * Ryukyuan religion

Melanesian and Aboriginal

 * Australian Aboriginal spirituality
 * Gamilaraay dreaming
 * Larrakia dreaming
 * Tasmanian Aboriginal spirituality
 * Yolnu religion
 * Fijian ancient religion
 * Kanak traditional beliefs
 * Papuan religion
 * Dumo spirituality
 * Fore traditional beliefs
 * Kaluli religion
 * Korowai religion
 * Trobriand traditional beliefs
 * Urapmin traditional beliefs

Negrito

 * Aeta religion
 * Ati animism
 * Onge native religion
 * Semang animism
 * Vedda original religion

Paleosiberian

 * Ainu religion
 * Koryak religion
 * Itelmen religion
 * Nivkh traditional religion
 * Yukaghir shamanism

Sino-Tibetan

 * Banrawat religion
 * Bathouism
 * Benzhuism
 * Biate animism
 * Bimoism
 * Bon
 * Dongba
 * Hangui
 * Burmese folk religion
 * Lisu religion
 * Chang Naga animism
 * Chutia religion
 * Chinese Folk Religion
 * Ancestor Worship
 * Chinese folk religion in Southeast Asia
 * Faism
 * Mazu worship
 * Northeast China folk religion
 * Queen Mother worship
 * Shangdiism
 * Shenism
 * Wang Ye worship
 * Wuism
 * Daba
 * Dingba
 * Donyi-Polo
 * Songsarek
 * Gurung shamanism
 * Hani religion
 * Hnam Sakhua
 * Jingpo religion
 * Kan Khwan
 * Karbi animism
 * Karen animism
 * Kiratism
 * Yumaism
 * Krama
 * Maring beliefs
 * Miji animism
 * Mizo religion
 * Mro religion
 * Nuo folk religion
 * Nyezi-No
 * Qiang folk religion
 * Reang religion
 * Sanamahism
 * Tangsa Naga animism
 * Rangfrah
 * Toto nature religion
 * Zahv

Tai and Miao

 * Hlai animism
 * Kev Dab Kev Qhuas
 * Kam religion
 * Maonan traditional religion
 * Mo
 * Pa Then religion
 * Qabiao religion
 * Satsana Phi
 * Ahom religion
 * Giay animism
 * Lamet religion
 * Nung religion
 * Saek religion
 * Sui religion
 * Then

Uralic

 * Komi shamanism
 * Mari Native Religion

Other

 * Beduin shamanism

New religious movements
Religions that cannot be classed as either world religions or traditional folk religions, and are usually recent in their inception.

Cargo cults

 * John Frum
 * Johnson cult
 * Pomio Kivung
 * Prince Philip Movement
 * Vailala Madness

Black
Black Hebrew Israelites
 * African Zionism
 * Ausar Auset Society
 * Black Muslims
 * American Society of Muslims
 * Dini Ya Msambwa
 * Five-Percent Nation
 * Godianism
 * Hauka
 * Igbe religion
 * Moorish Science Temple of America
 * Moorish Orthodox Church of America
 * Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God
 * Mumboism
 * Mungiki
 * Nation of Islam
 * United Nation of Islam
 * Nuwaubian Nation
 * African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem
 * Church of God and Saints of Christ
 * Commandment Keepers
 * Israelite Church of God in Jesus Christ
 * Israelite School of Universal Practical Knowledge
 * Nation of Yahweh
 * One West Camp

Rastafari

 * Bobo Ashanti
 * Nyabinghi
 * Twelve Tribes of Israel

White

 * Creativity
 * Fascist Occultism
 * Ariosophy
 * Esoteric Nazism
 * Evolaism
 * Fascist mysticism
 * Nazi Occultism
 * Israelism
 * British Israelism
 * Christian Identity
 * French Israelism
 * Nordic Israelism
 * Order of Nine Angles
 * Völkisch movement
 * German Faith Movement
 * Wotansvolk

Native American

 * Ghost Dance
 * Indian Shaker Church
 * Longhouse Religion
 * Mexicayotl
 * Native American Church
 * Big Moon Peyotism
 * Wasshat religion

Abrahamic-derived

 * Antoinism
 * Beili Wang
 * Branch Davidians
 * Chapel of Russia's Resurrection
 * Chrislam
 * Daheshism
 * Eastern Lightning
 * Faizrakhmanist
 * The Family International
 * Gafatar
 * Grail Movement
 * Holy Spirit of Blood and Water Church
 * Koreshanity
 * Lalpa Kohran Thar
 * Last Testamentism
 * Mama Tata
 * Mentuhui
 * Modekngei
 * Noahidism
 * Pai Marire
 * Pilgrims of Ares
 * Rātana
 * Ringatu
 * Soldiers of Heaven
 * Spiritism
 * Unification Church
 * Unification Church of the United States
 * World Elijah Evangelical Mission
 * World Mission Society Church of God
 * Zhushenjiao

Chinese salvationist religions

 * Baguadao ("Way of the Eight Trigrams")
 * Dejiao ("Teaching of Virtue")
 * Huangjidao ("Way of the Imperial Pole")
 * Huangtiandao ("Way of the Yellow Sky")
 * Huazhaidao ("Way of Flowers and Fasting")
 * Jiugongdao ("Way of the Nine Palaces")
 * Luandao ("Phoenix Way")
 * Luoism ("Way of Luo")
 * Chinese religions of fasting
 * Xiantiandao ("Way of Former Heaven")
 * Guiyidao ("Way of the Return to the One")
 * Shengdao ("Holy Way")
 * Yaochidao ("Way of the Mother of Pearl Lake")
 * Yiguandao ("Persistent Way")
 * Haizidao
 * Yixin Tiandao ("Heart-bound Heavenly Way")
 * Dacheng
 * Hongyangism
 * Maitreyanism
 * Sanban Puren Pai
 * Sanyiism
 * Shanrendao ("Way of the Virtuous Man")
 * Taigu school
 * Tiandihui
 * Tiandiism
 * Tianguangdao ("Way of the Heavenly Light")
 * Tianxian Miaodao ("Way of the Temple of the Heavenly Immortals")
 * Weixinism
 * White Lotus
 * Xuanyuandao ("Way of Xuanyuan")
 * Yellow Sand Society
 * Zailiism ("Way of the Abiding Principle)
 * Zhongyongdao ("Way of the Golden Mean")

Hindu reform movements

 * Adidam
 * Adi Dharm
 * Brahmoism
 * Brahmo Samaj
 * Sadharan Brahmo Samaj
 * Ananda
 * Ananda Ashrama
 * Ananda Marga
 * Arya Samaj
 * Ayyavazhi
 * Chinmaya Mission
 * Hare Krishna
 * Mahanam Sampraday
 * Mahima Dharma
 * Matua Mahasangha
 * Oneness Movement
 * Rajneesh movement
 * Satsang
 * Shirdi Sai Baba movement
 * Sivananda Yoga Vedanta Centres
 * Sri Aurobindo Ashram
 * Sri Ramana Ashram
 * Neo-Advaita
 * Swaminarayan Sampradaya
 * Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha
 * Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi
 * International Swaminarayan Satsang Mandal
 * Swaminarayan Gurukul
 * Nar Narayan Dev Gadi
 * International Swaminarayan Satsang Organisation
 * Narnarayan Dev Yuvak Mandal
 * Swaminarayan Gadi (Maninagar)
 * Swaminarayan Mandir Vasna Sanstha
 * Transcendental Meditation

Muist-derived

 * Cheondoism
 * Jeungsanism
 * Bocheonism
 * Daesun Jinrihoe
 * Jeung San Do
 * Suwunism
 * Daejongism
 * Victory Altar

Neo-Buddhism

 * Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương
 * Hòa Hảo
 * Tứ Ân Hiếu Nghĩa
 * Diamond Way Buddhism
 * Falun Gong
 * Guanyin Famen
 * Humanistic Buddhism
 * Navayana
 * New Kadampa Tradition
 * Nipponzan-Myōhōji-Daisanga
 * PL Kyodan
 * Reiyūkai
 * Risshō Kōsei Kai
 * Rimé movement
 * Shambhala Buddhism
 * Shinnyo-en
 * Soka Gakkai
 * Triratna Buddhist Community
 * True Buddha School
 * Won Buddhism

Perennial and interfaith

 * Anandamayee Sangha
 * Bell religion
 * Brahma Kumaris
 * Caodaism
 * Coconut religion
 * Đạo Dừa
 * Meivazhi
 * Omnism
 * Open-source religion
 * Satya Dharma
 * Sathya Sai Baba movement
 * Share International
 * Subud

Shinshukyo

 * Aum Shinrikyo
 * Aleph
 * Hikari no Wa
 * Dōkai
 * Happy Science
 * Ijun
 * Konkokyo
 * Kurozumikyō
 * Oomoto
 * Church of World Messianity
 * Mahikari
 * Seicho-no-Ie
 * Shinreikyo
 * Shōroku Shintō Yamatoyama
 * Shumei
 * Sekai Shindokyo
 * Shinmeiaishinkai
 * Tenrikyo
 * Tenshō Kōtai Jingūkyō
 * Zenrinkyo

Sikh-derived

 * Contemporary Sant Mat movements
 * Advait Mat
 * Radha Soami
 * Radha Soami Satsang Beas
 * Radha Soami Satsang Dayagbal
 * Radha Swami Satsang, Dinod
 * Ruhani Satsang
 * Manavta Mandir
 * Science of Spirituality (a.k.a. Sawan Kirpal Ruhani Mission)
 * Radha Soami-influenced
 * Ancient Teachings of the Masters
 * Dera Sacha Sauda
 * Eckankar
 * Elan Vital (formerly Divine Light Mission)
 * Movement of Spiritual Inner Awareness
 * Ravidassia

Ethnic neopaganism

 * Baltic neopaganism
 * Dievturība
 * Romuva
 * Caucasian neopaganism
 * Abkhaz neopaganism
 * Assianism
 * Celtic neopaganism
 * Celtic reconstructionist paganism
 * Druidry
 * Church of the Guanche People
 * Heathenry (a.k.a. Germanic neopaganism)
 * Hellenism
 * Heraka
 * Hetanism
 * Italo-Roman neopaganism
 * Nova Roma
 * Roman Traditional Movement
 * Kemetism
 * Kemetic Orthodoxy
 * Semitic neopaganism
 * Rodnovery (a.k.a. Slavic neopaganism)
 * Native Polish Church
 * Peterburgian Vedism
 * Rodzima Wiara
 * Rodnover Confederation
 * Sylenkoism
 * Union of Slavic Native Belief Communities
 * Ynglism
 * Uralic neopaganism
 * Estonian neopaganism
 * Suomenusko
 * Hungarian neopaganism
 * Mastorava
 * Udmurt Vos
 * Zalmoxianism
 * Zuism

Syncretic neopaganism

 * Adonism
 * Christopaganism
 * Christian Wicca
 * Church of All Worlds
 * Church of Aphrodite
 * Cochrane's Craft
 * Maria Lionza
 * Druidry
 * Ár nDraíocht Féin
 * Order of Bards, Ovates, and Druids
 * Reformed Druids of North America
 * El Tio
 * Feraferia
 * Goddess movement
 * Huna
 * Ivanovism
 * Krama
 * Neoshamanism
 * Pow-wow
 * Radical Faeries
 * Ringing Cedars' Anastasianism
 * Santa Muerte
 * Stregheria
 * Summum
 * Technopaganism
 * Temple of Priapus
 * Wicca
 * British Traditional Wicca
 * Alexandrian Wicca
 * Algard Wicca
 * Blue Star Wicca
 * Central Valley Wicca
 * Chthonioi Alexandrian Wicca
 * Gardnerian Wicca
 * Celtic Wicca
 * Dianic Wicca
 * Faery Wicca
 * Feri Tradition
 * Georgian Wicca
 * Odyssean Wicca
 * Reclaiming (Neopaganism)
 * Seax-Wica
 * Universal Eclectic Wicca
 * Wiccan church
 * Covenant of the Goddess

Entheogenic religions

 * Church of the Universe
 * Healing Church in Rhode Island
 * Neo-American Church
 * Santo Daime
 * Temple of the True Inner Light
 * Tensegrity
 * THC Ministry
 * União do Vegetal

New Age Movement

 * A Course in Miracles
 * Association for Research and Enlightenment
 * Chaos Magic
 * Conversations with God
 * Eckankar
 * Love Has Won
 * Rainbow Family
 * The Family

New Thought

 * Christian Science
 * Church of Divine Science
 * Church of the Truth
 * Church Universal and Triumphant
 * Home of Truth
 * Jewish Science
 * Psychiana
 * Religious Science
 * Seicho-no-Ie
 * The Infinite Way
 * Unity Church
 * Universal Foundation for Better Living

Parody religions and fiction-based religions

 * The All-Joking, All-Drunken Synod of Fools and Jesters
 * Bokononism
 * Church of Euthanasia
 * Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster (a.k.a. "Pastafarianism")
 * Church of the SubGenius
 * The Cult of Kek
 * Dinkoism
 * Discordianism
 * Dudeism
 * Earthseed
 * Eventualism
 * First Church of the Last Laugh
 * Iglesia Maradoniana
 * Invisible Pink Unicorn
 * Jediism
 * Kibology
 * Kopimism
 * Landover Baptist Church
 * Last Thursdayism
 * Matrixism
 * The Nine Divines
 * 'Pataphysics
 * Silinism
 * Sisters of Perpetual Indulgence
 * Tarvuism
 * Trekism
 * United Church of Bacon

Post-theistic and naturalistic religions

 * Abrahamites
 * Cosmism
 * Cult of Reason
 * Cult of the Supreme Being
 * Deism
 * Christian Deism
 * Gottgläubig
 * Spinozism
 * Ethical movement
 * Freethought
 * North Texas Church of Freethought
 * God-Building
 * Humanism
 * Ietsism
 * Moorish Orthodox Church of America
 * Pandeism
 * Panentheism
 * Process theology
 * Pantheism
 * Cosmotheism
 * Naturalistic pantheism
 * Religion of Humanity
 * Church of Humanity
 * Saint-Simonianism
 * Syntheism
 * Terasem
 * Theophilanthropy
 * Unitarian Universalism
 * Universal Life Church

UFO religions

 * Aetherius Society
 * Ashtar Galactic Command
 * Chen Tao ("True Way")
 * Fiat Lux
 * Ground Crew Project
 * Heaven's Gate
 * Industrial Church of the New World Comforter
 * Mark-Age
 * Nuwaubian Nation
 * Order of the Solar Temple
 * Raëlism
 * Scientology
 * Independent Scientology
 * The Seekers
 * Unarius Academy of Science
 * Universe people
 * 'Urantia movement'
 * Vale do Amanhecer

Western esotericism

 * Anthroposophy
 * Archeosophical Society
 * Biotronics
 * Builders of the Adytum
 * Cthulhu Mythos cults
 * Emin
 * Enochian magic
 * Eubiose
 * Goetia
 * Fourth Way
 * Fraternity of the Inner Light
 * Hermeticism
 * Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn
 * The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, Inc.
 * Illuminates of Thanateros
 * Illuminism
 * Luciferianism
 * Fraternitas Saturni
 * Neo-Luciferian Church
 * New Acropolis
 * Occultism
 * Gaianism
 * Mayanism
 * Michael Teachings
 * Otherkin
 * Renaissance magic
 * Rosicrucian
 * Ancient Mystical Order Rosae Crucis
 * Lectorium Rosicrucianum
 * Rosicrucian Fellowship
 * Satanism
 * Non-theistic Satanism
 * Our Lady of Endor Coven
 * LaVeyan Satanism
 * Church of Satan
 * First Satanic Church
 * The Satanic Temple
 * Theistic Satanism
 * Joy of Satan
 * Temple of the Black Light
 * Temple of Set
 * Spiritualism
 * Agasha Temple of Wisdom
 * Faithism
 * Thelema
 * A∴A∴
 * Ordo Templi Orientis
 * Typhonian Order
 * Theosophy
 * Muckers
 * Neo-Theosophy
 * Angi Yoga
 * Roerichism
 * Thee Temple ov Psychick Youth

Prehistoric religion

 * Cucuteni–Trypillia religion
 * Funnelbeaker religion
 * Hemudu religion
 * Hongshan religion
 * Linear Pottery religion
 * Paleolithic religion
 * Urreligion (theorized)
 * Urmonotheismus (theorized)
 * Varna religion

Bronze Age

 * Amorite religion
 * Ancient Egyptian religion
 * Atenism
 * Mysteries of Osiris
 * Ancient Mesopotamian religion
 * Ancient Assyrian religion
 * Babylonian religion
 * Sabian religion
 * Shamsiyah
 * Sumerian religion
 * Ancient Semitic religion
 * Ancient Canaanite religion
 * Yahwism
 * Harappan religion
 * Hattian religion
 * Hittite religion
 * Hurrian religion
 * Kassite religion
 * Liangzhu religion
 * Longshan religion
 * Luwian religion
 * Minoan religion
 * Mycenaean religion
 * Nordic Bronze Age religion
 * Proto-Indo-European religion
 * Paleo-Balkan religion
 * Proto-Indo-Iranian religion
 * Mahabadism
 * Proto-Uralic religion
 * Shang religion
 * Urnfield religion

Classical antiquity

 * Adena religion
 * Aksumite religion
 * Albanian folk beliefs
 * Proto-Celtic paganism
 * Ancient Celtic religion
 * Breton paganism
 * Cantabrian paganism
 * Celtic Animism
 * Cornish paganism
 * Irish paganism
 * Manx paganism
 * Scottish paganism
 * Hebridean paganism
 * Welsh paganism
 * Ancient Greek religion
 * Cult of Adonis
 * Cult of Alexander the Great
 * Cult of Artemis
 * Cult of Dionysus
 * Greco-Buddhism
 * Greco-Roman mysteries
 * Cult of Jupiter Dolichenus
 * Cult of the Great Gods
 * Cybele's Cult
 * Dionysian mysteries
 * Orphism
 * Eleusinian mysteries
 * Mysteries of Isis
 * Greek hero cults
 * Hellenistic religion
 * Hermeticism
 * Platonism
 * Middle Platonism
 * Neoplatonism
 * Pythagoreanism
 * Neopythagoreanism
 * School of the Sextii
 * Stoicism
 * Aryan religion
 * Ancient Iranian religion
 * Vedicism
 * Armenian paganism
 * Basque paganism
 * Cantabrian religion
 * Castro religion
 * Dacian religion
 * Eblaite religion
 * Elamite religion
 * Etruscan religion
 * Gallaecian religion
 * Georgian paganism
 * Germanic paganism
 * Alpine paganism
 * Anglo-Saxon paganism
 * Cimbri religion
 * Continental Germanic paganism
 * Frankish paganism
 * Gothic paganism
 * Old Norse religion
 * Iberian religion
 * Illyrian religion
 * Iapydes religion
 * Kushite religion
 * Ligurian religion
 * Lusitanian religion
 * Lydian religion
 * Nuragic religion
 * Paeonian religion
 * Phrygian religion
 * Punic religion
 * Roman religion
 * Gallo-Roman religion
 * Roman Imperial cult
 * Greco-Roman mysteries
 * Mithraism
 * Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia
 * Nabataean religion
 * South Arabian paganism
 * Sabine religion
 * Samnite religion
 * Scythian religion
 * Sramana
 * Thracian religion
 * Umbrian religion
 * Marsi religion
 * Urartu religion

Post-classical period

 * Arioi
 * Balinese religion
 * Baltic Finnic paganism
 * Estonian shamanism
 * Finnish shamanism
 * Baltic paganism
 * Prussian paganism
 * Latvian paganism
 * Lithuanian paganism
 * Batak religion
 * Bulgar religion
 * Caucasian Albanian paganism
 * Chimor religion
 * Guanche religion
 * Hungarian shamanism
 * Hunnic religion
 * Khitan religion
 * Jamaican Maroon religion
 * Lima religion
 * Moche religion
 * Sámi shamanism
 * Slavic paganism
 * Tiwanaku religion
 * Tocharian religion
 * Vainakh religion
 * Wari religion

By demographics

 * Major religious groups

By area

 * Religion in Africa
 * Religion in Asia
 * Religion in Oceania
 * Religion in Europe
 * Religion in North America
 * Religion in South America
 * Religions by country
 * List of state-established religions
 * Buddhism by country
 * Buddhism in the United States
 * Christianity by country
 * Roman Catholicism by country
 * Eastern Orthodoxy by country
 * Oriental Orthodoxy by country
 * Protestantism by country
 * Hinduism by country
 * Islam by country
 * Ahmadiyya by country
 * Judaism by country, Jewish population by country
 * Sikhism by country

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Digital electronics

Digital electronics is a field of electronics involving the study of digital signals and the engineering of devices that use or produce them. This is in contrast to analog electronics which work primarily with analog signals. Despite the name, digital electronics designs includes important analog design considerations.

Digital electronic circuits are usually made from large assemblies of logic gates, often packaged in integrated circuits. Complex devices may have simple electronic representations of Boolean logic functions.

History
The binary number system was refined by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (published in 1705) and he also established that by using the binary system, the principles of arithmetic and logic could be joined. Digital logic as we know it was the brain-child of George Boole in the mid 19th century. In an 1886 letter, Charles Sanders Peirce described how logical operations could be carried out by electrical switching circuits. Eventually, vacuum tubes replaced relays for logic operations. Lee De Forest's modification of the Fleming valve in 1907 could be used as an AND gate. Ludwig Wittgenstein introduced a version of the 16-row truth table as proposition 5.101 of Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921). Walther Bothe, inventor of the coincidence circuit, shared the 1954 Nobel Prize in physics, for creating the first modern electronic AND gate in 1924.

Mechanical analog computers started appearing in the first century and were later used in the medieval era for astronomical calculations. In World War II, mechanical analog computers were used for specialized military applications such as calculating torpedo aiming. During this time the first electronic digital computers were developed, with the term digital being proposed by George Stibitz in 1942. Originally they were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern PCs.

The Z3 was an electromechanical computer designed by Konrad Zuse. Finished in 1941, it was the world's first working programmable, fully automatic digital computer. Its operation was facilitated by the invention of the vacuum tube in 1904 by John Ambrose Fleming.

At the same time that digital calculation replaced analog, purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents. John Bardeen and Walter Brattain invented the point-contact transistor at Bell Labs in 1947, followed by William Shockley inventing the bipolar junction transistor at Bell Labs in 1948.

At the University of Manchester, a team under the leadership of Tom Kilburn designed and built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of vacuum tubes. Their "transistorised computer", and the first in the world, was operational by 1953, and a second version was completed there in April 1955. From 1955 and onwards, transistors replaced vacuum tubes in computer designs, giving rise to the "second generation" of computers. Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors were smaller, more reliable, had indefinite lifespans, and required less power than vacuum tubes - thereby giving off less heat, and allowing much denser concentrations of circuits, up to tens of thousands in a relatively compact space.

While working at Texas Instruments in July 1958, Jack Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit (IC), then successfully demonstrated the first working integrated circuit on 12 September 1958. Kilby's chip was made of germanium. The following year, Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor invented the silicon integrated circuit. The basis for Noyce's silicon IC was the planar process, developed in early 1959 by Jean Hoerni, who was in turn building on Mohamed Atalla's silicon surface passivation method developed in 1957. This new technique, the integrated circuit, allowed for quick, low-cost fabrication of complex circuits by having a set of electronic circuits on one small plate ("chip") of semiconductor material, normally silicon.

The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), also known as the MOS transistor, was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959. The MOSFET's advantages include high scalability, affordability, low power consumption, and high transistor density. Its rapid on–off electronic switching speed also makes it ideal for generating pulse trains, the basis for electronic digital signals, in contrast to BJTs which, more slowly, generate analog signals resembling sine waves. Along with MOS large-scale integration (LSI), these factors make the MOSFET an important switching device for digital circuits. The MOSFET revolutionized the electronics industry, and is the most common semiconductor device.

In the early days of integrated circuits, each chip was limited to only a few transistors, and the low degree of integration meant the design process was relatively simple. Manufacturing yields were also quite low by today's standards. The wide adoption of the MOSFET transistor by the early 1970s led to the first large-scale integration (LSI) chips with more than 10,000 transistors on a single chip. Following the wide adoption of CMOS, a type of MOSFET logic, by the 1980s, millions and then billions of MOSFETs could be placed on one chip as the technology progressed, and good designs required thorough planning, giving rise to new design methods. The transistor count of devices and total production rose to unprecedented heights. The total amount of transistors produced until 2018 has been estimated to be $13,000,000,000,000,000,000,000$ (13sextillion).

The wireless revolution (the introduction and proliferation of wireless networks) began in the 1990s and was enabled by the wide adoption of MOSFET-based RF power amplifiers (power MOSFET and LDMOS) and RF circuits (RF CMOS). Wireless networks allowed for public digital transmission without the need for cables, leading to digital television, satellite and digital radio, GPS, wireless Internet and mobile phones through the 1990s–2000s.

Properties
An advantage of digital circuits when compared to analog circuits is that signals represented digitally can be transmitted without degradation caused by noise. For example, a continuous audio signal transmitted as a sequence of 1s and 0s, can be reconstructed without error, provided the noise picked up in transmission is not enough to prevent identification of the 1s and 0s.

In a digital system, a more precise representation of a signal can be obtained by using more binary digits to represent it. While this requires more digital circuits to process the signals, each digit is handled by the same kind of hardware, resulting in an easily scalable system. In an analog system, additional resolution requires fundamental improvements in the linearity and noise characteristics of each step of the signal chain.

With computer-controlled digital systems, new functions can be added through software revision and no hardware changes are needed. Often this can be done outside of the factory by updating the product's software. This way, the product's design errors can be corrected even after the product is in a customer's hands.

Information storage can be easier in digital systems than in analog ones. The noise immunity of digital systems permits data to be stored and retrieved without degradation. In an analog system, noise from aging and wear degrade the information stored. In a digital system, as long as the total noise is below a certain level, the information can be recovered perfectly. Even when more significant noise is present, the use of redundancy permits the recovery of the original data provided too many errors do not occur.

In some cases, digital circuits use more energy than analog circuits to accomplish the same tasks, thus producing more heat which increases the complexity of the circuits such as the inclusion of heat sinks. In portable or battery-powered systems this can limit the use of digital systems. For example, battery-powered cellular phones often use a low-power analog front-end to amplify and tune the radio signals from the base station. However, a base station has grid power and can use power-hungry, but very flexible software radios. Such base stations can easily be reprogrammed to process the signals used in new cellular standards.

Many useful digital systems must translate from continuous analog signals to discrete digital signals. This causes quantization errors. Quantization error can be reduced if the system stores enough digital data to represent the signal to the desired degree of fidelity. The Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem provides an important guideline as to how much digital data is needed to accurately portray a given analog signal.

If a single piece of digital data is lost or misinterpreted, in some systems only a small error may result, while in other systems the meaning of large blocks of related data can completely change. For example, a single-bit error in audio data stored directly as linear pulse-code modulation causes, at worst, a single audible click. But when using audio compression to save storage space and transmission time, a single bit error may cause a much larger disruption.

Because of the cliff effect, it can be difficult for users to tell if a particular system is right on the edge of failure, or if it can tolerate much more noise before failing. Digital fragility can be reduced by designing a digital system for robustness. For example, a parity bit or other error management method can be inserted into the signal path. These schemes help the system detect errors, and then either correct the errors, or request retransmission of the data.

Construction

A digital circuit is typically constructed from small electronic circuits called logic gates that can be used to create combinational logic. Each logic gate is designed to perform a function of Boolean logic when acting on logic signals. A logic gate is generally created from one or more electrically controlled switches, usually transistors but thermionic valves have seen historic use. The output of a logic gate can, in turn, control or feed into more logic gates.

Another form of digital circuit is constructed from lookup tables, (many sold as "programmable logic devices", though other kinds of PLDs exist). Lookup tables can perform the same functions as machines based on logic gates, but can be easily reprogrammed without changing the wiring. This means that a designer can often repair design errors without changing the arrangement of wires. Therefore, in small volume products, programmable logic devices are often the preferred solution. They are usually designed by engineers using electronic design automation software.

Integrated circuits consist of multiple transistors on one silicon chip, and are the least expensive way to make large number of interconnected logic gates. Integrated circuits are usually interconnected on a printed circuit board which is a board which holds electrical components, and connects them together with copper traces.

Design
Engineers use many methods to minimize logic redundancy in order to reduce the circuit complexity. Reduced complexity reduces component count and potential errors and therefore typically reduces cost. Logic redundancy can be removed by several well-known techniques, such as binary decision diagrams, Boolean algebra, Karnaugh maps, the Quine–McCluskey algorithm, and the heuristic computer method. These operations are typically performed within a computer-aided design system.

Embedded systems with microcontrollers and programmable logic controllers are often used to implement digital logic for complex systems that do not require optimal performance. These systems are usually programmed by software engineers or by electricians, using ladder logic.

Representation
A digital circuit's input-output relationship can be represented as a truth table. An equivalent high-level circuit uses logic gates, each represented by a different shape (standardized by IEEE/ANSI 91–1984). A low-level representation uses an equivalent circuit of electronic switches (usually transistors).

Most digital systems divide into combinational and sequential systems. The output of a combinational system depends only on the present inputs. However, a sequential system has some of its outputs fed back as inputs, so its output may depend on past inputs in addition to present inputs, to produce a sequence of operations. Simplified representations of their behavior called state machines facilitate design and test.

Sequential systems divide into two further subcategories. "Synchronous" sequential systems change state all at once when a clock signal changes state. "Asynchronous" sequential systems propagate changes whenever inputs change. Synchronous sequential systems are made using flip flops that store inputted voltages as a bit only when the clock changes.

Synchronous systems

The usual way to implement a synchronous sequential state machine is to divide it into a piece of combinational logic and a set of flip flops called a state register. The state register represents the state as a binary number. The combinational logic produces the binary representation for the next state. On each clock cycle, the state register captures the feedback generated from the previous state of the combinational logic and feeds it back as an unchanging input to the combinational part of the state machine. The clock rate is limited by the most time-consuming logic calculation in the combinational logic.

Asynchronous systems
Most digital logic is synchronous because it is easier to create and verify a synchronous design. However, asynchronous logic has the advantage of its speed not being constrained by an arbitrary clock; instead, it runs at the maximum speed of its logic gates.

Nevertheless, most systems need to accept external unsynchronized signals into their synchronous logic circuits. This interface is inherently asynchronous and must be analyzed as such. Examples of widely used asynchronous circuits include synchronizer flip-flops, switch debouncers and arbiters.

Asynchronous logic components can be hard to design because all possible states, in all possible timings must be considered. The usual method is to construct a table of the minimum and maximum time that each such state can exist and then adjust the circuit to minimize the number of such states. The designer must force the circuit to periodically wait for all of its parts to enter a compatible state (this is called "self-resynchronization"). Without careful design, it is easy to accidentally produce asynchronous logic that is unstable—that is—real electronics will have unpredictable results because of the cumulative delays caused by small variations in the values of the electronic components.

Register transfer systems

Many digital systems are data flow machines. These are usually designed using synchronous register transfer logic and written with hardware description languages such as VHDL or Verilog.

In register transfer logic, binary numbers are stored in groups of flip flops called registers. A sequential state machine controls when each register accepts new data from its input. The outputs of each register are a bundle of wires called a bus that carries that number to other calculations. A calculation is simply a piece of combinational logic. Each calculation also has an output bus, and these may be connected to the inputs of several registers. Sometimes a register will have a multiplexer on its input so that it can store a number from any one of several buses.

Asynchronous register-transfer systems (such as computers) have a general solution. In the 1980s, some researchers discovered that almost all synchronous register-transfer machines could be converted to asynchronous designs by using first-in-first-out synchronization logic. In this scheme, the digital machine is characterized as a set of data flows. In each step of the flow, a synchronization circuit determines when the outputs of that step are valid and instructs the next stage when to use these outputs.

Computer design

The most general-purpose register-transfer logic machine is a computer. This is basically an automatic binary abacus. The control unit of a computer is usually designed as a microprogram run by a microsequencer. A microprogram is much like a player-piano roll. Each table entry of the microprogram commands the state of every bit that controls the computer. The sequencer then counts, and the count addresses the memory or combinational logic machine that contains the microprogram. The bits from the microprogram control the arithmetic logic unit, memory and other parts of the computer, including the microsequencer itself. In this way, the complex task of designing the controls of a computer is reduced to the simpler task of programming a collection of much simpler logic machines.

Almost all computers are synchronous. However, asynchronous computers have also been built. One example is the ASPIDA DLX core. Another was offered by ARM Holdings. They do not, however, have any speed advantages because modern computer designs already run at the speed of their slowest component, usually memory. They do use somewhat less power because a clock distribution network is not needed. An unexpected advantage is that asynchronous computers do not produce spectrally-pure radio noise. They are used in some radio-sensitive mobile-phone base-station controllers. They may be more secure in cryptographic applications because their electrical and radio emissions can be more difficult to decode.

Computer architecture
Computer architecture is a specialized engineering activity that tries to arrange the registers, calculation logic, buses and other parts of the computer in the best way possible for a specific purpose. Computer architects have put a lot of work into reducing the cost and increasing the speed of computers in addition to boosting their immunity to programming errors. An increasingly common goal of computer architects is to reduce the power used in battery-powered computer systems, such as smartphones.

Design issues in digital circuits
Digital circuits are made from analog components. The design must assure that the analog nature of the components does not dominate the desired digital behavior. Digital systems must manage noise and timing margins, parasitic inductances and capacitances.

Bad designs have intermittent problems such as glitches, vanishingly fast pulses that may trigger some logic but not others, runt pulses that do not reach valid threshold voltages.

Additionally, where clocked digital systems interface to analog systems or systems that are driven from a different clock, the digital system can be subject to metastability where a change to the input violates the setup time for a digital input latch.

Since digital circuits are made from analog components, digital circuits calculate more slowly than low-precision analog circuits that use a similar amount of space and power. However, the digital circuit will calculate more repeatably, because of its high noise immunity.

Automated design tools
Much of the effort of designing large logic machines has been automated through the application of electronic design automation (EDA).

Simple truth table-style descriptions of logic are often optimized with EDA that automatically produce reduced systems of logic gates or smaller lookup tables that still produce the desired outputs. The most common example of this kind of software is the Espresso heuristic logic minimizer. Optimizing large logic systems may be done using the Quine–McCluskey algorithm or binary decision diagrams. There are promising experiments with genetic algorithms and annealing optimizations.

To automate costly engineering processes, some EDA can take state tables that describe state machines and automatically produce a truth table or a function table for the combinational logic of a state machine. The state table is a piece of text that lists each state, together with the conditions controlling the transitions between them and their associated output signals.

Often, real logic systems are designed as a series of sub-projects, which are combined using a tool flow. The tool flow is usually controlled with the help of a scripting language, a simplified computer language that can invoke the software design tools in the right order. Tool flows for large logic systems such as microprocessors can be thousands of commands long, and combine the work of hundreds of engineers. Writing and debugging tool flows is an established engineering specialty in companies that produce digital designs. The tool flow usually terminates in a detailed computer file or set of files that describe how to physically construct the logic. Often it consists of instructions on how to draw the transistors and wires on an integrated circuit or a printed circuit board.

Parts of tool flows are debugged by verifying the outputs of simulated logic against expected inputs. The test tools take computer files with sets of inputs and outputs and highlight discrepancies between the simulated behavior and the expected behavior. Once the input data is believed to be correct, the design itself must still be verified for correctness. Some tool flows verify designs by first producing a design, then scanning the design to produce compatible input data for the tool flow. If the scanned data matches the input data, then the tool flow has probably not introduced errors.

The functional verification data are usually called test vectors. The functional test vectors may be preserved and used in the factory to test whether newly constructed logic works correctly. However, functional test patterns do not discover all fabrication faults. Production tests are often designed by automatic test pattern generation software tools. These generate test vectors by examining the structure of the logic and systematically generating tests targeting particular potential faults. This way the fault coverage can closely approach 100%, provided the design is properly made testable (see next section).

Once a design exists, and is verified and testable, it often needs to be processed to be manufacturable as well. Modern integrated circuits have features smaller than the wavelength of the light used to expose the photoresist. Software that are designed for manufacturability add interference patterns to the exposure masks to eliminate open-circuits, and enhance the masks' contrast.

Design for testability
There are several reasons for testing a logic circuit. When the circuit is first developed, it is necessary to verify that the design circuit meets the required functional, and timing specifications. When multiple copies of a correctly designed circuit are being manufactured, it is essential to test each copy to ensure that the manufacturing process has not introduced any flaws.

A large logic machine (say, with more than a hundred logical variables) can have an astronomical number of possible states. Obviously, factory testing every state of such a machine is unfeasible, for even if testing each state only took a microsecond, there are more possible states than there are microseconds since the universe began!

Large logic machines are almost always designed as assemblies of smaller logic machines. To save time, the smaller sub-machines are isolated by permanently installed design for test circuitry, and are tested independently. One common testing scheme provides a test mode that forces some part of the logic machine to enter a test cycle. The test cycle usually exercises large independent parts of the machine.

Boundary scan is a common test scheme that uses serial communication with external test equipment through one or more shift registers known as scan chains. Serial scans have only one or two wires to carry the data, and minimize the physical size and expense of the infrequently used test logic. After all the test data bits are in place, the design is reconfigured to be in normal mode and one or more clock pulses are applied, to test for faults (e.g. stuck-at low or stuck-at high) and capture the test result into flip-flops or latches in the scan shift register(s). Finally, the result of the test is shifted out to the block boundary and compared against the predicted good machine result.

In a board-test environment, serial to parallel testing has been formalized as the JTAG standard.

Cost
Since a digital system may use many logic gates, the overall cost of building a computer correlates strongly with the cost of a logic gate. In the 1930s, the earliest digital logic systems were constructed from telephone relays because these were inexpensive and relatively reliable.

The earliest integrated circuits were constructed to save weight and permit the Apollo Guidance Computer to control an inertial guidance system for a spacecraft. The first integrated circuit logic gates cost nearly US$50, which in would be equivalent to $. Mass-produced gates on integrated circuits became the least-expensive method to construct digital logic.

With the rise of integrated circuits, reducing the absolute number of chips used represented another way to save costs. The goal of a designer is not just to make the simplest circuit, but to keep the component count down. Sometimes this results in more complicated designs with respect to the underlying digital logic but nevertheless reduces the number of components, board size, and even power consumption.

Reliability
Another major motive for reducing component count on printed circuit boards is to reduce the manufacturing defect rate due to failed soldered connections and increase reliability. Defect and failure rates tend to increase along with the total number of component pins.

The failure of a single logic gate may cause a digital machine to fail. Where additional reliability is required, redundant logic can be provided. Redundancy adds cost and power consumption over a non-redundant system.

The reliability of a logic gate can be described by its mean time between failure (MTBF). Digital machines first became useful when the MTBF for a switch increased above a few hundred hours. Even so, many of these machines had complex, well-rehearsed repair procedures, and would be nonfunctional for hours because a tube burned-out, or a moth got stuck in a relay. Modern transistorized integrated circuit logic gates have MTBFs greater than 82 billion hours ($8.2 hours$). This level of reliability is required because integrated circuits have so many logic gates.

Fan-out
Fan-out describes how many logic inputs can be controlled by a single logic output without exceeding the electrical current ratings of the gate outputs. The minimum practical fan-out is about five. Modern electronic logic gates using CMOS transistors for switches have higher fan-outs.

Speed
The switching speed describes how long it takes a logic output to change from true to false or vice versa. Faster logic can accomplish more operations in less time. Modern electronic digital logic routinely switches at $5 GHz$, and some laboratory systems switch at more than $1 THz$..

Logic families
Digital design started with relay logic which is slow. Occasionally a mechanical failure would occur. Fan-outs were typically about 10, limited by the resistance of the coils and arcing on the contacts from high voltages.

Later, vacuum tubes were used. These were very fast, but generated heat, and were unreliable because the filaments would burn out. Fan-outs were typically 5 to 7, limited by the heating from the tubes' current. In the 1950s, special computer tubes were developed with filaments that omitted volatile elements like silicon. These ran for hundreds of thousands of hours.

The first semiconductor logic family was resistor–transistor logic. This was a thousand times more reliable than tubes, ran cooler, and used less power, but had a very low fan-out of 3. Diode–transistor logic improved the fan-out up to about 7, and reduced the power. Some DTL designs used two power-supplies with alternating layers of NPN and PNP transistors to increase the fan-out.

Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) was a great improvement over these. In early devices, fan-out improved to 10, and later variations reliably achieved 20. TTL was also fast, with some variations achieving switching times as low as 20 ns. TTL is still used in some designs.

Emitter coupled logic is very fast but uses a lot of power. It was extensively used for high-performance computers, such as the Illiac IV, made up of many medium-scale components.

By far, the most common digital integrated circuits built today use CMOS logic, which is fast, offers high circuit density and low power per gate. This is used even in large, fast computers, such as the IBM System z.

Recent developments
In 2009, researchers discovered that memristors can implement a Boolean state storage and provides a complete logic family with very small amounts of space and power, using familiar CMOS semiconductor processes.

The discovery of superconductivity has enabled the development of rapid single flux quantum (RSFQ) circuit technology, which uses Josephson junctions instead of transistors. Most recently, attempts are being made to construct purely optical computing systems capable of processing digital information using nonlinear optical elements.

title: Digital electronics


text:
Talk:Internalism and externalism

Unsorted text
I don't have any idea which philosophical topic should get top billing on this page. I think the epistemological sense is the newest, and the moral sense is the oldest, and I know very little about the debate in philosophy of mind. The other scale we could use is how popular the terms are in these disciplines, but I have no idea how to determine that information. So, the current arrangement is arbitrary, and if you have a good reason for changing it, go right ahead. MRC

These need to be moved to internalism and externalism (epistemology), internalism and externalism (philosophy of language, etc. (note, isms are not capitalized in philosophical writing, generally speaking).

Actually, though, I think there should be separate articles for each: internalism (epistemology), etc. I don't think it matters very much whether the meat of the discussion of debates between internalists and externalists of various stripes should go, whether on an "i and e" page jointly, or instead separately--but I do think we should have separate articles in any case. --Larry_Sanger

Fine, but I made these pages before we could use in page titles, so this was better than the alternitives at the time. Mark Christensen

From the article: "One strand of externalism is reliabilism" I have to question this. It seems that some people think reliabilism could be used with internalism. Surely we shouldn't call it a "strand" of externalism? --General Wesc

 * I've moved this page in line with WP naming policy. Charles Stewart 08:44, 15 Mar 2005 (UTC)

I've changed the definition of semantic externalism. Aside from being not uncontroversial, the definitions of (linguistic) internalism and externalism aren't obviously mutually exclusive; one might take it that 'meaning' is determined by what language users know, and that the relevant knowledge states are individuated by environmental factors, and hence come out as both internalist and externalist! this could result if, for example, one took the relevant knowledge states are propositional attitudes, and what prop attitudes are available to a thinker is environmentally determined. Now, one could get into an argument about what knowledge states it is that have a role in meaning individuation, but it's seems to me to be better to define externalism as the claim that what concepts are available to a thinker/what words mean is determined by environmental factors (broadly construed), and internalism as the denial of externalism. --212.85.15.82 1 July 2005 15:40 (UTC)

Some explanation about particular types of internalism would be helpful. i.e. Perspective internalism, and accessibility internalism à la Alston. This may favour spitting the article into two. - Alexis Morcrette —Preceding unsigned comment added by 129.67.114.192 (talk • contribs) 20:15, 10 May 2006 (UTC)

Externalism or Internalism
The text goes: "Whereas externalism about justification is a widely endorsed view, there are few defenders of externalism about knowledge thanks in no small part to Edmund Gettier and Gettier-examples.." <-- did the author actually "few defenders of internalism"? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.241.128.144 (talk) 02:17, 24 May 2010 (UTC)

Pointless
I would just like to point out that this elucidates nothing for anyone who doesn't already know what both Internalism and Externalism are, making this article entirely pointless.

I don't already know what internalism and externalism are and appreciate this summary entry even if each topic has its own separate entry.GaryMilczarek (talk) 22:09, 14 January 2017 (UTC)

"Recently"
"Recently" is a very non-specific term. Is it "recently" as in this month, this year, this decade, this century, ... ? Will it still be "recently" in ten years' time? In a century's time?

Hopefully by then someone will have done something about those three huge impenetrable paragraphs in the middle of the article.

--221.249.13.34 07:56, 13 September 2005 (UTC)

semantic externalism
there is a seperate article called 'semantic externalism'. it is stubbish and the work of one anonymous user, and obviously it is redundant considering that the information exists in some form here. On the other hand, it is probably a mistake to delete it if people are still trying to seperate this article into seperate entries (one of which would no doubt be 'semantic externalism'.) Is this still something that people are working on?

semantic externalism pt. 2
No has responded to the comment above (which I realize I forgot to sign. whoops) so I have gone ahead and started rehabbing the 'semantic externalism' article, and have linked to it from here. It is still pretty much a stub, but there you have it.

Is anyone working on epistemological externalism/internalism? They clearly deserve their own page beyond this one, but I am not qualified to start one.

Ncsaint 04:49, 9 November 2005 (UTC)

Yes, I am currently working on an internalism treatiuse which would, for the most part, be classified as epistemological. Interestingly, it does not overtly contradict externalist viewpoints as much of the thesis involves how one develops beliefs based on interpretation and perception of external phenomena. (I've put some of this a seperate section below.)

--Darkchanter 17:29, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

Seperate Internalism and Externalism?
It occurs to me that these viewpoints might well be compatable instead of opposing, especially when it comes to environmental influences and justification of beliefs. My argument is that the extent of the effect environment on a thinking subject depends on the psychological maturity of that person.

--Darkchanter 17:20, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

Externalism about knowledge
It is not exactly clear in the article why 'justified true belief' is a wholly internalist position (this is implied). It would seem that the requirement of truth is dependent on the state of reality and not on internal evidence, and as such that that sort of externalism is fairly uncontroversial. I'm not an expert on this matter but it seems confused from the pov of a reader.

Stdbrouw 22:48, 27 December 2006 (UTC)

Origin of Problem
Hey, I was surprised to not see any mention of David Malet Armstrong in this article. Didn't he discover this philosophical problem or am I mistaken? I'm pretty sure it wasn't Bernard Williams -I am intrigued and will try to find out more and update this article if needs be. Teetotaler 7 January, 2010 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.67.81.197 (talk) 22:00, 7 January 2010 (UTC)

External links modified
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/*Change second lead sentence, links*/
Change second lead sentence from: These include human motivation, knowledge, justification, meaning, and truth.

Change second lead sentence to: These subjects include human motivation, knowledge, justification, meaning and observation for truth.

 * Semantically more comprehensive description of first sentence, Go for the consensus, thanks...Arnlodg (talk) 16:59, 23 March 2019 (UTC)

 * its 'and' not 'for' no reason to make the proposed change -Snowded TALK 00:19, 24 March 2019 (UTC)

Add definition to lead
linked lead to internal-external distinction...unable to log in75.82.19.242 (talk) 21:33, 19 October 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Internalism and externalism