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John of Bohemia

John the Blind or John of Luxembourg (Jang de Blannen; Johann der Blinde; ; 10 August 1296 – 26 August 1346), was the Count of Luxembourg from 1313 and King of Bohemia from 1310 and titular King of Poland. He is well known for having died while fighting in the Battle of Crécy at age 50, after having been blind for a decade. In his home country of Luxembourg, he is considered a national hero. Comparatively, in the Czech Republic (anciently the Kingdom of Bohemia), Jan Lucemburský is often recognized for his role as the father of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor, one of the more significant Kings of Bohemia and one of the leading Holy Roman Emperors.

Early life
John was the eldest son of Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor and Margaret of Brabant, who was the daughter of John I, Duke of Brabant and Margaret of Flanders. Born in Luxembourg and raised in Paris, John was French by education but deeply involved in the politics of Germany.

In 1310, his father arranged the marriage of 14-year-old John to Elizabeth of Bohemia. The wedding took place in Speyer, after which the newlyweds made their way to Prague accompanied by a group led by the experienced diplomat and expert on Czech issues, Peter of Aspelt, Archbishop of Mainz. Because the emperor had imperial Czech regiments accompany and protect the couple from Nuremberg to Prague, John was thus forced to invade Bohemia on behalf of his wife Elizabeth. The Czech forces were able to gain control of Prague and depose the reigning king, Henry of Gorizia, King of Bohemia, on 3 December 1310. The deposed King Henry fled with his wife Anne of Bohemia (the sister of John's wife) to his duchy (the Duchy of Carinthia). The coronation of John and Elizabeth to the Bohemian throne took place on 7 February 1311, making them King and Queen of Bohemia. The castle at Prague was uninhabitable, so John made residence in one of the houses on the Old Town Square, and with the help of his advisors, he stabilized affairs in the Czech state. He thereby became one of the seven prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire and – in succession of his brother-in-law Wenceslaus III of Bohemia – claimant to the Polish and Hungarian throne. His attempts to follow his father as King of the Romans failed with the election of Louis IV of Bavaria in 1314. Nevertheless, John later would support Louis IV in his rivalry with Frederick the Fair, King of Germany, culminating in the 1322 Battle of Mühldorf in which, in return, he thus received the Czech region of Egerland as a reward.

Problems with nobility
Like his predecessor Henry, he was disliked by much of the Czech nobility. John was considered an "alien king" and gave up the administration of Bohemia after a while and embarked on a life of travel. He parted ways with his wife and left the Czech country to be ruled by the barons while spending time in Luxembourg and the French court.

John's travels took him to Silesia, Poland, Lithuania, Tyrol, Northern Italy and Papal Avignon. A rival of King Władysław I the Elbow-high to the Polish crown, John supported the Teutonic Knights in the Polish–Teutonic War from 1326 to 1332. He also made several Silesian dukes swear an oath of allegiance to him. In 1335 in Congress of Visegrád, Władysław's successor King Casimir III the Great of Poland paid a significant amount of money in exchange for John's giving up his claim to the Polish throne.

John's first steps as king were re-establishing authority and securing peace within the country. In 1311, he reached an agreement with the Bohemian and Moravian aristocracy, referred to as the "inaugural diplomas", with which John restricted the relations of both the ruler and aristocracy. The aristocracy was, however, allowed to hold the right to elect the king, to decide the matter of extraordinary taxation, the right to their property, and the right to choose freely whether or not to offer military support to the king in foreign wars. However, the aristocracy was encouraged to raise armies when peace within the country was threatened. On the other hand, the king's right to appoint a foreign official to office was abolished. John structured these agreements to provide a basis for consolidating the ruler's power within the Bohemian kingdom. The agreements weren't as successful as John intended. The aristocracy did not intend to surrender its property and the influence it gained after Wenceslas II died.

The growing tensions within the aristocracy and the lack of communication due to John's consistent absence in Bohemia led to a competition between two factions of the Czech nobility. One party, led by Jindřich of Lipá, gained the trust of John. The other party, led by Vilém Zajíc of Valdek (Latin: Wilhelmus Lepus de Waldek; German: Wilhelm Hase von Waldeck), convinced the Queen that Lord Lipá intended to overthrow John. Consequently, in 1315, John had Jindřich imprisoned.

By 1318, John had reconciled with the nobility and recognised their rights, further establishing dualism of the Estates and a government division between the king and the nobles.

International politics
Foreign politics, rather than Czech, appealed to John, as he was gifted at it. With the help of his father, Henry, John was able to pressure the Habsburgs into reaching an agreement over Moravia. He was also able to pressure the House of Wettin, princes of Saxony, to give over the territory lying to the northern border of the Czech state. John also decided to improve relations with the Silesian principalities close to Bohemia and Moravia in economic and political standings.

The international spectrum was further broadened for John when his father named him Imperial Vicar, his deputy for the governance of the Empire. This allowed John to reach further, and he contributed to the imperial coronation along with helping with the conclusion of the Italian territorial wars. In 1313, Henry died suddenly, ending this collaboration between him and John. However, through Henry's death, a spot for the imperial crown opened up, making John a possible candidate, the other two candidates being Fredrick of Habsburg and Louis of Bavaria.

In attempts not to support Fredrick, John voted for Louis at the diet of electors. In return for his support, Louis, as the new emperor, promised the support in territorial claims of the Czech state in Silesia and Meissen as well as the region of Cheb and the Upper Palatinate. Later, in 1319, after the Brandenburg House of Ascania died out, John regained control over the Bautzen region and then the Görlitz region in 1329.

In 1322/23, King John became unsettled by Louis's growing power and allied with France and Austria against him. The dispute would escalate with his son Charles claiming the Imperial crown in opposition to Louis.

Death
John lost his eyesight at age 39 or 40 from ophthalmia in 1336, while crusading in Lithuania. A treatment by the famous physician Guy de Chauliac had no positive effects. At the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War in 1337, he allied with King Philip VI of France and was even appointed governor of Languedoc from 30 November 1338 to November 1340. At the Battle of Crécy in 1346 John controlled Phillip's advanced guard along with managing the large contingents of Charles II of Alençon and Louis I, Count of Flanders. John was killed at age 50 while fighting against the English during the battle. The medieval chronicler Jean Froissart left the following account of John's last actions:

"...for all that he was nigh blind, when he understood the order of the battle, he said to them about him: 'Where is the lord Charles my son?' His men said: 'Sir, we cannot tell; we think he be fighting.' Then he said: 'Sirs, ye are my men, my companions and friends in this journey: I require you bring me so far forward, that I may strike one stroke with my sword.' They said they would do his commandment, and to the intent that they should not lose him in the press, they tied all their reins of their bridles each to other and set the king before to accomplish his desire, and so they went on their enemies. The lord Charles of Bohemia his son, who wrote himself king of Almaine and bare the arms, he came in good order to the battle; but when he saw that the matter went awry on their party, he departed, I cannot tell you which way. The king his father was so far forward that he strake a stroke with his sword, yea and more than four, and fought valiantly and so did his company; and they adventured themselves so forward, that they were there all slain, and the next day they were found in the place about the king, and all their horses tied each to other."

According to the Cronica ecclesiae Pragensis Benesii Krabice de Weitmile, when told by his aides that the battle against the English at Crécy was lost and he better should flee to save his own life, John the Blind replied: "Absit, ut rex Boemie fugeret, sed illuc me ducite, ubi maior strepitus certaminis vigeret, Dominus sit nobiscum, nil timeamus, tantum filium meum diligenter custodite. ("Far be it that the King of Bohemia should run away. Instead, take me to the place where the noise of the battle is the loudest. The Lord will be with us. Nothing to fear. Just take good care of my son.")

John was succeeded as King of Bohemia by his eldest son, Charles. In Luxembourg, he was succeeded by Wenceslaus, his son by his second wife.

Burial
The body of John the Blind was moved to Kloster Altmünster ("Old-Minster Abbey") in Luxembourg. When the abbey was destroyed in 1543, the corpse was moved to Kloster Neumünster ("New-Minster Abbey") in Luxembourg. During the confusion of the French Revolution, the mortal remains were salvaged by the Boch industrialist family (founders of Villeroy & Boch, ennobled in 1892) and hidden in an attic room in Mettlach on the Saar River. The legend is that the abbey monks asked Pierre-Joseph Boch for this favour.

His son Jean-François Boch met with the future King Frederick William IV of Prussia on his voyage through the Rhineland in 1833, offering the remains as a gift. As Frederick William counted John the Blind among his ancestors, he ordered Karl Friedrich Schinkel to construct a funeral chapel. The chapel was built in 1834 and 1835 near Kastel-Staadt on a rock above the town. In 1838, on the anniversary of his death, John the Blind was laid in a black marble sarcophagus in a public ceremony.

In 1945, the Luxembourg government took the chance to obtain possession of the bones. In a cloak and dagger operation, the remains were moved to the crypt of the Notre-Dame Cathedral, Luxembourg. The inscription on the tomb reads: ""

Family and children
John was married twice:

First, to Elisabeth of Bohemia, the daughter of King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia. In this marriage he had the following children:
 * 1) Margaret of Luxembourg, Duchess of Bavaria (8 July 1313 – 11 July 1341, Prague), married in Straubing 12 August 1328 to Henry XIV, Duke of Bavaria
 * 2) Bonne of Luxembourg, Duchess of Normandy (21 May 1315 – 11 September 1349, Maubuisson, born "Judith"), married in Melun 6 August 1332 to John, Duke of Normandy, who later became King John II of France after her death.
 * 3) Charles IV of Luxembourg (14 May 1316 – 29 November 1378), who succeeded him as King of Bohemia and later became Holy Roman Emperor
 * 4) Ottokar ("Otto") (22 November 1318 – 20 April 1320), Prince of Bohemia
 * 5) John Henry of Luxembourg (Jan Jindřich) (12 February 1322, Mělník – 12 November 1375), Margrave of Moravia
 * 6) Anna of Luxembourg, Duchess of Austria (1323 – 3 September 1338), twin of Elizabeth, married 16 February 1335 to Otto, Duke of Austria
 * 7) Elizabeth (1323–1324)

Second (December 1334), to Beatrice of Bourbon, daughter of Louis I, Duke of Bourbon. This marriage produced one son:

 * 1) Wenceslaus I of Luxembourg (25 February 1337 – 7 December 1383), Duke of Luxembourg and later Brabant through his marriage to the heiress Joanna, Duchess of Brabant.

His illegitimate son Nicolaus was Patriarch of Aquileia from 1350 to 1358.

title: John of Bohemia


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Pioneer 10

Pioneer 10 (originally designated Pioneer F) is a NASA space probe launched in 1972 that completed the first mission to the planet Jupiter. Pioneer 10 became the first of five planetary probes and 11 artificial objects to achieve the escape velocity needed to leave the Solar System. This space exploration project was conducted by the NASA Ames Research Center in California. The space probe was manufactured by TRW Inc.

Pioneer 10 was assembled around a hexagonal bus with a 2.74 m diameter parabolic dish high-gain antenna, and the spacecraft was spin stabilized around the axis of the antenna. Its electric power was supplied by four radioisotope thermoelectric generators that provided a combined 155 watts at launch.

It was launched on March 3, 1972, at 01:49:00 UTC (March 2 local time), by an Atlas-Centaur rocket from Cape Canaveral, Florida. Between July 15, 1972, and February 15, 1973, it became the first spacecraft to traverse the asteroid belt. Photography of Jupiter began on November 6, 1973, at a range of 25 e6km, and about 500 images were transmitted. The closest approach to the planet was on December 3, 1973, at a range of 132,252 km. During the mission, the on-board instruments were used to study the asteroid belt, the environment around Jupiter, the solar wind, cosmic rays, and eventually the far reaches of the Solar System and heliosphere.

Radio communications were lost with Pioneer 10 on January 23, 2003, because of the loss of electric power for its radio transmitter, with the probe at a distance of 12 e9km from Earth.

History
In the 1960s, American aerospace engineer Gary Flandro of the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory conceived of a mission, known as the Planetary Grand Tour, that would exploit a rare alignment of the outer planets of the Solar System. This mission would ultimately be accomplished in the late 1970s by the two Voyager probes, but in order to prepare for it, NASA decided in 1964 to experiment with launching a pair of probes to the outer Solar System. An advocacy group named the Outer Space Panel and chaired by American space scientist James A. Van Allen, worked out the scientific rationale for exploring the outer planets. NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center put together a proposal for a pair of "Galactic Jupiter Probes" that would pass through the asteroid belt and visit Jupiter. These were to be launched in 1972 and 1973 during favorable windows that occurred only a few weeks every 13 months. Launch during other time intervals would have been more costly in terms of propellant requirements.

Approved by NASA in February 1969, the twin spacecraft were designated Pioneer F and Pioneer G before launch; later, they were named Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 respectively. They formed part of the Pioneer program, a series of United States uncrewed space missions launched between 1958 and 1978. This model was the first in the series to be designed for exploring the outer Solar System. Based on proposals issued throughout the 1960s, the early mission objectives were to explore the interplanetary medium past the orbit of Mars, study the asteroid belt and assess the possible hazard to spacecraft traveling through the belt, and explore Jupiter and its environment. Later development-stage objectives included the probe closely approaching Jupiter to provide data on the effect the environmental radiation surrounding Jupiter would have on the spacecraft instruments.

More than 150 scientific experiments were proposed for the missions. The experiments to be carried on the spacecraft were selected in a series of planning sessions during the 1960s, then were finalized by early 1970. These would be to perform imaging and polarimetry of Jupiter and several of its satellites, make infrared and ultraviolet observations of Jupiter, detect asteroids and meteoroids, determine the composition of charged particles, and to measure magnetic fields, plasma, cosmic rays and the zodiacal light. Observation of the spacecraft communications as it passed behind Jupiter would allow measurements of the planetary atmosphere, while tracking data would improve estimates of the mass of Jupiter and its moons.

NASA Ames Research Center, rather than Goddard, was selected to manage the project as part of the Pioneer program. The Ames Research Center, under the direction of Charles F. Hall, was chosen because of its previous experience with spin-stabilized spacecraft. The requirements called for a small, lightweight spacecraft which was magnetically clean and which could perform an interplanetary mission. It was to use spacecraft modules that had already been proven in the Pioneer 6 through 9 missions. Ames commissioned a documentary film by George Van Valkenburg titled "Jupiter Odyssey". It received numerous international awards, and is visible on Van Valkenburg's YouTube channel.

In February 1970, Ames awarded a combined US$380 million contract to TRW Inc. for building both of the Pioneer 10 and 11 vehicles, bypassing the usual bidding process to save time. B. J. O'Brien and Herb Lassen led the TRW team that assembled the spacecraft. Design and construction of the spacecraft required an estimated 25 million man-hours. An engineer from TRW quipped, "This spacecraft is guaranteed for two years of interplanetary flight. If any component fails within that warranty period, just return the spacecraft to our shop and we will repair it free of charge."

To meet the schedule, the first launch would need to take place between February 29 and March 17 so that it could arrive at Jupiter in November 1974. This was later revised to an arrival date of December 1973 in order to avoid conflicts with other missions over the use of the Deep Space Network for communications, and to miss the period when Earth and Jupiter would be at opposite sides of the Sun. The encounter trajectory for Pioneer 10 was selected to maximize the information returned about the radiation environment around Jupiter, even if this caused damage to some systems. It would come within about three times the radius of the planet, which was thought to be the closest it could approach and still survive the radiation. The trajectory chosen would give the spacecraft a good view of the sunlit side.

Spacecraft design
The Pioneer 10 bus measures 36 cm deep and with six 76 cm long panels forming the hexagonal structure. The bus houses propellant to control the orientation of the probe and eight of the eleven scientific instruments. The equipment compartment lay within an aluminum honeycomb structure to provide protection from meteoroids. A layer of insulation, consisting of aluminized mylar and kapton blankets, provides passive thermal control. Heat was generated by the dissipation of 70 to 120 watts (W) from the electrical components inside the compartment. The heat range was maintained within the operating limits of the equipment by means of louvers located below the mounting platform. The spacecraft had a launch mass of about 260 kg.

At launch, the spacecraft carried 36 kg of liquid hydrazine monopropellant in a 42 cm diameter spherical tank. Orientation of the spacecraft is maintained with six 4.5 N, hydrazine thrusters mounted in three pairs. Pair one maintained a constant spin-rate of 4.8 rpm, pair two controlled the forward thrust, and pair three controlled the attitude. The attitude pair were used in conical scanning maneuvers to track Earth in its orbit. Orientation information was also provided by a star sensor able to reference Canopus, and two Sun sensors.

Power and communications

Pioneer 10 uses four SNAP-19 radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs). They are positioned on two three-rod trusses, each 3 m in length and 120 degrees apart. This was expected to be a safe distance from the sensitive scientific experiments carried on board. Combined, the RTGs provided 155 W at launch, and decayed to 140 W in transit to Jupiter. The spacecraft required 100 W to power all systems. The generators are powered by the radioisotope fuel plutonium-238, which is housed in a multi-layer capsule protected by a graphite heat shield.

The pre-launch requirement for the SNAP-19 was to provide power for two years in space; this was greatly exceeded during the mission. The plutonium-238 has a half-life of 87.74 years, so that after 29 years the radiation being generated by the RTGs was at 80% of its intensity at launch. However, steady deterioration of the thermocouple junctions led to a more rapid decay in electrical power generation, and by 2001 the total power output was 65 W. As a result, later in the mission only selected instruments could be operated at any one time.

The space probe includes a redundant system of transceivers, one attached to the narrow-beam, high-gain antenna, the other to an omni-antenna and medium-gain antenna. The parabolic dish for the high-gain antenna is 2.74 m in diameter and made from an aluminum honeycomb sandwich material. The spacecraft was spun about an axis that is parallel to the axis of this antenna so that it could remain oriented toward the Earth. Each transceiver is an 8 W one and transmits data across the S-band using 2110 MHz for the uplink from Earth and 2292 MHz for the downlink to Earth with the Deep Space Network tracking the signal. Data to be transmitted is passed through a convolutional encoder so that most communication errors could be corrected by the receiving equipment on Earth. The data transmission rate at launch was 256 bit/s, with the rate degrading by about 1.27 millibit/s for each day during the mission.

Much of the computation for the mission is performed on Earth and transmitted to the spacecraft, where it was able to retain in memory up to five commands of the 222 possible entries by ground controllers. The spacecraft includes two command decoders and a command distribution unit, a very limited form of a processor, to direct operations on the spacecraft. This system requires that mission operators prepare commands long in advance of transmitting them to the probe. A data storage unit is included to record up to 6,144 bytes of information gathered by the instruments. The digital telemetry unit is used to prepare the collected data in one of the thirteen possible formats before transmitting it back to Earth.

Launch and trajectory

Pioneer 10 was launched on March 3, 1972, at 01:49:00 UTC (8:49 p.m. Eastern Standard Time on March 2) by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration from Space Launch Complex 36A in Florida, aboard an Atlas-Centaur. The third stage of the expendable vehicle consisted of a solid fuel Star-37E stage (TE-M-364-4) developed specifically for the Pioneer missions. This stage provided about 15000 lb of thrust and spun up the spacecraft. The spacecraft had an initial spin rate of 30 rpm. Twenty minutes following the launch, the vehicle's three booms were extended, which slowed the rotation rate to 4.8 rpm. This rate was maintained throughout the voyage. The launch vehicle accelerated the probe for a net interval of 17 minutes, reaching a velocity of 51682 km/h.

After the high-gain antenna was contacted, several of the instruments were activated for testing while the spacecraft was moving through the Earth's radiation belts. Ninety minutes after launch, the spacecraft reached interplanetary space. Pioneer 10 passed by the Moon in 11 hours and became the fastest human-made object at that time. Two days after launch, the scientific instruments were turned on, beginning with the cosmic ray telescope. After ten days, all of the instruments were active.

During the first seven months of the journey, the spacecraft made three course corrections. The on-board instruments underwent checkouts, with the photometers examining Jupiter and the Zodiacal light, and experiment packages being used to measure cosmic rays, magnetic fields and the solar wind. The only anomaly during this interval was the failure of the Canopus sensor, which instead required the spacecraft to maintain its orientation using the two Sun sensors.

While passing through interplanetary medium, Pioneer 10 became the first mission to detect interplanetary atoms of helium. It also observed high-energy ions of aluminum and sodium in the solar wind. The spacecraft recorded important heliophysics data in early August 1972 by registering a solar shock wave when it was at a distance of 2.2 AU. On July 15, 1972, Pioneer 10 was the first spacecraft to enter the asteroid belt, located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. The project planners expected a safe passage through the belt, and the closest the trajectory would take the spacecraft to any of the known asteroids was 8.8 e6km. One of the nearest approaches was to the asteroid 307 Nike on December 2, 1972.

The on-board experiments demonstrated a deficiency of particles below a micrometer (μm) in the belt, as compared to the vicinity of the Earth. The density of dust particles between 10 and 100 μm did not vary significantly during the trip from the Earth to the outer edge of the belt. Only for particles with a diameter of 100 μm to 1.0 mm did the density show an increase, by a factor of three in the region of the belt. No fragments larger than a millimeter were observed in the belt, indicating these are likely rare; certainly much less common than anticipated. As the spacecraft did not collide with any particles of substantial size, it passed safely through the belt, emerging on the other side about February 15, 1973.

Encounter with Jupiter
On November 6, 1973, the Pioneer 10 spacecraft was at a distance of 25 e6km from Jupiter. Testing of the imaging system began, and the data were successfully received back at the Deep Space Network. A series of 16,000 commands were then uploaded to the spacecraft to control the flyby operations during the next sixty days. The orbit of the outer moon Sinope was crossed on November 8. The bow shock of Jupiter's magnetosphere was reached on November 16, as indicated by a drop in the velocity of the solar wind from 451 km/s to 225 km/s. The magnetopause was passed through a day later. The spacecraft instruments confirmed that the magnetic field of Jupiter was inverted compared to that of Earth. By the 29th, the orbits of all of the outermost moons had been passed, and the spacecraft was operating flawlessly.

Red and blue pictures of Jupiter were being generated by the imaging photopolarimeter as the rotation of the spacecraft carried the instrument's field of view past the planet. These red and blue colors were combined to produce a synthetic green image, allowing a three-color combination to produce the rendered image. On November 26, a total of twelve such images were received back on Earth. By December 2, the image quality exceeded the best images made from Earth. These were being displayed in real-time back on Earth, and the Pioneer program would later receive an Emmy award for this presentation to the media. The motion of the spacecraft produced geometric distortions that later had to be corrected by computer processing. During the encounter, a total of more than 500 images were transmitted.

The trajectory of the spacecraft took it along the magnetic equator of Jupiter, where the ion radiation was concentrated. Peak flux for this electron radiation is 10,000 times stronger than the maximum radiation around the Earth. Pioneer 10 passed through the inner radiation belts within 20 RJ, receiving an integrated dose of 200,000 rads from electrons and 56,000 rads from protons (in comparison, a whole body dose of 500 rads is fatal to humans). The level of radiation at Jupiter was ten times more powerful than Pioneer's designers had predicted, leading to fears that the probe would not survive. Starting on December 3, the radiation around Jupiter caused false commands to be generated. Most of these were corrected by contingency commands, but an image of Io and a few close-ups of Jupiter were lost. Similar false commands would be generated on the way out from the planet. Nonetheless, Pioneer 10 did succeed in obtaining images of the moons Ganymede and Europa. The image of Ganymede showed low albedo features in the center and near the south pole, while the north pole appeared brighter. Europa was too far away to obtain a detailed image, although some albedo features were apparent.

The trajectory of Pioneer 10 was chosen to take it behind Io, allowing the refractive effect of the moon's atmosphere on the radio transmissions to be measured. This demonstrated that the ionosphere of the moon was about 700 km above the surface of the day side, and the density ranged from 60,000 electrons per cubic centimeter on the dayside to 9,000 electrons per cubic centimeter on the night face. An unexpected discovery was that Io was orbiting within a cloud of hydrogen that extended for about 805,000 km, with a width and height of 402,000 km. A smaller, 110,000 km cloud was believed to have been detected near Europa.

It was not until after Pioneer 10 had cleared the asteroid belt that NASA selected a trajectory towards Jupiter which included a slingshot effect to send the spacecraft out of the Solar System. Pioneer 10 was the first spacecraft to attempt such a maneuver, a model for future missions. Such an extended mission was not in the initial proposal, but was planned for prior to launch.

At the closest approach, the velocity of the spacecraft reached 132000 km/h, and it came within 132,252 km of the outer atmosphere of Jupiter. Close-up images of the Great Red Spot and the terminator were obtained. Communication with the spacecraft then ceased as it passed behind the planet. The radio occultation data allowed the temperature structure of the outer atmosphere to be measured, showing a temperature inversion between the altitudes with 10 and 100 mbar pressures. Temperatures at the 10-mbar level ranged from -133 to -113 C, while temperatures at the 100 mbar level were -183 to -163 C. The spacecraft generated an infrared map of the planet, which confirmed the idea that the planet radiated more heat than it received from the Sun.

Crescent images of the planet were then returned as Pioneer 10  moved away from the planet. As the spacecraft headed outward, it again passed the bow shock of Jupiter's magnetosphere. As this front is constantly shifting in space because of dynamic interaction with the solar wind, the vehicle crossed the bow shock a total of 17 times before it escaped completely.

Deep space
Pioneer 10 crossed the orbit of Saturn in 1976 and the orbit of Uranus in 1979. On June 13, 1983, the craft crossed the orbit of Neptune, and so became the first human-made object to leave the proximity of the major planets of the Solar System. The mission came to an official end on March 31, 1997, when it had reached a distance of 67 AU from the Sun, though the spacecraft was still able to transmit coherent data after this date.

After March 31, 1997, Pioneer 10's weak signal continued to be tracked by the Deep Space Network to aid the training of flight controllers in the process of acquiring deep-space radio signals. There was an Advanced Concepts study applying chaos theory to extract coherent data from the fading signal.

The last successful reception of telemetry was received from Pioneer 10 on April 27, 2002; subsequent signals were barely strong enough to detect and provided no usable data. The final, very weak signal from Pioneer 10 was received on January 23, 2003, when it was 12 e9km from Earth. Further attempts to contact the spacecraft were unsuccessful. A final attempt was made on the evening of March 4, 2006, the last time the antenna would be correctly aligned with Earth. No response was received from Pioneer 10. NASA decided that the RTG units had probably fallen below the power threshold needed to operate the transmitter. Hence, no further attempts at contact were made.

Current status and future
On July 18, 2023, Voyager 2 overtook Pioneer 10, making Pioneer 10 the third farthest spacecraft from the Sun after Voyager 1 and Voyager 2. As of June 2024, the probe is estimated to be 137.3 AU from Earth and 136.3 AU from the Sun. Sunlight takes 18.9 hours to reach Pioneer 10. The brightness of the Sun from the spacecraft is magnitude −16.0. Pioneer 10 is currently travelling in the direction of the constellation Taurus.

If left undisturbed, Pioneer 10 and its sister craft Pioneer 11 will join the two Voyager spacecraft and the New Horizons spacecraft in leaving the Solar System to wander the interstellar medium. The Pioneer 10 trajectory is expected to take it in the general direction of the star Aldebaran, currently located at a distance of about 68 light years. If Aldebaran had zero relative velocity, it would require more than two million years for the spacecraft to reach it. Well before that, in about 90,000 years, Pioneer 10 will pass about 0.23 pc from the late K-type star HIP 117795. This is the closest stellar flyby in the next few million years of all the Pioneer, Voyager, and New Horizons spacecraft, which are leaving the Solar System.

A backup unit, Pioneer H, is currently on display in the "Milestones of Flight" gallery at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. Many elements of the mission proved to be critical in the planning of the Voyager program.

Pioneer plaque
Because it was strongly advocated by Carl Sagan, Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 carry a 152 by gold-anodized aluminum plaque in case either spacecraft is ever found by intelligent life-forms from another planetary system. The plaques feature the nude figures of a human male and female along with several symbols that are designed to provide information about the origin of the spacecraft. The plaque is attached to the antenna support struts where it would be shielded from interstellar dust.

Pioneer 10 in popular media
In the film Star Trek V: The Final Frontier, a Klingon Bird-of-Prey destroys Pioneer 10 as target practice.

In the serialized speculative fiction multimedia narrative 17776, one of the main characters is a sentient Pioneer 10.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Pioneer 10


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Menstruation

Menstruation (also known as a period, among other colloquial terms) is the regular discharge of blood and mucosal tissue from the inner lining of the uterus through the vagina. The menstrual cycle is characterized by the rise and fall of hormones. Menstruation is triggered by falling progesterone levels and is a sign that pregnancy has not occurred.

The first period, a point in time known as menarche, usually begins between the ages of 12 and 15. Menstruation starting as young as 8 years would still be considered normal. The average age of the first period is generally later in the developing world, and earlier in the developed world. The typical length of time between the first day of one period and the first day of the next is 21 to 45 days in young women. In adults, the range is between 21 and 35 days with the average being 28 days. Bleeding usually lasts around 2 to 7 days. Periods stop during pregnancy and typically do not resume during the initial months of breastfeeding. Menstruation, and with it the possibility of pregnancy, ceases after menopause, which usually occurs between 45 and 55 years of age.

Up to 80% of women do not experience problems sufficient to disrupt daily functioning either during menstruation or in the days leading up to menstruation. Symptoms in advance of menstruation that do interfere with normal life are called premenstrual syndrome (PMS). Some 20 to 30% of women experience PMS, with 3 to 8% experiencing severe symptoms. These include acne, tender breasts, bloating, feeling tired, irritability, and mood changes. Other symptoms some women experience include painful periods and heavy bleeding during menstruation and abnormal bleeding at any time during the menstrual cycle. A lack of periods, known as amenorrhea, is when periods do not occur by age 15 or have not re-occurred in 90 days.

Length and duration
The first menstrual period occurs after the onset of pubertal growth, and is called menarche. The average age of menarche is 12 to 15 years. However, it may occur as early as eight. The average age of the first period is generally later in the developing world, and earlier in the developed world. The average age of menarche has changed little in the United States since the 1950s.

Menstruation is the most visible phase of the menstrual cycle and its beginning is used as the marker between cycles. The first day of menstrual bleeding is the date used for the last menstrual period (LMP). The typical length of time between the first day of one period and the first day of the next is 21 to 45 days in young women, and 21 to 35 days in adults. The average length is 28 days; one study estimated it at 29.3 days. The variability of menstrual cycle lengths is highest for women under 25 years of age and is lowest, that is, most regular, for ages 25 to 39 years. The variability increases slightly for women aged 40 to 44 years.

Perimenopause is when a woman's fertility declines, and menstruation occurs less regularly in the years leading up to the final menstrual period, when a woman stops menstruating completely and is no longer fertile. The medical definition of menopause is one year without a period and typically occurs between 45 and 55 years in Western countries. Menopause before age 45 is considered premature in industrialized countries. Like the age of menarche, the age of menopause is largely a result of cultural and biological factors. Illnesses, certain surgeries, or medical treatments may cause menopause to occur earlier than it might have otherwise.

Bleeding
The average volume of menstrual fluid during a monthly menstrual period is 35 ml with 10 - 80 ml considered typical. Menstrual fluid is the correct name for the flow, although many people prefer to refer to it as menstrual blood. Menstrual fluid is reddish-brown, a slightly darker color than venous blood.

About half of menstrual fluid is blood. This blood contains sodium, calcium, phosphate, iron, and chloride, the extent of which depends on the woman. As well as blood, the fluid consists of cervical mucus, vaginal secretions, and endometrial tissue. Vaginal fluids in menses mainly contribute water, common electrolytes, organ moieties, and at least 14 proteins, including glycoproteins.

Many women and girls notice blood clots during menstruation. These appear as clumps of blood that may look like tissue. If there was a miscarriage or a stillbirth, examination under a microscope can confirm if it was endometrial tissue or pregnancy tissue (products of conception) that was shed. Sometimes menstrual clots or shed endometrial tissue is incorrectly thought to indicate an early-term miscarriage of an embryo. An enzyme called plasmin – contained in the endometrium – tends to inhibit the blood from clotting.

The amount of iron lost in menstrual fluid is relatively small for most women. In one study, premenopausal women who exhibited symptoms of iron deficiency were given endoscopies. 86% of them actually had gastrointestinal disease and were at risk of being misdiagnosed simply because they were menstruating. Heavy menstrual bleeding, occurring monthly, can result in anemia.

Cramps
In most women, various physical changes are brought about by fluctuations in hormone levels during the menstrual cycle. This includes muscle contractions of the uterus (menstrual cramping) that can precede or accompany menstruation. Many women experience painful cramps, also known as dysmenorrhea, during menstruation. Among adult women, that pain is severe enough to affect daily activity in only 2%–28%. Severe symptoms that disrupt daily activities and functioning may be diagnosed as premenstrual dysphoric disorder. These symptoms can be severe enough to affect a person's performance at work, school, and in everyday activities in a small percentage of women.

When severe pelvic pain and bleeding suddenly occur or worsen during a cycle, this could be due to ectopic pregnancy and spontaneous abortion. This is checked by using a pregnancy test, ideally as soon as unusual pain begins, because ectopic pregnancies can be life‑threatening.

The most common treatment for menstrual cramps are non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). NSAIDs can be used to reduce moderate to severe pain, and all appear similar. About 1 in 5 women do not respond to NSAIDs and require alternative therapy, such as simple analgesics or heat pads. Other medications for pain management include aspirin or paracetamol and combined oral contraceptives. Although combined oral contraceptives may be used, there is insufficient evidence for the efficacy of intrauterine progestogens.

One review found tentative evidence that acupuncture may be useful, at least in the short term. Another review found insufficient evidence to determine an effect.

Interactions with other conditions
Known interactions between the menstrual cycle and certain health conditions include:

 * Some women with neurological conditions experience increased activity of their conditions at about the same time during each menstrual cycle. For example, drops in estrogen levels may trigger migraines, especially when the woman who has migraines is also taking the birth control pill.
 * Many women with epilepsy have more seizures in a pattern linked to the menstrual cycle; this is called "catamenial epilepsy". Different patterns seem to exist (such as seizures coinciding with the time of menstruation, or coinciding with the time of ovulation), and the frequency with which they occur has not been firmly established.
 * Research indicates that women have a significantly higher likelihood of anterior cruciate ligament injuries in the pre-ovulatory stage, than post-ovulatory stage.

Sexual activity
Sexual feelings and behaviors change during the menstrual cycle. Before and during ovulation, high levels of estrogen and androgens result in women having a relatively increased interest in sexual activity, and relatively lower interest directly prior to and during menstruation. Unlike other mammals, women may show interest in sexual activity across all days of the menstrual cycle, regardless of fertility.

There is no reliable scientific evidence that would advise against sexual intercourse during menstruation based on medical grounds.

Fertility aspects
Peak fertility (the time with the highest likelihood of pregnancy resulting from sexual intercourse) occurs during just a few days of the cycle: usually two days before and two days after the ovulation date. This corresponds to the second and the beginning of the third week in a 28-day cycle. This fertile window varies from woman to woman, just as the ovulation date often varies from cycle to cycle for the same woman. A variety of methods have been developed to help individual women estimate the relatively fertile and the relatively infertile days in the cycle; these systems are called fertility awareness.

Menstrual disorders
Infrequent or irregular ovulation is called oligoovulation. The absence of ovulation is called anovulation. Normal menstrual flow can occur without ovulation preceding it: an anovulatory cycle. In some cycles, follicular development may start but not be completed; nevertheless, estrogens will be formed and stimulate the uterine lining. Anovulatory flow resulting from a very thick endometrium caused by prolonged, continued high estrogen levels is called estrogen breakthrough bleeding. Anovulatory bleeding triggered by a sudden drop in estrogen levels is called withdrawal bleeding. Anovulatory cycles commonly occur before menopause (perimenopause) and in women with polycystic ovary syndrome.

Very little flow (less than 10 ml) is called hypomenorrhea. Regular cycles with intervals of 21 days or fewer are polymenorrhea; frequent but irregular menstruation is known as metrorrhagia. Sudden heavy flows or amounts greater than 80 ml are termed menorrhagia. Heavy menstruation that occurs frequently and irregularly is menometrorrhagia. The term for cycles with intervals exceeding 35 days is oligomenorrhea. Amenorrhea refers to more than three to six months without menses (while not being pregnant) during a woman's reproductive years. The term for painful periods is dysmenorrhea.

There is a wide spectrum of differences in how women experience menstruation. There are several ways that someone's menstrual cycle can differ from the norm:

Extreme psychological stress can also result in periods stopping. More severe symptoms of anxiety or depression may be signs of premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) with is a depressive disorder.

Dysfunctional uterine bleeding is a hormonally caused bleeding abnormality. Dysfunctional uterine bleeding typically occurs in premenopausal women who do not ovulate normally (i.e. are anovulatory). All these bleeding abnormalities need medical attention; they may indicate hormone imbalances, uterine fibroids, or other problems. As pregnant women may bleed, a pregnancy test forms part of the evaluation of abnormal bleeding.

Women who had undergone female genital mutilation (particularly type III- infibulation) a practice common in parts of Africa, may experience menstrual problems, such as slow and painful menstruation, that is caused by the near-complete sealing off of the vagina.

Menstrual hygiene management
Menstrual products (also called "feminine hygiene" products) are made to absorb or catch menstrual blood. A number of different products are available – some are disposable, some are reusable. Where women can afford it, items used to absorb or catch menses are usually commercially manufactured products. Menstruating women manage menstruation primarily by wearing menstrual products such as tampons, napkins or menstrual cups to catch the menstrual blood.

The main disposable products (commercially manufactured) include:
 * Sanitary napkins (also called sanitary towels or pads) – Rectangular pieces of material worn attached to the underwear to absorb menstrual flow, often with an adhesive backing to hold the pad in place. Disposable pads may contain wood pulp or gel products, usually with a plastic lining and bleached.
 * Tampons – Disposable cylinders of treated rayon/cotton blends or all-cotton fleece, usually bleached, that are inserted into the vagina to absorb menstrual flow.

The main reusable products include: Due to poverty, some women cannot afford commercial feminine hygiene products. Instead, they use materials found in the environment or other improvised materials. "Period poverty" is a global issue affecting women and girls who do not have access to safe, hygienic sanitary products. In addition, solid waste disposal systems in developing countries are often lacking, which means women have no proper place to dispose used products, such as pads. Inappropriate disposal of used materials also creates pressures on sanitation systems as menstrual hygiene products can create blockages of toilets, pipes and sewers. In the UK research has shown that for women allotment growers, access to sanitation for menstrual hygiene management is limited.
 * Menstrual cups – A firm, flexible bell-shaped device worn inside the vagina to collect menstrual flow.
 * Reusable cloth pads – Pads that are made of cotton (often organic), terrycloth, or flannel, and may be handsewn (from material or reused old clothes and towels) or storebought.
 * Padded panties or period-proof underwear – Reusable cloth (usually cotton) underwear with extra absorbent layers sewn in to absorb flow.

Due to hormonal contraception
Menstruation can be delayed by the use of progesterone or progestins. For this purpose, oral administration of progesterone or progestin during cycle day 20 has been found to effectively delay menstruation for at least 20 days, with menstruation starting after 2–3 days have passed since discontinuing the regimen.

Hormonal contraception affects the frequency, duration, severity, volume, and regularity of menstruation and menstrual symptoms. The most common form of hormonal contraception is the combined birth control pill, which contains both estrogen and progestogen. Although the primary function of the pill is to prevent pregnancy, it may be used to improve some menstrual symptoms and syndromes which affect menstruation, such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), endometriosis, adenomyosis, amenorrhea, menstrual cramps, menstrual migraines, menorrhagia (excessive menstrual bleeding), menstruation-related or fibroid-related anemia and dysmenorrhea (painful menstruation) by creating regularity in menstrual cycles and reducing overall menstrual flow.

Using the combined birth control pill, it is also possible for a woman to delay or eliminate menstrual periods, a practice called menstrual suppression. Some women do this simply for convenience in the short-term, while others prefer to eliminate periods altogether when possible. This can be done either by skipping the placebo pills, or using an extended cycle combined oral contraceptive pill, which were first marketed in the U.S. in the early 2000s. This continuous administration of active pills without the placebo can lead to the achievement of amenorrhea in 80% of users within 1 year of use.

Due to breastfeeding
Breastfeeding causes negative feedback to occur on pulse secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Depending on the strength of the negative feedback, breastfeeding women may experience complete suppression of follicular development, follicular development but no ovulation, or normal menstrual cycles may resume. Suppression of ovulation is more likely when suckling occurs more frequently. The production of prolactin in response to suckling is important to maintaining lactational amenorrhea. On average, women who are fully breastfeeding whose infants suckle frequently experience a return of menstruation at fourteen and a half months postpartum. There is a wide range of response among individual breastfeeding women, however, with some experiencing return of menstruation at two months and others remaining amenorrheic for up to 42 months postpartum.

Etymology and terminology
The word menstruation is etymologically related to moon. The terms menstruation and menses are derived from the Latin mensis month, which in turn relates to the ancient Greek moon and to the roots of the English words month and moon.

Some organizations have begun to use the term "menstruator" instead of "menstruating women", a term that has been in use since at least 2010. Menstruator is used by activists and scholars in order to "express solidarity with women who do not menstruate, transgender men who do, and intersexual and genderqueer individuals". The term can be contentious between different schools of feminist thought; however, the majority of feminist scholars consider the term to correctly reflect the reality that people of different genders menstruate. The term "people who menstruate" is also used.

Traditions, taboos and education
Many religions have menstruation-related traditions, for example: Islam prohibits sexual contact with women during menstruation in the 2nd chapter of the Quran. Some scholars argue that menstruating women are in a state in which they are unable to maintain wudhu, and are therefore prohibited from touching the Arabic version of the Qur'an. Other biological and involuntary functions such as vomiting, bleeding, sexual intercourse, and going to the bathroom also invalidate one's wudhu. In Judaism, a woman during menstruation is called Niddah and may be banned from certain actions. For example, the Jewish Torah prohibits sexual intercourse with a menstruating woman. In Hinduism, menstruating women are traditionally considered ritually impure and given rules to follow.

Menstruation education is frequently taught in combination with sex education at school in Western countries, although girls may prefer their mothers to be the primary source of information about menstruation and puberty. Information about menstruation is often shared among friends and peers, which may promote a more positive outlook on puberty. The quality of menstrual education in a society determines the accuracy of people's understanding of the process. In many Western countries where menstruation is a taboo subject, girls tend to conceal the fact that they may be menstruating and struggle to ensure that they give no sign of menstruation. Effective educational programs are essential to providing children and adolescents with clear and accurate information about menstruation. Schools can be an appropriate place for menstrual education to take place. Programs led by peers or third-party agencies are another option. Low-income girls are less likely to receive proper sex education on puberty, leading to a decreased understanding of why menstruation occurs and the associated physiological changes that take place. This has been shown to cause the development of a negative attitude towards menstruation.

Seclusion during menstruation
In some cultures, women were isolated during menstruation due to menstrual taboos. This is because they are seen as unclean, dangerous, or bringing bad luck to those who encounter them. These practices are common in parts of South Asia including India. A 1983 report found women refraining from household chore during this period in India. Chhaupadi is a social practice that occurs in the western part of Nepal for Hindu women, which prohibits a woman from participating in everyday activities during menstruation. Women are considered impure during this time and are kept out of the house and have to live in a shed. Although chhaupadi was outlawed by the Supreme Court of Nepal in 2005, the tradition is slow to change. Women and girls in cultures which practice such seclusion are often confined to menstruation huts, which are places of isolation used by cultures with strong menstrual taboos. The practice has recently come under fire due to related fatalities. Nepal criminalized the practice in 2017 after deaths were reported after the elongated isolation periods, but "the practice of isolating menstruating women and girls continues." Not all cultures villainize menstruation, the Beng people of West Africa consider menstrual blood as sacred and recognize its significance in reproduction.

Effects of the moon
Even though the average length of the human menstrual cycle is similar to that of the lunar cycle, in modern humans there is no relation between the two. The relationship is believed to be a coincidence. Light exposure does not appear to affect the menstrual cycle in humans. A meta-analysis of studies from 1996 showed no correlation between the human menstrual cycle and the lunar cycle, nor did data analyzed by period-tracking app Clue, submitted by 1.5million women, of 7.5million menstrual cycles; however, the lunar cycle and the average menstrual cycle were found to be basically equal in length.

Cohabitation
Beginning in 1971, some research suggested that menstrual cycles of cohabiting women became synchronized (menstrual synchrony). Subsequent research has called this hypothesis into question. A 2013 review concluded that menstrual synchrony likely does not exist.

Work
Some countries, mainly in Asia, have menstrual leave to provide women with either paid or unpaid leave of absence from their employment while they are menstruating. Countries with policies include Japan, Taiwan, Indonesia, and South Korea. The practice is controversial due to concerns that it bolsters the perception of women as weak, inefficient workers, as well as concerns that it is unfair to men, and that it furthers gender stereotypes and the medicalization of menstruation.

Other mammals
Most female mammals have an estrous cycle, but not all have a menstrual cycle that results in menstruation. Menstruation in mammals occurs in some close evolutionary relatives such as chimpanzees.

title: Menstruation


text:
Jobst of Moravia

Jobst of Moravia (Jošt Moravský or Jošt Lucemburský; Jo(b)st or Jodokus von Mähren; c. 1354 – 18 January 1411), a member of the House of Luxembourg, was Margrave of Moravia from 1375, Duke of Luxembourg and Elector of Brandenburg from 1388 as well as elected King of Germany (King of the Romans) from 1410 until his death. Jobst was an ambitious and versatile ruler, who in the early 15th century dominated the ongoing struggles within the Luxembourg dynasty and around the German throne.

Life
Jobst was presumably born in 1354 in the Moravian residence of Brno, the eldest legitimate son of Margrave John Henry, younger brother of Emperor Charles IV. Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia and his half-brother Sigismund were both Jobst's cousins.

Designated heir upon his father's death in 1375, he ruled the Margraviate of Moravia, and would often quarrel with his younger brother Prokop and the Bishops of Olomouc. In 1388, Jobst received the Duchy of Luxembourg, given in pawn by his cousin King Wenceslaus, son of the late Emperor Charles IV. The same year, Jobst also became Prince-elector of Brandenburg, pawned by Sigismund, who focused on his rule over the Kingdom of Hungary. In 1394, Jobst joined the League of Lords, a rebellion of Bohemian nobles around Boček II of Poděbrady against Wenceslaus. He had Wenceslaus arrested at Prague Castle and later taken into custody by the Austrian Starhemberg dynasty at Wildberg. Peace was made at the instigation of Wenceslaus' brothers Sigismund and John of Görlitz; however, once released, the king had Jobst expelled from Prague. Sigismund and Jobst signed a mutual inheritance treaty in 1401, but later again fell out with each other.

After the death of King Rupert of Germany in 1410, Jobst was elected successor by four of the seven prince-electors on 1 October, opposing his cousin Sigismund who had already been elected by three electors on 10 September. The deciding vote came from his cousin Wenceslaus in his capacity as King of Bohemia. Though Jobst had the greater support among the electors, he died on 18 January 1411, possibly having been poisoned, which cleared the way for Sigismund's election as King of the Romans and his later coronation as Holy Roman Emperor.

Marriage and issue
Jobst married twice, without issue:
 * Elisabeth of Opole (1360–1374), daughter of Duke Władysław Opolczyk, in 1372.
 * Agnes of Opole (d. 1409), daughter of Duke Bolesław (Bolko) II of Opole and sister of Duke Władysław, in 1374.

Titles

 * King of the Romans
 * Margrave of Moravia, Lusatia and Brandenburg
 * Elector of Brandenburg
 * Duke of Luxembourg
 * Vicarius of Italy
 * Vicarius of the Holy Roman Empire

In popular culture
A fictionalized Jobst appears in the 2018 video game Kingdom Come: Deliverance. In the game, he is shown with Divish of Talmberg, Hans Capon, Hanush of Leipa, John II of Liechtenstein, and Radzig Kobyla planning on how to defeat Sigismund and free Wenceslaus from captivity.

title: Jobst of Moravia


text:
Footwear

Footwear refers to garments worn on the feet, which typically serve the purpose of protection against adversities of the environment such as wear from rough ground; stability on slippery ground; and temperature. Cultures have different customs regarding footwear. These include not using any in some situations, usually bearing a symbolic meaning. This can however also be imposed on specific individuals to place them at a practical disadvantage against shod people, if they are excluded from having footwear available or are prohibited from using any. This usually takes place in situations of captivity, such as imprisonment or slavery, where the groups are among other things distinctly divided by whether or not footwear is being worn.
 * Shoes and similar garments ease locomotion and prevent injuries. Such footwear can also be used for fashion and adornment, as well as to indicate the status or rank of the person within a social structure.
 * Socks and other hosiery are typically worn additionally between the feet and other footwear for further comfort and relief.

In some cultures, people remove their shoes before entering a home. Bare feet are also seen as a sign of humility and respect, and adherents of many religions worship or mourn while barefoot. Some religious communities explicitly require people to remove shoes before they enter holy buildings, such as temples.

In several cultures people remove their shoes as a sign of respect towards someone of higher standing. Similarly, deliberately forcing other people to go barefoot while being shod oneself has been used to clearly showcase and convey one's superiority within a setting of power disparity.

Practitioners of the craft of shoemaking are called shoemakers, cobblers, or cordwainers.

History
Footwear has been used by humans since prehistoric times, with paleoclimatology suggesting that they would have been needed in some areas of human settlement by at least 50,000years ago during the Last Glacial Period. Osteologists have found evidence of the effect of footwear on human remains by around 40,000years ago. The oldest shoes so far recovered were found by a team under Luther Cressman in Fort Rock Cave, Oregon, US, in 1938. They had been preserved under the Mazama Ash deposited c. 5025 BC during the volcanic eruption that formed Crater Lake. In 1999, they were dated to around 10,500–9,300 BP.

Materials
Modern footwear is usually made of leather or plastic, and rubber. In fact, leather was one of the original materials used for the first versions of a shoe. The soles can be made of rubber or plastic, sometimes with the addition of a sheet of metal on the inside. Roman sandals had sheets of metal on their soles so that they would not bend out of shape.

In more recent times, footwear suppliers such as Nike have begun to source environmentally friendly materials.

Components

 * Adhesives
 * Buckle
 * Counter (footwear): Backstay fitting between upper and lining in heel area and giving structure to back of shoe and supporting ankle.
 * Eyelet
 * Heel
 * Hook
 * Insole
 * Outsole
 * Laces
 * Shank
 * Sole
 * Tack
 * Tongue (footwear): Part of shoe covering top of foot underneath laces
 * Tread
 * Welt

Boots
• Chukka boots

• Combat boots

• Cowboy boots

• Derby boots

• Fashion boots

• Go-go boots

• Hiking boots

• Motorcycle boots

• Mukluk

• Platform boots

• Riding boots

• Russian boots

• Seaboots

• Tabi boots

• Tanker boots

• Thigh-high boots

• Valenki

• Veldskoen

• Waders

• Wellington boots

• Winklepickers

Shoes
• Athletic shoes (also known as trainers or sneakers)

• Ballet flats

• Brothel creepers

• Court shoes (known in the US as pumps)

• Diabetic shoes

• Espadrilles

• Galoshes

• Kitten heels

• Lace-up shoes

• * Derby shoes

• * Oxford shoes

• * Brogues

• * Blucher shoes

• High-tops

• Loafers

• Mary Janes

• Moccasins

• Monks

• Mules

• Platform shoes

• Plimsoll shoes

• School shoes

• Skate shoes

• Tap shoes

• Toe shoes

Sandals

 * Sandals
 * Kolhapuri Chappals
 * Peshawari chappal
 * Flip-flops (thongs)
 * Slide
 * Wörishofer
 * Avarca, from Balearic IslandsSandalen.jpg]]

Slippers

 * Slippers
 * Closed slippers
 * Open slippers

Specific footwear

 * Ballet shoes
 * Boat shoes
 * High-heeled footwear
 * Climbing shoes
 * Clogs
 * Football boots
 * Sabaton
 * Safety footwear
 * Sailing boots
 * Ski boots
 * Snowshoes
 * Ice skates
 * Surgical shoe
 * Pointe shoes
 * Swimfins (flippers)
 * Barefoot sandals

Traditional footwear

 * Abarka, of leather, from Pyrenees
 * Areni-1 shoe, 5,500-year-old leather shoe found in Armenia
 * Bast shoe, of bast, from Northern Europe
 * Crakow, shoes from Poland with long toes popular in the 15th century
 * Galesh, of textile, from Iran
 * Geta, of wood, from Japan
 * Klompen, of wood, from the Netherlands
 * Opanci, of leather, from Balkans
 * Pampooties, of hide, from Ireland

Socks

 * Socks
 * Anklets
 * Bobby socks
 * Diabetic socks
 * Dress socks
 * Footwraps
 * Knee highs
 * Toe socks

Footwear industry
In Europe, recent decades have seen a decline in the footwear industry. While about 27,000 firms were in business in 2005, only 21,700 remained in 2009. Not only have these firms decreased in number, but direct employment has also reduced within the sector.

In the U.S., the annual footwear industry revenue was $48 billion in 2012. In 2015, there were about 29,000 shoe stores in the U.S. and the shoe industry employed about 189,000 people. Due to rising imports, these numbers are also declining. The only way of staying afloat in the shoe market is to establish a presence in niche markets.

Safety of footwear products
To ensure high quality and safety of footwear, manufacturers have to make sure all products comply to existing and relevant standards. By producing footwear in accordance with national and international regulations, potential risks can be minimized and the interest of both textile manufacturers and consumers can be protected. The following standards/regulations apply to footwear products:
 * CPSIA
 * GB Standards such as
 * GB20400－2006 Leather and fur-limit of harmful matter
 * QB/T1002-2005 Leather shoes
 * GB/T 15107 Athletic footwear
 * EN Standards for Footwear
 * ASTM Standards
 * ISO standards
 * AAFA Restricted Substance List
 * BIS (ISI) : IS 15298-I: 2011 test methods, IS 15298 –II for safety footwear, IS 15298-III Protective footwear, IS 15298-IV Occupational Footwear

Impressions
Footwear can create two types of impressions: two-dimensional and three-dimensional impressions. When footwear places material onto a solid surface, it creates a two-dimensional impression. These types of impressions can be made with a variety of substances, like dirt and sand. When footwear removes material from a soft surface, it creates a three-dimensional impression. These types of impressions can be made in a variety of soft substances, like snow and dirt. Two-dimensional impressions also differ from three-dimensional impressions because the latter demonstrate length, width, and depth whereas two-dimensional impressions only demonstrate the first two aspects.

title: Footwear


text:
Codex Manesse

The Codex Manesse (also Große Heidelberger Liederhandschrift or Pariser Handschrift) is a Liederhandschrift (manuscript containing songs), the single most comprehensive source of Middle High German Minnesang poetry, written and illustrated between c. 1304 when the main part was completed, and c. 1340 with the addenda.

The codex was produced in Zürich, for the Manesse family.

The manuscript is "the most beautifully illumined German manuscript in centuries"; its 137 miniatures are a series of "portraits" depicting each poet.

It is currently housed in the Heidelberg University Library.

In 2023, Codex Manesse was admitted to UNESCO's Memory of the World.

Contents
The Codex Manesse is an anthology of the works of a total of about 135 minnesingers of the mid 12th to early 14th century. For each poet, a portrait is shown, followed by the text of their works. The entries are ordered approximately by the social status of the poets, starting with the Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI, Kings Conradin and Wenceslaus II, down through dukes, counts and knights, to the commoners.

Most of the poems are Minnesang, but there are also other genres, including fables and Spruchdichtung (didactic poems).

The oldest poets represented in the manuscript had been dead for more than a century at the time of its compilations, while others were contemporaries, the latest even late additions of poems written during the early 14th century.

In the portraits, some of the nobles are shown in full armour in their heraldic colors and devices (therefore with their faces hidden), often shown as taking part in a joust, or sometimes in single combat with sword and shield, and sometimes in actual battle.

Some images are motivated by the biography of the person depicted, but some designs just draw their motif from the poet's name (thus, Dietmar is shown riding a mule, since his name can be interpreted as meaning people's horse), while others draw on imagery from their lyrics (Walther von der Vogelweide is shown in a thoughtful pose which exactly matches the description of himself in one of his most famous songs).

List of poets

 * 6r: Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (1165–1197)
 * 7r: Conradin (1252–1268)
 * 8r: Tirol und Fridebrant (not the name of a singer, but an epic poem, dated to the first half of the 13th century)
 * 10r: King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia (Wenceslaus II, King of Bohemia and Poland, 1271–1305)
 * 11v: Duke Henryk IV Probus of Breslau (1258–1290)
 * 13r: Margrave Otto von Brandenburg (Otto IV, 1266–1308)
 * 14v: Margrave Heinrich von Meißen (Henry III, 1215–1288)
 * 17r: Henry I, Count of Anhalt (c. 1170–1252)
 * 18r: John I, Duke of Brabant (1252/1253–1294)
 * 20r: Count Rudolf von Neuenburg (either Rudolf II, died 1192, or his nephew Rudolf I, died 1258)
 * 22v: Count Kraft von Toggenburg (probably Kraft III of Toggenburg, died 1339)
 * 24r: Count Konrad von Kirchberg (either Konrad II, fl. 1275–1326, or his cousin Konrad III, 1281–1315)
 * 26r: Count Friedrich von Leiningen (probably Friedrich II, died 1237)
 * 27r: Count Otto von Botenlauben (died 1244)
 * 29r: Margrave of County of Hohenburg (either Diepold V von Vohburg, fl. 1205–1225, or his son Berthold von Hohenburg, died 1256).
 * 30r: Herr Heinrich von Veldeke (died after 1184)
 * 32v: Herr Gottfried von Neifen (died 1279)
 * 42r: Count Albrecht von Haigerloch, count of Hohenberg (died 1298)
 * 43v: Count Wernher von Homberg (died 1320)
 * 46v: Herr Jakob von Wart (died 1331)
 * 48v: Brother Eberhard von Sax (fl. 1309)
 * 52r: Herr Walther von Klingen (fl. 1240–1280s)
 * 54r: Herr Rudolf von Rotenburg (fl. 1287)
 * 59v: Herr Heinrich von Sax (probably Henry II,  1235–1289)
 * 61v: Herr Heinrich von Frauenberg (fl. 1284–1305)
 * 63r: Der von Kürenberg (12th century)
 * 64r: Herr Dietmar von Aist (fl. 1140–1160s)
 * 66v: Der von Gliers (perhaps Wilhelm von Gliers, fl. 1267–1317)
 * 69r: Herr Wernher von Teufen (fl. 1220)
 * 70v: Herr Heinrich von Stretelingen (either Henry II, fl. 1250s, or his son Henry III, died 1294)
 * 71v: Herr Kristan von Hamle (probably an author of 13th-century Thuringia, otherwise unknown)
 * 73r: Herr Ulrich von Gutenburg (fl. 1170s)
 * 75v: Herr Heinrich von der Mure (fl. 1223–1263, a Dominican friar, prior at Eichstätt and later at Augsburg)
 * 76v: Herr Heinrich von Morungen (fl. 1210s)
 * 82v: Der Schenken von Limpurg (either Walther I, fl. 1230–1240s, or one of his sons,  Walther II or Konrad I von Limpurg)
 * 84v: Schenk Ulrich von Winterstetten (fl. 1250–1270s)
 * 98r: Herr Reinmar der Alte (fl. late 12th century)
 * 1) 110r: Herr Burkart von Hohenfels (fl. 1220–1230s)
 * 2) 113v: Herr Hesso von Reinach (1234–1275/76)
 * 3) 115r: Der Burggraf von Lienz (fl. early 13th century)
 * 4) 116v: Herr Friedrich von Hausen (died after 1188)
 * 5) 119v: Burgrave von Rietenburg (either Henry IV fl. 1174–1184, or Otto III, fl. 1154–1185)
 * 6) 120v: Herr Meinloh von Sevelingen (mid-12th century)
 * 7) 122r: Herr Heinrich von Rugge (f 1170s)
 * 8) 124r: Herr Walther von der Vogelweide c. 1170)
 * 9) 146r: Herr Hiltbolt von Schwangau (fl. 1221–1254)
 * 10) 149v: Herr Wolfram von Eschenbach (c. 1170 – c. 1220)
 * 11) 151r: Von Singenberg, Seneschal of St Gallen (probably Ulrich von Singenberg, fl. 1220s)
 * 12) 158r: Der von Sachsendorf (unknown; possibly mentioned by Ulrich von Lichtenstein as serving Frederick II of Austria)
 * 13) 160v: Wachsmut von Künzingen (unknown, perhaps from Clemency, Luxembourg)
 * 14) 162v: Herr Wilhelm von Heinzenburg (probably William III, fl. 1264–1292)
 * 15) 164v: Herr Leuthold von Seven (fl. 1218)
 * 16) 166v: Herr Walther von Metze (died before 1276, otherwise unknown)
 * 17) 169v: Herr Rubin (unknown, mid-13th century)
 * 18) 178r: Herr Bernger von Horheim (late 12th century)
 * 19) 179v: Der von Johansdorf (Albrecht, fl. 1172–1209)
 * 20) 181v: Herr Engelhardt von Adelnburg (either fl. 1200 or 1220s, perhaps father and son of the same name)
 * 21) 182v: Herr Bligger von Steinach (probably Bligger II, fl. late 12th to early 13th century)
 * 22) 183v: Herr Wachsmut von Mühlhausen (fl. 1267)
 * 23) 184v: Herr Hartmann von Aue (c. 1160)
 * 24) 188r: Herr Reinmar von Brennenberg (fl. 1270s)
 * 25) 190v: Johann von Ringgenberg (probably Johann I, 1291–1350)
 * 26) 192v: Albrecht Marschall von Rapperswil (fl. c. 1280)
 * 27) 194r: Herr Otto vom Turne (of Lucerne, a late addition, fl. after 1300)
 * 28) 197v: Herr Goesli von Ehenhein (of Strasbourg; otherwise unknown)
 * 29) 201r: Der von Wildonie (probably Herrand II, married to a daughter of Ulrich of Lichtenstein)
 * 30) 202v: Von Suonegge (probably Konrad von Suonegge, fl. 1220–1230s)
 * 31) 204r: Von Scharpfenberg (of Ratschach, mid-13th century)
 * 32) 205r: Herr Konrad, der Schenk von Landeck (of Thurgau, 1271–1306)
 * 33) 213r: "Der Winsbeke" (purported author of the accompanying father-son didactic poem; it is unclear whether Winsbeke is a historical or a fictional character)
 * 34) 217r: "Die Winsbekin" (purported author of the accompanying mother-daughter didactic poem; it is unclear whether Winsbekin is a historical or a fictional character)
 * 35) 219v: "Klingsor of Hungary" (fictional character introducing the Sängerkrieg poem)
 * 36) 226v: Kristan von Luppin of Thuringia (fl. 1290s)
 * 37) 228r: Herr Heinrich Hetzbold von Weißensee (early 14th century)
 * 38) 229v: Der Düring (an unidentified Thuringian poet, late 13th century)
 * 39) 231r: Winli (an unidentified Alemannic poet, c. 1300)
 * 40) 237r: Herr Ulrich von Liechtenstein (c. 1200–1275)
 * 41) 247v: Von Munegiur (given name Ulrich, otherwise unknown)
 * 42) 248v: Von Raute (given name Hartwig, fl. c. 1200, otherwise unknown)
 * 43) 249v: Herr Konrad von Altstetten (perhaps a mayor of St Gallen, attested 1320–1327)
 * 44) 251r: Herr Bruno von Hornberg (probably Bruno II, fl. 1275–1310)
 * 45) 252r: Herr Hug von Werbenwag (fl. mid 13th century, probably died after 1292)
 * 46) 253v: Der Püller (Konrad "the Apulian" von Hohenburg, probably participated in a campaign of Rudolph I against Ottokar II of Bohemia in 1278)
 * 47) 255r: Von Trostberg (an unidentified member of either of an Argovian or a Tyrolian family of ministeriales)
 * 48) 256v: Hartmann von Starkenberg (of Werdenberg-Sargans, either Hartmann I, fl. 1250s, or his son Hartmann II, fl. 1270s)
 * 49) 257v: Von Stadegge (Rudolph II, one of the leading Styrian minnesingers, fl. 1230–1250s)
 * 50) 258v: Herr Brunwart von Augheim (late 13th century)
 * 51) 261r: Von Stamheim (unidentified; fl. c. 1240s)
 * 52) 262v: Herr Goeli (of Baden, 13th century)
 * 53) 264r: Der Tannhäuser (of Thannhausen, fl. 1240–1260s; depicted as a member of the Teutonic Order)
 * 54) 271r: Von Buchheim (2nd half of 13th century)
 * 55) 273r: Herr Neidhart (born c. 1200 in Lower Bavaria)
 * 56) 281v: Meister Heinrich Teschler (of Zürich, 2nd half of 13th century, patronized by Rüdiger Manesse)
 * 57) 285r: Rost, Kirchherr zu Sarnen (in Zürich between 1313 and 1330 Presumed to have participated in the production of the codex as a scribe)
 * 58) 290r: Der Hardegger (probably Henricus de Hardegge, of Rebstein, fl. 1230–1270s)
 * 59) 292v: Der Schulmeister von Eßlingen (late 13th century)
 * 60) 295r: Walther von Breisach (without portrait)
 * 61) 299r: Von Wissenlo (probably Wiesloch; unidentified)
 * 62) 300r: Von Wengen (Burchard, fl. 1230–1270s, member of a family of ministeriales of the counts of Toggenburg)
 * 63) 302r: Herr Pfeffel (unidentified, mid 12th century)
 * 64) 303r: Der Taler (perhaps Leuthold von Tal, near Rheineck, fl. 1250)
 * 65) 305r: Der tugendhafte Schreiber ("The Virtuous Scribe"; unidentified, appears as a character in the Sängerkrieg)
 * 66) 308v: Steinmar (perhaps Berthold Steinmar von Klingnau, fl. 2nd half of 13th century)
 * 67) 311r: Herr Alram von Gresten (unidentified, perhaps of Gresten in Lower Austria)
 * 68) 312r: Herr Reinmar der Fiedler (unidentified, fl. mid 13th century)
 * 69) 313r: Herr Hawart (perhaps Hawardus de Holzwane, in 1258 canon at Augsburg)
 * 70) 314v: Herr Günther von dem Vorste (unidentified)
 * 71) 316v: Herr Friedrich der Knecht (unidentified, his poems are in Austro-Bavarian dialect, first half of the 13th century; the portrait shows Friedrich as a knight abducting a damsel on horseback while fighting off pursuers)
 * 72) 318r: Der Burggraf von Regensburg (probably Heinrich III von Stevening und Rietenburg, fl. 1126–1177)
 * 73) 319r: Herr Niune (unidentified; probably not a poet but the owner of a songbook used as a source in this section)
 * 74) 320v: Herr Geltar (unidentified; the poems are dated to between 1230 and 1250, perhaps from Lower Austria)
 * 75) 321v: Herr Dietmar der Setzer (unidentified; the portrait shows unmounted combat with sword and heater shield)
 * 76) 323r: Herr Reinmar von Zweter (fl. 1230s)
 * 77) 339r: Der Junge Meißner (unidentified; the poems are in Central German dialect)
 * 78) 342r: Der Alte Meißner (without portrait)
 * 79) 342v: Von Obernburg (unidentified; probably mid 13th century, of Obernburg near Celje)
 * 80) 344v: Bruder Wernher (unidentified; mid 13th century)
 * 81) 349r: Der Marner (probably marinaere "the mariner"; unidentified, but mentioned by Meister Rumslant below)
 * 82) 355r: Süßkind, der Jude von Trimberg (unidentified, 2nd half of the 13th century)
 * 83) 358r: (isolated anonymous poem)
 * 84) 359r: Von Buwenburg (Baumburg near Hundersingen, probably Ulrich von Buwenburg, fl. 1260)
 * 85) 361r: Heinrich von Dettingen (well documented during 1236–1300; of a family of ministeriales of Reichenau abbey)
 * 86) 362r: Rudolf der Schreiber (unidentified)
 * 87) 364r: Meister Gottfried von Straßburg (died c. 1210)
 * 88) 371r: Meister Johannes Hadlaub (of Zürich, fl. 1300, possibly the redactor of the codex)
 * 89) 381r: Regenbogen (poet) ("Rainbow", an unidentified Alemannic poet, depicted as a smith)
 * 90) 383r: Meister Konrad von Würzburg (died 1287)
 * 91) 394r: Kunz von Rosenheim (unidentified, perhaps not a poet but the owner of a songbook used as a source)
 * 92) 395r: Rubin von Rüdeger (unidentified)
 * 93) 396r: Der Kol von Nüssen (unidentified, perhaps of Neunzen near Zwettl; the poems date to the 1230s or 1240s)
 * 94) 397v: Der Dürner (unidentified, perhaps of Mengen, Swabia)
 * 95) 399r: Meister Heinrich Frauenlob (Heinrich von Meißen, born c. 1250)
 * 96) 407r: Meister Friedrich von Sonnenburg (unidentified; poems date to the 3rd quarter of the 13th century)
 * 97) 410r: Meister Sigeher (fl. 1250–1260s; perhaps identical with a Sicherius iuculator active in Metz, possibly a Tyrolian)
 * 98) 412r: Der wilde Alexander (an unidentified Alemannic poet of the late 13th century)
 * 99) 413v: Meister Rumslant (fl. late 13th century, of Northern Germany)
 * 100) 415v: Spervogel ("Sparrow"; recorded under this nickname are poems by two separate authors, with floruits in the mid and the late 12th century)
 * 101) 418r: Boppe (of Bonndorf, died 1320; from 1276–1305 serving as reeve of the count of Nellenburg)
 * 102) 422r: Der Litschauer (unidentified)
 * 103) 423v: Der Kanzler ("The Chancellor", 2nd half of the 13th century, possibly Alemannic)

Manuscript history
The compilation of the codex was patronized by the Manesse family of Zürich, presumably by Rüdiger II Manesse (born before 1252, died after 1304). The house of Manesse declined in the late 14th century, selling their castle in 1393. The fate of the codex during the 15th century is unknown, but by the 1590s it had passed into possession of baron Johann Philipp of Hohensax (two of whose forebears are portrayed in the codex, on foll. 48v and 59v). In 1604, Melchior Goldast published excerpts of its didactic texts.

After 1657 it was in the French royal library, from which it passed to the Bibliothèque Nationale, where the manuscript was studied by Jacob Grimm in 1815. In 1888, after long bargaining, it was sold to the Bibliotheca Palatina of Heidelberg, following a public subscription headed by William I and Otto von Bismarck.

The first critical editions of the Codex Manesse appeared in the early nineteenth century. The codex is frequently referred to by Minnesang scholars and in editions simply by the abbreviation C, introduced by Karl Lachmann, who used A and B for the two main earlier Minnesang codices (the Kleine Heidelberger Liederhandschrift and the Weingartner Liederhandschrift respectively).

Two leaves of a 15th-century copy of the manuscript, called the Troßsche Fragment (Tross Fragment), which were held in the Berlin State Library but went missing in 1945, are now in the Jagiellonian Library in Kraków (Berol. mgq 1146).

Modern reception
The possibility that the compiler was the Minnesinger Johannes Hadlaub provided the subject of a poetic novella, Hadlaub (in the Züricher Novellen, 1878), by Gottfried Keller.

title: Codex Manesse


text:
Numismatics

Numismatics is the study or collection of currency, including coins, tokens, paper money, medals and related objects.

Specialists, known as numismatists, are often characterized as students or collectors of coins, but the discipline also includes the broader study of money and other means of payment used to resolve debts and exchange goods.

The earliest forms of money used by people are categorised by collectors as "odd and curious", but the use of other goods in barter exchange is excluded, even where used as a circulating currency (e.g., cigarettes or instant noodles in prison). As an example, the Kyrgyz people used horses as the principal currency unit, and gave small change in lambskins; the lambskins may be suitable for numismatic study, but the horses are not. Many objects have been used for centuries, such as cowry shells, precious metals, cocoa beans, large stones, and gems.

Etymology
First attested in English in 1829, the word numismatics comes from the adjective numismatic, meaning of coins. It was borrowed in 1792 from French numismatique, itself a derivation from Late Latin numismatis, genitive of numisma, a variant of nomisma meaning coin. Nomisma is a latinisation of the Greek νόμισμα (nomisma) which means current coin/custom, which derives from νομίζειν (nomizein) to hold or own as a custom or usage, to use customarily, in turn from νόμος (nomos) usage, custom, ultimately from νέμειν (nemein) to dispense, divide, assign, keep, hold.

History of money
Throughout its history, money itself has been made to be a scarce good, although it does not have to be. Many materials have been used to form money, from naturally scarce precious metals and cowry shells through cigarettes to entirely artificial money, called fiat money, such as banknotes. Many complementary currencies use time as a unit of measure, using mutual credit accounting that keeps the balance of money intact.

Modern money (along with most ancient money) is essentially a token – an abstraction. Paper currency is perhaps the most common type of contemporary physical money. However, goods such as gold or silver retain many of the essential properties of money, such as price fluctuation and limited supply, although these goods are not controlled by one single authority.

History of numismatics
Coin collecting may have possibly existed in ancient times. Augustus gave "coins of every device, including old pieces of the kings and foreign money" as Saturnalia gifts.

Petrarch, who wrote in a letter that he was often approached by vine diggers with old coins asking him to buy or to identify the ruler, is credited as the first Renaissance collector. Petrarch presented a collection of Roman coins to Emperor Charles IV in 1355.

The first book on coins was De Asse et Partibus (1514) by Guillaume Budé. During the early Renaissance ancient coins were collected by European royalty and nobility. Collectors of coins were Pope Boniface VIII, Emperor Maximilian of the Holy Roman Empire, Louis XIV of France, Ferdinand I, Elector Joachim II of Brandenburg who started the Berlin coin cabinet and Henry IV of France to name a few. Numismatics is called the "Hobby of Kings", due to its most esteemed founders.

Professional societies organised in the 19th century. The Royal Numismatic Society was founded in 1836 and immediately began publishing the journal that became the Numismatic Chronicle. The American Numismatic Society was founded in 1858 and began publishing the American Journal of Numismatics in 1866.

In 1931 the British Academy launched the Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum publishing collections of Ancient Greek coinage. The first volume of Sylloge of Coins of the British Isles was published in 1958.

In the 20th century, coins gained recognition as archaeological objects, and scholars such as Guido Bruck of the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna realized their value in providing a temporal context and the difficulty that curators faced when identifying worn coins using classical literature. After World War II in Germany, a project, Fundmünzen der Antike (Coin finds of the Classical Period) was launched to register every coin found within Germany. This idea found successors in many countries.

In the United States, the US Mint established a coin cabinet in 1838 when chief coiner Adam Eckfeldt donated his personal collection. William E. Du Bois' Pledges of History... (1846) describes the cabinet.

C. Wyllys Betts' American colonial history illustrated by contemporary medals (1894) set the groundwork for the study of American historical medals.

Helen Wang's "A short history of Chinese numismatics in European languages" (2012–2013) gives an outline history of Western countries' understanding of Chinese numismatics. Lyce Jankowski's Les amis des monnaies is an in-depth study of Chinese numismatics in China in the 19th century.

Modern numismatics
Modern numismatics is the study of the coins of the mid-17th century onward, the period of machine-struck coins. Their study serves more the need of collectors than historians, and it is more often successfully pursued by amateur aficionados than by professional scholars. The focus of modern numismatics frequently lies in the research of production and use of money in historical contexts using mint or other records in order to determine the relative rarity of the coins they study. Varieties, mint-made errors, the results of progressive die wear, mintage figures, and even the sociopolitical context of coin mintings are also matters of interest.

Subfields
Exonumia (UK English: Paranumismatica) is the study of coin-like objects such as token coins and medals, and other items used in place of legal currency or for commemoration. This includes elongated coins, encased coins, souvenir medallions, tags, badges, counter-stamped coins, wooden nickels, credit cards, and other similar items. It is related to numismatics proper (concerned with coins which have been legal tender), and many coin collectors are also exonumists.

Notaphily is the study of paper money or banknotes. It is believed that people have been collecting paper money for as long as it has been in use. However, people only started collecting paper money systematically in Germany in the 1920s, particularly the Serienscheine (Series notes) Notgeld. The turning point occurred in the 1970s when notaphily was established as a separate area by collectors. At the same time, some developed countries such as the United States, Germany, and France began publishing their respective national catalogs of paper money, which represented major points of reference literature.

Scripophily is the study and collection of companies' shares and bonds certificates. It is an area of collecting due to both the inherent beauty of some historical documents as well as the interesting historical context of each document. Some stock certificates are excellent examples of engraving. Occasionally, an old stock document will be found that still has value as stock in a successor company.

title: Numismatics


text:
Hosiery

Hosiery, also referred to as legwear, describes garments worn directly on the feet and legs. The term originated as the collective term for products of which a maker or seller is termed a hosier; and those products are also known generically as hose. The term is also used for all types of knitted fabric, and its thickness and weight is defined by denier or opacity. Lower denier measurements of 5 to 15 describe a hose which may be sheer in appearance, whereas styles of 40 and above are dense, with little to no light able to come through on 100 denier items.

Etymology
The word hosiery is a morphological derivation of the Anglo Saxon word hosa, which meant a woven garment for the lower body and legs.

Overview
The first references to hosiery can be found in the works of Hesiod, where Romans are said to have used leather or cloth in forms of strips to cover their lower body parts. Even the Egyptians are speculated to have used hosiery, as socks have been found in certain tombs.

Most hosiery garments are made by knitting methods. Modern hosiery is usually tight-fitting by virtue of stretchy fabrics and meshes. Older forms include binding to achieve a tight fit. Due to its close fit, most hosiery can be worn as an undergarment, but it is more commonly worn as a combined under/outer garment.

Hosiery garments are the product of hosiery fabric produced from hosiery yarn. Like the yarn used for making woven fabric, hosiery yarn comes from a separate spinning (yarn making) process, and is used with circular knitting machines to form fabric. One or more hosiery yarn is used to make knitted or hosiery fabric, and garments produced out of this are generally referred to as hosiery garments.

Types

 * Bodystockings
 * Compression stockings, a.k.a. support stockings
 * Hold-ups (British English), stay-ups (British English) or thigh-high stockings (American English)
 * Hosen (clothing)
 * Knee highs
 * Leggings, or yoga pants
 * Socks, tube socks (American English), knee-highs and over-the-knees
 * Stockings, held by a suspender belt
 * Tights (British English; also common in American usage) or pantyhose (American English)
 * Toe socks
 * Legwarmers

title: Hosiery