text:
History of Southeast Asia

The history of Southeast Asia covers the people of Southeast Asia from prehistory to the present in two distinct sub-regions: Mainland Southeast Asia (or Indochina) and Maritime Southeast Asia (or Insular Southeast Asia). Mainland Southeast Asia comprises Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar (or Burma), Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam whereas Maritime Southeast Asia comprises Brunei, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Christmas Island, East Malaysia, East Timor, Indonesia, Philippines and Singapore.

The earliest Homo sapiens presence in Mainland Southeast Asia can be traced back to 70,000 years ago and to at least 50,000 years ago in Maritime Southeast Asia. Since 25,000 years ago, East Asian-related (Basal East Asian) groups expanded southwards into Maritime Southeast Asia from Mainland Southeast Asia. As early as 10,000 years ago, Hoabinhian settlers from Mainland Southeast Asia had developed a tradition and culture of distinct artefact and tool production. During the Neolithic, Austroasiatic peoples populated Indochina via land routes, and sea-borne Austronesian immigrants preferably settled in Maritime Southeast Asia. The earliest agricultural societies that cultivated millet and wet-rice emerged around 1700 BCE in the lowlands and river floodplains of Indochina.

The Phung Nguyen culture (modern northern Vietnam) and the Ban Chiang site (modern Thailand) account for the earliest use of copper by around 2,000 BCE, followed by the Dong Son culture, which by around 500 BCE had developed a highly sophisticated industry of bronze production and processing. Around the same time, the first Agrarian Kingdoms emerged where territory was abundant and favourable, such as Funan at the lower Mekong and Van Lang in the Red River Delta. Smaller and insular principalities increasingly engaged in and contributed to the rapidly expanding sea trade.

The wide topographical diversity of Southeast Asia has greatly influenced its history. For instance, Mainland Southeast Asia with its continuous but rugged and difficult terrain provided the basis for the early Cham, Khmer, and Mon civilizations. The sub-region's extensive coastline and major river systems of the Irrawaddy, Salween, Chao Phraya, Mekong and Red River have directed socio-cultural and economic activities towards the Indian Ocean and South China Sea.

In Maritime Southeast Asia, apart from exceptions such as Borneo and Sumatra, the patchwork of recurring land-sea patterns on widely dispersed islands and archipelagos admitted moderately sized thalassocratic states indifferent to territorial ambitions, where growth and prosperity were associated with sea trade. Since around 100 BCE, Maritime Southeast Asia has occupied a central position at the crossroads of the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea trading routes, immensely stimulating its economy and influencing its culture and society. Most local trading polities selectively adopted Indian Hindu elements of statecraft, religion, culture and administration during the early centuries of the common era, which marked the beginning of recorded history in the area and the continuation of a characteristic cultural development. Chinese culture diffused into the region more indirectly and sporadically, as trade was mostly based on land routes like the Silk Road. Long periods of Chinese isolationism and political relations that were confined to ritualistic tribute procedures prevented deep acculturation.

Buddhism, particularly in Indochina, began to affect political structures beginning in the 8th to 9th centuries CE. Islamic ideas arrived in insular Southeast Asia as early as the 8th century, and the first Muslim societies in the area emerged by the 13th century. The era of European colonialism, early Modernity and the Cold War era revealed the reality of limited political significance for the various Southeast Asian polities. Post-World War II national survival and progress required a modern state and a strong national identity. Most modern Southeast Asian countries enjoy a historically unprecedented degree of political freedom and self-determination and have embraced the practical concept of intergovernmental co-operation within the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).

Name

Though there are numerous ancient historic Asian designations for Southeast Asia, none are geographically consistent with each other. Names referring to Southeast Asia include Suvarnabhumi or Sovannah Phoum (Golden Land) and Suvarnadvipa (Golden Islands) in Indian tradition, the Lands below the Winds in Arabia and Persia, Nanyang (Chinese: 南洋; lit. 'South Ocean') in China and Nan’yō (南洋) in Japan. A 2nd-century world map created by Ptolemy of Alexandria names the Malay Peninsula as Chersonesus Aurea (lit. 'Golden Peninsula').

The term "Southeast Asia" was first used in 1839 by American pastor Howard Malcolm in his book Travels in South-Eastern Asia. Malcolm only included the Mainland section and excluded the Maritime section in his definition of Southeast Asia. The term was officially used to designate the area of operation (the South East Asia Command, SEAC) for Anglo-American forces in the Pacific Theater of World War II from 1941 to 1945.

Paleolithic
The region was already inhabited by Homo erectus from approximately 1,500,000 years ago during the Middle Pleistocene age. Data analysis of stone tool assemblages and fossil discoveries from Indonesia, Southern China, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and more recently Cambodia and Malaysia has established Homo erectus migration routes and episodes of presence as early as 120,000 years ago, with even older isolated finds dating back to 1.8 million years ago. Java Man (Homo erectus erectus) and Homo floresiensis attest to a sustained regional presence and isolation, long enough for notable diversification of the species' specifics. Rock art (parietal art) dating from 40,000 years ago (which is currently the world's oldest) has been discovered in the caves of Borneo. Homo floresiensis also lived in the area up until at least 50,000 years ago, after which they became extinct. Distinct Homo sapiens groups, ancestral to East-Eurasian (East Asian-related) populations, and South-Eurasian (Papuan-related) populations, reached the region by 50,000BCE to 70,000BCE, with some arguing earlier. These immigrants might have, to some extent, merged and reproduced with members of the archaic population of Homo erectus, as the fossil discoveries in the Tam Pa Ling Cave suggest. During much of this time the present-day islands of western Indonesia were joined into a single landmass known as Sundaland due to lower sea levels.

Ancient remains of hunter-gatherers in Maritime Southeast Asia, such as one Holocene hunter-gatherer from cave of Leang Panninge in South Sulawesi, had ancestry from both the South-Eurasian lineage (represented by Papuans and Aboriginal Australians), and the East-Eurasian lineage (represented by East Asians). The hunter-gatherer individual had approximately 50% "Basal-East Asian" ancestry and was positioned in between modern East Asians and Papuans of Oceania. The authors writing about the individual concluded that East Asian-related ancestry expanded from Mainland Southeast Asia into Maritime Southeast Asia much earlier than previously suggested, as early as 25,000BCE, long before the expansion of Austroasiatic and Austronesian groups.

Distinctive Basal-East Asian (East-Eurasian) ancestry was recently found to have originated in Mainland Southeast Asia at ~50,000BCE, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards respectively. Geneflow of East-Eurasian ancestry into Maritime Southeast Asia and Oceania is estimated to ~25,000BCE (possibly as early as 50,000BCE). The pre-Neolithic South-Eurasian populations of Maritime Southeast Asia were largely replaced by the expansion of various East-Eurasian populations, beginning about 25,000BCE from Mainland Southeast Asia. Southeast Asia was dominated by East Asian-related ancestry already in 15,000BCE, predating the expansion of Austroasiatic and Austronesian peoples.

Ocean drops of up to 120 m below the present level during Pleistocene glacial periods revealed the vast lowlands known as Sundaland, enabling hunter-gatherer populations to freely access insular Southeast Asia via extensive terrestrial corridors. Modern human presence in the Niah cave on East Malaysia dates back to 40,000 years BP, although archaeological documentation of the early settlement period suggests only brief occupation phases. However, author Charles Higham argues that despite glacial periods, modern humans were able to cross the sea barrier beyond Java and Timor, who around 45,000 years ago left traces in the Ivane Valley in eastern New Guinea "at an altitude of 2000 m exploiting yams and pandanus, hunting and making stone tools between 43,000 and 49,000 years ago."

The oldest habitation discovered in the Philippines is located at the Tabon Caves and dates back to approximately 50,000 years BP. Items found there such as burial jars, earthenware, jade ornaments and other jewellery, stone tools, animal bones and human fossils date back to 47,000 years BP. Unearthed human remains are approximately 24,000 years old.

Signs of an early tradition are discernible in the Hoabinhian, the name given to an industry and cultural continuity of stone tools and flaked cobble artefacts that appear around 10,000 BP in caves and rock shelters first described in Hòa Bình, Vietnam, and later documented in Terengganu, Malaysia, Sumatra, Thailand, Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia and Yunnan, southern China. Research emphasises considerable variations in quality and nature of the artefacts, influenced by region-specific environmental conditions and proximity and access to local resources. The Hoabinhian culture accounts for the first verified ritual burials in Southeast Asia.

Neolithic migrations

The Neolithic was characterized by several migrations into Mainland and Island Southeast Asia from southern China by Austronesian, Austroasiatic, Kra-Dai and Hmong-Mien-speakers.

The most widespread migration event was the Austronesian expansion, which began around 5,500 BP (3,500 BCE) from Taiwan and coastal southern China. Due to their early invention of ocean-going outrigger boats and voyaging catamarans, Austronesians rapidly colonized Island Southeast Asia, before spreading further into Micronesia, Melanesia, Polynesia, Madagascar and the Comoros. They dominated the lowlands and coasts of Island Southeast Asia, intermarrying with the indigenous Negrito and Papuan peoples to varying degrees, giving rise to modern Islander Southeast Asians, Micronesians, Polynesians, Melanesians and Malagasy.

The Austroasiatic migration wave involved the Mon and Khmer peoples and migrated to the broad riverine floodplains of Burma, Indochina and Malaysia.

Early agricultural societies

Territorial principalities in both Insular and Mainland Southeast Asia, characterised as Agrarian kingdoms, developed an economy by around 500 BCE based on surplus crop cultivation and moderate coastal trade of domestic natural products. Several states of the Malayan-Indonesian "thalassian" zone shared these characteristics with Indochinese polities like the Pyu city-states in the Irrawaddy River valley, the Văn Lang kingdom in the Red River Delta and Funan around the lower Mekong. Văn Lang, founded in the 7th century BCE, endured until 258 BCE under the Hồng Bàng dynasty, as part of the Đông Sơn culture that sustained a dense and organised population that produced an elaborate Bronze Age industry.

Intensive wet-rice cultivation in an ideal climate enabled the farming communities to produce a regular crop surplus that was used by the ruling elite to raise, command and pay work forces for public construction and maintenance projects such as canals and fortifications.

Though millet and rice cultivation was introduced around 2000 BCE, hunting and gathering remained an important aspect of food provision, in particular in forested and mountainous inland areas. Many tribal communities of the aboriginal Australo-Melanesian settlers continued a lifestyle of mixed sustenance until the modern era. Many areas in Southeast Asia participated in the Maritime Jade Road, a diverse sea-based trade network which functioned for 3,000 years, mostly in Southeast Asia, between 2000 BCE to 1000 CE.

Bronze Age Southeast Asia

The earliest known evidence of copper and bronze production in Southeast Asia was found at Ban Chiang in north-east Thailand and among the Phùng Nguyên culture of northern Vietnam around 2000 BCE.

The Đông Sơn culture established a tradition of bronze production and the manufacture of evermore refined bronze and iron objects, such as plows, axes and sickles with shaft holes, socketed arrows and spearheads and small ornamented items. By about 500 BCE, large and delicately decorated bronze drums of remarkable quality, weighing more than 70 kg, were produced in the laborious lost-wax casting process. This industry of highly sophisticated metal processing was developed independent of Chinese or Indian influence. Historians relate these achievements to the presence of organized, centralized and hierarchical communities and a large population.

Pottery culture
Between 1000 BCE and 100 CE, the Sa Huỳnh culture flourished along the south-central coast of Vietnam. Ceramic jar burial sites that included grave goods have been discovered at various sites along the entire territory. Among large, thin-walled terracotta jars, ornamented and colorized cooking pots, glass items, jade earrings and metal objects were deposited near the rivers and along the coast.

The Buni culture is the name given to another early independent centre of refined pottery production that has been well documented on the basis of excavated burial gifts, deposited between 400 BCE and 100 CE in coastal north-western Java. The objects and artifacts of the Buni tradition are known for their originality and remarkable quality of incised and geometric decors. Its resemblance to the Sa Huỳnh culture and the fact that it represents the earliest Indian Rouletted Ware recorded in Southeast Asia are subjects of ongoing research.

Austronesian maritime trade network
The first true maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean was the Austronesian maritime trade network initiated by the Austronesian peoples of Island Southeast Asia. They established trade routes with Southern India and Sri Lanka as early as 1500 BCE, exchanging material culture (like catamarans, outrigger boats, sewn-plank boats and paan) and cultigens (like coconuts, sandalwood, bananas and sugarcane). The trade network also connected the material cultures of India and China, as well as constituting the majority of the Indian Ocean component of the spice trade. Indonesians in particular were trading in spices (mainly cinnamon and cassia) with East Africa using catamarans and outrigger boats and sailing with the help of the Westerlies in the Indian Ocean. This trade network expanded to reach as far as Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, resulting in the Austronesian colonization of Madagascar by 500 CE. It continued through historic times, later becoming the Maritime Silk Road. This trade network also included smaller trade routes within Island Southeast Asia, including the lingling-o jade and trepanging networks.

In eastern Austronesia, various traditional maritime trade networks also existed. Among them were the ancient Lapita trade network of Island Melanesia; the Hiri trade cycle, Sepik Coast exchange and Kula ring of Papua New Guinea; the ancient trading voyages in Micronesia between the Mariana Islands and the Caroline Islands (and possibly also New Guinea and the Philippines); and the vast inter-island trade networks of Polynesia.

Indianised kingdoms
By around 500 BCE, Asia's expanding land and maritime trade led to socio-economic and cultural stimulation and diffusion of mainly Hindu beliefs into the regional cosmology of Southeast Asia. Iron Age trade expansion also caused regional geostrategic remodelling. Southeast Asia was now situated at the convergence of the Indian and the East Asian maritime trade routes, a basis for economic and cultural growth. The concept of "Indianised kingdoms", a term coined by French scholar George Cœdès, describes how Southeast Asian principalities incorporated central aspects of Indian institutions, religion, statecraft, administration, culture, epigraphy, writing and architecture.

The earliest Hindu kingdoms emerged in Sumatra and Java, followed by mainland polities such as Funan and Champa. Selective adoption of Indian sociocultural elements stimulated the emergence of centralised states and development of highly organised societies. Local leaders began to adopt Hindu worship into state religion, using the Hindu concept of devarāja to reinforce divine rule (as opposed to the Chinese concept of Mandate of Heaven).

The exact nature, process and extent of Indian influence upon the civilizations of the region is still fiercely debated by contemporary scholars. One such debate is over the extent to which Indian merchants, Brahmins, nobles or Southeast Asian mariner-merchants played central roles in bringing Indian conceptions to Southeast Asia. Additionally, the depth of the influence of Indian traditions is still contested. Whereas early 20th-century scholars emphasized the thorough Indianization of Southeast Asia, more recent authors have argued that Indian influence was much more limited, affecting only a small section of the elite.

Maritime trade from China to India passed Champa and Funan at the Mekong Delta, proceeded along the coast to the Isthmus of Kra, portaged across the narrow and transhipped for distribution in India. This trading link boosted the development of Funan, its successor Chenla and the Malayan states of Langkasuka on the eastern coast and Kedah on the western.

Numerous coastal communities in maritime Southeast Asia adopted Hindu and Buddhist cultural and religious elements from India and developed complex polities ruled by native dynasties. Early Hindu kingdoms in Indonesia include the 4th-century Kutai that rose in East Kalimantan, Tarumanagara in West Java and Kalingga in Central Java.

Early relations with China
The earliest attested trading contacts in Southeast Asia were with the Chinese Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046BCE), when cowry shells served as currency. During the Zhou dynasty (1050–771 BCE), various natural products, such as ivory, rhinoceros horn, tortoise shells, pearls and birds' feathers found their way to Luoyang, the Zhou capital. Although current knowledge about port localities and shipping lanes is very limited, it is assumed that most of this exchange took place on land routes, and only a small percentage was shipped "on coastal vessels crewed by Malay and Yue traders".

Military conquests during the Han dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE) brought a number of foreign peoples within the Chinese empire when the Imperial Chinese tributary system began to evolve under Han rule. This tributary system was based on the Chinese worldview that had developed under the Shang dynasty, in which China was deemed the center and apogee of culture and civilization, the "Middle kingdom" (Mandarin: 中国, Zhōngguó), surrounded by several layers of increasingly barbarous peoples. Contact with Southeast Asia steadily increased by the end of the Han period.

Between the 2nd-century BCE and 15th-century CE, the Maritime Silk Road flourished, connecting China, Southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, the Arabian Peninsula, Somalia and all the way to Egypt and Europe. Despite its association with China in recent centuries, the Maritime Silk Road was primarily established and operated by Austronesian sailors in Southeast Asia and by Persian and Arab traders in the Arabian Sea.

The Maritime Silk Road developed from the earlier Austronesian spice trade networks of Islander Southeast Asians with Sri Lanka and Southern India (established 1000–600 BCE), as well as the jade industry trade in lingling-o artifacts from the Philippines in the South China Sea (c. 500BCE). For most of its history, Austronesian thalassocracies controlled the flow of the Maritime Silk Road, especially the polities around the Strait of Malacca and Bangka, the Malay Peninsula and the Mekong Delta (although Chinese records misidentified these kingdoms as being "Indian" due to the Indianization of these regions). Prior to the 10th century, the route was primarily used by Southeast Asian traders, although Tamil and Persian traders also sailed them. The route was influential in the early spread of Hinduism and Buddhism to the East.

China later built its own fleets starting from the Song dynasty in the 10th century, participating directly in the trade route up until the end of the Colonial Era and the collapse of the Qing dynasty.

Spread of Buddhism
Local rulers benefited from the introduction of Hinduism during the early common era, using it to greatly enhance the legitimacy of their reign as devarāja. Historians increasingly argue that the process of Hindu religious diffusion in the region must be attributed to the initiative of the local chieftains. Buddhist teachings, which almost simultaneously arrived in Southeast Asia, developed during the subsequent centuries, gaining more appeal among the general population. In the 3rd century BCE, the Buddhist Indian Emperor Ashoka initiated missionary efforts to send trained monks and missionaries abroad to proselytise Buddhism, including its sizeable body of literature, oral traditions, iconography and art. To missionaries used Buddhist teachings to offer guidance in central existential questions, placing an emphasis on individual effort and conduct.

Between the 5th and the 13th century CE, Buddhism flourished in Southeast Asia. By the 8th century, the Buddhist Srivijaya kingdom based in Sumatra emerged as a major trading power in central Maritime Southeast Asia. Around the same period, the Shailendra dynasty of Java extensively promoted Buddhist art that found its strongest expression in the vast Borobudur temple. Following the establishment of the Khmer Empire in Cambodia, the first Buddhist kings of Mainland Southeast Asia emerged during the 11th century. Mahayana Buddhism took hold first in Southeast Asia, as the original Theravada Buddhism had fallen out of favor India centuries before reaching the region. However, a pure form of Theravada Buddhist teachings had been preserved in Sri Lanka since the 3rd century. Pilgrims and wandering monks from Sri Lanka introduced Theravada Buddhism in the Pagan Empire of Burma, the Sukhothai Kingdom in northern Thailand and Laos, the Lower Mekong Basin during Cambodia's dark ages and further into Vietnam and Maritime Southeast Asia.

Medieval period
In Maritime Southeast Asia, the Srivijaya kingdom on Sumatra developed into the dominant power by the 5th century CE. Its capital Palembang became a major seaport and functioned as an entrepôt on the Spice Route between India and China. Srivijaya was also a notable center of Vajrayāna Buddhist learning and influence. Around the 6th century CE, Malay merchants began sailing to Srivijaya, where goods were transported directly in Sumatran ports. The winds of the Northeast Monsoon during October to December prevented sailing ships from proceeding directly from the Indian Ocean to the South China Sea, as did the Southwest Monsoon during July to September, forcing trade routes to pass through Srivijaya. However, the kingdom's wealth and influence began to fade when advancements in nautical technology in the 10th century enabled Chinese and Indian merchants to ship cargo directly between their countries. These advancements also aided the Chola dynasty of Tamilakam, Southern India, in carrying out a series of destructive attacks on Srivijaya, effectively ending Palembang's entrepôt position in the Indo-Chinese trade route. As the influence of the Srivijaya kingdom faded by about the 13th century, Sumatra came to be ruled by a kaleidoscope of Buddhist kingdoms for the next two centuries, including the Malayu, Pannai, and Dharmasraya kingdoms. To the southeast of Sumatra, West Java was ruled by the Hindu Sunda Kingdom (c. 669–1579) after the fall of the Tarumanagara, while Central and East Java were dominated by a myriad of competing agrarian kingdoms including the Mataram Kingdom (716–929), Kediri (1052–1222), Singhasari (1222–1292), and Majapahit (1293–c. 1500). In the late 8th and early 9th centuries, the Śailendra dynasty that ruled the Mataram kingdom built a number of massive monuments in Central Java, including the Sewu and Borobudur Buddhist temples. According to the Deśavarṇana, an Old Javanese poem completed in 1365, vassal states of the Majapahit Empire spread throughout much of today's Indonesia, making it possibly the largest empire ever to exist in Southeast Asia, though the true character of its control over these territories is unclear. The empire declined in the early 16th century after the rise of Islamic states in coastal Java, the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra. In the Philippines, the Laguna Copperplate Inscription dating from 900 CE is the earliest known calendar-dated document from the islands. It relates a debt granted from a maginoo (royalty) who lived in the Tagalog city-state of Tondo which is now part of Manila area. The document mentions several contemporary states in the area, including Mataram Kingdom in Java. The Khmer Empire covered much of mainland Southeast Asia from the early 9th until the 15th century, during which time a sophisticated architecture was developed, exemplified in the structures of the capital city Angkor. Situated in modern-day Vietnam, the kingdoms of Đại Việt and Champa were rivals to the Khmer Empire in the region. The Mon kingdom of Dvaravati was another major regional presence, first appearing in records around the 6th century CE. By the 10th century, however, Dvaravati had come under the influence of the Khmer. Nearby, Thai tribes conquered the Chao Phraya River valley of modern-day central Thailand around the 12th century and established the Sukhothai Kingdom in the 13th century and the Ayutthaya Kingdom in the 14th century. By the mid-16th century, the Burmese First Toungoo Empire was one of the largest, strongest and richest empires in Southeast Asia. At its peak, it was the dominant power in mainland Southeast Asia, exercising "suzerainty from Manipur to the Cambodian marches and from the borders of Arakan to Yunnan". The empire included Mon and Shan states and annexed territories in the Kingdom of Lan Na, Kingdom of Laos, and the Ayutthaya kingdom. Early European accounts describe the lower part of the Toungoo Empire as having possessed 3–4 excellent ports that facilitated considerable trade in a variety of goods. The empire supplied the port of Malacca with rice and other foodstuffs, along with luxury goods such as rubies, sapphires, musk, lac, benzoin, and gold to trade. In return, the lower part of the empire imported Chinese manufactures and Indonesian spices through its ports. Additionally, merchants from West Asia and India exchanged large quantities of Indian textiles for Burmese luxury products and eastern goods. The arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century further strengthened the empire's position, both commercially and militarily.

Spread of Islam

By the 8th century CE, less than 200 years after the establishment of Islam in Arabia, the first Islamic traders and merchants who adhered to Mohammad's prophecies began to appear in maritime Southeast Asia. However, Islam did not play a notable role anywhere in mainland Southeast Asia until the 13th century. Instead, widespread and gradual replacement of Hinduism by Theravāda Buddhism reflected a shift to a more personal, introverted spirituality acquired through individual ritual activities and effort.

In addressing the issue of how Islam was introduced into Southeast Asia, historians have elaborated various routes from Arabia to India and then from India to Southeast Asia. Of these, two seem to take prominence: either Arabian traders and scholars who did not live or settle in India spread Islam directly to maritime Southeast Asia, or Arab traders that had been settling in coastal India and Sri Lanka for generations did. Muslim traders from India (Gujarat) and converts of South Asian descent are variously considered to play a major role.

A number of sources propose the South China Sea as another route of Islamic introduction to Southeast Asia. Arguments for this hypothesis include the following:
 * Extensive trade between Arabia and China before the 10th century is well documented and has been corroborated by archaeological evidence (see, for example, Belitung shipwreck).
 * During the Mongol conquest and the subsequent rule of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), hundreds of thousands of Muslims entered China. In Yunnan, Islam was propagated and commonly embraced.
 * Kufic grave stones in Champa, modern-day Vietnam, are indices of an early and permanent Islamic community in mainland Southeast Asia.
 * The founder of the Demak Sultanate in Java was of Sino-Javanese origin.
 * Hui mariner Zheng He proposed ancient Chinese architecture as the stylistic basis for the oldest Javanese mosques during his 15th-century visit to Demak, Banten, and the Red Mosque of Panjunan in Cirebon, West Java.

In 2013, the European Union published the European Commission Forum, which maintains an inclusive attitude on the matter: "Islam spread in Southeast Asia via Muslims of diverse ethnic and cultural origins, from Middle Easterners, Arabs and Persians, to Indians and even Chinese, all of whom followed the great commercial routes of the epoch." Unlike in other Islamic regions, Islam developed in Southeast Asia in a distinctly syncretic manner that allowed the continuation and inclusion of elements and ritual practices of Hinduism, Buddhism and ancient Pan-East Asian animism. Most principalities developed highly distinctive cultures as a result of centuries of active participation in cultural exchange situated at the cross-roads of the Maritime Silk Road coming from across the Indian Ocean in the West and the South China Sea in the East. Cultural and institutional adoption was a creative and selective process, in which foreign elements were incorporated into a local synthesis. Unlike some other "Islamised" regions like North Africa, Iberia, the Middle East and later northern India, Islamic faith in Southeast Asia was not enforced in the wake of territorial conquests, but because of trade routes. In this way, the Islamisation of Southeast Asia is more akin to that of Turkic Central Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, southern India and northwest China.

There are various records of lay Muslim missionaries, scholars and mystics, particularly Sufis, who were active in peacefully proselytizing in Southeast Asia. Java, for example, received Islam by nine men, referred to as the "Wali Sanga" or "Nine Saints," although the historical identity of such people is almost impossible to determine. The foundation of the first Islamic kingdom in Sumatra, the Samudera Pasai Sultanate, took place during the 13th century.

The conversion of the remnants of the Buddhist Srivijaya empire that once controlled trade in much of Southeast Asia, in particular the Strait of Malacca, marked a religious turning point with the conversion of the strait into an Islamic water. With the fall of Srivijaya, the way was open for effective and widespread proselytization and the establishment of Muslim trading centers. Many modern Malays view the Sultanate of Malacca, which existed from the 15th to the early 16th century, as the first political entity of contemporary Malaysia.

The idea of equality before God for the Ummah (the people of God) and a personal religious effort through regular prayer in Islam could have been more appealing than a perceived fatalism in Hinduism at the time. However, Islam also taught obedience and submission, which could have helped guarantee that the social structure of a converted people or political entity saw less fundamental changes.

Islam and its notion of exclusivity and finality is seemingly incompatible with other religions, including the Chinese concept of heavenly harmony and the Son of Heaven as its enforcer. The integration of the traditional East Asian tributary system with China at the centre Muslim Malays and Indonesians exacted a pragmatic approach of cultural Islam in diplomatic relations with China.

Chinese treasure voyages
By the end of the 14th century, Ming China had conquered Yunnan in the South, yet it had lost control of the Silk Road after the fall of the Mongol Yuan dynasty. The ruling Yongle Emperor resolved to focus on the Indian Ocean sea routes, seeking to consolidate the ancient Imperial Tributary System, establish greater diplomatic and military presence, and widen the Chinese sphere of influence. He ordered the construction of a huge trade and representation fleet that, between 1405 and 1433, undertook several voyages into Southeast Asia, India, the Persian Gulf, and as far as East Africa. Under the leadership of Zheng He, hundreds of naval vessels of then unparalleled size, grandeur, and technological advancement and manned by sizeable military contingents, ambassadors, merchants, artists and scholars repeatedly visited major Southeast Asian principalities. The individual fleets engaged in a number of clashes with pirates and occasionally supported various royal contenders. However, pro-expansionist voices at the court in Beijing lost influence after the 1450s, and the voyages were discontinued. The protraction of the ritualistic ceremonies and scanty travels of emissaries in the Tributary System alone was not sufficient to develop firm and lasting Chinese commercial and political influence in the region, especially during the impending onset of highly competitive global trade. During the Chenghua period of the Ming Dynasty, Liu Daxia, who later became the Shangshu of the Ministry of War, hid or burned the archives of Ming treasure voyages.

European colonisation
[[File:European colonisation of Southeast Asia.png|thumb|right|European colonisation of Southeast Asia in the 1800s. Legend:

]] The earliest Europeans to have visited Southeast Asia were Marco Polo during the 13th century in the service of Kublai Khan and Niccolò de' Conti during the early 15th century. Regular and momentous voyages only began in the 16th century after the arrival of the Portuguese, who actively sought direct and competitive trade. They were usually accompanied by missionaries, who hoped to promote Christianity.

Portugal was the first European power to establish a bridgehead on the lucrative maritime Southeast Asia trade route, with the conquest of the Sultanate of Malacca in 1511. The Netherlands and Spain followed and soon superseded Portugal as the main European powers in the region. In 1599, Spain began to colonise the Philippines via the Mexico-governed Viceroyalty of New Spain, which the Philippines was territory of. In 1619, acting through the Dutch East India Company, the Dutch took the city of Sunda Kelapa, renamed it Batavia (now Jakarta) as a base for trading and expansion into the other parts of Java and the surrounding territory. In 1641, the Dutch took Malacca from the Portuguese. Economic opportunities attracted Overseas Chinese to the region in great numbers. In 1775, the Lanfang Republic, possibly the first republic in the region, was established in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, as a tributary state of the Qing Empire; the republic lasted until 1884, when it fell under Dutch occupation as Qing influence waned.

The British, in the guise of the East India Company led by Josiah Child, had little interest or impact in the region, and were effectively expelled following the Anglo-Siamese War. Britain later turned their attention to the Bay of Bengal following the Peace with France and Spain (1783). During the conflicts, Britain had struggled for naval superiority with the French, and the need of good harbours became evident. Penang Island had been brought to the attention of the Government of India by Francis Light. In 1786, the settlement of George Town was founded at the northeastern tip of Penang Island by Captain Francis Light, under the administration of Sir John Macpherson; this marked the beginning of British expansion into the Malay Peninsula.

The British also temporarily possessed Dutch territories during the Napoleonic Wars; and Spanish areas in the Seven Years' War. In 1819, Stamford Raffles established Singapore as a key trading post for Britain in their rivalry with the Dutch. However, their rivalry cooled in 1824 when an Anglo-Dutch treaty demarcated their respective interests in Southeast Asia. British rule in Burma began with the first Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826).

Early United States entry into what was then called the East Indies (usually in reference to the Malay Archipelago) was low key. In 1795, a secret voyage for pepper set sail from Salem, Massachusetts on an 18-month voyage that returned with a bulk cargo of pepper, the first to be so imported into the country, which sold at the extraordinary profit of seven hundred per cent. In 1831, the merchantman Friendship of Salem returned to report the ship had been plundered, and the first officer and two crewmen murdered in Sumatra.

The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 obligated the Dutch to ensure the safety of shipping and overland trade in and around Aceh, who accordingly sent the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army on the punitive expedition of 1831. President Andrew Jackson also ordered America's first Sumatran punitive expedition of 1832, which was followed by a punitive expedition in 1838. The Friendship incident thus afforded the Dutch a reason to take over Ache; and Jackson, to dispatch diplomatist Edmund Roberts, who in 1833 secured the Roberts Treaty with Siam. In 1856 negotiations for amendment of this treaty, Townsend Harris stated the position of the United States:"The United States does not hold any possessions in the East, nor does it desire any. The form of government forbids the holding of colonies. The United States therefore cannot be an object of jealousy to any Eastern Power. Peaceful commercial relations, which give as well as receive benefits, is what the President wishes to establish with Siam, and such is the object of my mission."

From the end of the 1850s onwards, while the attention of the United States shifted to maintaining their union, the pace of European colonisation shifted to a significantly higher gear. This phenomenon, denoted New Imperialism, saw the conquest of nearly all Southeast Asian territories by the colonial powers. The Dutch East India Company and British East India Company were dissolved by their respective governments, who took over the direct administration of the colonies.

Only Thailand was spared the experience of foreign rule, though Thailand, too, was greatly affected by the power politics of the Western powers. The Monthon reforms of the late 19th Century continuing up till around 1910, imposed a Westernised form of government on the country's partially independent cities called Mueang, such that the country could be said to have successfully colonised itself. Western powers did, however, continue to interfere in both internal and external affairs.

By 1913, the British had occupied Burma, Malaya and the northern Borneo territories, the French controlled Indochina, the Dutch ruled the Netherlands East Indies while Portugal managed to hold on to Portuguese Timor. In the Philippines, the 1872 Cavite Mutiny was a precursor to the Philippine Revolution (1896–1898). When the Spanish–American War began in Cuba in 1898, Filipino revolutionaries declared Philippine independence and established the First Philippine Republic the following year. In the Treaty of Paris of 1898 that ended the war with Spain, the United States gained the Philippines and other territories; in refusing to recognise the nascent republic, America effectively reversed her position of 1856. This led directly to the Philippine–American War, in which the First Republic was defeated; wars followed with the Republic of Zamboanga, the Republic of Negros and the Republic of Katagalugan, all of which were also defeated.

Colonial rule had had a profound effect on Southeast Asia. While the colonial powers profited much from the region's vast resources and large market, colonial rule did develop the region to a varying extent. Commercial agriculture, mining and an export based economy developed rapidly during this period. The introduction Christianity bought by the colonist also have profound effect in the societal change.

Increased labour demand resulted in mass immigration, especially from British India and China, which brought about massive demographic change. The institutions for a modern nation state like a state bureaucracy, courts of law, print media and to a smaller extent, modern education, sowed the seeds of the fledgling nationalist movements in the colonial territories. In the inter-war years, these nationalist movements grew and often clashed with the colonial authorities when they demanded self-determination.

Japanese invasion and occupations
In September 1940, following the Fall of France and pursuant to the Pacific war goals of Imperial Japan, the Japanese Imperial Army invaded Vichy French Indochina, which ended in the abortive Japanese coup de main in French Indochina of 9 March 1945. On 5 January 1941, Thailand launched the Franco-Thai War, ended on 9 May 1941 by a Japanese-imposed treaty signed in Tokyo. On 7/8 December, Japan's entry into World War II began with the invasion of Thailand, the only invaded country to maintain nominal independence, due to her political and military alliance with the Japanese—on 10 May 1942, her northwestern Payap Army invaded Burma during the Burma Campaign. From 1941 until war's end, Japanese occupied Cambodia, Malaya and the Philippines, which ended in independence movements. Japanese occupation of the Philippines led to the forming of the Second Philippine Republic, formally dissolved in Tokyo on 17 August 1945. Also on 17 August, a proclamation of Indonesian Independence was read at the conclusion of Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies since March 1942.

Post-war decolonisation

With the rejuvenated nationalist movements in wait, the Europeans returned to a very different Southeast Asia after World War II. Indonesia declared independence on 17 August 1945 and subsequently fought a bitter war against the returning Dutch; the Philippines was granted independence by the United States in 1946; Burma secured their independence from Britain in 1948, and the French were driven from Indochina in 1954 after a bitterly fought war (the Indochina War) against the Vietnamese nationalists. The United Nations provided a forum for nationalism, post-independent self-definition, nation-building and the acquisition of territorial integrity for many newly independent nations.

During the Cold War, countering the threat of communism was a major theme in the decolonisation process. After suppressing the communist insurrection during the Malayan Emergency from 1948 to 1960, Britain granted independence to Malaya and later, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak in 1957 and 1963 respectively within the framework of the Federation of Malaysia. In one of the most bloody single incidents of violence in Cold War Southeast Asia, General Suharto seized power in Indonesia in 1965 and initiated a massacre of approximately 500,000 alleged members of the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI).

Following the independence of the Indochina states with the battle of Dien Bien Phu, North Vietnamese attempts to conquer South Vietnam resulted in the Vietnam War. The conflict spread to Laos and Cambodia and heavy intervention from the United States. By the war's end in 1975, all these countries were controlled by communist parties. After the communist victory, two wars between communist states—the Cambodian–Vietnamese War of 1975–89 and the Sino-Vietnamese War of 1979—were fought in the region. The victory of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia resulted in the Cambodian genocide.

In 1975, Portuguese rule ended in East Timor. However, independence was short-lived as Indonesia annexed the territory soon after. However, after more than 20 years of fighting Indonesia, East Timor won its independence and was recognised by the UN in 2002. Finally, Britain ended its protectorate of the Sultanate of Brunei in 1984, marking the end of European rule in Southeast Asia.

Contemporary Southeast Asia
Modern Southeast Asia has been characterised by high economic growth by most countries and closer regional integration. Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand have traditionally experienced high growth and are commonly recognised as the more developed countries of the region. As of late, Vietnam too had been experiencing an economic boom. However, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos and the newly independent East Timor are still lagging economically.

On 8 August 1967, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was founded by Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and the Philippines. Since Cambodian admission into the union in 1999, East Timor is the only Southeast Asian country that is not part of ASEAN, although plans are under way for eventual membership. The association aims to enhance co-operation among Southeast Asian community. ASEAN Free Trade Area has been established to encourage greater trade among ASEAN members. ASEAN has also been a front runner in greater integration of Asia-Pacific region through East Asia Summits.

title: History of Southeast Asia


text:
Covalent radius

The covalent radius, rcov, is a measure of the size of an atom that forms part of one covalent bond. It is usually measured either in picometres (pm) or angstroms (Å), with 1 Å = 100 pm.

In principle, the sum of the two covalent radii should equal the covalent bond length between two atoms, R(AB) = r(A) + r(B). Moreover, different radii can be introduced for single, double and triple bonds (r1, r2 and r3 below), in a purely operational sense. These relationships are certainly not exact because the size of an atom is not constant but depends on its chemical environment. For heteroatomic A–B bonds, ionic terms may enter. Often the polar covalent bonds are shorter than would be expected based on the sum of covalent radii. Tabulated values of covalent radii are either average or idealized values, which nevertheless show a certain transferability between different situations, which makes them useful.

The bond lengths R(AB) are measured by X-ray diffraction (more rarely, neutron diffraction on molecular crystals). Rotational spectroscopy can also give extremely accurate values of bond lengths. For homonuclear A–A bonds, Linus Pauling took the covalent radius to be half the single-bond length in the element, e.g. R(H–H, in H2) = 74.14 pm so rcov(H) = 37.07 pm: in practice, it is usual to obtain an average value from a variety of covalent compounds, although the difference is usually small. Sanderson has published a recent set of non-polar covalent radii for the main-group elements, but the availability of large collections of bond lengths, which are more transferable, from the Cambridge Crystallographic Database has rendered covalent radii obsolete in many situations.

Average radii
The values in the table below are based on a statistical analysis of more than 228,000 experimental bond lengths from the Cambridge Structural Database. For carbon, values are given for the different hybridisations of the orbitals.

Radius for multiple bonds
A different approach is to make a self-consistent fit for all elements in a smaller set of molecules. This was done separately for single, double, and triple bonds up to superheavy elements. Both experimental and computational data were used. The single-bond results are often similar to those of Cordero et al. When they are different, the coordination numbers used can be different. This is notably the case for most (d and f) transition metals. Normally one expects that r1 > r2 > r3. Deviations may occur for weak multiple bonds, if the differences of the ligand are larger than the differences of R in the data used.

Note that elements up to atomic number 118 (oganesson) have now been experimentally produced and that there are chemical studies on an increasing number of them. The same, self-consistent approach was used to fit tetrahedral covalent radii for 30 elements in 48 crystals with subpicometer accuracy.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Covalent radius


text:
Talk:Zeno's paradoxes

to do

 * Paul Hornschemeier's most recent graphic novel, The Three Paradoxes, contains a comic version of Zeno presenting his three paradoxes to his fellow philosophers.
 * Zadie Smith references Zeno's arrow paradox, and, more briefly, Zeno's Achilles and tortoise paradox, at the end of Chapter 17 in her novel White Teeth.
 * Brian Massumi shoots Zeno's "philosophical arrow" in the opening chapter of Parables for the Virtual: Movement, Affect, Sensation.
 * Philip K. Dick's short science-fiction story "The Indefatigable Frog" concerns an experiment to determine whether a frog which continually leaps half the distance to the top of a well will ever be able to get out of the well.
 * Allama Iqbal's book The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam discusses the paradox in Lecture II The Philosophical Test of the Revelations of Religious Experience, and suggests that motion is not continuous but discrete.
 * Ursula K. Le Guin's character of Shevek in The Dispossessed discusses the arrow paradox in great amusement with his un-understanding classmates as a child.
 * add missing refs from Rucker section below
 * add refs deleted with this edit

herman weyl
"According to this, the length of the hypotenuse of a right angled triangle in discretized space is always equal to the length of one of the two sides, in contradiction to geometry." -this sentence seems problematic, because it relates space with a distinstive attribute (discretized) to geometry without an an attribute. i cannot propose a solution since the meaning of "discretized" is unbeknowst to me, but i can propose an initial direction of reseach that is try replacing "geometry" with " euclidian geometry" as a formal (linguistical) corrction and check the meaning and reltiobn between "discretionalized" and "euclidian".

also im missing from the article a simple worded paragraph that would tell that the zeno paradoxes result in an so to say impossibility of the event observed in reality because the question is framed to look at a time frame that by its definition excludes the event of achilles reaching the turtle or the arrow reaching its target.

also theres this italian guy, carlo rovelli who deserves mention as the author of some books proposing that the infinite division used in the zeno paradoxes actually is in contradiction with the physical nature of the world. its not that he talks about zeno, its that when his quantum physics theory becomes proven enough to be accepted as not just a theory but rather the actual dscription of reality (if and when that happens) it will remind us that zeno was wrong in his assumption about infinite divisibility and that can be taken as a simple cause of his paradoxes. (if i take correctly a paradox takes a seemingly correct line of arguments and points to a result with it that is obviously contradicting reality, saying either the line of thought is not as correct as we think and then lets find the mistake in it, or reality is not what it is belived and then lets find the mistake in the belief about it.)89.134.199.32 (talk) 15:04, 2 February 2020 (UTC).

Remove the distance vs. time graph in § Achilles and the Tortoise?
The image supposes that a tortoise can run 5 m/s. No source supports this speed, and neither Zeno nor Aristotle supposes this to be possible. The world record for tortoises is 0.28 m/s and the accompanying text, unlike the image caption, implies a speed of 0.2 m/s.

Is the image worth preserving? I propose to delete it. It adds nothing to the text. It merely illustrates what is obvious anyhow, that Achilles, running at 10 m/s, will overtake anything running more slowly including, for example, a squirrel running at 5 m/s. (Squirrels can go that fast, though they're not noted for sustained effort.)

In the French Wikipedia, the graph is associated with a section on the resolution of the paradox. This makes more sense, as the figure illustrates how each of the successive stages in the race takes less time and brings Achilles closer to the tortoise until the tortoise is overtaken. The exposition is immediately followed by a discussion of the associated convergent infinite series. In the English Wikipedia, the infinite-series discussion is in a different article, Infinity § Zeno: Achilles and the tortoise. The figure should be here, if anywhere, though the argument in this section supposes the tortoise's speed to be 0.1 m/s. Modifying the graph to suppose that the tortoise is going 0.1 or 0.2 m/s is impractical, since the line for the tortoise would be nearly horizontal.

Peter Brown (talk) 22:52, 25 August 2020 (UTC)

If Zeno can get you asking the wrong questions...
The resolution of the paradoxes comes from understanding that if someone can direct your attention to an irrelevant part of a system, while you think you are looking at the whole system, they can convince you of foolish things about the whole system. So if you look at shorter and shorter segments of time (of a runner's or a Hare's motion), because a questioner like Zeno led you down that path, you discover the "paradox" that your inquiry doesn't tell you anything accurate about the characteristics of the overall motion. Or as Thomas Pynchon wrote in Gravity's Rainbow, "If they can get you asking the wrong questions, they don't have to worry about the answers."

So this "paradox" has nothing to do with infinities or calculus, and everything to do with attention, focus, and distraction.

I have not found a Runcible Source that has noticed this, so it is not suitable for the article yet. Gnuish (talk) 04:40, 11 October 2022 (UTC)

 * One risk of being a debunker or skeptic is that you might not be skeptical about your own skepticism. Your explanation is great until you unequivocally declare "nothing to do with infinities". I think the history of math will bear out that the notion of limits is a very old problem (not initially solved by Newton and Leibnitz when they formulated calculus) and Zeno was a key motivator by framing it as a paradox. But what do I know? I'm not a historian of science. Martindo (talk) 05:11, 11 October 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Zeno's paradoxes


text:
Flare

A flare, also sometimes called a fusée, fusee, or bengala, bengalo in several European countries, is a type of pyrotechnic that produces a bright light or intense heat without an explosion. Flares are used for distress signaling, illumination, or defensive countermeasures in civilian and military applications. Flares may be ground pyrotechnics, projectile pyrotechnics, or parachute-suspended to provide maximum illumination time over a large area. Projectile pyrotechnics may be dropped from aircraft, fired from rocket or artillery, or deployed by flare guns or handheld percussive tubes.

Origin
The earliest recorded use of gunpowder for signaling purposes was the 'signal bomb' used by the Chinese Song Dynasty (960–1279) as the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) besieged Yangzhou in 1276. These soft-shelled bombs, timed to explode in midair, were used to send messages to a detachment of troops far in the distance. Another mention of the signal bomb appears in a text dating from 1293 requesting their collection from those still stored in Zhejiang. A signal gun appears in Korea by 1600. The Wu I Thu Phu Thung Chih or Illustrated Military Encyclopedia, written in 1791, depicts a signal gun in an illustration.

Civilian use

In the civilian world, flares are commonly used as signals, and may be ignited on the ground, fired as an aerial signal from a pistol-like flare gun, or launched from a self-contained tube. Flares are commonly found in marine survival kits.

Maritime distress signal
Distress rockets (aka "rocket-propelled parachute flares" ) have been mentioned in the modern era for civilian maritime emergencies since at least 1856. The U.S. Nautical Magazine of that year mentions the use of "rocket stations" for ship related emergencies. White rockets were solely used until 1873, when commander John Yorke of the Royal Navy suggested that rockets for distress should have a distinctive color. The request was made to help ease confusion between ships in distress and rockets used by pilot ships. By 1875, the Board of Trade (UK) had issued regulations for Captains in regards to night signals. Rockets containing at least 16oz of composition were only to be used as a sign for a ship in distress. Passenger ships at the time were required to carry 12 of these rockets. The Merchant Shipping Act of 1894 further stated that these rockets were to be fired one at a time in short intervals of approximately one minute apart. Distress rockets continued to be used in different colors as was the case with RMS Titanic. At the time shipping companies had "a particular kind of distress rocket (that differed by color)". Each ship was also given a guide of colors to use depending on what signal was to be sent.

Modern red distress signals are mentioned by the United States Bureau of Mines as early as 1925, where they state "12 handheld rocket-propelled parachute red flare distress signals" are to be used by ocean going ships. The color red was eventually incorporated for use in the United States on 17 December 1979 as part of a "Universal color language". Red distress rockets and/or flares are now internationally recognized symbols that indicate a ship in distress. The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) has standards for visual signals, including both handheld and aerial flares. Handheld flares must burn for at least one minute at an average luminosity of 15,000 candelas, while aerial flares must burn for at least 40 seconds with a 30,000-candela average luminosity.

While rockets and flares are still an option for signaling distress, they have since been surpassed by improved technology. Distress signals can now be sent using automated radio signals from a search and rescue transponder. Other internationally recognized methods include the radio message SOS, which was used during the Sinking of the Titanic, and/or the emergency procedure word "MAYDAY" which dates to the 1920s.

Roadside and rail

Another type of flare is the , which burns with a bright red light. These come in two main types which are used for roadways and rail transportation. The first type are fusees used for roadways which are known as highway flares or road flares. These are commonly used to indicate obstacles or advise caution on roadways at night and are found in roadside emergency kits. Law enforcement also may use these flares (either propped on a biped or laid flat) to signal traffic hazards or that a road is blocked, often as a more visible replacement for traffic cones. Law enforcement in the United States usually use magnesium-based flares that last from 15–30 minutes.

Fusees used for rail are known as railroad flares, they are commonly used to perform hand signals or used as torches in rail transport applications. Railroad flares can burn for at least 10 minutes, are not fastened to train cars, and are handheld by railroad personnel for protection at night. It was argued during an Appeals case that railroad flares are much more visible than lanterns. In general: trains that encounter a lit railroad flare are required to stop until it burns out. Fusees made specifically for railroad use can be distinguished from highway fusees by a sharp steel spike at one end, used to embed the fusee upright in a wooden railroad tie.

Forestry and firefighting
In forestry and firefighting, fusees are sometimes used in wildfire suppression and in the ignition of controlled burns. They ignite at 191 C and burn as hot as 1600 C.

Protests
Flares are used by law enforcement agencies such as the United States National Guard, and police as a form of riot control. This practice dates back to at least the 1940s where they are mentioned as being "useful in night operations". Handheld flares are also counter used by protestors at demonstrations.

Maritime signal flare
In 1859, Martha Coston patented the Coston flare based on early work by her deceased husband Benjamin Franklin Coston.

Illumination
In 1922, a "landing flare" was an aerial candle attached to a parachute and used for landing an airplane in the dark. The flare burned for less than four minutes and the candlepower was about 40,000 lumens.

Countermeasure
A special variety of flares is used in military aircraft as a defensive countermeasure against heat-seeking missiles. These flares are usually discharged individually or in salvos by the pilot or automatically by tail-warning devices, and are accompanied by vigorous evasive maneuvering. Since they are intended to deceive infrared missiles, these flares burn at temperatures of thousands of degrees, incandescing in the visible spectrum as well.

Tripflares
Flares connected to tripwires are used to guard an area against infiltration. The flare begins burning when the tripwire is triggered, providing both alarm and illumination.

Regulation
Under the UN hazard number system, pyrotechnic flares are designated class 1.4 explosives.

Several U.S. states, including California and Massachusetts, have begun regulating levels of potassium perchlorate, which can be unsafe at certain levels in drinking water. Contaminated drinking water can lead to such symptoms as gastric irritation, nausea, vomiting, fever, skin rashes, and even fatal aplastic anemia (a reduction in all types of blood cells).

Chemistry
Flares produce their light through the combustion of a pyrotechnic composition. The ingredients are varied, but often based on strontium nitrate, potassium nitrate, or potassium perchlorate, mixed with a fuel such as charcoal, sulfur, sawdust, aluminium, magnesium, or a suitable polymeric resin. Flares may be colored by the inclusion of pyrotechnic colorants. Calcium flares are used underwater to illuminate submerged objects. *Note- Fusees manufactured in the United States no longer use potassium perchlorate as an oxidizer and do not contain aluminium or magnesium.

Perchlorate flare health issues
Many in-service colored signal flares and spectrally balanced decoy flares contain perchlorate oxidizers. Perchlorate, a type of salt in its solid form, dissolves and moves rapidly in groundwater and surface water. Even in low concentrations in drinking water supplies, perchlorate is known to inhibit the uptake of iodine by the thyroid gland. While there are currently no US federal drinking water standards for perchlorate, some states have established public health goals or action levels, and some are in the process of establishing state maximum contaminant levels. For example, the US Environmental Protection Agency has studied the impacts of perchlorate on the environment as well as drinking water. California has also issued guidance regarding perchlorate use.

US courts have taken action regarding the use of perchlorate in manufacturing pyrotechnic devices such as flares. For example, in 2003, a federal district court in California found that the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) applied because perchlorate is ignitable and therefore a "characteristic" hazardous waste.

title: Flare


text:
Enthalpy of vaporization

In thermodynamics, the enthalpy of vaporization (symbol $∆H_{vap}$), also known as the (latent) heat of vaporization or heat of evaporation, is the amount of energy (enthalpy) that must be added to a liquid substance to transform a quantity of that substance into a gas. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure and temperature at which the transformation (vaporization or evaporation) takes place.

The enthalpy of vaporization is often quoted for the normal boiling temperature of the substance. Although tabulated values are usually corrected to 298 K, that correction is often smaller than the uncertainty in the measured value.

The heat of vaporization is temperature-dependent, though a constant heat of vaporization can be assumed for small temperature ranges and for Reduced temperature $Tr ≪ 1$. The heat of vaporization diminishes with increasing temperature and it vanishes completely at a certain point called the critical temperature ($Tr = 1$). Above the critical temperature, the liquid and vapor phases are indistinguishable, and the substance is called a supercritical fluid.

Units
Values are usually quoted in J/mol, or kJ/mol (molar enthalpy of vaporization), although kJ/kg, or J/g (specific heat of vaporization), and older units like kcal/mol, cal/g and Btu/lb are sometimes still used among others.

Enthalpy of condensation
The enthalpy of condensation (or heat of condensation) is by definition equal to the enthalpy of vaporization with the opposite sign: enthalpy changes of vaporization are always positive (heat is absorbed by the substance), whereas enthalpy changes of condensation are always negative (heat is released by the substance).

Thermodynamic background
The enthalpy of vaporization can be written as
 * $$\Delta H_\text{vap} = \Delta U_\text{vap} + p\,\Delta V$$

It is equal to the increased internal energy of the vapor phase compared with the liquid phase, plus the work done against ambient pressure. The increase in the internal energy can be viewed as the energy required to overcome the intermolecular interactions in the liquid (or solid, in the case of sublimation). Hence helium has a particularly low enthalpy of vaporization, 0.0845 kJ/mol, as the van der Waals forces between helium atoms are particularly weak. On the other hand, the molecules in liquid water are held together by relatively strong hydrogen bonds, and its enthalpy of vaporization, 40.65 kJ/mol, is more than five times the energy required to heat the same quantity of water from 0 °C to 100 °C (cp = 75.3 J/K·mol). Care must be taken, however, when using enthalpies of vaporization to measure the strength of intermolecular forces, as these forces may persist to an extent in the gas phase (as is the case with hydrogen fluoride), and so the calculated value of the bond strength will be too low. This is particularly true of metals, which often form covalently bonded molecules in the gas phase: in these cases, the enthalpy of atomization must be used to obtain a true value of the bond energy.

An alternative description is to view the enthalpy of condensation as the heat which must be released to the surroundings to compensate for the drop in entropy when a gas condenses to a liquid. As the liquid and gas are in equilibrium at the boiling point (Tb), ΔvG = 0, which leads to:
 * $$\Delta_\text{v} S = S_\text{gas} - S_\text{liquid} = \frac{\Delta_\text{v} H}{T_\text{b}}$$

As neither entropy nor enthalpy vary greatly with temperature, it is normal to use the tabulated standard values without any correction for the difference in temperature from 298 K. A correction must be made if the pressure is different from 100 kPa, as the entropy of a gas is proportional to its pressure (or, more precisely, to its fugacity): the entropies of liquids vary little with pressure, as the compressibility of a liquid is small.

These two definitions are equivalent: the boiling point is the temperature at which the increased entropy of the gas phase overcomes the intermolecular forces. As a given quantity of matter always has a higher entropy in the gas phase than in a condensed phase ($$\Delta_\text{v} S$$ is always positive), and from
 * $$\Delta G = \Delta H - T\Delta S$$,

the Gibbs free energy change falls with increasing temperature: gases are favored at higher temperatures, as is observed in practice.

Vaporization enthalpy of electrolyte solutions
Estimation of the enthalpy of vaporization of electrolyte solutions can be simply carried out using equations based on the chemical thermodynamic models, such as Pitzer model or TCPC model.

Elements
The vaporization of metals is a key step in metal vapor synthesis, which exploits the increased reactivity of metal atoms or small particles relative to the bulk elements.

Other common substances
Enthalpies of vaporization of common substances, measured at their respective standard boiling points:

title: Enthalpy of vaporization


text:
Talk:Flare

Shift this elsewhere?
Hmmm. I can think of at least two potential articles that might take precedence for this article title - signalling flares (the kind you use when your boat's about to sink), and those appalling 70's fashion items. Shift this to "Flare Corporation", perhaps? --Robert Merkel 22:14, 4 February 2002
 * I just added as many different meanings as I could think of in one sitting. I'm not sure if any of them is large enough to warrant splitting this article up just yet, but if anyone adds to them perhaps the parent directory can be made into a linklist. :) Bryan Derksen 15:43, 25 February 2002

Removed military POV
I have removed the military POV of this article, maybe that will remove some objections. The Hokkaido Crow 17:33, 2 August 2005 (UTC)

Merging distress rockets into flares
I saw this new stub and i was pretty sure that distress rockets were the same as flares. Also the story about the titanic seems not correct. Thanks Leah (talk) 17:19, 4 May 2008 (UTC)
 * distress rockets are not same as flares, to that's a no to the merge--mrg3105 (comms) ♠ ♥ ♦ ♣ 00:19, 22 August 2008 (UTC)
 * Distress rockets are a subset of flares, and this article doesn't adequately cover them. However the real problem with Distress rockets is that it is vague, unsourced and in some cases simply wrong (for example, the story about the Titanic). I'd suggest we write a section on this page regarding distress rockets (essentially, flares capable of being fired into the air), then redirect, rather than merge, the other page. Euryalus (talk) 04:53, 7 January 2009 (UTC)

Duplication
Why have military use included when there is a separate article on countermeasure flares? -- T HE F OUNDERS I NTENT  TALK 12:28, 18 June 2008 (UTC)

History of flares in football games?
Do somebody know when the supporters started to use flares to build up the atmosphere? I think the ultras in Italy was first but when did they start? -- Lindberg47 (talk) 11:37, 21 October 2008 (UTC)

Maritime distress signal
The flare kit I bought included pistol with a white flare for practice and five red flares, and two hand-held red flares for use when rescuers are closing in. Instructions for disposal of out-of-date flares included firing the flares horizontal across water under circumstances that precluded mistaking the firing as a distress signal (vertical firing of red flare). How much detail is too much for the article? Naaman Brown (talk) 14:04, 20 May 2011 (UTC)

RfC: Is this article the primary topic of "flare"?
Hi. Two recent edits in flare disambiguation page have lead me to file this RfC. Two editors (OnBeyondZebrax and 98.229.36.30) think this article is the primary topic of "flare", meaning that when a person searches "flare" in Wikipedia, most of the time he or she is looking for this article.

Please note that one of the results of this discussion could be renaming this article to "Flare" and renaming "Flare" to "Flare (disambiguation)". Best regards, Codename Lisa (talk) 07:17, 11 May 2013 (UTC)

Survey

 * Support changing flare (pyrotechnic) to primary article: As per discussion below. Samwalton9 (talk) 16:17, 11 May 2013 (UTC)
 * Support per discussion below. Nothing new to add. Arathald (talk) 19:29, 11 May 2013 (UTC)
 * Support per above: (Moved here from Threaded discussion) Because it is the clear and logical parent article of the other, with proper summary style + hatnoting, I would agree that this is the primary one.Morgan Riley (talk) 17:11, 11 May 2013 (UTC)
 * Hmmm... I am sceptical about the change being worth while, but I certainly don't think it is worth a squabble. In case it is not already the intention though, I should want hatnotes in the major articles at least,linking to "Flare (disambiguation)". Otherwise no big deal. JonRichfield (talk) 06:30, 14 May 2013 (UTC)
 * Oppose. In a brief unscientific survey of article-space wikilinks to the disambiguation page, a minority of the links (3 out of 13) appeared to be related to pyrotechnics; other prominent meanings included lens flare and countermeasures. I think making flare (and plurals, etc) link to the pyrotechnic article would lead to too high a rate of erroneous links, less easily detectable and less quickly fixed because they wouldn't be to a dab. —David Eppstein (talk) 18:19, 15 May 2013 (UTC)
 * Oppose. Having the dab page as main is the most neutral and informative thing -other meanings are not so secondary. -- Cycl o pia talk  07:31, 21 May 2013 (UTC)
 * Support Although I was initially not a proponent of the move, I now think it makes sense to make flare (pyrotechnic) the primary topic. As Samwalton9 showed, this article far outmatches all others in term of the reach. Also my own findings in response to David Eppstein shows that the move would repair some of the inbound links. As for Cyclopia's objection, well, I know it is not true: I work in the computing area and have never seen anyone mistaking Android (operating system) with Android. Apart from that, it is never a good idea to oppose a Wikipedia guideline such as WP:DAB because of our own pet peeves. Best regards, Codename Lisa (talk) 20:52, 21 May 2013 (UTC)
 * Support it seems to me that both intuitively and, bearing in mind the below discussion, statistically, a pyrotechnic flare is the primary meaning of the word "flare". Quantum Burrito (talk) 21:47, 27 May 2013 (UTC)

Threaded discussion
Some statistics to help:
 * This month Flare (pyrotechnic) has received ~2600 views, Flare has received ~4000 views.
 * Flare (countermeasure) received 2,000 views,
 * Flare (comics), flare (aviation), flare (ship), flare (magazine), flare (science fiction novel), flare-up, flare (acrobatic move) and flare (Techno-Cultural Fest) received less than a few hundred views each.

It would seem to me that almost as many people are looking for flare (countermeasure) as flare (pyrotechnic), on which basis alone I would be inclined to think that pyrotechnic should not be the primary topic. Samwalton9 (talk) 13:37, 11 May 2013 (UTC)
 * Hi. I checked the same articles over a period of 90 days instead of 30 and I see Flare (pyrotechnic) has received 24606 views while flare (countermeasure) has received 19209 views. So, if another article had received this much coverage instead of flare (countermeasure), I'd have conceded the discussion to you. But flare (pyrotechnics) is a parent article of flare (countermeasure); the former covers the latter through summary style and even links to it. So

 * So, given that, I think Flare (pyrotechnic) should definitely be the primary topic.

 * Best regards,
 * Codename Lisa (talk) 15:40, 11 May 2013 (UTC)

 * So it does. Having read the articles properly, I would agree that pyrotechnic is the parent article and should therefore be primary. Samwalton9 (talk) 16:13, 11 May 2013 (UTC)

Response to David Eppstein: Hi. You oppose because there are backlinks? By chance, did you know that we can actually fix the backlinks? And it is easy to do that too: There are only 8 pages with incoming links to flare, all from the article namespace, that need fixing. Best regards, Codename Lisa (talk) 19:27, 15 May 2013 (UTC)
 * Yes, it's easy to fix the ones that are there now, but saying that the existence of the unfixed ones that are there now is my reason for opposition is a distortion of what I intended. I oppose it because there *will be* more links added to flare for the same reason that there are links there now, because it seems likely (from the ones that are there now) that many of these links will be about other meanings, and that (unlike now) if we make the pyrotechnic meaning primary they will be harder to detect and fix. —David Eppstein (talk) 20:53, 15 May 2013 (UTC)
 * Hi. There will be more incoming link, that's right. That is the very philosophy behind the concept of primary topic, exactly the reason I proposed this RfC and exactly why it supporters are supporting it: There will be more incoming links, less DPL bot notices and less work for Dab Solver; and that's good. But where I am lost is: Why do you think there is something wrong with it all? Perhaps you should double check the proposition and then try to paraphrase yourself? Best regards, Codename Lisa (talk) 06:48, 16 May 2013 (UTC)
 * Because many of those incoming links will not be about pyrotechnics..They will be links to the wrong article. And as they won't be links to a dab, dab solver won't fix them. Why is this so hard to understand?  —David Eppstein (talk) 15:32, 16 May 2013 (UTC)
 * Hi. People do not knowingly link to dab pages in the middle of the prose; they do so in hatnotes and sometimes "See also" sections, but not in the middle of the prose. In fact, if you check Special:What Links Here report, you see that the opposite occurs: People mean to link to the primary topic but inadvertently end up linking to a dab page. The margin of error is far lower in hatnote since we have three bots attending to that area. (One of them replaces direct links with redirects ending with "(disambiguation)".)

 * Overall, you needn't worry. What you fear never happens. Best regards, Codename Lisa (talk) 19:40, 16 May 2013 (UTC)
 * You are still misunderstanding. People don't *knowingly* link to dab pages instead of the appropriate article, true. The kind of edits I'm concerned about are when people link flare *carelessly* rather than knowingly, thinking without checking that it will be a link to the article they want, when in fact it goes to an article with the same name on a different subject. Having a dab page as the target of that link is helpful, as it calls the error to the attention of people working on disambiguation. Having a real article as the target of an ambiguous name is less helpful. —David Eppstein (talk) 02:27, 26 May 2013 (UTC)
 * Hello, David. I perfectly understand, but I do not share this concern. Like I said, what you fear never happens. In fact, the opposite happens. (And the reast of the explanations...) Best regards, Codename Lisa (talk) 20:05, 27 May 2013 (UTC)

 * oppose . the disambiguation page is needed,a s there are quite a few articles on other 'flares', which are perhaps commonly viewed. needs the dab page. -- Aunva6talk - contribs 03:38, 5 June 2013 (UTC)
 * Hello. I am demoting this rec. to discussion section due to lack of relevance. This discussion is not a deletion discussion of dab page, or a deletion discussion of any sort. The survey section is only dedicated to deciding whether the subject of this article is the primary meaning of the word "flare" or not. (Technically, we are not even discussing a page move either; that is for an uninvolved admin to decide.) You may submit another rec. Best regards, Codename Lisa (talk) 00:36, 6 June 2013 (UTC)
 * yeah... this is what I get for not reading carefully. assuming there is a hatnote, swap seems fine to me. -- Aunva6talk - contribs 00:59, 6 June 2013 (UTC)
 * Hello again. Yes, I believe that is the most likely outcome. Best regards, Codename Lisa (talk) 01:04, 6 June 2013 (UTC)

I'm going to start disambiguating flare (pyrotechnic) to flare using AWB for everyone's information. This may take some time so I'll be doing it as an ongoing thing. Samwalton9 (talk) 20:09, 17 June 2013 (UTC)
 * Didn't realise quite how many pages linked to this, won't be the quickest of tasks so postponing for now. Samwalton9 (talk) 20:40, 17 June 2013 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Flare. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20100627215056/http://www.cdph.ca.gov/certlic/drinkingwater/Pages/perchlorate.aspx to http://www.cdph.ca.gov/certlic/drinkingwater/Pages/Perchlorate.aspx

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 22:27, 2 December 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Flare


text:
Chemical patent

A chemical patent, pharmaceutical patent or drug patent is a patent for an invention in the chemical or pharmaceuticals industry. Strictly speaking, in most jurisdictions, there are essentially no differences between the legal requirements to obtain a patent for an invention in the chemical or pharmaceutical fields, in comparison to obtaining a patent in the other fields, such as in the mechanical field. A chemical patent or a pharmaceutical patent is therefore not a sui generis right, i.e. a special legal type of patent.

Chemical patent claims often use generic, Markush structures contained within them, named after the inventor Eugene Markush who won a lawsuit in the US in 1925 to allow such structures to be used in patent claims. These generic structures are used to make the patent claim as broad as possible.

In the United States, patents on pharmaceuticals were considered unethical by the medical profession during most of the nineteenth-century. Drug patent terms in the US were extended from 17 to 20 years in 1994.

Pharmaceutical patents are typically more valuable than any other type of patents, and thus play an essential role in the pharmaceutical industry. There are several reasons for this peculiarity:

 * 1) the cost of research and development and getting an approval of a new medication, as well as the risk (failure rate) in developing a new pharmaceutical ingredient, is orders of magnitude higher than the cost of developing most other products.
 * 2) on the other hand, the cost of making a known chemical is substantially lower, than the cost of developing a new pharmaceutical.
 * 3) the patent monopoly of pharmaceuticals is usually policed by the government (FDA in the US), but in other industries the patent owner has to bear substantial expenses to enforce its patent monopoly.

A 2021 analysis of the most valuable US pharmaceutical patents published in the Orange Book between 2000 and 2018 showed that ca. 25% of these patents end up litigated in courts, but only 26% of these litigated patents are invalidated, well below the overall patent invalidation rate of 43%. 94% of these invalidated patents are not the highly innovative “primary’ patents on the active ingredient, but weaker follow-on patents (that claim changes in formulation, dissolution profile, new use), that should have not been allowed by examiners in the first place. Remarkably, the prosecution histories of most of these invalidated patents share striking similarity in having the same assignees, the same prosecuting attorneys, and the same examiners. Examiners approve litigated patents after having issued fewer office actions than they do with unlitigated patents. For litigated patents it takes approximately five office actions before allowance. In contrast, for the average, it takes approximately eight office actions before an allowance.

The main reason for invalidating these weak follow-up patents in courts is obviousness in view of the prior art, which was not considered by the examiner. Nevertheless, the authors conclude, that "having examiners spend more time on the important patents ... is not likely to help much; examiners who get more time to work on important cases now do not do more work, but instead cut and paste their existing work from prior cases." As a better alternative, the authors suggests, that the patent owners identify in advance, which patents they intend to list in the Orange Book, and have these patents examined by USPTO's Central Reexamination Unit with a higher level of scrutiny than regular examiners do.

title: Chemical patent