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Talk:1948 Arab–Israeli War

Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 28 May 2024
Original: After Israel occupied the West Bank in the 1967 Six-Day War, the Palestinians there remained Jordanian citizens until Jordan renounced claims to and severed administrative ties with the territory in 1988.[citation needed]

Suggestion: Include this citation: https://www.hrw.org/news/2010/02/01/jordan-stop-withdrawing-nationality-palestinian-origin-citizens#:~:text=In%201988%2C%20however%2C%20King%20Hussein,West%20Bank%20at%20the%20time. HeloPait (talk) 12:31, 28 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: This sentence is not in the article.   [[User:CanonNi ]]  (talk • contribs) 03:51, 1 June 2024 (UTC)

Remove/replace humiliating symbol from a name
Please remove or replace the cross symbol next to Mickey Marcus in the chart. It is particularly humiliating when Christians use it when referring to Jews, regardless of any meaning they intend or do not intend by it. 2003:F9:6F1B:5500:A5A1:257B:AB22:C8CD (talk) 01:04, 2 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Done. The 'alternative' template that just displays (KIA) should probably be the standard template. Sean.hoyland (talk) 01:35, 2 June 2024 (UTC)
 * It’s not a cross, rather a dagger symbol. Represents that a commander was killed in battle The Great Mule of Eupatoria (talk) 02:08, 2 June 2024 (UTC)
 * The IP might be interested in Dagger (mark), but these kinds of things seem like easily avoidable ambiguities given the alternative (KIA) template. 'Is that a dagger or a Holy Lance?' seems like the kind of question that is not impossible thanks to Murphy's Law. Sean.hoyland (talk) 02:48, 2 June 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:1948 Arab–Israeli War


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5α-Reductase 2 deficiency

5α-Reductase 2 deficiency (5αR2D) is an autosomal recessive condition caused by a mutation in SRD5A2, a gene encoding the enzyme 5α-reductase type 2 (5αR2). The condition is rare, affects only genetic males, and has a broad spectrum.

5αR2 is expressed in specific tissues and catalyzes the transformation of testosterone (T) to 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). DHT plays a key role in the process of sexual differentiation in the external genitalia and prostate during the development of the male fetus. 5αR2D is a result of impaired 5αR2 activity resulting in decreased DHT levels. This defect results in a spectrum of phenotypes including overt genital ambiguity, hypospadias, and micropenis. Affected males still develop typical masculine features at puberty (deep voice, facial hair, muscle bulk) since most aspects of pubertal virilization are driven by testosterone, not DHT.

Management of this condition in the context of sex assignment is a challenging and controversial area. Diagnostic availability, local laws, and parental anxiety all play roles in treatment decisions.

The investigation of 5αR2D as a disease has played a key role in the biochemical characterization of the SRD5A2 gene, the 5αR2 enzyme, and DHT in male sexual differentiation.

Signs and symptoms
Mutations in the SRD5A2 gene can result in a 46,XY disorder of sex development (46,XY DSD) called 5α-reductase 2 deficiency (5αR2D). The mutations are inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern and can be either homozygous or, less frequently, compound heterozygous loss-of-function. Affected males exhibit a broad spectrum of presentation including atypical genitalia (ranging from female-appearing to underutilized male), hypospadias, and isolated micropenis. The internal reproductive structures (vasa deferentia, seminal vesicles, epididymides and ejaculatory ducts) are normal but testes are usually undescended and prostate hypoplasia is common. Males with the same mutations in SRD5A2 can have different phenotypes suggesting additional factors that are involved in clinical presentation. Females with the same mutations in SRD5A2 as affected males (as seen in siblings) are unaffected and have normal female phenotypes and reproductive function.

Virilization of genitalia with voice deepening, development of muscle mass occurs at puberty in affected males, and height is not impaired. Gynecomastia is uncommon and bone density is normal in contrast to 46,XY DSD from other causes such as partial androgen insensitivity syndrome and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 3 deficiency. Hair on the face and body is reduced and male pattern baldness does not occur.

Mechanism
5α-Reductase type 2 (5αR2) is an enzyme, encoded by the SRD5A2 gene, that is expressed in specific tissues in the male body from fetal development to adulthood. The enzyme catalyzes the transformation of testosterone (T) to 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) intracellularly. DHT is the most potent ligand to the androgen receptor (AR). Upon binding, the DHT-AR complex translocates from cytoplasm to the nucleus and activates the androgen receptor-regulated genes involved in processes that include male sexual differentiation.

Genetics
Two of three isozymes of 5αR can catalyze the transformation of T to DHT, but it is only 5αR2D that causes 46XY, DSD. 5αR2 is encoded by the gene SRD5A2 which is located on the short arm of chromosome 2 and contains five exons and four introns. 5αR2 consists of 254 amino acid residues with reported mutations at 67 of them with multiple different mutations at some residues.

The first known mutation SRD5A2 was almost a complete deletion that was discovered from an analysis of affected males in a Papua New Guinean tribe. The majority of SRD5A2 mutations are missense mutations but small deletions, splice junction mutations, and gross deletions were also observed. Mutations result in a spectrum of activity effects ranging from destabilizing 5αR2 to complete loss of activity.

SRD5A2 mutations are inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern. Homozygous defects are more common than compound heterozygous ones. A phenotype-genotype correlation is not known to exist for many of the most common mutations, and affected males with the same 5αR2 mutations have variable phenotypes suggesting other interacting genetic factors that determine phenotype.

Diagnosis
Diagnosis is usually made between birth and puberty. Pseudovaginal perineoscrotal hypospadias presenting with female-appearing genitalia and pubertal virilization is the classical syndrome attributed to 5αR2D, but modern diagnostic methods can diagnose the deficiency shortly after birth and recognize the broad spectrum of presentation.

The initial diagnosis of 46,XY DSD is indicated by overt genital abnormality. The objective clinical evaluation of dysmorphic features to diagnose 46,XY DSD for apparent female genitalia includes enlarged clitoris, posterior labial fusion, and inguinal/labial mass. For apparent male genitalia: nonpalpable testes, micropenis, isolated perineal hypospadias, or mild hypospadias with undescended testis. Family history and prenatal history are also taken into account in the evaluation. Karyotyping and SRY gene analysis on samples from peripheral leukocytes will exclude sex chromosome abnormalities. With the determination of an XY karyotype and normal SRY, the differential diagnosis of 46,XY DSD is made with endocrinological measurements of T/DHT ratios (which indicate 5αR2 activity) and precise anatomical imaging since 5αR2D can be difficult to distinguish from other causes of 46,XY DSD (e.g., partial androgen insensitivity syndrome and 17β- hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 enzyme deficiencies).

The measurement of the serum DHT concentration is challenging since the concentrations are low and DHT has a high level of cross-reactivity. A high level of assay specificity is required to measure concentrations of DHT since serum T levels are generally 10-fold higher than DHT in young males. Endocrinological tests for T/DHT ratios can be difficult to interpret since the normal ratio level varies according to age and severity of 5αR2 activity impairment. Affected young males of at least pubertal age with normal serum T levels demonstrate elevated T/DHT levels (normal T, lower than normal DHT). Stimulation with human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) (alternatively, testosterone enanthate) is required in prepubertal children (with stimulation and samples taken over several days) to increase serum testosterone levels for measurement. Interpreting T/DHT ratios in male newborns is especially challenging due to neonatal testosterone surge and higher than normal 5a-reductase type 1 activity. SRD5A2 gene analysis is recommended for diagnosis in newborns. Broadly, 5αR2D is diagnosed with T/DHT ratios greater than 18 while ratios greater than 30 have been observed in severely affected individuals. 5αR2D can also be indicated by low ratios of 5α- to 5ß- reduced steroids, as measured in urine measured via gas chromatography–mass spectrometry.

Ultrasonography is the primary means for assessing internal reproductive organs for diagnosis while genitography and voiding cystourethrography are used to resolve structures such as urethral and vaginal tracts. The use of pelvic MRI for diagnostic imaging for 5αR2D remains controversial.

Management
One of the most clinically challenging and controversial topics with 46,XY DSD is the practice of "sex assignment" or "sex of rearing". This is especially so in 5αR2D, since most affected individuals have undervirilized genitalia at birth but virilize to varying degrees at puberty. Historically most 5αR2D individuals have been "raised as females", but later reports show that over half of patients who underwent virilizing puberty adopted a male gender identity thus challenging historical practices.

The goal of sex assignment/rearing is to facilitate the greatest likelihood of concordant gender identity in the patient's adulthood. The factors that contribute to gender identity are complex and not easy to report but some factors that contribute include sex chromosomes, androgen exposure, psychosocial development, cultural expectations, family dynamics, and social situation.

Female sex rearing in 5αR2D individuals involves surgical procedures such as childhood gonadectomy (to prevent virilization at puberty) and vaginoplasty. Life-long hormonal treatments as also required for the development and maintenance of female secondary sex characteristics. Male sex of rearing avoids lifelong hormonal treatments and allows for the potential of fertility. Cryptorchidism and hypospadias must be addressed to prevent damage to the seminiferous tubules that are essential for spermatogenesis and fertility. Some approaches encourage a diagnosis during infancy prior to any gender assignment or surgical interventions.

The intersection of the child's well-being, parental wishes, recommendations of the associated medical team, and local laws makes decision-making challenging in these cases. The necessity and ethics around consent and deception involved in administering such interventions have been seriously questioned.

Fertility
Spontaneous fertility in 5αR2D affected males is very unusual (though has been observed ) due to semen abnormalities that include reduced sperm counts, high semen viscosity and, in some cases, lack of primary spermatocytes. This supports the notion that DHT has an important role in spermatocyte differentiation. The broad spectrum of presentation is consistent with highly varying sperm counts among affected males. Testicular function may also be impaired by incomplete descent as well as the genetic mutation itself.

Assisted reproduction methods involving sperm extraction and concentration for intrauterine insemination, intracytoplasmic sperm injection, and in vitro fertilization have all demonstrated successful outcomes for fertility in those with 5αR2D.

Epidemiology
5αR2D is a rare condition with a worldwide distribution. A 2020 study identified 434 cases of 5αR2D across 44 countries including Turkey (23%), China (17%), Italy (9%), and Brazil (7%). The same study also found that genitalia virilization influenced sex assignment while gender change was influenced by cultural aspects across the countries. Molecular diagnosis resulted in favoring male sex assignment in affected newborns.

Many SRD5A2 mutations come from areas with high coefficients of inbreeding, including the Dominican Republic (where people with the condition are called güevedoces – "testes at twelve"), Papua New Guinea (where it is known as kwolu-aatmwol – suggesting a person's transformation "into a male thing"), and Turkey.

In the Dominican Republic, güevedoces are regarded as a third gender and experience ambivalent gender socialisation. In adulthood, they most commonly self-identify as men, but are not necessarily completely treated as such by society. In the cases in Papua New Guinea, it has been said that the "girl" is shunned when he begins his natural transformation into a male body and socially assumes a male gender role.

History
An autosomal recessive disorder of sex development, described as pseudovaginal perineoscrotal hypospadias (PPSH), was discovered in males in 1961. The main feature of this syndrome was a vulva with the presence of bilateral testes and male urogenital tracts in which the ejaculatory ducts terminate in a blind-ending vagina. This disorder was consistent with 5αR2D as the underlying cause as observed in animal models. 5αR2D was confirmed as the cause in humans in 1974, when studies were done of 24 participants in the Dominican Republic and 2 in Dallas Texas, USA. One of the cases in Dallas began to virilize at puberty and underwent surgery to remove testes and "repair" the apparent clitoromegaly. During surgery, a normal male urogenital tract was observed as well as other features consistent with PPSH. DHT was almost undetectable in cultured fibroblasts from foreskin, epididymis and the presumed "labia majora" whereas in normal males DHT is detected, suggesting impaired DHT formation. Similar conclusions were obtained for participants in a family in the Dominican Republic study, in whom high serum concentration ratios of T to DHT and low concentrations of urinary 5a-reduced androgens were observed. This disorder is now known to be due to homozygous or compound heterozygous loss-of-function mutations of the SRD5A2 gene.

Sport
In April 2014, the BMJ reported that four elite women athletes with 5-ARD were subjected to sterilization and "partial clitoridectomies" in order to compete in women's sport. The authors noted that "partial clitoridectomy" was "not medically indicated, does not relate to real or perceived athletic 'advantage, relating to elevated androgen levels. The athletes were all from developing countries where lifetime access to hormone replacement may prove elusive. Intersex advocates regard this intervention as "a clearly coercive process".

Popular culture
In the Nip/Tuck season three episode "Quentin Costa", it is revealed that Quentin Costa had 5-ARD.

Jeffrey Eugenides' Pulitzer Prize-winning 2002 novel Middlesex is about a young man with 5-ARD. The character was originally born Calliope and raised as a girl, but upon realizing his genetic sex, he transitions into Cal.

Notable people

 * Caster Semenya

title: 5α-Reductase 2 deficiency


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1670s

The 1670s decade ran from January 1, 1670, to December 31, 1679.

title: 1670s


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1650s

The 1650s decade ran from January 1, 1650, to December 31, 1659.

title: 1650s


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921

Year 921 (CMXXI) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Byzantine Empire

 * March – Battle of Pegae: Bulgarian forces under kavhan (first minister) Theodore Sigritsa defeat the Byzantine army at the outskirts of Constantinople. After the battle, the Bulgarians burn the palaces in Pegae ("the Spring"), and devastate the area north of the Golden Horn.

Europe

 * Summer – King Henry I (the Fowler) defeats his rival Arnulf I (the Bad), duke of Bavaria, in two campaigns. Arnulf is besieged at Regensburg and forced to accept peace negotiations, recognising Henry as sole sovereign of the East Frankish Kingdom (Germany).
 * Landulf I, prince of Benevento, supports an anti-Greek Apulian rebellion, ravaging several Byzantine strongpoints as far as Ascoli. The Apulian nobility, professing loyalty to the Byzantine Empire, appoints Landulf as stratego of the Theme of Longobardia.
 * September 15 – Ludmila, Bohemian duchess and widow of Bořivoj I, is murdered by her daughter-in-law Drahomíra at Tetín (modern Czech Republic). Ludmila will be canonised and become the patron saint of Bohemia and is venerated in the Orthodox and the Catholic Churches.
 * November 7 – Treaty of Bonn: King Charles III (the Simple) and Henry I sign a peace treaty or 'pact of friendship' (amicitia) at a ceremony aboard a ship in the middle of the Rhine, recognising the border between their two Frankish kingdoms.
 * A Hungarian mercenary force led by Dursac and Bogát defeats an army of insurgents, who plans to overthrow their ally, Emperor Berengar I, at Brescia.

Arabian Empire

 * June 21 – A diplomatic delegation is sent from Baghdad to establish trade routes between the Abbasid Caliphate towards Bukhara (modern Uzbekistan). Ahmad ibn Fadlan, an Arab diplomat and traveller, makes contact with Almış, the İltäbär (vassal-king under the Khazars) of Volga Bulgaria, on behalf of Caliph al-Muqtadir.
 * Battle of Sevan: Sajid forces under Yusuf Beshir invade Armenia and besiege King Ashot II near Lake Sevan. After gathering a small force he attacks Beshir's camps and drives the enemy out of the country. Ashot starts a counter-offensive to rebuild the ruined cities and fortresses.

Africa

 * The Fatimid Caliphate crushes Idrisid forces in battle, capturing the cities of Tlemcen and Fez.
 * The Fatimid Caliphate creates a new capital in Ifriqiya, al-Mahdiya on the Tunisian coast.

China

 * The Later Liang Dynasty reports that all "barbarian" tribes have been pacified by the Khitan Empire.

Births

 * February 21 – Abe no Seimei, Japanese astrologer (d. 1005)
 * October 9 – Li Chun'an, Chinese merchant (d. 999)
 * October 27 – Chai Rong, emperor of Later Zhou (d. 959)
 * Edmund I (the Magnificent), king of England (d. 946)
 * Ja'far ibn al-Furat, Ikhshidid and Fatimid vizier (d. 1001)
 * Louis IV, king of the West Frankish Kingdom (or 920)
 * Ōnakatomi no Yoshinobu, Japanese nobleman (d. 991)

Deaths

 * February 13 – Vratislaus I, duke of Bohemia
 * September 15 – Ludmila, Bohemian duchess
 * Alexios Mosele, Byzantine admiral
 * Elvira Menéndez, queen of Galicia and León
 * Harusindan, ruler of the Gilites (Iran)
 * Lili ibn al-Nu'man, ruler of the Gilites
 * Liu Xun, general of Later Liang (b. 858)
 * Ragnall ua Ímair, Viking king of Northumbria
 * Richard, duke of Burgundy (b. 858)
 * Wang Rong, Chinese warlord (b. 877)

title: 921


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939

Year 939 (CMXXXIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * Hugh the Great, count of Paris, rebels against King Louis IV ("d'Outremer") and gains support from William I, duke of Normandy. Hugh, along with Herbert II, count of Vermandois, Arnulf I, count of Flanders and William pay homage to King Otto I (ruler of the East Frankish Kingdom), and support him in his struggle against Louis.
 * July 19 – Battle of Simancas: Caliph Abd-al-Rahman III of Córdoba claims a Jihad ('Holy War') and raises an army of 100,000 men to end the Kingdom of León. He razes the cities of Medina del Campo, Ìscar and Alcazarén (previously abandoned by their population) and finally, reaches the city of Simancas (near modern-day Valladolid), where Christian forces under King Ramiro II wait for him. After three days, Ramiro defeats the Moorish army with an alliance of Castile and Navarre. Abd-al-Rahman orders a retreat along the Duero River, and is almost killed, due, most likely, to treason by Arab elements in the Moorish army.
 * August 1 – Battle of Trans-la-Forêt: Bretons defeat Viking occupiers.
 * August 5 – Battle of Alhandic: Abd-al-Rahman III defeats the garrison of those loyal to Ramiro II at Zamora, in the context of the Spanish Reconquista.
 * October 2 – Battle of Andernach: Otto I crushes a rebellion against his rule, by a coalition of Eberhard III, duke of Franconia, and other Frankish dukes, in Andernach on the Rhine River. Otto prevails, with support from Odo of Wetterau. Eberhard is killed while Gilbert, duke of Lotharingia (or Lorraine) drowns when trying to escape.

England

 * October 27 – King Æthelstan dies at Gloucester after a 15-year reign. He is buried at Malmesbury Abbey and succeeded by his half-brother, Edmund I ("the Magnificent"). After Æthelstan's death Olaf Guthfrithson (or his cousin, Anlaf Cuaran ) a Viking leader who rules Dublin, is proclaimed king of York (south of Northumbria).

Asia

 * Taira no Masakado, a Japanese nobleman, leads one of the largest insurgent forces in the Heian period against the imperial court at Kyoto. Masakado has acquired enough power to govern the Kantō region (northwest of Edo) and calls himself the 'new emperor' (shinnō).
 * Ngô Quyền, who the previous year defeated the Chinese at the Battle of Bạch Đằng (938) thereby regaining Vietnamese independence after 1000 years, becomes king of Vietnam.

Religion

 * July 13 – Pope Leo VII dies at Rome after a 3½-year reign. He is succeeded by Stephen VIII as the 127th pope of the Catholic Church.
 * The Major Occultation (or Al-Ghaybah al-Kubra) of Muhammad al-Mahdi occurs (approximate date).

Births

 * November 20 – Tai Zong, emperor of the Song Dynasty (d. 997)
 * Fujiwara no Takamitsu, Japanese waka poet (approximate date)
 * Hai Gaon, Jewish theologian and rabbi (d. 1038)
 * Hugh Capet, French king and a descendant of Charlemagne (approximate date)

Deaths

 * January 21 – Yang Pu, emperor of Wu (b. 900)
 * May 25 – Yao Yanzhang, general of Chu
 * July 13 – Leo VII, pope of the Catholic Church
 * August 29
 * Li Chunyan, empress of Min (Ten Kingdoms)
 * Wang Jipeng, emperor of Min
 * October 2
 * Eberhard III, duke of Franconia
 * Gilbert, duke of Lotharingia
 * October 27 – Æthelstan, king of England

 * November 28 – Lady Ma, Chinese noblewoman (b. 890)
 * Ali ibn Babawayh Qummi, Twelver Shi'a scholar
 * Ashot the Swift, prince of Tao-Klarjeti (Georgia)
 * Pietro II Candiano, doge of Venice

title: 939


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946

The 946 joke was made up by Kevin. When he sees 9:46 on the clock, he says "nine forty-six" but it sounds like "Nine foe the Sikhs" And no, foe is not a typo, it's actually how he says it, so instead of "for" it's "foe."

Europe

 * Summer – King Otto I invades the West Frankish Kingdom with an expeditionary force, but his armies are not strong enough to take the key cities of Laon, Reims and Paris. After three months, Otto ends his campaign without defeating his rival Hugh the Great. He manages to depose Hugh of Vermandois from his position as archbishop of Reims, restoring Artald of Reims to his former office.

England

 * May 26 – King Edmund I is murdered at age 25 by an outlawed robber while attending St. Augustine's Day mass in Pucklechurch (Gloucestershire). He is succeeded by his brother Eadred (or Edred) as king of England.

Arabian Empire

 * January 28 – Caliph Al-Mustakfi is blinded and deposed by Emir Mu'izz al-Dawla, ruler of the Buyid Empire. He is succeeded by Al-Muti and becomes only a figurehead (with the Buyid Dynasty as dominate rule) of the once-powerful Abbasid Caliphate while he tries to restore peace.
 * Battle of Baghdad: Along the banks of the Tigris, Buyid forces under Mu'izz al-Dawla defeat the Hamdanids for control of the city. They are forced to pay tax revenues and agree to recognize Al-Muti as the legitimate caliph.

Japan

 * May 16 – Emperor Suzaku abdicates the throne after a 16-year reign. He is succeeded by his brother Murakami, who becomes the 62nd emperor of Japan.

Religion

 * Summer – Pope Marinus II dies at Rome after a four-year reign. He is succeeded by Agapetus II and elected with the support of the Roman despot Alberic II. Agapetus is installed as the 129th pope of the Catholic Church.

Volcanology

 * Super-colossal (VEI-7) 946 AD Eruption of Paektu Mountain on the modern North Korea-China border the eruption was one of the most violent in the past 10,000 years along with KO eruption in 8th Millennium BC, The Crater lake's eruption in 7th Millennium BC, The Kikai caldera's Akahoya eruption in 5th Millennium BC, The Thera or Santorini's eruption in 2nd Millennium BC, The Lake Taupo's Hatepe eruption, The Lake Ilopango's eruption in around 535 and 536, The 1257 eruption of Mount Samalas, The mystery eruption in 1453, and the 1815 Tambora eruption.

Births

 * Henry I, duke of Burgundy (d. 1002)
 * Henry II ("the Good"), count of Stade (d. 1016)
 * Approximate date
 * Sylvester II, pope of the Catholic Church (d. 1003)
 * Theodora, Byzantine empress consort

Deaths

 * January 26 – Eadgyth, queen consort of Germany (b. 910)
 * May 17 – Al-Qa'im bi-Amr Allah, Fatimid caliph (b. 893)
 * May 26 – Edmund I, king of England (b. 921)
 * June 4 – Guaimar II (Gybbosus), Lombard prince
 * July 24 – Muhammad ibn Tughj al-Ikhshid, ruler of Egypt (b. 882)
 * August 1
 * Ali ibn Isa al-Jarrah, Abbasid vizier (b. 859)
 * Lady Xu Xinyue, wife of Qian Yuanguan (b. 902)
 * November 26 – Li Congyan, Chinese general (b. 898)
 * Abu Bakr bin Yahya al-Suli, Abbasid scholar and chess player (b. 880)
 * Abu Bakr Shibli, Persian official and Sufi (b. 861)
 * Cormacan Eigeas, Irish poet (approximate date)
 * Daniel Ben Moses al-Kumisi, Jewish scholar
 * Ibrahim ibn Sinan, Abbasid mathematician (b. 908)
 * John of Rila, Bulgarian hermit (approximate date)
 * Marinus II, pope of the Catholic Church
 * Rachilidis, Swiss Benedictine hermit and saint
 * Yeghishe I, Catholicos of All Armenians
 * Zhao Jiliang, chancellor of Later Shu (b. 883)

title: 946


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943

Year 943 (CMXLIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Byzantine Empire

 * Spring – Allied with the Rus', a Hungarian army raids Moesia and Thrace. Emperor Romanos I buys peace, and accepts to pay a yearly tribute (protection money) to the Hungarians. His frontiers now 'protected' on the Balkan Peninsula, Romanos sends a Byzantine expeditionary force (80,000 men) led by general John Kourkouas (his commander-in-chief) to invade northern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq).

Europe

 * Caspian expeditions of the Rus': The Rus' under the Varangian prince Igor I of Kiev sail up the Kura River, deep into the Caucasus, and defeat the forces of the Sallarid ruler Marzuban ibn Muhammad. They capture the fortress city of Barda (modern Azerbaijan).
 * Battle of Wels: A joint Bavarian–Carantanian army led by Bertold (duke of Bavaria) defeats the Hungarians near Wels (Upper Austria), who are attacked at a crossing of the Enns River at Ennsburg.

England

 * King Edmund I ravages Strathclyde and defeats the Scottish king Constantine II, who has reigned as king of Alba since 900. Constantine, ruler of the 'Picts and Scots', abdicates to enter a monastery and yields control of his realm to his cousin Malcolm I.
 * The Trinity Bridge at Crowland, Lincolnshire is described, in the 'Charter of Eadred'.

Births

 * Dayang Jingxuan, Chinese Zen Buddhist monk (d. 1027)
 * Edgar I (the Peaceful), king of England (approximate date)
 * Emma of Paris, duchess consort of Normandy (d. 968)
 * Ibn Zur'a, Abbasid physician and philosopher (d. 1008)
 * Matilda, queen consort of Burgundy (approximate date)

Deaths

 * February 23
 * David I, prince of Tao-Klarjeti (Georgia)
 * Herbert II, Frankish nobleman
 * February 26 – Muirchertach mac Néill, king of Ailech (Ireland)
 * March 16 – Pi Guangye, chancellor of Wuyue (b. 877)
 * March 30 – Li Bian, emperor of Southern Tang (b. 889)
 * April 6
 * Liu Churang, Chinese general (b. 881)
 * Nasr II, Samanid emir (b. 906)
 * April 10 – Landulf I, prince of Benevento and Capua (Italy)
 * April 15 – Liu Bin, emperor of Southern Han (b. 920)
 * April 18 – Fujiwara no Atsutada, Japanese nobleman (b. 906)
 * July 4 – Wang Kon, founder of Goryeo (Korea) (b. 877)
 * July 26 – Motoyoshi, Japanese nobleman and poet (b. 890)
 * November 8 – Liu, empress of Qi (Ten Kingdoms) (b. 877)
 * Cao Zhongda, official and chancellor of Wuyue (b. 882)
 * Gagik I of Vaspurakan, Armenian king (or 936)
 * Liu Honggao, chancellor of Southern Han (b. 923)
 * Sinan ibn Thabit, Persian physician (b. 880)
 * Urchadh mac Murchadh, king of Maigh Seóla (Ireland)
 * Xu Jie, Chinese officer and chancellor (b. 868)
 * Zhang Yuxian, Chinese rebel leader (approximate date)

title: 943


text:
954

Year 954 (CMLIV) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * Spring – A Hungarian army led by Bulcsú crosses the Rhine. He camps at Worms in the capital of his ally Conrad the Red, duke of Lorraine. Bulcsú heads west, attacking the domains of King Otto I, by crossing the rivers Moselle and Maas.
 * April 6–10 – The Hungarians besiege Cambrai and burn its suburbs, but they are unable to conquer the city. One of Bulcsú's relatives is killed by the defenders, who refuse to pass his body over to the Hungarians. As a revenge, they kill all their captives.
 * The Hungarians plunder the regions of Hesbaye and Carbonaria (modern Belgium). They plunder and burn the monastery of Saint Lambert from Hainaut, the monastery of Moorsel, sack the cities of Gembloux and Tournai.
 * Summer – The Hungarians plunder the surroundings of Laon, Reims, Chalon, Metz, and Gorze. After that, they return to Burgundy. In Provence, the Hungarians battle with the Moors from the Muslim enclave of Fraxinet.
 * September 10 – King Louis IV (d'Outremer) dies after a hunting accident (near his palace in Corbeny). He is succeeded by his 13-year-old son Lothair III under the guardianship of Hugh the Great, count of Paris.
 * November 12 – Lothair III is crowned by Artald, archbishop of Reims, at the Abbey of Saint-Remi as king of the West Frankish Kingdom. His mother, Queen Gerberga of Saxony, appoints Hugh the Great as regent.
 * Winter – At the Reichstag in Auerstedt assembled by Otto I, his son Liudolf (duke of Swabia) and Conrad the Red submit to Otto's rule. They are stripped of their duchies, but several rebel nobles continue to resist.

British Isles

 * King Eric I (Bloodaxe) is killed at Stainmore allowing King Eadred to recover York, reuniting Northumbria with that of All England. High-Reeve Osulf I of Bamburgh is appointed ealdorman ("earl") of Northumbria.
 * King Malcolm I is killed in battle against the Northmen after an 11-year reign. He is succeeded by Indulf, the son of the late King Constantine II, as ruler of Alba (Scotland).

Religion

 * Duke Alberic II, princeps and ruler of Rome, dies after a 22-year reign. On his deathbed he nominates his son Octavianus as his successor.
 * Seborga (modern-day Liguria) comes under the jurisdiction of the Benedictine monks of Santo Onorato of Lérins.

Births

 * Fujiwara no Yoshitaka, Japanese waka poet (d. 974)
 * Malcolm II, king of Alba (Scotland) (approximate date)
 * Ōnakatomi no Sukechika, Japanese waka poet (d. 1038)
 * Otto I, duke of Swabia and Bavaria (d. 982)
 * Wang Yucheng, Chinese official and poet (d. 1001)

Deaths

 * January 25 – Ashot II, prince of Tao-Klarjeti (Georgia)
 * February 22 – Guo Wei, emperor of the Later Zhou (b. 904)
 * May 21 – Feng Dao, Chinese prince and chancellor (b. 882)
 * September 10 – Louis IV, king of the West Frankish Kingdom
 * Abul-Aish Ahmad, Idrisid ruler and sultan (Morocco)
 * Alberic II, princeps and duke of Spoleto (b. 912)
 * Cellachán Caisil, king of Munster (Ireland)
 * Eric I (Bloodaxe), Norwegian Viking king
 * Frederick, archbishop (elector) of Mainz
 * Fujiwara no Onshi, empress of Japan (b. 885)
 * Li, Chinese empress dowager of the Later Han
 * Liu Chong, founder of the Northern Han
 * Malcolm I, king of Alba (Scotland)
 * Nuh ibn Nasr, Samanid emir

title: 954


text:
1058

Year 1058 (MLVIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * March 17 – King Lulach (the Unfortunate) of Scotland is killed in battle at Lumphanan against his cousin and rival Malcolm III (Canmore) who becomes "king of the Scots".
 * September 20 – Empress Agnes de Poitou and King Andrew I (the White) of Hungary meet to negotiate about the border zone in Burgenland (modern Austria).
 * The 4-year-old Judith of Swabia, the youngest daughter of the late Emperor Henry III (the Black), is engaged to Prince Solomon of Hungary at Regensburg.
 * Norman conquest of southern Italy: Norman forces under Richard Drengot besiege and capture Capua. He takes the princely title from Prince Landulf VIII.
 * Bolesław II (the Generous), the eldest son of Casimir I (the Restorer), succeeds his father after his death in Poznań. He becomes duke of Poland.

Africa

 * The Almoravids conquer the Berghouata, a group of Berber tribes, who have established an independent state in modern-day Morocco.

Religion

 * Spring – Pope Stephen IX pronounces on the authenticity of the relics of Mary Magdalene at Vézelay Abbey in Burgundy, making it a major centre of pilgrimage.
 * March 29 – Stephen IX dies of a severe illness after a pontificate of 7-months at Florence. He is succeeded by Nicholas II who will be installed the following year.
 * November 6 – Emperor Isaac I (Komnenos) deposes Michael I (Cerularius), patriarch of Constantinople, and has him exiled to Prokonnessos (until 1059).
 * Ealdred, archbishop of York, becomes the first English bishop to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem.

Births

 * Al-Ghazali, Persian theologian and jurist (approximate date)
 * Ibn Bassam, Andalusian poet and historian (d. 1147)
 * Synadene, queen consort of Hungary (approximate date)
 * Theodora Anna Doukaina Selvo, Venetian dogaressa (d. 1083)
 * Wynebald de Ballon, Norman nobleman (approximate date)

Deaths

 * March 1 – Ermesinde, countess and regent of Barcelona
 * March 17 – Lulach (the Unfortunate), king of Scotland
 * March 29 – Stephen IX, pope of the Catholic Church
 * August 2 – Judith of Schweinfurt, duchess of Bohemia
 * November 28 – Casimir I, duke of Poland (b. 1016)
 * Abdollah ibn Bukhtishu, Syrian physician (b. 940)
 * Abu Muhammad al-Yazuri, vizier of the Fatimid Caliphate
 * Ælfwold II, bishop of Sherborne (approximate date)
 * Al-Mawardi, Abbasid jurist and diplomat (b. 972)
 * Boite mac Cináeda (or Bodhe), Scottish prince
 * Centule IV Gaston (the Old), viscount of Béarn
 * Egbert of Fulda, German Benedictine abbot
 * Fakhruddin As'ad Gurgani, Persian poet and writer
 * Flaithem Mac Mael Gaimrid, Irish poet and Chief Ollam
 * Grigor Magistros, Armenian prince and governor
 * Ilduara Mendes, countess and regent of Portugal
 * Theophanu, abbess of Essen and Gerresheim
 * William VII (the Bold), duke of Aquitaine (b. 1023)

title: 1058


text:
1093

Year 1093 (MXCIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * April 13 –The Grand Prince of Kiev Vsevolod I Yaroslavich dies, after a 15-year reign. He is succeeded by Sviatopolk II, who is acknowledged by other princes as the senior son of Iziaslav I, and ascends the Kievan throne as ruler of the Kievan Rus'. His cousin Vladimir II, prince of Chernigov, becomes a bitter rival.
 * May 26 – Battle of the Stugna River: The nomadic Cumans defeat a Kievan joint force led by the princes of Kievan Rus' at the Stuhna River in the valley near Trepol. Rostislav Vsevolodovich, prince of Pereyaslavl, drowns while fleeing the battle.
 * September 22 – King Olaf III of Norway ("the Peaceful") dies after a 26-year reign. He is succeeded by his son Magnus Barefoot who is proclaimed ruler of Norway at the Borgarting (or the Thing), an assembly of lawspeakers, in the region of Viken.

Britain

 * March 6 – Anselm, Italian Benedictine abbot and theologian, becomes archbishop of Canterbury in England, succeeding Lanfranc. The post of archbishop has been left vacant (since 1089) by King William II of England – so he can collect the church's income for himself.
 * November 13 – Battle of Alnwick: King Malcolm III of Scotland invades Northumberland, but is killed by English forces under Earl Robert de Mowbray while besieging Alnwick Castle. He is succeeded by his brother Donald III ("the Fair") as ruler of Scotland.
 * The Normans under Lord Robert Fitzhamon occupy southern Wales, constructing Cardiff and Pembroke Castles.

Religion

 * April 8 – Monks move into the new Winchester Cathedral in England, constructed by the Norman bishop Walkelin.
 * August 11 – Construction of Durham Cathedral in England begins, replacing the Saxon 'White Church'.

Births

 * January 16 – Isaac Komnenos, Byzantine co-ruler
 * Ahmad Yasawi, Turkic poet and Sufi (d. 1166)
 * Baldwin VII, count of Flanders (d. 1119)
 * Conrad III, king of Italy and Germany (d. 1152)
 * Demetrius I, king of Georgia (approximate date)
 * Gerhoh of Reichersberg, German theologian (d. 1169)
 * Grigor III, Armenian catholicos of Cilicia (d. 1166)
 * Robert fitzEdith, English feudal lord (d. 1172)
 * Sancho Alfónsez, Spanish nobleman (d. 1108)
 * Simon of Hauteville, count of Sicily (d. 1105)
 * Simon of Vermandois, French bishop (d. 1148)
 * William III, count of Ponthieu (approximate date)

Deaths

 * February 1 – Abul Hasan Hankari, Abbasid scholar (b. 1018)
 * April – Rhys ap Tewdwr, king of Deheubarth, killed in battle (b. 997)
 * April 13 – Vsevolod I Yaroslavich, Grand Prince of Kiev (b. 1030)
 * May 26 – Rostislav Vsevolodovich, prince of Pereyaslavl
 * June 21 – Ja'far ibn Abdallah al-Muqtadi was an Abbasid prince, son of al-Muqtadi and Mah-i Mulk.
 * July 10 – Ulrich of Zell, German Cluniac reformer (b. 1029)
 * August 4 – Alan Rufus, Breton/Norman nobleman (approximate year)
 * August 24 – Geoffrey Boterel, Breton nobleman, eldest brother of Alan Rufus
 * August 29 – Hugh I, French nobleman and abbot (b. 1057)
 * September 22 – Olaf III "the Peaceful", king of Norway
 * October 13 – Robert I, Count of Flanders
 * November 13 – Malcolm III, king of Scotland (b. 1031)
 * November 16 – Margaret, queen of Scotland (b. 1045)
 * Bertrand II, count of Provence (approximate date)
 * Constance, queen of Castile and León (b. 1046)
 * Gao, Chinese empress (Song dynasty) (b. 1032)
 * Iestyn ap Gwrgant, king of Morgannwg (b. 1014)
 * Kaoruko, Japanese empress consort (b. 1029)
 * Odo V (or Eudes), count of Troyes and Meaux
 * Tzachas, Seljuk general and usurper, killed
 * Wang Shen, Chinese painter and poet

title: 1093


text:
1405

Year 1405 (MCDV) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar, the 1405th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 405th year of the 2nd millennium, the 5th year of the 15th century, and the 6th year of the 1400s decade.

January–December

 * May 29 – In England, Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland, meets Richard le Scrope, Archbishop of York and Earl of Norfolk Thomas Mowbray in Shipton Moor, tricks them to send their rebellious army home, and then imprisons them.
 * June 8 – Richard le Scrope, Archbishop of York and Thomas Mowbray, Earl of Norfolk, are executed in York on Henry IV's orders.
 * July 11 – Ming Dynasty fleet commander Zheng He sets sail from Suzhou, to explore the world for the first time.
 * October 5 – Christine de Pizan writes a letter to Queen Isabeau, urging her to intervene in the political struggle between the dukes of Burgundy and Orléans.
 * November 17 – The Sultanate of Sulu is established on the Sulu Archipelago, off the coast of Mindanao in the Philippines.

Date unknown

 * The first record is written of whiskey being consumed in Ireland, where it is distilled by Catholic monks.
 * Bellifortis, a book on military technology, is published by Konrad Kyeser.
 * Christine de Pizan writes The Book of the City of Ladies.

Births

 * February 8 – Constantine XI, last Byzantine Emperor (d. 1453)
 * February 22 – Gilbert Kennedy, 1st Lord Kennedy, Scottish noble (d. 1489)
 * March 6 – King John II of Castile (d. 1454)
 * May 6 – George Kastrioti, better known as Skanderbeg, Albanian national hero (d. 1468) (probable date)
 * October 18 – Pope Pius II (d. 1464)
 * date unknown – Louis I, Count of Montpensier (d. 1486)
 * Cecilia of Brandenburg, Duchess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (d. 1449)

Deaths

 * January 12 – Eleanor Maltravers, English noblewoman (b. 1345)
 * February 14 – Timur (aka Tamerlane), Turco-Mongol monarch and conqueror (b. 1336)
 * March 16 – Margaret III, Countess of Flanders (b. 1350)
 * April 19 – Thomas West, 1st Baron West (b. 1335)
 * May 29 – Philippe de Mézières, advisor to Charles V of France
 * June 8
 * Thomas de Mowbray, 4th Earl of Norfolk, English rebel, executed in York (b. 1385)
 * Richard le Scrope, Archbishop of York, executed in York (b. c.1350)
 * c. July 20 – Alexander Stewart, Earl of Buchan, the "Wolf of Badenoch", fourth son of King Robert II of Scotland (b. 1343)
 * probable – Jean Froissart, French chronicler (b. 1337)

title: 1405


text:
1478

Year 1478 (MCDLXXVIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

January–December

 * January 14 – Novgorod surrenders to Ivan III, Grand Prince of Moscow.
 * January 15 – Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York is married to Anne de Mowbray, 8th Countess of Norfolk.
 * February 18 – George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence, convicted of treason against his older brother Edward IV of England, is privately executed in the Tower of London.
 * April 26 – The Pazzi Family attacks Lorenzo de' Medici, and kills his brother Giuliano, during High Mass in Florence Cathedral.
 * May 14 – The Siege of Shkodra, Albania begins.
 * November – Eskender succeeds his father Baeda Maryam, as Emperor of Ethiopia, at the age of six.
 * November 1 – The Spanish Inquisition begins.
 * December 28 – Battle of Giornico: Swiss troops defeat the Milanese.

Date unknown

 * Grand Duchy of Moscow devolved from the Golden Horde.
 * Lorenzo de' Medici becomes sole ruler of Florence.
 * The Demak Sultanate gains independence from Majapahit, after a civil war.
 * The Fourth Siege of Krujë, Albania by the Ottoman Empire, concludes and results in the town's capture, after the failure of three prior sieges.
 * Vladislav II of Bohemia makes peace with Hungary.
 * Possibly the first reference to cricket, in "criquet", as discovered in France by Rowland Bowen in the 20th century. It has been dismissed by some (most notably John Major) and presaged with Edward II's "Creag" (1300) by others.
 * Mondino de Liuzzi's Anathomia corporis humani, the first complete published anatomical text, is first printed (in Padua).

Births

 * February 3 – Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham (d. 1521)
 * February 7 – Thomas More, English statesman and humanist (d. 1535)
 * May 26 – Pope Clement VII (d. 1534)
 * June 30 – John, Prince of Asturias, Son of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile (d. 1497)
 * July 2 – Louis V, Elector Palatine (1508–1544) (d. 1544)
 * July 8 – Gian Giorgio Trissino (d. 1550)
 * July 13 – Giulio d'Este, illegitimate son of Italian noble (d. 1561)
 * July 15 – Barbara Jagiellon, Duchess consort of Saxony and Margravine consort of Meissen (1500–1534) (d. 1534)
 * July 22 – King Philip I of Castile (d. 1506)
 * August – Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, Spanish historian (d. 1557)
 * December 6 – Baldassare Castiglione, Italian courtier and writer (d. 1529)
 * date unknown
 * Jacques Dubois, French anatomist (d. 1555)
 * Giovanna d'Aragona, Duchess of Amalfi, Italian regent (d. 1510)
 * Girolamo Fracastoro, Italian physician (d. 1553)
 * Visconte Maggiolo, Italian navigator and cartographer (d. 1530)
 * Katharina von Zimmern, Swiss sovereign abbess (d. 1547)
 * probable
 * Thomas Ashwell, English composer
 * Madeleine Lartessuti, French shipper and banker (d. 1543)

Deaths

 * February 1 – Cristoforo della Rovere, Italian Catholic cardinal (b. 1434)
 * February 18 – George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence, brother of Edward IV of England and Richard III of England (executed) (b. 1449)
 * April 26 – Giuliano de' Medici, son of Piero di Cosimo de' Medici (assassinated) (b. 1453)
 * June 12 – Ludovico III Gonzaga, Marquis of Mantua (b. 1412)
 * August 23 – Yolande of Valois, Duchess consort of Savoy (b. 1434)
 * August 28 – Donato Acciaioli, Italian scholar (b. 1428)
 * November 8 – Emperor Baeda Maryam I of Ethiopia (b. 1448)
 * date unknown – Aliodea Morosini, Venetian dogaressa

title: 1478


text:
1157

Year 1157 (MCLVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Events

 * January 12–March 16 – Caliph Al-Muqtafi successfully defends Baghdad against the coalition forces of Sultan Muhammad of Hamadan, and Atabeg Qutb-adin of Mosul.
 * Albert I of Brandenburg begins his ruthless program to pacify the Slavic region.
 * June 11 – Albert I of Brandenburg, also called The Bear (Ger: Albrecht der Bär), becomes the founder of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, Germany and the first Margrave.
 * August 12 – The 1157 Hama earthquake takes place after a year of foreshocks. Its name is taken from the city of Hama, in west-central Syria (then under Seljuk rule), where the most casualties are sustained.
 * August 21 – Sancho III and Ferdinand II, the sons of King Alfonso VII of Castile, divide his kingdom between them upon his death.
 * October 23 – Battle of Grathe Heath: A civil war in Denmark ends with the death of King Sweyn III. Valdemar I of Denmark becomes king of all Denmark, and restores and rebuilds the country.
 * Henry II of England grants a charter to the merchants of Lincoln (approximate date).
 * Battle of Ewloe: Henry II of England invades Wales, and is defeated by Owain Gwynedd.
 * Nur ad-Din Zengi besieges the Knights Hospitaller in the crusader fortress of Banyas, routs a relief army led by King Baldwin III of Jerusalem, and takes Grand Master Bertrand de Blanquefort prisoner.

Births

 * September 8 – King Richard I of England (d. 1199)
 * Alexander Neckham, English scholar, teacher, theologian and abbot of Cirencester Abbey (d. 1217)
 * Leopold V of Austria, Duke of Austria from 1177 and Duke of Styria from 1192 until his death (d. 1194)
 * Margaret of France, Queen of England and Hungary, Queen of England by marriage to Henry the Young King and queen of Hungary and Croatia by marriage to Béla III of Hungary (d. 1197)
 * Tomoe Gozen, female Samurai warrior and military leader (d. 1247)

Deaths

 * January 24 or January 25 – Agnes of Babenberg, Politically active High Duchess consort of Poland (b. 1111)
 * May 8 – Ahmed Sanjar, Great Seljuk Sultan (b. 1084 or 1086)
 * May 15 – Yury Dolgoruky, Russian prince (b. c. 1099)
 * August 21 – King Alfonso VII of Castile (b. 1105)
 * October 23 – King Sweyn III of Denmark (b.c. 1125) (in battle)
 * date unknown – King Eystein II of Norway (b.c. 1125)

title: 1157


text:
1189

Year 1189 (MCLXXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. In English law, 1189 - specifically the beginning of the reign of Richard I - is considered the end of time immemorial.

Continental Europe

 * May 11 – Emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa) sets out from Regensburg, at the head of a German expeditionary force (some 15,000 men, including 4,000 knights). He has ensured that his lands are safe while he is away on crusade and leaves his son Henry VI in charge of the country. After leaving Germany, Frederick's army is increased by a contingent of 2,000 men led by Prince Géza, younger brother of King Béla III of Hungary. On July 27, he arrives at Niš and is welcomed by Stefan Nemanja, Grand Prince of Serbia. In order to ease his passage, Frederick makes diplomatic contacts with Hungary, the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum.
 * July 6 – King Henry II of England ("Curtmantle") dies at the Château de Chinon, near Tours, after doing homage to Philip II (Augustus), and surrendering the territories around Issoudun in the Centre-Val de Loire. He ends the hostilities against Philip, by agreeing to the peace terms and pays him 20,000 marks in tribute. Henry is succeeded by his son, Richard I ("the Lionheart"), as ruler of England and his remaining territories in France.
 * August – Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos denies any crusader access and begins to hinder the German forces who try to cross his frontier. Frederick I progresses with force, by capturing Philippopolis and defeats a Byzantine army (some 3,000 men) that attempts to recapture the city. The Germans are delayed for six months in Thrace.
 * August 29 – Ban Kulin, Bosnian ruler, writes the Charter of Ban Kulin, which becomes a symbolic "birth certificate" of Bosnian language and statehood.
 * Reconquista: King Sancho I of Portugal ("the Populator") turns his attention towards the Moorish small kingdoms (called taifas) and begins a campaign in the south of his kingdom. With the help of crusader forces he conquers the town of Silves. He orders the fortification of the city, builds a castle and styles himself "King of Silves".
 * November 11 – King William II of Sicily ("the Good"), having made peace with Emperor Isaac II and abandoned Thessalonika and other conquests, dies childless at Palermo. The Sicilian nobles elect Tancred of Lecce (illegitimate son of Roger II) as the new ruler of Sicily, instead of Princess Constance and her husband Henry VI, to avoid German rule.
 * Frederick I grants Hamburg the status of a free imperial city and tax-free access (or free-trade zone) up the Lower Elbe into the North Sea. He also grants the right to fish, to cut trees and the freedom of military service.

Britain

 * August – William Marshal marries the 17-year-old Isabel de Clare (daughter of Richard de Clare). Through this marriage, he becomes 1st Earl of Pembroke, acquiring huge estates in England, Normandy, Wales and Ireland.
 * September 3 – Richard I is crowned king of England in Westminster Abbey. During the coronation, a number of notable Jews are expelled from the banquet and rumours spread that Richard has ordered a massacre of the Jews. This causes an actual massacre of the Jews in London; among those killed is Jacob of Orléans, a respected French Jewish scholar.
 * December 5 – King William I ("the Lion") of Scotland gives Richard I 10,000 marks to buy his kingdom's independence. This overturns the Treaty of Falaise which William had to sign when he was captured in 1174.
 * December – Richard I sets sail with a crusader army from Dover Castle to France. To ensure he has the allegiance of his brother John, Richard approves of his marriage to their cousin Isabella of Gloucester.
 * Winter – John awards land to Bertram de Verdun, a Norman nobleman, and grants Dundalk its charter with town privileges; it becomes a strategic Anglo-Norman stronghold in Ireland.

Levant

 * May – Saladin has reconquered the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem except for Tyre. The castles of Montréal and Kerak are captured by Muslim forces. In the north, Saladin has regained the Principality of Antioch except for Antioch and the castle of Al-Qusayr in Syria.
 * August 28 – Siege of Acre: King Guy of Lusignan moves from Tyre, where Conrad of Montferrat refuses to hand over the city. Guy and his crusader army (some 7,000 men, including 400 knights) besiege Acre. He makes camp outside, to wait for more reinforcements.
 * September – Guy of Lusignan receives reinforcements of some 12,000 men from Denmark, Germany, England, France, and Flanders. He encircles Acre with a double line of fortified positions. On September 15, Saladin launches a failed attack on Guy's camp.
 * October 4 – Guy of Lusignan leads the crusader forces to launch a full-on assault on Saladin's camp. With heavy casualties on both sides, neither force gains the upperhand. On October 26, Saladin moves his camp from Acre to Mount Carmel (modern Israel).
 * October 30 – An Egyptian fleet (some 50 ships) breaks through the crusader blockade at Acre and reinforces the port-city with some 10,000 men, as well as food and weapons.
 * December – An Egyptian fleet reopens communications with Acre. The rest of the winter passes without major incidents, but the supply situation is poor in the besieged city.

Asia

 * February 18 – Emperor Xiaozong abdicates in favour of his son Guangzong as ruler of the Song dynasty. Xiaozong becomes a Taishang Huang ("Retired Emperor") and remains as the de facto ruler of China.

Births

 * Al-Mansur Nasir al-Din Muhammad, Ayyubid sultan (d. 1217)
 * Archambaud VIII ("the Great"), Bourbon nobleman (d. 1242)
 * Ferdinand of Castile, Spanish prince (infante) (d. 1211)
 * Pietro Pettinaio, Italian comb-maker and saint (d. 1289)
 * Peter Nolasco, French religious leader (d. 1256)
 * Skule Bårdsson, Norwegian nobleman (d. 1240)
 * Sukaphaa, founder of the Ahom kingdom in Assam (d. 1268)

Deaths

 * January 1 – Henry of Marcy, French cardinal-bishop (b. 1136)
 * January 20 – Shizong (or Wulu), Chinese emperor (b. 1123)
 * February 4 – Gilbert of Sempringham, English priest (b. 1085)
 * March 4 – Humbert III ("the Blessed"), count of Savoy (b. 1136)
 * March 25 – Frederick, duke of Bohemia (House of Přemyslid)
 * c. April – Hugh de Cressy, Norman nobleman and constable
 * June 15 – Minamoto no Yoshitsune, Japanese general (b. 1159)
 * June 26 – Folmar of Karden, German archbishop (b. 1135)
 * June 28 – Matilda of England, duchess of Saxony (b. 1156)
 * July 6 – Henry II, king of England (b. 1133)
 * July 20 – Muneko, Japanese princess and empress (b. 1126)
 * August 20 or 21 – Geoffrey Ridel, English bishop and Lord Chancellor
 * September 3 – Jacob of Orléans, French Jewish scholar
 * c. September – Benedict of York, English banker and moneylender
 * October 4
 * André of Brienne, French nobleman and knight (b. 1135)
 * Gerard de Ridefort, Flemish Grand Master (b. 1140)
 * October 14 – Fujiwara no Yasuhira, Japanese nobleman (b. 1155)
 * November 11 – William II ("the Good"), king of Sicily (b. 1153)
 * November 14 – William de Mandeville, English nobleman
 * Anvari, Persian astronomer, poet and writer (b. 1126)
 * Benkei, Japanese warrior monk (sōhei) (b. 1155)
 * Conchobar Maenmaige Ua Conchobair, Irish king (assassinated)
 * Conon II (or Cono), count of Montaigu and Duras
 * Elizabeth of Hungary, German duchess (b. 1145)
 * Hugh de Paduinan, Scoto-Norman nobleman and Crusader (b. 1140)
 * Richard de Morville, Scottish Lord High Constable
 * Romano Bobone, Italian cardinal and papal legate
 * William de Tracy, English nobleman and knight

title: 1189


text:
1168

Year 1168 (MCLXVIII) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Levant

 * Summer – King Amalric I of Jerusalem, and Byzantine emperor Manuel I (Komnenos), negotiate an alliance against Fatimid-Egypt. Archbishop William of Tyre is among the ambassadors sent to Constantinople, to finalize the treaty.
 * Autumn – William IV, count of Nevers, arrives in Palestine with a contingent of elite knights. In Jerusalem he is present during a council with Amalric and other nobles to decide on an expedition to Egypt.
 * October 20 – Amalric I invades Egypt again from Ascalon, sacking Bilbeis and threatening Cairo. In November, a Crusader fleet sails up the Nile and arrives in Lake Manzala, sacking the town of Tanis.
 * Nur al-Din, Zangid ruler (atabeg) of Aleppo, sends an expedition under General Shirkuh to Egypt on request of the Fatimid caliph Al-Adid. He offers him a third of the land, and fiefs for his generals.

Egypt

 * December 22 – Afraid that the Egyptian capital Fustat (modern-day Old Cairo) will be captured by Crusader forces, its Fatimid vizier, Shawar, orders the city set afire. The capital burns for 54 days.

Europe

 * March 27 – Patrick of Salisbury, Angevin governor of Poitou, is killed in an ambush at Poitiers by French forces under Guy of Lusignan. He is escorting Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine on a journey near the border of Aquitaine. Patrick's nephew, William Marshal, is part of the royal escort and is taken prisoner. Later he is ransomed and becomes a member of Eleanor's household.
 * King Valdemar I (the Great) of Denmark conquers the Wendish capital at Arkona on the island of Rügen (modern Germany). The Wends become Christians and subject to Danish suzerainty.
 * Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, marries the 12-year-old Matilda (or Maud), daughter of King Henry II of England.
 * The newly born Commune of Rome conquers and destroys the rival neighboring city of Albano (modern Italy).
 * Stephen du Perche, Sicilian chancellor, is accused of plotting to claim the throne and is forced to flee.

Asia

 * April 9 – Emperor Rokujō is deposed by his grandfather, retired-Emperor Go-Shirakawa, after an 8-month reign. He is succeeded by his 6-year-old uncle, Takakura, as the 80th emperor of Japan.
 * Yuanqu County (known as Wanting County) in China is destroyed by a flood of the Yellow River.

Religion

 * September 20 – Antipope Paschal III dies at Rome after a 4-year reign. Giovanni di Struma is elected as his successor and will reign as Antipope Callixtus III with support from Emperor Frederick I.

Births

 * April 22 – Abubakar ibn Gussom, Arab poet (d. 1242)
 * August 31 – Zhang Zong, Chinese emperor (d. 1208)
 * November 19 – Ning Zong, Chinese emperor (d. 1224)
 * Ibn Muti al-Zawawi, Arab jurist and philologian (d. 1231)
 * Robert of Braybrooke, English High Sheriff (d. 1210)
 * Robert of Courtenay, French nobleman and knight (d. 1239)
 * Temüge (or Otgon), brother of Genghis Khan (d. 1246)
 * William de Ferrers, 4th Earl of Derby (approximate date)

Deaths

 * January 17 – Thierry of Alsace, count of Flanders (b. 1099)
 * March 27 – Patrick of Salisbury, Norman nobleman (b. 1122)
 * April 5 – Robert de Beaumont, English nobleman (b. 1104)
 * September 20 – Paschal III, antipope of Rome (b. 1110)
 * October 24 – William IV, count of Auxerre and Nevers
 * November 5 – Hugh IX (Lusignan), French nobleman
 * Abu al-Najib Suhrawardi, Persian scholar (b. 1097)
 * Bermudo Pérez de Traba, Spanish nobleman (b. 1088)
 * Conrad of Babenberg, archbishop of Salzburg (b. 1115)
 * Wivina, French Benedictine abbess and saint (b. 1103)

title: 1168


text:
1172

Year 1172 (MCLXXII) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * April–May – Béla III returns to Hungary – where he is acclaimed king by the Hungarian nobility, after the death (possibly poison) of his elder brother Stephen III, on March 4.
 * May 28 – Doge Vitale II Michiel, accused at a General Assembly at the Ducal Palace, for the destruction of the Venetian fleet, is stabbed to death by an angry mob at Venice.
 * Summer – The 14-year-old Richard (later Richard I of England) is formally recognized as duke of Aquitaine. The ceremony takes place in Poitiers, at the Church of St. Hilary.
 * A Muslim rebellion is quelled at Prades in Catalonia; this event marks the end of the pacification of the lands recently conquered by Count Ramon Berenguer IV (the Saint).

Britain

 * King Henry II and Humbert III (the Blessed), agree to wed their respective heirs, John and Alicia. The alliance never occurs because Henry's elder heir, Henry the Young King, becomes jealous over the castles in the realm which Henry has promised to the couple. He stages a rebellion which will take Henry two years to put down. By that time, Alicia has died.
 * April 17 – Henry II receives homage from the Irish princes who include Domnall Mór Ua Briain, king of Munster. He grants Hugh de Lacy the lordship of Meath (or Mide) for providing the services of 50 knights.

Egypt

 * Summer – Emir Nur al-Din begins a two year war against the Danishmends. He creates a buffer zone between the Syrian realm and Egypt. Meanwhile, he releases Count Raymond of Tripoli for the sum of 80,000 dinars.
 * Winter – The Nubians are engaged in a series of skirmishes along the frontier in Upper Egypt. A force of Kurdish troops under Turan-Shah, a brother of Saladin, attack the Nubians. He installs a garrison in Qasr Ibrim.

Religion

 * May – Compromise of Avranches: Alberto di Morra is sent by Pope Alexander III to the Council of Avranches, to investigate the murder of Thomas Becket. Henry II is cleared of any guilt in Becket's murder. He swears to go on a crusade and does penance at the Cathedral of Avranches. He revokes two controversial clauses of the Constitutions of Clarendon.
 * Autumn – The Synod of Cashel ends the Celtic Christian system and brings them into alignment with Latin Christianity (the modern Catholic Church).
 * According to the annals of the Worcester Priory, "nothing memorable" happens in this year.

Births

 * July 12 – Matsudono Moroie, Japanese nobleman (d. 1238)
 * Al-Qifti, Egyptian historian and biographer (d. 1248)
 * Az-Zahir Ghazi, Ayyubid ruler of Aleppo (d. 1216)
 * Baldwin I, emperor of the Latin Empire (d. 1205)
 * Conrad II, duke of Swabia and Rothenburg (d. 1196)
 * Isabel de Clare, countess of Pembroke (d. 1220)
 * Isabella I, queen and regent of Jerusalem (d. 1205)
 * Louis I of Blois, French nobleman (d. 1205)

Deaths

 * March 4 – Stephen III, king of Hungary (b. 1147)
 * March 7 – Il-Arslan, Khwarezm ruler (shah)
 * May 28 – Vitale II Michiel, doge of Venice
 * October 14 – Ludwig II, German nobleman (b. 1128)
 * December 23 – Ugo Ventimiglia, Italian cardinal
 * Douce II, countess of Provence (b. 1162)
 * Cadwaladr ap Gruffydd, king of Gwynedd
 * Hugh of Fouilloy, French prior and writer
 * Ibn Qalaqis, Fatimid poet and writer (b. 1137)
 * Robert FitzEdith, English nobleman (b. 1093)
 * Robert FitzRanulph, English high sheriff
 * William III, French nobleman (b. 1093)
 * William VII, French nobleman b. 1131)
 * Henry, Prince of Capua, Sicilian prince (b. 1160)

title: 1172


text:
2010: Odyssey Two

2010: Odyssey Two is a 1982 science fiction novel by British writer Arthur C. Clarke. It is the sequel to his 1968 novel 2001: A Space Odyssey, though Clarke changed some elements of the story to align with the film version of 2001.

Set in the year 2010, the plot centres on a joint Soviet-US mission aboard the Soviet spacecraft The Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov. The mission has several objectives, including salvaging the spaceship Discovery and investigating the mysterious "monolith" discovered by Dave Bowman in 2001: A Space Odyssey. It was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Novel in 1983. The novel was adapted for the screen by Peter Hyams and released as a film in 1984. The story is set nine years after the failure of the Discovery One mission to Jupiter.

Plot
A joint Soviet-US crew, including Heywood Floyd, on the Soviet spaceship Alexei Leonov (named after the cosmonaut) arrives to discover what went wrong with the earlier mission, to investigate the monolith in orbit around Jupiter, and to resolve the disappearance of David Bowman. They hypothesize that much of this information is locked away on the now-abandoned Discovery One. The Soviets have an advanced new "Sakharov" drive which will propel them to Jupiter ahead of the American Discovery Two, so Floyd is assigned to the Leonov crew.

However, a Chinese space station rockets out of Earth orbit, revealing itself to be the interplanetary spacecraft Tsien, also aimed at Jupiter. The Leonov crewmembers think the Chinese are on a one-way trip due to its speed, but Floyd surmises that due to the large water content of Europa they intend to land there and use the water content to refuel. The Tsien ' s daring mission ends in failure, when it is destroyed by an indigenous life-form on Europa. The only survivor, Professor Chang, radios the story to the Leonov, confirming that life exists on the moon; it is presumed that he dies when his spacesuit air supply runs out.

The Leonov survives a dangerous aerobraking around Jupiter and arrives at Discovery (one). Mission crewmember and HAL 9000's creator, Dr. Chandra, reactivates the computer to ascertain the cause of its earlier aberrant behavior. After some time, Floyd is speaking to Vasili Orlov on board, and Orlov, for an instant, sees the Monolith dubbed 'Big Brother' open again, into a Stargate, as David Bowman escapes from the Monolith's dimension back into ours. Dr. Floyd is unfortunately facing the wrong direction and therefore does not see this.

A sequence of scenes follows the explorations of David Bowman, who has been transformed into a non-corporeal, energy-based life-form, much like the aliens controlling the monoliths. During his journey, the avatar of Bowman appears on Earth, making contact with significant individuals from his past: He visits his mother and brushes her hair shortly before she dies, and he appears to his ex-girlfriend on her television screen. The aliens are using Bowman as a probe to learn about humankind. He then returns to the Jupiter system to explore beneath the ice of Europa, where he finds aquatic life-forms, and under the clouds of Jupiter, where he discovers gaseous life-forms. Both are primitive, but the aliens deem the Europan creatures to have evolutionary potential.

An apparition of Bowman appears before Floyd, warning him that they must leave Jupiter within fifteen days. Floyd has difficulty convincing the rest of the crew at first, but then the monolith vanishes from orbit.

The Leonov crew devises a plan to use the Discovery (one) as a "booster rocket", enabling them to return to Earth ahead of schedule. HAL and the Discovery (one) will be trapped in Jupiter's orbit, with insufficient fuel to escape. The crew are worried that HAL will have the same neurosis on discovering that he will be abandoned yet again, so Chandra must convince HAL that the human crew is in danger.

The Leonov crew flees Jupiter as a mysterious dark spot appears on Jupiter and begins to grow. HAL's telescope observations reveal that the "Great Black Spot" is, in fact, a vast population of monoliths, increasing at an exponential rate, which appear to be eating the planet. By acting as self-replicating machines, these monoliths increase Jupiter's density until the planet achieves nuclear fusion, becoming a small star. This obliterates the primitive life forms inhabiting the Jovian atmosphere, which the Monoliths' controllers had deemed highly unlikely to ever achieve intelligence, unlike the aquatic life of Europa.

As Jupiter is about to transform, Bowman returns to Discovery (one) to give HAL a last order to carry out. HAL begins repeatedly broadcasting the message

The creation of the new star, which Earth eventually names Lucifer, destroys Discovery (one). However, in appreciation for HAL's help, Bowman has the aliens that control the monoliths remove HAL's artificial intelligence from Discovery's computer core and transform him into the same kind of entity as David Bowman, and become his companion.

Epilogue
The book ends with a brief epilogue, which takes place in AD 20,001. By this time, the Europans have evolved into a species that has developed a primitive civilization, most likely with assistance from a monolith. They are not described in detail, though they are said to have "tendril"-like limbs. They regard the star Lucifer (formerly the planet Jupiter) as their primary sun, referring to Sol as "The Cold Sun". Though their settlements are concentrated primarily in the hemisphere of Europa which is constantly bathed in Lucifer's rays, some Europans have begun in recent generations to explore the Farside, the hemisphere facing away from Lucifer, which is still covered in ice. There they may witness the spectacle of night, unknown on the other side of Europa, when the Cold Sun sets.

The Europans who explore the Farside have been carefully observing the night sky and have begun to develop a mythology based on their observations. They correctly believe that Lucifer was not always there. They believe that the Cold Sun was its brother and was condemned to march around the sky for a crime. The Europans also see three other major bodies in the sky. One seems to be constantly engulfed in fire, and the other two have lights on them which are gradually spreading. These three bodies are the moons Io, Callisto, and Ganymede, the latter two of which are presently being colonised by humans.

Humans have been attempting to explore Europa ever since Lucifer was created in 2010. However, none of these attempts has been successful. Every probe that has attempted to land on Europa has been destroyed on approach. The debris from every probe falls to the surface of the planet, and the debris from some of the first ships to be destroyed is venerated by the Europans.

Finally, there is a Monolith on the moon, which is worshipped by the Europans more than anything else. The Europans assume, correctly, that the Monolith is what keeps humans at bay. Dave Bowman and HAL lie dormant in this Monolith. The Monolith is the guardian of Europa, and will continue to prevent contact between humans and Europans for as long as it sees fit.

Main characters
In the novel, the Leonov is staffed by three Americans, and seven Soviets. HAL also re-appears as a major character.

 * Dr. Heywood Floyd: The protagonist, Floyd must embark on an odyssey to Jupiter with American colleagues aboard a Soviet ship, the Leonov, to revive Discovery.
 * Dr. Walter Curnow: gregarious American engineer and expert on Discovery's systems.
 * Dr. Sivasubramanian Chandrasegarampillai, or "Dr. Chandra": HAL's inventor. Quiet and reserved, Dr. Chandra, who is Indian, is the third member of the American team, charged with re-activating HAL. For the 1984 film, the character was changed to a white American played by Bob Balaban.
 * Captain Tatiana "Tanya" Orlova: Soviet captain of the Leonov. The character's last name in the film was changed to Kirbuk and was played by British actress Helen Mirren.
 * Dr. Vasili Orlov: the Leonov's chief scientist, and husband of Orlova.
 * Dr. Maxim (Max) Brailovsky: Spacewalker and Curnow's Soviet counterpart. He and Curnow are both bisexual and enjoy a romantic relationship during the mission, though Max eventually becomes engaged to Zenia Marchenko.
 * Surgeon Commander Katerina Rudenko: The Leonov's matronly medical doctor. In the film, this character is recast as a man.
 * Dr. Alexander "Sasha" Kovalev: Communications officer of the Leonov, Sasha states basic science information at certain points.
 * Dr. Nikolai Ternovsky: The computational expert for the Leonov crew, Ternovsky works with Dr. Chandra to reactivate HAL upon the Discovery rendezvous.
 * Zenia Marchenko: an understudy for Dr. Irina Yakunina, ship's nutritionist. In the book, Marchenko shelters with Floyd while the Leonov executes a dangerous and dramatic maneuver. The film's equivalent character, who likewise shelters with Floyd, is there named as Irina Yakunina, the same namesake as the book's replaced character, who in the book does not actually join the Leonov's voyage, due to a hang gliding accident.
 * HAL 9000: the Discovery's on board ship's computer, HAL is held suspect by most other characters for having caused the deaths of the Discovery's crew except Bowman, despite the explanation that HAL was given conflicting orders regarding secrecy and deception, which HAL is manifestly not designed to carry out.

Minor characters

 * The Floyd family: Floyd is described as having had two families. Floyd's deceased first wife, Marion, is said to have borne him two daughters. At the time of the novel's events, Floyd is living with his second wife, Caroline, and their son Christopher, a toddler. A male dolphin named Scarback, together with its mate, routinely visit the Floyd household, and communicates with Christopher in a language dubbed Dolphin.
 * The Bowman family: In a series of flashbacks and literal movements through space and time, the newly-ascended character of David Bowman remembers, interacts with, and makes some peace with his old human life. Bowman remembers his brother Robert "Bobby" Bowman, who died while the two used an improvised scuba device to explore an underwater cave as children, and Bowman visits his elderly mother Jessie Bowman in her hospital room at the moment of her death. Later, Bowman also visits his ex-girlfriend Betty Fernandez (née Schultz). In youth, Betty had originally been Robert's girlfriend, and after Robert's death, Betty took up with Bowman. Following Bowman's disappearance and presumptive death, Betty married Jose Fernandez, and bore him a son, Carlos. In their final interaction, Betty lies to Bowman that Carlos is his son.
 * Professor Chang: One of five Chinese Tsien crew members (alongside one Dr. Lee, mentioned in passing), Chang relays a poignant farewell message to the Leonov from the surface of Europa, addressed especially to Floyd. In it, Chang reports the destruction of the Tsien, his own imminent death, and the existence of life on Europa. The novel's early Tsien story arc, continued in 2061, in which Chinese astronauts compete with Americans and Soviets to be the first to rendezvous with Discovery, is completely absent from the film.
 * Dr. Dimitri Moisevitch: Floyd's Soviet friend and counterpart from the 2001 novel returns to correspond during the novel and give worldly "spy-ripostes" from one bureaucrat to another. In the novel's opening scene, Moisevitch and Floyd present the exposition of the joint Soviet–American mission, against the backdrop of the Arecibo telescope; the film approximates this opening scene, instead using the Very Large Array as its setting.
 * Victor Millson: Floyd's bureaucratic successor, rival and contact for official Earth/American business.
 * SAL 9000: HAL's earthbound counterpart. An early scene shows Dr. Chandra discussing HAL with SAL, which is faithfully reproduced in the film. In the film, actress Candice Bergen provided the voice of SAL, which was credited to her as "Olga Mallsnerd".

Writing
2010 is Clarke's first book written on a computer. He wrote the first 25% of the novel on an electric typewriter, but started using an Archives III computer (made in Davenport, Iowa) in late 1981 (which he lovingly christened "Archie"). Impressed by its word processing features, he wrote the rest of the novel using this method.

Relations to reality
Clarke used for the novel names of various Soviet dissidents, including physicists Andrei Sakharov and Yuri Orlov, human-rights activists Mykola Rudenko and Anatoly Marchenko, Russian Orthodox activist Gleb Yakunin. Clarke himself makes a reference to "getting (editor Vasili Zakharchenko) into deep trouble by borrowing the names of various dissidents" in 2061: Odyssey Three.

Discontinuities between 2010 and the other works
Clarke acknowledged such inconsistencies in the Author's Note to 2061: "Just as 2010: Odyssey Two was not a direct sequel to 2001: A Space Odyssey, so this book is not a linear sequel to 2010. They must all be considered as variations on the same theme, involving many of the same characters and situations, but not necessarily happening in the same universe. Developments since 1964 make total consistency impossible, as the later stories incorporate discoveries and events that had not even taken place when the earlier books were written."

 * The second half of the novel 2001: A Space Odyssey takes place around Saturn, with the Monolith embedded in the surface of the Saturnian moon Iapetus. The novel 2010 follows the continuity of the film 2001, which places the Monolith and Discovery in orbit between Jupiter and the Jovian moon Io.
 * When Dave Bowman recalls the events of 2001 in the 2010 novel, he remembers the incident of chasing after Frank Poole's corpse in a pod without his helmet, and then entering the Discovery through the emergency airlock. However, this incident only occurred in the 2001 film. In the 2001 novel, Bowman remains in the ship and HAL attempts to kill him by opening all of the pod bay doors.
 * In the novel 2001, Dave Bowman says "Oh my God—it's full of stars!" during his encounter with the monolith. In the novel 2010, characters quote Bowman slightly differently as saying "My God—it's full of stars!" in his last transmission.  In the film version of 2001, Dave Bowman is not shown speaking any words as he leaves Discovery and enters the monolith.  However, the film version of 2010 includes a recording of Bowman saying "My God—it's full of stars!" as if it had occurred in the 2001 film.
 * The 2001 novel describes Dave Bowman's transformation into the Star-Child and his return to Earth. The 2010 novel repeats this part of the story, abbreviating it in some ways, expanding it in others, and occasionally changing some details.  For example, despite the scenes in the 2001 film, there is no mention in the 2001 novel of Bowman growing old before regressing to a child. However, the 2010 novel aligns with the film by restating that Bowman dreamt that he grew old when the entity entered his mind (despite the 2001 novel stating he did not dream).  As another example, the 2001 novel says the Star-Child chooses not to use the Star Gate to return to our solar system, but the 2010 novel restates that he does use the Star Gate (which allows the Leonov to witness his arrival).
 * In all of the Space Odyssey novels and the film version of 2010, HAL's instructor is named Dr. Chandra; in the film 2001: A Space Odyssey, it is Mr. Langley.
 * The events of 3001: The Final Odyssey, the fourth and final novel in the Space Odyssey series, make the epilogue of this novel impossible, or at least unlikely. In 3001 the monoliths become infected with a series of computer viruses (through software emulation) and disappear from the Solar System. It is feasible, though, that the monolith network is able to purge itself of the viruses and return to Sol and Lucifer prior to the year 20,001, and avoid another human-sourced infection.
 * The film version of 2010 is a largely faithful adaptation of the 2010 novel. The major differences are that the film eliminates the Chinese spacecraft from the plot, places the United States and the Soviet Union at the brink of war, has a crewmember killed by the monolith when he approaches it in a pod, and expands Bowman's final message protecting Europa to include a directive to work together in peace.

Reception
Dave Langford reviewed 2010: Odyssey Two for White Dwarf #39, and stated that "Since the strength of 2001's mystical ending came from the teasing unanswerability of the question 'what happens next?' it's anticlimactic when Clarke now tells us what happens next. And though interesting things happen, smoothly described, there's a certain familiarity when the book halts on the brink of another and less interesting question."

Reviews

 * Review by Mark E. Smith (1982) in Fantasy Newsletter, #53 November 1982
 * Review by Dan Chow (1982) in Locus, #262 November 1982
 * Review by Gene DeWeese (1983) in Science Fiction Review, Spring 1983
 * Review by John Silbersack [as by John W. Silbersack] (1983) in Heavy Metal, February 1983
 * Review by Darrell Schweitzer (1983) in Science Fiction Review, Spring 1983
 * Review by Baird Searles (1983) in Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine, March 1983
 * Review by Frank Catalano (1983) in Amazing Science Fiction, March 1983
 * Review by Algis Budrys (1983) in The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, March 1983
 * Review by Thomas A. Easton [as by Tom Easton] (1983) in Analog Science Fiction/Science Fact, May 1983
 * Review by Debbie Notkin (1983) in Rigel Science Fiction, #8 Summer 1983
 * Review by Ken Methold (1983) in Omega Science Digest, July-August 1983
 * Review by A. A. Attanasio (1983) in Omni, September 1983
 * Review [French] by Claude Ecken (1983) in Ere Comprimée, #24
 * Review by Peter Stockill (1983) in Vector 117
 * Review [French] by Élisabeth Vonarburg? (1983) in Solaris, #53
 * Review [French] by Henri Manguy (1983) in SFère, #10
 * Review by Thomas D. Clareson (1983) in Extrapolation, Spring 1983
 * Review by Sue Thomason (1984) in Paperback Inferno, Volume 7, Number 5
 * Review by James Schellenberg (1999) in Challenging Destiny Number 5, January 1999

title: 2010: Odyssey Two


text:
1250s

The 1250s decade ran from January 1, 1250, to December 31, 1259.

Significant people

 * Möngke Khan
 * Hulagu Khan
 * Al-Mustasim
 * Aybak
 * Al-Ashraf Musa
 * Louis IX of France

title: 1250s


text:
1462

Year 1462 (MCDLXII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

January–December

 * March 27 – Ivan III of Russia becomes the ruler of Russia, following the death of his father, Vasili.
 * June 17 – The Night Attack: Vlad III Dracula attempts to assassinate Mehmed II, forcing him to retreat from Wallachia.
 * June 30 – Battle of Seckenheim: Frederick I, Elector Palatine is victorious over four other opponents.
 * July 22 – The first siege of Chilia by Stephen the Great fails, and he is seriously wounded.
 * September 17 – Thirteen Years' War – Battle of Świecino (Battle of Żarnowiec): The Kingdom of Poland defeats the Teutonic Order.
 * September – Siege of Mytilene: Mehmed II captures the town of Mytilene, thus conquering the island of Lesbos.
 * December – After Radu III the Fair takes over the throne in Wallachia, Vlad III Dracula seeks help in Transylvannia, where he is captured by Mathias Corvinus, and imprisoned for the next 12 years, over false charges of treason.

Date unknown

 * The Jews are expelled from Mainz, Germany.
 * Portugal begins to settle the Cape Verde Islands, with slaves from the coast of Guinea.
 * War of the Roses – Battle of Piltown: The Yorkists defeat the Lancastrians, in the Lordship of Ireland.

Births

 * January 2 – Piero di Cosimo, Italian artist (d. 1522)
 * January 8 – Walraven II van Brederode, Dutch noble (d. 1531)
 * February 1 – Johannes Trithemius, German scholar and cryptographer (d. 1516)
 * February 21 – Joanna la Beltraneja, princess of Castile (d. 1530)
 * May 19 – Baccio D'Agnolo, Italian woodcarver, sculptor and architect (d. 1543)
 * May 31 – Philipp II, Count of Hanau-Lichtenberg (1489–1503) (d. 1504)
 * June 27 – Louis XII of France, King of France (1498–1515), King of Naples (1501–1504) (d. 1515)
 * July 21 – Queen Jeonghyeon, Korean royal consort (d. 1530)
 * September 8 – Henry Medwall, first known English vernacular dramatist (d. 1501)
 * September 16 – Pietro Pomponazzi, Italian philosopher (d. 1525)
 * September 26 – Engelbert, Count of Nevers, younger son of John I (d. 1506)
 * November 26 – Alexander, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken and Count of Veldenz (1489–1514) (d. 1514)
 * date unknown
 * Jodocus Badius, Flemish printer (d. 1535)
 * probable – Edmund Dudley, minister of Henry VII of England (d. 1510)

Deaths

 * February 23 – Thomas Tuddenham, English landowner (b. 1401)
 * February 26 – John de Vere, 12th Earl of Oxford (b. 1408)
 * February 27 – Władysław II of Płock, Polish noble (b. 1448)
 * March 27 – Vasily II of Moscow, Grand Prince of Moscow (b. 1415)
 * March 31 – Isidore II of Constantinople, Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople
 * April 26 – William Percy, medieval Bishop of Carlisle (b. 1428)
 * April 28 – Oldřich II of Rosenberg, Bohemian nobleman (b. 1403)
 * August 26 – Catherine Zaccaria, Despotess of the Morea
 * September 17 – Anna of Saxony, Landgravine of Hesse, German royalty (b. 1420)
 * November 11 – Anne of Cyprus, Italian noble (b. 1418)
 * November 13 – Anne of Austria, Landgravine of Thuringia, consort of William III, Landgrave of Thuringia (b. 1432)
 * November 25 – John Stourton, 1st Baron Stourton, English baron (b. 1400)
 * date unknown
 * King Esen Buqa II of Moghulistan
 * Niccolò Gattilusio, last Prince of Lesbos
 * Dài Jìn, Chinese painter (b. 1388)

title: 1462


text:
1666

This is the first year to be designated as an Annus mirabilis, in John Dryden's 1667 poem so titled, celebrating England's failure to be beaten either by the Dutch or by fire.

January–March

 * January 17 – The Chair of Saint Peter (Cathedra Petri, designed by Bernini) is set above the altar in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome.
 * February 1 – The joint English and Scottish royal court returns to London, as the Great Plague of London subsides.
 * March 11 – The tower of St. Peter's Church in Riga, collapses, burying eight people in the rubble.

April–June

 * April 20 – In colonial British North America, "Articles of Peace and Amity" are signed between the governments of the Province of Maryland and 12 Eastern Algonquian tribes — the Piscataways, Anacostancks, Doegs, Mattawomans, Portobackes, Chopticos, Mikikiwomans, Manasquesends, Chingwawateicks, Hangemaicks, Sacayos, and Panyayos.
 * April 23 – On Saint Christopher Island more commonly called St Kitts, a Caribbean Sea island divided between colonies of England and France, a battle near Sandy Point Town over control of the territory ends with a victory by the French over a numerically-superior English force two days after English Deputy Governor William Watts of Anguilla had sent an expedition to capture the neighbouring island of Saint Martin. Governor Watts and the French Governor of Saint-Christophe, Charles de Sales, are both killed in the battle.
 * May 12 – In India, General Shivaji Bhonsale of the Maratha Empire arrives at the Agra Fort for a meeting with Emperor Aurangzeb of the Mughal Empire, as part of the terms of peace under the 1665 Treaty of Purandar. After taking offence at the disrespect shown to him, he gets angry and attempts to leave; he and his son Sambhaji are immediately placed under arrest and imprisoned at the fort.
 * May 13 – French theologian Louis-Isaac Lemaistre de Sacy is imprisoned in the Bastille after his conviction for heresy in connection with the Jansenist movement. Sacy uses his two and one-half years of incarceration (which lasts until November 14, 1668), to create the Bible du Port-Royal, a first French language rendition of the Bible, finishing a translation of the Old Testament from the Vulgate, written in Latin, that had been started by his brother Antoine, and then beginning work on the New Testament.
 * May 21
 * The Holy Roman Empire, ruled by Leopold I, repurchases the territory of the Duchy of Opole and Racibórz (Oppeln und Ratibor), which it had ceded to Poland in 1645, for the sum of 120,000 guldens and consolidates it with Upper Silesia. The territory will be ceded from Germany to Poland in 1945 at the end of World War II.
 * Iliaș Alexandru becomes the ruler of Moldavia, part of modern-day Romania.
 * June 4 – Molière's comedy of manners The Misanthrope is premièred at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal in Paris by the King's Players with himself in the title role.
 * June 14 (June 4 Julian calendar) – The Four Days' Battle between the Dutch Republic fleet (84 ships under the command of Admiral Michiel de Ruyter) and the English Royal Navy (79 ships led by the Duke of Albemarle) in the North Sea, one of the longest naval engagements in history, ends with a retreat by the English after having started on June 11. A part of the Second Anglo-Dutch War, the battle ends with a Dutch victory, but heavy losses are sustained on both sides: the English lose 1,000 men and 10 ships are sunk, while the Dutch lose four ships and 1,550 men. Damaged, but not destroyed, the English fleet sets about repairs and refitting, and meets the Dutch fleet again on July 25 in the St. James's Day Battle.

July–September

 * July 1 – During the Portuguese Restoration War between Portugal and Spain, the Battle of the Berlengas ends after four days as a fleet of 15 Spanish warships obtains the surrender of Fort of São João Baptista.
 * July 6 – On 3 Muharram 1077 AH on the Muslim calendar, Sa'd ibn Zayd, a descendant of Hasan ibn Ali and of Muhammad (founder of Islam) becomes the new Sharif of Mecca, in modern-day Saudi Arabia. His ascension to the post follows the death of his father, Zayd ibn Muhsin, who had been the Sharif since 1631.
 * July 13 – The Battle of Matwy, the bloodiest engagement of Lubomirski's rebellion, takes place in Poland at the village of Matwy. Jerzy Sebastian Lubomirski, who has led the revolt against Poland's King Jan II Kazimierz, defeats a larger number of troops led by John III Sobieski of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Poland and Lithuania sustain 4,000 deaths compared to 200 rebel casualties.
 * July 31 – The Agreement of Legonice is signed, with Poland restoring the titles of Jerzy Sebastian Lubomirski and Lubomirski's officers, granting amnesty to all the rebels, and King Jan II Kazimierz abandoning further reform plans.
 * August 2 (July 23 Julian calendar) – A hurricane sweeps through the Caribbean Sea near Guadeloupe five days after Barbados colonial Governor Francis Willoughby led a force of two Royal Navy frigates, 12 commandeered vessels and over 1,000 men in a battle against French colonies during the Second Anglo-Dutch War. Willoughby and most of his crew die in the sinking of his flagship, HMS Hope
 * August 4 (July 25 Julian calendar) – In the St. James's Day Battle of the Second Anglo-Dutch War, the English Royal Navy, under the command of Prince Rupert of the Rhine and George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle, defeats the Dutch Republic navy off the North Foreland of England. The victory comes 6 weeks after the British fleet had sustained a heavy loss in the Four Days' Battle. The Dutch ships Sneek and Tholen are sunk, with the loss of 800 men, while 300 Englishmen die in the sinking of HMS Resolution.
 * August 17 – In India, General Shivaji Bhonsale, future ruler of the Maratha Empire, and his son Sambhaji escape from house arrest at the Agra Fort, where they have been held prisoner since May 12.
 * August 19 (August 9 Julian calendar) – Rear Admiral Robert Holmes leads an English Royal Navy raid on the Dutch island of Terschelling, destroying 150 merchant ships in the Vlie estuary over a period of two days, and pillaging the town of West-Terschelling. The action becomes known as "Holmes's Bonfire".
 * September 2 – The Great Fire of London begins as a blaze in a bakery owned by Thomas Farriner on Pudding Lane, near London Bridge. Over a period of four days, the fire destroys more than 13,000 buildings (including Old St Paul's Cathedral), but only six people are known to have died, while at least 80,000 are left destitute and homeless. The events are recorded by Samuel Pepys in his diary. The resurveying of property is credited with advancing both cartography and the practices of surveying, as well as resulting in the modern definition by John Ogilby of the statute mile, as 1,760 yards.
 * September 4 – Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb grants the French East India Company a royal mandate to trade at the port of Surat.
 * September 6 – The Cestui Que Vie Act 1666 is passed by the Parliament of England, to provide for the disposal of the property of missing persons.
 * September 16 – The Apostasy of Sabbatai Zevi begins in Istanbul.

October–December

 * October 10 – A "day of humiliation and fasting" is held in London churches a month after the Great Fire of London.
 * October 11 – The Sieur de Buat, Captain Henri de Fleury de Coulan of the Army of the Dutch Republic, is beheaded in public at The Hague after being convicted of attempting to overthrow Dutch leader Johan de Witt.
 * October 17 – In North America, a French Army regiment led by Alexandre de Prouville de Tracy erects crosses in the Mohawk lands of the eastern Iroquois Confederacy territory along the Mohawk River as part of an invasion that started on September 29. During the expedition, Prouville's forces find four abandoned Mohawk villages in the area, located in the modern U.S. state of New York near the village of Schenectady but never confront any Mohawk defenders, and the French never attempt to enforce their claim.
 * October 23 – The most intense tornado on record in English history, an F4 storm on the Fujita scale or T8 on the TORRO scale, strikes the county of Lincolnshire with a path of destruction through the villages of Welbourn, Wellingore, Navenby and Boothby Graffoe, with winds of more than 213 mph.
 * October 26 – Abbas II, the Shah of Iran, dies at the age of 34 after a reign of 24 years, without designating a successor. His 18-year old son Sam Mirza is crowned as the new Safavid dynasty emperor six days later.
 * October 27 – Robert Hubert, a Frenchman who has made a false confession to having started the Great Fire of London (despite not arriving in England until two days after the blaze started), is executed based on his statements.
 * November 28 – The Battle of Rullion Green takes place in the Pentland Hills near Midlothian in Scotland as the culmination of the brief 'Pentland Rising' which began on November 15 as a rebellion by the Covenanters who oppose changes in the Church of Scotland. At least 2,000 men of the Scottish Royal Army, led by General Thomas Dalyell, defeat more than 750 Covenanter rebels who have been under the command of James Wallace of Auchens.
 * December 12 – A sobor (church council) of the Russian Orthodox Church deposes Patriarch Nikon of Moscow, but accepts his liturgical reforms. Dissenters from these, known as Old Believers, continue into the 21st century.
 * December 22 – The French Academy of Sciences, founded by Louis XIV, first meets.

Date unknown

 * Mughal forces of Emperor Aurangzeb, in alliance with the Portuguese, under Shaista Khan and his son Buzurg Umed Khan, expel the Arakans from the Bengal port city of Chittagong, renaming the city as Islamabad.
 * Moulai al-Rashid conquers Fes, marking the beginning of Morocco's Alaouite dynasty, which will continue in power into the 21st century.
 * Isaac Newton uses a prism to split sunlight, as referenced in his alchemical works as Lux Dei, into the component colours of the optical spectrum, assisting the understanding of the scientific nature of light. He also develops differential calculus simultaneously with Leibniz. His discoveries this year lead to it being referred to as his Annus mirabilis or Newton's "Year of the Morning Star".
 * Lund University is founded in Lund, Sweden.
 * Jean Talon completes a census of New France, the first census in North America.
 * Dutch artist Johannes Vermeer paints The Art of Painting, his largest and most complex work.
 * The first completed printed Bible translation into Armenian, Astuacašunč hnoc' ew noroc' ktakaranac (Oskanean Bible), is published in Amsterdam, edited by Bishop Oskan Yerevantsi.

Births

 * February 1 – Marie Thérèse de Bourbon, Princess of Conti and titular queen of Poland (d. 1732)
 * February 9 – George Hamilton, 1st Earl of Orkney, British soldier (d. 1737)
 * March 15 – George Bähr, German architect (d. 1738)
 * May 14 – Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia (d. 1732)
 * July 10 – John Ernest Grabe, German-born Anglican theologian (d. 1711)
 * July 23 – Thomas Parker, 1st Earl of Macclesfield (d. 1732)
 * August 4 – Maria Sophia of Neuburg, Queen consort of Portugal (d. 1699)
 * August 13 – William Wotton, English scholar (d. 1727)
 * September 5 – Gottfried Arnold, German church historian (d. 1714)
 * September 6 – Tsar Ivan V of Russia (d. 1696)
 * November 12 – Mary Astell, English writer (d. 1731)
 * December 22 – Guru Gobind Singh, 10th Guru of Sikhism, social reformist, poet, and revolutionary (d. 1708)
 * date unknown –
 * Arthur Chichester, 3rd Earl of Donegall (d. 1706)
 * Mary Pix, English author (d. 1709)

Deaths

 * January 2 – John Holles, 2nd Earl of Clare, English politician and Earl (b. 1595)
 * January 10 – Henry Hastings, 1st Baron Loughborough, English Royalist army commander (b. 1610)
 * January 20 – Anne of Austria, queen of Louis XIII of France and regent (b. 1601)
 * January 22 – Shah Jahan, Mughal Emperor of India (b. 1592)
 * January 24 – Johann Andreas Herbst, German composer (b. 1588)
 * January 28 – Tommaso Dingli, Maltese architect and sculptor (b. 1591)
 * February 12 – Mildmay Fane, 2nd Earl of Westmorland, English politician (b. 1602)
 * February 24 – Nicholas Lanier, English composer (b. 1588)
 * February 26 – Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti, Frondeur (b. 1629)
 * February 27
 * Luisa de Guzmán, Duchess of Braganza and Queen consort of Portugal (b. 1613)
 * Gustav Evertsson Horn, Finnish-Swedish politician, Field Marshal (b. 1614)
 * March 1 – Ecaterina Cercheza, Princess consort of Moldavia (b. 1620)
 * March 18 – Jan van Vliet, Dutch linguist (b. 1622)
 * April 12 – Johann Rudolf Wettstein, Swiss diplomat (b. 1594)
 * April 25 – Johann Reinhard II, Count of Hanau-Lichtenberg, German aristocrat (b. 1628)
 * May 6 – Paul Siefert, German composer and organist (b. 1586)
 * May 13 – Pier Francesco Mola, Italian painter of the High Baroque (b. 1612)
 * May 22 – Gaspar Schott, German Jesuit scholar (b. 1608)
 * June 11 – Cornelis Evertsen the Elder, Dutch admiral (b. 1610)
 * June 12 – Abraham van der Hulst, Dutch admiral (b. 1619)
 * June 16 – Sir Richard Fanshawe, British diplomat and translator (b. 1608)
 * June 17 – Carlo de' Medici, Italian Catholic cardinal (b. 1595)
 * June 28 – Sir Gervase Clifton, 1st Baronet, English politician (b. 1587)
 * June 30 – Alexander Brome, English poet (b. 1620)
 * July 5 – Albert VI, Duke of Bavaria (b. 1584)
 * July 18 – Sir John Bowyer, 1st Baronet, English soldier and politician (b. 1623)
 * July 25 – Henri, Count of Harcourt (b. 1601)
 * July 26 – Camillo Francesco Maria Pamphili, Italian Catholic cardinal (b. 1622)
 * July 30 – Francis Erdmann, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, Germany (b. 1629)
 * August 5 – Johan Evertsen, Dutch admiral (b. 1600)
 * August 6 – Tjerk Hiddes de Vries, Frisian naval hero and commander (of wounds received in the St. James's Day Battle) (b. 1622)
 * August 15 – Johann Adam Schall von Bell, German Jesuit missionary (b. 1591)
 * August 19 – Anton Günther I, Count of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen (b. 1620)
 * August 23 – Johannes Hoornbeek, Dutch theologian (b. 1617)
 * August 24 – Francisco Manuel de Mello, Portuguese writer (b. 1608)
 * August 26 – Frans Hals, Dutch painter (b. 1580)
 * September 4 – Girolamo Colonna, Catholic cardinal (b. 1604)
 * September 10 – Christian Günther II, Count of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen-Arnstadt (b. 1616)
 * September 17 – Augustus the Younger, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (b. 1579)
 * September 23 – François Mansart, French architect (b. 1598)
 * September 27
 * Georg Albrecht, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth-Kulmbach (b. 1619)
 * János Szalárdi, Hungarian historian (b. 1601)
 * October 12 – Dirk Graswinckel, Dutch jurist (b. 1600)
 * October 27 – Manuel António of Portugal, Dutch-Portuguese nobleman (b. 1600)
 * October 29 – Edmund Calamy the Elder, English Presbyterian leader (b. 1600)
 * October 29 – James Shirley, English dramatist (b. 1596)
 * November 1 – Jan Albertsz Rotius, Dutch painter (b. 1624)
 * December 1 – James Ware, Irish genealogist (b. 1594)
 * December 8 – Philippe Charles, Duke of Valois (b. 1664)
 * December 20 – William Strode, English politician (b. 1589)
 * December 22 – Guercino, Italian painter (b. 1591)
 * December 26 – Alexandrine von Taxis, German Imperial General Post Master (b. 1589)
 * December 30 – John Strangways, English politician (b. 1585)
 * date unknown
 * Philip Fruytiers, Flemish painter (b. 1627)
 * James Howell, British writer (b. c. 1594)
 * Song Yingxing, Chinese encyclopedist (b. 1587)

title: 1666