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Talk:Philosophical movement

Old? comments
If it's not explicitly philosophical then it doesn't belong on this page. Otherwise, we could put every political movement out there.

 * anti-globalization movement - moral, political and ethical and not explicitly philosophical, but sharing certain key ethics and an ontology

I don't think this is true. In fact, many postmodernist philosophies claim that you can't objectively set quantitiative values on relationships between things.

 * Today philosophical movements are often expressed in a political economy that purports to set new quantitative values on relationships between things. This reflects a consensus in the philosophy of mathematics that mathematics is, for everyday purposes, often the most neutral point of view.

- It's exactly this claim of the postmodernists that "you can't objectively set quantitiative values on relationships between things" that lead the anti-globalization movement to reject all forms of global measurement. This is definitely a philosophical (or theological) movement, if only for its localism. It's sort of the fusion of minarchy and anarchism with the basic assumptions of postmodernim. I guess I said it was "not explicitly philosophical" because it has no shared metaphysics beyond its foundation ontology which is all pretty much defined tacitly and by resistance. Not because philosophical claims are never made for it, nor by it. 24

So, if you re-read what you just wrote with that in mind, you may notice that you have contradicted yourself somewhat - first you discount the anti-globals on the grounds of not satisfying the conventional requirements of a philosophy, then you admit that by the standards of certain philosophers, notably body philosophers, those standards are irrelevant or dangerous - that philosophy as understood prior to the philosophy of action was simply an attempt to usurp a God-like neutral point of view. Which one may see in action here a lot... 24

I think you can't discount both political economy and body philosophy as movements - what's left? Only philosophy with no relevance to action or body? What use is that? 24

 * 24, google hasn't heard of "body philosophy", nor has our resident (or former resident) philosopher, who, whether he disagreed with a particular position or not, would certainly acknowledge its recognition amongst other philosophers if it was so recognised. As far as we can tell, the term "body philosophy" is your own invention and is thus outside the scope of Wikipedia.  --Robert Merkel

— Editor2020 (talk) 21:12, 10 October 2021 (UTC)

Citations please
This article is in bad need of some references to keep it from being WP:OR -- noosphere 10:19, 14 April 2006 (UTC)

I think it's really weird to include the Renaissance as a philosophical movement--what philosophers were involved in this movement and what were their distinctive doctrines or methods or arguments? The same goes for Modernism. I have no idea what this "philosophical movement" is supposed to be. Even the Enlightenment was more of a general intellectual movement than a philosophical movement (unless you think that Hume, Rousseau, Kant, and d'Holbach are part of a philosophical movement the way Carnap, Schlick, and Neurath are). Scottish Enlightenment sure, because at least there's a clear and distinctive approach to ethics found in Hutcheson, Hume, and Smith. But seriously: the Renaissance? Modernism? What is this article talking about? --4.240.72.98

I totally agree about the Renaissance, which is a historical period. It was a period that gave rise to many movements in art, philosophy, literature, etc. But it certainly not a philosophical movement.--Trnj2000 17:15, 1 August 2006 (UTC)

No! No! No! Everything today is empiricism. When we say, "That doesn't make sense," what do we mean? We mean empirical evidence doesn't support the statement. The most wonderous thing about the triumph of empiricism is that it is all a fraud, for empirical thought has no more credibility due its machinations than does witchcraft or animism. The givens-premisses are all false.

Mathematics is a mere toy, too small to define even the smallest parcel in the Universe and so massively too large too lend and credibility to the incantations and games matheticians play with it.

Yes, science broadly defined has demonstratable triumphs, BUT!, so didn't witchcraft and animism. By isolating and fixating on the triumphs of paper-theories, modern man has ignored the real world entirely.

The path is found thus: Humans are very stupid, and essentially gullible fools. The cogito is the only triumph in modern philosophy worth mentioning prior to the discovery of the moral imperative sought by Kant and denied by Nietzsche.

The moral imperative is derived directly from the cogito. I think, therefore, I am. I cherish my life. There are apparently others alive and more to come. I will surely die someday. I should therefore live a (moral) life that detracts nothing from the experience of all those who might follow.

http://geocities.com/donaldwrobertson/index.html An Illustrated Philosophy Primer for Young Readers  Enjoy. Don Robertson10-06

objectivism
isn't a philosophical movement. it is barely considered philosophy, and that is likely promoting it a bit far, even though some minor characters in current philosophy are building their careers on it. a movement like the others listed? no.  and adding it makes this article primarily into an article of loosely related things.--Buridan 13:08, 28 September 2007 (UTC)

Atheism
Is atheism really a 'philosophical movement'? New atheism, or antitheism, perhaps, but is simple 'atheism' a contemporary movement?

Inclusion of modernism, atheism, Objectivism
As of now, the article has no sources, so the inclusion of anything is as much of an 'unsupported opinion' as its exclusion. Providing a source isn't necessary to improve unsourced text. The initial addition of the items I removed were not given rationales by those who added them, but I have given rationales for my removals, making my edits privileged in that respect. I will restate them here:

 * Modernism: Like the lede says, "[i]n contrast to the idea of a philosophical movement, the Renaissance, Enlightenment, and Romanticism are broader cultural "movements" that happened to be characterized by fairly distinctive philosophical concerns: although they are movements with philosophical cores, they extend beyond the field of philosophy into art and culture more broadly, hence are not specific enough to philosophy to be considered movements within it." This applies straightforwardly and obviously to modernism (if anything, even more so than the given examples). Modernism is neither a "specific school" nor a "fairly broad but identifiable sea-change in philosophical thought on a particular subject"; there is no particular subject, nor any constellation of particular subjects, which modernism addresses. If you were to name a subject, what you identify (i.e., Marxism or Logical Positivism) may itself be a school of thought, but "modernism" would remain vastly more broad than whatever determination you were to make.

 * Atheism: Atheism is not a philosophical school of thought; it is the absence of faith, which, taken alone, is an incredibly diverse universe of differing and contradictory positions (or non-positions). Atheism is, in the broadest sense permissible and perhaps only as a negation, a philosophical position, but so is Anti-foundationalism, and neither are movements. It is incredibly ahistorical to suggest that it is merely a contemporary movement. Besides the fact that there is no "fairly specifiable time and place" in which we could locate the presence of atheism the 'school of thought' to the exclusion of any other time and place, its inclusion could also be subjected to the same critique as modernism. The vast majority of atheists, just like the vast majority of Christians and Muslims and Jews, are not philosophers, do not participate in philosophical discourse or its institutional sites of production, and do not publish philosophy books. It would be wrongheaded to put Christianity on this page, because Christianity was clearly not a philosophical movement, but a movement in the totality of society which produced specific philosophical movements (that are listed on the page) as aliquot parts of its greater whole. Same with atheism; not so with Postmodernism, which is used in multiple fairly distinct senses, of which one is intended to signify a concrete and identifiable philosophical movement. One cannot say the same of atheism because the word by itself is only used in one type of sense, which sense is not a movement in philosophy.

71.191.208.132 (talk) 03:07, 10 March 2020 (UTC)
 * Objectivism: Not a movement, but the specific theory of one individual, and a marginal (and discredited) one at that. "What makes a movement identifiable and interesting as distinct from a specific theory is simply that a movement consists in a large flourishing of intellectual work on one or more ideas"; no such large flourishing exists for Objectivism. (Randian) Objectivism is a single system of thought bound to particular institutions, which 'control' the official legacy of Objectivism and dictate its course, not a trend composed of those disposed towards certain philosophical considerations. The difference between Objectivism and every other item on the page is so vast as to disqualify it at this point. If it were ever to expand to include Juche thought, we could think about putting Objectivism back in.

This is mostly a page of links. If you are looking for sources supporting the links, you should be looking for sources on the linked pages, not on this page. Given the need for brevity with Edit Summaries, it's difficult to give a perfect summary. It seems if you were to hold the other links to the same standard you propose, you would have had to eliminate all of them. Hence, providing a source for a rationale for eliminating these is needed for improving unsourced links. Teishin (talk) 04:09, 10 March 2020 (UTC)

Copyedit and sources
I've started an attempt to add sources, copyediting and rewriting where there is pasted or unsourced content. Pyrrho the Skeptic (talk) 21:15, 7 October 2021 (UTC)

Distinction
Don't we need to make a distinction between philosophical movements, schools of philosophy, and List of philosophies? Now the seem to be all jumbled up. Editor2020 (talk) 22:20, 10 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Good question. I think philosophical movement should be better defined in this article but I'm not sure how. Maybe some version of the old opening sentence could be reinstated perhaps, but rewritten. The opening that I just wrote came from one book, but maybe we could find something better. Is a philosophical movement culturally broader than a school of philosophy, but not as culturally broad as a cultural movement e.g. the renaissance? And where can we find a source for something like that? Pyrrho the Skeptic (talk) 16:18, 11 October 2021 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Philosophical movement


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St John's College, Cambridge

St John's College, formally the College of St John the Evangelist in the University of Cambridge, is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge, founded by the Tudor matriarch Lady Margaret Beaufort. In constitutional terms, the college is a charitable corporation established by a charter dated 9 April 1511. The aims of the college, as specified by its statutes, are the promotion of education, religion, learning and research. It is one of the largest Oxbridge colleges in terms of student numbers. For 2022, St John's was ranked 6th of 29 colleges in the Tompkins Table (the annual league table of Cambridge colleges) with over 35 per cent of its students earning first-class honours. It is the second wealthiest college in Oxford and Cambridge, after its neighbour Trinity College, Cambridge.

Members of the college include the winners of twelve Nobel Prizes, seven prime ministers, twelve archbishops of various countries, at least two princes and three saints. The Romantic poet William Wordsworth studied at St John's, as did William Wilberforce and Thomas Clarkson, two abolitionists who led the movement that brought slavery to an end in the British Empire. Prince William was affiliated with the college while undertaking a university-run course in estate management in 2014.

St John's is well known for its choir, its members' success in a variety of inter-collegiate sporting competitions and its annual May Ball. The Cambridge Apostles and the Cambridge University Moral Sciences Club were founded by members of the college. The Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race tradition began with a St John's student and the college boat club, Lady Margaret Boat Club, is the oldest in the university. In 2011, the college celebrated its quincentenary, an event marked by a visit of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.

History
The site was originally occupied by the Hospital of St John the Evangelist, probably founded around 1200. The hospital infirmary was located where the east end of the current chapel now stands. By 1470 Thomas Rotherham, Chancellor of the university, extended to the hospital the privileges of membership of the university. This led to St John's House, as it was then known, being conferred the status of a college. By the early 16th century the hospital was dilapidated and suffering from a lack of funds. Lady Margaret Beaufort, having endowed Christ's College, sought to found a new college, and chose the hospital site at the suggestion of John Fisher, her chaplain and Bishop of Rochester. However, Lady Margaret died without having mentioned the foundation of St John's in her will, and it was largely the work of Fisher that ensured that the college was founded. He had to obtain the approval of King Henry VIII of England, the Pope through the intermediary Polydore Vergil, and the Bishop of Ely to suppress the religious hospital (which by then held only a Master and three Augustinian brethren) and convert it to a college.

The college received its charter on 9 April 1511. Further complications arose in obtaining money from the estate of Lady Margaret to pay for the foundation, and it was not until 22 October 1512 that a codicil was obtained in the court of the Archbishop of Canterbury. In November 1512 the Court of Chancery allowed Lady Margaret's executors to pay for the foundation of the college from her estates. When the executors took over they found most of the old hospital buildings beyond repair, but they repaired the chapel and incorporated it into the new college. A kitchen and hall were added, and an imposing gate tower was constructed for the College Treasury. The doors were to be closed each day at dusk, sealing the monastic community from the outside world.

Over the following five hundred years, the college expanded westwards towards the River Cam and now has twelve courts, the most of any Oxford or Cambridge College. The first three courts are arranged in enfilade.

The college has retained its relationship with Shrewsbury School since 1578 when the headmaster Thomas Ashton assisted in drawing up ordinances to govern the school. Under these rulings, the borough bailiffs (mayors after 1638) had the power to appoint masters, with Ashton's old college, St John's, having an academic veto. Since then, the appointment of Johnian academics to the governing body, and the historic awards of 'closed' Shrewsbury Exhibitions, have continued. A former Master of St John's, Chris Dobson, was an ex officio governor of the school from 2007. St John's College first admitted women in October 1981, when K. M. Wheeler was admitted to the fellowship, along with nine female graduate students. The first women undergraduates arrived a year later.

Great Gate
St John's Great Gate follows the contemporary pattern employed previously at Christ's College and Queens' College. The gatehouse is crenellated and adorned with the arms of the foundress Lady Margaret Beaufort. Above these are displayed her ensigns, the Red Rose of Lancaster and Portcullis. The college arms are flanked by heraldic beasts known as yales, mythical creatures with elephants' tails, antelopes' bodies, goats' heads, and swivelling horns. Above them is a tabernacle containing a socle figure of St John the Evangelist, an Eagle at his feet and a symbolic, poisoned chalice in his hands. The fan vaulting above is contemporary with the tower and may have been designed by William Swayne, a master mason of King's College Chapel.

First Court
First Court is entered via the Great Gate and is highly architecturally varied. First Court was converted from the hospital on the foundation of the college, and constructed between 1511 and 1520. Though it has since been gradually changed, the front (east) range is still much as it appeared when first erected in the 16th century. The south range was refaced between 1772 and 1776 in the Georgian style by the local architect, James Essex, as part of an abortive attempt to modernise the entire court in the same fashion. The most dramatic alteration to the original, Tudor court, however, remains the Victorian amendment of the north range, which involved the demolition of the original medieval chapel and the construction of a new, far larger set of buildings in the 1860s. These included the chapel, designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott, which includes in its interior some pieces saved from the original chapel. It is the third tallest building in Cambridge. The alteration of the north range necessitated the restructuring of the connective sections of First Court; another bay window was added to enlarge the college's hall, and a new building was constructed to the north of Great Gate. Parts of the First Court were used as a prison in 1643 during the English Civil War. In April 2011, Queen Elizabeth II visited St John's College to inaugurate a new pathway in First Court, which passes close to the ruins of the Old Chapel.

Dining hall

The college's hall has a fine hammerbeam roof, painted in black and gold and decorated with the armorial devices of its benefactors. The hall is lined to cill level with linenfold panelling which dates from 1528 to 1529 and has a five-bay screen, surmounted by the Royal Arms. Above is a hexagonal louvre, dating to 1703. The room was extended from five to eight bays according to designs by Sir George Gilbert Scott in 1863. It has two bay windows, containing heraldic glass dating from the fifteenth to nineteenth centuries. In 1564, Queen Elizabeth rode into the college's Hall on horseback, during a state visit to Cambridge.

Second Court
Second Court, built from 1598 to 1602, has been described as 'the finest Tudor court in England'. Built atop the demolished foundations of an earlier, far smaller court, Second Court was begun in 1598 to the plans of Ralph Symons of Westminster, and Gilbert Wigge of Cambridge. Their original architectural drawings are housed in the college's library and are the oldest surviving plans for an Oxford or Cambridge college building. It was financed by the Countess of Shrewsbury, whose arms and statue stand above the court's western gatehouse. The court's Oriel windows are perhaps its most striking feature, though the dominating Shrewsbury Tower to the west is the most imposing. This gatehouse, built as a mirror image of the college's Great Gate, contains a statue of the benefactress Mary Talbot, Countess of Shrewsbury, added in 1671. Behind the Oriel window of the north range lies the Long Gallery, a promenading room that was, before its segmentation, 148 feet long. In this room, the treaty between England and France was signed that established the marriage of King Charles I of England to Queen Henrietta Maria. In the 1940s, parts of the D-day landings were planned there. Second Court is also home to the college's 'triple set', K6.

Library
The Old Library was built in 1624, largely with funds donated by John Williams, Bishop of Lincoln. Hearing of the college's urgent need for greater library space, Williams donated £1,200 anonymously, later revealing his identity and donating a total of £2,011 towards the library's total cost of £3,000. The library's bay window overlooks the River Cam and bears the letters "ILCS" on it, standing for Iohannes Lincolniensis Custos Sigilli, or "John of Lincoln, Keeper of the Seal". The original intention of the college had been to construct an elegant classical building supported by pillared porticos, but Bishop Williams insisted on a more traditional design. Thus, though the college lays claim to too few examples of neo-classical design, the library stands as one of the earliest examples of English neo-Gothic architecture.

Third Court
Third Court is entered through Shrewsbury Tower, which from 1765 to 1859 housed an observatory. Each of its ranges was built in a different style. Following the completion of the college library in 1624, the final sides of the Third Court were added between 1669 and 1672, after the college had recovered from the trauma of the English Civil War. The additions included a fine set of Dutch-gabled buildings backing onto the River Cam and a 'window-with-nothing-behind-it' that was designed to solve the problem of connecting the windowed library with the remainder of the court.

Kitchen or Wren Bridge

This was the first stone bridge erected at St John's College, continuing from Kitchen Lane. The crossing lies south of the Bridge of Sighs and was a replacement for a wooden bridge that had stood on the site since the foundation's early days as a hospital. Though Sir Christopher Wren submitted designs for the bridge, it was eventually built on a different site by a local mason, Robert Grumbold, who also built Trinity College Library. As with the Library, Grumbold's work was based on Wren's designs, and the bridge has become known as "the Wren Bridge".

Kitchen Court
This tiny court, formed within the walls of the old Kitchen Lane, is used as an outdoor dining area.

Bridge of Sighs
Though it bears little resemblance to its namesake in Venice, the bridge connecting Third Court to New Court, originally known as New Bridge, is now commonly known as the Bridge of Sighs. It is one of the most photographed buildings in Cambridge and was described by the visiting Queen Victoria as "so pretty and picturesque". It is a single-span bridge of stone with a highly decorative Neo-Gothic covered footwalk over with traceried openings. There is a three-bay arcade at the east end of the bridge. The architect was Henry Hutchinson.

New Court

The 19th-century neo-Gothic New Court, probably one of the best-known buildings in Cambridge, was the first major building to be built by the college on the west side of the river. Designed by Thomas Rickman and Henry Hutchinson, New Court was constructed between 1826 and 1831 to accommodate the college's rapidly increasing numbers of students. Despite the college's original intention to get the architects to build another copy of the Second Court, plans were accepted for a fashionably romantic building in the 'Gothic' style. It is also likely that the decision to utilise the neo-Gothic style was made to emulate and compete with the neo-Gothic screen of King's College, designed by William Wilkins and already two years under construction at the time of John's commission. It is a three-sided court of tall Gothic Revival buildings, closed on the fourth side by an open, seven-bayed cross-vaulted cloister and gateway. It is four storeys high, has battlements and is pinnacled. The main portal features a fan vault with a large octagonal pendant, which resembles that of the ceiling found in Bishop Alcock's late 15th-century chapel in Ely Cathedral. The interior of the main building retains many of its original features including ribbed plaster ceilings. Its prominent location (particularly when glimpsed from the river) and flamboyant, tiered design have led it to be nicknamed "The Wedding Cake".

Chapel
The Chapel of St John's College is entered by the northwest corner of First Court. It was constructed between 1866 and 1869 to replace the smaller mediaeval chapel which dated back to the 13th century. When in 1861 the college's administration decided that a new building was needed, Sir George Gilbert Scott was selected as the architect. He had recently finished work on the chapel at Exeter College, Oxford, and went about constructing the chapel of St John's College along similar lines, drawing inspiration from Sainte-Chapelle in Paris.

The benefactor Henry Hoare offered a downpayment of £3000 to finance the chapel's construction, in addition to which he promised to pay £1000 a year if a tower were added to Scott's original plans, which had included only a small flèche. Work began, but Hoare's death from a railway accident left the college £3000 short of his expected benefaction. The tower was completed, replete with louvres but left without bells; it is based on Pershore Abbey. The tower is 163 ft high.

The chapel's antechamber contains statues of Lady Margaret Beaufort and John Fisher. Inside the building is a stone-vaulted ante-chapel, at the end of which hangs a 'Deposition of the Cross' by Anton Rafael Mengs, completed around 1777. The misericords and panelling date from 1516, and were salvaged from the old chapel. The chapel contains some fifteenth-century glass, but most was cast by Clayton and Bell, Hardman, and Wailes, in around 1869. Freestanding statues and plaques commemorate college benefactors such as James Wood, Master 1815–39, as well as alumni including William Wilberforce, Thomas Clarkson and William Gilbert. The college tower can be climbed and is accessed via a small door on First Court. However, this access was closed in 2016 for the duration that important structural repairs were carried out to the tower Pinnacles and roof.

The chapel is surrounded on three sides by large tabernacles which form part of the external buttresses. Each contains a statue of a prominent college alumnus, alumna or benefactor. The people commemorated are, beginning with the buttress next to the transept on the south side:

Sir William Cecil, Lord Burghley

Lucius, Viscount Falkland

John Williams, Archbishop of York

Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford

William Gilbert, natural philosopher

Roger Ascham, instructor to Elizabeth I

Mary Cavendish, Countess of Shrewsbury

Richard Bentley, classicist

Edward Stillingfleet, bishop of Worcester

John Overall, Bishop of Coventry, Lichfield and Norwich

Peter Gunning, Bishop of Chichester and Ely

Sarah Alston, Duchess of Somerset

Thomas Clarkson, abolitionist

Brook Taylor, natural philosopher and mathematician

Thomas Linacre, founder of the Royal College of Physicians

Two plinths left vacant

Thomas Baker, historian

Master's Lodge and garden
St John's Master's Lodge is located in a grassy clearing to the north of Third Court. It was built at the same time as the new chapel was being constructed and has Tudor fittings, wainscot, portraits and other relics from the demolished north wing of First Court. It has a large garden, and in the winter its westmost rooms have excellent views of the college's old library, the River Cam, and the Bridge of Sighs. The architect was Sir George Gilbert Scott.

Buildings and courts since 1900
Located to the west of the chapel tower lies Chapel Court, which was constructed together with North Court and Forecourt in the 1930s to account for an increase in student numbers. North Court is located just north of Chapel Court and Forecourt is situated to the east, facing St John's Street. The latter is used partly as a car park for fellows and leads to what is now the principal porters' lodge and entrance to the college. All three courts were designed by the architect Edward Maufe.

Further increases in student numbers following the Second World War prompted the college to increase the number of accommodation buildings. The Cripps Building was built in the late 1960s to satisfy this demand. It is located just behind New Court and forms two courts (Upper & Lower River Court). Designed by architects Philip Powell and Hidalgo Moya, the building is Grade II* listed having received an award from the British Architectural Institution. It is considered an exemplar of late 20th-century architectural style and is named after its main benefactor, Humphrey Cripps. In 2014, the building went through an extensive refurbishment programme, which saw renovated accommodation and structural repairs, including the cleaning of the Portland stone from which the building was made.

To the west of the Cripps Building lies the School of Pythagoras. Built around 1200, it predates the college by 300 years and is both the oldest secular building in Cambridge and the oldest building continuously in use by a university in Britain. The building now serves as the location for the College Archives. Next to the School of Pythagoras lies Merton Hall. From 1266 until 1959 both the School of Pythagoras and Merton Hall were the property of Merton College, Oxford. Merton Court is the college's eleventh and westernmost court.

In 1987 the construction of the Fisher Building was completed. Named after Cardinal John Fisher, the building contains teaching rooms, conference facilities, and a student-run college cinema. It was designed by the architect Peter Boston.

Located opposite the college's Great Gate is All Saints' Yard. The complex is formed from the buildings of the so-called "Triangle Site", a collection of structures owned by the college. An extensive renovation project finished in Michaelmas Term 2012 had a budget of approximately £9.75 million. The centrepiece of the Yard is Corfield Court, named after the project's chief benefactor, Charles Corfield. The site can be entered through one of two card-activated gates or through the School of Divinity. The School of Divinity is the largest building on the site and was built between 1878 and 1879 by Basil Champneys for the University of Cambridge's divinity faculty on land leased by St John's College. Control of the building reverted to St John's when the faculty of divinity moved to a new building on the Sidgwick site in 2000.

College choirs
The Choir of St John's College has a tradition of religious music and has sung the daily services in the College Chapel since the 1670s. The services follow the cathedral tradition of the Church of England, with Evensong being sung during Term six days a week and Sung Eucharist on Sunday mornings. Since 2023 the choir has been directed by Christopher Gray, who was formerly the choirmaster and organist at Truro Cathedral. The boys of the choir are educated and board at St John's College School. During university vacations, the choir carries out engagements elsewhere. Recent tours have taken it to places including the Netherlands, the US and Japan.

The choir has an extensive discography of nearly 100 commercial releases dating back to the 1950s when it was signed to the Decca/Argo label under George Guest. The Choir has since had successful recording contracts with Hyperion Records and Chandos Records, resulting in many critical accolades including a Gramophone Editor's Choice selection for 2015's collection The Call. In 2016 the choir signed to Signum Records on its St John's College imprint. The first recording of this venture was a collection of music by the contemporary composer Jonathan Harvey released in May 2016 to a number two position in the UK specialist classical charts. The imprint will also release non-choral recordings by current and former members of the college.

In October 2021, it was announced that girls and women would join the Choir of St John's College, making it the first choir of an Oxford or Cambridge college to combine "the voices of males and females in both adults and children".

The choral scholars and lay clerks of the choir also form their close harmony group, The Gents of St John's. Their repertoire spans the 15th century through to the modern day, and concert tours have taken them to Europe, the US and Japan. They provide a mixture of classical a cappella music and folksongs, as well as covers of recent chart hits and light-hearted entertainment, and host an annual Christmas concert and garden party.

The college also had a mixed-voice adult choir, St John's Voices, which was founded in 2013 to allow female members of the college to take part in the college's choral tradition. It comprised around 30 members and premiered 3 works. In March 2024, St John's Voices received written notice from the College of their disbandment by June 2024. This decision by the College was met with widespread controversy, as soprano undergraduates at the College would be unable to sing in a College Choir. This sparked a campaign by members of St John's Voices against the disbandment, with an open letter stating that the decision was "regressive" and that the admission of female singers into the Choir of St John's College had been "weaponised against the very existence of another ensemble, supposedly in the name of broadening opportunities". The open letter received national media attention from The Guardian, The Daily Telegraph and The Independent, with notable supporters including former Archbishop of Canterbury and Master of Magdalene College Rowan Williams, music director of the London Symphony Orchestra Sir Simon Rattle, mezzo-soprano Dame Sarah Connolly, and composer John Rutter.

Shield and arms
St John's College and Christ's College, Cambridge both bear the arms of Lady Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond and Derby, mother of Henry VII. These arms are recorded in the College of Arms as being borne by right, and are described as Quarterly: 1 and 4 azure three fleurs-de-lis gold (France, Modern); 2 and 3 gules three lions passant gardant or (England); all within a border compony silver and azure. In addition, both foundations use the Beaufort crest, an eagle displayed arising out of a coronet of roses and fleurs-de-lis all gold, but their title to this is more doubtful. When displayed in their full achievement, the arms are flanked by mythical yales.

Motto
The college motto is the Old French souvent me souvient of Lady Margaret Beaufort. It is inscribed over gates, lintels and within tympana throughout the college, functioning as a triple pun. It means "often I remember", "think of me often" and, when spoken (exploiting the homonym souvent me sous vient), "I often pass beneath it" (referring to the inscriptions). St John's shares its motto with Christ's College, Cambridge and Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, which also honour Lady Margaret Beaufort.

Prayer
The College Prayer is spoken at the end of chapel services. It alludes to the gospel of John in which it is presumed the author mentions himself anonymously as the disciple Jesus loved: "Bless, O Lord, the work of this College, which is called by the name of thy beloved disciple; and grant that love of the brethren and all sound learning may ever grow and prosper here, to thy honour and glory, and to the good of thy people, who, with the Father and the Holy Spirit, livest and reignest, one God, world without end. Amen."

Grace
The college grace is customarily said before and after dinner in the hall. The reading of grace before dinner (ante prandium) is usually the duty of a scholar of the college; grace after dinner (post prandium) is said by the president or the senior fellow dining. The graces used in St John's have been in continuous use for some centuries and it is known that the ante prandium is based upon mediaeval monastic models. The grace is said shortly after the fellows enter the hall, signalled by the sounding of a gong, and accompanied by the ringing of the college's Grace Bell. The ante prandium is read after the fellows have entered, and the post prandium after they have finished dining:

Rivalry with Trinity
St John's remains a great rival of Trinity College, which is its main competitor in sports and academia. The rivalry can be traced to Henry VIII founding Trinity after having ordered the execution of John Fisher, whose efforts had ensured the foundation of St John's. Over the years, numerous anecdotes and myths have arisen, involving students and fellows of both colleges. The rivalry is often cited as the reason why the older courts of Trinity have no "J" staircases, despite including other letters in alphabetical order (it should be mentioned that a far more likely reason is the absence of the letter "J" in the Latin alphabet). There are also two small muzzle-loading cannons on Trinity's bowling green pointing in the direction of John's, though this orientation may be coincidental. Similarly, the eagle on top of the entrance to St John's New Court is said to have been sculptured so that it shuns even the sight of its neighbouring rival. Generally, however, the colleges maintain a cordial relationship with one other; compatriotism led to the splitting of the atomic nucleus in 1932 by Ernest Walton (Trinity) and John Cockcroft (St John's), for which they jointly received the 1951 Nobel Prize in Physics.

New Court's clock tower
New Court's central cupola has four blank clock faces. These are subject to various apocryphal explanations. One legend maintains that a statute limiting the number of chiming clocks in Cambridge rendered the addition of a mechanism illegal. No such limitation is known to exist. More likely explanations include Hutchinson's fear that the installation of a clockface would spoil the building's symmetry and that the college's financial situation in the early nineteenth century made completion impossible.

Other legends explaining the absence of clockfaces claim that St John's and its neighbour, Trinity were engaged in a race to build the final (or tallest) clocktower in Cambridge. Supposedly, whichever was finished first (or was tallest) would be permitted to house the 'final' chiming clock in Cambridge. Trinity's Tower was finished first (or, in another version of the same story, was made taller overnight by the addition of a wooden cupola), and its clock was allowed to remain. In truth, the completion of the New Court and Trinity's Clock (which is in King Edward's Tower) was separated by nearly two centuries. Trinity's famous double-striking clock was installed in the seventeenth century by its then-Master, Richard Bentley, a former student of St John's, who dictated that the clock chime once for Trinity, and once for his alma mater, St John's.

Consumption of swan
Supposedly, Fellows of St John's are the only people outside the royal family in the United Kingdom allowed to eat unmarked mute swans. The Crown (the British monarch) retains the right to ownership of all unmarked mute swans in open water, but the King only exercises his ownership on certain stretches of the Thames and its surrounding tributaries. The ownership of swans in the Thames is shared equally among the Crown, the Vintners' Company and the Dyers' Company, who were granted rights of ownership by the Crown in the fifteenth century.

Ghosts
According to popular legend, St John's is inhabited by some ghosts. In 1706, four fellows "exorcised" some ghosts from a house opposite the college by threatening to fire their pistols at the positions the moans and groans were coming from. The second court is supposedly haunted by the ghost of the former undergraduate and master, James Wood. Wood was so poor that he could not afford to light his room, and would often do his work in the well-lit stairway.

Student life
The buildings of St John's College include the chapel, the Hall, the old library, a more contemporary "new" library, a bar, and common rooms for fellows, graduates and undergraduates. There are also extensive gardens, lawns, a neighbouring sports ground, a College School and a boat house. On-site accommodation is provided for all undergraduate and graduate students. This is generally spacious, and many undergraduate rooms comprise "sets" of living and sleeping rooms, where two students share a suite of two bedrooms, a kitchen and a bathroom. Members of the college can choose to dine either in the Hall, where silver service three-course meals are served six evenings per week or in the buttery, where food can be purchased from a cafeteria-style buffet. College catering is organised by Bill Brogan, overseer of the intercollegiate Stewards' Cup.

The college maintains an extensive library, which supplements the university libraries. Most undergraduate supervisions are carried out in the college, though for some specialist subjects undergraduates may be sent to tutors in other colleges.

The college has two official combination rooms for junior members, which represent the interests of students in college and are responsible for the social aspects of college life. Undergraduates are members of the Junior Combination Room (JCR). Graduate students have a membership to the JCR, but also belong to the Samuel Butler Room, which is the Middle Combination Room (MCR) of St John's College.

The fleet of punts is kept in a purpose-built punt pool behind the Cripps Building. Punt boats are available for use by all members of the college as well as alumni.

St John's tends to be ranked near the middle of the Tompkins Table of undergraduate degree results, with an average position of 12.8 since 1997.

Samuel Butler Room Society
The Samuel Butler Room Society (SBR) is the Middle Combination Room (MCR) of St John's College. The Society traces its foundation to 1960 when graduate student members submitted an application to the College Council for official separation from the Junior Combination Room (JCR). The name of the Society refers to the physical rooms which are used by members of the Society. The rooms were named after the noted Johnian author and polymath Samuel Butler. The membership of the Society comprises all members of the college who are registered graduate students of the college and affiliated students of the college.

Sports

The college has a sporting history, enjoying success in most of the major sports on offer in Cambridge. The college has a cardio gym and a weights gym on-site and has pristine pitches right behind the college.

The Red Boys, St John's College Rugby Club, won the Division One League title for nine years in a row, before losing to Jesus in 2010–11, and the Cuppers trophy for 6 years in a row from 2006 to 2011, making it one of the most successful collegiate sports teams in Cambridge's history. The Redboys occupy eighteen out of the twenty-four plates on the current Division One League Shield and thirteen out of the seventeen names on the Cuppers trophy. Since 2014, the club has taken home four Cuppers trophies (most recently in 2023 wherein they went undefeated and won the league title), three Division One League Shields, and the inaugural Sevens Shield in 2016–17. In the 2016–17 season, the Redboys went undefeated.

St John's regularly produces a strong contingent of university players but also ensures new players develop and get game time swiftly. The rugby club has produced several notable alumni including former RFU executive Francis Baron, former Newcastle, England and Lions fly-half and former RFU Director of Elite Rugby Rob Andrew, and Battlestar Galactica actor Jamie Bamber.

The college rowing club, the Lady Margaret Boat Club (LMBC), is the oldest in the university and was founded in 1825. Despite many rumours concerning the name of the club, it was merely the most successful of the many boat clubs established in the college in the 19th century. Similarly, the traditional rival of the LMBC, the Boat Club of Trinity College, is known as "First and Third" because of its formation from two original clubs.

Scholarships and prizes
Every year the college awards scholarships to a handful of graduate students under the Benefactors' and Scholarships Scheme. The most generous of all the early benefactors of St John's College was Roger Lupton (died 1540), Provost of Eton and chaplain to Henry VIII. Lupton had amassed immense wealth through a lifetime of royal service and ecclesiastical pluralism and his scholarships exist today as the Lupton and Hebblethwaite Exhibitions. Other scholarships include the Craik Scholarship, the J.C. Hall Scholarship, the Luisa Aldobrandini Studentship Competition, the Paskin Scholarship and the Pelling Scholarship. Competition for these scholarships is very fierce as students from any country reading for any graduate degree—not only members of the college—can apply.

There is also the Adams Prize in mathematics, named after the mathematician (and alumnus of St John's) John Couch Adams for his discovery of Neptune – it is an annual competition and can be awarded to any mathematician resident in the UK, with an age limit of under 40. The college is also associated with the Dr Manmohan Singh Scholarship, first awarded in 2008.

Students at the college wishing to practise law can apply for a McMahon Law Studentship to cover the expense of further study or obtaining professional qualifications.

Every year, students who excel academically and contribute to the life of the college can be nominated for the prestigious Larmor awards. The Awards are named after Sir Joseph Larmor, a former student at St John's. Winners of the prize receive a unique handcrafted piece of silverware and a financial prize. Recent award winners include the actor Jonah Hauer-King and the violinist Julia Hwang.

May Ball
St John's hosts a large and typically spectacular May Ball, which is traditionally held on the Tuesday of May Week. In recent years, tickets have only been available to Johnians and their guests. Highlights include an extravagant fireworks display and a variety of musical acts which in recent years have included Rudimental, Gorgon City and Katy B. The May Ball is organised by the committee, usually composed of 10 students from the college, with roles ranging from Head of Food, Drink, Security, Scene, Creative, Logistics, Employment, and the executive committee with a President, Vice-President and Junior Treasurer. The first ball took place in 1888 and has since been considered one of the most lavish end-of-year university parties. The theme is kept a secret until the night itself.

People associated with the college
See also Category:Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge, Category:Fellows of St John's College, Cambridge''. Notable Johnians include former Heads of State, politicians, academics, Nobel laureates, poets and writers. Over 1000 former members of St John's College appear in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

Prime Ministers: Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham (briefly admitted), Prime Minister of Great Britain, 1765–66 and 1782, F. J. Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, 1827–28, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, 1852–55, Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, 1855–58 & 1859–65, Alfred Domett, Prime Minister of New Zealand, 1862–63, Sir Francis Bell, Prime Minister of New Zealand, 1925, Manmohan Singh, Prime Minister of India, 2004–14.

Nobel Prize winners:

 * Paul Dirac, Nobel Prize in Physics 1933, "for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory".
 * Edward Appleton, Nobel Prize in Physics 1947, "for his investigations of the physics of the upper atmosphere especially for the discovery of the so-called Appleton Layer".
 * John Cockcroft, Nobel Prize in Physics 1951, "for their pioneer work on the transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles".
 * Max Born, Nobel Prize in Physics 1954, "for fundamental research in Quantum Mechanics, especially in the statistical interpretation of the wavefunction".
 * Frederick Sanger, Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1958, "for his work on the structure of proteins, especially that of insulin".
 * Maurice Wilkins, Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1973, "for their pioneering work, performed independently, on the chemistry of the organometallic, so-called sandwich compounds".
 * Nevill Francis Mott, Nobel Prize in Physics 1977, "for their fundamental theoretical investigations of the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems"
 * Abdus Salam, Nobel Prize in Physics 1979, "for their contributions to the theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, including, inter alia, the prediction of the weak neutral current".
 * Allan Cormack, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1979, "for the development of computer-assisted tomography"
 * Frederick Sanger, Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1980, "for their contributions concerning the determination of base sequences in nucleic acids".
 * Eric Maskin, Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 2007, "for having laid the foundations of mechanism design theory".
 * Roger Penrose, Nobel Prize in Physics 2020, "for the discovery that black hole formation is a robust prediction of the general theory of relativity".

Copley Medallists: John Frederick William Herschel (1821), John Frederick William Herschel (1847), John Couch Adams (1848), James Joseph Sylvester (1880), George Howard Darwin (1911), Joseph Larmor (1921), Charles Algernon Parsons (1928), Arthur Schuster (1931), Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac (1952), Harold Jeffreys (1960), Nevill Francis Mott (1972), William Valance Douglas Hodge (1974), Frederick Sanger (1977), Rudolf Ernst Peierls (1986), Abdus Salam (1990), Roger Penrose (2008), David Roxbee Cox (2010)

St John's and the abolition of the British slave trade

Several of St John's graduates were involved in the efforts to abolish the British Slave Trade that culminated in the Act of 1807. In particular, Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce, Thomas Gisborne and Thomas Babington were active in the Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade and other abolitionist efforts.

As part of the commemoration of the bicentenary of the 1807 Act, and as a representative of one of the Ivy League universities offering an American historical perspective on the Triangular Trade, President Ruth J. Simmons of Brown University (herself a descendant of American slaves) gave a public lecture at St John's College entitled "Hidden in Plain Sight: Slavery and Justice in Rhode Island" on 16 February 2007. St John's College hosted some of the events relating to the commemoration, including an academic conference and a Gospel Mass in the College Chapel with the London Adventist Chorale.

title: St John's College, Cambridge


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Talk:Belisarius/Archive 1

why is this "General Belisarius" rather than just "Belisarius"? MichaelTinkler

Because someone used the "Belisarius" entry to write a very long article on a fictional play about him, and when I came along to write about the real person, I couldn't think of any better way to present another long article. There's a link on the Belisarius page to this one; if someone wants to combine the two articles, fine by me, but I thought it was best for it to stand alone. John

title: Talk:Belisarius/Archive 1


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Pulitzer Prize for Drama

The Pulitzer Prize for Drama is one of the seven American Pulitzer Prizes that are annually awarded for Letters, Drama, and Music. It is one of the original Pulitzers, for the program was inaugurated in 1917 with seven prizes, four of which were awarded that year. (No Drama prize was given, however, so that one was inaugurated in 1918, in a sense.) It recognizes a theatrical work staged in the U.S. during the preceding calendar year.

Until 2007, eligibility for the Drama Prize ran from March 1 to March 2 to reflect the Broadway "season" rather than the calendar year that governed most other Pulitzer Prizes.

The drama jury, which consists of one academic and four critics, attends plays in New York and in regional theaters. The Pulitzer board can overrule the jury's choice; in 1986, the board's opposition to the jury's choice of the CIVIL warS resulted in no award being given.

In 1955 Joseph Pulitzer, Jr. pressured the prize jury into presenting the Prize to Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, which the jury considered the weakest of the five shortlisted nominees ("amateurishly constructed... from the stylistic points of view annoyingly pretentious"), instead of Clifford Odets' The Flowering Peach (their preferred choice) or The Bad Seed, their second choice. Edward Albee's Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? was selected for the 1963 Pulitzer Prize for Drama by that award's committee. However, the committee's selection was overruled by the award's advisory board, the trustees of Columbia University, because of the play's then-controversial use of profanity and sexual themes. Had Albee been awarded, he would be tied with Eugene O'Neill for the most Pulitzer Prizes for Drama (four).

Awards and nominations
In its first 106 years to 2022, the Drama Pulitzer was awarded 91 times; none were given in 15 years and it was never split.

The most recipients of the prize in one year was five, when Michael Bennett, James Kirkwood, Jr., Nicholas Dante, Marvin Hamlisch, and Edward Kleban shared the 1976 prize for the musical A Chorus Line.

Musicals
Ten musicals have won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama, roughly one per decade from the 1930s to the 2020s¹. They are: George and Ira Gershwin's Of Thee I Sing (1932), Rodgers and Hammerstein's South Pacific (1950), Bock & Harnick's Fiorello! (1960), Frank Loesser's How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying (1962), Marvin Hamlisch, Edward Kleban, James Kirkwood, Jr., and Nicholas Dante's A Chorus Line (1976), Stephen Sondheim's and James Lapine's Sunday in the Park with George (1985), Jonathan Larson's Rent (1996), Brian Yorkey and Tom Kitt's Next to Normal (2010), Lin-Manuel Miranda's Hamilton (2016), and Michael R. Jackson's A Strange Loop (2020). Though it did not win for Drama, Oklahoma! was awarded a special Pulitzer Prize in 1944.

Of note, South Pacific won the 1950 Pulitzer for Drama but its source material, James Michener's Tales of the South Pacific, also won the 1948 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction.

Sunday in the Park with George and Next to Normal are the only musicals that won the Pulitzer Prize and did not also win the Tony Award for Best Musical; the latter won the authors Tonys for Best Original Score and Best Orchestrations. Of Thee I Sing opened before the Tony Awards existed.

The award goes to the playwright, although production of the play is also taken into account. In the case of a musical being awarded the prize, the composer, lyricist and book writer are generally the recipients. An exception to this was the first Pulitzer ever awarded to a musical: when Of Thee I Sing won in 1932, book authors George S. Kaufman and Morrie Ryskind, as well as lyricist Ira Gershwin, were cited as the winners, while composer George Gershwin's contribution was overlooked by the committee. The reason given was that the Pulitzer Prize for Drama is a dramatic award, and not a musical one. However, by 1950 the Pulitzer committee included composer Richard Rodgers as a recipient when South Pacific won the award, in recognition of music as an integral and important part of the theatrical experience.

Additionally, since 1983, when the identity of finalists was first disclosed, five musicals have been finalists for the Pulitzer Prize for Drama. They are: Lee Breuer and Bob Telson's The Gospel at Colonus (1985); Lin-Manuel Miranda and Quiara Alegría Hudes' In the Heights (2009); Jeanine Tesori and Lisa Kron's Fun Home (2014); Taylor Mac's A 24-Decade History of Popular Music (2017); and David Henry Hwang and Jeanine Tesori's Soft Power (2020).

¹All listed dates are Prize years. Generally, the musical in question opened in New York during either the preceding calendar year or the preceding Broadway season.

Multiple wins and nominations
The following individuals received two or more Pulitzer Prizes for Drama:

The following individuals received two or more nominations:

Lynn Nottage is the only female playwright to win the prize twice. She and August Wilson are the only playwrights of color to accomplish this feat.

Jon Robin Baitz, Gina Gionfriddo, John Guare, A.R. Gurney, Richard Greenberg, Tina Howe, Branden Jacobs-Jenkins, Stephen Karam, Sarah Ruhl and Jeanine Tesori have each been named finalists twice without winning. David Henry Hwang is the only person to have been named a finalist thrice without winning. Lin-Manuel Miranda and Jeanine Tesori are the only people to be named as a finalist twice for writing and composing a musical, with Miranda winning in 2016.

title: Pulitzer Prize for Drama


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Occupational therapist

Occupational therapists (OTs) are health care professionals specializing in occupational therapy and occupational science. OTs and occupational therapy assistants (OTAs) use scientific bases and a holistic perspective to promote a person's ability to fulfill their daily routines and roles. OTs have training in the physical, psychological, and social aspects of human functioning deriving from an education grounded in anatomical and physiological concepts, and psychological perspectives. They enable individuals across the lifespan by optimizing their abilities to perform activities that are meaningful to them ("occupations"). Human occupations include activities of daily living, work/vocation, play, education, leisure, rest and sleep, and social participation.

OTs work in a variety of fields, including pediatrics, orthopedics, neurology, low vision therapy, physical rehabilitation, mental health, assistive technology, oncological rehabilitation, and geriatrics. OTs are employed in healthcare settings such as hospitals, nursing homes, residential care facilities, home health agencies, outpatient rehabilitation centers, etc. OTs are also employed by school systems, and as consultants by businesses to address employee work-related safety and productivity. Many OTs are also self-employed and own independent practices. In the United States, OTs are also employed as commissioned officers in the Army, Navy and Air force branches of the military. In the US Army, OTs are part of the Army Medical Specialist Corps. OTs are also a part of the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, one of eight uniformed services of the United States.

Occupational therapy interventions are aimed to restore/ improve functional abilities, and/or alleviate/ eliminate limitations or disabilities through compensatory/adaptive methods. OTs, thus, evaluate and address both the individual's capacities and his/ her environment (physical and psycho-social) in order to help the individual optimize their function and fulfill their occupational roles. They often recommend adaptive equipment/ assistive technology products and provide training in its use to help mitigate limitations and enhance safety.

Preparation and qualifications
To practice as an occupational therapist, the individual trained in the United States:
 * Has graduated from an occupational therapy program (currently at the master's or doctoral levels) accredited by the Accreditation Council for Occupational Therapy Education (ACOTE) or predecessor organizations;
 * Has successfully completed a period of supervised fieldwork experience required by the recognized educational institution where the applicant met the academic requirements of an educational program for occupational therapists that is accredited by ACOTE or predecessor organizations;
 * Has passed a nationally recognized registration examination for occupational therapists (OTR, for "Occupational Therapist, Registered, Licensed") administered by the National Board for Certification in Occupational Therapy (NBCOT); and
 * Fulfills state requirements for licensure, certification, or registration.

Places of work
Employment may include hospitals, clinics, day and community-based rehabilitation centers, home care programs, special schools, industry, and private enterprise. Many occupational therapists work in private practice and as educators and consultants. Occupational therapist practitioners (OTPs) also work in community outreach, after school programs, community centers, and anywhere meaningful life activities occur. Occupational therapists meet clients in natural settings where real life activities and routines occur.

Role
Occupational therapists are skilled healthcare professionals who promote participation, health, and well-being through meaningful engagement in everyday activities. One of their main goals is to help their patients function effectively in their roles and routines in everyday life.

Occupational therapy practitioners work with clients of all ages in diverse practice areas, some of which include rehabilitation after illness/injury, pediatrics, mental health, geriatrics, assistive technology, health and wellness, pain management, work/industry, and community accessibility.

Occupational therapists may promote client participation and independence in life by strengthening client factors and performance skills such as physical, cognitive, and perceptual abilities. OTs may also help clients achieve their desired outcomes by facilitating their use of adaptive strategies, adaptive equipment, and/or environmental modifications.

Occupational therapists focus on providing a client-centered, holistic approach to each patient, using therapeutic interventions geared toward the person, occupation, and environment. Occupational therapists bring attention to a person's unique identity, abilities, strengths, interests, and environment to provide strategies and techniques that will allow clients to live life to the fullest. Occupational therapists foster promotion of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and a sense of achievement through doing, being, and belonging in a client's choice of activities, roles, routines, contexts, and environments. Occupational therapists can also provide prevention and education regarding physical, mental, and social-emotional aspects of health and wellness within the realm of prevention, promotion, and intervention.

Occupational therapists are often involved in multidisciplinary teams that may include health care practitioners such as physicians, nurses, physiotherapists, speech and language therapists, rehabilitation psychologists, and social workers. Building effective partnerships with other professionals in the interest of quality service provision to clients are essential to valuable practice. Collaboration with members of the client's team enriches interdisciplinary communication and ensures the best outcomes for clients. The client and their family and caregivers remain the central focus and driving force of the team.

Work-related therapy
Some occupational therapists treat individuals whose ability to function in a work environment has been impaired. These practitioners arrange employment, evaluate the work environment, plan work activities, and assess the client's progress. Therapists also may collaborate with the client and the employer to modify the work environment so that the work can be successfully completed.

Pediatric practice
Pediatric occupational therapists support their communities by providing services to infants, toddlers, children, youth, and their families across a variety of settings that might include schools, clinics, and homes. They do this by implementing intervention that is driven by science and backed by evidence. A child's life is made up of "occupations". These "occupations", or daily activities, include play, learning, and socializing. The role of the pediatric occupational therapist is to support the child in any environment in which the child is not able to carry out the desired occupations. The most common areas of practice for a pediatric occupational therapist include: neonatal intensive care units (NICU), early intervention, schools, and outpatient services. Areas of emerging practice include primary care and community-based.

Neonatal intensive care units (NICU)
From the beginning of life, occupational therapists might work with infants who are medically fragile in NICU of medical centers. An occupational therapist might address areas such as feeding/nutrition, positioning, development, sensory processing and integration, and sleep.

Early intervention
An occupational therapist may work with children in early intervention, from birth to three years old. The role of the occupational therapist is to support the child's needs by collaborating with the caregivers/parents. The goal of the occupational therapist in early intervention is to support the achievement of developmental milestones. They do this by providing intervention and education in the context of play and daily living. Therapeutic intervention may include feeding/nutrition, physical development, play skill development, social/emotional development. In early intervention, a strong emphasis is placed on parent/caregiver education. The reason Occupational Therapists are vital to the NICU, is due to the vulnerability of premature infants. NICU-based therapists teach the skills the infant needs to live optimally. However, they do this while simultaneously understanding the medical interventions occurring, and how these medical needs need to be worked around during a therapy session. Infants who received more therapy displayed better neurological behaviors. Occupational Therapists mainly focus on positioning the child, including equipment and how to promote optimal development.

Schools
Once a child is over the age of three and meets eligibility for special education services, the child may receive occupational therapy services through an Individualized Education Program (IEP). In the school setting, the goal of occupational therapy is to support the implementation of the IEP. The occupational therapist might do this by providing direct or indirect services. Direct services might include individual or group services. Indirect services might include consultation with their school team, creating modifications and/or accommodations for the classroom, and/or providing training to the school team.

Outpatient services
Occupational therapists might also work with children in an outpatient clinic. When serving children in an outpatient clinic, services typically have to meet the criteria for medical necessity. Occupational therapists continue to focus on "occupations"; however, the "occupations" typically are related to medically necessary occupations such as safety and health.

Primary care
Primary care for occupational therapists is an emerging area of practice. Traditionally a primary care office included physician, physician assistant, nurse, or nurse practitioner. In this model, the physician is limited to diagnosing and medical management. The field of occupational therapy is advocating for occupational therapists to become a part of primary care teams. In regard to children, an occupational therapist could contribute by providing early parent training, developmental screenings, tips for wellness and prevention.

Community-based
Another emerging area of practice for occupational therapy is promoting health and wellness through community-based programming. Occupational therapist can do this by coaching and consulting in the community. It is implemented through not just the OTs but through the community stakeholders and those with disabilities themselves.

OTs work in community-based rehabilitation projects as trainers and educators to help teach community members while facilitating them and developing programs.

Some examples include backpack awareness, promoting physical activity in families, creating inclusive community environments such as churches and health facilities, advocacy at government levels, conducting rallies, etc.

Human displacement
This refers to forced movement of communities by environmental or social factors which causes loss of occupational activities. This is caused by a number of factors including natural disaster, famine, armed conflict or developmental and economic changes. Occupational therapists work with these displaced persons in order to help rebuild roles, routines, self-efficacy, so that occupational imbalance, injustice, or deprivation does not occur. Occupational therapists work through community-based programs that are client-centered and culturally sensitive.

With older people
Occupational therapy is very beneficial to the older population. Therapists help older people lead more productive, active, and independent lives through a variety of methods, including the use of adaptive equipment. Occupational therapists work with older people in many varied environments, such as in their homes in the community, in hospital, and in residential care facilities to name a few. In the home environment, occupational therapists may work with the individuals to assess for hazards and to identify environmental factors that contribute to falls. Occupational therapists are often instrumental in assessing for appropriate wheelchairs for older people who may need them. In addition, therapists with specialized training in driver rehabilitation assess an individual's ability to drive using both clinical and on-the-road tests. The evaluations allow the therapist to make recommendations for adaptive equipment, training to prolong driving independence, and alternative transport options.

Mental health
During World War II, occupational therapy began to play a far bigger role in the treatment of soldiers in psychiatric hospitals run by or for the British military. Therapists found that engagement in occupation (usually crafts such as woodwork, sign writing, carpentry, etc.) was an effective intervention for increasing self-regulation and mental well-being in people with physical disabilities such as loss of limb and mental illness. In the decades since, occupational therapy has continued to advance and services in mental health now aim to promote positive mental health, prevent mental health problems, and help manage mental health challenges by providing client-centered care. According to the World Federation of Occupational Therapists (2019, p. 2), occupational therapists recognize that good mental health enables people to realize their potential, cope with life's normal stresses, work productively, and contribute to their communities". Occupational therapists acknowledge the unique identities of each individual and their lived experiences and values choice and autonomy with one's recovery journey to promote participation in meaningful occupations of everyday life. Occupational therapists address the needs of clients in all phases of mental health recovery and in all settings, ranging from acute inpatient mental health settings to community mental health settings. Occupational therapists also work with clients on a large continuum of mental health challenges, including clients with substance-use disorders, mental illness, eating disorders, stress-related challenges, trauma, and adverse experiences. Skilled interventions with clients may include:
 * Self-regulation and coping strategies (e.g. mindfulness, grounding)
 * Emotional awareness training and emotional regulation strategies, including advocacy
 * Social emotional skills and training
 * Social cognitive skills
 * Training in executive functioning strategies
 * Quality of life measures and awareness
 * Implementation of healthy habits and routines
 * Motivational interviewing
 * Strategies to reduce stress
 * Sensory modulation-related interventions to self-regulate
 * Behavioral interventions, such as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) or dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT)
 * Trauma-informed care
 * Skills training with accommodations or compensatory strategies
 * Mental health literacy
 * Lifestyle redesign, a preventative occupational therapy intervention to promote wellness

With terminally-ill patients
Occupational therapy (OT) practitioners help patients with terminal illnesses and conditions by assisting them with their needs related to end-of-life support. All of the areas of a patient's life including work, play and leisure are widely affected. An occupational therapist provides various treatment modalities to help such individuals to restore or maintain their deteriorating performance components by using their remaining capabilities to give them a sense of self-importance and a measure of self-confidence. The World Federation of Occupational Therapy (WFOT) recognizes the important role OT practitioners have in end-of-life care. In working with patients who have severe health conditions, disabilities and terminal illnesses, the OT clinician will help these individuals engage in meaningful, everyday occupations, as well as exercise the right to well-being and the best quality of life despite the unavoidable conclusion to their lifecycle. An OT practitioner understands the transactional relationship that exists between the individual, environment, and occupation; so that life enhancing, ongoing performance in quality of life activities are promoted. The WFOT recognizes an optimistic presence for OT in end-of-life care with an ongoing need for advocacy and support.

With people experiencing chronic pain
Occupational therapists often work within interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary teams (professionals such as physical therapists, nurses and physicians) to help individuals with chronic pain develop active self-management strategies. An area of specific concern to occupational therapists is the usage of a patient's time but it is also common for occupational therapists to help people return to work, and to return to leisure and family activities. Occupational therapists may use a variety of interventions including biofeedback, relaxation, goal setting, problem solving, planning, and can use those tools within both group and individual settings. Therapists may work within a clinic setting, or in the community including the workplace, school, home and health care centers. Occupational therapists may assess occupational performance before and after intervention, as a measure of effectiveness and reduction in disability.

Models
Occupational therapists can work from a variety of models, both broad and discrete. Top-down approaches are considered more broad and focus on the occupation itself while taking into consideration the many contextual factors (environmental, social, cultural, etc.), in comparison to bottom-up approaches which are more narrow or discrete. These models include the Person-Environment-Occupation (PEO), Person-Environment-Occupation-Performance (PEOP), Canadian Model of Occupational Performance and Engagement (CMOP-E), Model of Human Occupation (MOHO), and Ecology of Human Performance (EHP).

Assessment
In order for an individual or group to receive occupational therapy services they must first be referred by themselves, another health care provider, or through their support system (family, friends) to receive an occupational therapy evaluation. As part of the service delivery process, the evaluation consists of the initial occupational profile followed by an analysis of occupational performance. Occupational therapy evaluations and occupational therapy assessments are important in determining an individual's skill set or deficiency. Through the occupational profile, which is a structured interview of the client, an occupational therapist can identify the client's self-perceived strengths and limitations in participating in daily occupations and help create an individualized treatment plan that addresses the occupations that are meaningful and necessary to the client. As part of the occupational profile, an occupational therapist also seeks to identify physical and social supports and barriers to participation. Occupational therapists often gather additional information by communicating with the client's support system, which may include a child's parents/guardians, a student's teacher, an adult's spouse/siblings/friends, or a senior's caretaker. The analysis of occupational performance may be gathered through standardized assessments, clinical observations of the client performing a set of tasks and activities, and analysis of the physical or social environment and context in which the client performs the occupations. Occupational therapist utilize skilled observation simultaneously with evaluation of motor and process skills and the effect on the ability of an individual to perform complex or instrumental and personal activities of daily living (ADLs). Occupational therapists are trained in the administration of standardized assessments across the lifespan from infancy to old age, although some standardized assessments require an occupational therapist to gain additional certifications to administer.

Examples of the types of assessments or skill areas occupational therapy practitioners assess include: Through the initial evaluation process, occupational therapists work with the client to establish an individualized treatment plan. Data is collected and recorded throughout the treatment process to be utilized to assess progress and guide ongoing client-centered intervention. This data is also frequently utilized for reimbursement of services. At the conclusion of therapy services, an occupational therapist will complete an outcome assessment which may include a re-evaluation.
 * Sensory processing skills
 * Visual perception and visual motor skills
 * gross motor and fine motor skills
 * Handwriting
 * Upper Limb Hand dexterity
 * Cognition and intelligence
 * School-based evaluations
 * Developmental milestones
 * Daily living tasks include dressing and eating
 * Pain
 * Executive functioning
 * Environmental assessments
 * Employment-based assessments
 * Ergonomic assessments

Assessment may also be more broad such as assessing the accessibility of public spaces for all individuals. Occupational therapists can provide recommendations for building design to allow for access for all. Occupational therapists are also skilled at completing home safety assessments and altering the environment or providing accommodations for ways to complete occupations in the home and for increased safety of clients and caregivers. Occupational therapists can also complete driving assessments to determine the required accommodations in the car or the ability of an individual to safely drive. Furthermore, occupational therapists can work with whole organizations to assess their workspaces to ensure that the work demands and physical set up are conducive to safe working habits to prevent workplace injuries.

Hand therapy
Occupational therapy also plays a major role in the rehabilitation and recovery of patients who have hand injuries, as well as upper and lower extremity injuries. Occupational therapists play a significant role in collaborating with Hand/Orthopedic Surgeons, a patient's employers and/or case managers in providing the best client-centered rehabilitation program. Occupational therapists treat conditions ranging from soft tissue injuries such as tennis elbow to neuropathies such as carpal tunnel syndrome. An Array of Upper Limb assessments are utilized to provide a treatment care plan that is effective and appropriate for each person and their injury. Treatment modalities such as orthosis/splints, soft braces and education are examples of the common treatment tools that an occupational therapist will use during treatment. Hand therapy is a specialized field of occupational therapy and therapists that work in this area are highly skilled and knowledgeable in upper limb anatomy.

title: Occupational therapist


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Corpus Juris Civilis

The Corpus Juris (or Iuris) Civilis ("Body of Civil Law") is the modern name for a collection of fundamental works in jurisprudence, enacted from 529 to 534 by order of Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. It is also sometimes referred to metonymically after one of its parts, the Code of Justinian.

The work as planned had three parts: the Code (Codex) is a compilation, by selection and extraction, of imperial enactments to date; the Digest or Pandects (the Latin title contains both Digesta and Pandectae) is an encyclopedia composed of mostly brief extracts from the writings of Roman jurists; and the Institutes (Institutiones) is a student textbook, mainly introducing the Code, although it has important conceptual elements that are less developed in the Code or the Digest. All three parts, even the textbook, were given force of law. They were intended to be, together, the sole source of law; reference to any other source, including the original texts from which the Code and the Digest had been taken, was forbidden. Nonetheless, Justinian found himself having to enact further laws; today these are counted as a fourth part of the Corpus, the Novellae Constitutiones (Novels, literally New Laws).

The work was directed by Tribonian, an official in Justinian's court in Constantinople. His team was authorized to edit what they included. How far they made amendments is not recorded and, in the main, cannot be known because most of the originals have not survived. The text was composed and distributed almost entirely in Latin, which was still the official language of the government of the Eastern Roman Empire in 529–534, whereas the prevalent language of merchants, farmers, seamen, and other citizens was Greek. By the early 7th century, Greek had largely replaced Latin as the dominant language of the empire.

The Corpus Juris Civilis was revised into Greek, when that became the predominant language of the Eastern Roman Empire, and continued to form the basis of the empire's laws, the Basilika (Greek: τὰ βασιλικά, 'imperial laws'), through the 15th century. The Basilika in turn served as the basis for local legal codes in the Balkans during the following Ottoman period and later formed the basis of the legal code of Modern Greece. In Western Europe, the Corpus Juris Civilis, or its successor texts like the Basilika, did not get well established originally and was only recovered in the Middle Ages, being "received" or imitated as private law. Its public law content was quarried for arguments by both secular and ecclesiastical authorities. This recovered Roman law, in turn, became the foundation of law in all civil law jurisdictions. The provisions of the Corpus Juris Civilis also influenced the canon law of the Catholic Church: it was said that ecclesia vivit lege romana – the church lives by Roman law. Its influence on common law legal systems has been much smaller, although some basic concepts from the Corpus have survived through Norman law – such as the contrast, especially in the Institutes, between "law" (statute) and custom. The Corpus continues to have a major influence on public international law. Its four parts thus constitute the foundation documents of the Western legal tradition.

Compilation process
Justinian acceded to the imperial throne in Constantinople in 527. Six months after his accession, in order to reduce the great number of imperial constitutions and thus also the number of court proceedings, Justinian arranged for the creation of a new collection of imperial constitutions (Codex Iustinianus). The commission in charge of the compilation process was explicitly authorized to leave out or change text and to delete what was obsolete or contradictory. Soon, in 529, the Codex was completed and was conferred the force of law in the whole empire, replacing all earlier constitutions and the Codex Theodosianus.

A little more than a year after the enactment of the first edition of the Code, Justinian appointed a commission headed by Tribonian to compile the traditional jurists' law in a new, shortened and contemporary codification: the 'Digest or Pandects'. The traditional collection of jurists' law, Justinian believed, was so extensive that it had become unmanageable, necessitating a new compilation. The commission completed its work within three years, in 533.

Tribonian's commission surveyed the works of classical jurists who were assumed in Justinian's time to have the authority to clarify law (ius respondendi) and whose works were still available. In total, there are excerpts from 38 jurists in the Digest.

Codex
The "Codex Justinianus", "Codex Justinianeus" or "Codex Justiniani" (Latin for "Justinian's Code") was the first part to be finished, on 7 April 529. It contained in Latin most of the existing imperial constitutiones (imperial pronouncements having force of law), back to the time of Hadrian. It used both the Codex Theodosianus and the fourth-century collections embodied in the Codex Gregorianus and Codex Hermogenianus, which provided the model for division into books that were themselves divided into titles. These works had developed authoritative standing. This first edition is now lost; a second edition was issued in 534 and is the text that has survived. At least the second edition contained some of Justinian's own legislation, including some legislation in Greek. It is not known whether he intended there to be further editions, although he did envisage translation of Latin enactments into Greek.

Legislation about religion
Numerous provisions served to secure the status of Christianity as the state religion of the empire, uniting Church and state, and making anyone who was not connected to the Christian church a non-citizen. The Christianity referred to is Chalcedonian Christianity as defined by the state church, which excluded a variety of other major Christian sects in existence at the time such as the Church of the East and Oriental Orthodoxy.

Laws against heresy
The very first law in the Codex requires all persons under the jurisdiction of the Empire to hold the Christian faith. This was primarily aimed at heresies such as Nestorianism. This text later became the springboard for discussions of international law, especially the question of just what persons are under the jurisdiction of a given state or legal system.

Laws against paganism
Other laws, while not aimed at pagan belief as such, forbid particular pagan practices. For example, it is provided that all persons present at a pagan sacrifice may be indicted as if for murder.

Digesta
The Digesta or Pandectae, completed in 533, is a collection of juristic writings, mostly dating back to the second and third centuries. Fragments were taken out of various legal treatises and opinions and inserted in the Digest. In their original context, the statements of the law contained in these fragments were just private opinions of legal scholars – although some juristic writings had been privileged by Theodosius II's Law of Citations in 426. The Digest, however, was given full force of law.

Institutions
As the Digest neared completion, Tribonian and two professors, Theophilus and Dorotheus, made a student textbook, called the Institutions or Elements. As there were four elements, the manual consists of four books. The Institutiones are largely based on the Institutiones of Gaius. Two-thirds of the Institutiones of Justinian consists of literal quotes from Gaius. The new Institutiones were used as a manual for jurists in training from 21 November 533 and were given the authority of law on 30 December 533 along with the Digest.

Novellae
The Novellae consisted of new laws that were passed after 534. They were later re-worked into the Syntagma, a practical lawyer's edition, by Athanasios of Emesa during the years 572–577.

Continuation in the Eastern Empire
As the administrative language of the Eastern Roman Empire shifted away from Latin, legal codes based on the Corpus Juris Civilis were enacted in Greek. The most well known are: The Basilika was a complete adaptation of Justinian's codification. At 60 volumes it proved to be difficult for judges and lawyers to use. There was need for a short and handy version. This was finally made by Constantine Harmenopoulos, a Byzantine judge from Thessaloniki, in 1345. He made a short version of Basilika in six books, called Hexabiblos. This was widely used throughout the Balkans during the following Ottoman period, and along with the Basilika was used as the first legal code for the newly independent Greek state in the 1820s. Serbian state, law and culture was built on the foundations of Rome and Byzantium. Therefore, the most important Serbian legal codes: Zakonopravilo (1219) and Dušan's Code (1349 and 1354), transplanted Romano-Byzantine Law included in Corpus Juris Civilis, Prohiron and Basilika. These Serbian codes were practised until the Serbian Despotate fell to the Turkish Ottoman Empire in 1459. After the liberation from the Turks in the Serbian Revolution, Serbs continued to practise Roman Law by enacting Serbian civil code in 1844. It was a short version of Austrian civil code (called Allgemeines bürgerliches Gesetzbuch), which was made on the basis of Corpus Juris Civilis.
 * the Ecloga (740) – enacted by emperor Leo the Isaurian;
 * the Prochiron and Epanagoge (c. 879) – enacted by emperor Basil the Macedonian; and
 * the Basilika (late 9th century) – started by Basil the Macedonian and finished by his son, emperor Leo the Wise.

Recovery in the West
Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis was distributed in the West and went into effect in those areas regained under Justinian's wars of reconquest (Pragmatic Sanction of 554), including the Exarchate of Ravenna. Accordingly, the Institutes were made the textbook at the law school in Rome, and later in Ravenna when the school relocated there. However, after the loss of most of these areas, only the Catepanate (southern Italy) maintained a Byzantine legal tradition, but there the Corpus was superseded by the Ecloga and Basilika. Only the Corpus's provisions regulating the church still had any effect, but the Catholic church's de facto autonomy and the Great Schism made even that irrelevant. In Western Europe, the Corpus may have spurred a slew of Romano-Germanic law codes in the successor Germanic kingdoms, but these were heavily based on the older Theodosian Code, not the Corpus.

Historians disagree on the precise way the Corpus was recovered in Northern Italy about 1070: legal studies were undertaken on behalf of papal authority central to the Gregorian Reform of Pope Gregory VII, which may have led to its accidental rediscovery. Aside from the Littera Florentina (a complete 6th-century copy of the Digest preserved in Amalfi and later moved to Pisa) and the Epitome Codicis (c. 1050; incomplete manuscript preserving most of the Codex), there may have been other manuscript sources for the text that began to be taught at Bologna, by Pepo and then by Irnerius. Irnerius' technique was to read a passage aloud, which permitted his students to copy it, then to deliver an excursus explaining and illuminating Justinian's text, in the form of glosses. Irnerius' pupils, the so-called Four Doctors of Bologna, were among the first of the "glossators" who established the curriculum of medieval Roman law. The tradition was carried on by French lawyers, known as the Ultramontani, in the 13th century.

The merchant classes of Italian communes required law with a concept of equity, and law that covered situations inherent in urban life better than the primitive Germanic oral traditions. The provenance of the Code appealed to scholars who saw in the Holy Roman Empire a revival of venerable precedents from the classical heritage. The new class of lawyers staffed the bureaucracies that were beginning to be required by the princes of Europe. The University of Bologna, where Justinian's Code was first taught, remained the dominant centre for the study of law through the High Middle Ages.

A two-volume edition of the Digest was published in Paris in 1549 and 1550, translated by Antonio Agustín, Bishop of Tarragona, who was well known for other legal works. The full title of the Digest was Digestorum seu Pandectarum tomus alter, and it was published by Carolus Guillardus. Vol. 1 of the Digest has 2934 pages, while vol. 2 has 2754 pages. Referring to Justinian's Code as Corpus Juris Civilis was only adopted in the 16th century, when it was printed in 1583 by Dionysius Gothofredus under this title. The legal thinking behind the Corpus Juris Civilis served as the backbone of the single largest legal reform of the modern age, the Napoleonic Code, which marked the abolition of feudalism, but reinstated slavery in the French Caribbean. Napoleon, as he waged total war on Europe, wanted to see these principles introduced to the whole of Europe because he saw them as an effective form of rule that created a more equal society and thus creating a more friendly relationship between the ruling class and the rest of the peoples of Europe.

The Corpus Juris Civilis was translated into French, German, Italian, and Spanish in the 19th century. However, no English translation of the entire Corpus Juris Civilis existed until 1932 when Samuel Parsons Scott published his version The Civil Law. Scott did not base his translation on the best available Latin versions, and his work was severely criticized. Fred. H. Blume used the best-regarded Latin editions for his translations of the Code and of the Novels. A new English translation of the Code, based on Blume's, was published in October 2016. In 2018, the Cambridge University Press also published a new English translation of the Novels, based primarily on the Greek text.

title: Corpus Juris Civilis