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Trondheim

Trondheim (, ,  ; Tråante), historically Kaupangen, Nidaros, and Trondhjem , is a city and municipality in Trøndelag county, Norway. As of 2022, it had a population of 212,660. Trondheim is the third most populous municipality in Norway, and is the fourth largest urban area. Trondheim lies on the south shore of Trondheim Fjord at the mouth of the River Nidelva. Among the significant technology-oriented institutions headquartered in Trondheim are the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), the Foundation for Scientific and Industrial Research (SINTEF), the Geological Survey of Norway (NGU), and St. Olavs University Hospital.

The settlement was founded in 997 as a trading post and served as the capital of Norway from the Viking Age until 1217. From 1152 to 1537, the city was the seat of the Catholic Archdiocese of Nidaros; it then became, and has remained, the seat of the Lutheran Diocese of Nidaros and the site of the Nidaros Cathedral. It was incorporated in 1838. The current municipality was formed in 1964, when Trondheim merged with Byneset, Leinstrand, Strinda, and Tiller, and further expanded on 1 January 2020, when Trondheim merged with Klæbu.

Trondheim has a mild climate for its northerly latitude, resulting in moderate summers and winters that often remain above the freezing point in seaside areas. At higher elevations, though, the microclimate is colder and snowier.

The city functions as the seat of the County Mayor of Trøndelag county but not as its administrative centre (which is Steinkjer). This is designed to avoid making the county administration too centralized.

Trondheim is home to football club Rosenborg, Norway's most successful football club, and Granåsen Ski Centre, which has hosted the World Championship in Nordic Skiing.

Names and etymology

The city was established in 997 by Olav Tryggvason and it was originally named Nidaros (Niðaróss). The first element of the name was the local river Nid. The last element of the name was which meant "the mouth of a river". Thus the name meant "the outlet of the river Nid". Although the formal name was Nidaros, the city was commonly known as, which means "city" or "marketplace", or more specificially kaupangr í Þróndheimi which means "the city in Trondheim". Trondheim (Þróndheimr) was the historic name for the whole district which is now known as Trøndelag. This is the area where the people were known as Trønder. This district name Trondheim meant "the home of the Trønder people" (literally "Trønder-home") and Trøndelag (Þrǿndalǫg) originally meant the "law area of the Trønder people" (literally "Trønder-law"). The name of the Trønder people derives from the Old Norse word which is an old present participle of the verb  which means "to grow" or "to thrive".

During the late Middle Ages, the city name was commonly shortened to Þróndheimr, dropping the kaupanger part, and over time the name became Trondhjem, using the Dano-Norwegian spelling rather than the Old Norse spelling since the city was part of the Kingdom of Denmark-Norway for centuries.

On 21 December 1917, a royal resolution enacted the 1917 Norwegian language reforms. Around the time, many municipalities and cities had their names changed to "Norwegianize" the spelling and make them look less Danish. On 1 January 1919, the name of the local Church of Norway diocese was changed from Trondhjem stift to Nidaros bispedømme (Diocese of Nidaros). In 1924, the name of the Norwegian capital city was changed from Kristiania to Oslo, removing the name referencing a Danish King in favor of the very old name Oslo. In 1928, a referendum in Trondhjem was held on whether to keep the current name or to bring back the original name of Nidaros. The vote resulted in 17,163 votes in favour of Trondhjem and only 1,508 votes in favour of Nidaros. Despite this result, the Storting voted in 1929 to make some changes. The Trondhjem Cathedral would be changed to Nidaros Cathedral effective on 1 July 1929 and the name of the city would change to Nidaros starting on 1 January 1930. This change caused public outrage and even riots during 1930. This forced the Storting to reconsider this change. On 6 March 1931, the name was formally changed to Trondheim, using the medieval Norwegian spelling instead of the Danish version Trondhjem. The name of the diocese and cathedral, however, continued using the name Nidaros.

Trondheim was briefly named Drontheim during the Second World War as a German exonym.

History

Trondheim was named Kaupangen (market place or trading place) by Viking King Olav Tryggvason in 997 CE. Shortly after that, it came to be called Nidaros. Initially, it was frequently used as a military retainer (Old Norse: "hird"-man) of King Olav I. It was also frequently used as the king's seat and was Norway's capital until 1217.

People have lived in the region for thousands of years, as evidenced by the rock carvings in central Norway, the Nøstvet and Lihult cultures, and the Corded Ware culture. In ancient times, the kings of Norway were hailed in Trondheim at Øretinget, the place for the assembly of all free men by the mouth of the River Nidelva. Harald Fairhair (865–933) was hailed as the king here, as was his son, Haakon I, called 'the Good.' The battle of Kalvskinnet took place in Trondheim in 1179: King Sverre Sigurdsson and his Birkebeiner warriors were victorious against Erling Skakke (a rival to the throne). Some scholars believe that the famous Lewis chessmen, 12th-century chess pieces carved from walrus ivory that were found in the Hebrides and are now at the British Museum, may have been made in Trondheim.

From 1152, Trondheim was the seat of the Archbishop of Nidaros for Norway, which operated from the Archbishop's Palace. Due to the introduction of Lutheran Protestantism in 1537, the last archbishop, Olav Engelbrektsson, had to flee from the city to the Netherlands; he died in what today is Lier, Belgium.

From the 16th through the 19th centuries, the city was repeatedly ravaged by fires that caused widespread damage since many of its buildings were made of wood. The worst occurred in 1598, 1651, 1681, 1708, 1717 (twice), 1742, 1788, 1841 and 1842. The 1651 fire destroyed 90% of all buildings within the city limits. After the "Horneman Fire" in 1681, there was an almost total reconstruction of the city, overseen by General Johan Caspar von Cicignon, originally from Luxembourg. Broad avenues, such as Munkegata, were created, without regard for private property rights, to limit the damage from future fires. At the time, the city had a population of under 10,000 inhabitants, with most living in the downtown area.

After the Treaty of Roskilde on 26 February 1658, Trondheim and the rest of Trøndelag became Swedish territory briefly. However, the area was reconquered 10 months later. The conflict was finally settled by the Treaty of Copenhagen on 27 May 1660.

During the Second World War, Trondheim was occupied by Nazi Germany from 9 April 1940, the first day of the invasion of Norway, until the end of the war in Europe, 8 May 1945. The German invasion force consisted of the German cruiser Admiral Hipper, 4 destroyers and 1700 Austrian Mountain troops. Except for a coastal battery that opened fire, there was no resistance to the invasion, which began on 9 April at 5 AM. On 14 and 17 April, British and French forces landed near Trondheim in a failed attempt to liberate Trondheim, as part of the Namsos Campaign. During the occupation, Trondheim was the home of the notorious Norwegian Gestapo agent, Henry Rinnan, who operated from a nearby villa and infiltrated Norwegian resistance groups. The city and its citizens were subjected to harsh treatment by the occupying power, including the imposition of martial law in October 1942. During this time, the Germans turned the city and its environs into a major base for submarines (which included building the large submarine base and bunker DORA I), and contemplated a scheme to build a new city for 300,000 inhabitants, Nordstern ("Northern Star"), centred 15 km southwest of Trondheim, near the wetlands of Øysand on the outskirts of Melhus municipality. This new metropolis was to be accompanied by a massively expanded version of the already existing naval base, which was intended to become the future primary stronghold of the German Kriegsmarine. A start was made on this enormous construction project, but it was far from completed when the war ended, and today, there are few physical remains of it.

Municipal history
The city of Trondheim was established on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt). On 1 January 1864, part of Strinda (population: 1,229) was amalgamated with Trondheim. Then, on 1 January 1893, another part of Strinda (population: 4,097) was transferred to Trondheim. On 1 January 1952, the Lade area of Strinda (population: 2,230) was transferred to Trondheim. On 1 January 1964, a major municipal merger took place: the neighbouring municipalities of Leinstrand (population: 4,193), Byneset (population: 2,049), Strinda (population: 44,600), and Tiller (population: 3,595) were all merged with the city of Trondheim (population: 56,982), which nearly doubled the population of the municipality. On 1 January 2020, the neighboring Klæbu Municipality (population: 6,050) was merged with Trondheim Municipality.

Coat of arms and seal
The coat of arms dates back to the 13th century. To the left, there is an archbishop with his staff and mitre in a church archway. On the right, a crowned king holding scales in a castle archway. These two pictures rest on a base which forms an arch. Underneath that arch, are three male heads which symbolise the city's rank as Norway's first capital and the archbishop's place of residence. The scales symbolise justice and the motif is based on the political philosophy of the 13th century, where the balance of power between king and church was an important issue. The three heads at the bottom may symbolise the city council. The motif is unique in Norwegian municipal heraldry, but similar motifs are found in bishopric cities on the continent. The design of the coat-of-arms that was adopted in 1897, and is still used today, was made by Håkon Thorsen.

Geography
Trondheim is situated where the River Nidelva meets Trondheim Fjord with an excellent harbour and sheltered condition. In the Middle Ages the river was deep enough to be navigable by most boats. However, in the mid-17th century, an avalanche of mud and stones made it less navigable, and partly ruined the harbour. The municipality's highest elevation is the Storheia hill, 565 m above sea level. At the summer solstice, the sun rises at 03:00 and sets at 23:40, but stays just below the horizon. Between 23 May and 19 July, when the sky is cloud-free, it remains light enough at night that no artificial lighting is needed outdoors. At the winter solstice, the sun rises at 10:01, stays very low above the horizon (at midday its altitude is slightly more than 3 degrees over the horizon), and sets at 14:31.

Climate
Trondheim city has an oceanic climate (Cfb) or humid continental climate (Dfb), depending on the winter threshold used (−3 °C or 0 °C). The part of the municipality further away from the fjord has slightly colder winters, while the part close to the fjord has the mildest winters. Trondheim is mostly sheltered from the strong south and southwesterly winds which can occur along the outer seaboard but is more exposed to northwesterly winds. As with the rest of Norway, the weather is dependent on the weather pattern. High pressure over Central Norway or to the east gives sunny weather which can last for weeks. Conversely, Atlantic Lows can also dominate for weeks, and both patterns can happen all year. This was demonstrated in 2020 when May saw northwesterlies with cold air from the Greenland Sea lasting three weeks into the month, and snowfall in mid-May, setting a new record for snow in May. The next month, high pressure and weeks with southeasterlies gave the warmest June on record, with 345 sun hours and Trondheim Airport recording a new record high 34.3 °C, Norway's warmest high in 2020. Trondheim experiences moderate snowfall from November to March, but mixed with mild weather and rainfall. There are on average 14 days each winter with at least 25 cm of snow cover on the ground and 22 days with a daily minimum temperature of -10 °C or less (1971–2000, airport). There is often more snow and later snowmelt in suburban areas at a higher elevation, with good skiing conditions in Bymarka. All the monthly record lows are from 1955 or older, with half of them from before 1920. The last overnight frost in June was in 1958, and the coldest night in May after year 2000 had low −2.7 °C. The May record low is from 1900, 3.7 °C colder than the second coldest May night. The all-time low -26 °C was recorded February 1899. The all-time high 35 °C was recorded 22 July 1901. The warmest month on record is July 2014 with mean 19.5 °C and average daily high 24.9 °C (airport). The coldest month on record is February 1966 with mean -9.9 °C and average daily low -14.2 °C (airport). The average date for the last overnight freeze (low below 0 °C) in spring is 1 May and average date for first freeze in autumn is 9 October giving a frost-free season of 160 days (Trondheim Airport Værnes 1981-2010 average). The earliest weather stations were located closer to the city centre, from 1945 onwards the weather station has been located at a higher elevation (Voll, 127 m and Tyholt, 113 m), therefore being slightly colder. A new sunrecorder was established by met.no in the city at Gløshaugen (NTNU) December 2015, recording more sunhrs than earlier sunrecorder, which had terrain blocking issues. There are on average 229 sunhours in July (based 2016–2020). Trondheim recorded 197 sunhours in October 2016 beating the previous national record for October. In April 2019, Trondheim recorded 308 sunhours, setting a new national record for April. In contrast, December 2016 only recorded 10 sunhours.

Fauna
The city has various wetland habitats. among which there is the Gaulosen. The observation tower accommodates for birdwatching and providing information about birdlife.

Though Trondheim is Norway's third largest city, wild animals are regularly seen. Otters and beavers thrive in Nidelva and Bymarka. Badgers and red foxes are not uncommon sights. Moose and deer are common in the hills surrounding the city, and might wander into the city, especially in May when the one-year-olds are chased away by their mothers, or in late winter when food grows scarce in the snow-covered higher regions. From 2002 until 2017, a wolverine lived in Bymarka.

Cityscape and sites
Most of Trondheim city centre is scattered with small speciality shops. However, the main shopping area is concentrated around the pedestrianised streets Nordre gate (Northern street), Olav Tryggvasons gate and Thomas Angells gate even though the rest of the city centre is provided with everything from old, well-established companies to new, hip and trendy shops. In the mid-to-late 1990s, the area surrounding the old drydock and ship construction buildings of the defunct Trondhjems mekaniske Værksted shipbuilding company at the Nedre Elvehavn was renovated and old industrial buildings were torn down to make way for condominiums. A shopping centre was also built, known as Solsiden (The Sunny Side). This is a popular residential and shopping area, especially for young people.

DORA 1 is a German submarine base that housed the 13th U-boat Flotilla during the Second World War occupation of Norway. Today the bunker houses various archives, among them the city archives, the university and state archives. More recently, DORA has been used as a concert venue.

Kristiansten Fortress, built 1681–1684, is located on a hill east of Trondheim. It repelled the invading Swedes in 1718, but was decommissioned in 1816 by Crown Prince Regent Charles John.

A statue of Olav Tryggvason, the founder of Trondheim, is located in the city's central square, mounted on top of an obelisk. The statue base is also a sun dial, but it is calibrated to UTC+1 so that the reading is inaccurate by one hour in the summer.

The islet Munkholmen is a popular tourist attraction and recreation site. The islet has served as a place of execution, a monastery, a fortress, prison, and a Second World War anti-aircraft gun station.

Stiftsgården is the royal residence in Trondheim, originally constructed in 1774 by Cecilie Christine Schøller. At 140 rooms constituting 4000 m2, it is possibly the largest wooden building in Northern Europe and has been used by royals and their guests since 1800.

A statue of Leif Ericson is located at the seaside, close to the old Customs Building, the cruise ship facilities and the new swimming hall. The statue is a replica, the original being located at a Seattle marina.

Nidaros Cathedral
The Nidaros Cathedral and the Archbishop's Palace are located side by side in the middle of the city centre. The cathedral, built from 1070 on, is the most important Gothic monument in Norway and was Northern Europe's most important Christian pilgrimage site during the Middle Ages, with pilgrimage routes leading to it from Oslo in southern Norway and from the Jämtland and Värmland regions of Sweden. Today, it is the northernmost medieval cathedral in the world, and the second-largest in Scandinavia. During the Middle Ages, and again after independence was restored in 1814, the Nidaros Cathedral was the coronation church of the Norwegian kings. King Haakon VII was the last monarch to be crowned there, in 1906. Starting with King Olav V in 1957, coronation was replaced by consecration. In 1991, the present King Harald V and Queen Sonja were consecrated in the cathedral. On 24 May 2002, their daughter Princess Märtha Louise married the writer Ari Behn in the cathedral.

The Pilgrim's Route (Pilegrimsleden) to the site of Saint Olufs's tomb at Nidaros Cathedral, has recently been re-instated. Also known as St. Olav's Way, (Sankt Olavs vei), the main route, which is approximately 640 km long, starts in Oslo and heads North, along Lake Mjøsa, up the valley Gudbrandsdalen, over the mountain range Dovrefjell and down the Oppdal valley to end at Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim. There is a Pilgrim's Office in Oslo which gives advice to pilgrims and a Pilgrim Centre in Trondheim, under the aegis of the cathedral, which awards certificates to successful pilgrims upon the completion of their journey.

Other churches
The Lutheran Church of Norway has 21 churches within the municipality of Trondheim. They are all a part of the Diocese of Nidaros, which is based in Trondheim at the Nidaros Cathedral. Many of the churches are several hundred years old, with a couple which were built almost 1,000 years ago.

The Roman Catholic Sankt Olav domkirke is the cathedral episcopal see of the exempt Territorial Prelature of Trondheim. Being located across the street from the Nidaros Cathedral, the two of them form an unofficial religious quarter along with a synagogue, a Baptist church, a Salvation Army office, and the 8-auditorium cinema Prinsen kinosenter.

Museums
Sverresborg, also named Zion after King David's castle in Jerusalem, was a fortification built by Sverre Sigurdsson. It is now an open-air museum, consisting of more than 60 buildings. The castle was originally built in 1182–1183, but did not last for long as it was burned down in 1188. However, the Sverresaga indicates it had been restored by 1197.

The Trondheim Science Center (Vitensenteret i Trondheim) is a scientific hands-on experience center. The NTNU University Museum (Norwegian: NTNU Vitenskapsmuseet) is part of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. There are also a variety of small history, science and natural history museums, such as the Trondheim Maritime Museum, the Armoury, adjacent to the Archbishops's Palace, Kristiansten Fortress, the music and musical instrument museum Ringve National Museum, Ringve Botanical Garden, the Trondheim Tramway Museum, and the Jewish Museum, co-located with the city's synagogue, which is among the northernmost in the world.

Rockheim (Det nasjonale opplevelsessenteret for pop og rock, The National Discovery Center for Pop and Rock) opened at the Pier in August 2010. It is located inside an old warehouse, but characterised by an easily recognisable roof in the shape of a box. "The box" is decorated by thousands of tiny lights that change in a variety of colours and patterns, and is a landmark in the cityscape – especially on dark winter evenings.

Prison
Vollan District Jail (Norwegian: Vollan kretsfengsel) was a jail during the nazi occupation of Norway and was used to imprison both prisoners of war and criminals. Vollan was not considered a concentration camp. In a summary of prisoners of war in Norway, numerous prisoners were registered at Vollan. One of its roles was as a transit camp for political prisoners. Many prisoners were taken from Vollan to Kristiansten Fortress and shot. The prisoners at Vollan were interrogated at the Mission Hotel in Trondheim. Some were also interrogated by Henry Rinnan and his gang. It was closed in 1971 after the opening of Trondheim Prison at Tunga.

Trondheim Prison (Norwegian: Trondheim fengsel) is a prison that belongs to the Northern Region of the Norwegian Correctional Services. The prison can house 184 inmates.

It consists of four main departments:
 * Nermarka ("Tunga") – closed department
 * Detention department (no: Forvaringsavdelingen) at Nermarka
 * Leira – open division. Through joint positive activities, the individual inmate on certain conditions teaches to be responsible with other people.
 * division Kongens gt. – halfway house, located in downtown Trondheim.

Wider urban area
Trondheim forms the centre of the Trondheim Region, and is a common commuting point for work, shopping, and healthcare. Although the official list of metropolitan regions of Norway defines the region very broadly, the area of two-way commuting where Trondheim residents too would head outwards for transport, shopping, and upper secondary schools, consists roughly of Trondheim, Malvik, downtown Stjørdal (incl. Værnes), downtown Melhus, Skaun, and the lower sections of Vanvikan in Indre Fosen.

Government
Trondheim Municipality is responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, welfare and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads and utilities. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. The mayor is indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council. The municipality is under the jurisdiction of the Trøndelag District Court and the Frostating Court of Appeal.

On 1 January 2005, the city was reorganized from five boroughs into four, with each of these having separate social services offices. The current boroughs are Midtbyen (44,967 inhabitants), Østbyen (42,707 inhabitants), Lerkendal (46,603 inhabitants) and Heimdal (30,744) inhabitants. The Population statistics listed are as of 1 January 2008. Prior to 2005, Trondheim was divided into the boroughs Sentrum, Strinda, Nardo, Byåsen and Heimdal.

Municipal council
The city council (Bystyret) of Trondheim is made up of 67 representatives that are elected to four year terms. Prior to 2011, there were 85 city council members, but this number was reduced to 67 in 2011. The tables below show the current and historical composition of the council by political party.

Education and research

 * See also the list of primary schools in Trondheim.

Trondheim is home to both the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) with its many technical lab facilities and disciplines, and BI-Trondheim, a satellite campus for the Norwegian Business School (BI). Both universities welcome a number of international students on a yearly basis and offer various scholarships.

St. Olav’s University Hospital, a regional hospital for Central Norway, is located in downtown Trondheim. St. Olav's is a teaching hospital and cooperates closely with the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) on both research and medical education.

SINTEF, a large independent research organisation in Scandinavia, has 1,800 employees with 1,300 of these located in Trondheim. The Air Force Academy of the Royal Norwegian Air Force is located at Kuhaugen in Trondheim.

The Geological Survey of Norway is located at Lade in Trondheim and is a major geoscientific institution with 220 employees of which 70% are scientists.

There are 11 high schools in the city. Trondheim katedralskole ("Trondheim Cathedral School") was founded in 1152 and is the oldest upper secondary school (gymnasium) in Norway, while Charlottenlund videregående skole is the largest in Sør-Trøndelag with its 1,100 students and 275 employees. Brundalen Skole, has big festivals each year, and is building out to increase space.

Ila skole was founded in 1770 and is the oldest primary school in Trondheim.

Media
Adresseavisen is the largest regional newspaper and the oldest active newspaper in Norway, having been established in 1767. The two headquarters of the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation (NRK) are located at Tyholt in Trondheim, and in Oslo. On 31 December 2019 the fully digital and local newspaper Nidaros was launched as a competitor to Adresseavisen. The student press of Trondheim features three types of media. Under Dusken is the student paper, Radio Revolt is the student radio, and Student-TV broadcasts videos online.

Radio stations established in Trondheim include Trøndelag-focused opt-out feeds of NRK P1 and NRK P1+, local versions of NRK Trafikk and P5 Hits, Radio Trondheim, and Radio 247. Along with Norway's national radio stations, they can be listened to on DAB+ across most of Trøndelag, as well as on internet radio.

Visual arts
The Trondheim Art Museum has Norway's third largest public art collection, mainly Norwegian art from the last 150 years.

The National Museum of Decorative Arts and Design, Trondheim boasts a large collection of decorative arts and design, including a great number of tapestries from the Norwegian tapestry artist Hannah Ryggen, as well as Norway's only permanent exhibibition of Japanese arts and crafts.

Trøndelag senter for samtidskunst (Trøndelag Centre for Contemporary Art, TSSK) was established in 1976.

There are two artist-run spaces, Galleri Blunk, that was founded by students of the Trondheim Academy of Fine Art in 2002, and Babel, that was founded by Lademoen Kunstnerverksteder (Lademoen Artist Workshops, LKV) in 2006.

Kunsthall Trondheim was inaugurated at its permanent premises on Kongens gate in October 2016.

Stage
The main regional theatre, Trøndelag Teater, is situated in Trondheim. Built in 1816, the theatre is the oldest theatre still in use in Scandinavia. The city also features an alternative theatre house Teaterhuset Avant Garden, and the theatre company Teater Fusentast.

Music
Trondheim has a broad music scene, and is known for its strong communities committed to rock, jazz and classical music. The city's interest in Jazz and classical music are spearheaded by the music conservatory at NTNU which has been called one of the most innovative in the world, and the municipal music school, Trondheim Kommunale Musikk- og Kulturskole. The Trondheim Symphony Orchestra and the Trondheim Soloists are well-known. The city hosts a yearly Jazz festival, and is home to Trondheim Jazz Orchestra. The Fjordgata Records label is also hosted in Trondheim.

Classical artists hailing from Trondheim include violinist Arve Tellefsen, Elise Båtnes and Marianne Thorsen. Also the Nidaros Cathedral Boys' Choir.

Thomas Bergersen, a Norwegian self-taught composer, multi-instrumentalist, and the co-founder of the production music company Two Steps From Hell, was born in Trondheim.

Pop/rock artists and bands associated with Trondheim include Åge Aleksandersen, Margaret Berger, DumDum Boys, Lasse Marhaug, Gåte, Keep Of Kalessin, Lumsk, Motorpsycho, Kari Rueslåtten, the 3rd and the Mortal, TNT, Tre Små Kinesere, the Kids, Bokassa, Casino Steel (of the Boys), Atrox, Bloodthorn, Manes, child prodigy Malin Reitan and Aleksander With. The most popular punk scene is UFFA.

Georg Kajanus, creator of the bands Eclection, Sailor and DATA, was born in Trondheim. The music production team Stargate started out in Trondheim.

Trondheim is also home to Rockheim, the national museum of popular music, which is responsible for collecting, preserving and sharing Norwegian popular music from the 1950s to the present day.

Film
Trondheim features a lively film scene, including three filmfests: Minimalen Short Film Fest and Kosmorama International Film Fest in March, and Trondheim Documentarfestival in November. Trondheim has two cinemas in the center of the city, Prinsen Kino and Nova kino Prinsen Kinosenter, Nova Kinosenter

Student culture
With students comprising almost a fifth of the population, the city of Trondheim is heavily influenced by student culture. Most noticeable is Studentersamfundet i Trondhjem, the city's student society. Its characteristic round, red building from 1929 sits at the head of the bridge crossing the river southwards from the city centre. As the largest university in Norway, the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) is the host of some 36,000 students.

Student culture in Trondheim is characterised by a long-standing tradition of volunteer work. The student society is for example run by more than 1,200 volunteers. NTNUI, Norway's largest sports club, is among the other volunteer organisations that dominate student culture in Trondheim. Students in Trondheim are also behind two major Norwegian culture festivals, UKA and The International Student Festival in Trondheim (ISFiT). NTNU lists over 200 student organisations with registered web pages on its servers alone.

In popular culture
Trondheim culture is parodied on the Monty Python album Another Monty Python Record in the form of the fictitious Trondheim Hammer Dance.

Trondheim is also a key location in the Command & Conquer: Tiberian Sun universe, as it is a critical battleground for both factions.

Trondheim was the name of a planet in the Hundred Worlds of the Ender's Game novel series.

Trondheim likely serves as an inspiration for the fictional city Tronjheim in The Inheritance Cycle.

Sports and recreation
Granåsen Ski Centre, a Nordic skiing venue located in Byåsen, regularly hosts World Cup competitions in ski jumping, biathlon and cross-country skiing, as well as the 1997 FIS Nordic World Ski Championships. Trondheim attempted but failed to become the Norwegian candidate for the 2018 Winter Olympics. Hiking and recreational skiing is available around the city, particularly in Bymarka, which can be reached by the tramway. Trondheim Golfklubb, one of the oldest golf clubs in Norway, has a nine-hole golf course in Byåsen. Byneset Golfklubb has a full 18 hole par 72 course, which has hosted the Norwegian Challenge of the Challenge Tour in 2012, as well as a short and easy 9 hole course, located at Spongdal. Klæbu Golfklubb in Klæbu has another 9 hole course, albeit with artificial greens. There's also a public (no golf experience of course required) 9 hole par 3 course with a nice view overlooking the city centre at Byåsen.

Rosenborg BK is one of the city's two premier football clubs and plays their home matches at Lerkendal Stadion. They have won the Norwegian Premier League 26 times between 1967 and 2018, have reached the UEFA Champions League group stage 12 times, and made it to the last 8 on one occasion. Ranheim Fotball is the city's second premier football club having been promoted from the Norwegian First Division to join Eliteserien in 2018, coming in at seventh place out of 16 in its first season. Byåsen IL plays in the women's handball league, and is a regular in the EHF Women's Champions League, playing their home games at Trondheim Spektrum.

Trondheim and Trøndelag is also regarded as the home of the basse game.

Transportation

Trondheim has an international airport, Trondheim Airport, Værnes, situated in Stjørdal, which is Norway's fourth largest airport in terms of passenger traffic. Værnes has non-stop connections to cities such as London, Amsterdam, Copenhagen, and Stockholm, among others. The domestic route Trondheim – Oslo is among the busiest air routes in Europe with around 2 million passengers annually.

Major railway connections are the northbound Nordland Line, the eastbound Meråker Line to Åre and Östersund in Sweden, and two southbound connections to Oslo, the Røros Line and Dovre Line.

The Coastal Express ships (Hurtigruten: Covering the Bergen–Kirkenes stretch of the coast) call at Trondheim, as do many cruise ships during the summer season. Since 1994 there is also a fast commuter boat service to Kristiansund, the closest coastal city to the southwest. Every morning the Hurtigruten ships have one southbound and one northbound arrival and departure in Trondheim.

A car ferry route from the port of Flakk in the northwest of the municipality, connects Trondheim with Fosen. Various bridge projects over the Trondheim Fjord to replace the ferry have been planned, but none have begun construction.

Trondheim also boasts the northernmost (since closure of Arkhangelsk tram in 2004) tramway line in the world: the Gråkallen Line, the last remaining segment of the Trondheim Tramway, is an 8.8 km route (which is mostly single-track outside the innermost parts of the city; except the stretch between Breidablikk and Nordre Hoem stations) which runs from the city centre, through the Byåsen district, and up to Lian, in the large recreation area Bymarka. Trondheim boasts the world's only bicycle lift, Trampe.

The bus network, operated by AtB, runs throughout most of the city and its suburbs. A new metro line system went public 3 August 2019. The new transportation system covers the Trondheim area (Trondheim, Malvik, and Melhus). The three metro lines and the city lines that link the city across. The new public transport system becomes flexible, with buses running more often and accommodating more passengers. Fewer travelers must take a detour through the center of Trondheim.

In addition, the Nattbuss (Night Bus) service ensures cheap and effective transport for those enjoying nightlife in the city centre during the weekends. The Nattbus has other prices than ordinary buses. The European route E6 highway passes through the city centre of Trondheim in addition to a motorway bypass along the eastern rim of the city.

Twin towns – sister cities
Trondheim is twinned with:

 * 🇩🇪 Darmstadt, Germany (1968)
 * Dunfermline, Scotland, United Kingdom (1945)
 * 🇦🇹 Graz, Austria (1968)
 * 🇫🇴 Klaksvík, Faroe Islands (1987)
 * 🇮🇸 Kópavogur, Iceland (1946)
 * 🇸🇪 Norrköping, Sweden (1946)
 * Odense, Denmark (1946)
 * 🇮🇱 Petah Tikva, Israel (1975)
 * 🇵🇸 Ramallah, Palestine (2004)
 * Split, Croatia (1956)
 * 🇫🇮 Tampere, Finland (1946)
 * 🇲🇩 Tiraspol, Moldova (1987)
 * 🇺🇸 Vallejo, United States (1960)

Business

 * Lilleby smelteverk (1927–2002)

Public Service & public thinking

 * Lisbet Nypan (c. 1610–1670) an executed alleged Norwegian witch
 * Ove Bjelke (1611–1674) nobleman, feudal lord and Chancellor of Norway
 * Albert Angell (1660–1705) landowner, businessman and Mayor of Trondheim
 * Peter Tordenskiold (1691–1720) a Dano-Norwegian nobleman and flag officer
 * Hilchen Sommerschild (1756–1831) pioneer educator
 * Frederik Due (1796–1873) Norwegian prime minister in Stockholm, 1841–1858
 * Johan Thoning Owesen (1804–1881), shipowner, landowner and philanthropist
 * Hans Gerhard Colbjørnsen Meldahl (1815–1877) politician and sixth Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Norway, 1874–1877
 * John Gunder North (1826–1872) ship builder in San Francisco
 * Fritz Jenssen (1886–1966) banker and politician for Nasjonal Samling
 * Olaus Dons Schmidt (1895-1969) genealogist, fellow, Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters
 * Bernt Ingvaldsen (1902–1985) politician, President of the Storting 1965–1972
 * David Abrahamsen (1903–2002) forensic psychiatrist, psychoanalyst and author in the USA
 * John Lyng (1905–1978) a politician, briefly Prime Minister of Norway in 1963
 * Anne Margrethe Strømsheim (1914–2008) nurse and Norwegian resistance member
 * Henry Thingstad (1916–1942) sports official, communist politician, and Norwegian resistance member
 * Henrik Rogstad (1916–1945) a politician with Nasjonal Samling
 * Cissi Klein (1929–1943 in Auschwitz) a Jewish girl, victim of the Holocaust
 * Kaare Langlete (1931–2009) military officer and Lord Chamberlain
 * Idun Reiten (born 1942) mathematician
 * Per Arne Watle (born 1948) politician and CEO of Widerøe 1997–2008
 * Georg Müller (1951-2015) RC Bishop of Trondheim until resignation following child sexual abuse, 2009
 * Erik Varden (born 1974) RC Bishop of Trondheim

The Arts

 * Carl Lorck (1829–1882) a Norwegian painter
 * Anna Munch (1856–1932), novelist, playwright
 * Knut Glomsaas (1863–1935) a military musician
 * Tupsy Clement (1871–1959) a Skagen painter of landscapes
 * Emmy Worm-Müller (1875–1950) silent film actress
 * Arne Eggen (1881–1955) a classical composer and organist
 * Bjarne Amdahl (1903–1968) pianist, composer and orchestra conductor
 * Erling Viksjø (1910–1971) architect, exponent of architectural modernism
 * Agnar Mykle (1915–1994) author, controversial figure in Norwegian literature
 * Arve Tellefsen (born 1936) classical violinist
 * Liv Ullman (born 1938) actress and director
 * Jan Erik Kongshaug (1944–2019) sound engineer, jazz guitarist and composer
 * Sidsel Endresen (born 1952) singer, composer and actress
 * Trond Halstein Moe (born 1954), operatic baritone
 * Brit Dyrnes (born 1955), ceramist
 * Geir Lysne (born 1965) a jazz musician and Big Band leader
 * Øystein Baadsvik (born 1966) tuba soloist and chamber musician
 * Merethe Trøan (born 1970) singer at the 1992 Eurovision Song Contest
 * Elise Båtnes (born 1971) violinist, leader of the Oslo Philharmonic orchestra since 2006
 * Ingrid Lorentzen (born 1972) ballet dancer, artistic director of the Norwegian National Ballet
 * Thomas Bergersen (born 1980) composer and multi-instrumentalist
 * Georg Kajanus (born 1946) singer-songwriter, composer. Known from UK bands Sailor, Data and Noir.

Sports

 * Nils Uhlin Hansen (1919–1945) long jumper and Norwegian resistance member in WWII.
 * Hjalmar Andersen (1923–2013) speed skater, triple gold medalist at the 1952 Winter Olympics
 * Arnfinn Bergmann (1928–2011) ski jumper, gold medallist at the 1952 Winter Olympics
 * Odd Iversen (1945–2014) a footballer with 282 club caps and 45 for Norway
 * Martin Schanche (born 1945), racing driver and politician
 * Jan Egil Storholt (born 1949) speed skater, gold medallist at the 1976 Winter Olympics
 * Ingrid Kristiansen (born 1956) former long-distance runner
 * Frode Rønning (born 1959) speed skater, bronze medallist at the 1980 Winter Olympics
 * Rune Bratseth (born 1961) former footballer with 313 club caps and 60 for Norway
 * Atle Kvålsvoll (born 1962) cyclist and coach
 * Roar Strand (born 1970) footballer with 464 club caps and 42 for Norway
 * Bjørn Otto Bragstad (born 1971) footballer with 251 club caps and 15 for Norway
 * Gøril Kringen (born 1972) former footballer and coach
 * Vegard Heggem (born 1975) former footballer with 20 caps for Norway
 * Fredrik Winsnes (born 1975) former footballer with 353 club caps and 19 for Norway
 * Øystein Kvaal Østerbø (born 1981) orienteering and ski-orienteering competitor
 * Trine Rønning (born 1982) a former captain of the Norway women's national football team
 * Emil Hegle Svendsen (born 1985) biathlete, eight medals at Winter Olympics (four gold)
 * Torstein Horgmo (born 1987) snowboarder
 * Emil Weber Meek (born 1988) mixed martial artist
 * Jørgen Gråbak (born 1991) Nordic combined skier, double gold at the 2014 Winter Olympics
 * Sander Sagosen (born 1995) handball player
 * Alexander Sørloth (born 1995) footballer
 * Johannes Høsflot Klæbo (born 1996) a cross-country skier, triple gold medallist at the 2018 Winter Olympics

title: Trondheim


text:
Civil liberties

Civil liberties are guarantees and freedoms that governments commit not to abridge, either by constitution, legislation, or judicial interpretation, without due process. Though the scope of the term differs between countries, civil liberties may include the freedom of conscience, freedom of press, freedom of religion, freedom of expression, freedom of assembly, the right to security and liberty, freedom of speech, the right to privacy, the right to equal treatment under the law and due process, the right to a fair trial, and the right to life. Other civil liberties include the right to own property, the right to defend oneself, and the right to bodily integrity. Within the distinctions between civil liberties and other types of liberty, distinctions exist between positive liberty/positive rights and negative liberty/negative rights.

Overview
Many contemporary nations have a constitution, a bill of rights, or similar constitutional documents that enumerate and seek to guarantee civil liberties. Other nations have enacted similar laws through a variety of legal means, including signing and ratifying or otherwise giving effect to key conventions such as the European Convention on Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The existence of some claimed civil liberties is a matter of dispute, as are the extent of most civil rights. Controversial examples include property rights, reproductive rights, and civil marriage. In authoritarian regimes in which government censorship impedes on perceived civil liberties, some civil liberty advocates argue for the use of anonymity tools to allow for free speech, privacy, and anonymity. The degree to which societies acknowledge civil liberties is affected by the influence of terrorism and war. Whether the existence of victimless crimes infringes upon civil liberties is also a matter of dispute. Another matter of debate is the suspension or alteration of certain civil liberties in times of war or state of emergency, including whether and to what extent this should occur.

The formal concept of civil liberties is often dated back to Magna Carta, an English legal charter agreed in 1215 which in turn was based on pre-existing documents, namely the Charter of Liberties.

China
The Constitution of the People's Republic of China (which applies only to mainland China, not to Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan) especially its Fundamental Rights and Duties of Citizens, claims to protect many civil liberties. Taiwan, which is separated from mainland China, has its own Constitution.

Although the 1982 constitution guarantees civil liberties, the Chinese government usually uses the "subversion of state power" and "protection of state secrets" clauses in their law system to imprison those who criticize the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the state leaders.

India
The Fundamental Rights – embodied in Part III of the constitution – guarantee liberties such that all Indians can lead their lives in peace as citizens of India. The six fundamental rights are right to equality, right to freedom, right against exploitation, right to freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights and right to constitutional remedies. These include individual rights common to most liberal democracies, incorporated in the fundamental law of the land and are enforceable in a court of law. Violations of these rights result in punishments as prescribed in the Indian Penal Code, subject to discretion of the judiciary. These rights are neither absolute nor immune from constitutional amendments. They have been aimed at overturning the inequalities of pre-independence social practices. Specifically, they resulted in abolishment of un-touchability and prohibit discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. They forbid human trafficking and unfree labour. They protect cultural and educational rights of ethnic and religious minorities by allowing them to preserve their languages and administer their own educational institutions.

All people, irrespective of race, religion, caste or sex, have the right to approach the High Courts or the Supreme Court for the enforcement of their fundamental rights. It is not necessary that the aggrieved party has to be the one to do so. In public interest, anyone can initiate litigation in the court on their behalf. This is known as "public interest litigation". High Court and Supreme Court judges can also act on their own on the basis of media reports.

The Fundamental Rights emphasize equality by guaranteeing to all citizens the access and use of public institutions and protections, irrespective of their background. The rights to life and personal liberty apply to persons of any nationality, while others, such as the freedom of speech and expression are applicable only to the citizens of India (including non-resident Indian citizens). The right to equality in matters of public employment cannot be conferred to overseas citizens of India.

Fundamental Rights primarily protect individuals from any arbitrary State actions, but some rights are enforceable against private individuals too. For instance, the constitution abolishes untouchability and prohibits begar. These provisions act as a check both on State action and actions of private individuals. Fundamental Rights are not absolute and are subject to reasonable restrictions as necessary for the protection of national interest. In the Kesavananda Bharati vs. state of Kerala case, the Supreme Court ruled that all provisions of the constitution, including Fundamental Rights can be amended. However, the Parliament cannot alter the basic structure of the constitution like secularism, democracy, federalism, separation of powers. Often called the "Basic structure doctrine", this decision is widely regarded as an important part of Indian history. In the 1978 Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India case, the Supreme Court extended the doctrine's importance as superior to any parliamentary legislation. According to the verdict, no act of parliament can be considered a law if it violated the basic structure of the constitution. This landmark guarantee of Fundamental Rights was regarded as a unique example of judicial independence in preserving the sanctity of Fundamental Rights. The Fundamental Rights can only be altered by a constitutional amendment, hence their inclusion is a check not only on the executive branch, but also on the Parliament and state legislatures. The imposition of a state of emergency may lead to a temporary suspension of the rights conferred by Article 19 (including freedoms of speech, assembly and movement, etc.) to preserve national security and public order. The President can, by order, suspend the constitutional written remedies as well.

Japan
Since 1947, Japan, a country with a constitutional monarchy and known for its socially "conservative society where change is gradual," has a constitution with a seemingly strong bill of rights at its core (Chapter III. Rights and Duties of the People). In many ways, it resembles the U.S. Constitution prior to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and that is because it came into life during the Allied occupation of Japan. This constitution may have felt like a foreign imposition to the governing elites, but not to the ordinary people "who lacked faith in their discredited leaders and supported meaningful change." In the abstract, the constitution strives to secure fundamental individual liberties and rights, which are covered pointedly in articles 10 to 40. Most salient of the human dignity articles is article 25, section 1, which guarantees that all "people shall have the right to maintain the minimum standards of wholesome and cultured living."

Despite the adoption of this liberal constitution, often referred as the "Postwar Constitution" (戦後憲法, Sengo-Kenpō) or the "Peace Constitution" (平和憲法, Heiwa-Kenpō), the Japanese governing elites have struggled to usher in an inclusive, open and Pluralist society. Even after the end of World War II and the departure of the Allied government of occupation in 1952, Japan has been the target of international criticism for failing to admit to war crimes, institutional religious discrimination and maintaining a weak freedom of the press, the treatment of children, minorities, foreigners, and women, its punitive criminal justice system, and more recently, the systematic bias against LGBT people.

The first Japanese attempt to a bill of rights was in the 19th century Meiji constitution (1890), which took both the Prussian (1850) and British constitutions as basic models. However, it had but a meager influence in the practice of the rule of law as well as in people's daily living. So, the short and deliberately gradual history of struggles for personal rights and protection against government/society's impositions has yet to transform Japan into a champion of universal and individual freedom. According to constitutional scholar, Shigenori Matsui,

"People tend to view the bill of rights as a moral imperative and not as a judicial norm. The people also tend to rely upon bureaucrats to remedy social problems, including even human rights violations, rather than the court."

Despite the divergences between Japan's social culture and the Liberal Constitutionalism that it purports to have adopted, the country has moved toward closing the gap between the notion and the practice of the law. The trend is more evident in the long term. Among several examples, the Diet (bicameral legislature) ratified the International Bill of Human Rights in 1979 and then it passed the Law for Equal Opportunity in Employment for Men and Women in 1985, measures that were heralded as major steps toward a democratic and participatory society. In 2015, moreover, it reached an agreement with Korea to compensate for abuses related to the so-called "women of comfort" that took place during the Japanese occupation of the peninsula. However, human rights group, and families of the survivors condemned the agreement as patronizing and insulting.

On its official site, the Japanese government has identified various human rights problems. Among these are child abuses (e.g., bullying, corporal punishment, child sexual abuse, child prostitution, and child pornography), frequent neglect and ill-treatment of elderly persons and individuals with disabilities, Dowa claims (discrimination against the Burakumin), Ainu people (indigenous people in Japan), foreign nationals, HIV/AIDS carriers, Hansen's disease patients, persons released from prison after serving their sentence, crime victims, people whose human rights are violated using the Internet, the homeless, individuals with gender identity disorders, and women. Also, the government lists systematic problems with gender biases and the standard reference to sexual preferences for jobs and other functions in society.

Human rights organizations, national and foreign, expand the list to include human rights violations that relate to government policies, as in the case of daiyo kangoku system (substitute prison) and the methods of interrogating crime suspects. The effort of these agencies and ordinary people seem to pay off. In 2016, the U.S. Department of State released a report stating that Japan's human right record is showing signs of improvement.

Australia
Whilst Australia does not have an enshrined Bill of Rights or similar binding legal document, civil liberties are assumed as protected through a series of rules and conventions. Australia had primary involvement in and was a key signatory to the UN Universal Declaration on Human Rights (1948)

The Constitution of Australia (1900) does offer very limited protection of rights: Certain High Court interpretations of the Constitution have allowed for implied rights such as freedom of political communication (which is construed broadly) and the right to vote to be established, however others such as freedom of assembly and freedom of association are yet to be identified.
 * the right to freedom of religion and;
 * the right to freedom from discrimination based on out-of-state residence (historical prejudice based upon residence within one state affecting treatment within another)

Refugee issues

Within the past decade Australia has experienced increasing contention regarding its treatment of those seeking asylum. Although Australia is a signatory to the UN Refugee Convention (1951), successive governments have demonstrated an increasing tightening of borders; particularly against those who seek passage via small water vessels.

The Abbott Government (2013) like its predecessors (the Gillard and Howard Governments) has encountered particular difficulty curbing asylum seekers via sea, increasingly identified as "illegal immigration". The recent involvement of the Australian Navy in refugee rescue operations has many human rights groups such as Amnesty International concerned over the "militarisation" of treatment to the refugee and the issue of their human rights in Australia. The current "turn-back" policy is particularly divisive, as it involves placing refugees in government lifeboats and turning them towards Indonesia. Despite opposition however, the Abbott government's response has so far seen a reduction in the number of potential refugees undertaking the hazardous cross to Australia, which is argued by the government as an indicator for its policy success.

European Convention on Human Rights
The European Convention on Human Rights, to which almost all European countries belong (apart from Belarus), enumerates a number of civil liberties and is of varying constitutional force in different European states.

Czech Republic
Following the Velvet Revolution, a constitutional overhaul took place in Czechoslovakia. In 1991, the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms was adopted, having the same legal standing as the Constitution. The Czech Republic has kept the Charter in its entirety following the dissolution of Czechoslovakia as Act No. 2/1993 Coll. (Constitution being No. 1).

France
France's 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen listed many civil liberties and is of constitutional force.

Germany
The German constitution, the "Grundgesetz" (lit. "Base Law"), starts with an elaborate listing of civil liberties and states in sec. 1 "The dignity of man is inviolable. To respect and protect it shall be the duty of all public authority." Following the "Austrian System", the people have the right to appeal to the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany ("Bundesverfassungsgericht") if they feel their civil rights are being violated. This procedure has shaped German law considerably over the years.

United Kingdom
Civil liberties in the United Kingdom date back to Magna Carta in 1215 and 17th century common law and statute law, such as the 1628 Petition of Right, the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 and the Bill of Rights 1689. Parts of these laws remain in statute today and are supplemented by other legislation and conventions that collectively form the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom. In addition, the United Kingdom is a signatory to the European Convention on Human Rights which covers both human rights and civil liberties. The Human Rights Act 1998 incorporates the great majority of Convention rights directly into UK law.

In June 2008 the then Shadow Home Secretary David Davis resigned his parliamentary seat over what he described as the "erosion of civil liberties" by the then Labour government, and was re-elected on a civil liberties platform (although he was not opposed by candidates of other major parties). This was in reference to anti-terrorism laws and in particular the extension to pre-trial detention, that is perceived by many to be an infringement of habeas corpus established in Magna Carta.

Russia
The Constitution of the Russian Federation guarantees in theory many of the same rights and civil liberties as the U.S. except to bear arms, i.e.: freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom of association and assembly, freedom to choose language, to due process, to a fair trial, privacy, freedom to vote, right for education, etc. However, human rights groups like Amnesty International have warned that Vladimir Putin has seriously curtailed freedom of expression, freedom of assembly and freedom of association amidst growing authoritarianism.

Canada
The Constitution of Canada includes the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms which guarantees many of the same rights as the U.S. constitution. The Charter omits any mention of, or protection for, property.

Mexico
The Mexican constitution was ratified on February 5, 1917. Similar to the U.S. Constitution, the United Mexican States provides all citizens the right to freedom of expression, but this right is not absolute (for example, child pornography, death threats, and defamation are exceptions to freedom of speech, and offenders can be subject to penalties). However, unlike the United States and Canada, Mexico has stricter limits on citizenship. For example, only people born in Mexico may take roles in law enforcement, legislating, or enlist in the armed forces. It also states each person born in Mexico cannot be deprived of their citizenship status.

United States
The United States Constitution, especially its Bill of Rights, protects civil liberties. The passage of the Fourteenth Amendment further protected civil liberties by introducing the Privileges or Immunities Clause, Due Process Clause, and Equal Protection Clause. Human rights within the United States are often called civil rights, which are those rights, privileges and immunities held by all people, in distinction to political rights, which are the rights that inhere to those who are entitled to participate in elections, as candidates or voters. Before universal suffrage, this distinction was important, since many people were ineligible to vote but still were considered to have the fundamental freedoms derived from the rights to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. This distinction is less important now that Americans enjoy near universal suffrage, and civil rights are now taken to include the political rights to vote and participate in elections, being furthermore classified with civil liberties in general as either positive rights or negative rights. Because Native American tribal governments retain sovereignty over tribal members, the U.S. Congress in 1968 enacted a law that essentially applies most of the protections of the Bill of Rights to tribal members, to be enforced mainly by tribal courts.

The Civil Liberties Act of 1988 was signed into effect by President Ronald Reagan on August 10, 1988. The act was passed by Congress to issue a public apology for those of Japanese ancestry who lost their property and liberty due to discriminatory actions by the United States Government during the internment period. This act also provided many other benefits within various sectors of the government. Within the treasury it established a civil liberties public education fund. It directed the Attorney General to identify and locate each individual affected by this act and to pay them $20,000 from the civil liberties public education fund. It also established a board of directors who is responsible for making disbursements from this fund. Finally, it required that all documents and records that are created or received by the commission be kept by the Archivist of the United States.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Civil liberties


text:
Jamie Zawinski

Jamie Werner Zawinski (born November 3, 1968), commonly known as jwz, is an American computer programmer, blogger and impresario. He is best known for his role in the creation of Netscape Navigator, Netscape Mail, Lucid Emacs, Mozilla.org, and XScreenSaver. He is also the proprietor of DNA Lounge, a nightclub and live music venue in San Francisco.

Biography
Zawinski's programming career began at age 16 with Scott Fahlman's Spice Lisp project at Carnegie Mellon University. He then worked at AI startup Expert Technologies, Inc. followed by Robert Wilensky and Peter Norvig's AI research group at UC Berkeley, working on natural language processing.

In 1990 he began working at Lucid Inc., first working on Lucid Common Lisp, and then on Lucid's Energize C++ IDE. Lucid decided to use GNU Emacs as the text editor for their IDE due to its free license, popularity, and extensibility, and Zawinski led that project. As Zawinski and the other programmers made fundamental changes to GNU Emacs to add new functionality, tensions over how to merge these patches into the main tree eventually led to the fork of the project into GNU Emacs and Lucid Emacs (now XEmacs).

In 1992 he released the first version of XScreenSaver, a free and open-source collection now containing more than 240 screensavers. Initially released for Unix, it now supports macOS, iOS and Android as well. On Unix systems, it also provides the framework for blanking and locking the screen. He still maintains it, with new releases coming out several times a year.

Netscape and Mozilla
Following Lucid's bankruptcy in 1994, Zawinski was one of the initial employees of Mosaic Communications, later known as Netscape. At Netscape, he developed the Unix release of Netscape Navigator 1.0, and later, Netscape Mail, the first mail reader (or Usenet reader) to natively support HTML.

Zawinski came up with the name "Mozilla" (originally the internal code-name of the web browser) during a staff meeting, as a reference to Godzilla and a portmanteau of "Mosaic killer".

An easter egg he coded in the Netscape browser became quite well known during the early days of the World Wide Web: typing "about:jwz" into the address box would take the user to his home page, and would change the browser's logo animation to a fire-breathing dragon.

Through his long-time support and advocacy for free software both inside and outside the company, Zawinski is credited with having been the inspiration for Netscape's decision to open-source the source code of the browser in 1998. He was a founder of Mozilla.org, personally registering its domain name on the day of Netscape's open source announcement and helping design and run the organization through its first year.

When Netscape was acquired by AOL in 1999, he wrote a bulletin explaining that Mozilla's work would continue with or without Netscape. And a year after the initial source code release, he resigned from Netscape and Mozilla, citing his disappointment that others involved in the project had decided to rewrite the code instead of incrementally improving it.

DNA Lounge
Shortly after leaving Mozilla, he announced his purchase of DNA Lounge, a nightclub in San Francisco. Zawinski purchased the nightclub in 1999 for approximately 5 million dollars and it was re-opened in July 2001, a process which he documented extensively in a blog named "DNA Sequencing".

In 2016, he explored alternative funding ideas to keep the venue afloat during a downturn in attendance.

Interviews and appearances
In 2000, Zawinski starred in the 60-minute-long PBS documentary Code Rush, which chronicles the creation of Mozilla.org and the release of the browser source code over the course of 1998.

Zawinski features extensively in Josh Quittner's 1998 book Speeding the Net: The Inside Story of Netscape and How It Challenged Microsoft, and in Glyn Moody's 2001 book, Rebel Code: Linux and the Open Source Revolution. There is a chapter on Zawinski in Peter Seibel's 2009 book, Coders at Work: Reflections on the Craft of Programming. And in 2001, he was featured in California Dreamin': The Gold Rush, a documentary for German public television.

Zawinski appears in several video installations at the Computer History Museum's exhibit, Revolution: The First 2000 Years of Computing.

He was also featured in Sleep Mode: The Art of the Screensaver, a gallery exhibition curated by Rafaël Rozendaal at Rotterdam's Het Nieuwe Instituut in 2017.

Zawinski's Law
Zawinski's Law of Software Envelopment, also known as Zawinski's Law, states: "Every program attempts to expand until it can read mail. Those programs which cannot so expand are replaced by ones which can." Some have interpreted this as commenting on the phenomenon of software bloating with popular features: Zawinski himself has stated: "My point was not about copycats, it was about platformization. Apps that you 'live in' all day have pressure to become everything and do everything. An app for editing text becomes an IDE, then an OS. An app for displaying hypertext documents becomes a mail reader, then an OS."

Principles
Zawinski first attained prominence as a Lisp programmer, but most of his larger projects are written in C. Despite that, he has long been critical of languages lacking memory safety and automatic memory management. He has particularly proselytized against C++. In Peter Seibel's book Coders at Work: Reflections on the Craft of Programming, Zawinski calls C++ an "abomination... the PDP-11 assembler that thinks it's an object system".

Though he has written and published many utilities in Perl, he is not without his criticisms, characterizing Perl as "combining all the worst aspects of C and Lisp: a billion different sublanguages in one monolithic executable. It combines the power of C with the readability of PostScript."

He has criticized several language and library deficiencies he encountered while programming in Java, specifically the overhead of certain fundamental classes but especially the marketing and politics behind it that led Sun to conflate the language, the class library, the virtual machine, and the security model all under the same name, "Java" – to, he says, the detriment of them all. Despite the positive aspects, ultimately Zawinski returned to programming in C "since it's still the only way to ship portable programs".

title: Jamie Zawinski


text:
Intranet

An intranet is a computer network for sharing information, easier communication, collaboration tools, operational systems, and other computing services within an organization, usually to the exclusion of access by outsiders. The term is used in contrast to public networks, such as the Internet, but uses the same technology based on the Internet protocol suite.

An organization-wide intranet can constitute an important focal point of internal communication and collaboration, and provide a single starting point to access internal and external resources. In its simplest form, an intranet is established with the technologies for local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WANs). Many modern intranets have search engines, user profiles, blogs, mobile apps with notifications, and events planning within their infrastructure.

An intranet is sometimes contrasted to an extranet. While an intranet is generally restricted to employees of the organization, extranets may also be accessed by customers, suppliers, or other approved parties. Extranets extend a private network onto the Internet with special provisions for authentication, authorization and accounting (AAA protocol).

Uses
Increasingly, intranets are being used to deliver tools, e.g. collaboration (to facilitate working in groups and teleconferencing) or corporate directories, sales and customer relationship management tools, project management etc.,

Intranets are also being used as corporate culture-change platforms. For example, large numbers of employees discussing key issues in an intranet forum application could lead to new ideas in management, productivity, quality, and other corporate issues.

In large intranets, website traffic is often similar to public website traffic and can be better understood by using web metrics software to track overall activity. User surveys also improve intranet website effectiveness.

Larger businesses allow users within their intranet to access public internet through firewall servers. They have the ability to screen messages coming and going, keeping security intact. When part of an intranet is made accessible to customers and others outside the business, it becomes part of an extranet. Businesses can send private messages through the public network, using special encryption/decryption and other security safeguards to connect one part of their intranet to another.

Intranet user-experience, editorial, and technology teams work together to produce in-house sites. Most commonly, intranets are managed by the communications, HR or CIO departments of large organizations, or some combination of these.

Because of the scope and variety of content and the number of system interfaces, intranets of many organizations are much more complex than their respective public websites. Intranets and their use are growing rapidly. According to the Intranet Design Annual 2007 from Nielsen Norman Group, the number of pages on participants' intranets averaged 200,000 over the years 2001 to 2003 and has grown to an average of 6 million pages over 2005–2007.

Benefits
Workforce productivity: Intranets can help users to locate and view information faster and use applications relevant to their roles and responsibilities. With the help of a web browser interface, users can access data held in any database the organization wants to make available, anytime and — subject to security provisions — from anywhere within the company workstations, increasing the employees ability to perform their jobs faster, more accurately, and with confidence that they have the right information. It also helps to improve the services provided to the users.

Time: Intranets allow organizations to distribute information to employees on an as-needed basis; Employees may link to relevant information at their convenience, rather than being distracted indiscriminately by email.

Communication: Intranets can serve as powerful tools for communication within an organization, vertically strategic initiatives that have a global reach throughout the organization. The type of information that can easily be conveyed is the purpose of the initiative and what the initiative is aiming to achieve, who is driving the initiative, results achieved to date, and whom to speak to for more information. By providing this information on the intranet, staff have the opportunity to keep up-to-date with the strategic focus of the organization. Some examples of communication would be chat, email, and/or blogs. A great real-world example of where an intranet helped a company communicate is when Nestle had a number of food processing plants in Scandinavia. Their central support system had to deal with a number of queries every day. When Nestle decided to invest in an intranet, they quickly realized the savings. McGovern says the savings from the reduction in query calls was substantially greater than the investment in the intranet.

Web publishing allows cumbersome corporate knowledge to be maintained and easily accessed throughout the company using hypermedia and Web technologies.Examples include employee manuals, benefits documents, company policies, business standards, news feeds, and even training, can be accessed using common Internet standards (Acrobat files, Flash files, CGI applications). Because each business unit can update the online copy of a document, the most recent version is usually available to employees using the intranet.

Business operations and management: Intranets are also being used as a platform for developing and deploying applications to support business operations and decisions across the internetworked enterprise.

Workflow: a collective term that reduces delay, such as automating meeting scheduling and vacation planning

Cost-effectiveness: Users can view information and data via web-browser rather than maintaining physical documents such as procedure manuals, internal phone list and requisition forms. This can potentially save the business money on printing, duplicating documents, and the environment as well as document maintenance overhead. For example, the HRM company PeopleSoft "derived significant cost savings by shifting HR processes to the intranet". McGovern goes on to say the manual cost of enrolling in benefits was found to be US$109.48 per enrollment. "Shifting this process to the intranet reduced the cost per enrollment to $21.79; a saving of 80 percent". Another company that saved money on expense reports was Cisco. "In 1996, Cisco processed 54,000 reports and the amount of dollars processed was USD19 million".

Enhance collaboration: Information is easily accessible by all authorised users, which enables teamwork. Being able to communicate in real-time through integrated third-party tools, such as an instant messenger, promotes the sharing of ideas and removes blockages to communication to help boost a business's productivity.

Cross-platform capability: Standards-compliant web browsers are available for Windows, Mac, and UNIX.

Built for one audience: Many companies dictate computer specifications which, in turn, may allow Intranet developers to write applications that only have to work on one browser (no cross-browser compatibility issues). Being able to specifically address one's "viewer" is a great advantage. Since intranets are user-specific (requiring database/network authentication prior to access), users know exactly who they are interfacing with and can personalize their intranet based on role (job title, department) or individual ("Congratulations Jane, on your 3rd year with our company!").

Promote common corporate culture: Every user has the ability to view the same information within the intranet.

Supports a distributed computing architecture': The intranet can also be linked to a company's management information system, for example a time keeping system.

Employee Engagement: Since "involvement in decision making" is one of the main drivers of employee engagement, offering tools (like forums or surveys) that foster peer-to-peer collaboration and employee participation can make employees feel more valued and involved.

Planning and creation
Most organizations devote considerable resources into the planning and implementation of their intranet as it is of strategic importance to the organization's success. Some of the planning would include topics such as determining the purpose and goals of the intranet, identifying persons or departments responsible for implementation and management and devising functional plans, page layouts and designs.

The appropriate staff would also ensure that implementation schedules and phase-out of existing systems were organized, while defining and implementing security of the intranet and ensuring it lies within legal boundaries and other constraints. In order to produce a high-value end product, systems planners should determine the level of interactivity (e.g. wikis, on-line forms) desired.

Planners may also consider whether the input of new data and updating of existing data is to be centrally controlled or devolve. These decisions sit alongside to the hardware and software considerations (like content management systems), participation issues (like good taste, harassment, confidentiality), and features to be supported.

Intranets are often static sites; they are a shared drive, serving up centrally stored documents alongside internal articles or communications (often one-way communication). By leveraging firms which specialise in 'social' intranets, organisations are beginning to think of how their intranets can become a 'communication hub' for their entire team. The actual implementation would include steps such as securing senior management support and funding, conducting a business requirement analysis and identifying users' information needs.

From the technical perspective, there would need to be a co-ordinated installation of the web server and user access network, the required user/client applications and the creation of document framework (or template) for the content to be hosted.

The end-user should be involved in testing and promoting use of the company intranet, possibly through a parallel adoption methodology or pilot programme. In the long term, the company should carry out ongoing measurement and evaluation, including through benchmarking against other company services.

Maintenance
Some aspects are non-static.

Staying current
An intranet structure needs key personnel committed to maintaining the intranet and keeping content current. For feedback on the intranet, social networking can be done through a forum for users to indicate what they want and what they do not like.

Privacy protection
The European Union's General Data Protection Regulation went into effect May 2018. Since then, the protection of the privacy of employees, customers and other stakeholders (e.g. consultants) has become more and more a significant concern for most companies (at least, all those having an interest in markets and countries where regulations are in place to protect the privacy).

Enterprise private network
An enterprise private network is a computer network built by a business to interconnect its various company sites (such as production sites, offices and shops) in order to share computer resources.

Beginning with the digitalisation of telecommunication networks, started in the 1970s in the US by AT&T, and propelled by the growth in computer systems availability and demands, enterprise networks have been built for decades without the need to append the term private to them. The networks were operated over telecommunication networks and, as for voice communications, a certain amount of security and secrecy was expected and delivered.

But with the Internet in the 1990s came a new type of network, virtual private networks, built over this public infrastructure, using encryption to protect the data traffic from eaves-dropping. So the enterprise networks are now commonly referred to as enterprise private networks in order to clarify that these are private networks, in contrast to public networks.

title: Intranet


text:
Womyn

Womyn is one of several alternative political spellings of the English word women, used by some feminists. There are other spellings, including womban (a reference to the womb or uterus) or womon (singular), and wombyn or wimmin (plural). Some writers who use such alternative spellings, avoiding the suffix "-man" or "-men", see them as an expression of female independence and a repudiation of traditions that define women by reference to a male norm. Recently, the term womxn has been used by intersectional feminists to indicate the same ideas while foregrounding or more explicitly including transgender women, non-binary women, intersex women, queer women, and women of color.

Historically, but unrelatedly, "womyn" and other spelling variants were associated with regional dialects (e.g. Scottish English) and eye dialect (e.g. African American Vernacular English).

Old English
Old English had a system of grammatical gender, whereby every noun was treated as either masculine, feminine or neuter, similar to modern German. In Old English sources, the word man was grammatically masculine but gender-neutral in meaning. One of its meanings was similar to the modern English usage of "one" as a gender-neutral indefinite pronoun (compare with mankind (man + kind), which means the human race, and German, which has retained the indefinite pronoun meaning to the modern day). The words wer and wīf were used, when necessary, to specify a man or woman, respectively. Combining them into werman or wīfman expressed the concept of "any man" or "any woman". Some feminist writers have suggested that this more symmetrical usage reflected more egalitarian notions of gender at the time.

18th, 19th, and early 20th century uses
The term wimmin was considered by George P. Krapp (1872–1934), an American scholar of English, to be eye dialect, the literary technique of using nonstandard spelling that implies a pronunciation of the given word that is actually standard. The spelling indicates that the character's speech overall is dialectal, foreign, or uneducated. This form of nonstandard spelling differs from others in that a difference in spelling does not indicate a difference in pronunciation of a word. That is, it is dialect to the eye rather than to the ear. It suggests that a character "would use a vulgar pronunciation if there were one" and "is at the level of ignorance where one misspells in this fashion, hence mispronounces as well."

The word womyn appeared as an Older Scots spelling of woman in the Scots poetry of James Hogg. The word wimmin appeared in 19th-century renderings of Black American English, without any feminist significance.

In the United States
The usage of "womyn" as a feminist spelling of women (with womon as the singular form) first appeared in print in 1976 referring to the first Michigan Womyn's Music Festival. This is just after the founding of the Mountain Moving Coffeehouse for Womyn and Children, a lesbian feminist social event centred around women's music. Both the annual "MichFest" and the weekly coffeehouse operated a womyn-born womyn (cisgender women-only) policy. Womyn's land was another usage of the term, associated with separatist feminism.

Z. Budapest promoted the use of the word wimmin (singular womon) in the 1970s as part of her Dianic Wicca movement, which claims that present-day patriarchy represents a fall from a matriarchal golden age.

These re-spellings existed alongside the use of herstory, a feminist re-examination and re-telling of history. Later, another wave of female-produced music was known as the riot grrrl movement.

The word "womyn" has been criticized by trans activists due to its usage in radical feminist circles which exclude trans women from identifying into the category of "woman" and consequently prevent them from accessing spaces and resources for women; the term wombyn has been particularly criticized for this since it implies that a woman must have a womb to be a woman.

In the United Kingdom
Millie Tant, a fictional character in the British satirical comic Viz, often used the term wimmin when discussing women's rights.

Similar terms
"Womxn" has been used in a similar manner as womyn and wimmin. Due to transgender women's perceived exclusion from the usage of these respellings, an "x" is used to "broaden the scope of womanhood," to include them. The Womxn's March on Seattle chose the spelling of its title for this reason.

title: Womyn


text:
Clit (disambiguation)

The clit or clitoris is a female sex organ.

Clit or Cliț may also refer to:
 * Pointing stick, in computing

Places in Romania

 * Clit, a Saca tributary in Suceava County
 * Clit, a village in Hășmaș, Arad County
 * Cliț, a village in Băbeni, Sălaj
 * Clit, a village in Arbore, Suceava County

title: Clit (disambiguation)


text:
Nuke (disambiguation)

A nuke is a nuclear weapon.

Nuke may also refer to:

Computing

 * Nuke (computer), a kind of denial-of-service attack
 * Nuke (software), a digital compositing and visual effects application
 * Nuke (video games), a spell or skill that is capable of dealing a large amount of damage to its target
 * Nuke (warez), a label to flag problems with a warez release
 * Total irrecoverable destruction of all data on a hard drive.

Fictional uses

 * Nuke (Counter-Strike), a multiplayer map in the video games series
 * Nuke (Marvel Comics), a supervillain
 * Nuke (Squadron Supreme), a superhero
 * "Nuke" LaLoosh, in the film Bull Durham
 * Nuke, a narcotic in the film RoboCop 2
 * Luke Snyder and Noah Mayer, a supercouple known as "Nuke" from the TV series As the World Turns

title: Nuke (disambiguation)


text:
Talk:Atomic weight

Untitled
Describe the new page here.

Can someone go through the Atomic Weight and Molarity pages and explain what is the parenthetical number that follows the listed atomic weights? Thanks! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.127.163.62 (talk) 18:12, 2 January 2010 (UTC)

I think a typo has crept in - atomic weight is about the mass of an atom (not just the nucleus) and the reference is scale is that which an atom (not nucleus) of Carbon-12 is 12 units.

You should also make it clear that the 'average' is a weighted average over naturally occuring isotopes.

Perhaps I should have been bolder and simply editted the page but it is my first time here.

Kenneth Evans 3 February 2002

Atomic mass
I propose that this definition be moved to be primarily "Relative Atomic Mass" with "Atomic mass" and "Atomic weight" as redirects to that. It is the more correct term, and therefore should have the title really. At the moment statements like "atomic weight...is the mass" do not even make a great deal of sense, and really are contradictory.

Any strong disagreement? Thought the change was major enough to ask views first...

 * I can not see any reason why not, while I can see many reasons why. I say go ahead with it.

 * I proposed it on the changes page and people disagreed saying that it should reflect current usage, and that RAM was not current usage (it is current everywhere I've been, and among physicists is certainly standard, but possibly not among chemists, they are known to be terminologically lazy I'm told). Hence I've not changed it yet.

This page is a mess! I basically agree with the above posts. Why are we still insisting on the archaic term atomic weight? Totally inconsistent to use weight with units of grams. I've been teaching chemistry for 20 years and only refer to atomic weight in a historical context. Current usage is atomic mass. I have revived the atomic mass page - still needs work. Comments? -Vsmith 02:24, 3 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Atomic weight should now be a redirect... which I'll go do now. Eric119 02:31, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Atomic weight is entirely inappropriate, and I fully support the move. Weight is mass*acceleration, but this article talks about masses. This must be changed. Adacus12 (talk) 08:04, 19 June 2010 (UTC)
 * You are replying to a rather old discussion thread - the article has likely changed a bit in 5.5 yrs. Historical context and IUPAC seem to be of importance here. Although I agree with your concerns about weight/mass, it seems others don't -- and please keep the article usage consistent with the title. If you want a rename or move of the article - then seek consensus for that here first. Vsmith (talk) 11:14, 19 June 2010 (UTC)

May I point out that atomic weight is a dimensionless unit (i.e. it is not measured in grams), it is molar mass that is somewhat like that, however in reality, that should be molar density, as it is mass per unit unit amount, or g/mol. It is not the mass, nor the weight that is used as a unit, so if you object to atomic weight, you should also object to atomic mass, or relative atomic mass. If you were to put a carbon 12 atom in any gravitational field, it will have an atomic weight of 12. Having it called mass is no better. Weight is proportional to mass (in the same gravitational field). As it is just a measure relative to carbon 12, weight is just as accurate as mass. Furthermore, as it is a weighted mean, it makes more sense for weight to be used. Black.jeff (talk) 08:29, 24 August 2011 (UTC)

A.M.U
Shouldn't atomic mass units be mentioned since that is what 1/12 of C-12 is? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 202.182.91.94 (talk) 08:42, 16 April 2010 (UTC)
 * Depends! Atomic weight in chemistry has always been a dimensionless quantity, because it is measured as a ratio of masses. Physics tends to be more interested in the masses of individual nuclides, and there it makes very little difference if you quote the result as a mass in amu or as a dimensionless relative mass. So to say that the atomic weight of chlorine is 35.5 u is wrong (there is no chlorine atom which has a mass of 35.5 u), but to say that the atomic masses of the two stable isotopes of chlorine are approximately 35 u and 37 u is correct. Physchim62 (talk) 10:28, 16 April 2010 (UTC)

Confused?
E.g. think that molar mass of water comes from mass of the hydrogen and the mass of oxygen. So kg/mol + kg/mol = kg/mol (1+ 1+ 16 or 0,001 + 0,001 +0,016 -> 0,018 kg/mol) Ooops. These quantities must be additive! The original meaning of atomic mass is forgotten? A agree that the title of the artice will be Relative atomic mass. The mass is not weight (after 1903 CGPM) ZJ (talk) 20:15, 15 October 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Atomic weight


text:
User:Cherezov

Andrey Cherezov

 * mailto:ac@forth.org.ru
 * http://www.forth.org.ru/
 * http://spf.sourceforge.net/

title: User:Cherezov