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Poet laureate

A poet laureate (plural: poets laureate)  is a poet officially appointed by a government or conferring institution, typically expected to compose poems for special events and occasions. Albertino Mussato of Padua and Francesco Petrarca (Petrarch) of Arezzo were the first to be crowned poets laureate after the classical age, respectively in 1315 and 1342. In Britain, the term dates from the appointment of Bernard André by Henry VII of England. The royal office of Poet Laureate in England dates from the appointment of John Dryden in 1668.

In modern times a poet laureate title may be conferred by an organization such as the Poetry Foundation, which designates a Young People's Poet Laureate, unconnected with the National Youth Poet Laureate and the United States Poet Laureate.

The office is also popular with regional and community groups. Examples include the Pikes Peak Poet Laureate, which is designated by a "Presenting Partners" group from within the community, the Minnesota poet laureate chosen by the League of Minnesota Poets (est. 1934), the Northampton Poet Laureate chosen by the Northampton Arts Council, and the Martha's Vineyard Poet Laureate chosen by ten judges representing the Martha's Vineyard Poetry Society.

Over a dozen national governments continue the poet laureate tradition.

Background
In ancient Greece, the laurel was used to form a crown or wreath of honour for poets and heroes. The custom derives from the ancient myth of Daphne and Apollo (Daphne signifying "laurel" in Greek), and was revived in Padua for Albertino Mussato, followed by Petrarch's own crowning ceremony in the audience hall of the medieval senatorial palazzo on the Campidoglio on April 8, 1341. Because the Renaissance figures who were attempting to revive the Classical tradition lacked detailed knowledge of the Roman precedent they were attempting to emulate, these ceremonies took on the character of doctoral candidatures.

Since the office of poet laureate has become widely adopted, the term "laureate" has come to signify recognition for preeminence or superlative achievement (cf. Nobel laureate). A royal degree in rhetoric, poet laureate was awarded at European universities in the Middle Ages. The term therefore may refer to the holder of such a degree, which recognized skill in rhetoric, grammar, and language.

Australia
On 30 January 2023, at the launch of 'Revive', Australia's new cultural policy, Prime Minister Anthony Albanese announced “the establishment of a poet laureate for Australia”. Before 2023, Australia had not had an official poet laureate scheme, despite past suggestions. In 1818, former convict Michael Massey Robinson was paid by colony governor Lachlan Macquarie for services as poet laureate. Over the years, other poets have been nominated as worthy of such a title, including James Brunton Stephens (1835–1902), Andrew Barton 'Banjo' Paterson (1864–1941), and Les Murray (1938–2019).

Barbados
The first Poet Laureate of Barbados was chosen in 2018. Her name is Esther Phillips.

Belgium
The first Poet Laureate of Belgium, Charles Ducal, was chosen in 2014. He was followed by Laurence Vielle, Els Moors, Carl Norac, and Mustafa Kör.

Canada

The Canadian Parliamentary Poet Laureate is appointed as an officer of the Library of Parliament. The position alternates between an English and French speaking laureate. Candidates must be able to write in both English and French, have a substantial publication history (including poetry) displaying literary excellence and have written work reflecting Canada, among other criteria.

Poets who have served in the position include:
 * George Bowering (2002-2004)
 * Pauline Michel (2004-2006)
 * John Steffler (2006-2008)
 * Pierre DesRuisseaux (2009-2011)
 * Fred Wah (2011-2013)
 * Michel Pleau (2014-2016)
 * George Elliott Clarke (2016-2017)
 * Georgette LeBlanc (2018-2019)
 * Louise Bernice Halfe a.k.a. Sky Dancer (2021–present)

Provincial and municipal poets laureate
Currently, only the provinces of Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Saskatchewan and Yukon have appointed a poet laureate.

Cities

 * Calgary's current poet laureate is Wakefield Brewster (2022-2024). He was preceded in office by Natalie Meisner (2020 – 2022), Sheri-D Wilson (2018-2020), Micheline Maylor (2016 – 2018), Derek Beaulieu (2014 – 2016), and Kris Demeanor (2012 – 2014).
 * Banff has had three poets laureate, Derek Beaulieu (2022-2023), Amelie Patternson (2017-2018) and Steven Ross Smith (2019-2020)
 * The current Poet Laureate of Edmonton is Titilope Sonuga (2021-2023). She was preceded in office by Nishi Patel (2019 – 2021), Ahmed “Knowmadic” Ali (2017-2019), Pierrette Requier (2015 – 2017), Mary Pinkoski (2013 – 2015), Anna Marie Sewell (2011 – 2012), Roland Pemberton (2006 – 2011), E.D. Blodgett (2007 – 2009), and Alice Major (2005 – 2007).

Cities

 * Comox Valley has had three poets laureate: Lawrence J.W. Cooper (2019-2021), Natalie Nickerson (2017-2019), and Kevin Flesher (2015-2017).
 * The Poets Laureate of Nanaimo include Kamal Parmar (2021-2023), Tina Biello (2017 – 2020), and Naomi Beth Wakan (2013 – 2016).
 * New Westminster's Poets Laureate are Elliott Slinn (2021–present), Alan Hill (2017 – 2020), Candice James (2010 – 2016), Don Benson (1999 – 2007), and Edna Anderson (1998 – 1999)
 * Surrey has had one poet laureate, Renée Sarojini Saklikar (2015 – 2018)
 * Tofino's poets laureate are Christine Lowther (2020-2022) and Joanna Streetly (2018 – 2020)
 * Vancouver's poets laureate are Fiona Tinwei Lam (2021–present), Miss Christie Lee (Christie Charles) (2018-2021), Rachel Rose (2014 – 2017), Evelyn Lau (2011 – 2014), Brad Cran (2009 – 2011), and George McWhirter (2007 – 2009).
 * Victoria's poets laureate are Marie Metaphor Specht (2022 to present), John Barton (2019 – 2022), Yvonne Blomer (2015 – 2018), Janet Marie Rogers (2012 – 2014), Linda Rogers (2009 – 2011), and Carla Funk (2006 – 2008).

Cities

 * Winnipeg's poets laureate are Duncan Mercredi (2020-2022) and Di Brandt (2018-2019)

Cities

 * Fredericton's Poets Laureate are Jordan Trethewey (2021–present), Jenna Lyn Albert (2019 – 2021) and Ian Letourneau (2016 – 2018).
 * Moncton's poets laureate or Poets Flyé-es are Kayla Geitzler (English) and Jean-Philippe Raîche (French) (2019 – Present)
 * Sackville's poets laureate are Laura K. Watson (2021–present) Shoshanna Wingate (2019 – 2021), Marilyn Lerch (2013 – 2017), and Douglas Lochhead (2002 – 2011).

Cities

 * St. John's poets laureate are Mary Dalton (2019 – 2022), George Murray (2014 – 2017), Tom Dawe (2010 – 2013), and Agnes Walsh (2006 – 2009).

Cities

 * Cape Breton: Rita Joe (1932 – 2007) was appointed Lifetime “Poet Laureate of the Mi’kmaq people”

 * Halifax poets laureate are Dr. Afua Cooper (2018 – 2020), Rebecca Thomas (2016 – 2018), El Jones (2013 – 2015), Tanya Davis (2011 – 2012), Shauntay Grant (2009 – 2011), Lorri Neilsen Glenn (2005 – 2009), and Sue MacLeod (2001 – 2005).

Ontario

 * In 2021 Ontario named its first poet laureate Randell Adjei.

Cities

 * The city of Barrie has had two poets laureate Victoria Butler (2018 – present) and Damian Lopes (2014 – present)
 * The city of Brantford named John B. Lee poet laureate in perpetuity in 2005.
 * The town of Cobalt named Ann Margetson poet laureate
 * Cobourg's poets laureate are Jessica Outram (2019 – 2022), Ted Amsden (2011 – 2018), Jill Battson (2009 – 2011), and Eric Winter (1997 – 2009)
 * Dufferin County's poets laureate is Harry Posner (2017–present)
 * Emery: Laurence Hutchman (2018 – present)
 * Kingston's poets laureate are Jason Heroux (2019 – present), Helen Humphreys (2015 – 2019), and Eric Folsom (2011 – 2015).
 * London's poets laureate are Tom Cull (2016 – present), and Penn Kemp (2011 – 2013)
 * Mississauga's poets laureate are Ayomide Bayowa (2021-2024), Paul Edward Costa (2019 – 2021), Wali Shah (2017 – 2019), and Anna Yin (2015 – 2017).
 * In Norfolk County John B. Lee was appointed in 2011.
 * Ottawa's poets laureate are Albert Dumont (Anglophone) (2021-2022) and Gilles Latour (Francophone) (2021-2022), Margaret Michèle Cook (Francophone) and Diana Young (Anglophone) (2019 – 2021), Andrée Lacelle (Francophone) and Jamaal Jackson Rogers (Anglophone) (2017 – 2019).
 * Owen Sound's poets laureate are Richard-Yves Sitoski (2019 – 2022), Lauren Best (2017-2019), Rob Rolfe & Larry Jensen (2015 – 2017), Terry Burns (2013 – 2014), Kateri Akiwenzie-Damm (2011 – 2012), Kristan Anderson (2008 – 2010), Liz Zetlin (2007 – 2008).
 * Greater Sudbury's poets laureate are Kyla Heming (2022–present), Vera Constantineau (2020-2022), Chloé LaDuchesse (2018 – 2020), Kim Fahner (2016 – 2018), Thomas Leduc (2014 – 2015), Daniel Aubin (2012 – 2013), and Roger Nash (2010 – 2011)
 * The Poet Laureate of Toronto program was established in 2001, naming Dennis Lee as the first poet laureate. Successors include: A. F. Moritz (2019 – 2022), Anne Michaels (2016 – 2019), George Elliott Clarke (2012 – 2015), Dionne Brand (2009 – 2012), and Pier Giorgio Di Cicco (2004 – 2009).
 * The city of Windsor poets laureate are Mary Ann Mulhern (2019 – 2022), Marty Gervais (2011 – 2019), Vanessa Shields (April 2022- September 2022), and Peter Hrastovec (2023 - 2027).
 * The city of Woodstock posthumously named Barry C. Butson poet laureate emeritus.

Prince Edward Island
Prince Edward Island appointed its first poet laureate, John Smith, in 2003.

 * Julie Pellissier-Lush (2019–present)
 * Deirdre Kessler (2016-2019)
 * Diane Hicks Morrow (2013-2016)
 * Hugh MacDonald (2009-2013)
 * David Helwig (2008-2009)
 * Frank Ledwell (2004-2007)
 * John Smith (2002-2004)

Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan appointed its first poet laureate, Glen Sorestad, in 2000.

 * Carol Rose GoldenEagle (2021–present)
 * Bruce Rice (2019 - 2021)
 * Brenda Schmidt (2017 - 2018)
 * Gerry Hill (2016 - 2017)
 * Judith Krause (2014 - 2015)
 * Don Kerr (2011 - 2013)
 * Robert Currie (2007 - 2010)
 * Louise B. Halfe (Sky Dancer) (2005 - 2006)
 * Glen Sorestad (2000 - 2004)

Yukon
Inaugural Yukon Provincial Poet Laureate PJ Yukon has held the office since 1994.

The Commissioner of Yukon established the Story Laureate of Yukon role in 2020. The inaugural position was held by Michael Gates.

Dominican Republic
Poets Laureate of Dominican Republic include: Pedro Mir (1984).

Ethiopia

Officially designated Laureate includes Tsegaye Gebre-Medhin. Tsegaye's award was granted by His Majesty, Haile-Selasie II.

Germany
Poets Laureate of Nazi Germany include: Hanns Johst from 1935 to 1946.

was declared the Stadtschreiber of three different cities in Germany: Rheinsberg in 1999, Remscheid in 2004, and Trier in 2007.

Holy See
Popes have several times named poets laureate, but the practice has been irregular.

Andhra Pradesh
Saanvi Sharma was the first poet laureate of Andhra Pradesh, India.

Tamil Nadu
Kannadasan was the poet laureate of Tamil Nadu at the time of his death.

Iran
Malek o-Sho'arā Bahār was the poet laureate of Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar. He was born in Mashhad in 1884 (died 1951) and was a conservative figure among the modernists.

Ireland
The Kingdom of Ireland had a poet laureate; the last holder of the title was Robert Jephson, who died in 1803.

The closest modern equivalent in the Republic of Ireland is the title Saoi ["wise one"] held by up to seven members at a time of Aosdána, an official body of those engaged in fine arts, literature, and music. Poets awarded the title include Máire Mhac an tSaoi, Anthony Cronin, and Seamus Heaney.

Jamaica
Thomas MacDermot was the first poet laureate of Jamaica during colonial times, followed by Je Clare McFarlane. Mervyn Morris was the first poet laureate of Jamaica upon its independence, from 2014 to 2017, followed by Lorna Goodison from 2017 to 2020. The poet laureate of Jamaica for 2021 to 2024 is Olive Senior.

Netherlands
The unofficial Poet Laureate of Netherlands is Tsead Bruinja as Dichter des Vaderlands (Poet of the Fatherland). The previous laureate was Ester Naomi Perquin. Gerrit Komrij was the first Dichter des Vaderlands. The title was created by Dutch media.

New Zealand
New Zealand has had an official poet laureate since 1998. Originally sponsored by Te Mata vineyards and known as the Te Mata Estate Poet Laureate, the award is now administered by the National Library of New Zealand and the holder is called New Zealand Poet Laureate. The term of office is two years. The symbol of office is a Tokotoko, a carved wooden ceremonial orator's staff.

The first holder was Bill Manhire, in 1998–99, then Hone Tuwhare (2000–01), Elizabeth Smither (2002–03), Brian Turner (2004–05), Jenny Bornholdt (2006–07), Michele Leggott (2008–09), Cilla McQueen (2009–11), Ian Wedde (2011–13), Vincent O'Sullivan (2013–15), C. K. Stead (2015–2017), Selina Tusitala Marsh (2017-2019), David Eggleton (2019-2021) and Chris Tse (2022-2024).

Nigeria
Poets Laureate of Nigeria include: Obo Aba Hisanjani.

North Korea
Beginning around 1994, North Korea had 6 active poets laureate who worked in the epic genre. Epic poetry was the chief vehicle of political propaganda during the rule of Kim Jong-il, and the poets worked according to the requests and needs of Kim Jong-il. Some of the poets are Jang Jin-sung (pseudonym), Kim Man-young and Shin Byung-gang.

Saint Lucia
Poets Laureate of Saint Lucia include: Derek Walcott.

Serbia

 * Matija Bećković
 * Charles Simić
 * Slobodan Selenić
 * Jovan Dučić

Sierra Leone
Poets laureate of Sierra Leone include the Italian authors Roberto Malini and Dario Picciau.

Somalia
Poets laureate of Somalia include: Hadraawi.

Turkey
Mehmet Akif Ersoy was the Poet-Laureate, born in 1873 and died on December 27, 1936, famous Turkish poet. He composed the poem to be the National Anthem of the Turkish Republic that written in 1921. Original name of the poem is "İstiklal Marşı"

England
In England, the term "poet laureate" is restricted to the official office of Poet Laureate, attached to the royal household. However, no authoritative historical record exists of the office of Poet Laureate of England.

The office developed from earlier practice when minstrels and versifiers were members of the king's retinue. Richard Cœur-de-Lion had a versificator regis (English: king's poet), Gulielmus Peregrinus (William the Pilgrim), and Henry III had a versificator named Master Henry. In the fifteenth century, John Kay, a versifier, described himself as Edward IV's "humble poet laureate".

According to Wharton, King Henry I paid 10 shillings a year to a versificator regis. Geoffrey Chaucer (1340–1400) was called Poet Laureate, being granted in 1389 an annual allowance of wine. W. Hamilton describes Chaucer, Gower, Kay, Andrew Bernard, John Skelton, Robert Whittington, Richard Edwards and Samuel Daniel as "volunteer Laureates".

John Skelton studied at the University of Oxford in the early 1480s and was advanced to the degree of "poet laureate" in 1488, when he joined the court of King Henry VII to tutor the future Henry VIII. The title of laureate was also conferred on him by the University of Louvain in 1492 and by the University of Cambridge in 1492–3. He soon became famous for his rhetoric, satire and translations and was held in high esteem by the printer William Caxton, who wrote, in the preface to The Boke of Eneydos compyled by Vargyle (Modern English: The Book of the Aeneid, compiled by Virgil) (1490): "But I pray mayster John Skelton, late created poete laureate in the unyversite of Oxenforde, to oversee and correct this sayd booke."

The academic use of the term laureate became associated again with royalty when King James I created a pension for Ben Jonson in 1617, although there is no formal record extant. He was succeeded by William Davenant.

The royal office Poet Laureate was officially conferred by letters patent on John Dryden in 1668, after Davenant's death, and the post became a regular institution. Dryden's successor Shadwell originated annual birthday and New Year odes. The poet laureate became responsible for writing and presenting official verses to commemorate both personal occasions, such as the monarch's birthday or royal births and marriages, and public occasions, such as coronations and military victories. His activity in this respect varied according to circumstances, and the custom ceased to be obligatory after Pye's death. The office fell into some contempt before Robert Southey, but took on a new lustre from his personal distinction and that of successors Wordsworth and Tennyson. Wordsworth stipulated before accepting the honour that no formal effusions from him should be required. Due to his age, he became the only laureate to write no official poetry. Tennyson was generally happy in his numerous poems of this class.

On Tennyson's death there was a considerable feeling that there was no acceptable successor. William Morris and Swinburne were hardly suitable as court poets. Eventually the undesirability of breaking the tradition for temporary reasons, and severing the one official link between literature and the state, prevailed over the protests against allowing someone of inferior genius to follow Tennyson. Abolition was similarly advocated when Warton and Wordsworth died.

Edward Gibbon condemned the position's artificial approach to poetry: "From Augustus to Louis, the muse has too often been false and venal: but I much doubt whether any age or court can produce a similar establishment of a stipendiary poet, who in every reign, and at all events, is bound to furnish twice a year a measure of praise and verse, such as may be sung in the chapel, and, I believe, in the presence, of the sovereign. I speak the more freely, as the best time for abolishing this ridiculous custom is while the prince is a man of virtue and the poet a man of genius."

The salary has varied, but traditionally includes some alcohol. Ben Jonson first received a pension of 100 marks, and later an annual "terse of Canary wine". Dryden had a pension of £300 and a butt of Canary wine. Pye received £27 instead of the wine. Tennyson drew £72 a year from the Lord Chamberlain's department, and £27 from the Lord Steward's "in lieu of the butt of sack". The modern annual salary is £5,750. On 10 May 2019 Simon Armitage was appointed after the end of Carol Ann Duffy's ten-year tenure.

There are other, non-official, laureate titles, such as the commercially sponsored "Children's Laureate" for an "eminent writer or illustrator of children's books to celebrate outstanding achievement in their field", and the Poetry Foundation's Young People's Poet Laureate.

Scotland
Scotland has a long tradition of makars and poetry. Iain Lom, the Scottish Gaelic bard, was appointed poet laureate in Scotland by Charles II, King of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, on his restoration in 1660. In 2004 the Scottish Parliament appointed Professor Edwin Morgan as the first Makar or National Poet for Scotland. On his death in January 2011 he was succeeded by Liz Lochhead. Kathleen Jamie became Scotland's fourth Makar in 2021.

Wales
Wales has had a long tradition of poets and bards under royal patronage, with extant writing from medieval royal poets and earlier. The office of National Poet for Wales was established in April 2005. The first holder, Gwyneth Lewis, was followed by Gwyn Thomas.

United States

The United States Library of Congress appointed a Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress from 1937 to 1984. An Act of Congress changed the name in 1985 to Poet Laureate Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress.

Poets laureate receive a US$35,000 stipend and are given the responsibility of overseeing an ongoing series of poetry readings and lectures at the library, and a charge to promote poetry. No other duties are specified, and laureates are not required to compose for government events or in praise of government officials. However, after the September 11 terrorist attacks, then poet laureate Billy Collins was asked to write a poem to be read in front of a special joint session of Congress. Collins wrote "The Names", which he read on September 6, 2002, and which is available in streaming audio and video. The original intent of the stipend was to provide poets laureate with a full income, so that they could devote their time entirely to writing poetry. The amount has not been adjusted for inflation and is now considered a moderate bonus intended to supplement a poet's already existing income. Most Poets Laureate earn the bulk of their income through university employment.

Ada Limón is the current poet laureate. Previous poets laureate include Joy Harjo, Tracy K. Smith (two terms), Juan Felipe Herrera, Philip Levine, W. S. Merwin, Kay Ryan, Charles Simic, Ted Kooser, Louise Glück, Billy Collins, Rita Dove, Elizabeth Bishop, Robert Frost, Karl Shapiro, Allen Tate, Robert Penn Warren, Richard Wilbur, Joseph Brodsky, Stanley Kunitz, Robert Hass, Donald Hall, Robert Pinsky (three terms), Mark Strand, Audre Lorde, and Maxine Kumin.

Amanda Gorman was the United States's first National Youth Poet Laureate appointed in 2017.

A number of American state legislatures have also created an office of poet laureate. The holders may be locally or nationally prominent. The U.S. states of New Jersey, Massachusetts, Michigan, and Pennsylvania do not currently have a state poet laureate position.

District of Columbia
The United States' capital, the District of Columbia, created the position of Poet Laureate of the District of Columbia in 1984 during the mayoralty of Marion Barry. The position is filled by appointment from the mayor of the district the DC Commission on the Arts and Humanities. The District of Columbia's poet laureate program is currently stalled. Only two poets laureate have been appointed since the creation of the position. Sterling Allen Brown was appointed by Mayor Marion Barry, serving from 1984 until his death in 1989. Dolores Kendrick was appointed by Mayor Anthony A. Williams, serving from 1999 until her death in 2017.

Alabama
The office of Poet Laureate of Alabama was created for Samuel Minturn Peck in 1930. The post has been continuously filled since 1954 on a four-year renewable basis. Poets laureate serve at the pleasure of the governor. Successors include Helen Norris, Sue Walker, and Andrew Glaze.

Alaska
Originally created as the position of Poet Laureate in 1963 (House Resolution 25). The official name was changed in 1996 to recognize and honor all genres of writing. The position is selected by the Alaska State Council on the Arts.

Arizona
The state of Arizona established a state Poet Laureate position in 2013, appointing Alberto Ríos as the inaugural Poet Laureate.

Arkansas
Charles T. Davis was the first poet laureate of Arkansas, appointed in 1923.

California

The state of California established a state Poet Laureate under Governor Hiram Warren Johnson and appointed Ina Donna Coolbrith on June 30, 1915. Coolbrith was later acknowledged as the "Loved Laurel-Crowned Poet of California" by a 1919 state Senate resolution, retaining the title until her death in 1928. Juan Felipe Herrera was appointed by Gov. Jerry Brown in March 2012. The position is currently vacant. It was last held by Dana Gioia from 2015 to 2018.

Counties

 * Kern County's first poet laureate was chosen in 2016: Don Thompson.
 * Lake County's first poet laureate, Jim Lyle, was chosen in 1998.
 * Marin County's first Poet Laureate was appointed in 2008: Albert Flynn DeSilver
 * Napa County's first poet laureate was appointed in 2002: Dorothy Lee Hansen.
 * San Mateo County's first poet laureate was appointed in 2014: Caroline Goodwin. She was followed by Lisa Rosenberg in 2017 and Aileen Casinetto in 2019.
 * Santa Clara County appointed its first Poet Laureate in 2009: Nils Peterson
 * Ventura County appointed its first Poet Laureate, Mary Kay Rummel in 2014. She was then followed by Phil Taggart in 2016. The current Poet Laureate in Ventura County is Luzmaria Espinosa.

Cities

 * Albany chose its first poet laureate, Christina Hutchins, in 2008.
 * Anaheim selected its first poet laureate, Grant Hier, in 2018.
 * Benicia appointed its first poet laureate in 2006, Joel Fallon. He was followed by Robert Shelby, Ronna Leon, Lois Requist, Don Peery, Johanna Ely, Tom Stanton, and Mary Susan Gast. Kathy Monroe was appointed on November 15, 2023.
 * Berkeley selected its first Poet Laureate in 2017: Rafael Jesús González Before this, in 2004, Julia Vinograd had been recognised officially as Berkeley's unofficial poet laureate.
 * Cupertino's first Poet Laureate, Dave Denny, was selected in 2010.
 * El Cerrito selected its first poet laureate, Maw Shein Win in summer 2016.
 * Fairfield's first poet laureate was Juanita J. Martin. She was succeeded by Bonnie DiMichele and Suzanne Bruce.
 * East Palo Alto's Poet Laureate is Kalamu Chaché.
 * Fresno selected James Tyner as its first poet laureate in 2013.
 * Glendale selected Raffi Joe Wartanian as its first poet laureate in 2023.
 * Livermore's first poet laureate was Connie Post.
 * Los Angeles selected its first poet laureate, Eloise Klein Healy, in December 2012.
 * Oakland selected its first poet laureate, Ayodele Nzinga, in June 2021.
 * Richmond's poet laureate program began in 2004 with three laureates: Brenda Quintanilla (student), Donte Clark (non-senior adult), Lincoln Bergman (senior).
 * Sacramento's first poets laureate were Dennis Schmitz and Viola Weinberg, who served two years beginning in 2000.
 * San Francisco's first poet laureate, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, was selected in 1998. He was followed by Janice Mirikitani, Devorah Major, Jack Hirschman, Diane di Prima, Alejandro Murguía, and Kim Shuck. The current poet laureate is Tongo Eisen-Martin.
 * Santa Barbara's first poet laureate was Barry Spacks, appointed in 2005. He was followed by Perie Longo, David Starkey, Paul Willis, Chryss Yost, Sojourner Kincaid Rolle, Enid Osborn, and Laure-Anne Bosselaar. The current poet laureate is Emma Trelles.
 * Vallejo's first poet laureate was Genea Brice appointed in 2015, followed by D.L. Lang in 2017, and Jeremy Snyder. Jacalyn Eyvonne and Kathleen Herrmann serve concurrently as poets laureate for Vallejo.

Colorado

Colorado Poets Laureate are currently appointed to four-year terms. They are nominated by Colorado Creative Industries and Colorado Humanities & Center for the Book, and chosen by the Governor. Alice Polk Hill was the first poet laureate of Colorado serving from 1919 to 1921. Successors include Thomas Hornsby Ferril, Mary Crow, David Mason, Bobby LeFebre and Andrea Gibson. The State of Colorado also appointed singer/songwriter writer John Denver in 1974.

Cities

 * Chris Ransick served as poet laureate of Denver 2006 to 2010.
 * Janice Gould served as poet laureate of Pikes Peak from 2014 to 2016.

Connecticut
The Poet Laureate of Connecticut was established in 1985 by Public Act 85-221 of the Connecticut General Assembly. Five-year residents of the state with a demonstrated career in poetry are eligible for the honorary appointment as an advocate for poetry and literary arts. James Merill was the first poet laureate of Connecticut, serving from 1985 to 1995. His successors include Leo Connellan, Marilyn Nelson, John Hollander, Dick Allen, Margaret Gibson. Antoinette Brim-Bell is the current poet laureate for Connecticut.

Delaware

Poets are appointed to the position by the governor. The first poet laureate of Delaware was Edna Deemer Leach appointed in 1947. Nnamdi Chukwuocha and Albert Mills—twin brothers who are known as the "Twin Poets"—were appointed 17th Poets Laureate of the State of Delaware on December 13, 2015. According to the Library of Congress, they are the first co-laureates appointed by a state and the first siblings to share the position. Predecessors include Fleda Brown and JoAnn Balingit.

Florida
Poets Laureate of Florida are appointed by the governor and the Division of Arts and Culture. They first served lifetime, unpaid appointments, until June 20, 2014, when HB 513 established a four-year term. The first poet laureate of Florida was Franklin L. Wood, appointed in 1929 and died soon after assuming office. Vivian Laramore Rader was appointed in 1931 and served until her death in 1975. Edmund Skellings was appointed in 1980. A stroke that impaired his speech and limited his ability to do all of his official duties. He died August 19, 2012, leaving the post vacant. Peter Meinke currently holds this position and was appointed on June 15, 2015.

Georgia
Frank Lebby Stanton served from 1925 to 1927 as Georgia's first poet laureate. Successors include Ernest Neal, Conrad Aiken, David Bottoms, Judson Mitcham, and Chelsea Rathburn.

Hawaii

Prior to statehood Don Blanding, originally from Oklahoma, was unofficially referred to as the poet laureate of Hawaii. In 1951 Hawaii Territorial Senator Thelma Akana Harrison in concurrent resolution 28, declared Lloyd Stone, who was originally from California, poet laureate. When the modern program was established, Native Hawaiian Kealoha was appointed on May 3, 2012, by Governor Neil Abercrombie., and he is the first poet laureate for the state of Hawaii, serving through 2022.

Idaho
Irene Welch Grissom served from 1923 to 1948 as Idaho's first poet laureate. Sudie Stuart Hager served as the second poet laureate from 1949 to 1982. After 1982 the title was changed to Writer in Residence.

Illinois

Illinois appointed its first poet laureate, Howard Austin, in 1936, followed by Carl Sandburg (1962–1967), and Gwendolyn Brooks (1968–2000), all with lifetime appointments. The post is now a four-year renewable award. The poet laureate from 2003 to 2017 was Kevin Stein. In 2020, Angela Jackson was named Illinois Poet Laureate. Singer songwriter John Prine was posthumously named an Honorary Poet Laureate.

Indiana
Joyce Brinkman was appointed as the first poet laureate of Indiana, serving from 2005 to 2008

Iowa
The position was created July 1, 1999, by Subchapter 303.89 of the Iowa Code with a two-year renewable term. Marvin Bell was Iowa's first Poet Laureate, from 2000 to 2004, followed by Robert Dana from 2004 to 2008, and Mary Swander from 2009 to 2019. Debra Marquart is the current Poet Laureate of Iowa. Her two-year term started in May 2019.

Kansas
Jonathan Holden served as Kansas' first poet laureate from 2005 to 2007.

Kentucky

James Thomas Cotton Noe served as Kentucky's first poet laureate from 1926 to 1953.

Louisiana
Emma Wilson Emery served as Louisiana's first poet laureate from 1942 to 1970. The current poet laureate of Louisiana is Mona Lisa Saloy appointed in April 2021. Predecessors include Ava Leavell Haymon, Julie Kane, Peter Cooley, and John Warner Smith.

Maine
Kate Barnes served as Maine's first poet laureate from 1996 to 1999. The current poet laureate of Maine is Julia Bouwsna. Predecessors include Wesley McNair, Baron Wormser, and Betsy Sholl.

Maryland
The current Poet Laureate of Maryland is Grace Cavalieri.

Cities

 * The city of Takoma Park Poet Laureate program, established in 2005, honors the achievements of a local poet, encouraging a wider appreciation of poetry and literature. Kathleen O’Toole currently holds the office. Poet Laureate emeritus include Donald Berger (2005-2007), Anne Becker (2007-2011), and Merrill Leffler (2011-2018).

Massachusetts
The state of Massachusetts does not currently have a poet laureate position. However, many cities in Massachusetts have appointed poets laureate.

Cities

 * Miriam Levine was appointed the first poet laureate of Arlington in 2015
 * Sam Cornish was appointed the first Boston poet laureate in 2008, succeeded in 2015 by Danielle Legros Georges. The current Poet Laureate of Boston is Porsha Olayiwola.
 * Martin Espada was the first poet laureate of Northampton in 2003. Successors include Janet Aalfs and Patrick Donnelly.
 * Stephan Delbos was appointed the first poet laureate of Plymouth in 2020.
 * Everett Hoagland was appointed the first Poet Laureate of the City of New Bedford. Successors have included John Landry and Patricia Gomes. Sarah Jane Mulvey is the current Poet Laureate of the City of New Bedford.

Michigan
Edgar A. Guest served as Michigan Poet Laureate from 1952 through 1959 having been appointed Poet Laureate through Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 38 (1952) of the Michigan Legislature. State lawmakers made three separate unsuccessful attempts to reinstate a poet laureate position in 2000, 2005, and 2019. In 2023, Nandi Comer was appointed poet laureate.

Minnesota

In May 2007, Gov. Pawlenty reversed his opposition and signed Section 4, Chapter 148 of the Minnesota Session Laws 2007, establishing the state poet laureate. Robert Bly was appointed the first Minnesota poet laureate on February 27, 2008, succeeded on August 23, 2011, by Joyce Sutphen. Dr. Gwen Westerman was appointed as the third Minnesota poet laureate on September 9, 2021, by Governor Tim Walz.

Mississippi
In 1963, Governor Ross Barnett appointed Mississippi's first Poet Laureate, Maude Willard Leet Prenshaw. In 1973, Louise Moss Montgomery was named laureate by Gov. William Waller. Gov. Cliff Finch appointed Winifred Hamrick Farrar laureate in 1978. All three poets laureate served lifetime terms. Beginning in 2012, Mississippi poets laureate now serve four-year terms. Natasha Tretheway served as the Poet Laureate of Mississippi from 2012 to 2016. On August 10, 2016, Beth Ann Fennelly assumed the position.

Missouri
Walter Bargen served as Missouri's first poet laureate from 2008 to 2010.

Montana

Sandra Alcosser was Montana's first poet laureate, serving in the position from 2005 to 2007.

Nebraska
John G. Neihardt was appointed as Nebraskas first poet laureate in 1921, and served until November 3, 1973.

Nevada
Mildred Breedlove served as the first poet laureate of Nevada from 1957 to 2007.

New Hampshire
Paul Scott Mowrer was appointed as New Hampshire's first poet laureate, and served from 1968 to 1971. The current poet laureate of New Hampshire is Alexandria Peary, appointed October 2019. Predecessors include W. E. Butts, Richard Eberhart, Patricia Fargnoli, Cynthia Huntington, and Jane Kenyon.

New Jersey
New Jersey had a poet laureate program until from 2000 to 2003, appointing poet Gerald Stern followed by Amiri Baraka. The position was eliminated in 2003.

New Mexico
In 2020 New Mexico appointed its first poet laureate, Levi Romero.

Cities

 * Hakim Bellamy was appointed the first poet laureate of Albuquerque in 2012.
 * Kayt Peck was appointed the first poet laureate of Las Vegas, New Mexico, in 2021.
 * Arthur Sze was appointed the first poet laureate of Santa Fe in 2006. Valerie Martínez is among his successors.
 * Bonnie Buckley Maldonado was appointed the first poet laureate of Silver City in 2012.
 * Sawnie Morris was appointed the first poet laureate of Taos in 2018.

New York

The position of New York State Poet Laureate (official title: State Poet) was established by a special mandate of the New York State Legislature on August 1, 1985. Willie Perdomo is the current New York state poet laureate. Predecessors include John Ashbery, Billy Collins, Jane Cooper, Robert Creeley, Richard Howard, Marie Howe, Stanley Kunitz, Audre Lorde, Sharon Olds, Alicia Ostriker, and Jean Valentine. In 1988 New York also established position for other genres of writing entitled New York State Author. In 2016, Governor Andrew Cuomo also named Joseph Tusiani Poet Laureate Emeritus. In 2004, Ishle Yi Park became first female and the first Korean American poet laureate of the New York City borough of Queens.

North Carolina
The 1935 General Assembly created the office of state poet laureate and empowers the Governor to appoint a North Carolina Poet Laureate. Jaki Shelton Green has been North Carolina's Poet Laureate since 2018.

Cities

 * The city of Durham, North Carolina, selected DJ Rogers as its first poet laureate in 2022.

North Dakota
Corbin A. Waldron was the first poet laureate of North Dakota from 1957 to 1978.

Ohio
The state of Ohio created the position of Poet Laureate in 2014. Dr. Amit Majmudar of Dublin, Ohio, was named the first state Poet Laureate by Gov. John Kasich, for a two-year term beginning January 1, 2016. Kari Gunter-Seymour is the current Poet Laureate of Ohio. Her term began on June 10, 2020.

Oklahoma

The state of Oklahoma named Violet McDougal its first poet laureate in 1923. Joe Kreger who first served from 1998 to 2001 was appointed a second term as Oklahoma's poet laureate from 2021 to 2022. The current poet laureate of Oklahoma is Jay Snider.

Cities

 * Norman, Oklahoma, selected its first poet laureate, Dr. Julie Ann Ward, in April 2022. Norman is the first city in Oklahoma to have its own poet laureate.

Oregon
The position of Oregon Poet Laureate was established in 1923, appointing Edwin Markham as the first poet laureate. Anis Mojgani was appointed to the position in 2020.

Pennsylvania
Samuel John Hazo served as Pennsylvania's first and only poet laureate from 1993 to 2003 before Governor Bob Casey eliminated the position. Florence Van Leer Earle Coates was elected poet laureate of Pennsylvania by the state Federation of Women's Clubs in 1915.

Counties

 * Bucks County named Nicole Steinberg first poet laureate in 2021.
 * Lancaster County's Lancaster Literary Guild named Barbara Buckman Strasko the first poet laureate of the county.

Cities

 * Harrisburg named Rick Kearns poet laureate in 2014.
 * Philadelphia named Airea D. Matthews poet laureate of the city in 2022. Her predecessors include: Trapeta Mayson, Raquel Salas Rivera, Sonia Sanchez, Frank Sherlock, and Yolanda Wisher

Rhode Island
The State Poet of Rhode Island, established in 1987, is codified in Chapter 42-100 of the State of Rhode Island General Laws. The five-year appointment by the Governor carries an annual salary of $1,000. Michael Steven Harper served as Rhode Island's first poet laureate from 1988 to 1993.

South Carolina
Archibald Rutledge was the first poet laureate of South Carolina, serving from 1934 to 1973.

South Dakota
Charles "Badger" Clark was the first poet laureate of South Dakota appointed in 1937.

The current poet laureate is Bruce Roseland. "It’s an honor to stand among those who have come before me,” Roseland said. “There are many people in South Dakota who write as well as I do and most of them write better. To represent South Dakota in this form of writing poetry … I’m very happy about it. I hope to be an ambassador."

Tennessee
"Pek" Gunn, a native of Bold Spring, Tennessee, and a close friend and politically ally of former Governor of Tennessee Frank Clement, was the first Tennessean given the title of State Poet Laureate, in the 1970s. Margaret Britton Vaughn is the current Poet Laureate, she is serving her lifetime appointment since 1999.

Texas

The state of Texas established a Poet Laureate in 1932 (historical list of Texas poets laureate). The term as of 2016 is one year.

Cities

 * In April 2012, San Antonio became the first Texas city to appoint a Poet Laureate, Carmen Tafolla. The San Antonio Poet Laureate serves a two-year term. Laurie Ann Guerrero was appointed on April 1, 2014.

Utah
The state of Utah has appointed a Poet Laureate since 1997. The first was David Lee (January 24, 1997, to December 2002), followed by Ken Brewer (January 24, 2003, to March 15, 2006), Katharine Coles (October 27, 2006, to May 2012), Lance Larsen, appointed May 3, 2012, by Governor Gary Herbert, and Paisley Rekdal, appointed by Governor Gary Herbert in May 2017. The current Poet Laureate in Utah is Lisa Bickmore appointed in April 2022.

Vermont
Robert Frost was the first poet laureate of Vermont, serving from 1961 to 1963.

Virginia
The Commonwealth of Virginia has appointed a Poet Laureate since December 18, 1936. The first was Carter Warner Wormeley, appointed for life. Appointments from 1942 until 1992 were for one year, with many reappointed for multiple terms. In 1992, the term was increased to two years. Since 1998 appointments are made from list of nominees presented by the Poetry Society of Virginia, established at the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1923. The current Poet Laureate is Luisa A. Igloria.

Washington

The State of Washington has officially appointed a Poet Laureate since 2007, though Poets Laureate have been unofficially appointed by the Washington State Federation of Women's Clubs since 1931, when Ella Rhoads Higginson was named as the State's first Poet Laureate.

Samuel Green was named as Washington's first official Poet Laureate in 2007, and served until 2009. Poets Laureate of Washington are appointed for a two-year term by the Governor of Washington.

Since 2023, the Poet Laureate of Washington has been Arianne True, a Choctaw and Chickasaw writer and artist from Tacoma. She is the second Indigenous person to hold the post, following her predecessor Rena Priest of the Lummi Nation.

West Virginia
Karl Myers served as the first poet laureate of West Virginia from 1927 to 1937.

Wisconsin
The current Poet Laureate of Wisconsin is Dasha Kelly Hamilton, 2021–2022.

Wyoming
Eugene Gagliano has been the Poet Laureate of Wyoming since July 2016.

title: Poet laureate


text:
Killing of Chandra Levy

Chandra Ann Levy (April 14, 1977 – c. May 1, 2001) was an American intern at the Federal Bureau of Prisons in Washington, D.C., who disappeared in May 2001. She was presumed murdered after her skeletal remains were found in Rock Creek Park in May 2002. The case attracted attention from the American news media for several years.

Due to a miscommunication, the Metropolitan Police Department of the District of Columbia (MPD) failed to follow its own search parameters in Rock Creek Park, leaving Levy's body to decompose for a year. Further, the MPD had been informed, but soon dismissed the information that Ingmar Guandique, already arrested for attacking women in Rock Creek Park, had confessed to attacking Levy. The MPD instead put much of its focus on the revelation that Levy had been having an affair with Congressman Gary Condit, a married Democrat then serving his fifth term representing California's 18th congressional district, and a senior member of the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence. Condit was never named as a suspect by police; he was eventually cleared of any involvement. Due to the cloud of suspicion raised by the intense media focus on the missing intern and the later revelation of the affair, Condit lost his bid for re-election in 2002.

Following a series of investigative reports by The Washington Post in 2008, the MPD followed up and finally obtained a warrant, on March 3, 2009, to arrest Ingmar Guandique, identified and dismissed by the MPD eight years earlier. He had been convicted of assaulting two other women in Rock Creek Park around the time of Levy's disappearance and was still in prison on those convictions when the arrest warrant on Levy's death was issued. Prosecutors alleged that Guandique had attacked and tied up Levy in a remote area of the park and left her to die of dehydration or exposure. In November 2010, Guandique was convicted of murdering Levy; he was sentenced in February 2011 to 60 years in prison. In June 2015, however, Guandique was granted a new trial. On July 28, 2016, prosecutors announced that they would not proceed with the case against Guandique and would, instead, seek to have him deported. In episode 3 of Chandra Levy: An American Murder Mystery on the case, it is mentioned that in March 2017 Guandique lost his bid to remain in the United States and was deported to his native El Salvador on May 5, 2017. Levy's murder remains unsolved.

Life and background
Levy was born in Cleveland, Ohio, to Robert and Susan Levy; the family moved to Modesto, California, where she attended Grace M. Davis High School. At the time of her disappearance, her parents were members of Congregation Beth Shalom, a Conservative Jewish synagogue. She attended San Francisco State University, where she earned a degree in journalism. After interning for the California Bureau of Secondary Education and working in the office of Los Angeles Mayor Richard Riordan, she began attending the University of Southern California to earn a master's degree in public administration.

As part of her final semester of study, Levy moved to Washington, D.C., to become a paid intern with the Federal Bureau of Prisons. In October 2000 she began her internship at the bureau's headquarters, where she was assigned to the public affairs division. Her supervisor, bureau spokesperson Dan Dunne, was impressed with Levy's work, especially her handling of media inquiries regarding the upcoming execution of Timothy McVeigh, convicted of bombing the Oklahoma City Federal Building. Levy's internship was abruptly terminated in April 2001 because her academic eligibility was found to have expired in December 2000. She had already completed her master's degree requirements and was scheduled to return to California in May 2001 for graduation.

Disappearance and search
Levy was last seen on May 1, 2001. The Metropolitan Police Department was first alerted on May 6, when Levy's parents called from Modesto to report that they had not heard from their daughter in five days. Police called hospitals and visited Levy's apartment in Dupont Circle that day, finding no indication of foul play. On May 7, Levy's father told the police that his daughter had been having an affair with a U.S. congressman, and the next day stated that he believed the congressman to be U.S. Representative Gary Condit. Levy's aunt also called the police and told them that Chandra had confided in her about the affair. Police obtained a warrant on May 10 to conduct a formal search of Levy's apartment. Investigators found her credit cards, identification and mobile phone left behind in her purse, along with partially packed suitcases. The answering machine was full, with messages left by her relatives and two from Condit. A police sergeant tried to examine Levy's laptop computer and inadvertently corrupted the internet search data, as he was not a trained technician.

Computer experts took a month to reconstruct the data to determine that the laptop was used on the morning of May 1 to search for websites related to Amtrak, Baskin-Robbins, Condit, Southwest Airlines, and a weather report from The Washington Post. Her final search at 12:59 p.m. was for Alsace-Lorraine, a region in France. A particular search at 11:33 a.m. was for information about Rock Creek Park in The Washington Post "Entertainment Guide", then at 11:34 she clicked a link to bring up a map of the park. Detectives later theorized that she might have met someone at the Pierce-Klingle Mansion which houses the park headquarters. On July 25, 2001, three D.C. police sergeants and 28 police cadets searched along Glover Road in the park but failed to find evidence related to Levy. Later, a second attempt found nothing.

Levy's parents and friends held numerous vigils and press conferences in an attempt to "bring Chandra home".

Relationship with Condit
Controversy surrounding Levy's disappearance drew the attention of the American news media. Condit, a married man who represented the congressional district in which the Levy family resided, at first denied that he had had an affair with her. Although police stated that Condit was not a suspect, Levy's family said they felt Condit was being evasive and possibly hiding information about the matter.

Unidentified police sources alleged that Condit had admitted to an affair with Levy during an interview with law enforcement officers on July 7, 2001. Condit described her to police as a vegetarian who avoided drinking and smoking. He thought that Levy was going to return to Washington, D.C. after her graduation and was surprised to find out that the lease on her apartment had ended. Investigators searched Condit's apartment on July 10. They questioned flight attendant Anne Marie Smith, who claimed that Condit told her she did not need to speak to the Federal Bureau of Investigation about his personal life. Federal officials began investigating Condit for possible obstruction of justice, as Smith was also involved in an affair with him. (She was not acquainted with Levy.) Upset by leaks to the media, Condit refused to submit to a polygraph test by the D.C. police; his attorney asserted that Condit passed a test administered by a privately hired examiner on July 13. He avoided answering direct questions during a televised interview on August 23, with news anchor Connie Chung on the ABC News program Primetime Thursday. Intensive coverage continued until news of the September 11 attacks superseded the media's coverage of the Levy case.

In a nationwide Fox News/Opinion Dynamics poll of 900 registered voters conducted in July 2001, 44 percent of American respondents thought that Condit was involved in Levy's disappearance and 27 percent felt that he should resign. Fifty-one percent of the respondents believed that he was acting as if he were guilty; 13 percent felt that he should run again for office. A poll sample taken from Condit's congressional district held a more favorable view of Condit. On March 5, 2002, Condit lost the Democratic primary election for his Congressional seat to his former aide, then-Assemblyman Dennis Cardoza, with the Levy controversy being cited as a contributing factor. He was subpoenaed to appear on April 1, 2002, before a District of Columbia grand jury investigating the disappearance. The date was kept a carefully guarded secret to avoid further leaks. Condit left Congress at the end of his term on January 3, 2003, after failing to win his re-election bid.

Discovery of her remains
On May 22, 2002, around 9:30 am, skeletal remains which matched Levy's dental records were discovered by a man who was walking his dog and looking for turtles in Rock Creek Park, near Broad Branch Creek in Washington, D.C. Detectives found bones and personal items scattered, but not buried, in a forested area along a steep incline. A sports bra, sweat shirt, leggings and tennis shoes were among the evidence that was recovered. Although police had previously searched over half the 1754 acre main section of the park, the wooded slope where Levy's remains were eventually found had not been searched. Police commanders ordered the search perimeters to be within 100 yards (91 m) of each road but due to a miscommunication, the officers only searched within 100 yards of every road. The remains were found about four miles (6 km) from Levy's apartment.

After a preliminary autopsy was performed, District of Columbia police announced that there was sufficient evidence to open a homicide investigation. On May 28, D.C. medical examiner Jonathan L. Arden officially declared Levy's death a homicide, but said, "There's less to work with here than I would like. It's possible we will never know specifically how she died." Arden found damage to her hyoid bone, suggesting that she was possibly strangled, but he did not deem it to be conclusive evidence of such a cause of death. On June 6, after the police completed their search, private investigators hired by the Levys found her shin bone with some twisted wire about 25 yards from the other remains. Police Chief Charles H. Ramsey said, "It is unacceptable that these items were not located."

Memorial services
On May 28, 2002, the Levy family organized a memorial service at the Modesto Centre Plaza that drew over 1,200 people, some from as far as Los Angeles. Speakers at the 90-minute ceremony included Levy's brother, grandmother, great-aunt and friends. In a eulogy delivered in Hebrew and English by Rabbi Paul Gordon, Levy was described as "a good person taken from us much too soon". About a year later, on May 27, 2003, Levy's remains were buried in Lakewood Memorial Park Cemetery at Hughson, California, near her home town of Modesto. Attended by about 40 of Levy's friends and family members, the private ceremony concluded with the release of 12 white doves.

Identification of the prime suspect
In September 2001, Washington, D.C. police and federal prosecutors were contacted by the lawyer of an informant, held in D.C. Jail, who claimed to have knowledge of Levy's killer. The informant, whose identity was protected for his safety, said that Ingmar Guandique, a 20-year-old undocumented immigrant from El Salvador who was also being held in the jail, told him that Condit paid him $25,000 to kill Levy.

Investigators ruled out the story about Condit, because Guandique had already admitted to assaulting two other women in the same park where Levy's remains were found. Guandique failed to show up for work on the day of Levy's disappearance. His former landlady recalled that his face appeared scratched and bruised at around that time. The investigators on the Levy case did not interview the other Rock Creek Park victims. Police chief Ramsey avoided calling Guandique a suspect and described him as a "person of interest", telling reporters not to make "too big a deal" about him. Assistant chief Terrance W. Gainer said that if Guandique had been considered a suspect, D.C. police would have been after him "like flies on honey".

Guandique denied attacking Levy. On November 28, the FBI had the informant take a polygraph test, which he failed. A polygraph test on Guandique, administered on February 4, 2002, returned inconclusive results that were officially ruled "not deceptive". Because neither the informant nor Guandique was fluent in English, D.C. chief detective Jack Barrett said that he would have preferred polygraph tests to have been administered by bilingual examiners, who were unavailable at the time. When Judge Noel Anketell Kramer was asked about Guandique's potential connection to the Levy homicide, she responded, "This is such a satellite issue. To me it doesn't have anything to do with this case." Kramer sentenced Guandique to 10 years in prison for his attacks on two other women at Rock Creek Park. Guandique was sent to the U.S. Penitentiary, Big Sandy near Inez, Kentucky, and was later transferred to the U.S. Penitentiary at Victorville, California.

The Levy homicide remained listed as a "cold case" until 2006, when Cathy L. Lanier succeeded Ramsey as D.C. police chief. Lanier replaced the lead detective on the case with three veteran investigators who had more homicide experience. In 2007, the editors of The Washington Post assigned a new team of reporters to take a year to re-examine the Levy case. The resulting series of articles, published during the summer of 2008, focused on the past failure of the police to fully investigate Guandique's connection to the attacks in Rock Creek Park. In September 2008, investigators searched Guandique's federal prison cell in California and found a photo of Levy that he had saved from a magazine. Police interviewed acquaintances of Guandique and witnesses of the other Rock Creek Park incidents.

On March 3, 2009, the Superior Court of the District of Columbia issued an arrest warrant for Guandique. He was returned to the custody of the District of Columbia Department of Corrections on April 20 via the Federal Transfer Center in Oklahoma City. Two days later, Guandique was charged in D.C. with Levy's murder. He was indicted by a grand jury on six counts: kidnapping, first-degree murder committed during a kidnapping, attempted first-degree sexual abuse, first-degree murder committed during a sexual offense, attempted robbery, and first-degree murder committed during a robbery. Guandique pleaded not guilty at his arraignment, where a trial date was initially set for January 27, 2010. His lawyers argued that Guandique's federal prison cell was outside the jurisdiction of a court-ordered search. After errors in processing contaminated some of the gathered evidence with DNA from employees of the prosecution, the start date of the trial at the H. Carl Moultrie Courthouse was moved to October 4, 2010.

Trial of Guandique
On October 18, 2010, jury selection commenced in the Superior Court of the District of Columbia before Judge Gerald I. Fisher. Assistant U.S. Attorney Fernando Campoamor-Sanchez presented the names of potential witnesses for the trial, including FBI agent Brad Garrett and the two women whom Guandique was convicted of assaulting. At the start of the trial, the prosecution's case was expected to take around four weeks and the defense was expected to take one day. On October 25 and 26, Halle Shilling and Christy Wiegand testified about being attacked by Guandique while independently jogging in Rock Creek Park. Wiegand recounted that Guandique grabbed her from behind, dragged her down a ravine and held a knife against her face.

On October 26, 2010, Levy's then-64-year-old father, Robert, took the stand and refuted statements about his past suspicions of Condit. Robert Levy testified that he told authorities during the early years of the investigation that his daughter Chandra would have been too cautious to jog in the woods alone, but said that he no longer believed this to be true. He said that he also told police that his daughter and Condit had a five-year plan between them to get married. In retrospect, Robert Levy admitted: "I just said whatever came to mind just to point to him as the villain." Levy added that he had been convinced that Condit was "guilty until we learned about this character here," referring to Guandique. On November 1, Condit testified at the trial and was asked on at least three occasions if he and Chandra Levy had been involved in a sexual relationship. He replied, "I am not going to respond to that question out of privacy for myself and Chandra." FBI biologist Alan Giusti testified that semen found on underwear from Levy's apartment contained sperm matching Condit's DNA profile.

Prosecution witness Armando Morales, who shared a cell with Guandique at the U.S. Penitentiary in Kentucky, testified that Guandique was concerned about being transferred between prisons in 2006 because of inmate violence against suspected rapists. Morales stated that Guandique, a fellow member of the Mara Salvatrucha gang, confided to him that he had killed Levy while trying to rob her, but said that he did not rape her. The prosecution rested their case on November 10, while dropping two out of the six charges against Guandique: sexual assault and murder associated with that assault. On November 15, the defense rested its case without calling Guandique to the stand. Other prison witnesses called by the defense refuted Morales' testimony. Jose Manuel Alaniz said that Guandique made no mention of rape or murder while sharing a cell with both Alaniz and Morales at the penitentiary in Kentucky. Alaniz admitted under cross-examination that he "didn't want to be too nosy" and was often asleep at the prison while recovering from a gunshot wound. The prosecution dropped two more charges because the statute of limitations had passed: kidnapping and attempted robbery. During closing arguments for the remaining charges of first-degree murder committed during a kidnapping and during a robbery, prosecutor Amanda Haines contended that Guandique bound and gagged Levy after attacking her, leaving her to die of dehydration or exposure in the park. Defense attorney Santha Sonenberg countered with the lack of any DNA evidence connecting Guandique to the crime scene. Calling the prosecution's case "fiction", Sonenberg suggested that Levy had been murdered elsewhere, with her dead body being dumped in the park.

The jury began deliberations on November 17, 2010. Scheduled proceedings of the case met delays because of increased security at the courthouse. After two days of deliberations, all but one juror had voted to convict Guandique. On the third day, the jury asked Judge Gerald Fisher to clarify the definition of assault. Fisher responded that any physical injury could legally be considered an assault, regardless of how small. On November 22, 2010, the jury found Guandique guilty of both remaining counts of first-degree murder. After the trial, a juror said the testimony of Morales was decisive in reaching the verdict. The conviction was called a "miracle" for having been reached with only circumstantial evidence. Gladys Weatherspoon, who had previously represented Guandique in the 2001 assault cases, stated that she was troubled by the jury's verdict: "I just think they were going to convict anyway.... They felt bad for that woman, the mom. She's sitting in there every day." At a post-trial press conference, Susan Levy said, "There's always going to be a feeling of sadness. I can surely tell you, it ain't closure." Since the conclusion of the trial, Susan Levy has acted to keep photographic evidence of her daughter's remains sealed from the news media.

Sentencing and appeals
On February 1, 2011, Guandique's attorneys requested a new trial on the grounds that the verdict had been improperly attained. The 17-page filing claimed that the prosecutors had appealed to the emotions of the jury, using "references to facts not in evidence". The motion also alleged that one juror, who did not take notes, had breached the judge's instructions not to be "influenced by another juror's notes". The prosecution opposed a retrial, arguing that the issue regarding the notes was no more than a technicality that did not have a significant effect on the verdict.

Guandique faced a minimum penalty of 30 years to a maximum of life imprisonment without the possibility of parole. In seeking the maximum possible sentence, the prosecutors stated that Guandique "is unable to control himself and thus, will always remain a danger to women". A memo submitted by the prosecution in February 2011 cited Guandique's harassment of female staff in prison, including soliciting a nurse and masturbating in front of guards. Assistant U.S. Attorney Fernando Campoamor-Sanchez disclosed that he had traveled to El Salvador with a detective to investigate allegations that Guandique had fled his native country because of suspected attacks against local women dating back to 1999. During the sentencing hearing on February 11, Guandique said to Levy's family, "I am sorry for what happened to your daughter", and insisted on his innocence. Before Judge Gerald Fisher reminded Susan Levy to address the court instead of the defendant, Levy said to him, "Did you really take her life? Look me in my eyes and tell me." Fisher denied Guandique's motion for retrial and handed down a sentence of 60 years in prison, stating that Guandique "will be a danger for some time. He's a sexual predator."

Guandique repeated his innocence during his sentencing. He has maintained his innocence in the years since the trial.

On February 25, 2011, public defender James Klein filed an appeal of Guandique's conviction with the District of Columbia Court of Appeals. According to the court's annual report, appeals take an average of 588 days to reach resolution. In December 2012 and January 2013, a set of secret hearings was made known to the public, but the subject of the meetings was sealed by the judge. After a third hearing in February, the judge in the case unsealed transcripts from the previous hearings which revealed that Klein was seeking a new trial based on new evidence in the case. A fourth hearing was scheduled for April 2013.

Dropped charges
In May 2015, prosecutors dropped their opposition to a new trial. This resulted from defense claims that the prosecution's star witness, Armando Morales, had perjured himself on the stand. The defense contended that prosecutors failed to disclose that Morales was a jailhouse informant with a reputation for being untrustworthy. Morales had denied ever being an informant. The defense also argued that Morales made up Guandique's confession in order to boost his stock with prosecutors. On June 3, the defense said that a new witness, a neighbor, called 911 at 4:37 a.m. on the last day Levy was alive in order to report hearing a 'blood-curdling scream', possibly coming from Levy's apartment. The following day, Judge Gerald Fisher granted a motion for the new trial. Judge Robert E. Morin set the retrial of Guandique for March 1, 2016, but at that time, it was moved to October 11.

In November 2015, prosecutors told a D.C. Superior Court judge that their office had failed to turn over documents to the defense before the defendant's first trial. In December 2015, defense attorneys argued in new court filings that the charges should be dismissed because of those errors.

Specifically, the defense argued that they had only received two of three pages of a memo detailing prosecutors' contacts with Morales. At trial he had testified that he had never cooperated with law enforcement prior to the Levy case. The missing first page noted that he had previously approached law enforcement to discuss gang activity, including the actions of gangs to which he belonged. The defense argued this information had been purposely withheld from them, as it might suggest that Morales had shaded his testimony to gain favor with prosecutors.

On July 28, 2016, prosecutors announced that they would not proceed with the case against Guandique and would, instead, seek to have him deported. According to The Washington Post, prosecutors lost confidence in the case after learning that Morales, who now lives in Maryland, was secretly recorded admitting lying on the witness stand during the 2010 trial. Babs Proller, the woman who made the recording, turned it over to the police. The U.S. Attorney's Office said only that based on new information that had come to light during the previous week, there was no longer enough evidence to go forward with the retrial. In episode 3 of "An American Murder Mystery" on the case, it is mentioned that in March 2017 Guandique lost his bid to remain in the United States and was deported to his native El Salvador in May.

Disciplinary proceedings against prosecutors
Defense lawyers for Guandique believed that Campoamor-Sánchez and Haines had deliberately failed to turn over the first page of the Morales memo. They filed a complaint to that effect with the Justice Department's Office of Professional Responsibility (OPR). After investigating for two years, OPR found no ethical or legal violations.

Campoamor-Sánchez left the Justice Department to work at the Securities and Exchange Commission, and Haines retired. In 2020 the District of Columbia Bar's Office of Disciplinary Counsel (ODC) announced it would investigate the allegations; it brought charges the following May.

At the hearing both attorneys testified in their behalf. Haines believed that the full memo had been turned over to the defense and they had lost the first page. She did not think there would have been any reason for prosecutors to withhold it as it did not seriously damage their case; but she sometimes delayed turning over more specific information on witnesses to the defense since at some trials that had led to those witnesses getting killed. Both she and Campoamor-Sánchez testified that they had clashed over what to turn over to the defense and when, since at the time there were no clear rules in the Justice Department about it, leading to greater clashes between the two about who would question Morales at trial and handle the case's closing argument—Campoamor-Sánchez had originally been scheduled to do both, but Haines reassigned those tasks to herself, leaving him feeling marginalized.

Three months later ODC announced its preliminary conclusion that the two had violated bar rules requiring that prosecutors disclose potentially exculpatory evidence to defense lawyers, and recommended both be suspended from practicing law for six months. Both contested that punishment, with Haines's attorney calling it "unhinged—from both reality and from any precedent in law or logic". She and Campoamor-Sánchez have denied any wrongdoing.

Media coverage
The disappearance of Chandra Levy became a national topic of the news media in the summer of 2001, with 63% of Americans closely following the case. The media swamped Levy's parents from the moment they decided to go to Washington, D.C., in search of their daughter. According to Condit, about a hundred reporters were camped out in front of his apartment during the morning of September 11, 2001, but they all left after news spread about that day's terrorist attacks in New York and Washington. Media critics and cable news executives later cited the Levy case, as well as the concurrent sensationalist coverage of a string of shark attacks, as a reflection of the manner of news coverage in the United States before the September 11 attacks had taken priority.

In 2002, D.C. newspaper Roll Call first reported Ingmar Guandique's possible connection to the case, with little effect on the news media's focus on Condit. Conservative commentator Michelle Malkin noted the lack of headlines that an illegal immigrant had been questioned in the Levy case. She said that in her review of 115 news items from the LexisNexis database, not a single mention of Guandique referred to his status as a "criminal illegal alien". She called the "glaring omission" of his status "a newsworthy act of negligence". She wrote that only the very conservative Human Events reported that the Immigration and Naturalization Service had approved his working legally while he was applying for temporary protected status. That application was ultimately denied, but not before he had assaulted two other women at Rock Creek Park.

In 2005, investigative journalist Dominick Dunne said on Larry King Live that he believed that Gary Condit had more information about the Levy case than he had been disclosing. Condit filed two lawsuits against Dunne, forcing him into an undisclosed financial settlement on one of them. In 2008, U.S. District Judge Peter Leisure dismissed the other suit that alleged slander, because "The context in which Dunne's statements were made demonstrates that they were part of a discussion about "speculation" in the media and inaccurate media coverage".

During the summer of 2008, The Washington Post ran a 13-part series billed, in part, as "a tale of the tabloid and mainstream press pack journalism that helped derail the investigation". The two investigative reporters who were behind the Post series, Scott Higham and Sari Horwitz, wrote a book which detailed their investigation. The book, Finding Chandra, was published in May 2010. Commentators, including The Washington Post Metro reporter Robert Pierre, wrote that emphasis on a glamorous white murder victim, when "about 200 people are killed in this city every year, most of them black and male", was "absolutely absurd and dare I say, racist, at its core".

The media was criticized for its "rush to judgment" in suggesting, sometimes blatantly, that Condit was guilty of the murder, especially in the early days of the investigation. Some of the reporters who were camped out in front of Condit's Washington apartment house were quoted as saying that they would remain there "until he resigns". When Ingmar Guandique was convicted of murdering Levy in November 2010, Condit's lawyer Bert Fields remarked, "It's a complete vindication but that comes a little late. Who gives him his career back?"

On the 17th anniversary of the homicide, Levy's mother continued to push for further investigation into her daughter's death.

An episode of the podcast You're Wrong About released on May 25, 2020, reviewed the events surrounding her disappearance and the search for her.

Impact
Levy's death has had a lasting impact, due in part to the efforts of her family and friends. Levy's disappearance came after a number of other high-profile cases that led to the creation of resources for missing young adults. For example, Levy's parents quickly requested help from the Carole Sund/Carrington Memorial Reward Foundation, a nonprofit group that was established in Modesto after three female tourists disappeared from a 1999 trip to Yosemite National Park and were later found slain. That foundation, which offered the Levys staff support and contributed towards a cash reward for information about Chandra's disappearance, was merged into the Laci and Conner Search and Rescue Fund in 2009; Susan Levy had previously participated in the efforts to find Laci Peterson, another missing woman from Modesto.

In 1997, when Kristen Modafferi mysteriously disappeared from the San Francisco Bay Area just three weeks after her 18th birthday, her parents turned to their congresswoman for help, because they were ineligible to receive help from the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children. As a result, Congress enacted "Kristen's Law" in October 2000, which established the National Center for Missing Adults (NCMA) within the U.S. Department of Justice in order to coordinate such missing persons cases. By the time Levy disappeared, institutions were in place in order to provide her family with support and assist in a nationwide search to locate her. Although the Levy family quickly moved to mobilize all such available resources, including offering a cash reward for information, hiring its own investigators, and seeking media attention, those efforts to locate Chandra Levy or find her killer were overshadowed by the speculation which surrounded her possible relationship with Condit. Susan Levy later joined forces with Donna Raley, the mother of another young woman who disappeared from Modesto in 1999, to form "Wings of Protection", a support group for people with missing loved ones. The Mary Ann Liebert company, the publisher of the Journal of Women's Health and Gender-Based Medicine, presented its annual Criterion Award to Susan Levy for her work with "Wings of Protection" in May 2002.

Newsweek magazine stated that the media may have become more skeptical of "herd mentality" and open to alternative suspects after the Levy case. The D.C. police claimed that it would have discovered Levy's body earlier if not for a miscommunication regarding the scope of the search. Commanders had ordered that a search be conducted within 100 yards of each road and trail in Rock Creek Park, but searches were only made within 100 yards of each road, causing the body to remain undiscovered for a longer period of time.

Both the chief of detectives, Jack Barrett, and the chief of police, Charles H. Ramsey, have since left the force in Washington, D.C. Ramsey became head of the Philadelphia Police Department; Barrett, who became an analyst for an intelligence support firm in Arlington County, Virginia, stated in hindsight that the media had imposed "enormous amounts of pressure" on the Washington, D.C. police. Morales, who is serving time for conspiracy to distribute methamphetamine and crack cocaine, was scheduled to be released on August 5, 2016. Condit retired from politics and moved to Phoenix, Arizona with his wife to manage real estate and open two Baskin-Robbins franchises, which have since closed.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Killing of Chandra Levy


text:
List of Spanish monarchs

This is a list of monarchs of Spain, a dominion started with the dynastic union of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile.

The regnal numbers follow those of the rulers of Asturias, León, and Castile. Thus, Alfonso XII is numbered in succession to Alfonso XI of Castile.

Forerunners
The following seven lineages were eventually united by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella.
 * Kings of the Visigoths
 * Kings of Asturias
 * Kings of Navarre
 * Kings of León
 * Kings of Galicia
 * Kings of Aragon
 * Kings of Castile

Although Aragon and Castile continued to be separate, they were ruled together until the Nueva Planta decrees.

House of Trastámara (1479–1516)
Under Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, their royal dynasties were united into a single line. Historiography of Spain generally treats this as the formation of the Kingdom of Spain, but in formality, the two kingdoms continued with their own separate institutions for more than two centuries. It was not until the Nueva Planta decrees of 1707–1716 that the two lands were formally merged into a single state.

Joanna was confined from 1509 till her death for alleged insanity.

House of Habsburg (1516–1700)
Following the deaths of Isabella (1504) and Ferdinand (1516), their daughter Joanna inherited the Spanish kingdoms. However, she was kept prisoner at Tordesillas due to an alleged mental disorder. As Joanna's son, Charles I (the future Holy Roman Emperor Charles V), did not want to be merely a regent, he proclaimed himself king of Castile and Aragon jointly with his mother. Subsequently, Castilian and Aragonese Cortes alleged oath to him as co-monarch with his mother. Upon her death, he became sole King of Castile and Aragon, and the thrones were left permanently united to Philip II of Spain and successors. Traditional numbering of monarchs follows the Castillian crown; i.e. after King Ferdinand (II of Aragon and V of Castile jure uxoris as husband of Queen of Castille Isabella I), the next Ferdinand was numbered VI. Likewise, Alfonso XII takes his number following that of Alfonso XI of Castile rather than that of Alfonso V of Aragon, the prior Spanish monarch with that name.

In the year 1700, Charles II died. His will named the 16-year-old Philip, Duke of Anjou, the grandson of Charles's sister Maria Theresa of Spain, as his successor to the whole Spanish Empire. Upon any possible refusal of the undivided Spanish possessions, the Crown of Spain would be offered next to Philip's younger brother Charles, Duke of Berry, or, next, to Archduke Charles of Austria.

Both claimants, both Charles of Austria and Philip, had a legal right to the Spanish throne because Philip's grandfather, King Louis XIV of France and Charles's father, Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor, were sons of Charles II's aunts, Anne and Maria Anna. Philip claimed primogeniture because Anne was older than Maria Anna. However, Philip IV had stipulated in his will the succession should pass to the Austrian Habsburg line, and the Austrian branch also claimed that Maria Theresa, Philip's grandmother, had renounced the Spanish throne for herself and her descendants as part of her marriage contract. This was countered by the French claim that it was on the basis of a dowry that had never been paid.

After a long council meeting where the Dauphin spoke up in favour of his son's rights, it was agreed that Philip would ascend the throne. Following this, the War of the Spanish Succession broke out and Archduke Charles was also proclaimed king of Spain, as Charles III, in opposition to Philip V. He was proclaimed in Vienna, and also in Madrid in the years 1706 and 1710. Charles renounced his claims to the Spanish throne in the Treaty of Rastatt of 1714, but was allowed the continued use of the styles of a Spanish monarch for his lifetime. Philip ascended the Spanish throne but had to renounce his claim to the throne of France for himself and his descendants.

House of Bonaparte (1808–1813)
The only monarch from this dynasty was Joseph I, imposed by his brother Napoleon I of France after Charles IV and Ferdinand VII had abdicated. The title used by Joseph I was King of the Spains and the Indias, by the Grace of God and the Constitution of the State. He was also later given all of the titles of the previous kings. A government in opposition to the French was formed in Cádiz on 25 September 1808, which continued to recognize the imprisoned Ferdinand VII as king. This government was diplomatically recognized as the legitimate Spanish government by Britain and other countries at war with France.

House of Bourbon (1813–1868)
Charles IV's eldest son was restored to the throne. Again, the title used was king of Castile, Leon, Aragon,… by the Grace of God.

House of Savoy (1870–1873)
After the Spanish Revolution of 1868 deposed Isabella II, while a new monarch was sought, a provisional government and a regency headed by Francisco Serrano y Domínguez from 8 October 1868 until 2 January 1871 was established. Amadeo was elected as king and the new title used was King of Spain, by the Grace of God and will of the nation.

House of Bourbon (1874–1931)
Isabella II's eldest son was restored to the throne as she had abdicated in his favour in 1870. Constitutional King of Spain.

Dictatorship of Francisco Franco (1939–1975)
On 1 October 1936, General Francisco Franco was proclaimed "Leader of Spain" (Spanish: Caudillo de España) in the parts of Spain controlled by the Nationalists (nacionales) after the Spanish Civil War broke out. At the end of the war, on 1 April 1939, Franco took control of the whole of Spain, ending the Second Republic. The 36-year period that followed would be officially called the Estado Español, or the Spanish State. Although Franco proclaimed the restoration of the monarchy in 1947, he did not allow the pretender, Juan, Count of Barcelona, to take the throne. Instead, 22 years later, in 1969, he declared as his successor Juan Carlos, Prince of Spain and son of the Count of Barcelona. This succession took place upon Franco's death in 1975, when Juan Carlos became King of Spain. A three-year transition to democracy followed during which the apparatus of the Franco government was gently dismantled and preparations for a new system, from 1978, were laid.

House of Bourbon (1975–present)
Alfonso XIII's claim descended (due to his two eldest sons' renunciations) to his third son, Juan of Bourbon, Count of Barcelona, who was passed over in favour of his eldest son, whose title is King of Spain. The Count of Barcelona formally renounced his claims in favour of his son in 1977, two years after Franco's death and Juan Carlos's accession.

Juan Carlos abdicated in favor of his son Felipe VI, who became king on 19 June 2014, with Felipe's older daughter, Leonor, next in succession.

title: List of Spanish monarchs


text:
Sturgeon's law

Sturgeon's law (or Sturgeon's revelation) is an adage stating "ninety percent of everything is crap". It was coined by Theodore Sturgeon, an American science fiction author and critic, and was inspired by his observation that, while science fiction was often derided for its low quality by critics, most work in other fields was low-quality too, and so science fiction was no different.

The original Sturgeon's law
Sturgeon deemed Sturgeon's law to mean "nothing is always absolutely so". This adage previously appeared in his story "The Claustrophile" in a 1956 issue of Galaxy.

The second adage, variously rendered as "ninety percent of everything is crud" or "ninety percent of everything is crap", was known as "Sturgeon's Revelation", formulated as such in his book review column for Venture in 1957. However, almost all modern uses of the term Sturgeon's law refer to the second, including the definition listed in the Oxford English Dictionary.

Discussion
A similar adage appears in Rudyard Kipling's The Light That Failed, published in 1890.

"Four-fifths of everybody's work must be bad. But the remnant is worth the trouble for its own sake."

A 1946 essay Confessions of a Book Reviewer by George Orwell asserts about books:

"In much more than nine cases out of ten the only objectively truthful criticism would be "This book is worthless ...""

According to science fiction author William Tenn, Sturgeon first expressed his law circa 1951, at a talk at New York University attended by Tenn. The statement was subsequently included in a talk Sturgeon gave at a 1953 Labor Day weekend session of the World Science Fiction Convention in Philadelphia.

The first written reference to the adage is in the September 1957 issue of Venture:

"And on that hangs Sturgeon’s revelation. It came to him that [science fiction] is indeed ninety-percent crud, but that also – Eureka! – ninety-percent of everything is crud. All things – cars, books, cheeses, hairstyles, people, and pins are, to the expert and discerning eye, crud, except for the acceptable tithe which we each happen to like."

The adage appears again in the March 1958 issue of Venture, where Sturgeon wrote:

"It is in this vein that I repeat Sturgeon's Revelation, which was wrung out of me after twenty years of wearying defense of science fiction against attacks of people who used the worst examples of the field for ammunition, and whose conclusion was that ninety percent of S.F. is crud.
 * The Revelation:
 * Ninety percent of everything is crud.

 * Corollary 1:
 * The existence of immense quantities of trash in science fiction is admitted and it is regrettable; but it is no more unnatural than the existence of trash anywhere.

 * Corollary 2:
 * The best science fiction is as good as the best fiction in any field."

In 2013, philosopher Daniel Dennett championed Sturgeon's law as one of his seven tools for critical thinking.

"90% of everything is crap. That is true, whether you are talking about physics, chemistry, evolutionary psychology, sociology, medicine – you name it – rock music, country western. 90% of everything is crap."

title: Sturgeon's law


text:
Screenwriter

A screenwriter (also called scriptwriter, scribe, or scenarist) is a writer who practices the craft of screenwriting, writing screenplays on which mass media, such as films, television programs, and video games, are based.

Terminology
In the silent era, writers now considered screenwriters were denoted by terms such as photoplaywright, photoplay writer, photoplay dramatist, and screen playwright. Screenwriting historian Steven Maras notes that these early writers were often understood as being the authors of the films as shown and argued that they could not be precisely equated with present-day screenwriters because they were responsible for a technical product, a brief "scenario", "treatment", or "synopsis" that is a written synopsis of what is to be filmed.

Profession
Screenwriting is a freelance profession. No education is required to be a professional screenwriter, just good storytelling abilities and imagination. Screenwriters are not hired employees but contracted freelancers. Most, if not all, screenwriters start their careers writing on speculation (spec) and so write without being hired or paid for it. If such a script is sold, it is called a spec script. What separates a professional screenwriter from an amateur screenwriter is that professional screenwriters are usually represented by a talent agency. Also, professional screenwriters do not often work for free, but amateur screenwriters will often work for free and are considered "writers in training." Spec scripts are usually penned by unknown professional screenwriters and amateur screenwriters.

There are a legion of would-be screenwriters who attempt to enter the film industry, but it often takes years of trial and error, failure, and gritty persistence to achieve success. In Writing Screenplays that Sell, Michael Hague writes, "Screenplays have become, for the last half of [the twentieth] century, what the Great American Novel was for the first half. Closet writers who used to dream of the glory of getting into print now dream of seeing their story on the big or small screen."

Film industry
Every screenplay and teleplay begins with a thought or idea, and screenwriters use their ideas to write scripts, with the intention of selling them and having them produced. In some cases, the script is based on an existing property, such as a book or person's life story, which is adapted by the screenwriter. The majority of the time, a film project gets initiated by a screenwriter. The initiator of the project gets the exclusive writing assignment. They are referred to as "exclusive" assignments or "pitched" assignments. Screenwriters who often pitch new projects, whether original or an adaptation, often do not have to worry about competing for assignments and are often more successful. When word is put out about a project a film studio, production company, or producer wants done, they are referred to as "open" assignments. Open assignments are more competitive. If screenwriters are competing for an open assignment, more established writers usually win the assignments. A screenwriter can also be approached and personally offered a writing assignment.

Script doctoring
Many screenwriters also work as full or part-time script doctors, attempting to better a script to suit the desires of a director or studio. For instance, studio management may have a complaint that the motivations of the characters are unclear or that the dialogue is weak.

Hollywood has shifted writers onto and off projects since its earliest days, and the assignment of credits is not always straightforward or complete, which poses a problem for film study. In his book Talking Pictures, Richard Corliss discussed the historian's dilemma: "A writer may be given screen credit for work he didn't do (as with Sidney Buchman on Holiday), or be denied credit for work he did do (as with Sidney Buchman on The Awful Truth)."

Development process
After a screenwriter finishes a project, they pair with an industry-based representative, such as a producer, director, literary agent, entertainment lawyer, or entertainment executive. The partnerships often pitch their project to investors or others in a position to further a project. Once the script is sold, the writer has only the rights that were agreed with the purchaser.

A screenwriter becomes credible by having work that is recognized, which gives the writer the opportunity to earn a higher income. As more films are produced independently (outside the studio system), many up-and-coming screenwriters are turning to pitch fests, screenplay contests, and independent development services to gain access to established and credible independent producers. Many development executives are now working independently to incubate their own pet projects.

Production involvement
Screenwriters are rarely involved in the production of a film. Sometimes they come on as advisors, or if they are established, as a producer. Some screenwriters also direct. Although many scripts are sold each year, many do not make it into production because the number of scripts that are purchased every year exceeds the number of professional directors that are working in the film and TV industry. When a screenwriter finishes a project and sells it to a film studio, production company, TV network, or producer, they often have to continue networking, mainly with directors or executives, and push to have their projects "chosen" and turned into films or TV shows. If interest in a script begins to fade, a project can go dead.

Unions
The International Affiliation of Writers Guilds is the international federation of screenwriters' and playwrights' unions.

Most professional screenwriters in the U.S. are unionized and are represented by the Writers Guild of America. Although membership in the WGA is recommended, it is not required of a screenwriter to join. The WGA is the final arbiter on awarding writing credit for projects under its jurisdiction. The WGA also looks upon and verifies film copyright materials.

The Writers' Guild of Great Britain represents screenwriters in the UK.

Salary
Minimum salaries for union screenwriters in the US are set by the Writers Guild of America. Non-union screenwriters may write for free; an established screenwriter may write for millions of dollars.

Definitions

 * Against: A word used to describe a script's unproduced price relative to its value if approved for production—for example, if a script is sold for $300,000, but the writer gains an extra $200,000 if it leads to production, the screenwriter's salary is described as "$300,000 against $500,000".
 * Option: If a script is not purchased, it may be optioned. An option is money paid in exchange for the right (the "option") to produce—and therefore to purchase outright—a screenplay, treatment, or other work within a certain period.
 * Feature assignment: The writer writes the script on assignment under contract with a studio, production company, or individual.
 * Pitch: The writer holds a five- to twenty-minute presentation of the film to buyers in a short meeting.
 * Rewriting: The writer rewrites someone else's script for pay. The writer pitches their "take", much like they would an original pitch.
 * Spec script: Short for "speculative" or "on speculation" as in; "She wrote her script on spec". The writer writes the script (original or someone else's idea) without being paid, and, subsequently, tries to sell it.

History

 * 1900: One of U.S. first screenwriters, New York journalist Roy McCardell, is hired to write ten scenarios (each about 90 seconds long) for $15 each.
 * 1949: Ben Hecht is paid $10,000 a week (about $ in ). Claims David O. Selznick paid him $3,500 a day (about $ in ).
 * 1984: Shane Black sells the screenplay to Lethal Weapon for $250,000.
 * 1990: Kathy McWorter, who was promoted by her agent as a 21-year-old wunderkind, though in fact she was 28 years old, sells her sex comedy The Cheese Stands Alone for $1 million. This was followed by nuclear-terrorist technothriller The Ultimatum by Laurence Dworet and Robert Roy Pool, and WWII action comedy Hell Bent... and Back! by Doug Richardson and Rick Jaffa, both of which sold for a million dollars. None of these movies has been produced so far.
 * 1992: Sherry Lansing is hired to run Paramount and spends $3.6 million in less than a week, $2.5 million for a two-page outline of Jade by Joe Eszterhas, and $1.1 million (about $ in 2018) for the script Milk Money by John Mattson. Both deals are records, respectively, for outlines and romantic comedy specs.
 * 2005: Terry Rossio and Bill Marsilii are paid $3 million against $5 million for the script of Déjà Vu.

Current records
Some of the highest amounts paid to writers for spec screenplays:

$5 million:

 * Déjà Vu by Terry Rossio and Bill Marsilii

$2 million:
 * Arthur & Lancelot (unproduced) by David Dobkin

$1 million:

 * Milk Money by John Mattson ($1.1 million, outright purchase )
 * Epsilon (unproduced) by Rhett Reese and Paul Wernick ("Sources say the Sony deal closed in the $1 million range." )
 * The Imitation Game by Graham Moore, at "seven figures" to Warner Brothers

title: Screenwriter