text:
Fever

Fever or pyrexia in humans is a body temperature above the normal range due to an increase in the body's temperature set point in the hypothalamus. There is no single agreed-upon upper limit for normal temperature: sources use values ranging between 37.2 and 38.3 C in humans. The increase in set point triggers increased muscle contractions and causes a feeling of cold or chills. This results in greater heat production and efforts to conserve heat. When the set point temperature returns to normal, a person feels hot, becomes flushed, and may begin to sweat. Rarely a fever may trigger a febrile seizure, with this being more common in young children. Fevers do not typically go higher than 41 to 42 C.

A fever can be caused by many medical conditions ranging from non-serious to life-threatening. This includes viral, bacterial, and parasitic infections—such as influenza, the common cold, meningitis, urinary tract infections, appendicitis, Lassa, COVID-19, and malaria. Non-infectious causes include vasculitis, deep vein thrombosis, connective tissue disease, side effects of medication or vaccination, and cancer. It differs from hyperthermia, in that hyperthermia is an increase in body temperature over the temperature set point, due to either too much heat production or not enough heat loss.

Treatment to reduce fever is generally not required. Treatment of associated pain and inflammation, however, may be useful and help a person rest. Medications such as ibuprofen or paracetamol (acetaminophen) may help with this as well as lower temperature. Children younger than three months require medical attention, as might people with serious medical problems such as a compromised immune system or people with other symptoms. Hyperthermia requires treatment.

Fever is one of the most common medical signs. It is part of about 30% of healthcare visits by children and occurs in up to 75% of adults who are seriously sick. While fever evolved as a defense mechanism, treating a fever does not appear to improve or worsen outcomes. Fever is often viewed with greater concern by parents and healthcare professionals than is usually deserved, a phenomenon known as "fever phobia."

Associated symptoms
A fever is usually accompanied by sickness behavior, which consists of lethargy, depression, loss of appetite, sleepiness, hyperalgesia, dehydration, and the inability to concentrate. Sleeping with a fever can often cause intense or confusing nightmares, commonly called "fever dreams". Mild to severe delirium (which can also cause hallucinations) may also present itself during high fevers.

Diagnosis
A range for normal temperatures has been found. Central temperatures, such as rectal temperatures, are more accurate than peripheral temperatures. Fever is generally agreed to be present if the elevated temperature is caused by a raised set point and:
 * Temperature in the anus (rectum/rectal) is at or over 37.5 – An ear (tympanic) or forehead (temporal) temperature may also be used.
 * Temperature in the mouth (oral) is at or over 37.2 C in the morning or over 37.7 C in the afternoon
 * Temperature under the arm (axillary) is usually about 0.6 C-change below core body temperature.

In adults, the normal range of oral temperatures in healthy individuals is 35.7 – among men and 33.2 – among women, while when taken rectally it is 36.7 – among men and 36.8 – among women, and for ear measurement it is 35.5 – among men and 35.7 – among women.

Normal body temperatures vary depending on many factors, including age, sex, time of day, ambient temperature, activity level, and more. Normal daily temperature variation has been described as 0.5 °C (0.9 °F). A raised temperature is not always a fever. For example, the temperature rises in healthy people when they exercise, but this is not considered a fever, as the set point is normal. On the other hand, a "normal" temperature may be a fever, if it is unusually high for that person; for example, medically frail elderly people have a decreased ability to generate body heat, so a "normal" temperature of 37.3 C may represent a clinically significant fever.

Hyperthermia
Hyperthermia is an elevation of body temperature over the temperature set point, due to either too much heat production or not enough heat loss. Hyperthermia is thus not considered fever. Hyperthermia should not be confused with hyperpyrexia (which is a very high fever).

Clinically, it is important to distinguish between fever and hyperthermia as hyperthermia may quickly lead to death and does not respond to antipyretic medications. The distinction may however be difficult to make in an emergency setting, and is often established by identifying possible causes.

Types
Various patterns of measured patient temperatures have been observed, some of which may be indicative of a particular medical diagnosis:
 * Continuous fever, where temperature remains above normal and does not fluctuate more than $1 °C$ in 24 hours (e.g. in bacterial pneumonia, typhoid, infective endocarditis, tuberculosis, or typhus).
 * Intermittent fever is present only for a certain period, later cycling back to normal (e.g., in malaria, leishmaniasis, pyemia, sepsis, or African trypanosomiasis).
 * Remittent fever, where the temperature remains above normal throughout the day and fluctuates more than $1 °C$ in 24 hours (e.g., in infective endocarditis or brucellosis).
 * Pel–Ebstein fever is a cyclic fever that is rarely seen in patients with Hodgkin's lymphoma.
 * Undulant fever, seen in brucellosis.
 * Typhoid fever is a continuous fever showing a characteristic step-ladder pattern, a step-wise increase in temperature with a high plateau.

Among the types of intermittent fever are ones specific to cases of malaria caused by different pathogens. These are:
 * Quotidian fever, with a 24-hour periodicity, typical of malaria caused by Plasmodium knowlesi (P. knowlesi);
 * Tertian fever, with a 48-hour periodicity, typical of later course malaria caused by P. falciparum, P. vivax, or P. ovale;
 * Quartan fever, with a 72-hour periodicity, typical of later course malaria caused by P. malariae.

In addition, there is disagreement regarding whether a specific fever pattern is associated with Hodgkin's lymphoma—the Pel–Ebstein fever, with patients argued to present high temperature for one week, followed by low for the next week, and so on, where the generality of this pattern is debated.

Persistent fever that cannot be explained after repeated routine clinical inquiries is called fever of unknown origin. A neutropenic fever, also called febrile neutropenia, is a fever in the absence of normal immune system function. Because of the lack of infection-fighting neutrophils, a bacterial infection can spread rapidly; this fever is, therefore, usually considered to require urgent medical attention. This kind of fever is more commonly seen in people receiving immune-suppressing chemotherapy than in apparently healthy people.

Hyperpyrexia
Hyperpyrexia is an extreme elevation of body temperature which, depending upon the source, is classified as a core body temperature greater than or equal to 40 or; the range of hyperpyrexias includes cases considered severe (≥ 40 °C) and extreme (≥ 42 °C). It differs from hyperthermia in that one's thermoregulatory system's set point for body temperature is set above normal, then heat is generated to achieve it. In contrast, hyperthermia involves body temperature rising above its set point due to outside factors. The high temperatures of hyperpyrexia are considered medical emergencies, as they may indicate a serious underlying condition or lead to severe morbidity (including permanent brain damage), or to death. A common cause of hyperpyrexia is an intracranial hemorrhage. Other causes in emergency room settings include sepsis, Kawasaki syndrome, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, drug overdose, serotonin syndrome, and thyroid storm.

Differential diagnosis
Fever is a common symptom of many medical conditions:

Adult and pediatric manifestations for the same disease may differ; for instance, in COVID-19, one metastudy describes 92.8% of adults versus 43.9% of children presenting with fever.
 * Infectious disease, e.g., COVID-19, dengue, Ebola, gastroenteritis, HIV, influenza, Lyme disease, rocky mountain spotted fever, secondary syphilis, malaria, mononucleosis, as well as infections of the skin, e.g., abscesses and boils.
 * Immunological diseases, e.g., relapsing polychondritis, autoimmune hepatitis, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, Horton disease, inflammatory bowel diseases, Kawasaki disease, lupus erythematosus, sarcoidosis, Still's disease, Rheumatoid arthritis, Lymphoproliferative disorders and Psoriasis ;
 * Tissue destruction, as a result of cerebral bleeding, crush syndrome, hemolysis, infarction, rhabdomyolysis, surgery, etc.;
 * Cancers, particularly blood cancers such as leukemia and lymphomas;
 * Metabolic disorders, e.g., gout, and porphyria; and
 * Inherited metabolic disorder, e.g., Fabry disease.

In addition, fever can result from a reaction to an incompatible blood product.

Teething is not a cause of fever.

Immune function
Fever is thought to contribute to host defense, as the reproduction of pathogens with strict temperature requirements can be hindered, and the rates of some important immunological reactions are increased by temperature. Fever has been described in teaching texts as assisting the healing process in various ways, including:
 * increased mobility of leukocytes;
 * enhanced leukocyte phagocytosis;
 * decreased endotoxin effects; and
 * increased proliferation of T cells.

Advantages and disadvantages
A fever response to an infectious disease is generally regarded as protective, whereas fever in non-infections may be maladaptive. Studies have not been consistent on whether treating fever generally worsens or improves mortality risk. Benefits or harms may depend on the type of infection, health status of the patient and other factors. Studies using warm-blooded vertebrates suggest that they recover more rapidly from infections or critical illness due to fever. In sepsis, fever is associated with reduced mortality.

Hypothalamus
Temperature is regulated in the hypothalamus. The trigger of a fever, called a pyrogen, results in the release of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). PGE2 in turn acts on the hypothalamus, which creates a systemic response in the body, causing heat-generating effects to match a new higher temperature set point. There are four receptors in which PGE2 can bind (EP1-4), with a previous study showing the EP3 subtype is what mediates the fever response. Hence, the hypothalamus can be seen as working like a thermostat. When the set point is raised, the body increases its temperature through both active generation of heat and retention of heat. Peripheral vasoconstriction both reduces heat loss through the skin and causes the person to feel cold. Norepinephrine increases thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue, and muscle contraction through shivering raises the metabolic rate.

If these measures are insufficient to make the blood temperature in the brain match the new set point in the hypothalamus, the brain orchestrates heat effector mechanisms via the autonomic nervous system or primary motor center for shivering. These may be: When the hypothalamic set point moves back to baseline—either spontaneously or via medication—normal functions such as sweating, and the reverse of the foregoing processes (e.g., vasodilation, end of shivering, and nonshivering heat production) are used to cool the body to the new, lower setting.
 * Increased heat production by increased muscle tone, shivering (muscle movements to produce heat) and release of hormones like epinephrine; and
 * Prevention of heat loss, e.g., through vasoconstriction.

This contrasts with hyperthermia, in which the normal setting remains, and the body overheats through undesirable retention of excess heat or over-production of heat. Hyperthermia is usually the result of an excessively hot environment (heat stroke) or an adverse reaction to drugs. Fever can be differentiated from hyperthermia by the circumstances surrounding it and its response to anti-pyretic medications.

In infants, the autonomic nervous system may also activate brown adipose tissue to produce heat (non-shivering thermogenesis).

Increased heart rate and vasoconstriction contribute to increased blood pressure in fever.

Pyrogens
A pyrogen is a substance that induces fever. In the presence of an infectious agent, such as bacteria, viruses, viroids, etc., the immune response of the body is to inhibit their growth and eliminate them. The most common pyrogens are endotoxins, which are lipopolysaccharides (LPS) produced by Gram-negative bacteria such as E. coli. But pyrogens include non-endotoxic substances (derived from microorganisms other than gram-negative-bacteria or from chemical substances) as well. The types of pyrogens include internal (endogenous) and external (exogenous) to the body.

The "pyrogenicity" of given pyrogens varies: in extreme cases, bacterial pyrogens can act as superantigens and cause rapid and dangerous fevers.

Endogenous
Endogenous pyrogens are cytokines released from monocytes (which are part of the immune system). In general, they stimulate chemical responses, often in the presence of an antigen, leading to a fever. Whilst they can be a product of external factors like exogenous pyrogens, they can also be induced by internal factors like damage associated molecular patterns such as cases like rheumatoid arthritis or lupus.

Major endogenous pyrogens are interleukin 1 (α and β) and interleukin 6 (IL-6). Minor endogenous pyrogens include interleukin-8, tumor necrosis factor-β, macrophage inflammatory protein-α and macrophage inflammatory protein-β as well as interferon-α, interferon-β, and interferon-γ. Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF) also acts as a pyrogen, mediated by interleukin 1 (IL-1) release. These cytokine factors are released into general circulation, where they migrate to the brain's circumventricular organs where they are more easily absorbed than in areas protected by the blood–brain barrier. The cytokines then bind to endothelial receptors on vessel walls to receptors on microglial cells, resulting in activation of the arachidonic acid pathway.

Of these, IL-1β, TNF, and IL-6 are able to raise the temperature setpoint of an organism and cause fever. These proteins produce a cyclooxygenase which induces the hypothalamic production of PGE2 which then stimulates the release of neurotransmitters such as cyclic adenosine monophosphate and increases body temperature.

Exogenous
Exogenous pyrogens are external to the body and are of microbial origin. In general, these pyrogens, including bacterial cell wall products, may act on Toll-like receptors in the hypothalamus and elevate the thermoregulatory setpoint.

An example of a class of exogenous pyrogens are bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS) present in the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria. According to one mechanism of pyrogen action, an immune system protein, lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP), binds to LPS, and the LBP–LPS complex then binds to a CD14 receptor on a macrophage. The LBP-LPS binding to CD14 results in cellular synthesis and release of various endogenous cytokines, e.g., interleukin 1 (IL-1), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα). A further downstream event is activation of the arachidonic acid pathway.

PGE2 release
PGE2 release comes from the arachidonic acid pathway. This pathway (as it relates to fever), is mediated by the enzymes phospholipase A2 (PLA2), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and prostaglandin E2 synthase. These enzymes ultimately mediate the synthesis and release of PGE2.

PGE2 is the ultimate mediator of the febrile response. The setpoint temperature of the body will remain elevated until PGE2 is no longer present. PGE2 acts on neurons in the preoptic area (POA) through the prostaglandin E receptor 3 (EP3). EP3-expressing neurons in the POA innervate the dorsomedial hypothalamus (DMH), the rostral raphe pallidus nucleus in the medulla oblongata (rRPa), and the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus. Fever signals sent to the DMH and rRPa lead to stimulation of the sympathetic output system, which evokes non-shivering thermogenesis to produce body heat and skin vasoconstriction to decrease heat loss from the body surface. It is presumed that the innervation from the POA to the PVN mediates the neuroendocrine effects of fever through the pathway involving pituitary gland and various endocrine organs.

Management
Fever does not necessarily need to be treated, and most people with a fever recover without specific medical attention. Although it is unpleasant, fever rarely rises to a dangerous level even if untreated. Damage to the brain generally does not occur until temperatures reach 42.0 C, and it is rare for an untreated fever to exceed 40.6 C. Treating fever in people with sepsis does not affect outcomes. Small trials have shown no benefit of treating fevers of 38.5 C or higher of critically ill patients in ICUs, and one trial was terminated early because patients receiving aggressive fever treatment were dying more often.

According to the NIH, the two assumptions which are generally used to argue in favor of treating fevers have not been experimentally validated. These are that (1) a fever is noxious, and (2) suppression of a fever will reduce its noxious effect. Most of the other studies supporting the association of fever with poorer outcomes have been observational in nature. In theory, these critically ill patients and those faced with additional physiologic stress may benefit from fever reduction, but the evidence on both sides of the argument appears to be mostly equivocal.

Conservative measures
Limited evidence supports sponging or bathing feverish children with tepid water. The use of a fan or air conditioning may somewhat reduce the temperature and increase comfort. If the temperature reaches the extremely high level of hyperpyrexia, aggressive cooling is required (generally produced mechanically via conduction by applying numerous ice packs across most of the body or direct submersion in ice water). In general, people are advised to keep adequately hydrated. Whether increased fluid intake improves symptoms or shortens respiratory illnesses such as the common cold is not known.

Medications
Medications that lower fevers are called antipyretics. The antipyretic ibuprofen is effective in reducing fevers in children. It is more effective than acetaminophen (paracetamol) in children. Ibuprofen and acetaminophen may be safely used together in children with fevers. The efficacy of acetaminophen by itself in children with fevers has been questioned. Ibuprofen is also superior to aspirin in children with fevers. Additionally, aspirin is not recommended in children and young adults (those under the age of 16 or 19 depending on the country) due to the risk of Reye's syndrome.

Using both paracetamol and ibuprofen at the same time or alternating between the two is more effective at decreasing fever than using only paracetamol or ibuprofen. It is not clear if it increases child comfort. Response or nonresponse to medications does not predict whether or not a child has a serious illness.

With respect to the effect of antipyretics on the risk of death in those with infection, studies have found mixed results, as of 2019.

Epidemiology
Fever is one of the most common medical signs. It is part of about 30% of healthcare visits by children, and occurs in up to 75% of adults who are seriously sick. About 5% of people who go to an emergency room have a fever.

History
A number of types of fever were known as early as 460 BC to 370 BC when Hippocrates was practicing medicine including that due to malaria (tertian or every 2 days and quartan or every 3 days). It also became clear around this time that fever was a symptom of disease rather than a disease in and of itself.

Infections presenting with fever were a major source of mortality in humans for about 200,000 years. Until the late nineteenth century, approximately half of all humans died from infections before the age of fifteen.

An older term, febricula (a diminutive form of the Latin word for fever), was once used to refer to a low-grade fever lasting only a few days. This term fell out of use in the early 20th century, and the symptoms it referred to are now thought to have been caused mainly by various minor viral respiratory infections.

Mythology

 * Febris (fever in Latin) is the goddess of fever in Roman mythology. People with fevers would visit her temples.
 * Tertiana and Quartana are the goddesses of tertian and quartan fevers of malaria in Roman mythology.
 * Jvarasura (fever-demon in Hindi) is the personification of fever and disease in Hindu and Buddhist mythology.

Pediatrics
Fever is often viewed with greater concern by parents and healthcare professionals than might be deserved, a phenomenon known as fever phobia, which is based in both caregiver's and parents' misconceptions about fever in children. Among them, many parents incorrectly believe that fever is a disease rather than a medical sign, that even low fevers are harmful, and that any temperature even briefly or slightly above the oversimplified "normal" number marked on a thermometer is a clinically significant fever. They are also afraid of harmless side effects like febrile seizures and dramatically overestimate the likelihood of permanent damage from typical fevers. The underlying problem, according to professor of pediatrics Barton D. Schmitt, is that "as parents we tend to suspect that our children's brains may melt." As a result of these misconceptions parents are anxious, give the child fever-reducing medicine when the temperature is technically normal or only slightly elevated, and interfere with the child's sleep to give the child more medicine.

Other species
Fever is an important metric for the diagnosis of disease in domestic animals. The body temperature of animals, which is taken rectally, is different from one species to another. For example, a horse is said to have a fever above $101 °F$ ($38.3 °C$). In species that allow the body to have a wide range of "normal" temperatures, such as camels, whose body temperature varies as the environmental temperature varies, the body temperature which constitutes a febrile state differs depending on the environmental temperature. Fever can also be behaviorally induced by invertebrates that do not have immune-system based fever. For instance, some species of grasshopper will thermoregulate to achieve body temperatures that are 2–5 °C higher than normal in order to inhibit the growth of fungal pathogens such as Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium acridum. Honeybee colonies are also able to induce a fever in response to a fungal parasite Ascosphaera apis.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Fever


text:
Telemetry

Telemetry is the in situ collection of measurements or other data at remote points and their automatic transmission to receiving equipment (telecommunication) for monitoring. The word is derived from the Greek roots tele, 'remote', and metron, 'measure'. Systems that need external instructions and data to operate require the counterpart of telemetry: telecommand.

Although the term commonly refers to wireless data transfer mechanisms (e.g., using radio, ultrasonic, or infrared systems), it also encompasses data transferred over other media such as a telephone or computer network, optical link or other wired communications like power line carriers. Many modern telemetry systems take advantage of the low cost and ubiquity of GSM networks by using SMS to receive and transmit telemetry data.

A telemeter is a physical device used in telemetry. It consists of a sensor, a transmission path, and a display, recording, or control device. Electronic devices are widely used in telemetry and can be wireless or hard-wired, analog or digital. Other technologies are also possible, such as mechanical, hydraulic and optical.

Telemetry may be commutated to allow the transmission of multiple data streams in a fixed frame.

History
The beginning of industrial telemetry lies in the steam age, although the sensor was not called telemeter at that time. Examples are James Watt's (1736-1819) additions to his steam engines for monitoring from a (near) distance such as the mercury pressure gauge and the fly-ball governor.

Although the original telemeter referred to a ranging device (the rangefinding telemeter), by the late 19th century the same term had been in wide use by electrical engineers applying it refer to electrically operated devices measuring many other quantities besides distance (for instance, in the patent of an "Electric Telemeter Transmitter" ). General telemeters included such sensors as the thermocouple (from the work of Thomas Johann Seebeck), the resistance thermometer (by William Siemens based on the work of Humphry Davy), and the electrical strain gauge (based on Lord Kelvin's discovery that conductors under mechanical strain change their resistance) and output devices such as Samuel Morse's telegraph sounder and the relay. In 1889 this led an author in the Institution of Civil Engineers proceedings to suggest that the term for the rangefinder telemeter might be replaced with tacheometer.

In the 1930s use of electrical telemeters grew rapidly. The electrical strain gauge was widely used in rocket and aviation research and the radiosonde was invented for meteorological measurements. The advent of World War II gave an impetus to industrial development and henceforth many of these telemeters became commercially viable.

Carrying on from rocket research, radio telemetry was used routinely as space exploration got underway. Spacecraft are in a place where a physical connection is not possible, leaving radio or other electromagnetic waves (such as infrared lasers) as the only viable option for telemetry. During crewed space missions it is used to monitor not only parameters of the vehicle, but also the health and life support of the astronauts. During the Cold War telemetry found uses in espionage. US intelligence found that they could monitor the telemetry from Soviet missile tests by building a telemeter of their own to intercept the radio signals and hence learn a great deal about Soviet capabilities.

Types of telemeter
Telemeters are the physical devices used in telemetry. It consists of a sensor, a transmission path, and a display, recording, or control device. Electronic devices are widely used in telemetry and can be wireless or hard-wired, analog or digital. Other technologies are also possible, such as mechanical, hydraulic and optical.

Telemetering information over wire had its origins in the 19th century. One of the first data-transmission circuits was developed in 1845 between the Russian Tsar's Winter Palace and army headquarters. In 1874, French engineers built a system of weather and snow-depth sensors on Mont Blanc that transmitted real-time information to Paris. In 1901 the American inventor C. Michalke patented the selsyn, a circuit for sending synchronized rotation information over a distance. In 1906 a set of seismic stations were built with telemetering to the Pulkovo Observatory in Russia. In 1912, Commonwealth Edison developed a system of telemetry to monitor electrical loads on its power grid. The Panama Canal (completed 1913–1914) used extensive telemetry systems to monitor locks and water levels.

Wireless telemetry made early appearances in the radiosonde, developed concurrently in 1930 by Robert Bureau in France and Pavel Molchanov in Russia. Molchanov's system modulated temperature and pressure measurements by converting them to wireless Morse code. The German V-2 rocket used a system of primitive multiplexed radio signals called "Messina" to report four rocket parameters, but it was so unreliable that Wernher von Braun once claimed it was more useful to watch the rocket through binoculars.

In the US and the USSR, the Messina system was quickly replaced with better systems; in both cases, based on pulse-position modulation (PPM). Early Soviet missile and space telemetry systems which were developed in the late 1940s used either PPM (e.g., the Tral telemetry system developed by OKB-MEI) or pulse-duration modulation (e.g., the RTS-5 system developed by NII-885). In the United States, early work employed similar systems, but were later replaced by pulse-code modulation (PCM) (for example, in the Mars probe Mariner 4). Later Soviet interplanetary probes used redundant radio systems, transmitting telemetry by PCM on a decimeter band and PPM on a centimeter band.

Meteorology
Telemetry has been used by weather balloons for transmitting meteorological data since 1920.

Oil and gas industry
Telemetry is used to transmit drilling mechanics and formation evaluation information uphole, in real time, as a well is drilled. These services are known as Measurement while drilling and Logging while drilling. Information acquired thousands of feet below ground, while drilling, is sent through the drilling hole to the surface sensors and the demodulation software. The pressure wave (sana) is translated into useful information after DSP and noise filters. This information is used for Formation evaluation, Drilling Optimization, and Geosteering.

Motor racing
Telemetry is a key factor in modern motor racing, allowing race engineers to interpret data collected during a test or race and use it to properly tune the car for optimum performance. Systems used in series such as Formula One have become advanced to the point where the potential lap time of the car can be calculated, and this time is what the driver is expected to meet. Examples of measurements on a race car include accelerations (G forces) in three axes, temperature readings, wheel speed, and suspension displacement. In Formula One, driver input is also recorded so the team can assess driver performance and (in case of an accident) the FIA can determine or rule out driver error as a possible cause.

Later developments include two-way telemetry which allows engineers to update calibrations on the car in real time (even while it is out on the track). In Formula One, two-way telemetry surfaced in the early 1990s and consisted of a message display on the dashboard which the team could update. Its development continued until May 2001, when it was first allowed on the cars. By 2002, teams were able to change engine mapping and deactivate engine sensors from the pit while the car was on the track. For the 2003 season, the FIA banned two-way telemetry from Formula One; however, the technology may be used in other types of racing or on road cars.

One way telemetry system has also been applied in R/C racing car to get information by car's sensors like: engine RPM, voltage, temperatures, throttle.

Transportation
In the transportation industry, telemetry provides meaningful information about a vehicle or driver's performance by collecting data from sensors within the vehicle. This is undertaken for various reasons ranging from staff compliance monitoring, insurance rating to predictive maintenance.

Telemetry is used to link traffic counter devices to data recorders to measure traffic flows and vehicle lengths and weights.

Telemetry is used by the railway industry for measuring the health of trackage. This permits optimized and focused predictive and preventative maintenance. Typically this is done with specialized trains, such as the New Measurement Train used in the United Kingdom by Network Rail, which can check for track defects, such as problems with gauge, and deformations in the rail. Japan uses similar, but quicker trains, nicknamed Doctor Yellow. Such trains, besides checking the tracks, can also verify whether or not there are any problems with the overhead power supply (catenary), where it is installed. Dedicated rail inspection companies, such as Sperry Rail, have their own customized rail cars and rail-wheel equipped trucks, that use a variety of methods, including lasers, ultrasound, and induction (measuring resulting magnetic fields from running electricity into rails) to find any defects.

Agriculture
Most activities related to healthy crops and good yields depend on timely availability of weather and soil data. Therefore, wireless weather stations play a major role in disease prevention and precision irrigation. These stations transmit parameters necessary for decision-making to a base station: air temperature and relative humidity, precipitation and leaf wetness (for disease prediction models), solar radiation and wind speed (to calculate evapotranspiration), water deficit stress (WDS) leaf sensors and soil moisture (crucial to irrigation decisions).

Because local micro-climates can vary significantly, such data needs to come from within the crop. Monitoring stations usually transmit data back by terrestrial radio, although occasionally satellite systems are used. Solar power is often employed to make the station independent of the power grid.

Water management
Telemetry is important in water management, including water quality and stream gauging functions. Major applications include AMR (automatic meter reading), groundwater monitoring, leak detection in distribution pipelines and equipment surveillance. Having data available in almost real time allows quick reactions to events in the field. Telemetry control allows engineers to intervene with assets such as pumps and by remotely switching pumps on or off depending on the circumstances. Watershed telemetry is an excellent strategy of how to implement a water management system.

Defense, space and resource exploration
Telemetry is used in complex systems such as missiles, RPVs, spacecraft, oil rigs, and chemical plants since it allows the automatic monitoring, alerting, and record-keeping necessary for efficient and safe operation. Space agencies such as NASA, ISRO, the European Space Agency (ESA), and other agencies use telemetry and/or telecommand systems to collect data from spacecraft and satellites.

Telemetry is vital in the development of missiles, satellites and aircraft because the system might be destroyed during or after the test. Engineers need critical system parameters to analyze (and improve) the performance of the system. In the absence of telemetry, this data would often be unavailable.

Space science
Telemetry is used by crewed or uncrewed spacecraft for data transmission. Distances of more than 10 billion kilometres have been covered, e.g., by Voyager 1.

Rocketry
In rocketry, telemetry equipment forms an integral part of the rocket range assets used to monitor the position and health of a launch vehicle to determine range safety flight termination criteria (Range purpose is for public safety). Problems include the extreme environment (temperature, acceleration and vibration), the energy supply, antenna alignment and (at long distances, e.g., in spaceflight) signal travel time.

Flight testing
Today nearly every type of aircraft, missiles, or spacecraft carries a wireless telemetry system as it is tested. Aeronautical mobile telemetry is used for the safety of the pilots and persons on the ground during flight tests. Telemetry from an on-board flight test instrumentation system is the primary source of real-time measurement and status information transmitted during the testing of crewed and uncrewed aircraft.

Military intelligence
Intercepted telemetry was an important source of intelligence for the United States and UK when Soviet missiles were tested; for this purpose, the United States operated a listening post in Iran. Eventually, the Russians discovered the United States intelligence-gathering network and encrypted their missile-test telemetry signals. Telemetry was also a source for the Soviets, who operated listening ships in Cardigan Bay to eavesdrop on UK missile tests performed in the area.

Energy monitoring
In factories, buildings and houses, energy consumption of systems such as HVAC are monitored at multiple locations; related parameters (e.g., temperature) are sent via wireless telemetry to a central location. The information is collected and processed, enabling the most efficient use of energy. Such systems also facilitate predictive maintenance.

Resource distribution
Many resources need to be distributed over wide areas. Telemetry is useful in these cases, since it allows the logistics system to channel resources where they are needed, as well as provide security for those assets; principal examples of this are dry goods, fluids, and granular bulk solids.

Dry goods
Dry goods, such as packaged merchandise, may be tracked and remotely monitored, tracked and inventoried by RFID sensing systems, barcode reader, optical character recognition (OCR) reader, or other sensing devices—coupled to telemetry devices, to detect RFID tags, barcode labels or other identifying markers affixed to the item, its package, or (for large items and bulk shipments) affixed to its shipping container or vehicle. This facilitates knowledge of their location, and can record their status and disposition, as when merchandise with barcode labels is scanned through a checkout reader at point-of-sale systems in a retail store. Stationary or hand-held barcode RFID scanners or Optical reader with remote communications, can be used to expedite inventory tracking and counting in stores, warehouses, shipping terminals, transportation carriers and factories.

Fluids
Fluids stored in tanks are a principal object of constant commercial telemetry. This typically includes monitoring of tank farms in gasoline refineries and chemical plants—and distributed or remote tanks, which must be replenished when empty (as with gas station storage tanks, home heating oil tanks, or ag-chemical tanks at farms), or emptied when full (as with production from oil wells, accumulated waste products, and newly produced fluids). Telemetry is used to communicate the variable measurements of flow and tank level sensors detecting fluid movements and/or volumes by pneumatic, hydrostatic, or differential pressure; tank-confined ultrasonic, radar or Doppler effect echoes; or mechanical or magnetic sensors.

Bulk solids
Telemetry of bulk solids is common for tracking and reporting the volume status and condition of grain and livestock feed bins, powdered or granular food, powders and pellets for manufacturing, sand and gravel, and other granular bulk solids. While technology associated with fluid tank monitoring also applies, in part, to granular bulk solids, reporting of overall container weight, or other gross characteristics and conditions, are sometimes required, owing to bulk solids' more complex and variable physical characteristics.

Medicine/healthcare
Telemetry is used for patients (biotelemetry) who are at risk of abnormal heart activity, generally in a coronary care unit. Telemetry specialists are sometimes used to monitor many patients within a hospital. Such patients are outfitted with measuring, recording and transmitting devices. A data log can be useful in diagnosis of the patient's condition by doctors. An alerting function can alert nurses if the patient is suffering from an acute (or dangerous) condition.

Systems are available in medical-surgical nursing for monitoring to rule out a heart condition, or to monitor a response to antiarrhythmic medications such as amiodarone.

A new and emerging application for telemetry is in the field of neurophysiology, or neurotelemetry. Neurophysiology is the study of the central and peripheral nervous systems through the recording of bioelectrical activity, whether spontaneous or stimulated. In neurotelemetry (NT) the electroencephalogram (EEG) of a patient is monitored remotely by a registered EEG technologist using advanced communication software. The goal of neurotelemetry is to recognize a decline in a patient's condition before physical signs and symptoms are present.

Neurotelemetry is synonymous with real-time continuous video EEG monitoring and has application in the epilepsy monitoring unit, neuro ICU, pediatric ICU and newborn ICU. Due to the labor-intensive nature of continuous EEG monitoring NT is typically done in the larger academic teaching hospitals using in-house programs that include R.EEG Technologists, IT support staff, neurologist and neurophysiologist and monitoring support personnel.

Modern microprocessor speeds, software algorithms and video data compression allow hospitals to centrally record and monitor continuous digital EEGs of multiple critically ill patients simultaneously.

Neurotelemetry and continuous EEG monitoring provides dynamic information about brain function that permits early detection of changes in neurologic status, which is especially useful when the clinical examination is limited.

Fishery and wildlife research and management
Telemetry is used to study wildlife, and has been useful for monitoring threatened species at the individual level. Animals under study can be outfitted with instrumentation tags, which include sensors that measure temperature, diving depth and duration (for marine animals), speed and location (using GPS or Argos packages). Telemetry tags can give researchers information about animal behavior, functions, and their environment. This information is then either stored (with archival tags) or the tags can send (or transmit) their information to a satellite or handheld receiving device. Capturing and marking wild animals can put them at some risk, so it is important to minimize these impacts.

Retail
At a 2005 workshop in Las Vegas, a seminar noted the introduction of telemetry equipment which would allow vending machines to communicate sales and inventory data to a route truck or to a headquarters. This data could be used for a variety of purposes, such as eliminating the need for drivers to make a first trip to see which items needed to be restocked before delivering the inventory.

Retailers also use RFID tags to track inventory and prevent shoplifting. Most of these tags passively respond to RFID readers (e.g., at the cashier), but active RFID tags are available which periodically transmit location information to a base station.

Law enforcement
Telemetry hardware is useful for tracking persons and property in law enforcement. An ankle collar worn by convicts on probation can warn authorities if a person violates the terms of his or her parole, such as by straying from authorized boundaries or visiting an unauthorized location. Telemetry has also enabled bait cars, where law enforcement can rig a car with cameras and tracking equipment and leave it somewhere they expect it to be stolen. When stolen the telemetry equipment reports the location of the vehicle, enabling law enforcement to deactivate the engine and lock the doors when it is stopped by responding officers.

Energy providers
In some countries, telemetry is used to measure the amount of electrical energy consumed. The electricity meter communicates with a concentrator, and the latter sends the information through GPRS or GSM to the energy provider's server. Telemetry is also used for the remote monitoring of substations and their equipment. For data transmission, phase line carrier systems operating on frequencies between 30 and 400 kHz are sometimes used.

Falconry
In falconry, "telemetry" means a small radio transmitter carried by a bird of prey that will allow the bird's owner to track it when it is out of sight.

Testing
Telemetry is used in testing hostile environments which are dangerous to humans. Examples include munitions storage facilities, radioactive sites, volcanoes, deep sea, and outer space.

Communications
Telemetry is used in many battery operated wireless systems to inform monitoring personnel when the battery power is reaching a low point and the end item needs fresh batteries.

Mining
In the mining industry, telemetry serves two main purposes: the measurement of key parameters from mining equipment and the monitoring of safety practices. The information provided by the collection and analysis of key parameters allows for root-cause identification of inefficient operations, unsafe practices and incorrect equipment usage for maximizing productivity and safety. Further applications of the technology allow for sharing knowledge and best practices across the organization.

Software
In software, telemetry is used to gather data on the use and performance of applications and application components, e.g. how often certain features are used, measurements of start-up time and processing time, hardware, application crashes, and general usage statistics and/or user behavior. In some cases, very detailed data is reported like individual window metrics, counts of used features, and individual function timings.

This kind of telemetry can be essential to software developers to receive data from a wide variety of endpoints that can't possibly all be tested in-house, as well as getting data on the popularity of certain features and whether they should be given priority or be considered for removal. Due to concerns about privacy since software telemetry can easily be used to profile users, telemetry in user software is often user choice, commonly presented as an opt-out feature (requiring explicit user action to disable it) or user choice during the software installation process.

International standards
As in other telecommunications fields, international standards exist for telemetry equipment and software. International standards producing bodies include Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS) for space agencies, Inter-Range Instrumentation Group (IRIG) for missile ranges, and Telemetering Standards Coordination Committee (TSCC), an organisation of the International Foundation for Telemetering.

title: Telemetry


text:
Talk:Photosynthesis

Semi-protected edit request on 8 March 2022
in the text there is a typo. Change the word "photosyntethic" to "photosynthetic" Mfmdec (talk) 16:06, 8 March 2022 (UTC)
 * Good catch, thanks. ✅  BelowTheSun  (T•C) 16:17, 8 March 2022 (UTC)

Equation not correct
We read in section "Light-independent reactions", calvin cycle: 3 CO2 + 9 ATP + 6 NADPH + 6 H+ → C3H6O3-phosphate + 9 ADP + 8 Pi + 6 NADP+ + 3 H2O

But this is not correct, it should be:

3 CO2 + 9 ATP + 6 NADPH + 6 H+ + 5 H2O → C3H6O3-phosphate + 9 ADP + 8 Pi + 6 NADP+

Not water is produced, rather needed for the hydrolysis of ATP->ADP. If you don't believe me, don't write ATP, but C10H16N5O13P3 and ADP is C10H15N5O10P2. --2A02:810D:1600:2FD0:7C48:3C9:B08C:7686 (talk) 12:50, 11 April 2022 (UTC)

oxygen "stores chemical energy"?
I find the following sentence in the lede less than helpful:

 * In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product that stores three times more chemical energy than the carbohydrates.

That sentence simply makes very little sense: chemical energy is released or stored through chemical reactions. There's no absolute way of saying that 6 O2 contains "three times more chemical energy" than glucose. All you can say is how much energy is required for the overall reaction producing those two products from CO2 and water. (The story is very different for nuclear reactions, E=mc2 etc. etc.)

In fact, what the reference talks about is the bond energy of O2, that released by the reaction of monatomic oxygen to O2. That bond energy is 498 kJ per mole of O2 produced. Great. The hypothetical reaction 6 C + 12 H + 6 O -> glucose releases, apparently, 9672 kJ per mole of glucose produced.

That doesn't mean that O2 "contains more chemical energy" than glucose. It certainly doesn't mean that it "stores three times more chemical energy". For starters, 9672 isn't "3 times more" than 2988, it's 3.23 times as much. More importantly, again, this is the energy released by forming bonds.

Quite the reverse is true: if, hypothetically, we had an infinite supply of glucose and split it into its individual (non-bonded) atoms, the products of that reaction would store 3.23 times as much energy per mole of glucose as splitting 6 moles of oxygen into its monatomic form could store. (Which is a silly idea under standard conditions, because the monatomic oxygen would form molecules almost right away.)

So the numbers simply don't mean what the article claims they do; the "three times more" is incorrect; the reference doesn't mention any factor of 4 (or 3); the reference should be secondary for such an important statement (or at least it would be important if it made sense).

I'm removing the sentence. Feel free to revert and discuss, but as it is it's unsourced OR which misrepresents what I'm pretty sure the authors of the paper intended to say.

IpseCustos (talk) 20:35, 7 June 2022 (UTC)

Correcting the structure of pyruvate in the image "Overview of C4 carbon fixation"
Hello, I´m not an expert on this topic, but I happened to notice, that in the image "Overview of C4 carbon fixation" the structure of the pyruvate is (to my belief) wrong. It features a hydroxy group on C2, however there should be a carbonyl group https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyruvate. The Molecule that is shown should be lactic acid. Silizimon (talk) 12:33, 25 July 2022 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 17 August 2022
and thats why the sky is blue Hannah blood (talk) 12:12, 17 August 2022 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. EnIRtpf09b chat with me

As discussed in Diffuse_sky_radiation, the explanation has nothing to do with photosynthesis, but rather that blue light is scattered more. Boghog (talk) 07:30, 18 August 2022 (UTC)

photosynthesis
Without photosynthesis their would be no life.During photosynthesis plants take carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H20) from the air and soil. (By:Fatima waseem) 69.112.151.30 (talk) 14:08, 19 August 2022 (UTC)

Photosynthesis and solar panels efficiencies
Plants usually convert light into chemical energy with a photosynthetic efficiency of 3–6%. By comparison, solar panels convert light into electric energy at an efficiency of approximately 6–20% for mass-produced panels, and above 40% in laboratory devices. The 6-20% is now 20-40% and the electric energy of the panels is virtually infinite temperature while recombining hydrocarbons and oxygen at most gives a couple of thousand Kelvins. For most modern uses this corresponds to another factor of 3 in desirability of the photovoltaic power. On the other side plants can build themselves, but also use some of the energy for themselves at least until they die. Apart for personal considerations a hard to make comparison. The most striking consideration is that the average american uses as much primary energy as what's produced by photosynthesis pro capite, no wonder we are in trouble. Oscar Blauman 10:49, 1 October 2022 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Omblauman (talk • contribs)

Wiki Education assignment: Plant Ecology Winter 2023
— Assignment last updated by Epipremnum aureum (talk) 02:21, 9 February 2023 (UTC)

Glucose and fructose
Lots of fruits are rich in glucose and fructose. I added the fact that these come from hexose phosphates (obviously), but I can't find any information on how. Can someone supply this? Is it done by the enzymes that phosphorylate glucose and fructose? If so, does producing them from the corresponding phosphates give an ATP as well? Eric Kvaalen (talk) 16:40, 3 April 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 22 October 2023
add citation: https://www.google.nl/books/edition/Essentials_of_Biochemistry/yf3EDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=photosynthesis,+used+mostly+by+bacteria,+which+consume+carbon+dioxide+but+do+not+release+oxygen&pg=PA275&printsec=frontcover

"There are also many varieties of anoxygenic photosynthesis, used mostly by bacteria, which consume carbon dioxide but do not release oxygen.[citation needed]" Internetsleuth (talk) 09:59, 22 October 2023 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the suggestion, but unfortunately that book looks to have copied the text from this article, so citing it would be a case of WP:CITOGENESIS. SmartSE (talk) 10:11, 22 October 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 11 November 2023
just to update year of discovering that mass is added due to uptake of CO2 and water stuff(1804) WorldDiagram837 (talk) 15:51, 11 November 2023 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. Cannolis (talk) 19:26, 11 November 2023 (UTC)

Typo in Text
Photosynthesis is misspelled in this paragraph:

Photosyntesis was first discovered in 1779 by Jan Ingenhousz; he showed that plants need light, not just air, soil, and water. Brewkey (talk) 02:57, 12 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Photosynthesis


text:
Corinthian order

The Corinthian order (Κορινθιακὸς ῥυθμός, Korinthiakós rythmós; Ordo Corinthius) is the last developed and most ornate of the three principal classical orders of Ancient Greek architecture and Roman architecture. The other two are the Doric order, which was the earliest, followed by the Ionic order. In Ancient Greek architecture, the Corinthian order follows the Ionic in almost all respects, other than the capitals of the columns, though this changed in Roman architecture.

A Corinthian capital may be seen as an enriched development of the Ionic capital, though one may have to look closely at a Corinthian capital to see the Ionic volutes ("helices"), at the corners, perhaps reduced in size and importance, scrolling out above the two ranks of stylized acanthus leaves and stalks ("cauliculi" or caulicoles), eight in all, and to notice that smaller volutes scroll inwards to meet each other on each side. The leaves may be quite stiff, schematic and dry, or they may be extravagantly drilled and undercut, naturalistic and spiky. The flat abacus at the top of the capital has a concave curve on each face, and usually a single flower ("rosette") projecting from the leaves below overlaps it on each face.

When classical architecture was revived during the Renaissance, two more orders were added to the canon: the Tuscan order and the Composite order, known in Roman times, but regarded as a grand imperial variant of the Corinthian. The Corinthian has fluted columns and elaborate capitals decorated with acanthus leaves and scrolls. There are many variations.

The name Corinthian is derived from the ancient Greek city of Corinth, although it was probably invented in Athens.

Greek Corinthian order
The Corinthian order is named for the Greek city-state of Corinth, to which it was connected in the period. However, according to the architectural historian Vitruvius, the column was created by the sculptor Callimachus, probably an Athenian, who drew acanthus leaves growing around a votive basket of toys, with a slab on top, on the grave of a Corinthian girl.

Its earliest use can be traced back to the Late Classical Period (430–323 BC). The earliest Corinthian capitals, already in fragments and now lost, were found in Bassae in 1811–12; they are dated around 420 BC, and are in a temple of Apollo otherwise using the Ionic. There were three of them, carrying the frieze across the far end of the cella, which was open to the adytum. The Corinthian was probably devised to solve the awkwardness the Ionic capital created at corners by having clear and distinct front or back and side-on faces, a problem only finally solved by Vincenzo Scamozzi in the 16th century.

A simplified late version of the Greek Corinthian capital is often known as the "Tower of the Winds Corinthian" after its use on the porches of the Tower of the Winds in Athens (about 50 BC). There is a single row of acanthus leaves at the bottom of the capital, with a row of "tall, narrow leaves" behind. These cling tightly to the swelling shaft, and are sometimes described as "lotus" leaves, as well as the vague "water-leaves" and palm leaves; their similarity to leaf forms on many ancient Egyptian capitals has been remarked on. The form is usually found in smaller columns, both ancient and modern.

Roman Corinthian order

The style developed its own model in Roman practice, following precedents set by the Temple of Mars Ultor in the Forum of Augustus (c. 2 AD). It was employed in southern Gaul at the Maison Carrée, Nîmes and at the comparable Temple of Augustus and Livia at Vienne. Other prime examples noted by Mark Wilson Jones are the lower order of the Basilica Ulpia and the Arch of Trajan at Ancona (both of the reign of Trajan, 98–117 AD), the Column of Phocas (re-erected in Late Antiquity but 2nd century in origin), and the Temple of Bacchus at Baalbek (c. 150 AD).

Proportion is a defining characteristic of the Corinthian order: the "coherent integration of dimensions and ratios in accordance with the principles of symmetria" are noted by Mark Wilson Jones, who finds that the ratio of total column height to column-shaft height is in a 6:5 ratio, so that, secondarily, the full height of column with capital is often a multiple of 6 Roman feet while the column height itself is a multiple of 5. In its proportions, the Corinthian column is similar to the Ionic column, though it is more slender, and stands apart by its distinctive carved capital.

The abacus upon the capital has concave sides to conform to the outscrolling corners of the capital, and it may have a rosette at the center of each side. Corinthian columns were erected on the top level of the Roman Colosseum, holding up the least weight, and also having the slenderest ratio of thickness to height. Their height to width ratio is about 10:1.

One variant is the Tivoli order, found at the Temple of Vesta, Tivoli. The Tivoli order's Corinthian capital has two rows of acanthus leaves and its abacus is decorated with oversize fleurons in the form of hibiscus flowers with pronounced spiral pistils. The column flutes have flat tops. The frieze exhibits fruit festoons suspended between bucrania. Above each festoon has a rosette over its center. The cornice does not have modillions.

Gandharan capitals

Indo-Corinthian capitals are capitals crowning columns or pilasters, which can be found in the northwestern Indian subcontinent, and usually combine Hellenistic and Indian elements. These capitals are typically dated to the 1st centuries of our era, and constitute important elements of Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara.

The classical design was often adapted, usually taking a more elongated form, and sometimes being combined with scrolls, generally within the context of Buddhist stupas and temples. Indo-Corinthian capitals also incorporated figures of the Buddha or Bodhisattvas, usually as central figures surrounded, and often in the shade, of the luxurious foliage of Corinthian designs.

Byzantine Empire and Medieval Europe
Though the term "Corinthian" is reserved for columns and capitals that adhere fairly closely to one of the classical versions, vegetal decoration to capitals continued to be extremely common in Byzantine architecture and the various styles of the European Middle Ages, from Carolingian architecture to Romanesque architecture and Gothic architecture. There was considerable freedom in the details and the relationship between column (generally not fluted) and capital. Many types of plant were represented, sometimes realistically, as in the capitals in the chapter house at Southwell Minster in England.

Renaissance Corinthian order
During the first flush of the Italian Renaissance, the Florentine architectural theorist Francesco di Giorgio expressed the human analogies that writers who followed Vitruvius often associated with the human form, in squared drawings he made of the Corinthian capital overlaid with human heads, to show the proportions common to both.

The Corinthian architrave is divided in two or three sections, which may be equal, or may bear interesting proportional relationships, to one with another. Above the plain, unadorned architrave lies the frieze, which may be richly carved with a continuous design or left plain, as at the U.S. Capitol extension. At the Capitol the proportions of architrave to frieze are exactly 1:1. Above that, the profiles of the cornice mouldings are like those of the Ionic order. If the cornice is very deep, it may be supported by brackets or modillions, which are ornamental brackets used in a series under a cornice.

The Corinthian column is almost always fluted, and the flutes of a Corinthian column may be enriched. They may be filleted, with rods nestled within the hollow flutes, or stop-fluted, with the rods rising a third of the way, to where the entasis begins. In French, these are called chandelles and sometimes terminate in carved wisps of flame, or with bellflowers. Alternatively, beading or chains of husks may take the place of the fillets in the fluting, Corinthian being the most flexible of the orders, with more opportunities for variation.

Elaborating upon an offhand remark when Vitruvius accounted for the origin of its acanthus capital, it became a commonplace to identify the Corinthian column with the slender figure of a young girl; in this mode the classifying French painter Nicolas Poussin wrote to his friend Fréart de Chantelou in 1642:

"The beautiful girls whom you will have seen in Nîmes will not, I am sure, have delighted your spirit any less than the beautiful columns of Maison Carrée for the one is no more than an old copy of the other."

Sir William Chambers expressed the conventional comparison with the Doric order:

"The proportions of the orders were by the ancients formed on those of the human body, and consequently, it could not be their intention to make a Corinthian column, which, as Vitruvius observes, is to represent the delicacy of a young girl, as thick and much taller than a Doric one, which is designed to represent the bulk and vigour of a muscular full grown man."

History

The oldest known example of a Corinthian column is in the Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae in Arcadia, c. 450–420 BC. It is not part of the order of the temple itself, which has a Doric colonnade surrounding the temple and an Ionic order within the cella enclosure. A single Corinthian column stands free, centered within the cella. This is a mysterious feature, and archaeologists debate what this shows: some state that it is simply an example of a votive column. A few examples of Corinthian columns in Greece during the next century are all used inside temples. A more famous example, and the first documented use of the Corinthian order on the exterior of a structure, is the circular Choragic Monument of Lysicrates in Athens, erected c. 334 BC.

A Corinthian capital carefully buried in antiquity in the foundations of the circular tholos at Epidaurus was recovered during modern archaeological campaigns. Its enigmatic presence and preservation have been explained as a sculptor's model for stonemasons to follow in erecting the temple dedicated to Asclepius. The architectural design of the building was credited in antiquity to the sculptor Polykleitos the Younger, son of the Classical Greek sculptor Polykleitos the Elder.

The temple was erected in the 4th century BC. These capitals, in one of the most-visited sacred sites of Greece, influenced later Hellenistic and Roman designs for the Corinthian order. The concave sides of the abacus meet at a sharp keel edge, easily damaged, which in later and post-Renaissance practice has generally been replaced by a canted corner. Behind the scrolls the spreading cylindrical form of the central shaft is plainly visible.

Much later, the Roman writer Vitruvius (c. 75 BC) related that the Corinthian order had been invented by Callimachus, a Greek architect and sculptor who was inspired by the sight of a votive basket that had been left on the grave of a young girl. A few of her toys were in it, and a square tile had been placed over the basket, to protect them from the weather. An acanthus plant had grown through the woven basket, mixing its spiny, deeply cut leaves with the weave of the basket.

Claude Perrault incorporated a vignette epitomizing the Callimachus tale in his illustration of the Corinthian order for his translation of Vitruvius, published in Paris, 1684. Perrault demonstrates in his engraving how the proportions of the carved capital could be adjusted according to demands of the design, without offending. The texture and outline of Perrault's leaves is dry and tight compared to their 19th-century naturalism at the U.S. Capitol.

In Late Antique and Byzantine practice, the leaves may be blown sideways, as if by the wind of Faith. Unlike the Doric and Ionic column capitals, a Corinthian capital has no neck beneath it, just a ring-like astragal molding or a banding that forms the base of the capital, recalling the base of the legendary basket.

Most buildings (and most clients) are satisfied with just two orders. When orders are superposed one above another, as they are at the Colosseum, the natural progression is from sturdiest and plainest (Doric) at the bottom, to slenderest and richest (Corinthian) at the top. The Colosseum's topmost tier has an unusual order that came to be known as the Composite order during the 16th century. The mid-16th-century Italians, especially Sebastiano Serlio and Jacopo Barozzi da Vignola, who established a canonic version of the orders, thought they detected a "Composite order", combining the volutes of the Ionic with the foliage of the Corinthian, but in Roman practice volutes were almost always present.

In Romanesque and Gothic architecture, where the Classical system had been replaced by a new aesthetic composed of arched vaults springing from columns, the Corinthian capital was still retained. It might be severely plain, as in the typical Cistercian architecture, which encouraged no distraction from liturgy and ascetic contemplation, or in other contexts it could be treated to numerous fanciful variations, even on the capitals of a series of columns or colonettes within the same system.

During the 16th century, a sequence of engravings of the orders in architectural treatises helped standardize their details within rigid limits: Sebastiano Serlio; the Regola delli cinque ordini of Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola (1507–1573); I quattro libri dell'architettura of Andrea Palladio, and Vincenzo Scamozzi's L'idea dell'architettura universale, were followed in the 17th century by French treatises with further refined engraved models, such as Perrault's.

Notable examples

 * Argentina
 * Palace of the Argentine National Congress
 * Bangladesh
 * Tajhat Palace, Rangpur
 * France
 * Maison Carrée, Nimes
 * The July Column, Paris
 * Germany
 * Palatine Chapel, Aachen
 * The Reichstag, Berlin
 * Greece
 * Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, Athens
 * Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens
 * Israel
 * Seat of the Universal House of Justice, Haifa
 * Italy
 * Pantheon, Rome
 * Temple of Mars Ultor
 * Temple of Vesta, Tivoli
 * Jordan
 * Jarash
 * Jabal al-Qal'a, Amman
 * Philippines
 * St. La Salle Hall
 * Don Enrique T. Yuchengco Hall
 * Enrique M. Razon Sports Center
 * Portugal
 * Templo de Diana, Évora
 * Column of Pedro IV, Lisbon
 * Romania
 * New Saint George Church of Bucharest
 * Royal Palace of Bucharest
 * The Church from the Antim Monastery
 * Central University Library of Bucharest
 * Monteoru House
 * Russia
 * Winter Palace
 * Saint Isaac's Cathedral
 * Serbia
 * House of the National Assembly of the Republic of Serbia
 * Singapore
 * Former City Hall
 * South Africa
 * Houses of Parliament, Cape Town
 * Syria
 * Bosra
 * Damascus: Temple of Jupiter
 * Latakia: Colonnade of Bacchus
 * Palmyra
 * Ukraine
 * Great Lavra Belltower (fourth tier – 8 columns)
 * Independence Monument
 * United Kingdom
 * Nelson's Column in Central London
 * University College London
 * United States of America
 * United States Capitol
 * United States Supreme Court Building
 * City Hall-County Building (Chicago)
 * The Rotunda, University of Virginia
 * New York Stock Exchange

title: Corinthian order


text:
Talk:Guano

Do people really eat this?
I could have sworn I saw something on a nature show or something where some indigenous people eat bat guano, but being a sensible person, I knew that it could not be true.

See the Chinese article on Lin Tse Hsu. It appears to say that he scared tourists by eating a food prepared to give the appearance of guano. This may be where the rumor comes from. (Collin237 - 237wins) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 166.203.105.214 (talk) 07:13, 10 December 2009 (UTC)

It says "Its, Dawguang Dih ranq ta jieday waygworen, ta biann jyyshyh chwushy tzowlh idaw horngshuuni tsay, waygworen jiann jong horngshuuni mei maw rehchih, biann lhau chii jiow chy, jyr baa waygworen tanqderuauajiaw, Lintzershyu jiannshiaw, woanhweilh mianntz." Perhaps someone could explain this. (Collin237 - 237wins) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 32.178.68.71 (talk) 12:28, 10 December 2009 (UTC)

 * Unsurprisingly, it renders a person insane. – RVJ (talk) 05:58, 16 November 2011 (UTC)

Some more information on Coca Cola's flirtation with guano during the war would be interesting too.

Pop Culture
Ace Ventura's plot was centered around this.

Merge from Phosphate rock island
Please merge any relevant content from [ Phosphate rock island] per Articles for deletion/Phosphate rock island. (If there is nothing to merge, just leave it as a redirect.) Thanks. —Quarl (talk) 2007-02-25 04:46Z

Use of Guano
Apparently near the end of the 19th century, guano was imported all the way from the mountains of Chile to be used as fertilizers in the United Kingdom. Can this be included in the article or not? Can anyone find references for this please? --pizza1512 12:07, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

Inaccuracy
There is more than 30 years worth of viable phosphate available for extraction. Please see http://www.energybulletin.net/28720.html and especially http://www.apda.pt/apda_resources/APDA.Biblioteca/eureau%5Cposition%20papers%5Cthe%20reuse%20of%20phosphorus.pdf for details. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.112.40.137 (talk) 00:17, 4 December 2007 (UTC)

Ace Ventura
I noticed the movie Ace Ventura: When Nature Calls has as central topic Guano. I have added it to the See also list. Camilo Sanchez (talk)
 * While Ace really wanted that dookie, a fictional movie is not vital to one's understanding of the real thing and doesn't warrant a "see also." Rob T Firefly (talk) 18:26, 4 July 2008 (UTC)

Photograph of Guano "Production"
Is this photograph REALLY necessary? Not only is it extremely detailed, but someone saw fit to make sure it was HUGE!

This is entirely a good-natured comment... but MAN. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 209.234.149.2 (talk) 19:03, 3 November 2008 (UTC)

Haha I thought it was really fitting —Preceding unsigned comment added by 172.168.120.77 (talk) 19:03, 3 November 2008 (UTC)  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.168.120.77 (talk)

Problem statement
I have a problem with the statement "It is estimated that there is only enough phosphorus from current resources to last about 30 years." I believe that the source is talking specifically about Peru. Besides, I think the source says 10 - 20 years, not 30.

I am not sure what statement should be made from this source as it seems too narrow in scope. WTucker (talk) 05:43, 8 January 2009 (UTC)

seabirds?
Really? Only seabirds specifically? If Canada Geese leave large amounts of excrement by a lake, is that guano? if not, what is it called? Kingturtle (talk) 20:49, 10 April 2010 (UTC)

Weird Wiki statement regarding a statement...
It is written : ''In this context the United States passed the Guano Islands Act in 1856, giving citizens discovering a source of guano the right to take possession of unclaimed land and entitlement to exclusive rights to the deposits. The guano, however, could only be removed for the use of citizens of the United States.[1] This enabled U.S. citizens to take possession of unoccupied islands containing guano''... It ends with a Wiki flag stating that "sources are required", even though it is given via its reference! I don't understand why, some people aren't mature enough to face History? — Preceding unsigned comment added by HawkFest (talk • contribs) 23:21, 25 January 2013 (UTC)

Contradiction with Blackbirding
This article claims: "There is no documentary evidence that enslaved Pacific Islanders participated in guano mining." It cites: Méndez, Cecilia (1987). Los trabajadores guaneros del Perú, 1840–1879. Lima: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos.

The article on Blackbirding, referring to enslavement of Pacific Islanders claims: "From the 1860s, blackbirding ships in the Pacific sought workers to mine the guano deposits on the Chincha Islands in Peru." It cites: H.E. Maude, Slavers in Paradise, Institute of Pacific Studies (1981)

Logically, one of these claims must be false. 97.83.179.39 (talk) 16:38, 5 February 2016 (UTC)

Contradictory introduction
The first two sentences of the article, "Guano (via Spanish, ultimately from the Quechua wanu) is the excrement of only cave-dwelling bats in general.[1] Most commonly people are mistaken to think that quano is a term used for bird excrement as well," contradict almost all of the text that follows (that is assuming "quano" is a typo, and if it's not it's not a fact that belongs in the lede). The use of the term "guano" in this article is almost exclusively referring to the droppings of birds and hardly mentions bats at all. ☉ nbmatt 02:44, 13 August 2016 (UTC)

External links modified (January 2018)
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Guano. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20100201081208/http://www.agrorural.gob.pe/index.php/programas/proabonos/ique-es-proabonos.html to http://www.agrorural.gob.pe/index.php/programas/proabonos/ique-es-proabonos.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 19:22, 25 January 2018 (UTC)

Bats language
Ifk 81.106.178.29 (talk) 21:35, 21 November 2021 (UTC)

Featured picture scheduled for POTD
Hello! This is to let editors know that File:DefecatingSeagull.jpg, a featured picture used in this article, has been selected as the English Wikipedia's picture of the day (POTD) for June 15, 2022. A preview of the POTD is displayed below and can be edited at Template:POTD/2022-06-15. For the greater benefit of readers, any potential improvements or maintenance that could benefit the quality of this article should be done before its scheduled appearance on the Main Page. If you have any concerns, please place a message at Wikipedia talk:Picture of the day. Thank you! Adam Cuerden (talk)Has about 7.8% of all FPs 13:40, 23 May 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Guano


text:
Nightmare

A nightmare, also known as a bad dream, is an unpleasant dream that can cause a strong emotional response from the mind, typically fear but also despair, anxiety, disgust or sadness. The dream may contain situations of discomfort, psychological or physical terror, or panic. After a nightmare, a person will often awaken in a state of distress and may be unable to return to sleep for a short period of time. Recurrent nightmares may require medical help, as they can interfere with sleeping patterns and cause insomnia.

Nightmares can have physical causes such as sleeping in an uncomfortable position or having a fever, or psychological causes such as stress or anxiety. Eating before going to sleep, which triggers an increase in the body's metabolism and brain activity, can be a potential stimulus for nightmares.

The prevalence of nightmares in children (5–12 years old) is between 20 and 30%, and for adults between 8 and 30%. In common language, the meaning of nightmare has extended as a metaphor to many bad things, such as a bad situation or a scary monster or person.

Etymology
The word nightmare is derived from the Old English mare, a mythological demon or goblin who torments others with frightening dreams. The term has no connection with the Modern English word for a female horse. The word nightmare is cognate with the Dutch term nachtmerrie and German Nachtmahr (dated).

History and folklore
The sorcerous demons of Iranian mythology known as Divs are likewise associated with the ability to afflict their victims with nightmares. The mare of Germanic and Slavic folklore were thought to ride on people's chests while they sleep, causing nightmares.

Signs and symptoms
Those with nightmares experience abnormal sleep architecture. The impact of having a nightmare during the night has been found to be very similar to that of insomnia. This is thought to be caused by frequent nocturnal awakenings and fear of falling asleep. When awoken from REM sleep by a nightmare, the dreamer can usually recall the nightmare in detail. They may also awaken in a heightened state of distress, with an elevated heart rate or increased perspiration. Nightmare disorder symptoms include repeated awakenings from the major sleep period or naps with detailed recall of extended and extremely frightening dreams, usually involving threats to survival, security, or self-esteem. The awakenings generally occur during the second half of the sleep period.

Classification
According to the International Classification of Sleep Disorders-Third Edition (ICSD-3), the nightmare disorder, together with REM sleep behaviour disorder (RBD) and recurrent isolated sleep paralysis, form the REM-related parasomnias subcategory of the Parasomnias cluster. Nightmares may be idiopathic without any signs of psychopathology or associated with disorders like stress, anxiety, substance abuse, psychiatric illness or PTSD (>80% of PTSD patients report nightmares). As regarding the dream content of the dreams they are usually imprinting negative emotions like sadness, fear or rage. According to the clinical studies the content can include being chased, injury or death of others, falling, natural disasters or accidents. Typical dreams or recurrent dreams may also have some of these topics.

Cause
Scientific research shows that nightmares may have many causes. In a study focusing on children, researchers were able to conclude that nightmares directly correlate with the stress in children's lives. Children who experienced the death of a family member or a close friend or know someone with a chronic illness have more frequent nightmares than those who are only faced with stress from school or stress from social aspects of daily life. A study researching the causes of nightmares focuses on patients who have sleep apnea. The study was conducted to determine whether or not nightmares may be caused by sleep apnea, or being unable to breathe. In the nineteenth century, authors believed that nightmares were caused by not having enough oxygen, therefore it was believed that those with sleep apnea had more frequent nightmares than those without it. The results actually showed that healthy people have more nightmares than sleep apnea patients. Another study supports the hypothesis. In this study, 48 patients (aged 20–85 yrs) with obstructive airways disease (OAD), including 21 with and 27 without asthma, were compared with 149 sex- and age-matched controls without respiratory disease. OAD subjects with asthma reported approximately 3 times as many nightmares as controls or OAD subjects without asthma. The evolutionary purpose of nightmares then could be a mechanism to awaken a person who is in danger.

Lucid-dreaming advocate Stephen LaBerge has outlined a possible reason for how dreams are formulated and why nightmares occur. To LaBerge, a dream starts with an individual thought or scene, such as walking down a dimly lit street. Since dreams are not predetermined, the brain responds to the situation by either thinking a good thought or a bad thought, and the dream framework follows from there. If bad thoughts in a dream are more prominent than good thoughts, the dream may proceed to be a nightmare.

There is a view, possibly featured in the story A Christmas Carol, that eating cheese before sleep can cause nightmares, but there is little scientific evidence for this. A single, biased study conducted by the British Cheese Board in 2005 argued that consuming cheese could trigger more vivid dreams, but this study was not backed up with sufficient research, and contradicts existing studies which found that consuming dairy products is associated with better overall sleep quality.

Severe nightmares are also likely to occur when a person has a fever; these nightmares are often referred to as fever dreams.

Recent research has shown that frequent nightmares may precede the development of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's disease and dementia.

Treatment
Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung seemed to have shared a belief that people frequently distressed by nightmares could be re-experiencing some stressful event from the past. Both perspectives on dreams suggest that therapy can provide relief from the dilemma of the nightmarish experience.

Halliday (1987) grouped treatment techniques into four classes. Direct nightmare interventions that combine compatible techniques from one or more of these classes may enhance overall treatment effectiveness:

 * Analytic and cathartic techniques
 * Storyline alteration procedures
 * Face-and-conquer approaches
 * Desensitization and related behavioral techniques

Post-traumatic stress disorder
Recurring post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) nightmares in which traumas are re-experienced respond well to a technique called imagery rehearsal. This involves dreamers coming up with alternative, mastery outcomes to the nightmares, mentally rehearsing those outcomes while awake and then reminding themselves at bedtime that they wish these alternative outcomes should the nightmares recur. Research has found that this technique not only reduces the occurrence of nightmares and insomnia but also improves other daytime PTSD symptoms. The most common variations of imagery rehearsal therapy (IRT) "relate to the number of sessions, duration of treatment, and the degree to which exposure therapy is included in the protocol".

Medication

 * Prazosin (alpha-1 blocker) appears useful in decreasing the number of nightmares and the distress caused by them in people with PTSD.
 * Risperidone (atypical antipsychotic) at a dosage of 2 mg per day, has been shown in case series to remission of nightmares on the first night.
 * Trazodone (antidepressant) has been shown in a case report to treat nightmares associated with a depressed patient.

Trials have included hydrocortisone, gabapentin, paroxetine, tetrahydrocannabinol, eszopiclone, Sodium oxybate, and carvedilol.

title: Nightmare


text:
Talk:Catherine the Great

Opinion, lack of citation / sources
This entry is riddled with opinion and large sections of it have no underlying source material. Needs to be flagged as problematic and re-written 193.119.103.214 (talk) 00:20, 20 June 2022 (UTC)

Confusing sentence
I do not understand this sentence:

The global trade by Russian natural resources and Russian grain provoked famines, starvation and fear of famines in Russia.

Is this merely an error of preposition (e.g. by->of) or is there something missing (say, “The global trade by Catherine’s Trade Ministry of Russian natural resources” &c.)? 136.56.21.109 (talk) 23:30, 8 September 2022 (UTC)

Serfdom Section is Poorly written
The section on Catherine's policy toward Serfs reads like a bad high school history essay, or something translated by Google from another language. Its repetitive, overly wordy and yet somehow still unclear. Three consecutive sentences begin with the word "however." Its unclear what the passage means when it discusses the serfs wanting to replace Catherine with the "true" empress, and contradictory in that it begins saying that serfs viewed her positively then ends by saying she was viewed negatively. 2603:7000:8303:E89B:9925:C36B:90A6:FD64 (talk) 03:31, 1 August 2023 (UTC)

Ballet in Arts and Culture
This sentence (citation 86) is poorly written: It entered into a contract with the Italian teacher-choreographer Filippo Becari, who must was “the most capable of dancing” children to learn “to dance with all possible precision and to show themselves publicly in all pantomime ballets”. 89.240.42.140 (talk) 22:22, 9 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Catherine the Great


text:
Nadsat

Nadsat is a fictional register or argot used by the teenage gang members in Anthony Burgess's dystopian novel A Clockwork Orange. Burgess was a linguist and he used this background to depict his characters as speaking a form of Russian-influenced English. The name comes from the Russian suffix equivalent of -teen as in thirteen (-надцать, -nad·tsat). Nadsat was also used in Stanley Kubrick's film adaptation of the book.

Description
Nadsat is a mode of speech used by the nadsat, members of the teen subculture in the novel A Clockwork Orange. The narrator and protagonist of the book, Alex, uses it in first-person style to relate the story to the reader. He also uses it to communicate with other characters in the novel, such as his droogs , parents, victims and any authority-figures with whom he comes in contact. As with many speakers of non-standard varieties of English, Alex is capable of speaking standard English when he wants to. It is not a written language: the sense that readers get is of a transcription of vernacular speech.

Nadsat is English with some borrowed words from Russian. It also contains influences from Cockney rhyming slang, the King James Bible, German, some words of unclear origin and some that Burgess invented. The word nadsat is the suffix of Russian numerals from 11 to 19 (-надцать). The suffix is an almost exact linguistic parallel to the English -teen and is derived from на, meaning 'on' and a shortened form of десять, the number ten. Droog is derived from the Welsh word drwg, meaning 'bad', 'naughty' or 'evil' and the Russian word друг, meaning a 'close friend'. Some of the words are almost childish plays on English words, such as eggiweg ('egg') and appy polly loggy ('apology'), as well as regular English slang sod and snuff it. The word like and the expression the old are often used as fillers or discourse markers.

The original 1991 translation of Burgess's book into Russian solved the problem of how to illustrate the Nadsat words by using transliterated, slang English words in places where Burgess had used Russian ones –for example, droogs became фрэнды. Borrowed English words with Russian inflection were widely used in Russian slang, especially among Russian hippies in the 1970s–1980s.

Function
Burgess was a polyglot who loved language in all its forms. However, he realized that if he used contemporary slang, the novel would very quickly become dated, owing to the way in which teenage language is constantly changing. He was therefore forced to invent his own vocabulary, and to set the book in an imaginary future. Burgess was later to point out that, ironically, some of the Nadsat words in the book had been appropriated by American teenagers, "and thus shoved [his] future into the discardable past." His use of Nadsat was pragmatic; he needed his narrator to have a unique voice that would remain ageless, while reinforcing Alex's indifference to his society's norms, and to suggest that youth subculture was independent from the rest of society. In A Clockwork Orange, Alex's interrogators describe the source of his argot as "subliminal penetration".

Russian influences
Russian influences play the biggest role in Nadsat. Most of those Russian-influenced words are slightly anglicized loan-words, often maintaining the original Russian pronunciation. One example is the Russian word lyudi, which is anglicized to lewdies, meaning 'people'. Another Russian word is bábushka which is anglicized to baboochka, meaning 'grandmother', 'old woman'. Some of the anglicised words are truncated, for example pony from ponimát’, 'to understand', or otherwise shortened, for example veck from čelovék, 'person, man' (though the anglicized word chelloveck is also used in the book).

A further means of constructing Nadsat words is the employment of homophones (known as folk etymology). For example, one Nadsat term which may seem like an English composition, horrorshow, actually stems from the Russian word for 'good'; khorosho, which sounds similar to horrorshow. In this same manner many of the Russian loan-words become an English–Russian hybrid, with Russian origins, and English spellings and pronunciations. A further example is the Russian word for 'head', golová, which sounds similar to Gulliver known from Gulliver’s Travels; Gulliver became the Nadsat expression for the concept 'head'.

Many of Burgess's loanwords, such as devotchka ('girl') and droog ('friend') maintain both their relative spelling and meaning over the course of translation.

Other influences
Additional words were borrowed from other languages: A (possibly Saudi-owned) hotel was named 'Al Idayyin, an Arabic-sounding variant on "Holiday Inn" Hotel chain, while also alluding to the name Aladdin.

Word derivation by common techniques
Nadsat's English slang is constructed with common language-formation techniques. Some words are blended, others clipped or compounded. In Nadsat language a 'fit of laughter' becomes a guff (shortened version of guffawing); a 'skeleton key' becomes a polyclef ('many keys'); and the 'state jail' is blended to the staja, which has the double entendre stager, so that its prisoners got there by a staged act of corruption, as revenge by the state, an interpretation that would fit smoothly into the storyline. Many common English slang terms are simply shortened. A cancer stick, which is (or was) a common English-slang expression for a cigarette, is shortened to a cancer.

Rhyming slang
This feature of Nadsat is derived from Cockney. The language was also used in the film made by Kubrick.
 * Charlie = 'chaplain': Chaplain and Chaplin (from Charlie Chaplin) are homophones. Using the principles of rhyming slang Burgess uses Charlie Chaplin as a synonym for 'chaplain' and shortens it to Charlie.
 * Cutter = 'money': Cutter rhymes with bread and butter, a wilful alteration of bread and honey 'money'.
 * Pretty polly = 'money': Another colloquial expression used to describe the concept 'money' is lolly. Lolly rhymes with pretty polly, which is the name of an English folk song and in the world of A Clockwork Orange becomes a new expression for 'money'.
 * Hound-and-horny = 'corny'
 * Twenty to one = 'fun': Fun means 'gang violence' in the context of the story.

General bibliography

 * Aggeler, Geoffrey. "Pelagius and Augustine in the novels of Anthony Burgess". English Studies 55 (1974): 43–55..
 * Burgess, Anthony (1990). You've Had Your Time: Being the Second Part of the Confessions of Anthony Burgess. New York: Grove Weidenfeld. ISBN 978-0-8021-1405-1..
 * Gladsky, Rita K. "Schema Theory and Literary Texts: Anthony Burgess' Nadsat. Language Quarterly 30:1–2 (Winter–Spring 1992): 39–46.

title: Nadsat


text:
Atbash

Atbash (אתבש; also transliterated Atbaš) is a monoalphabetic substitution cipher originally used to encrypt the Hebrew alphabet. It can be modified for use with any known writing system with a standard collating order.

Encryption
The Atbash cipher is a particular type of monoalphabetic cipher formed by taking the alphabet (or abjad, syllabary, etc.) and mapping it to its reverse, so that the first letter becomes the last letter, the second letter becomes the second to last letter, and so on. For example, the Latin alphabet would work like this:

Due to the fact that there is only one way to perform this, the Atbash cipher provides no communications security, as it lacks any sort of key. If multiple collating orders are available, which one was used in encryption can be used as a key, but this does not provide significantly more security, considering that only a few letters can give away which one was used.

History
The name derives from the first, last, second, and second to last Hebrew letters (Aleph–Taw–Bet–Shin).

The Atbash cipher for the modern Hebrew alphabet would be:

By shifting the correlation one space to the left or the right, one may derive a variant Batgash (named for Bet–Taw–Gimel–Shin) or Ashbar (for Aleph–Shin–Bet–Reish). Either alternative mapping leaves one letter unsubstituted; respectively Aleph and Taw.

In the Bible
Several biblical words are described by commentators as being examples of Atbash: Regarding a potential Atbash switch of a single letter:
 * Jeremiah 25:26 – "The king of Sheshach shall drink after them" – Sheshach meaning Babylon in Atbash ( bbl → ššk).
 * Jeremiah 51:1 – "Behold, I will raise up against Babylon, and against the inhabitants of Lev-kamai, a destroying wind." – Lev-kamai meaning Chaldeans ( kśdym → lbqmy).
 * Jeremiah 51:41 – "How has Sheshach been captured! and the praise of the whole earth taken! How has Babylon become a curse among the nations!" – Sheshach meaning Babylon ( bbl → ššk).
 * - "Any place I will mention My name" → "Any place you will mention My name"  (a → t), according to Yom Tov Asevilli

Relationship to the affine cipher
The Atbash cipher can be seen as a special case of the affine cipher.

Under the standard affine convention, an alphabet of m letters is mapped to the numbers 0, 1, ..., m − 1. (The Hebrew alphabet has m = 22, and the standard Latin alphabet has m = 26). The Atbash cipher may then be enciphered and deciphered using the encryption function for an affine cipher by setting a = b = (m − 1):

 * $$\mathrm{E}(x) = \mathrm{D}(x) = \big((m - 1) x + (m - 1)\big) \bmod m.$$

This may be simplified to

\begin{align} \mathrm{E}(x) &= (m - 1)(x + 1) \bmod m \\ &= -(x + 1) \bmod m. \end{align} $$

If, instead, the m letters of the alphabet are mapped to 1, 2, ..., m, then the encryption and decryption function for the Atbash cipher becomes
 * $$\mathrm{E}(x) = (-x \bmod m) + 1.$$

title: Atbash


text:
Encaustic

Encaustic may refer to:

 * Encaustic painting, using a wax medium, or a different technique in English pottery
 * Encaustic tile, with inlaid clay to form polychrome patterns

title: Encaustic


text:
Encaustic painting

Encaustic painting, also known as hot wax painting, is a form of painting that involves a heated wax medium to which colored pigments have been added. The molten mix is applied to a surface—usually prepared wood, though canvas and other materials are sometimes used. The simplest encaustic medium could be made by adding pigments to wax, though recipes most commonly consist of beeswax and damar resin, potentially with other ingredients. For pigmentation, dried powdered pigments can be used, though some artists use pigmented wax, inks, oil paints or other forms of pigmentation.

Metal tools and special brushes can be used to shape the medium as it cools. Also, heated metal tools, including spatulas, knives and scrapers, can be used to manipulate the medium after it has cooled onto the surface. Additionally, heat lamps, torches, heat guns, and other methods of applying heat are used by encaustic artists to fuse and bind the medium. Because encaustic medium is thermally malleable, the medium can be also sculpted. And/or, materials can be encased, collaged or layered into the medium.

A completely unrelated type of "encaustic painting", not involving wax at all, is found in British ceramics, after Josiah Wedgwood devised and patented the technique in 1769. This was a mixture of ceramic slip and overglaze "enamel" paints used to imitate ancient Greek vase painting, and given a light second firing. Usually the vessel was black and painted in the red of red-figure painting. The technique was copied by other British potteries. Encaustic tiles are not painted at all, but effectively inlaid with contrasting colours of clay for a polychrome pattern.

History

The word encaustic originates from ἐγκαυστικός, which means "burning in", from ἐν en, "in" and καίειν kaiein, "to burn", and this element of heat is necessary for a painting to be called encaustic. Encaustice or Encaustike (ἐγκαυστική) was the art of painting by burning in the colours.

The wax encaustic painting technique was described by the Roman scholar Pliny the Elder in his Natural History from the 1st Century AD. The oldest surviving encaustic panel paintings are the Romano-Egyptian Fayum mummy portraits from Egypt, around 100–300 AD, but it was a very common technique in ancient Greek and Roman painting. It continued to be used in early Byzantine icons but was effectively abandoned in the Western Church.

Kut-kut, a lost art of the Philippines, employs sgraffito and encaustic techniques. It was practiced by the indigenous tribe of Samar island around 1600 to 1800. Artists in the Mexican muralism movement, such as Diego Rivera, Fernando Leal (artist) and Jean Charlot sometimes used encaustic painting. The Belgian artist James Ensor also experimented with encaustic.

In the 20th century, painter Fritz Faiss (1905–1981), a student of Paul Klee and Wassily Kandinsky at the Bauhaus, together with Dr. Hans Schmid, rediscovered the so-called Punic wax technique of encaustic painting. Faiss held two German patents related to the preparation of waxes for encaustic painting. One covered a method for treating beeswax so that its melting point was raised from 60 to 100 C. This occurred after boiling the wax in a solution of sea water and soda three successive times. The resulting harder wax is the same as the Punic wax referred to in ancient Greek writings on encaustic painting. Other 20th-century North American artists, including Jasper Johns, Tony Scherman, Mark Perlman, John Shaw and Fernando Leal Audirac, have used encaustic techniques.

Encaustic art has seen a resurgence in popularity since the 1990s, with artists using electric irons, hotplates and heated styli on different surfaces, including card, paper, and even pottery. The iron makes producing a variety of artistic patterns easier. The medium is not limited to just simple designs; it can also be used to create complex paintings, just as in other media such as oil and acrylic. Although technically difficult to master, attractions of this medium for contemporary artists are its dimensional quality and luminous color.

Encaustic painters
Artists specializing in encaustic painting include the following:
 * Fernando Leal Audirac
 * Benjamin Calau
 * Rodney Carswell
 * Pedro Cuni-Bravo
 * Michael David
 * Christel Dillbohner
 * Thomas Dodd
 * Betsy Eby
 * Fritz Faiss
 * Esther Geller
 * Heraclides
 * Jasper Johns
 * John K. Lawson
 * Bridgette Meinhold
 * Pausias
 * Michele Ridolfi
 * Jenny Sages
 * Tony Scherman
 * Janise Yntema
 * Karl Zerbe
 * Amanta Scott

title: Encaustic painting