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Polokwane

Polokwane (, meaning "Sanctuary" in Northern Sotho ), also known as Pietersburg, is the capital city of the Limpopo Province in South Africa. It is the country's largest urban centre north of Gauteng. It was one of the nine host cities of the 2010 FIFA World Cup.

Early history
In the 1840s, Voortrekkers under the leadership of Andries Hendrik Potgieter established Zoutpansbergdorp, a town 100 km to the north. This settlement had to be abandoned because of clashes with the local tribes (Lebelo, Langa & Ledwaba clans), they founded a new town in 1886 and named it "Pietersburg" in honour of Voortrekker leader Petrus Jacobus Joubert. A small number of Indian/Asian and coloured people settled into the region before the end of the 19th century. It was the capital of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State for a short time in 1900 at the time of the Second Boer War from 1899 to 1902. The British occupied Pietersburg in 1901 and built a concentration camp to incarcerate almost 4,000 Boer women and children.

Years of apartheid
Like many places in South Africa at the time of apartheid, racial segregation and inequality were fundamentally ingrained into the town, following the end of the Second Boer War, together with the formation of the Union of South Africa in 1910, institutional laws were in place in terms of divided urban planning which were implemented continuously throughout this era. The commencement of apartheid in 1948 meant that Pietersburg was clearly segregated in both residential regions and for business ventures.

The institutionalization of the notorious Group Areas Act in 1950 and its amendments in 1966 ensured that the spatial development of the Central Business District (CBD) was exclusively for whites and other regions of the CBD being exclusively for other races such as "Indian centre" for Indians/Asians, many regions were designated to only a specific race of people such as the suburbs of Nirvana and Westernburg at the northwest of the town only being occupied by Indian/Asian and Coloured groups respectively, while the suburb of Bendor being reserved for Whites. The townships of Seshego and Mankweng were occupied by the Black population. Removals of minority groups for white residency, whites-only owned industrial sectors and a regular barrier between people of different races were heavily enforced.

Since 1994
The town officially became a city on 23 April 1992 and on 27 April 1994, it became the capital of the newly formed Northern Transvaal province (Later changed to "Northern province" and thereafter Limpopo) following the 1994 South African general elections. On 25 February 2005, the government declared the official name of the city as Polokwane, a name that was generally in use by the speakers of Northern Sotho (Sepedi). The city was host to the 52nd national conference of the African National Congress, held in December 2007 at the University of Limpopo and saw Jacob Zuma voted as President of the ANC, beating former president Thabo Mbeki.

Today the city of Polokwane has seen respectable development in terms of its infrastructure and services as provides a wide variety of shopping venues and malls, restaurants, entertainment venues, religious venues, civic halls, as well as modern housing developments and office buildings.

Political Governance
The Polokwane Municipality is run by the African National Congress (ANC) with a 60% majority obtained in the latest 2021 Municipal Elections. In a by-election held on 24 April 2024, Ward 10 was won by ANC councillor candidate Willie Madikoto after the arrest and resignation of the previous Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF) councillor Jacob Seshokadue due to alleged theft of firearms.

Ailing Infrastructure and Poor Service Delivery
Despite the number developments the city has seen, it has been plagued with persistent issues of poor service delivery, which has led to crucial infrastructure such as electricity, water, and sewage systems to continuously be sought after in the various communities that are constantly effected by their unavailability. Public infrastructure such as traffic and street lights, roads, and sidewalks are also amongst the many problems the city's municipality faces.

Demographics
The population in 2011 was about 130,000. Roughly 45.9% of people in the city are Sepedi (Northern Sotho) speakers. A large portion of the white population are Afrikaners, and roughly 10,000 residents (roughly 8%) are English-speaking whites who are primarily South Africans of British descent and White Zimbabweans, the latter of whom primarily moved to the area since 2000. Roughly 6.7% of people are Venda people.

Districts/suburbs/townships
Some suburbs in the city include Nirvana, Westenburg, Bendor, Welgelegen, Moregloed, Annadale, Ivydale, Flora Park, Fauna Park, Greenside, Penina Park, Ivy Park, Hospital Park, Ster Park, Dalmada, Broadlands, Woodlands, Southern Gateway and Thornhill.

Besides the above-mentioned suburbs in the city, three clusters of suburbs around the city also exist:

 * The Seshego cluster - on the north-west outskirts of the city.
 * Molepo/Maja/Chuene cluster - 20 km south of the city centre.
 * Mankweng/Sebayeng/Dikgale cluster - 30 km east of the city centre.

Climate
The city features a semiarid climate under the Köppen climate classification. Despite its position on the Tropic of Capricorn, the climate is tempered by its position on a plateau 1230 m above sea level. Average temperatures reach around 21 - 22 C in January and fall to 11 C in July. As with much of inland South Africa, Polokwane has experienced notably warmer seasons over the last decade than its long-term average. The city has a dry climate with a summer rainy season and a pronounced dry spell during winter. Average annual rainfall is 495 mm, with December or (less often) January the wettest month and July the driest.

Roads
The city lies roughly halfway between Gauteng (300 km) and the Zimbabwean border (200 km) on the N1 highway, which connects Zimbabwe with the major cities of South Africa, such as Pretoria, Johannesburg, Bloemfontein, and Cape Town.

The R37 provincial route connects the city with Mbombela. Running east, the R71 connects the city with Tzaneen, Phalaborwa, Bushbuckridge, and the Kruger National Park. To north-east, is the R81 connecting the city with Giyani and Malamulele. The R521 connects the city with Alldays and the R567 via Seshego connects Polokwane with the N11. The R71 is also well known to bikers who ride through the city annually, making it the biggest bike meeting in Africa.

The Nelson Mandela road traffic island is situated on the outskirts of Polokwane when approaching from the direction of Johannesburg. It was built prior to the 2010 FIFA World Cup as part of beautifying the city for the event.

A number of private bus services run in the city and also services connect Polokwane to other major centres in the country.

Air
The city is served by two airports. A public airport, the Polokwane International Airport, which is to the north of the city, while the smaller Pietersburg Civil Aerodrome  is at the south-east of the city.

Railways
The city is connected to Johannesburg and other major centres by rail. Agricultural produce in the area, including tomatoes, citrus fruit, sugar cane, peanuts, tea, bananas, and avocados, is also transported by freight rail.

Media
The South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) has a branch in the city. The city also hosts a branch of the country's largest independent radio station, Jacaranda RM/FM, which is broadcast from either Pretoria, Nelspruit or Polokwane itself.

The first commercial radio station in Limpopo, CapricornFM, broadcasts from the city. Two additional radio stations are also situated in Polokwane. These include Energy FM and Munghana Lonene FM.

The city has a selection of locally distributed newspapers. Two notable newspapers include The Review and The Polokwane Observer.

Gambling
The Sun International casino and hotel is in the city. Meropa Casino and Entertainment World is a Moroccan-style, 24-hour casino with various outdoor entertainment amenities such as go-karts, minigolf, and a wildlife park.

Museums, monuments and memorials

 * The Bakone Malapa Northern Sotho Open-Air Museum — Depicts the traditional and modern-day lifestyle of the Bakone people. The museum is centred on a traditional village still occupied by members of the tribe, who sell various crafts to tourists. Background information can be obtained in the visitor centre. Within the museum complex are archaeological sites with remains of iron- and copper-smelting installations, as well as rock paintings from around 1000 B.C.
 * Eersteling Monuments — The site of the country's first gold crushing site and its first gold power plant are marked by monuments.
 * The Irish House — Historic building which functions as a museum.

Places of worship
The largest Christian gathering in South Africa happens twice a year at Zion City, Moria near Polokwane at Easter and again for the September end of year festival. The Zion Christian Church's headquarters are at Zion City Moria, which is about 25 kilometres east of the city. Moria is the seat of the Zion Christian church - an entirely black denomination with about 16 million members formed in 1910 by Engenas Lekganyane - an indigenous church to Africa that is one of the churches not established by evangelists from abroad.

The Star of David is the symbol of the ZCC and the two congregations that make up the church are today led by the grandsons of its founder - Barnabas Lekganyane and Saint Engenas Lekganyane. The ZCC is characterised by the emphasis it places on faith healing, purification rites, dancing, night communion, river baptism, the holy spirit, taboos and prophesying.

The ZCC has members in every country in Africa, and in most countries of the Middle East.

Synagogues
The first Jewish settlers in Pietersburg arrived between 1890 and 1900 from Lithuania, Russia, and Latvia, and the Pietersburg Hebrew Congregation was founded in 1897. A synagogue was built on Jorissen Street in 1921. The Jewish community grew rapidly in the 1930s and 1940s; a larger synagogue was built in 1953 and the old synagogue was then converted into a communal hall. The number of Jews in Pietersburg began to decline from the late 1950s. In 2003, as the congregation had dwindled, the synagogue was closed and its benches, bimah, and other contents were shipped to Israel, where they were installed in the Mevasser Synagogue in Tel Mond in memory of the Pietersburg synagogue.

Football
Polokwane City, Baroka, and Marumo Gallants are football clubs based in the city.

Golf
The Pietersburg Golf Club along with the golf course was established in the late 1800s. The course comprises a full 18 holes. Retief Goosen (born 3 February 1969) was born in Pietersburg and honed his skills at the Pietersburg Golf Club.

Cricket
The Polokwane Cricket Club is one of the oldest in the country and was established in 1902. The first-class Limpopo cricket team are based in Polokwane at the Polokwane Cricket Club Ground.

The city's suburb of Nirvana also holds an annual cricket competition called the "Nirvana Premier Leauge" in which teams from all around the city and the province take part in.

Netball
The Limpopo Baobabs represents the city as well as the province of Limpopo in the Netball League. South African goal shooter Lenize Potgieter was also born in Polokwane.

Rugby
Noordelikes Rugby Club is an amateur rugby club based in the city.

From 2013 to 2015, the city hosted a provincial team, the Limpopo Blue Bulls, in the Vodacom Cup, as a feeder team to the Blue Bulls of Pretoria. The team broke several unwanted records, including the biggest first class loss in South African rugby history, when they lost 161–3 to the on 27 April 2013.

Springbok rugby captain, Victor Matfield grew up in Pietersburg. Former Springbok rugby captain John Smit was born in Pietersburg.

Swimming
The city has a number of swimming clubs. Former Olympic gold-medalist and world-record swimmer Lyndon Ferns is from the city.

Tennis
A large tennis club is situated in the city, and various local tournaments are held regularly.

Baseball
In 2017, Gift Ngoepe, born in Pietersburg, became the first African player in the Major League Baseball, playing shortstop and second base for the Pittsburgh Pirates. Ngoepe's mother Maureen managed the baseball clubhouse in Randburg, near Johannesburg. Ngoepe's brother Victor also plays in the Pirates' farm system

Stadiums

 * Peter Mokaba Stadium, constructed for the 2010 FIFA World Cup
 * Pietersburg Stadium

Tourism
The city provides access to various nature and wildlife viewing opportunities for ecotourists. The Polokwane Bird and Reptile Park is home to over 280 species of birds. The Polokwane Game Reserve houses various South African species of wildlife, birdlife, and plants in an unspoiled bushveld environment. The Moletzie Bird Sanctuary protects rare birds like the Cape vulture. The Modjadji Rainforest near Duiwelskloof holds the largest concentration of indigenous cycads in the world, and Cheune Crocodile Farm provides a place to learn about the life of crocodiles.

An extensive art collection is preserved in the city's art gallery, open to the public. The city has more public sculptures per capita in its parks than elsewhere in South Africa. It was also the first city to unveil a bust of the ex-president Nelson Mandela in its City Square (Civic Gardens), and it was authorised by Nelson Mandela personally.

The city is considered the premier hunting destination in South Africa.

Commerce
The city hosts several major industries such as Coca-Cola, Freshmark (a division of Shoprite Checkers), and South African Breweries. As the capital of the Limpopo province, the city also has a large commercial area with the four largest banks in the country all having at least three branches in the city. The city was well known for its manufacturing facility in Seshego of Tempest radios and hi-fis, the largest employer in the region.

Primary and Secondary education
The city has quite a number of Primary and Secondary schools, ranging from public schools to Upper-class private schools.

Some primary schools include

 * Noordskool Primary school
 * Elica Primary School
 * Laerskool Polokwane
 * Nirvana Primary School
 * Northern Academy Primary School

Some secondary schools include

 * Hoerskool Pietersburg
 * Taxila Secondary School
 * Curo Heuwelkruin High School
 * Capricorn High School
 * Northern Academy Secondary School
 * Westernburg Secondary School
 * Northern Muslim School

Tertiary education
The Tshwane University of Technology, Capricorn TVET College, and the University of South Africa have satellite campuses in the city. The University of Limpopo's Turfloop campus is situated about 30 km east of Polokwane.

Malls

 * Mall of the North
 * Savannah Mall

Shopping venues and centres

 * Cycad Centre
 * The Greenery

Sister cities
Polokwane is a sister city with:

 * 🇮🇹 Reggio Emilia, Italy
 * 🇿🇼 Bulawayo, Zimbabwe

Notable people

 * Lyndon Ferns, Olympic gold-medalist and former world record swimmer
 * Sylvia Glasser, choreographer
 * Retief Goosen, professional golfer who was in the top ten in the Official World Golf Ranking for over 250 weeks between 2001 and 2007
 * Lucas Malan, Afrikaans academic and poet
 * Julius Malema, leader of the Economic Freedom Fighters and former ANC Youth League president
 * Isaac Lesiba Maphotho, anti-apartheid activist, African National Congress (ANC) member and Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) veteran
 * Victor Matfield, former South African national rugby team captain
 * Peter Mokaba, controversial anti-apartheid activist
 * Mvzzle, DJ and record producer known for producing "Umlilo" by DJ Zinhle
 * Gift Ngoepe, professional baseball player
 * Tlou Segolela, professional football player
 * Caster Semenya, middle-distance runner and world champion
 * John Smit, former South African national rugby team captain
 * Marthinus van Schalkwyk, former Minister of Tourism in the Cabinet of South Africa
 * Frederik van Zyl Slabbert, political analyst, businessman and politician

Municipal (1)
By 1931, the Pietersburg municipal council had assumed a pseudo-heraldic "coat of arms". The shield depicted a crossed pick and shovel, two crossed wheatsheaves, and the date 1904 surrounded by a rib and bearing the motto Labor omnia vincit. The crest was an ostrich.

Municipal (2)
A proper coat of arms was designed in the 1960s. It was registered with the Transvaal Provincial Administration in August 1967 and at the Bureau of Heraldry in September 1969.

The arms were : Azure, on a fess Argent, between in chief a lion passant Argent, armed and langued Gules, and in base two chevrons humette, and a horseshoe Argent, placed 2 and 1, two cogwheels Gules. In layman's terms, this was a blue shield displaying, from top to bottom, a silver lion with red tongue and claws, a silver stripe bearing two red cogwheels, and two silver chevrons and a horseshoe.

The crest was a golden eagle, and the motto, once again, was Labor omnia vincit.

Municipal (3)
The Pietersburg municipal council registered a new coat of arms at the Bureau in October 2003.

The arms are: Vert, on a fess Argent, a woven grain basket, between two hoes with blades turned inward proper, their handles towards centre-base counterchanged Or and issuant from a voided cogwheel the inner ring cotised Argent, therein a sun Or; on a chief of the last a short-clawed Lark (Mirafra chuana) perched upon a leaf of the silky thorn tree (Acacia rehmanniana) proper, between two demi-peaks with points embattled Brunatre, issuant from the respective shield flanks. In layman's terms, the shield depicts, from top to bottom, (1) a short-clawed lark perched on an acacia leaf between two stylised peaks, (2) a woven grain basket between two hoes on a silver background, and (3) a silver cogwheel on a green background.

Above the shield is a brown rustic crown. The motto is Unity - Equity - Progress - Prosperity.

title: Polokwane


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Bourbon whiskey

Bourbon whiskey (or simply bourbon) is a type of barrel-aged American whiskey made primarily from corn (maize). The name derives from the French House of Bourbon, although the precise source of inspiration is uncertain; contenders include Bourbon County, Kentucky, and Bourbon Street in New Orleans, both of which are named after the House of Bourbon. The name bourbon might not have been used until the 1850s, and the association with Bourbon County was not evident until the 1870s.

Bourbon has been distilled since the 18th century. Although bourbon may be made anywhere in the United States, it is strongly associated with the Southern United States in general, and with Kentucky in particular; however, there is a common misconception that bourbon can only be distilled in Kentucky. , distillers' wholesale market revenue for bourbon sold within the U.S. was about $2.7 billion, and bourbon made up about two thirds of the $1.6 billion of U.S. exports of distilled spirits. According to the Distilled Spirits Council of the United States, in 2018 U.S. distillers derived $3.6 billion in revenue from bourbon and Tennessee whiskey (a closely related spirit produced in the state of Tennessee).

Bourbon was recognized in 1964 by the U.S. Congress as a "distinctive product of the United States". Bourbon sold in the U.S. must be produced within the U.S. from at least 51% corn and stored in a new container of charred oak.

History
Distilling was most likely brought to present-day Kentucky in the late 18th century by Scots, Scots-Irish, and other settlers (including English, Irish, Welsh, German, and French) who began to farm the area in earnest. The origin of bourbon as a distinct form of whiskey is not well documented and there are many conflicting legends and claims.

For example, the invention of bourbon is often attributed to Elijah Craig, a Baptist minister and distiller credited with many Kentucky firsts (e.g., fulling mill, paper mill, ropewalk) who is said to have been the first to age the product in charred oak casks, a process that gives bourbon its brownish color and distinctive taste. In Bourbon County, across the county line from Craig's distillery in what was then Fayette County, an early distiller named Jacob Spears has been named as the first to label his product as Bourbon whiskey. Although still popular and often repeated, the Craig legend is apocryphal. Similarly, the Spears story is a local favorite but is rarely repeated outside the county. There likely was no single "inventor" of bourbon, which developed into its present form in the late 19th century. Essentially, any type of grain can be used to make whiskey, and the practice of aging whiskey and charring the barrels for better flavor had been known in Europe for centuries. The late date of the Bourbon County etymology has led historian Michael Veach to dispute its authenticity. He proposes the whiskey was named after Bourbon Street in New Orleans, a major port where shipments of Kentucky whiskey sold well as a cheaper alternative to French cognac.

Another proposed origin of the name is the association with the geographic area known as Old Bourbon, consisting of the original Bourbon County in Virginia organized in 1785. This region included much of today's Eastern Kentucky, including 34 of the modern counties. It included the current Bourbon County in Kentucky, which became a county when Kentucky separated from Virginia as a new state in 1792. Numerous newspaper articles reference whiskey from Bourbon County, Kentucky dating as far back as 1824. According to the whiskey writer Charles K. Cowdery,

"When American pioneers pushed west of the Allegheny Mountains following the American Revolution, the first counties they founded covered vast regions. One of these original, huge counties was Bourbon, established in 1785 and named after the French royal family. While this vast county was being carved into many smaller ones, early in the 19th century, many people continued to call the region Old Bourbon. Located within Old Bourbon was the principal port on the Ohio River, Maysville, Kentucky, from which whiskey and other products were shipped. 'Old Bourbon' was stencilled on the barrels to indicate their port of origin. Old Bourbon whiskey was different because it was the first corn whiskey most people had ever tasted. In time, bourbon became the name for any corn-based whiskey."

A refinement often dubiously credited to James C. Crow is the sour mash process, which conditions each new fermentation with some amount of spent mash. Spent mash is also known as spent beer, distillers' spent grain, stillage, and slop or feed mash, so named because it is used as animal feed. The acid introduced when using the sour mash controls the growth of bacteria that could taint the whiskey and creates a proper pH balance for the yeast to work.

Although many distilleries operated in Bourbon County historically, no distilleries operated there between 1919, when Prohibition began in Kentucky, and late 2014, when a small distillery opened – a period of 95 years. Prohibition devastated the bourbon industry. With the ratification of the 18th amendment in 1919, all distilleries were forced to stop operating. Six companies were granted permits to bottle medicinal whiskey from existing stocks: A. Ph. Stitzel Distillery (later called the Stitzel–Weller Distillery), American Medicinal Spirits (producer of Old Crow and Old Grand-Dad, sold in 1929 to National Distillers, now owned by Beam Suntory), Brown-Forman (still a current major producer), Frankfort Distillery (including the George T. Stagg distillery now called the Buffalo Trace Distillery and owned by Sazerac), James Thompson and Brothers (later called Glenmore Distillery, now owned by Sazerac), and Schenley Distillery (now owned by Guinness). Prescriptions were required to buy medicinal whiskey. In 1928 or 1929 when stocks ran out, there was a 100-day "distillers' holiday" to replenish the medicinal stock.

After the end of Prohibition at the federal level in late 1933, it continued in various places at the state, county and local level, and liquor sales are still prohibited or restricted in many jurisdictions in Kentucky, the primary bourbon-producing state (and in Tennessee as well, where Tennessee whiskey is made).

Production was shut down completely again in 1941 to reserve production capacity for making industrial alcohol during World War II.

A concurrent resolution adopted by the United States Congress in 1964 declared bourbon to be a "distinctive product of the United States" and asked "the appropriate agencies of the United States Government ... [to] take appropriate action to prohibit importation into the United States of whiskey designated as 'Bourbon Whiskey'." A U.S. federal regulation now restricts the definition of bourbon for whiskey to only include spirits produced in the U.S.

In recent years, bourbon and Tennessee whiskey, which is sometimes regarded as a different type of spirit but generally meets the legal requirements to be called bourbon, have enjoyed significant growth in popularity. The industry trade group Distilled Spirits Council of the United States (DISCUS) tracks sales of bourbon and Tennessee whiskey together.

According to DISCUS, during 2009–2014, the volume of 9-liter cases of whiskey increased by 28.5% overall. Higher-end bourbon and whiskeys experienced the greatest growth. Gross supplier revenues (including federal excise tax) for U.S. bourbon and Tennessee whiskey increased by 46.7% over the 2009–2014 period, with the greatest growth coming from high-end products. In 2014, more than 19 million nine-liter cases of bourbon and Tennessee whiskey were sold in the U.S., generating almost $2.7 billion in wholesale distillery revenue. U.S. exports of bourbon whiskey surpassed $1 billion for the first time in 2013; distillers hailed the rise of a "golden age of Kentucky bourbon" and predicted further growth. In 2014, it was estimated that U.S. bourbon whiskey exports surpassed $1 billion, making up the majority of the U.S. total of $1.6 billion in spirits exports. Major export markets for U.S. spirits are, in descending order: Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, and France. The largest percentage increases in U.S. exports were, in descending order: Brazil, the Dominican Republic, Bahamas, Israel, and United Arab Emirates. Key elements of growth in the markets showing the largest increases have been changes of law, trade agreements, and reductions of tariffs, as well as increased consumer demand for premium-category spirits.

Legal requirements
Bourbon's legal definition varies somewhat from country to country, but many trade agreements require that the name "bourbon" be reserved for products made in the U.S. The U.S. regulations for labeling and advertising bourbon apply only to products made for consumption within the U.S.; they do not apply to distilled spirits made for export. Canadian law requires products labeled bourbon to be made in the U.S. and also to conform to the requirements that apply within the U.S. The European Union also requires bourbon to be made in the U.S. following the law of the country. However, in other countries, products labeled bourbon may not adhere to the same standards. For example, U.S.-produced products with somewhat lower alcohol content than the level required in the United States can be sold in Australia as bourbon, with Cougar Bourbon being an example of an export-only brand produced in the U.S. for the Australia market.

The Federal Standards of Identity for Distilled Spirits, codified under 27 CFR §5 Subpart I states that bourbon made for U.S. consumption must be:

 * Produced in the U.S. (which includes the 50 states, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico)
 * Made from a grain mixture that is at least 51% corn
 * Aged in new, charred oak containers
 * Distilled to no more than 160 (U.S.) proof (80% alcohol by volume)
 * Entered into the container for aging at no more than 125 proof (62.5% alcohol by volume)
 * Bottled (like other whiskeys) at 80 proof or more (40% alcohol by volume)

Bourbon has no minimum specified duration for its aging period. Products aged for as little as three months are sold as bourbon. The exception is straight bourbon, which has a minimum aging requirement of two years. In addition, any bourbon aged less than four years must include an age statement on its label.

Bourbon that meets the above requirements, has been aged for a minimum of two years, and does not have added coloring, flavoring, or other spirits may be – but is not required to be – called straight bourbon.
 * Bourbon that has been aged less than four years must be labeled with the duration of its aging.
 * Bourbon that has an age stated on its label must be labeled with the age of the youngest whiskey in the bottle (not counting the age of any added neutral grain spirits in a bourbon that is labeled as blended, as neutral-grain spirits are not considered whiskey under the regulations and are not required to be aged at all).

Bottled-in-bond bourbon is a sub-category of straight bourbon that must be produced by a single distiller at a single distillery in a single season, aged at least four years, and bottled at 100 proof (50% ABV).

Bourbon that is labeled blended (or as a blend) may contain added coloring, flavoring, and other spirits, such as un-aged neutral grain spirits, but at least 51% of the product must be straight bourbon.

"High rye bourbon" is not a legally defined term but usually means a bourbon with 20–35% rye. High-wheat bourbons are described as more mild and subdued compared to high-rye varieties.

Bourbon that has been aged for less than three years cannot legally be referred to as whiskey (or whisky) in the European Union.

Geographic origin

On May 4, 1964, the U.S. Congress declared bourbon whiskey as a "distinctive product of the United States" by concurrent resolution. Bourbon may be produced anywhere in the U.S. where it is legal to distill spirits, but most brands are produced in Kentucky, where bourbon production has a strong historical association. The filtering of iron-free water through the high concentrations of limestone that are unique to the area is often touted by bourbon distillers in Kentucky as a signature step in the bourbon-making process.

On August 2, 2007, the U.S. Senate passed a resolution sponsored by Senator Jim Bunning (R-KY) officially declaring September 2007 to be National Bourbon Heritage Month, commemorating the history of bourbon whiskey. Notably, the resolution claimed that Congress had declared bourbon to be "America's Native Spirit" in its 1964 resolution. However, the 1964 resolution did not contain such a statement; it declared bourbon to be a distinctive product identifiable with the U.S. (in a similar way that Scotch is considered identifiable with Scotland). The resolution was passed again in 2008.

, 95% of all bourbon is produced in Kentucky, according to the Kentucky Distillers' Association. , there were 68 whiskey distilleries in Kentucky, this was up 250 percent in the past ten years. At that time, the state had more than 8.1 million barrels of bourbon that were aging – a number that greatly exceeds the state's population of about 4.3 million.

Bardstown, Kentucky, is home to the annual Bourbon Festival held each September. It has been called the "Bourbon Capital of the World" by the Bardstown Tourism Commission and the Kentucky Bourbon Festival organizers who have registered the phrase as a trademark. The Kentucky Bourbon Trail is the name of a tourism promotion program organized by the Kentucky Distillers' Association that is aimed at attracting visitors to the distilleries in Kentucky, particularly Four Roses (Lawrenceburg), Heaven Hill (Bardstown), Jim Beam (Clermont), Maker's Mark (Loretto), Town Branch (Lexington), Wild Turkey (Lawrenceburg), and Woodford Reserve (Versailles).

Tennessee is home to other major bourbon makers, although most prefer to call their product "Tennessee whiskey" instead, including giant Jack Daniel's. It is legally defined under Tennessee House Bill 1084, the North American Free Trade Agreement and at least one other international trade agreement as the recognized name for a straight bourbon whiskey produced in Tennessee. It is also required to meet the legal definition of bourbon under Canadian law.

Although some Tennessee whiskey makers maintain that a pre-aging filtration through chunks of maple charcoal, known as the Lincoln County Process and legally mandated since 2013, make its flavor distinct from bourbon, U.S. regulations defining bourbon neither require nor prohibit its use.

Bourbon also was and is made in other U.S. states. The largest bourbon distiller outside of Kentucky and Tennessee is MGP of Indiana, which primarily wholesales its spirits products to bottling companies that sell them under about 50 different brand names – in some cases, misleadingly marketed as "craft" whiskey, despite being produced at a large wholesaler's factory.

Production process
To be legally sold as bourbon, the whiskey's mash bill requires a minimum of 51% corn, with the remainder being any cereal grain. A proposed change to U.S. regulations will expand allowable "grains" to include seeds of the pseudocereals amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa. A mash bill that contains wheat instead of rye produces what is known as a wheated bourbon. The grain is ground and mixed with water. Usually mash from a previous distillation is added to ensure consistency across batches, creating a sour mash. Finally, yeast is added, and the mash is fermented. It is distilled to (typically) between 65% and 80% alcohol using either a traditional alembic (or pot still) or the much less expensive continuous still. Most modern bourbons are initially run off using a column still and then redistilled in a "doubler" (alternatively known as a "thumper" or "retort") that is basically a pot still.

The resulting clear spirit, called "white dog", is placed in charred new oak containers for aging. In practice, these containers are generally barrels made from American white oak. The spirit gains its color and much of its flavor from the caramelized sugars and vanillins in the charred wood. Straight bourbon must be aged at least two years, and blended bourbon must contain at least 51% straight bourbon on a proof gallon basis (i.e., most of the alcohol in the blend must be from straight bourbon). The remainder of the spirits in a blended bourbon may be neutral grain spirits that are not aged at all. If a product is labeled merely as bourbon whiskey rather than straight or blended, no specific minimum aging period is prescribed – only that the product has been "stored at not more than 62.5% alcohol by volume (125 proof) in charred new oak containers". Bourbons gain more color and flavor the longer they age in wood. Changes to the spirit also occur due to evaporation and chemical processes such as oxidation. Lower-priced bourbons tend to be aged relatively briefly. Even for higher-priced bourbons, "maturity" rather than a particular age duration is often the goal, as over-aging bourbons can negatively affect the flavor of the bourbon (making it taste woody, bitter, or unbalanced).

After maturing, bourbon is withdrawn from the barrel and is typically filtered and diluted with water. It is then bottled at no less than 80 US proof (40% abv). Although most bourbon whiskey is sold at 80 proof, bourbon can be bottled much higher.

All "bottled in bond" bourbon is 100 proof. Some higher-proof bottlings are marketed as "barrel proof" or "cask strength", meaning they have not been diluted or have been only slightly diluted (less than 1% ABV dilution) after removal from the barrels. Bourbon whiskey may be sold at less than 80 proof but must be labeled as "diluted bourbon". A very small number of bourbon bottlings have been released with exceptionally high proof, sometimes exceeding 140 proof (70% ABV). In the mid-2010s, some sources began referring to these as "hazmat" bourbons, alluding to the ban in the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations on air travel passengers and crew members carrying such high-proof beverages due to their highly flammable nature. Such high proof levels are very uncommon even among "barrel proof" bourbons, as bourbon must enter the barrel at no higher than 125 proof and thus can only reach higher concentrations by disproportionate evaporation of water in the Angel's share during aging. Although only the focus of special attention for bourbon since the mid-2010s, very-high-proof products are not especially novel in general, as evidenced by the well-known Bacardi 151 brand of rum, which was available on the U.S. and Canadian markets from about 1963 until 2016 and was bottled at 75.5% ABV.

After processing, barrels remain saturated with up to 10 USgal of bourbon, although 2 - 3 USgal is the norm. They may not be reused for bourbon, and most are sold to distilleries in Canada, Scotland, Ireland, Mexico, and the Caribbean for aging other spirits. Some are employed in the manufacture of various barrel-aged products, including amateur and professionally brewed bourbon barrel-aged beer, barbecue sauce, wine, hot sauce, and others. Since 2011, Jim Beam has employed barrel rinsing on a large scale to extract bourbon from its used barrels, mixing the extract with a 6-year-old Beam bourbon to create a 90-proof product that it sells as "Devil's Cut".

The bottling operation for bourbon is the process of filtering, mixing together straight whiskey from different barrels (sometimes from different distilleries), diluting with water, blending with other ingredients (if producing blended bourbon), and filling containers to produce the final product that is marketed to consumers. By itself, the phrase "bottled by" means only that. Only if the bottler operates the distillery that produced the whiskey may "distilled by" be added to the label.

Labeling requirements for bourbon and other alcoholic beverages (including the requirements for what is allowed to be called bourbon under U.S. law) are defined in the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations. No whiskey made outside the U.S. may be labeled bourbon or sold as bourbon inside the U.S. Various other countries have trade agreements with the U.S. to recognize bourbon as a distinctive product of the U.S., including Canada and Mexico, the United Kingdom, Chile, and Brazil.

A 2016 experiment by Louisville craft distiller Jefferson's Bourbon suggests that in the era before whiskey was routinely bottled at the distillery, Kentucky bourbon developed a superior taste because it was shipped in barrels, using water transport wherever practical. To test this theory, Jefferson's cofounder Trey Zoeller sent two barrels of the company's signature product to New York City via barge, first down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers and then along the Intracoastal Waterway. As a control, he brought a batch of the same whiskey that had remained in Louisville during the same period. According to Popular Mechanics writer Jacqueline Detwiler-George, who documented the test, the sample that made the waterborne journey "was mature beyond its age, richer, with new flavors of tobacco, vanilla, caramel, and honey. It was some of the best bourbon any of us had ever drunk." It was theorized that the action of gentle sloshing of the whiskey in barrels for a period of 2 to 4 weeks during the barge trip led to a dramatic improvement in smoothness and taste. Chemical analysis of the two samples revealed significant differences in molecular profiles, with the sample transported by water having a greater diversity of aromatic compounds.

Uses
Bourbon is served in a variety of manners, including neat; diluted with water; over ice ("on the rocks"); with cola or other beverages in simple mixed drinks; and in cocktails – including the Manhattan, the Old Fashioned, the whiskey sour, and the mint julep. Bourbon is also used in cooking, and it was historically used for medicinal purposes.

Bourbon can be used in a variety of confections such as a banana bourbon syrup for waffles, a flavoring for chocolate cake, and fruit-based desserts like grilled peach sundaes served with salted bourbon-caramel or brown sugar shortcake with warmed bourbon peaches. It is an optional ingredient in several pie recipes traditional to American cuisine, including pumpkin pie, where it can be combined with brown sugar and pecans to make a sweet and crunchy topping for the creamy pumpkin pie filling. It can also be used as a flavoring in sauces for savory dishes like grit cakes with country ham served with bourbon mayonnaise, Kentucky bourbon chili, and grilled flank steak.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Bourbon whiskey


text:
CMYK color model

The CMYK color model (also known as process color, or four color) is a subtractive color model, based on the CMY color model, used in color printing, and is also used to describe the printing process itself. The abbreviation CMYK refers to the four ink plates used: cyan, magenta, yellow, and key (black).

The CMYK model works by partially or entirely masking colors on a lighter, usually white, background. The ink reduces the light that would otherwise be reflected. Such a model is called subtractive because inks "subtract" the colors red, green and blue from white light; white light minus red leaves cyan, white light minus green leaves magenta, and white light minus blue leaves yellow.

In additive color models, such as RGB, white is the "additive" combination of all primary colored lights, and black is the absence of color. In the CMYK model, it is the opposite: white is the natural color of the paper or other background, black results from a full combination of colored inks. To save cost on ink, and to produce deeper black tones, unsaturated and dark colors are produced by using black ink instead of or in addition to the combination of cyan, magenta, and yellow.

Halftoning

With CMYK printing, halftoning (also called screening) allows for less than full saturation of the primary colors; tiny dots of each primary color are printed in a pattern small enough that humans perceive a solid color. Magenta printed with a 20% halftone, for example, produces a pink color, because the eye perceives the tiny magenta dots on the large white paper as lighter and less saturated than the color of pure magenta ink. Halftoning allows for a continuous variability of each color, which enables continuous color mixing of the primaries. Without halftoning, each primary would be binary, i.e. on/off, which only allows for the reproduction of eight colors: white, the three primaries, the three secondaries, and black.

Comparison to CMY

The CMYK color model is based on the CMY color model, which omits the black ink. However, the imperfect black generated by mixing commercially practical cyan, magenta, and yellow inks is unsatisfactory, so four-color printing uses black ink in addition to the subtractive primaries. Common reasons for using black ink include:
 * In traditional preparation of color separations, a red keyline on the black line art marked the outline of solid or tint color areas. In some cases a black keyline was used when it served as both a color indicator and an outline to be printed in black because usually the black plate contained the keyline. The K in CMYK represents the keyline or black plate, also sometimes called the key plate.
 * Text is typically printed in black and includes fine detail (such as serifs). To avoid even slight blurring when reproducing text (or other finely detailed outlines) using three inks would require impractically accurate registration.
 * A combination of 100% cyan, magenta, and yellow inks soaks the paper with ink, making it slower to dry, causing bleeding, or (especially on low quality paper such as newsprint) weakening the paper so much that it tears.
 * Although a combination of 100% cyan, magenta, and yellow inks should, in theory, completely absorb the entire visible spectrum of light and produce a perfect black, practical inks fall short of their ideal characteristics, and the result is actually a dark muddy color that does not quite appear black. Black ink absorbs more light and yields much better blacks.
 * Black ink is less expensive than the combination of colored inks that makes black.

A black made with just CMY inks is sometimes called a composite black.

When a very dark area is wanted, a colored or gray CMY "bedding" is applied first, then a full black layer is applied on top, making a rich, deep black; this is called rich black.

The amount of black to use to replace amounts of the other inks is variable, and the choice depends on the technology, paper and ink in use. Processes called under color removal, under color addition, and gray component replacement are used to decide on the final mix; different CMYK recipes will be used depending on the printing task.

Other printer color models
CMYK or process color printing is contrasted with spot color printing, in which specific colored inks are used to generate the colors appearing on paper. Some printing presses are capable of printing with both four-color process inks and additional spot color inks at the same time. High-quality printed materials, such as marketing brochures and books, often include photographs requiring process-color printing, other graphic effects requiring spot colors (such as metallic inks), and finishes such as varnish, which enhances the glossy appearance of the printed piece.

CMYK are the process printers which often have a relatively small color gamut. Processes such as Pantone's proprietary six-color (CMYKOG) Hexachrome considerably expand the gamut. Light, saturated colors often cannot be created with CMYK, and light colors in general may make visible the halftone pattern. Using a CcMmYK process, with the addition of light cyan and magenta inks to CMYK, can solve these problems, and such a process is used by many inkjet printers, including desktop models.

Comparison with RGB displays
Comparisons between RGB displays and CMYK prints can be difficult, since the color reproduction technologies and properties are very different. A computer monitor mixes shades of red, green, and blue light to create color pictures. A CMYK printer instead uses light-absorbing cyan, magenta, and yellow inks, whose colors are mixed using dithering, halftoning, or some other optical technique.

Similar to monitors, the inks used in printing produce a color gamut that is "only a subset of the visible spectrum" although both color modes have their own specific ranges. As a result of this, items which are displayed on a computer monitor may not completely match the look of items which are printed if opposite color modes are being combined in both mediums. When designing items to be printed, designers view the colors which they are choosing on an RGB color mode (their computer screen), and it is often difficult to visualize the way in which the color will turn out post-printing because of this.

Spectrum of printed paper
To reproduce color, the CMYK color model codes for absorbing light rather than emitting it (as is assumed by RGB). The "K" component absorbs all wavelengths and is therefore achromatic. The cyan, magenta, and yellow components are used for color reproduction and they may be viewed as the inverse of RGB. Cyan absorbs red, magenta absorbs green, and yellow absorbs blue (-R,-G,-B).

Conversion
Since RGB and CMYK spaces are both device-dependent spaces, there is no simple or general conversion formula that converts between them. Conversions are generally done through color management systems, using color profiles that describe the spaces being converted. An ICC profile defines the bidirectional conversion between a neutral "profile connection" color space (CIE XYZ or Lab) and a selected colorspace, in this case both RGB and CMYK. The precision of the conversion depends on the profile itself, the exact methodology, and because the gamuts do not generally match, the rendering intent and constraints such as ink limit.

ICC profiles, internally built out of lookup tables and other transformation functions, are capable of handling many effects of ink blending. One example is the dot gain, which show up as non-linear components in the color-to-density mapping. More complex interactions such as Neugebauer blending can be modelled in higher-dimension lookup tables.

The problem of computing a colorimetric estimate of the color that results from printing various combinations of ink has been addressed by many scientists. A general method that has emerged for the case of halftone printing is to treat each tiny overlap of color dots as one of 8 (combinations of CMY) or of 16 (combinations of CMYK) colors, which in this context are known as Neugebauer primaries. The resultant color would be an area-weighted colorimetric combination of these primary colors, except that the Yule–Nielsen effect of scattered light between and within the areas complicates the physics and the analysis; empirical formulas for such analysis have been developed, in terms of detailed dye combination absorption spectra and empirical parameters.

Standardization of printing practices allow for some profiles to be predefined. One of them is the US Specifications for Web Offset Publications, which has its ICC color profile built into some software including Microsoft Office (as Agfa RSWOP.icm).

title: CMYK color model


text:
List of protected areas of South Africa

The protected areas of South Africa include national parks and marine protected areas managed by the national government, public nature reserves managed by provincial and local governments, and private nature reserves managed by private landowners. Most protected areas are intended for the conservation of flora and fauna. National parks are maintained by South African National Parks (SANParks). A number of national parks have been incorporated in transfrontier conservation areas.

Protected areas may also be protected for their value and importance as historical, cultural heritage or scientific sites. More information on these can be found in the list of heritage sites in South Africa.

Special Nature Reserves
Special nature reserves are highly protected areas from which all people and human activities are excluded, except for conservation and scientific research. The Prince Edward Islands, which are South African territories in the Southern Ocean, have been declared as a special nature reserve.

National Parks
The following are the national parks of South Africa:
 * (shared with Botswana)
 * (visitors not allowed)
 * (shared with Namibia)
 * (shared with Botswana)
 * (visitors not allowed)
 * (shared with Namibia)
 * (shared with Botswana)
 * (visitors not allowed)
 * (shared with Namibia)
 * (visitors not allowed)
 * (shared with Namibia)
 * (visitors not allowed)
 * (shared with Namibia)
 * (shared with Namibia)
 * (shared with Namibia)
 * (shared with Namibia)
 * (shared with Namibia)
 * (shared with Namibia)
 * (shared with Namibia)
 * (shared with Namibia)

Transfrontier conservation areas
South Africa is involved in the following transfrontier conservation areas (TFCAs), also known as "peace parks".
 * – includes the Richtersveld in South Africa and the Fish River Canyon and Ai-Ais Hot Springs in Namibia
 * – includes Kruger National Park and parks in Mozambique and Zimbabwe
 * – includes the former Kalahari Gemsbok National Park in South Africa and Gemsbok National Park and Mabuasehube Game Reserve in Botswana
 * – includes Golden Gate Highlands National Park, Sterkfontein Dam Nature Reserve, uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park and Royal Natal National Park in South Africa, and Sehlabathebe National Park in Lesotho
 * – Mapungubwe National Park in South Africa, Northern Tuli Game Reserve in Botswana, and Tuli Circle Safari Area in Zimbabwe
 * – including Phongolo Nature Reserve in South Africa and various farms in Swaziland
 * – including Songimvelo Game Reserve in South Africa and Malolotja Nature Reserve in Swaziland
 * – including Ndumo Game Reserve and Tembe Elephant Park in South Africa, Maputo Special Reserve in Mozambique, and Usuthu Gorge Conservancy in Swaziland.

The Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation Area, involving South Africa, Mozambique and Swaziland, is planned to be formed from the iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the Nsubane Pongola, Songimvelo-Malolotja and Usuthu-Tembe-Futi TFCAs.

Marine Protected Areas

 * (Eastern Cape)
 * (Western Cape)
 * (Eastern Cape)
 * (Western Cape)
 * (KwaZulu-Natal)
 * (Western Cape)
 * (Eastern Cape)
 * (Western Cape)
 * (Western Cape)
 * (Eastern Cape)
 * (Western Cape)
 * (Western Cape)
 * (Eastern Cape)
 * (KwaZulu-Natal)
 * (Western Cape)
 * (Western Cape)
 * (Western Cape)
 * (KwaZulu-Natal)
 * (Western Cape)
 * (Western Cape)
 * (Western Cape)

 * (Western Cape)

 * (Southern Ocean)
 * (Northern Cape)
 * (Northern Cape)
 * (Northern Cape)
 * (KwaZulu-Natal)
 * (Eastern Cape)
 * (Prince Edward Islands)
 * (KwaZulu-Natal)
 * (Western Cape)
 * (Western Cape)
 * (Eastern Cape)
 * (Western Cape)
 * (Western Cape)
 * (Western Cape)
 * (Western Cape)
 * (Eastern Cape)
 * (Eastern Cape)
 * (KwaZulu-Natal)
 * (Western Cape)
 * (Western Cape)

Ramsar Sites
There are 30 designated Ramsar sites in South Africa:

World Heritage Sites
World heritage sites in South Africa are protected by the World Heritage Convention Act (Act 49 of 1999). These include:
 * Fossil Hominid sites and environs of:
 * Protected Areas
 * Cultural Landscape
 * Cultural and Botanical Landscape
 * uKhahlamba/ Park
 * Cultural Landscape
 * Cultural and Botanical Landscape
 * uKhahlamba/ Park
 * uKhahlamba/ Park
 * uKhahlamba/ Park

National Parks situated in the Eastern Cape

 * , (Eastern Cape), also see Greater Addo Elephant National Park below
 * , also see Garden Route National Park below
 * , also see Garden Route National Park below
 * , also see Garden Route National Park below

Mega Parks in the making, predominantly in the Eastern Cape

 * (Western Cape)
 * (Western Cape)
 * , (Eastern Cape).
 * , (Eastern Cape).
 * , (Eastern Cape).
 * , (Western Cape)
 * , (Eastern Cape).
 * , (Eastern Cape).
 * , (Western Cape)
 * , (Western Cape)
 * , (Western Cape)
 * , (Western Cape)

Parks Managed by Eastern Cape Parks

 * (consists of 12 smaller reserves)
 * (accessed through the Kwelera National Botanical Garden)
 * (consists of 12 smaller reserves)
 * (accessed through the Kwelera National Botanical Garden)
 * (consists of 12 smaller reserves)
 * (accessed through the Kwelera National Botanical Garden)
 * (accessed through the Kwelera National Botanical Garden)
 * (accessed through the Kwelera National Botanical Garden)
 * (accessed through the Kwelera National Botanical Garden)
 * (accessed through the Kwelera National Botanical Garden)

Private and Other Parks

 * Aberdeen Nature Reserve
 * Alexandria Coast Reserve
 * Amakhala Game Reserve
 * Amalinda Nature Reserve
 * see Baviaanskloof Mega Reserve
 * (Mierhoopplaat)
 * see Baviaanskloof Mega Reserve
 * Kuzuko Private Game Reserve
 * Kwantu Private Game Reserve
 * Mbumbazi Nature Reserve
 * (Mierhoopplaat)
 * see Baviaanskloof Mega Reserve
 * Kuzuko Private Game Reserve
 * Kwantu Private Game Reserve
 * Mbumbazi Nature Reserve
 * (Mierhoopplaat)
 * see Baviaanskloof Mega Reserve
 * Kuzuko Private Game Reserve
 * Kwantu Private Game Reserve
 * Mbumbazi Nature Reserve
 * (Mierhoopplaat)
 * see Baviaanskloof Mega Reserve
 * Kuzuko Private Game Reserve
 * Kwantu Private Game Reserve
 * Mbumbazi Nature Reserve
 * Kuzuko Private Game Reserve
 * Kwantu Private Game Reserve
 * Mbumbazi Nature Reserve
 * Kuzuko Private Game Reserve
 * Kwantu Private Game Reserve
 * Mbumbazi Nature Reserve
 * Kuzuko Private Game Reserve
 * Kwantu Private Game Reserve
 * Mbumbazi Nature Reserve
 * Kwantu Private Game Reserve
 * Mbumbazi Nature Reserve
 * Mbumbazi Nature Reserve
 * Mbumbazi Nature Reserve
 * Mbumbazi Nature Reserve
 * Mbumbazi Nature Reserve
 * Mbumbazi Nature Reserve
 * Mbumbazi Nature Reserve

Forest Reserves

 * , part of the Tsitsikamma National Park
 * , part of the Tsitsikamma National Park
 * , part of the Tsitsikamma National Park
 * , part of the Tsitsikamma National Park
 * , part of the Tsitsikamma National Park
 * , part of the Tsitsikamma National Park
 * , part of the Tsitsikamma National Park
 * , part of the Tsitsikamma National Park
 * , part of the Tsitsikamma National Park
 * , part of the Tsitsikamma National Park
 * , part of the Tsitsikamma National Park
 * , part of the Tsitsikamma National Park
 * , part of the Tsitsikamma National Park
 * , part of the Tsitsikamma National Park
 * , part of the Tsitsikamma National Park
 * , part of the Tsitsikamma National Park

Private and Other Parks

 * around the Welbedacht Dam.
 * formerly known as Hendrik Verwoerd Dam Nature Reserve, only on the Free State side of the Gariep Dam, the park on the Eastern Cape side of the dam is called the Oviston Nature Reserve.
 * around the Kalkfontein Dam.
 * around the Vanderkloof Dam.
 * around the Bloemhof Dam (Free State) side only, the park on the North West is called the Bloemhof Dam Nature Reserve.
 * near Seekoeivlei Nature Reserve
 * around the Sterkfontein Dam.
 * around the Krugersdrift Dam.
 * , also at the Gariep Dam, on the other side of the Orange River is the Oviston Nature Reserve, Eastern Cape.
 * around the Allemanskraal Dam.
 * around the Bloemhof Dam (Free State) side only, the park on the North West is called the Bloemhof Dam Nature Reserve.
 * near Seekoeivlei Nature Reserve
 * around the Sterkfontein Dam.
 * around the Krugersdrift Dam.
 * , also at the Gariep Dam, on the other side of the Orange River is the Oviston Nature Reserve, Eastern Cape.
 * around the Allemanskraal Dam.
 * around the Allemanskraal Dam.

Protected Areas

Other parks and private reserves
Bishop Bird, Rooihuiskraal, Centuion
 * (The Cradle)
 * (The Cradle)
 * (The Cradle)
 * (The Cradle)
 * (The Cradle)
 * (The Cradle)
 * (The Cradle)
 * (The Cradle)
 * (The Cradle)
 * (The Cradle)
 * (The Cradle)
 * (The Cradle)
 * (The Cradle)
 * (The Cradle)
 * (The Cradle)
 * (The Cradle)
 * (The Cradle)
 * (The Cradle)
 * (The Cradle)
 * (The Cradle)
 * (The Cradle)
 * (The Cradle)
 * (The Cradle)

Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife

 * previously known as Greater St Lucia Wetland Park, including
 * (the town is not part of the park)
 * and
 * see also Cathedral Peak (South Africa)
 * see also Cathedral Peak (South Africa)
 * see also Giant's Castle
 * see also Giant's Castle
 * and
 * see also Cathedral Peak (South Africa)
 * see also Cathedral Peak (South Africa)
 * see also Giant's Castle
 * see also Giant's Castle
 * and
 * see also Cathedral Peak (South Africa)
 * see also Cathedral Peak (South Africa)
 * see also Giant's Castle
 * see also Giant's Castle
 * see also Cathedral Peak (South Africa)
 * see also Cathedral Peak (South Africa)
 * see also Giant's Castle
 * see also Giant's Castle
 * see also Cathedral Peak (South Africa)
 * see also Cathedral Peak (South Africa)
 * see also Giant's Castle
 * see also Giant's Castle
 * see also Cathedral Peak (South Africa)
 * see also Cathedral Peak (South Africa)
 * see also Giant's Castle
 * see also Giant's Castle
 * see also Cathedral Peak (South Africa)
 * see also Cathedral Peak (South Africa)
 * see also Giant's Castle
 * see also Giant's Castle
 * see also Cathedral Peak (South Africa)
 * see also Cathedral Peak (South Africa)
 * see also Giant's Castle
 * see also Giant's Castle
 * see also Giant's Castle
 * see also Giant's Castle

Private and Other Parks

 * , also see Dhlinza Forest
 * , also see Dhlinza Forest
 * , also see Dhlinza Forest
 * , also see Dhlinza Forest
 * , also see Dhlinza Forest
 * , also see Dhlinza Forest
 * , also see Dhlinza Forest
 * , also see Dhlinza Forest
 * , also see Dhlinza Forest
 * , also see Dhlinza Forest

Private and Other Parks

 * in the Greater Kruger National Park
 * Motswari Game Reserve
 * Ngala Game Reserve
 * . See Mpumalanga, province.
 * Private Game Reserve
 * region, Kruger NP
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * Motswari Game Reserve
 * Ngala Game Reserve
 * . See Mpumalanga, province.
 * Private Game Reserve
 * region, Kruger NP
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * region, Kruger NP
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * region, Kruger NP
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * region, Kruger NP
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * region, Kruger NP
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * region, Kruger NP
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * region, Kruger NP
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * region, Kruger NP
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * region, Kruger NP
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * region, Kruger NP
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * region, Kruger NP
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * region, Kruger NP
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * region, Kruger NP
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * region, Kruger NP
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve
 * Philip Herd Nature Reserve

Provincial Parks

 * (mostly in Mpumalanga, small section in Limpopo)
 * (mostly in Mpumalanga, small section in Limpopo)

Private and Other Parks

 * Lionspruit, part of
 * Lionspruit, part of
 * Lionspruit, part of
 * Lionspruit, part of
 * Lionspruit, part of
 * Lionspruit, part of
 * Lionspruit, part of

Protected Areas

Private and other Reserves

 * for the rest see Eastern Cape.
 * for the rest see Eastern Cape.
 * for the rest see Eastern Cape.
 * for the rest see Eastern Cape.
 * for the rest see Eastern Cape.
 * for the rest see Eastern Cape.
 * for the rest see Eastern Cape.
 * for the rest see Eastern Cape.
 * for the rest see Eastern Cape.
 * for the rest see Eastern Cape.

Forests

 * (Petrus Brand)
 * Reserve (Goldfield)
 * Area
 * Reserve
 * Reserve
 * Reserve
 * (Kruisfontein)
 * Reserve
 * Reserve
 * Reserve
 * (Kruisfontein)
 * (Kruisfontein)

Mountain Catchment Areas

 * Mountain Catchment Area
 * Mountain Catchment Area
 * Mountain Catchment Area
 * Mountain Catchment Area
 * Mountain Catchment Area
 * Mountain Catchment Area
 * East Mountain Catchment Area
 * Mountain Catchment Area
 * Mountain Catchment Area

title: List of protected areas of South Africa


text:
List of national parks of France

The national parks of France are a system of eleven national parks throughout metropolitan France and its overseas departments, coordinated by National Parks of France (French: Parcs nationaux de France) within the French Office for Biodiversity (Office français pour la biodiversité), an établissement public à caractère administratif guided by the Ministry of Ecological Transition and Ministry of Agriculture and Food.

The first national park was established in 1963; the most recent park was established in 2019. National parks are created by decree with the signature of the Prime Minister of France and publication in the Journal Officiel de la République Française.

French national parks protect a total area of 26,168 km2 in core area and 30,651 km2 in buffer zones. This puts over 9.5% of French territory under the protection of national parks; 29.5% of French lands and 22% of French waters are covered by some level of protection. French national parks draw over 8.5 million visitors annually.

title: List of national parks of France


text:
Almost everywhere

In measure theory (a branch of mathematical analysis), a property holds almost everywhere if, in a technical sense, the set for which the property holds takes up nearly all possibilities. The notion of "almost everywhere" is a companion notion to the concept of measure zero, and is analogous to the notion of almost surely in probability theory.

More specifically, a property holds almost everywhere if it holds for all elements in a set except a subset of measure zero, or equivalently, if the set of elements for which the property holds is conull. In cases where the measure is not complete, it is sufficient that the set be contained within a set of measure zero. When discussing sets of real numbers, the Lebesgue measure is usually assumed unless otherwise stated.

The term almost everywhere is abbreviated a.e.; in older literature p.p. is used, to stand for the equivalent French language phrase presque partout.

A set with full measure is one whose complement is of measure zero. In probability theory, the terms almost surely, almost certain and almost always refer to events with probability 1 not necessarily including all of the outcomes. These are exactly the sets of full measure in a probability space.

Occasionally, instead of saying that a property holds almost everywhere, it is said that the property holds for almost all elements (though the term almost all can also have other meanings).

Definition
If $$(X,\Sigma,\mu) $$ is a measure space, a property $$P $$ is said to hold almost everywhere in $$X $$ if there exists a measurable set $$N \in \Sigma $$ with $$\mu(N) = 0 $$, and all $$x\in X\setminus N $$ have the property $$P $$. Another common way of expressing the same thing is to say that "almost every point satisfies $$P\, $$", or that "for almost every $$x $$, $$P(x) $$ holds".

It is not required that the set $$\{x\in X: \neg P(x)\} $$ has measure zero; it may not be measurable. By the above definition, it is sufficient that $$\{x\in X: \neg P(x)\} $$ be contained in some set $$N $$ that is measurable and has measure zero. However, this technicality vanishes when considering a complete measure space: if $$X$$ is complete then $$N$$ exists with measure zero if and only if $$\{x\in X: \neg P(x)\}$$ is measurable with measure zero.

Properties

 * If property $$P $$ holds almost everywhere and implies property $$Q $$, then property $$Q $$ holds almost everywhere. This follows from the monotonicity of measures.
 * If $$ (P_n) $$ is a finite or a countable sequence of properties, each of which holds almost everywhere, then their conjunction $$ \forall n P_n  $$ holds almost everywhere. This follows from the countable sub-additivity of measures.
 * By contrast, if $$ (P_x)_{x\in \mathbf R} $$ is an uncountable family of properties, each of which holds almost everywhere, then their conjunction $$ \forall x P_x  $$ does not necessarily hold almost everywhere. For example, if $$\mu $$ is Lebesgue measure on $$X = \mathbf R $$ and $$ P_x  $$ is the property of not being equal to $$ x  $$ (i.e. $$ P_x(y)  $$ is true if and only if $$ y \neq x $$), then each $$ P_x  $$ holds almost everywhere, but the conjunction $$ \forall x P_x  $$ does not hold anywhere.

As a consequence of the first two properties, it is often possible to reason about "almost every point" of a measure space as though it were an ordinary point rather than an abstraction. This is often done implicitly in informal mathematical arguments. However, one must be careful with this mode of reasoning because of the third bullet above: universal quantification over uncountable families of statements is valid for ordinary points but not for "almost every point".

Examples

 * If f : R → R is a Lebesgue integrable function and $$f(x) \ge 0 $$ almost everywhere, then $$\int_a^b f(x) \, dx \geq 0$$ for all real numbers $$a < b $$ with equality if and only if $$f(x) = 0$$ almost everywhere.
 * If f : [a, b] → R is a monotonic function, then f is differentiable almost everywhere.
 * If f : R → R is Lebesgue measurable and $$\int_a^b |f(x)| \, dx < \infty$$ for all real numbers $$a < b $$, then there exists a set E (depending on f) such that, if x is in E, the Lebesgue mean $$\frac{1}{2\varepsilon} \int_{x-\varepsilon}^{x+\varepsilon} f(t)\,dt$$ converges to $f(x)$ as $$\epsilon$$ decreases to zero. The set E is called the Lebesgue set of f. Its complement can be proved to have measure zero.  In other words, the Lebesgue mean of f converges to f almost everywhere.
 * A bounded function $f : [a, b] → R$ is Riemann integrable if and only if it is continuous almost everywhere.
 * As a curiosity, the decimal expansion of almost every real number in the interval [0, 1] contains the complete text of Shakespeare's plays, encoded in ASCII; similarly for every other finite digit sequence, see Normal number.

Definition using ultrafilters
Outside of the context of real analysis, the notion of a property true almost everywhere is sometimes defined in terms of an ultrafilter. An ultrafilter on a set X is a maximal collection F of subsets of X such that: A property P of points in X holds almost everywhere, relative to an ultrafilter F, if the set of points for which P holds is in F.
 * 1) If U ∈ F and U ⊆ V then V ∈ F
 * 2) The intersection of any two sets in F is in F
 * 3) The empty set is not in F

For example, one construction of the hyperreal number system defines a hyperreal number as an equivalence class of sequences that are equal almost everywhere as defined by an ultrafilter.

The definition of almost everywhere in terms of ultrafilters is closely related to the definition in terms of measures, because each ultrafilter defines a finitely-additive measure taking only the values 0 and 1, where a set has measure 1 if and only if it is included in the ultrafilter.

title: Almost everywhere


text:
Talk:Sierpinski triangle/Image credits

The given algorithm needs Θ(4^n) time to construct an n-level triangle, but since the triangle contains only O(3^n) points, there's a faster, recursive way:

Sierp(x0,y0,x1,y1,x2,y2): // creates a Sierpinski triangle with vertices (x0,y0), (x1,y1), (x2,y0), which are given in counterclockwise order. if (the three points are equal) plot (x0,y0); return; Let (u0,v0) be the midpoint of the segment from (x0,y0) to (x1,y1) and let (u1,v1) be the midpoint of the segment from (x1,y1) to (x2,y2) and let (u2,v2) be the midpoint of the segment from (x2,y2) to (x0,y0). Sierp(x0,y0,u0,v0,u2,v2); Sierp(u0,v0,x1,y1,u1,v1); Sierp(u2,v2,u1,v1,x2,y2);

AxelBoldt

Ack! Subpages! -- Zoe

title: Talk:Sierpinski triangle/Image credits


text:
Pope Leo I

Pope Leo I (c. 400 – 10 November 461), also known as Leo the Great, was Bishop of Rome from 29 September 440 until his death.

Leo was a Roman aristocrat, and was the first pope to have been called "the Great". He is perhaps best known for having met Attila the Hun in 452 and persuading him to turn back from his invasion of Italy. He is also a Doctor of the Church, most remembered theologically for issuing the Tome of Leo, a document which was a major foundation to the debates of the Council of Chalcedon, the fourth ecumenical council. That meeting dealt primarily with Christology and elucidated the orthodox definition of Christ's being as the hypostatic union of two natures, divine and human, united in one person, "with neither confusion nor division". It was followed by a major schism associated with Monophysitism, Miaphysitism and Dyophysitism. He also contributed significantly to developing ideas of papal authority.

Early life
According to the Liber Pontificalis, he was a native of Tuscany. By 431, as a deacon, he was sufficiently well known outside of Rome that John Cassian dedicated to him the treatise against Nestorius written at Leo's suggestion. About this time Cyril of Alexandria appealed to Rome regarding a jurisdictional dispute with Juvenal of Jerusalem, but it is not entirely clear whether the letter was intended for Leo in his capacity as archdeacon, or for Pope Celestine I directly.

Near the end of the reign of Pope Sixtus III, Leo was dispatched at the request of Emperor Valentinian III to settle a dispute between Aëtius, one of Gaul's chief military commanders, and the chief magistrate Albinus. Johann Peter Kirsch sees this commission as a proof of the confidence placed in the able deacon by the Imperial Court.

Papacy
During Leo's absence in Gaul, Pope Sixtus III died (11 August 440), and on 29 September Leo was unanimously elected by the people to succeed him. Soon after assuming the papal throne, Leo learned that in Aquileia, Pelagians were received into church communion without formal repudiation of their heresy; he censured this practice and directed that a provincial synod be held where such former Pelagians be required to make an unequivocal abjuration.

Leo claimed that Manichaeans, possibly fleeing Vandal Africa, had come to Rome and secretly organized there. In late 443, Leo preached a series of sermons condemning the Manichaeans and calling for Romans to denounce suspected heretics to their priests. Eventually, suspected heretics were brought to court, and likely under torture, they confessed to various crimes. By early 444, Leo announced to the bishops of Italy that the Manichaeans had been eradicated from Rome. According to his contemporary Prosper of Aquitaine, Leo exposed the Manichaeans and burned their books. He was equally firm against the Priscillianist sect. Bishop Turibius of Astorga, astonished at the spread of the sect in Spain, had addressed the other Spanish bishops on the subject, sending a copy of his letter to Leo, who took the opportunity to write an extended treatise (21 July 447) against the sect, examining its false teaching in detail and calling for a Spanish general council to investigate whether it had any adherents in the episcopate.

From a pastoral perspective, he energized charitable works in a Rome beset by famines, an influx of refugees, and poverty. He further associated the practice of fasting with charity and almsgiving, particularly on the occasion of the Quattro tempora, (the quarterly Ember days). It was during Leo's papacy that the term "Pope", which previously meant any bishop, came to exclusively mean the Bishop of Rome.

Papal authority
Leo drew many learned men about him and chose Prosper of Aquitaine to act in some secretarial or notarial capacity. Leo was a significant contributor to the centralisation of spiritual authority within the Church and in reaffirming papal authority. In 450, the Byzantine Emperor Theodosius II, in a letter to Pope Leo I, was the first to call the Bishop of Rome the Patriarch of the West, a title that would continue to be used by the popes until the present days (only interrupted by a brief period between 2006 and 2024).

By 447, he declared that heretics deserved the most severe punishments. The Pope justified the death penalty  declaring that if the followers of a heresy were allowed to live, that would be the end of human and Divine law.

Various regional matters
On several occasions, Leo was asked to arbitrate disputes in Gaul. Patroclus of Arles (d. 426) had received from Pope Zosimus the recognition of a subordinate primacy over the Gallican Church which was strongly asserted by his successor Hilary of Arles. An appeal from Chelidonius of Besançon gave Leo the opportunity to assert the pope's authority over Hilary, who defended himself stoutly at Rome, refusing to recognize Leo's judicial status. Feeling that the primatial rights of the bishop of Rome were threatened, Leo appealed to the civil power for support and obtained, from Valentinian III, a decree of 6 June 445, which recognized the primacy of the bishop of Rome based on the merits of Peter, the dignity of the city, and the legislation of the First Council of Nicaea; and provided for the forcible extradition by provincial governors of any bishop who refused to answer a summons to Rome. Faced with this decree, Hilary submitted to the pope, although under his successor, Ravennius, Leo divided the metropolitan rights between Arles and Vienne (450).

In 445, Leo disputed with Patriarch Dioscorus, Cyril of Alexandria's successor as Patriarch of Alexandria, insisting that the ecclesiastical practice of his see should follow that of Rome on the basis that Mark the Evangelist, the disciple of Peter the Apostle and the founder of the Alexandrian Church, could have had no other tradition than that of the prince of the apostles.

The fact that the African province of Mauretania Caesariensis had been preserved to the empire and thus to the Nicene faith during the Vandal invasion and, in its isolation, was disposed to rest on outside support, gave Leo an opportunity to assert his authority there. In 446 he wrote to the Church in Mauretania in regard to a number of questions of discipline, stressing the point that laymen were not to be appointed to the episcopate.

In a letter to the bishops of Campania, Picenum, and Tuscany (443) he required the observance of all his precepts and those of his predecessors; and he sharply rebuked the bishops of Sicily (447) for their deviation from the Roman custom as to the time of baptism, requiring them to send delegates to the Roman synod to learn the proper practice.

Because of the earlier line of division between the western and eastern parts of the Roman Empire, Illyria was ecclesiastically subject to Rome. Pope Innocent I had constituted the metropolitan of Thessalonica his vicar, in order to oppose the growing influence of the patriarch of Constantinople in the area. In a letter of about 446 to a successor bishop of Thessalonica, Anastasius, Leo reproached him for the way he had treated one of the metropolitan bishops subject to him; after giving various instructions about the functions entrusted to Anastasius and stressing that certain powers were reserved to the pope himself, Leo wrote: "The care of the universal Church should converge towards Peter's one seat, and nothing anywhere should be separated from its Head."

He succeeded in having an imperial patriarch, Timothy Salophakiolos, and not Timotheus Aelurus, chosen as Coptic Orthodox Pope of Alexandria on the murder of Greek Patriarch Proterius of Alexandria.

Writings
Almost 100 sermons and 150 letters of Leo I have been preserved.

Tome
At the Second Council of Ephesus in 449, Leo's representatives delivered his famous Tome, a statement of the faith of the Roman Church in the form of a letter addressed to Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople, which repeats, in close adherence to Augustine of Hippo, the formulas of western Christology. The council did not read the letter nor did it pay any attention to the protests of Leo's legates but deposed Flavian and Eusebius of Dorylaeum, who appealed to Rome. That is one reason that the council was never recognized as ecumenical and was later repudiated by the Council of Chalcedon.

It was presented again at the subsequent Council of Chalcedon as offering a solution to the Christological controversies still raging between East and West.

Council of Chalcedon
Eutyches, in the beginning of the conflict, appealed to Leo and took refuge with him on his condemnation by Flavian, but on receiving full information from Flavian, Leo took his side decisively. Leo demanded of the emperor that an ecumenical council should be held in Italy, and in the meantime, at a Roman synod in October 449, repudiated all the decisions of the "Robber Synod". In his letters to the emperor and others he demanded the deposition of Eutyches as a Manichaean and Docetic heretic.

The Council of Chalcedon of 451 rejected the heresy of Eutyches who denied the true human nature of the Son of God, and affirmed the union in his one Person, without confusion and without separation, of his two natures, human and divine.

The acts of the council report: "'After the reading of the foregoing epistle, the most reverend bishops cried out: This is the faith of the fathers, this is the faith of the Apostles. So we all believe, thus the orthodox believe. Anathema to him who does not thus believe. Peter has spoken thus through Leo. So taught the Apostles. Piously and truly did Leo teach, so taught Cyril. Everlasting be the memory of Cyril. Leo and Cyril taught the same thing, anathema to him who does not so believe. This is the true faith. Those of us who are orthodox thus believe. This is the faith of the fathers. Why were not these things read at Ephesus? These are the things Dioscorus hid away.'"

Leo firmly declined to confirm their disciplinary arrangements, which seemed to allow Constantinople a practically equal authority with Rome and regarded the civil importance of a city as a determining factor in its ecclesiastical position; but he strongly supported its dogmatic decrees, especially when, after the accession of Emperor Leo I (457), there seemed to be a disposition toward compromise with the Eutychians.

Teaching on Christ
Leo's writings (sermons and letters) mostly discuss theological questions concerning the person of Jesus Christ (Christology) and his role as mediator and savior (Soteriology), which is partially connected to the Council of Chalcedon, in which Roman legates represented Leo. Subsequently, through numerous letters to bishops and members of the imperial family, Leo incessantly worked for the propagation and universal reception of the faith in Christ as defined by Chalcedon, also in the eastern part of the Roman empire. Leo defends both the true divinity and true humanity of Christ against heretical one-sidedness. He takes up this topic also in many of his sermons, and over the years, he further develops his own original concepts. A central idea around which Leo deepens and explains his theology is Christ's presence in the Church, more specifically in the teaching and preaching of the faith (Scripture, Tradition and their interpretation), in the liturgy (sacraments and celebrations), in the life of the individual believer and of the organized Church, especially in a council.

To Leo the Great, Mariology is determined by Christology. If Christ were divine only, everything about him would be divine. Only his divinity would have been crucified, buried and resurrected. Mary would only be the mother of God, and Christians would have no hope for their own resurrection. The nucleus of Christianity would be destroyed. The most unusual beginning of a truly human life through her was to give birth to Jesus, the Lord and Son of King David.

Heir of Peter
Leo assumed the papacy at a time of increasing barbarian invasions; this, coupled with the decreasing imperial authority in the West, forced the Bishop of Rome to take a more active part in civil and political affairs. He was one of the first bishops of Rome to promote papal primacy based on succession from Peter the Apostle; and he did so as a means of maintaining unity among the churches.

Besides recourse to biblical language, Leo also described his own special relationship with Peter in terms derived from Roman law. He called himself the (unworthy) heir and deputy (vicarius) of Peter, having received his apostolic authority and being obliged to follow his example. On the one hand, Peter stood before him with a claim on how Leo is to exercise his office; on the other hand, Leo, as the Roman bishop, represented the Apostle, whose authority he held. Christ, however, always comes out as the source of all grace and authority, and Leo is responsible to him for how he fulfilled his duties (sermon 1). Thus, the office of the Roman bishop was grounded on the special relationship between Christ and Peter, a relationship that cannot be repeated per se; therefore, Leo depended on Peter's mediation, his assistance and his example in order to be able to adequately fulfill his role and exercise his authority as the Bishop of Rome, both in the city and beyond.

Leo and Attila

After the indecisive outcome of the Battle of Chalons in 451, Attila invaded Italy in 452, sacking cities such as Aquileia and heading for Rome. He allegedly demanded that the sister of the reigning Emperor Valentinian III be sent to him with a dowry. In response, the emperor sent three envoys to negotiate with Attila: Gennadius Avienus, one of the consuls of 450, Memmius Aemilius Trygetius, the former urban prefect, and Leo. Little is known of the specifics of the negotiations, as a result of which Attila withdrew. Most ancient and medieval historians celebrated Leo's actions, giving him all the credit for this successful embassy. According to Prosper of Aquitaine, who was alive at the time of the event, Attila was so impressed by Leo that he withdrew. Another near-contemporary was the historian Priscus who records that Attila was dissuaded from attacking Rome by his own men because they feared he would share the fate of the Visigothic king Alaric, who died shortly after sacking the city in 410. Paul the Deacon, in the late 8th century, relates that an enormously huge man dressed in priestly robes and armed with a sword, visible only to Attila, threatened him and his army with death during his discourse with Leo, and this prompted Attila to submit to his request.

Writing in the early 20th century, the religious skeptic John B. Bury remarked: The fact of the embassy cannot be doubted. The distinguished ambassadors visited the Hun's camp near the south shore of Lake Garda. It is also certain that Attila suddenly retreated. But we are at a loss to know what considerations were offered him to induce him to depart. It is unreasonable to suppose that this heathen king would have cared for the thunders or persuasions of the Church. The Emperor refused to surrender Honoria, and it is not recorded that money was paid. A trustworthy chronicle hands down another account which does not conflict with the fact that an embassy was sent, but evidently furnishes the true reasons which moved Attila to receive it favourably. Plague broke out in the barbarian host and their food ran short, and at the same time troops arrived from the east, sent by Marcian to the aid of Italy. If his host was suffering from pestilence, and if troops arrived from the east, we can understand that Attila was forced to withdraw. But whatever terms were arranged, he did not pretend that they meant a permanent peace. The question of Honoria was left unsettled, and he threatened that he would come again and do worse things in Italy unless she were given up with the due portion of the Imperial possessions.

Leo's intercession could not prevent the sack of the city by the Vandal King Genseric in 455, but murder and arson were repressed by his influence. The Pope and members of his clergy, went to meet the invader to implore him to desist. While the Vandals plundered the city, the gesture nevertheless prevented Rome from being burned and assured that the Basilicas of St Peter, St Paul and St John, in which part of the terrified population sought refuge, were spared. Leo assisted in rebuilding the city of Rome, restoring key places such as Saint Peter's.

On the fundamental dignity of Christians
In his In Nativitate Domini, Christmas Day, sermon, "Christian, remember your dignity", Leo articulates a fundamental dignity common to all Christians, whether saints or sinners, and the consequent obligation to live up to it:

Death and burial
Leo died on 10 November 461 and, as he wished to be buried as close as possible to the tomb of St. Peter, his body was entombed within the portico of Old St. Peter's Basilica. He was the first pope to be buried within St. Peter's. In 688, Pope Sergius I had Leo's remains moved to the south transept, inside the basilica. The relocation was apparently due to the number of later papal burials obscuring the prominence that Sergius believed Leo's tomb should have.

Significance
Pope Benedict XVI said that Leo's papacy was "undoubtedly one of the most important in the Church's history".

In 1754 Pope Benedict XIV proclaimed Leo I a Doctor of the Church. Next to Leo only one other pope, Gregory I, is also recognized as Doctor of the Church.

The Catholic Church marks 10 November as the feast day of Saint Leo, given in the Martyrologium Hieronymianum and the 8th-century Calendar of Saint Willibrord as the date of his death and entry to heaven. His feast was once celebrated in Rome on 28 June, the anniversary of the placing of his relics in Saint Peter's Basilica, but in the 12th century, the Gallican Rite feast of 11 April was admitted to the General Roman Calendar, which maintained that date until 1969.

The Eastern Catholic Churches as well as the Eastern Orthodox Church celebrate Saint Leo on 18 February.

Leo the Great is honored in the Church of England and in the Episcopal Church on 10 November.

In the Roman rite, fragments of his texts are read in the liturgy of hours, for example on Christmas.

Feast Day

 * 18 February – commemoration by Eastern Orthodox Church,
 * 28 June – commemoration of translation of relics in 688 by Sergius I,
 * 10 November – main commemoration (death anniversary),
 * 12 November – commemoration by Eastern Orthodox Church,
 * 13 or 14 November – main commemoration (Diocese of Solsona),

Hymns
Troparion (Tone 3)
 * You were the Church's instrument
 * in strengthening the teaching of true doctrine;
 * you shone forth from the West like a sun dispelling the errors of the heretics.
 * Righteous Leo, entreat Christ God to grant us His great mercy.

Troparion (Tone 8)
 * O Champion of Orthodoxy, and teacher of holiness,
 * The enlightenment of the universe and the inspired glory of true believers.
 * O most wise Father Leo, your teachings are as music of the Holy Spirit for us!
 * Pray that Christ our God may save our souls!

Kontakion (Tone 3)
 * Seated upon the throne of the priesthood, glorious Leo,
 * you shut the mouths of the spiritual lions.
 * With divinely inspired teachings of the honored Trinity,
 * you shed the light of the knowledge of God up-on your flock.
 * Therefore, you are glorified as a divine initiate of the grace of God.

title: Pope Leo I


text:
Greenlandic

Greenlandic may refer to:
 * Something of, from, or related to Greenland, a country
 * List of people from Greenland
 * Greenlandic Inuit are people identified with the country of Greenland, or of Greenlandic descent: see Demographics of Greenland
 * List of Greenlandic Inuit
 * Greenlandic culture
 * Greenlandic cuisine
 * Greenlandic people in Denmark
 * Greenlandic language, an Inuit-Yupik-Unangan language spoken by the people of Greenland
 * Kalaallisut (West Greenlandic)
 * Inuktun (North Greenlandic)
 * Tunumiisut (East Greenlandic)
 * Historically, anything relating to the Norse communities in southwestern Greenland
 * Greenlandic Norse, extinct language
 * Danish language, as spoken in Greenland

Other uses

 * Greenlandic sheep, a sheep species
 * Greenlandic krone, a planned currency for Greenland, plans of which were abandoned in 2009
 * Greenlandic Shark, a national dish of Iceland consisting of a Greenland shark

title: Greenlandic