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Melanocytic nevus

A melanocytic nevus (also known as nevocytic nevus, nevus-cell nevus and commonly as a mole) is usually a noncancerous condition of pigment-producing skin cells. It is a type of melanocytic tumor that contains nevus cells. Some sources equate the term mole with "melanocytic nevus", but there are also sources that equate the term mole with any nevus form.

The majority of moles appear during the first two decades of a person's life, with about one in every 100 babies being born with moles. Acquired moles are a form of benign neoplasm, while congenital moles, or congenital nevi, are considered a minor malformation or hamartoma and may be at a higher risk for melanoma. A mole can be either subdermal (under the skin) or a pigmented growth on the skin, formed mostly of a type of cell known as a melanocyte. The high concentration of the body's pigmenting agent, melanin, is responsible for their dark color. Moles are a member of the family of skin lesions known as nevi, occurring commonly in humans.

Signs and symptoms
According to the American Academy of Dermatology, the most common types of moles are skin tags, raised moles and flat moles. Benign moles are usually brown, tan, pink or black (especially on dark-colored skin). They are circular or oval and are usually small (commonly between 1–3 mm), though some can be larger than the size of a typical pencil eraser (>5 mm). Some moles produce dark, coarse hair. Common mole hair removal procedures include plucking, cosmetic waxing, electrolysis, threading and cauterization.

Aging
Moles tend to appear during early childhood and during the first 30 years of life. They may change slowly, becoming raised, changing color or gradually fading. Most people have between 30 and 40 moles, but some have as many as 600.

The number of moles a person has was found to have a correlation with telomere length. However, the relation between telomeres and aging remains uncertain.

Complications
The American Academy of Dermatology says that the vast majority of moles are benign. Data on the chances of transformation from melanocytic nevus to melanoma is controversial, but it appears that about 10% of malignant melanomas have a precursor lesion, of which about 10% are melanocytic nevi. Therefore, it appears that malignant melanoma quite seldom (1% of cases) has a melanocytic nevus as a precursor.

Cause
The cause is not clearly understood, but is thought to be caused by a defect in embryologic development. This is in the first twelve weeks of pregnancy. The defect is thought to cause a proliferation of melanocytes, the cells responsible for normal skin color. When melanocytes are produced at an extremely fast rate, they form in clusters instead of spreading out, resulting in abnormal skin pigmentation in some areas of the body.

Genetics
Genes can have an influence on a person's moles.

Dysplastic nevus syndrome is a largely hereditary condition which causes a person to have a large quantity of moles (often 100 or more) with some larger than normal or atypical. This often leads to a higher risk of melanoma, a serious type of skin cancer. Dysplastic nevi are more likely than ordinary moles to become cancerous. Dysplastic nevi are common, and many people have a few of these abnormal moles. Having more than 50 ordinary moles increases the risk of developing melanoma.

In the overall population, a slight majority of melanomas do not form in an existing mole, but rather create a new growth on the skin. Somewhat surprisingly, this also applies to those with dysplastic nevi. They are at a higher risk of melanoma occurring not only where there is an existing mole, but also where there are none. Such persons need to be checked regularly for any changes in their moles and to note any new ones.

Sunlight
Ultraviolet (UV) light from the sun causes premature aging of the skin and skin damage that can lead to melanoma. It has been hypothesized that overexposure to UV, including excessive sunlight, may play a role in the formation of acquired moles. However, more research is needed to determine the complex interaction between genetic makeup and overall exposure to ultraviolet light. Some strong indications that this is so (but falling short of proof), are:
 * The relative lack of moles on the buttocks of people with dysplastic nevi.
 * Freckles (spots of melanin on the skin, and distinct from moles) are known to be influenced by sunlight.

Studies have found that sunburns and spending too much time in the sun can increase the risk factors for melanoma. This is in addition to those who have dysplastic nevi being at higher risk of this cancer (the uncertainty is in regard to acquiring benign moles). To prevent and reduce the risk of melanoma caused by UV radiation, the American Academy of Dermatology and the National Cancer Institute recommends staying out of the sun between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. standard time (or whenever one's shadow is shorter than one's height). The National Cancer Institute also recommends wearing long sleeves and trousers, hats with a wide brim, sunscreens, and sunglasses that have UV-deflecting lenses.

Diagnosis
Clinical diagnosis can be made with the naked eye using the ABCD guideline or by using dermatoscopy. An online-screening test is also available to help screen out benign moles.

Classification
Melanocytic nevi can mainly be classified by depth, being congenital versus acquired, and/or specific dermatoscopy or histopathology patterns:
 * Depth:

 * Congenital versus acquired:
 * Congenital nevus: Small to large nevus present at or near time of birth. Small ones have low potential for forming melanomas, however the risk increases with size, as in the giant pigmented nevus.
 * Acquired nevus: Any melanocytic nevus that is not a congenital nevus or not present at birth or near birth.

 * Specific dermatoscopy or histopathology patterns:

 * Recurrence:
 * Recurrent nevus: Any incompletely removed nevus with residual melanocytes left in the surgical wound. It creates a dilemma for the patient and physician, as these scars cannot be distinguished from a melanoma.

Differentiation from melanoma
It often requires a dermatologist to fully evaluate moles. For instance, a small blue or bluish-black spot, often called a blue nevus, is usually benign but often mistaken for melanoma. Conversely, a junctional nevus, which develops at the junction of the dermis and epidermis, is potentially cancerous.

A basic reference chart used for consumers to spot suspicious moles is found in the mnemonic A-B-C-D, used by institutions such as the American Academy of Dermatology and the National Cancer Institute. The letters stand for asymmetry, border, color, and diameter. Sometimes, the letter E (for elevation or evolving) is added. According to the American Academy of Dermatology, if a mole starts changing in size, color, shape or, especially, if the border of a mole develops ragged edges or becomes larger than a pencil eraser, it would be an appropriate time to consult with a physician. Other warning signs include a mole, even if smaller than a pencil eraser, that is different from the others and begins to crust over, bleed, itch, or become inflamed. The changes may indicate developing melanomas. The matter can become clinically complicated because mole removal depends on which types of cancer, if any, come into suspicion.

A recent and novel method of melanoma detection is the "ugly duckling sign" It is simple, easy to teach, and highly effective in detecting melanoma. Simply, correlation of common characteristics of a person's skin lesion is made. Lesions which greatly deviate from the common characteristics are labeled as an "ugly duckling", and further professional exam is required. The "little red riding hood sign", suggests that individuals with fair skin and light colored hair might have difficult-to-diagnose melanomas. Extra care and caution should be rendered when examining such individuals as they might have multiple melanomas and severely dysplastic nevi. A dermatoscope must be used to detect "ugly ducklings", as many melanomas in these individuals resemble non-melanomas or are considered to be "wolves in sheep clothing". These fair skinned individuals often have lightly pigmented or amelanotic melanomas which will not present easy-to-observe color changes and variation in colors. The borders of these amelanotic melanomas are often indistinct, making visual identification without a dermatoscope very difficult.

People with a personal or family history of skin cancer or of dysplastic nevus syndrome (multiple atypical moles) should see a dermatologist at least once a year to be sure they are not developing melanoma.

Management
First, a diagnosis must be made. If the lesion is a seborrheic keratosis, then shave excision, electrodesiccation or cryosurgery may be performed, usually leaving very little if any scarring. If the lesion is suspected to be skin cancer, a skin biopsy must be done before considering removal. This is unless an excisional biopsy is warranted. If the lesion is a melanocytic nevus, one has to decide if it is medically indicated or not. Other reasons for removal may be cosmetic, or because a raised mole interferes with daily life (e.g. shaving).

If a melanocytic nevus is suspected of being a melanoma, it needs to be sampled or removed via skin biopsy, and sent for microscopic evaluation by a pathologist. Depending on the size and location of the original nevus, a complete excisional skin biopsy or a punch skin biopsy can be done. Removal can be by excisional biopsy or by shaving. Shaving leaves a red mark on the site which returns to the patient's usual skin color in about two weeks. However, there might still be a risk of spread of the melanoma, so the methods of melanoma diagnosis, including excisional biopsy, are still recommended even in these instances. Moles can also be removed by laser, surgery or electrocautery.

In properly trained hands, some medical lasers are used to remove flat moles level with the surface of the skin, as well as some raised moles. While laser treatment is commonly offered and may require several appointments, other dermatologists think lasers are not the best method for removing moles because the laser only cauterizes or, in certain cases, removes very superficial levels of skin. Moles tend to go deeper into the skin than non-invasive lasers can penetrate. After a laser treatment a scab is formed, which falls off about seven days later, in contrast to surgery, where the wound has to be sutured. A second concern about the laser treatment is that if the lesion is a melanoma, and was misdiagnosed as a benign mole, the procedure might delay diagnosis. If the mole is incompletely removed by the laser, and the pigmented lesion regrows, it might form a recurrent nevus.

Electrocautery is available as an alternative to laser cautery. Electrocautery is a procedure that uses a light electrical current to burn moles, skin tags, and warts off the skin. Electric currents are set to a level such that they only reach the outermost layers of the skin, thus reducing the problem of scarring. Approximately 1–3 treatments may be needed to completely remove a mole. Typically, a local anesthetic is applied to the treated skin area before beginning the mole removal procedure.

For surgery, many dermatologic and plastic surgeons first use a freezing solution, usually liquid nitrogen, on a raised mole and then shave it away with a scalpel. If the surgeon opts for the shaving method, he or she usually also cauterizes the stump. Because a circle is difficult to close with stitches, the incision is usually elliptical or eye-shaped. However, freezing should not be done to a nevus suspected to be a melanoma, as the ice crystals can cause pathological changes called "freezing artifacts" which might interfere with the diagnosis of the melanoma.

Mole removal risks
The risks of mole removal mainly depend on the type of method used. First, mole removal may be followed by some discomfort that can be relieved with pain medication. Second, there is a risk that a scab will form or that redness will occur. However, such scabs and redness usually heal within one or two weeks. Third, similar to other surgeries, there is also risk of infection, allergic reactions to anesthesia, or even nerve damage. Lastly, the mole removal may imply an uncomfortable scar depending on the mole size.

Society and culture
Throughout human history, individuals who have possessed facial moles have been subject to ridicule and attack based on superstition. Throughout most of history, facial moles were not considered objects of beauty on lovely faces. Rather, most moles were considered hideous growths that appeared mostly on the noses, cheeks, and chins of witches, frogs, and other low creatures.

During the Salem witch trials, warts and other dermatological lesions such as moles, scars, and other blemishes, found on accused women were considered evidence of a pact with the devil.

Face mole reading
In traditional Chinese culture, facial moles are used in moleomancy, or face mole reading. Moles that can be easily seen may be considered warnings or reminders, while hidden moles may symbolize good luck and fortune. Furthermore, traditional Chinese culture holds that each facial mole indicates the presence of a corresponding mole on another part of the body. For instance, if a mole is present around the mouth, a corresponding mole should be found in the pubic region.

title: Melanocytic nevus


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Clarke County

Clarke County may refer to:

 * Places
 * One of five counties in the United States:
 * Clarke County, Alabama
 * Clarke County, Georgia
 * Clarke County, Iowa
 * Clarke County, Mississippi
 * Clarke County, Virginia
 * Clarke County, New South Wales, in Australia

Clarke County was also the official name of Clark County, Washington from 1849 until 1925, when the spelling was changed.

 * Ships
 * USS Clarke County (LST-601), a United States Navy tank landing ship in commission as USS LST-601 from 1944 to 1955 and as USS Clarke County in 1955 and during the late 1960s

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Clarke County


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Robert Walpole

Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford, (26 August 1676 – 18 March 1745), known between 1725 and 1742 as Sir Robert Walpole, was a British statesman and Whig politician who, as First Lord of the Treasury, Chancellor of the Exchequer, and Leader of the House of Commons, is generally regarded as the de facto first prime minister of Great Britain.

Although the exact dates of Walpole's dominance, dubbed the "Robinocracy", are a matter of scholarly debate, the period 1721–1742 is often used. He dominated the Walpole–Townshend ministry, as well as the subsequent Walpole ministry, and holds the record as the longest-serving British prime minister. W. A. Speck wrote that Walpole's uninterrupted run of 20 years as prime minister "is rightly regarded as one of the major feats of British political history. Explanations are usually offered in terms of his expert handling of the political system after 1720, [and] his unique blending of the surviving powers of the crown with the increasing influence of the Commons".

Walpole was a Whig from the gentry class who was first elected to Parliament in 1701 and held many senior positions. He was a country squire and looked to country gentlemen for his political base. Historian F. O'Gorman says his leadership in Parliament reflected his "reasonable and persuasive oratory, his ability to move both the emotions as well as the minds of men, and, above all, his extraordinary self-confidence". Hoppit says Walpole's policies sought moderation, he worked for peace, lower taxes and growing exports and allowed a little more tolerance for Protestant Dissenters. He mostly avoided controversy and high-intensity disputes as his middle way attracted moderates from both the Whig and Tory camps, but his appointment to Chancellor of the Exchequer after the South Sea Bubble stock-market crisis drew attention to perceived protection of political allies by Walpole.

Historian H. T. Dickinson sums up his historical role by saying that "Walpole was one of the greatest politicians in British history. He played a significant role in sustaining the Whig party, safeguarding the Hanoverian succession, and defending the principles of the Glorious Revolution (1688). He established stable political supremacy for the Whig party and taught succeeding ministers how best to establish an effective working relationship between Crown and Parliament". Some scholars rank him highly among British prime ministers.

Early life
Walpole was born in Houghton, Norfolk, in 1676. One of 19 children, he was the third son and fifth child of Robert Walpole, a member of the local gentry and a Whig politician who represented the borough of Castle Rising in the House of Commons. His wife Mary Burwell was the daughter and heiress of Sir Geoffrey Burwell of Rougham, Suffolk. Horatio Walpole, 1st Baron Walpole, was his younger brother.

As a child, Walpole attended a private school at Massingham, Norfolk. Walpole entered Eton College in 1690 where he was a King's Scholar. He left Eton on 2 April 1696 and matriculated at King's College, Cambridge, on the same day. On 25 May 1698, he left Cambridge after the death of his only remaining older brother, Edward, so that he could help his father administer the family estate to which he had become the heir. Walpole had planned to become a clergyman but as he was now the eldest surviving son in the family, he abandoned the idea. In November 1700 his father died, and Robert succeeded to inherit the Walpole estate. A paper in his father's handwriting, dated 9 June 1700, shows the family estate in Norfolk and Suffolk to have been nine manors in Norfolk and one in Suffolk.

Political career
Walpole's political career began in January 1701 when he won a seat in the English general election at Castle Rising in Norfolk. He left Castle Rising in 1702 so that he could represent the neighbouring borough of King's Lynn, a pocket borough that would re-elect him for the remainder of his political career. Voters and politicians nicknamed him "Robin".

Like his father, Robert Walpole was a member of the Whig Party. In 1705, Walpole was appointed by Queen Anne to be a member of the council for her husband, Prince George of Denmark, Lord High Admiral. After having been singled out in a struggle between the Whigs and the government, Walpole became the intermediary for reconciling the government to the Whig leaders. His abilities were recognised by Lord Godolphin (the Lord High Treasurer and leader of the Cabinet) and he was subsequently appointed to the position of Secretary at War in 1708; for a short period of time in 1710 he also simultaneously held the post of Treasurer of the Navy.

Despite his personal clout, however, Walpole could not stop Lord Godolphin and the Whigs from pressing for the prosecution of Henry Sacheverell, a minister who preached anti-Whig sermons. The trial was extremely unpopular with much of the country, causing the Sacheverell riots, and was followed by the downfall of the Duke of Marlborough and the Whig Party in the general election of 1710. The new ministry, under the leadership of the Tory Robert Harley, removed Walpole from his office of Secretary at War but he remained Treasurer of the Navy until 2 January 1711. Harley had first attempted to entice him and then threatened him to join the Tories, but Walpole rejected the offers, instead becoming one of the most outspoken members of the Whig Opposition. He effectively defended Lord Godolphin against Tory attacks in parliamentary debate, as well as in the press.

In 1712, Walpole was accused of venality and corruption in the matter of two forage contracts for Scotland. Although it was proven that he had retained none of the money, Walpole was pronounced "guilty of a high breach of trust and notorious corruption". He was impeached by the House of Commons and found guilty by the House of Lords; he was then imprisoned in the Tower of London for six months and expelled from Parliament. While in the Tower he was regarded as a political martyr, and visited by all the Whig leaders. After he was released, Walpole wrote and published anonymous pamphlets attacking the Harley ministry and assisted Sir Richard Steele in crafting political pamphlets. Walpole was re-elected for King's Lynn in 1713.

Stanhope–Sunderland ministry
Queen Anne died in 1714. Under the Act of Settlement 1701, which excluded Roman Catholics from the line of succession, Anne was succeeded by her second cousin, the Elector of Hanover, George I. George I distrusted the Tories, who he believed opposed his right to succeed to the Throne. The year of George's accession, 1714, marked the ascendancy of the Whigs who would remain in power for the next fifty years. Robert Walpole became a Privy Councillor and rose to the position of Paymaster of the Forces in a Cabinet nominally led by Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, but actually dominated by Charles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend (Walpole's brother-in-law), and James Stanhope (later 1st Earl Stanhope). Walpole was also appointed chairman of a secret committee formed to investigate the actions of the previous Tory ministry in 1715. Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer, was impeached, and Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke, suffered from an act of attainder.

Halifax, the titular head of the administration, died in 1715 and by 1716 Walpole was appointed to the posts of First Commissioner (Lord) of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer. He was a member of the Board of General Officers established in 1717 to investigate the abuse of pay. Walpole's fellow members, appointed by the Prince of Wales (later George II), included William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath, Secretary at War; General Lumley; General Erle; and Sir Philip Meadowes, Controller of the Army and Knight Marshal of the King's Palace, whose daughter, Mary Meadows, was maid-of-honour to Walpole's friend, Queen Caroline. A keen huntsman, Walpole built for himself Great Lodge (Old Lodge) in Richmond Park. Philip Medows, the deputy ranger of the park and son of Walpole's political ally, Sir Philip Meadowes, lived at Great Lodge after Walpole had vacated it.

In his new political positions, and encouraged by his advisers, Walpole introduced the sinking fund, a device to reduce the national debt. The Cabinet of which he was a member was often divided over most important issues. Normally, Walpole and Townshend were on one side, with Stanhope and Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl of Sunderland on the other. Foreign policy was the primary issue of contention; George I was thought to be conducting foreign affairs with the interests of his German territories, rather than those of Great Britain, at heart. The Stanhope–Sunderland faction, however, had the King's support. In 1716 Townshend had been removed from the important post of Northern Secretary and put in the lesser office of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.

Even this change did not appease Stanhope and Sunderland, who secured the dismissal of Townshend from the Lord-Lieutenancy in April 1717. On the next day, Walpole resigned from the Cabinet to join the Opposition "because I could not connive at some things that were carrying on", and by joining the opposition he did not intend "to make the king uneasy or to embarrass his affairs." This began the Whig Split, dividing the dominant party for three years. In the new Cabinet, Sunderland and Stanhope (who was created an Earl) were the effective heads. Walpole reversed his earlier support for the impeachment of Robert Harley, the former first minister, and joined with the Tory opposition in securing an acquittal in July 1717.

Soon after Walpole's resignation, a bitter family quarrel between the King and the Prince of Wales, split the royal family. Walpole and others who opposed the Government often congregated at Leicester House, the home of the Prince of Wales, to form political plans.

Walpole also became an adviser and close friend of the Prince of Wales's wife, Caroline. In 1720 he improved his position by bringing about a reconciliation between the Prince of Wales and the King.

Walpole continued to be an influential figure in the House of Commons. He was especially active in opposing one of the Government's more significant proposals, the Peerage Bill, which would have limited the power of the monarch to create new peerages. Walpole brought about a temporary abandonment of the bill in 1719 and the outright rejection of the bill by the House of Commons. This defeat led Stanhope and Sunderland to reconcile with their opponents; Walpole returned as Paymaster of the Forces and Townshend was appointed Lord President of the Council. By accepting the position of Paymaster, however, Walpole lost the favour of the Prince of Wales (the future King George II), who still harboured disdain for his father's Government.

Rise to power and decline
Soon after Walpole returned to the Cabinet, Britain was swept by a wave of over-enthusiastic speculation which led to the South Sea Bubble. The Government had established a plan whereby the South Sea Company would assume the national debt of Great Britain in exchange for lucrative bonds. It was widely believed that the company would eventually reap an enormous profit through international trade in cloth, agricultural goods, and slaves. Many in the country, including Walpole himself (who sold at the top of the market and made 1,000 per cent profit), frenziedly invested in the company. By the latter part of 1720, however, the company had begun to collapse as the price of its shares plunged.

In 1721 a committee investigated the scandal, finding that there was corruption on the part of many in the Cabinet. Among those implicated were John Aislabie (the Chancellor of the Exchequer), James Craggs the Elder (the Postmaster General), James Craggs the Younger (the Southern Secretary), and even Lords Stanhope and Sunderland (the heads of the Ministry). Both Craggs the Elder and Craggs the Younger died in disgrace; the remainder were impeached for their corruption. Aislabie was found guilty and imprisoned, but the personal influence of Walpole saved both Stanhope and Sunderland. For his role in preventing these individuals and others from being punished, Walpole gained the nickname of "The Screen", or "Screenmaster-General".

The resignation of Sunderland and the death of Stanhope in 1721 left Walpole as the most important figure in the administration. On 3 April 1721 he was appointed First Lord of the Treasury, Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons. Walpole's de facto tenure as "prime minister" is often dated to his appointment as First Lord of the Treasury in 1721, though he himself rejected that title (it was originally a term of abuse), stating in 1741: "I unequivocally deny that I am sole and prime minister." His brother-in-law Lord Townshend served as Secretary of State for the Northern Department and controlled the nation's foreign affairs. The two also had to contend with the Secretary of State for the Southern Department, Lord Carteret. Townshend and Walpole were thus restored to power and "annihilated the opposing faction".

Premiership under George I
Under the guidance of Walpole, Parliament attempted to deal with the financial crisis brought on by the South Sea Bubble. The estates of the directors of the South Sea Company were used to relieve the suffering of the victims, and the stock of the company was divided between the Bank of England and East India Company. The crisis had gravely damaged the credibility of the King and of the Whig Party, but Walpole defended both with skilful oratory in the House of Commons.

Walpole's first year as prime minister was also marked by the discovery of a plot formed by Francis Atterbury, the bishop of Rochester. The exposure of the scheme crushed the hopes of the Jacobites whose previous attempts at rebellion (most notably the risings of 1715 and 1719) had also failed. The Tory Party was equally unfortunate even though Lord Bolingbroke, a Tory leader who fled to France to avoid punishment for his Jacobite sympathies, was permitted to return to Britain in 1723.

During the remainder of George I's reign, Walpole's ascendancy continued; the political power of the monarch was gradually diminishing and that of his ministers gradually increasing. In 1724 the primary political rival of Walpole and Townshend in the Cabinet, Lord Carteret, was dismissed from the post of Southern Secretary and once again appointed to the lesser office of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. In Ireland, Lord Carteret used his power to secretly aid in the controversy over Wood's Halfpence and support Drapier's Letters behind the scenes and cause harm to Walpole's power. Walpole was able to recover from these events by removing the patent. However, Irish sentiment was situated against the English control.

Townshend, working with the king, helped keep Great Britain at peace, especially by negotiating a treaty with France and Prussia in 1725. Walpole was not consulted and stated that Townshend was "too precipitate" in his actions. Great Britain, free from Jacobite threats, from war, and from financial crises, grew prosperous, and Robert Walpole acquired the favour of George I. In 1725 he persuaded the king to revive the Knighthood of the Bath and was himself invested with the order, and in 1726 was made a Knight of the Garter, earning him the nickname "Sir Bluestring". His eldest son was granted a barony.

Premiership under George II
Walpole's position was threatened in 1727 when George I died and was succeeded by George II. For a few days it seemed that Walpole would be dismissed but, on the advice of Queen Caroline, the King agreed to keep him in office. Although the King disliked Townshend, he retained him as well. Over the next years Walpole continued to share power with Townshend but the two clashed over British foreign affairs, especially over policy regarding Austria. Gradually Walpole became the clearly dominant partner in government. His colleague retired on 15 May 1730 and this date is sometimes given as the beginning of Walpole's unofficial tenure as prime minister. Townshend's departure enabled Walpole to conclude the Treaty of Vienna, creating the Anglo-Austrian alliance.

Opposition
Walpole, a polarising figure, had many opponents, the most important of whom were in the Country Party, such as Lord Bolingbroke (who had been his political enemy since the days of Queen Anne) and William Pulteney (a capable Whig statesman who felt snubbed when Walpole failed to include him in the Cabinet). Bolingbroke and Pulteney ran a periodical called The Craftsman in which they incessantly denounced the Prime Minister's policies. Walpole was also satirised and parodied extensively; he was often compared to the criminal Jonathan Wild as, for example, John Gay did in his farcical Beggar's Opera. Walpole's other enemies included Jonathan Swift, Alexander Pope, Henry Fielding, and Samuel Johnson.

Support

Walpole secured the support of the people and of the House of Commons with a policy of avoiding war. He used his influence to prevent George II from entering the War of the Polish Succession in 1733, because it was a dispute between the Bourbons and the Habsburgs. He boasted, "There are 50,000 men slain in Europe this year, and not one Englishman." By avoiding wars, Walpole could lower taxes. He reduced the national debt with a sinking fund, and by negotiating lower interest rates. He reduced the land tax from four shillings in 1721, to 3s in 1728, 2s in 1731 and finally to only 1s in 1732. His long-term goal was to replace the land tax, which was paid by the local gentry, with excise and customs taxes, which were paid by merchants and ultimately by consumers. Walpole joked that the landed gentry resembled hogs, which squealed loudly whenever anyone laid hands on them. By contrast, he said, merchants were like sheep, and yielded their wool without complaint. The joke backfired in 1733 when he was defeated in a major battle to impose excise taxes on wine and tobacco. To reduce the threat of smuggling, the tax was to be collected not at ports but at warehouses. This new proposal, however, was extremely unpopular and aroused the opposition of the nation's merchants. Walpole agreed to withdraw the bill before Parliament voted on it, but he dismissed the politicians who had dared to oppose it in the first place. Thus, Walpole lost a considerable element of his Whig Party to the Opposition.

After the general elections of 1734, Walpole's supporters still formed a majority in the House of Commons although they were less numerous than before. He maintained both his parliamentary supremacy and his popularity in Norfolk, his home county. In May 1734, he presented a new silver mace "weighing 168 ounces, gilt, and finely exchased, to the city of Norwich – on the cup part of it are Sir Robert's arms, and the arms of the city; it was first carried before Mayor Philip Meadows Esq. on the 29th of May". However, despite these great occasions, Walpole's broader popularity had begun to wane. In 1736 an increase in the tax on gin inspired riots in London. The even more serious Porteous riots broke out in Edinburgh after the King pardoned a captain of the guard (John Porteous) who had commanded his troops to shoot a group of protesters. Though these events diminished Walpole's popularity, they failed to shake his majority in Parliament. Walpole's domination over the House of Commons was highlighted by the ease with which he secured the rejection of Sir John Barnard's plan to reduce the interest on the national debt. Walpole was also able to persuade Parliament to pass the Licensing Act of 1737 under which London theatres were regulated. The Act revealed a disdain for Swift, Pope, Fielding, and other literary figures who had attacked his government in their works.

While the "country party" attacked Walpole relentlessly, he subsidised writers and lesser-known journalists such as William Arnall and Bishop Benjamin Hoadly as well as two men he named to the role of poet laureate, Laurence Eusden and Colley Cibber. They defended Walpole from the charge of evil political corruption by arguing that corruption is the universal human condition. Furthermore, they argued, political divisiveness was also universal and inevitable because of selfish passions that were integral to human nature. Arnall argued that government must be strong enough to control conflict, and in that regard, Walpole was quite successful. This style of "court" political rhetoric continued through the 18th century.

Decline
The year 1737 saw the death of Walpole's close friend Queen Caroline. Though her death did not end his personal influence with George II, who had grown loyal to the Prime Minister during the preceding years, Walpole's domination of government continued to decline. His opponents acquired a vocal leader in the Prince of Wales who was estranged from his father, the King. Several young politicians including William Pitt the Elder and George Grenville formed a faction known as the "Patriot Boys" and joined the Prince of Wales in opposition.

Walpole's failure to maintain a policy of avoiding military conflict eventually led to his fall from power. Under the Treaty of Seville (1729), Great Britain agreed not to trade with the Spanish colonies in North America. Spain claimed the right to board and search British vessels to ensure compliance with this provision. Disputes, however, broke out over trade with the West Indies. Walpole attempted to prevent war but was opposed by the King, the House of Commons, and by a faction in his own Cabinet. In 1739 Walpole abandoned all efforts to stop the conflict and commenced the War of Jenkins' Ear (so called because Robert Jenkins, a Welsh mariner, claimed that a Spaniard inspecting his vessel had severed his ear).

Walpole's influence continued to dramatically decline even after the war began. In the 1741 general election his supporters secured an increase in votes in constituencies that were decided by mass electorates but failed to win in many pocket boroughs (constituencies subject to the informal but strong influence of patrons). In general, the government made gains in England and Wales but this was not enough to overturn the reverses of the 1734 election and further losses in Cornwall where many constituencies were obedient to the will of the Prince of Wales (who was also Duke of Cornwall). These constituencies returned members of parliament hostile to the Prime Minister. Similarly, the influence of the Duke of Argyll secured the election of members opposed to Walpole in some parts of Scotland. Walpole's new majority was difficult to determine because of the uncertain loyalties of many new members, but contemporaries and historians estimated it as low as fourteen to eighteen.

In the new Parliament, many Whigs thought the ageing Prime Minister incapable of leading the military campaign. Moreover, his majority was not as strong as it had formerly been, his detractors – such as William Pulteney, earl of Bath, and Lord Perceval – being approximately as numerous as his supporters. Behind these political enemies were opposition Whigs, Tories and Jacobites. Walpole was alleged to have presided over an immense increase in corruption and to have enriched himself enormously whilst in office. Parliamentary committees were formed to investigate these charges. In 1742 when the House of Commons was prepared to determine the validity of a by-election in Chippenham, Walpole and others agreed to treat the issue as a motion of no confidence. As Walpole was defeated on the vote, he agreed to resign from the Government. The news of the naval disaster against Spain in the Battle of Cartagena de Indias also prompted the end of his political career. King George II wept on his resignation and begged to see him frequently. As part of his resignation the King agreed to elevate him to the House of Lords as the Earl of Orford, Viscount Walpole and Baron Walpole of Houghton in the County of Norfolk, this occurred on 6 February 1742. Five days later he formally relinquished the seals of office.

Although no longer First Lord of the Treasury, Walpole remained politically involved as an advisor. His former colleagues were still pleased to see him, perhaps in part because he retained the king's favour. After his resignation, his main political roles were to support the government by means of advice, to dole out some patronage and to speak on the ministry's behalf in the Lords.

Later life
Lord Orford was succeeded as prime minister by Lord Wilmington in an administration whose true head was Lord Carteret. A committee was created to inquire into Walpole's ministry but no substantial evidence of wrongdoing or corruption was discovered. Though no longer a member of the Cabinet, Orford continued to maintain personal influence with George II and was often dubbed the "Minister behind the Curtain" for this advice and influence. In 1744 he managed to secure the dismissal of Carteret and the appointment of Henry Pelham whom he regarded as a political protégé. He advised Pelham to make use of his seat in the Commons to serve as a bridge between the King and Parliament, just as Walpole had done.

During this time, Walpole also made two interventions in the Lords. The first was in January 1744 in the debate on Hanoverian troops being kept in British pay. Walpole prevented them from losing the troops. In his second intervention, Walpole, with fear of a Jacobite-inspired invasion in February 1744, made a speech on the situation. Frederick, Prince of Wales, usually hostile to Walpole, warmly received him at his court the next day, most likely because his father's throne, and the future of the whole Hanoverian dynasty, was at risk from the Stuart Pretender.

Along with his political interests in his last years, Walpole enjoyed the pleasures of the hunt. Back at his recently rebuilt country seat in Houghton, Norfolk, such pastimes were denied him due to "dismal weather". He also enjoyed the beauties of the countryside. His art collection gave him particular pleasure. He had spent much money in the 1720s and 1730s in building up a collection of Old Masters from all over Europe. Walpole also concerned himself with estate matters.

His health, never good, deteriorated rapidly toward the end of 1744. Walpole died in London on 18 March 1745 from a bladder stone, aged 68 years, and was buried at the Church of St Martin at Tours on the Haughton estate. His earldom passed to his eldest son Robert who was in turn succeeded by his only son George. Upon the death of the third Earl, the earldom was inherited by the first Earl's younger son Horace Walpole, who is now remembered for his many thousands of insightful letters, published in 48 volumes by Yale University Press. The title died with him in 1797.

Legacy

Walpole exercised a tremendous influence on the politics of his day. The Tories became a minor insignificant faction, and the Whigs became a dominant and largely unopposed party. His influence on the development of the uncodified constitution of Great Britain was less momentous, even though he is regarded as Great Britain's first prime minister. He relied primarily on the favour of the King, rather than the support of the House of Commons. His power stemmed from his personal influence instead of the influence of his office. Most of his immediate successors were, comparatively speaking, extremely weak. It would take several decades more for the premiership to develop into the most powerful and most important office in the country.

Walpole's strategy of keeping Great Britain at peace contributed greatly to the country's prosperity. Walpole also managed to secure the position of the Hanoverian dynasty, and effectively countervailed Jacobitism. The Jacobite threat ended, soon after Walpole's term ended, with the defeat of the rebellion of 1745. Later in the century, the Whig MP Edmund Burke "admitted him into the whig pantheon". Burke wrote:

"He was an honorable man and a sound Whig. He was not, as the Jacobites and discontented Whigs of his time have represented him, and as ill-informed people still represent him, a prodigal and corrupt minister. They charged him in their libels and seditious conversations as having first reduced corruption to a system. Such was their cant. But he was far from governing by corruption. He governed by party attachments. The charge of systematic corruption is less applicable to him, perhaps, than to any minister who ever served the crown for so great a length of time. He gained over very few from the Opposition. Without being a genius of the first class, he was an intelligent, prudent, and safe minister. He loved peace; and he helped to communicate the same disposition to nations at least as warlike and restless as that in which he had the chief direction of affairs. ... With many virtues, public and private, he had his faults; but his faults were superficial. A careless, coarse, and over familiar style of discourse, without sufficient regard to persons or occasions, and an almost total want of political decorum, were the errours [sic] by which he was most hurt in the public opinion: and those through which his enemies obtained the greatest advantage over him. But justice must be done. The prudence, steadiness, and vigilance of that man, joined to the greatest possible lenity in his character and his politics, preserved the crown to this royal family; and with it, their laws and liberties to this country."

Lord Chesterfield expressed scepticism as to whether "an impartial Character of Sr Robert Walpole, will or can be transmitted to Posterity, for he governed this Kingdom so long that the various passions of Mankind mingled, and in a manner incorporated themselves, with every thing that was said or writt concerning him. Never was Man more flattered nor more abused, and his long power, was probably the chief cause of both". Chesterfield claimed he was "much acquainted with him both in his publick and his private life":

"In private life he was good natured, chearfull, social. Inelegant in his manners, loose in his morals. He had a coarse wit, which he was too free of for a man in his station, as it is always inconsistent with dignity. He was very able as a Minister, but without a certain elevation of mind ... He was both the ablest Parliament man, and the ablest manager of a Parliament, that I believe ever lived ... Money, not prerogative, was the chief engine of his administration, and he employed it with a success that in a manner disgraced humanity ... When he found any body proof, against pecuniary temptations, which alass! was but seldom, he had recourse to still a worse art. For he laughed at and ridiculed all notions of publick virtue, and the love of one's country, calling them the chimerical school boy flights of classical learning; declaring himself at the same time, no Saint, no Spartan, no reformer. He would frequently ask young fellows at their first appearance in the world, while their honest hearts were yet untainted, well are you to be an old Roman? a patriot? you will soon come off of that, and grow wiser. And thus he was more dangerous to the morals, than to the libertys of his country, to which I am persuaded that he meaned no ill in his heart. ... His name will not be recorded in history among the best men, or the best Ministers, but much much less ought it to be ranked among the worst."

10 Downing Street represents another part of Walpole's legacy. George II offered this home to Walpole as a personal gift in 1732, but Walpole accepted it only as the official residence of the First Lord of the Treasury, taking up his residence there on 22 September 1735. His immediate successors did not always reside in Number 10 (preferring their larger private residences), but the home has nevertheless become established as the official residence of the prime minister (in his or her capacity as First Lord of the Treasury).

Walpole has attracted attention from heterodox economists as a pioneer of protectionist policies, in the form of tariffs and subsidies to woollen manufacturers. As a result, the industry became Britain's primary export, enabling the country to import the raw materials and food that fueled the industrial revolution.

Walpole is immortalised in St Stephen's Hall, where he and other notable Parliamentarians look on at visitors to Parliament.

Walpole built Houghton Hall in Norfolk as his country seat. He also left behind a collection of art which he had assembled during his career. His grandson, the 3rd Earl of Orford, sold many of the works in this collection to the Russian Empress Catherine II in 1779. This collection – then regarded as one of the finest in Europe – now lies in the State Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, Russia. In 2013 the Hermitage loaned the collection to Houghton for display, following the original William Kent hanging plan, which had been recently discovered at Houghton.

The nursery rhyme "Who Killed Cock Robin?" may allude to the fall of Walpole, who carried the popular nickname "Cock Robin". (Contemporaries satirised the Walpole regime as the "Robinocracy" or as the "Robinarchy".)

Various locations are named after Walpole, including Walpole Street in Wolverhampton, England; and the towns of Walpole, Massachusetts (founded in 1724), and Orford, New Hampshire (incorporated in 1761) in the United States.

Catherine Shorter
On 30 July 1700, Walpole married Catherine Shorter (1682–1737), the eldest daughter and co-heiress of John Shorter of Bybrook in Ashford, Kent (the son of Sir John Shorter (1625–1688), Lord Mayor of London) by his wife Elizabeth Philipps (born c. 1664), a daughter of Sir Erasmus Philipps, 3rd Baronet. She was described as "a woman of exquisite beauty and accomplished manners". Her £20,000 dowry was, according to Walpole's brother Horatio Walpole, spent on the wedding, christenings and jewels. Her sister and co-heiress Charlotte Shorter married (as his third wife) Francis Seymour-Conway, 1st Baron Conway (1679–1731/2), by whom she was the mother of Francis Seymour-Conway, 1st Marquess of Hertford (1718–1794). Sir John Shorter (c. 1625–1688), Lord Mayor of London, married Isabel Birkhead, a sister of Edward Birkhead (d.1662) of Richmond House, Twickenham, Serjeant-at-Arms in the House of Commons in 1648, a Quaker Magistrate and the principal landowner in the parish of Twickenham. Catherine's youngest son Horace later built Strawberry Hill House on land purchased by him at Twickenham. Catherine Shorter died on 20 August 1737 and was buried at Houghton, with a monument in the south aisle of the King Henry VII Chapel, Westminster Abbey, erected by her son Horatio, in the form of a life-size white marble statue, a copy by Filippo della Valle of a Roman statue of Livia (or Pudicitia) in the Villa Mattei in Rome. On the plinth sculpted by John Michael Rysbrack is the following inscription written by Horace:

 * To the memory of Catherine Lady Walpole, eldest daughter of John Shorter, Esqr. of Bybrook in Kent and first wife of Sir Robert Walpole, afterwards Earl of Orford, Horace her youngest son consecrates this monument. She had beauty and wit without vice or vanity, and cultivated the Arts without affectation. She was devout, tho' without bigotry to any sect, and was without prejudice to any party tho' the wife of a minister, whose power she esteemed but when she could employ it to benefit the miserable or to reward the meritorious. She loved a private life, tho' born to shine in public; and was an ornament to courts, untainted by them. She died 20 August 1737.

By Catherine Shorter he had two daughters and three sons:
 * Robert Walpole, 2nd Earl of Orford, eldest son and heir, who in 1724 married Margaret Rolle (17 January 1709 – 13 January 1781), later suo jure 15th Baroness Clinton. They had one son George Walpole, 3rd Earl of Orford and 16th Baron Clinton (1730–1791), who left no legitimate children and died insane.
 * Katherine Walpole, who died unmarried and without issue;
 * Mary Walpole, who on 14 September 1723 married George Cholmondeley, 3rd Earl of Cholmondeley. They had sons and daughters and the Houghton Estate eventually became the inheritance of the Cholmondeley family. She died at Aix-en-Provence in 1731, and was buried at Malpas, Cheshire.
 * Edward Walpole, who died unmarried but had four illegitimate children by his mistress Dorothy Clement:
 * Edward, born in 1737, died in 1771 without issue;
 * Laura, the eldest daughter, who married Bishop Frederick Keppel;
 * Maria Walpole (d. 1807) (Duchess of Gloucester and Edinburgh), the second daughter, who married firstly James Waldegrave, 2nd Earl Waldegrave and secondly Prince William Henry, Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh the brother of King King George III.
 * Charlotte, the youngest daughter, who married Lionel Tollemache, 5th Earl of Dysart.
 * Horatio Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford (24 September 1717 – 2 March 1797), of Strawberry Hill House, Twickenham, youngest son, the diarist known to history as "Horace Walpole". He became the 4th and last Earl of Orford on his nephew's death in 1791, and died unmarried and without issue.

Maria Skerritt
Prior to the death of his first wife Walpole took on a mistress, Maria Skeritt (d. 1738), a fashionable socialite of wit and beauty, with an independent fortune of £30,000, the daughter and sole heiress of Thomas Skeritt (d. 1738) (aliter Skerret, Skeritt, etc), a wealthy Irish merchant living in Dover Street, Mayfair, London. They had been living together openly in Richmond Park and Houghton Hall since before 1728, and married at some time before March 1738. She died on 4 June 1739 following a miscarriage. Walpole considered her "indispensable to his happiness", and her loss plunged him into a "deplorable and comfortless condition", which led to a severe illness. By Maria Skerritt he had one daughter, born before the marriage, but subsequently legitimated:
 * Maria Walpole, who after her legitimation acquired the style of the daughter of an earl, as Lady Maria Walpole. In 1746 she married Colonel Charles Churchill (1720–1812) of Chalfont, an illegitimate son of General Charles Churchill, and became the king's housekeeper at Windsor Castle. By Charles Churchill she had daughters including:
 * Sophia Churchill, who married her relative Horatio Walpole, 2nd Earl of Orford (1752–1822), of the third creation of that earldom, the son of Horatio Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford, son of Horatio Walpole, 1st Baron Walpole of Wolterton, 9th brother of Prime Minister Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford.
 * Mary Churchill, who on 10 May 1777 became the second wife of Charles Cadogan, 1st Earl Cadogan (1728–1807), and had issue, before being divorced in 1796 by her husband for "criminal conversation" with Rev. Mr. Cooper.

title: Robert Walpole


text:
Enchilada

An enchilada is a Mexican dish consisting of a corn tortilla rolled around a filling and covered with a savory sauce. Enchiladas can be filled with various ingredients, including meats, cheese, beans, potatoes, vegetables, or combinations. Enchilada sauces include chili-based sauces, such as salsa roja, various moles, tomatillo-based sauces, such as salsa verde, or cheese-based sauces, such as chile con queso.

Etymology
The Royal Spanish Academy defines the word enchilada, as used in Mexico, as a rolled maize tortilla stuffed with meat and covered with a tomato and chili sauce. Enchilada is the past participle of the Mexican Spanish enchilar, "to add chili pepper to"; literally, "to season (or decorate) with chili".

History
Enchiladas originated in Mexico, where the practice of rolling tortillas around other food dates back at least to Aztec times. The people living in the lake region of the Valley of Mexico traditionally ate corn tortillas folded or rolled around small fish. Writing at the time of the Spanish conquistadors, Bernal Díaz del Castillo documented a feast enjoyed by Europeans hosted by Hernán Cortés in Coyoacán, which included foods served in corn tortillas. (Note that the native Nahuatl name for the flat corn bread used was tlaxcalli; the Spanish gave it the name tortilla.)   The Nahuatl word for enchilada is chīllapītzalli, which is formed of the Nahuatl word for "chili", chīlli  and the Nahuatl word for "flute", tlapītzalli. In the 19th century, as Mexican cuisine was being memorialized, enchiladas were mentioned in the first Mexican cookbook, El cocinero mexicano ("The Mexican Chef"), published in 1831, and in Mariano Galvan Rivera's Diccionario de Cocina, published in 1845.

Mexican cooking authority Diana Kennedy cites an early reference from an American traveler from 1883 who remarked, "Enchiladas, a greasy tortilla sandwich containing chiles and a number of other uninviting looking compounds and other nasty messes, are sold everywhere, filling the air with a pungent, nauseous smell." Another early English-language mention is found in the California Mexican-Spanish Cookbook (1914) by Bertha Haffner Ginger.

Varieties
In their original form as Mexican street food, enchiladas were simply corn tortillas dipped in chili sauce and eaten without fillings. There are now many varieties, which are distinguished primarily by their sauces, fillings and, in one instance, by their form. Various adjectives may be used to describe the recipe content or origin, e.g. enchilada tapatia would be a recipe from Jalisco.

Varieties include:
 * Enchiladas con chile rojo (with red chile) is a traditional red enchilada sauce, meat, composed of dried red chili peppers soaked and ground into a sauce with other seasonings, Chile Colorado sauce adds a tomato base.
 * Enchiladas con mole, instead of chili sauce, are served with mole, and are also known as enmoladas.
 * Enchiladas placera are Michoacán plaza-style, made with vegetables and poultry.
 * Enchiladas poblanas are soft corn tortillas filled with chicken and poblano peppers, topped with oaxaca cheese.
 * Enchiladas potosinas originate from San Luis Potosi, Mexico, and are made with cheese-filled, chili-spiced masa.
 * Enchiladas San Miguel are San Miguel de Allende-style enchiladas flavored with guajillo chilies by searing the flavor into the tortillas in a frying pan.
 * Enchiladas suizas (Swiss-style) are topped with a milk- or cream-based white sauce such as béchamel. This appellation is derived from Swiss immigrants to Mexico who established dairies to produce cream and cheese.
 * Enfrijoladas are topped with refried beans rather than chili sauce; their name comes from frijol, meaning "bean".
 * Entomatadas are made with tomato sauce instead of chili sauce.
 * Enchiladas montadas (stacked enchiladas) are a New Mexico variation in which corn tortillas are fried flat until softened (but not tough) then stacked with red or green sauce, chopped onion and shredded cheese between the layers and on top of the stack. Ground beef or chicken can be added to the filling. The stack is often topped (montada) with a fried egg. Shredded lettuce and black olive slices may be added as a garnish.
 * Enchiladas verdes are sauced with salsa verde and typically made with white corn tortillas, filled with poached chicken breasts and topped with queso fresco.
 * Enjococadas are baked corn tortillas covered in jocoque and filled with queso panela and chile poblano.

Fillings, toppings and garnishes
Fillings include meat (e.g. beef, poultry, pork, seafood) or cheese, potatoes, vegetables, beans, tofu, and any combination thereof. Enchiladas are commonly topped or garnished with cheese, sour cream, lettuce, olives, chopped onions, chili peppers, sliced avocado, and salsa, or fresh cilantro.

Costa Rica
In Costa Rica, the enchilada is a common, small, spicy pastry made with puff pastry and filled with diced potatoes spiced with a common variation of Tabasco sauce or other similar sauces. Other variations include fillings made of spicy chicken or minced meat.

Honduras
In Honduras, enchiladas look and taste very different from those in Mexico; they are not corn tortillas rolled around a filling, but instead are flat, fried, corn tortillas topped with ground beef, salad toppings (usually consisting of cabbage and tomato slices), a tomato sauce (often ketchup blended with butter and other spices such as cumin), and crumbled or shredded cheese. They look and taste much like what many people call a tostada.

Nicaragua
In Nicaragua, enchiladas are different from the other ones in Central America and resemble those in Mexico; they are corn tortillas filled with a mixture of ground beef and rice with chili, they are then folded and covered in egg batter and deep fried. It is commonly served with a cabbage and tomato salad (either pickled salad or in cream and tomato sauce). The Nicaraguan enchilada resembles the empanada of other countries.

Guatemala
In Guatemala, enchiladas look much like Honduran enchiladas but the recipe is different. This version most commonly begins with a leaf of fresh lettuce, then a layer of 'picado de carne,' which includes meat (generally ground beef, shredded chicken, or pork) and diced vegetables (carrot, potato, onion, celery, green bean, peas, red bell pepper, garlic, bay leaf, seasoned with salt and black pepper). The next layer in the recipe is the 'curtido' layer which includes more vegetables (cabbage, beets, onions, and carrots). After this is two or three pieces of sliced hard boiled egg, then thin sliced white onion, and finally a drizzle of mild red salsa. The dish is topped with either queso seco or queso fresco and garnished with cilantro.

title: Enchilada


text:
Dutchess County, New York

Dutchess County is a county in the U.S. state of New York. As of the 2020 census, the population was 295,911. The county seat is the city of Poughkeepsie. The county was created in 1683, one of New York's first twelve counties, and later organized in 1713. The county is part of the Hudson Valley region of the state.

Dutchess County is part of the Kiryas Joel-Poughkeepsie-Newburgh Metropolitan Statistical Area, which belongs to the larger New York–Newark–Bridgeport, NY-NJ-CT-PA Combined Statistical Area.

History

Before Anglo-Dutch settlement, what is today Dutchess County was a leading center for the indigenous Wappinger peoples. They had their council-fire at what is now Fishkill Hook, and had settlements throughout the area.

On November 1, 1683, the Province of New York established its first twelve counties, including Dutchess. Its boundaries at that time included the present Putnam County, and a small portion of the present Columbia County (the towns of Clermont and Germantown). The county was named for Mary of Modena, Duchess of York;  is an archaic spelling of the word duchess.

The Province of New York and the Connecticut Colony negotiated an agreement on November 28, 1683, establishing their border as 20 mi east of the Hudson River, north to Massachusetts. The 61660 acre east of the Byram River making up the Connecticut Panhandle were granted to Connecticut, in recognition of the wishes of the residents. In exchange, Rye was granted to New York, along with a 1.81 mi wide strip of land running north from Ridgefield to Massachusetts alongside the New York counties of Westchester, Putnam then Dutchess, known as "The Oblong". The eastern half of the stub of land in northeast Dutchess County containing Rudd Pond and Taconic State Park is the northernmost extension of The Oblong.

Until 1713, Dutchess was administered by Ulster County. On October 23, 1713, Queen Anne gave permission for Dutchess County to elect its own officers from among their own population, including a supervisor, tax collector, tax assessor and treasurer. In 2013, Dutchess County celebrated its 300th anniversary of democracy based upon a legislative resolution sponsored by County Legislator Michael Kelsey from Salt Point. In 1812, Putnam County was detached from Dutchess.

The Patents

Fourteen royal land patents were granted between 1685 and 1706 covering the entirety of the original footprint of Dutchess County (which until 1812 included today's Putnam County).

The first ten, granted between 1685 and 1697, covered almost all of Hudson River shoreline in the original county, with three - Rombouts, the Great Nine Partners, and Philipse Patents - extending significantly inland. The eleventh, and smallest, Cuyler, 1697, was the first to contain solely inland territory, just in from the Hudson. The twelfth, and next smallest, Fauconnier, in 1705, completed the Hudson River shoreline. The last two, Beekman, 1705, and the Little Nine Partners, 1706, laid claim to the remaining interior lands.

 * 1) 1685 Rombout (Beacon/Fishkill Area)
 * 2) 1686 Minnisinck (Sanders & Harmense)
 * 3) 1686 Kip
 * 4) 1688 Schuyler (Poughkeepsie)
 * 5) 1688 Schuyler (Red Hook)
 * 6) 1688 Ærtsen-Roosa-Elton
 * 7) 1696 Pawling-Staats
 * 8) 1697 Rhinebeck
 * 9) 1697 (Great) Nine Partners
 * 10) 1697 Philipse
 * 11) 1697 Cuyler
 * 12) 1705 Fauconnier
 * 13) 1705 Beekman (Back Lots)
 * 14) 1706 (Little) Nine Partners

Early settlement
From 1683 to 1715, most of the settlers in Dutchess County were Dutch. Many of these moved in from Albany and Ulster counties. They settled along the Fishkill Creek and in the areas that are now Poughkeepsie and Rhinebeck.

From 1715 to 1730, most of the new settlers in Dutchess county were Germans. From 1730 until 1775, New Englanders were the primary new settlers in Dutchess County. Coles Mills was settled by Elisha Cole from Cape Cod in 1747 at the outlet of Barrett Pond into the West Branch of the Croton River.

20th century
Franklin D. Roosevelt lived in his family home in Hyde Park, overlooking the Hudson River. His family's home is now the Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site, managed by the National Park Service.

Prior to the 1960s, Dutchess County was primarily agricultural. Since then the southwestern part (from Poughkeepsie southward and from the Taconic State Parkway westward) of the county has developed into a largely residential area, suburban in character, with many of its residents commuting to jobs in New York City and Westchester County. The northern and eastern regions of the county remain rural with large farmlands but at the same time developed residences used during the summer and or on weekends by people living in the New York City urban area.

Geography
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 825 sqmi, of which 796 sqmi is land and 30 sqmi (3.6%) is water.

Dutchess County is located in southeastern New York State, between the Hudson River on its west and the New York–Connecticut border on its east, about halfway between the cities of Albany and New York City. It contains two cities: Beacon and Poughkeepsie. Depending on precise location within the county, road travel distance to New York City ranges between 58 and 110 mi.

The terrain of the county is mostly hilly, especially in the Hudson Highlands in the southwestern corner and the Taconic Mountains to the northeast. Some areas nearer the river are flatter. The highest point in the county is the summit of Brace Mountain, in the Taconics, at 2,311 ft above sea level. The lowest point is sea level, along the Hudson River. The highest point of neighboring Fairfield County, Connecticut, is a 1290 ft point along the state line in Pawling.

Wappinger Creek, at 41.7 mi from its source at Thompson Pond in Pine Plains to where it drains into the Hudson at New Hamburg, is the longest stream in the county. Its 211 sqmi watershed is likewise the largest in the county. To its south is the 193 sqmi watershed of Dutchess County's second-longest stream, 33.5 mi Fishkill Creek, part of which spills over into Putnam County. Within that watershed are the county's third-longest stream, Sprout Creek, and its largest, deepest and highest lakes: Whaley (252 acre), in the town of Pawling; Sylvan (143 ft) in the town of Beekman and Beacon Reservoir, in the town of Fishkill, at 1285 ft respectively.

Other, smaller tributaries of the Hudson such as the Saw Kill drain the northwestern portion of the county. The southeastern fringe of Dutchess is part of the upper Croton River watershed and thus part of the New York City water supply system. On the east, in the Oblong, streams drain into the Housatonic River in adjacent Connecticut.

A border nearly one-half mile (800 m) long exists with Berkshire County, Massachusetts, in the extreme northern end of the county.

Adjacent counties

 * Columbia County – north
 * Berkshire County, Massachusetts – northeast
 * Litchfield County, Connecticut – east
 * Fairfield County, Connecticut – southeast
 * Putnam County – south
 * Orange County – southwest
 * Ulster County – west

National protected areas

 * Appalachian Trail, crosses county from Putnam County line in East Fishkill to Connecticut state line near Wingdale; corridor is partly on federally protected land.
 * Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site
 * Great Thicket National Wildlife Refuge, one of six discontiguous parcels in Dover
 * Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site
 * Vanderbilt Mansion National Historic Site

State, county, and town parks

 * Bowdoin County Park
 * Fahnestock State Park (shared with Putnam County)
 * Hudson Highlands State Park (shared with Putnam and Westchester counties)
 * Stratt Town Park
 * Wilcox County Park
 * Tymor Forest
 * Taconic State Park
 * Beekman Rec
 * East Fishkill Rec
 * James Baird State Park
 * Poughkeepsie Bridge (Walkway over the Hudson)
 * Dover Stone Church
 * Carnwath Farms Historic Site & Park
 * Roosevelt Farm Lane
 * Stony Kill Farm
 * Mills–Norrie State Park
 * Staatsburgh State Historic Site
 * Tivoli Bays Unique Area

Privately protected open space

 * Mary Flagler Cary Arboretum
 * Ferncliff Forest
 * Innisfree Garden
 * Pawling Nature Preserve
 * Poets' Walk Park
 * Thompson Pond and neighboring Stissing Mountain

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 280,150 people, 99,536 households, and 69,177 families residing in the county. The population density was 350 PD/sqmi. There were 106,103 housing units at an average density of 132 /mi2. 22.0% of the population was of Italian, 16.9% Irish, 11.3% German and 6.7% English ancestry according to Census 2000. 88.3% spoke English and 4.8% spoke Spanish.

Based on the Census Ancestry tallies, including people who listed more than one ancestry, Italians were the largest group in Dutchess County with 60,645. Irish came in a very close second at 59,991. In third place were the 44,915 Germans who barely exceeded the 44,078 people not in the 105 specifically delineated ancestry groups.

There were 99,536 households, out of which 34.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.5% were married couples living together, 10.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.5% were non-families. 24.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the average family size was 3.16.

As of Q4 2021, the median home value in Dutchess County was $365,199, an increase of 13.8% from the prior year.

In the county, the age distribution of the population shows 25.1% under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 30.2% from 25 to 44, 23.2% from 45 to 64, and 12.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.2 males.

The median income for a household in the county was $53,086, and the median income for a family was $63,254. Males had a median income of $45,576 versus $30,706 for females. The per capita income for the county was $23,940. About 5.0% of families and 7.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.5% of those under age 18 and 6.5% of those age 65 or over.

The decrease in population between 1810 and 1820 was due to the separation of Putnam County from Dutchess in 1812.

Racial demographics
As of 2017, the residents of Dutchess County were reported as the following: American Indian and Alaska Native (0.04%), Asian (4%), Black or African American (8.5%), Hispanic or Latino (12.5%), Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander (0.016%), Some Other Race (0.35%), Two or More Races (3%), White (71%).

Government

Dutchess County has a Charter Government with a County Executive and directly elected legislature of 25 members, each elected from a single member district. The Charter form of Government went in to effect in 1968 given the favorable outcome of a 1967 special election dedicated to the question. From 1713 until 1967, the County Government had been managed by a Board of Supervisors, made up of the locally elected leaders.

Elections

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The composition of the County Legislature is 15 Republicans and 10 Democrats for the 2024–2025 term. County elections occur in odd-numbered years.

Historically, Dutchess County, like most of the lower Hudson, was classic "Yankee Republican" territory. Between 1884 and 2004, the Republican presidential candidate carried Dutchess County in 28 out of 30 elections (1964 and 1996 being exceptions). Even Hyde Park resident Franklin D. Roosevelt failed to carry the county during his four campaigns.

The Republican edge narrowed significantly in the 1990s, with George H. W. Bush going from 61 percent of the county's vote in 1988 to only 40.5 percent in 1992, although that likely was affected by the presence of Ross Perot on the ballot as a third-party candidate. In 2008, Barack Obama became only the third Democrat to carry the county since 1884, and the first to win a majority since Lyndon Johnson in 1964. It has gone for the Democratic candidate in four consecutive elections (2008, 2012, 2016, and 2020).

Dutchess County is split between two congressional districts. The most southern portion is in the 17th district, represented by Republican Mike Lawler. The rest of the county is in the 18th district, represented by Democrat Pat Ryan. These are considered "swing" districts nationally, with Cook Partisan Voting Index ratings of D+3 and D+1, respectively, as of 2022.

Law enforcement
The Cities of Beacon and Poughkeepsie; Towns of Fishkill, Hyde Park, Pine Plains, Poughkeepsie, Rhinebeck, Red Hook, and East Fishkill; and Villages of Millerton, Wappingers Falls, Millbrook, have their own Police departments. The remainder of the county is patrolled by the Dutchess County Sheriff's Office and New York State Police. The New York State Police Troop K headquarters is located in Millbrook.

Communities
N.B.: Cities, Towns and Villages are official political designations.

Cities

 * Beacon
 * Poughkeepsie (county seat)

Towns

 * Amenia
 * Beekman
 * Clinton
 * Dover
 * East Fishkill
 * Fishkill
 * Hyde Park
 * La Grange
 * Milan
 * North East
 * Pawling
 * Pine Plains
 * Pleasant Valley
 * Poughkeepsie
 * Red Hook
 * Rhinebeck
 * Stanford
 * Union Vale
 * Wappinger
 * Washington

Villages

 * Fishkill
 * Millbrook
 * Millerton
 * Pawling
 * Red Hook
 * Rhinebeck
 * Tivoli
 * Wappingers Falls

Census-designated places

 * Amenia
 * Arlington
 * Bard College
 * Barrytown
 * Brinckerhoff
 * Chelsea Cove
 * Crown Heights
 * Dover Plains
 * Fairview
 * Freedom Plains
 * Haviland
 * Hillside Lake
 * Hopewell Junction
 * Hyde Park
 * MacDonnell Heights
 * Marist College
 * Merritt Park
 * Myers Corner
 * New Hackensack
 * New Hamburg
 * Pine Plains
 * Pleasant Valley
 * Red Oaks Mill
 * Rhinecliff
 * Salt Point
 * Shorehaven
 * Spackenkill
 * Staatsburg
 * Titusville
 * Upper Red Hook
 * Vassar College
 * Wassaic
 * Wingdale

Hamlets

 * Annandale-on-Hudson
 * Arthursburg
 * Attlebury
 * Bangall
 * Barnegat
 * Castle Point
 * De Witt Mills
 * Fishkill Plains
 * Glenham
 * Gretna
 * Holmes
 * Hopewell Junction
 * Hortontown
 * Hughsonville
 * Johnsontown
 * Knapps Corner
 * Lithgow
 * Lomala
 * Mabbettsville
 * McIntyre
 * Millbrook
 * Norrie Heights
 * Pecksville
 * Pleasant Plains
 * Poughquag
 * Quaker Hill
 * Rudco
 * Shenandoah
 * Shekomeko
 * Staatsburg
 * Stanfordville
 * Stissing
 * Stormville
 * Swartwoutville
 * Van Keurens
 * Verbank
 * Wiccopee
 * Willow Brook

Public school districts

 * Arlington Central School District
 * Beacon City School District
 * Dover Union Free School District
 * Hyde Park Central School District
 * Millbrook Central School District
 * Pawling Central School District
 * Pine Plains Central School District
 * Poughkeepsie City School District
 * Red Hook Central School District
 * Rhinebeck Central School District
 * Spackenkill Union Free School District
 * Wappingers Central School District
 * Webutuck Central School District
 * Dutchess County BOCES

Private schools

 * Dutchess Day School
 * Hawk Meadow Montessori School
 * Holy Trinity School
 * Millbrook School
 * Oakwood Friends School
 * Our Lady of Lourdes High School
 * Poughkeepsie Day School
 * Randolph School
 * St. Denis-St. Columba School
 * St. Martin de Porres School
 * St. Mary School - Fishkill
 * Trinity-Pawling School
 * Tabernacle Christian Academy
 * Upton Lake Christian School

Higher education

 * Bard College (Annandale-on-Hudson)
 * Culinary Institute of America main campus (Hyde Park)
 * Dutchess Community College (Poughkeepsie)
 * Marist College (Poughkeepsie)
 * Vassar College (Poughkeepsie)

Roads

 * Interstate 84 traverses the county in an east–west route cutting through the southwestern quadrant of the county before entering Putnam County. It is the only interstate highway in the county.
 * US 9, the Taconic State Parkway (the only other limited-access road in the county besides I-84, although it still has some at-grade intersections), and NY 22 are the main north–south roads in the county. For much of its length the Taconic is paralleled by NY 82. NY 9G leaves US 9 in Poughkeepsie and parallels it north to the Columbia County line.
 * US 44, NY 52, NY 55, and NY 199 are the other primary east–west roads in the county. NY 52 enters the county concurrent with I-84, leaves it at Fishkill but then follows it into Putnam County.

Crossings
Three spans cross the Hudson River, linking Dutchess with Orange, Ulster, and Greene Counties:

 * The Newburgh-Beacon Bridge carries Interstate 84 and NY 52 between Fishkill/Beacon and Newburgh (Orange County). The westbound span opened in 1963 and the eastbound span opened in 1980.
 * The Mid-Hudson Bridge carries US 44 and NY 55 between Poughkeepsie and Highland (Town of Lloyd, Ulster County)
 * The Kingston-Rhinecliff Bridge carries NY 199 between Rhinebeck and Kingston (Ulster County)

Railroads
The Metro-North railroad provides a critical link to New York City for Dutchess County's commuting population. The Hudson Line and Amtrak run concurrently along the Hudson River, on the western edge of the county. The Hudson Line has stops at Breakneck Ridge, Beacon, and New Hamburg (a hamlet of the town of Poughkeepsie) before the Hudson Line terminates at Poughkeepsie. The tracks continue north of that point as Amtrak, with Poughkeepsie and Rhinecliff (a small hamlet in the Town of Rhinebeck) being stops along Amtrak's Empire Service.

The Harlem Line, on the eastern side of the county, has station stops in Pawling, along the Appalachian Trail, Wingdale, Dover Plains, and two stops in Wassaic (one along the Tenmile River and the other the namesake terminus of that line).

Buses and ferries
Public transportation in Dutchess County is handled by Dutchess County Public Transit, commonly called "the LOOP." Outside of the urbanized area of the county, most service is limited. Privately run lines connect Poughkeepsie to New Paltz and Beacon to Newburgh. Leprechaun Lines and Short Line Bus also operate some service through Poughkeepsie, Rhinebeck, and the southern part of the county.

NY Waterway operates the Newburgh–Beacon Ferry, which is located at the Beacon train station.

Air
General aviation facilities are located at Hudson Valley Regional Airport (formerly Dutchess County Airport), located in Wappinger and Sky Park Airport in Red Hook, New York. General commercial passenger service is provided by New York Stewart International Airport, which is located across the Hudson River in Newburgh.

Culture

Dutchess County holds an annual county fair. The County Chamber of Commerce holds an annual hot air balloon launch typically in the first week of July. The main launch sites are along the Hudson River. As many as 20 balloons participate in the event.

The Dutchess County Historical Society was formed in 1914 and is active in the preservation of a large collection at the 18th century Clinton House. The Society has published a yearbook since 1914 and presents up to four awards of merit in the field of Dutchess County history each year.

Media
Dutchess County has no locally based television stations. Its only news radio format station is WKIP (AM) of Poughkeepsie. WRHV is an NPR affiliated broadcasting out of Poughkeepsie. The country music format station, WRWB-FM, broadcasting across the Hudson River, can be reached in much of the county.

Poughkeepsie Journal is published in that city. Vassar Miscellany News, associated with Vassar College, is published weekly. Also published in the county is the Beacon Free Press/Southern Dutchess News.

Health
The county is home to Northern Dutchess Hospital in Rhinebeck. MidHudson Regional Hospital (formerly St. Francis) and Vassar Brothers Medical Center are both in Poughkeepsie. The Castle Point Veterans Health Administration is in Wappinger.

On March 11, 2020, the county's first case of COVID-19 was confirmed. As of June 2021, there had been 29,483 cases and 445 deaths. There are under 100 active cases and 56.8% of residents received at least one vaccine dose.

Sports
The Hudson Valley Renegades are a minor league baseball team affiliated with the New York Yankees. The team is a member of the High-A East, and play at Dutchess Stadium in Fishkill.

The Hudson Valley Bears were one of four founding members of the Eastern Professional Hockey League (EPHL). They played their home games at the Mid-Hudson Civic Center in Poughkeepsie.

The Hudson Valley Hawks was a team in the former National Professional Basketball League. The team's home court was at Beacon High School, in Beacon.

title: Dutchess County, New York


text:
Columbia County

Columbia County or County of Columbia or variant, may refer to:

Counties of Columbia
Columbia County is the name of eight counties in the United States:

 * Columbia County, Arkansas
 * Columbia County, Florida
 * Columbia County, Georgia
 * Columbia County, New York
 * Columbia County, Oregon
 * Columbia County, Pennsylvania
 * Columbia County, Washington
 * Columbia County, Wisconsin

Other uses

 * Columbia County Airport (IATA airport code: HCC; FCC id: 1B1) Hudson, Columbia County, New York State, USA

title: Columbia County


text:
Mole (animal)

Moles are small mammals adapted to a subterranean lifestyle. They have cylindrical bodies, velvety fur, very small, inconspicuous eyes and ears, reduced hindlimbs, and short, powerful forelimbs with large paws adapted for digging.

The word "mole" refers to any species in the family Talpidae, from the Latin word for mole, talpa. Moles are found in most parts of North America, Europe and Asia.

Moles may be viewed as pests to gardeners, but they provide positive contributions to soil, gardens, and ecosystems, including soil aeration, feeding on slugs and small creatures that eat plant roots, and providing prey for other wildlife. They eat earthworms and other small invertebrates in the soil.

Terminology
In Middle English, moles were known as moldwarps. The expression "don't make a mountain out of a molehill" (which means "exaggerating problems") was first recorded in Tudor times. By the era of Early Modern English, the mole was also known in English as mouldywarp or mouldiwarp, a word having cognates in other Germanic languages such as German (Maulwurf), and Danish, Norwegian, Swedish and Icelandic (muldvarp, moldvarp, mullvad, moldvarpa), where muld/mull/mold refers to soil and varp/vad/varpa refers to throwing, hence "one who throws soil" or "dirt-tosser".

Male moles are called "boars"; females are called "sows".

Underground breathing
Moles have been found to tolerate higher levels of carbon dioxide than other mammals, because their blood cells have a special form of hemoglobin that has a higher affinity to oxygen than other forms. In addition, moles use oxygen more effectively by reusing the exhaled air, and can survive in low-oxygen environments such as burrows.

Extra thumbs
Moles have polydactyl forepaws: each has an extra thumb (also known as a prepollex) next to the regular thumb. While the mole's other digits have multiple joints, the prepollex has a single, sickle-shaped bone that develops later and differently from the other fingers during embryogenesis from a transformed sesamoid bone in the wrist, independently evolved but similar to the giant panda thumb. This supernumerary digit is species-specific, as it is not present in shrews, the mole's closest relatives. Androgenic steroids are known to affect the growth and formation of bones, and a connection is possible between this species-specific trait and the male genital apparatus in female moles of many mole species (gonads with testicular and ovary tissues).

Diet
Moles are omnivores, but their diet primarily consists of earthworms and other small invertebrates found in the soil. The mole runs are in reality "worm traps", the mole sensing when a worm falls into the tunnel and quickly running along to kill and eat it. Because their saliva contains a toxin that can paralyze earthworms, moles are able to store their still-living prey for later consumption. They construct special underground "larders" for just this purpose; researchers have discovered such larders with over a thousand earthworms in them. Before eating earthworms, moles pull them between their squeezed paws to force the collected earth and dirt out of the worm's gut.

The star-nosed mole can detect, catch and eat food faster than the human eye can follow.

Breeding
Breeding season for a mole depends on species, but is generally from February through May. Males search for females by letting out high-pitched squeals and tunneling through foreign areas.

The gestation period of the Eastern (North America) mole (Scalopus aquaticus) is approximately 42 days. Three to five young are born, mainly in March and early April. Townsend's moles mate in February and March, and the 2–4 young are born in March and April after a gestation period of about 1 month.

Social structure
Allegedly moles are solitary creatures, coming together only to mate. Territories may overlap, but moles avoid each other and males may fight fiercely if they meet.

Classification

The family Talpidae contains all the true moles and some of their close relatives. Those species called "shrew moles" represent an intermediate form between the moles and their shrew ancestors, and as such may not be fully described by the article.

On the other hand, there is no monophyletic relation between the mole and the hedgehog, both of which were previously placed in the now-abandoned order Insectivora. As a result, Eulipotyphla (shrew-like animals, including moles), previously within Insectivora, has been elevated to the level of an order.

 * Subfamily Scalopinae: New World moles
 * Tribe Condylurini: Star-nosed mole (North America)
 * Genus Condylura: Star-nosed mole (the sole species)
 * Tribe Scalopini: New World moles
 * Genus Alpiscaptulus: Medog mole (China)
 * Genus Parascalops: Hairy-tailed mole (northeastern North America)
 * Genus Scalopus: Eastern mole (North America)
 * Genus Scapanulus: Gansu mole (China)
 * Genus Scapanus: Western North American moles (five species)
 * Subfamily Talpinae: Old World moles, desmans, and shrew moles
 * Tribe Desmanini
 * Genus Desmana: Russian desman
 * Genus Galemys: Pyrenean desman
 * Tribe Talpini: Old World moles
 * Genus Euroscaptor: Ten Asian species
 * Genus Mogera: Nine species from Japan, Korea, and eastern China
 * Genus Parascaptor: White-tailed mole, southern Asia
 * Genus Scaptochirus: Short-faced mole, China
 * Genus Talpa: Thirteen species, Europe and western Asia
 * Tribe Scaptonychini: Long-tailed mole
 * Genus Scaptonyx: Long-tailed mole (China and Myanmar (Burma))
 * Tribe Urotrichini: Japanese shrew moles
 * Genus Dymecodon: True's shrew mole
 * Genus Urotrichus: Japanese shrew mole
 * Tribe Neurotrichini: New World shrew moles
 * Genus Neurotrichus: American shrew mole (US Pacific Northwest, southwest British Columbia)
 * Subfamily Uropsilinae: Asian shrew moles
 * Genus Uropsilus: Five species in China, Bhutan, and Myanmar (Burma)

Other "moles"
Many groups of burrowing animals (pink fairy armadillos, tuco-tucos, mole rats, mole crickets, pygmy mole crickets and mole crabs) have independently developed close physical similarities with moles due to convergent evolution; two of these are so similar to true moles, they are commonly called and thought of as "moles" in common English, although they are completely unrelated to true moles or to each other. These are the golden moles of southern Africa and the marsupial moles of Australia. While difficult to distinguish from each other, they are most easily distinguished from true moles by shovel-like patches on their noses, which they use in tandem with their abbreviated forepaws to swim through sandy soils.

Golden moles
The golden moles belong to the same branch on the phylogenetic tree as the tenrecs, called Tenrecomorpha, which, in turn, stem from a main branch of placental mammals called the Afrosoricida. This means that they share a closer common ancestor with such existing afrosoricids as elephants, manatees and aardvarks than they do with other placental mammals, such as true Talpidae moles.

 * ORDER AFROSORICIDA
 * Suborder Tenrecomorpha
 * Family Tenrecidae: tenrecs, 34 species in 10 genera
 * Suborder Chrysochloridea
 * Family Chrysochloridae
 * Subfamily Chrysochlorinae
 * Genus Carpitalpa
 * Arends' golden mole (Carpitalpa arendsi)
 * Genus Chlorotalpa
 * Duthie's golden mole (Chlorotalpa duthieae)
 * Sclater's golden mole (Chlorotalpa sclateri)
 * Genus Chrysochloris
 * Subgenus Chrysochloris
 * Cape golden mole (Chrysochloris asiatica)
 * Visagie's golden mole (Chrysochloris visagiei)
 * Subgenus Kilimatalpa
 * Stuhlmann's golden mole (Chrysochloris stuhlmanni)
 * Genus Chrysospalax
 * Giant golden mole (Chrysospalax trevelyani)
 * Rough-haired golden mole (Chrysospalax villosus)
 * Genus Cryptochloris
 * De Winton's golden mole (Cryptochloris wintoni)
 * Van Zyl's golden mole (Cryptochloris zyli)
 * Genus Eremitalpa
 * Grant's golden mole (Eremitalpa granti)
 * Subfamily Amblysominae
 * Genus Amblysomus
 * Fynbos golden mole (Amblysomus corriae)
 * Hottentot golden mole (Amblysomus hottentotus)
 * Marley's golden mole (Amblysomus marleyi)
 * Robust golden mole (Amblysomus robustus)
 * Highveld golden mole (Amblysomus septentrionalis)
 * Genus Calcochloris
 * Subgenus Huetia
 * Congo golden mole (Calcochloris leucorhinus)
 * Subgenus Calcochloris
 * Yellow golden mole (Calcochloris obtusirostris)
 * Subgenus incertae sedis
 * Somali golden mole (Calcochloris tytonis)
 * Genus Neamblysomus
 * Juliana's golden mole (Neamblysomus julianae)
 * Gunning's golden mole (Neamblysomus gunningi)

Marsupial moles
As marsupials, these moles are even more distantly related to true talpid moles than golden moles are, both of which belong to the Eutheria, or placental mammals. This means that they are more closely related to such existing Australian marsupials as kangaroos or koalas, and even to a lesser extent to American marsupials, such as opossums, than they are to placental mammals, such as golden or Talpidae moles.

Class Mammalia
 * Subclass Prototheria: monotremes (echidnas and the platypus)
 * Subclass Theriiformes: live-bearing mammals and their prehistoric relatives
 * Infraclass Holotheria: modern live-bearing mammals and their prehistoric relatives
 * Supercohort Theria: live-bearing mammals
 * Cohort Marsupialia: marsupials
 * Magnorder Ameridelphia: New World marsupials
 * Order Didelphimorphia (opossums)
 * Order Paucituberculata (shrew opossums)
 * Superorder Australidelphia Australian marsupials
 * Order Dasyuromorphia (the Tasmanian devil, the numbat, thylacines, quolls, dunnarts and others)
 * Order Peramelemorphia (bilbies, bandicoots and rainforest bandicoots)
 * Order Diprotodontia (koalas, wombats, diprotodonts, possums, cuscuses, sugar gliders, kangaroos and others)
 * Order Notoryctemorphia (marsupial moles and closely related extinct families of marsupials)
 * Family Notoryctidae (living and extinct marsupial mole genera)
 * Genus Notoryctes (only genus of marsupial moles with living species)
 * Species Notoryctes typhlops (southern marsupial mole)
 * Species Notoryctes caurinus (northern marsupial mole)

Pelts
Moles' pelts have a velvety texture not found in surface animals. Surface-dwelling animals tend to have longer fur with a natural tendency for the nap to lie in a particular direction, but to facilitate their burrowing lifestyle, mole pelts are short and very dense and have no particular direction to the nap. This makes it easy for moles to move backwards underground, as their fur is not "brushed the wrong way". The leather is extremely soft and supple. Queen Alexandra, the wife of Edward VII of the United Kingdom, ordered a mole-fur garment to start a fashion that would create a demand for mole fur, thereby turning what had been a serious pest problem in Scotland into a lucrative industry for the country. Hundreds of pelts are cut into rectangles and sewn together to make a coat. The natural color is taupe, (derived from the French noun taupe meaning mole) but it is readily dyed any color.

The term "moleskin" for a tough cotton fabric is in common use today.

Pest status - extermination and humane options
Moles are considered agricultural pests in some countries, while in others, such as Germany, they are a protected species, but may be killed with a permit. Problems cited as caused by moles include contamination of silage with soil particles, making it unpalatable to livestock, the covering of pasture with fresh soil reducing its size and yield, damage to agricultural machinery by the exposure of stones, damage to young plants through disturbance of the soil, weed invasion of pasture through exposure of freshly tilled soil, and damage to drainage systems and watercourses. Other species such as weasels and voles may use mole tunnels to gain access to enclosed areas or plant roots.

Moles burrow and raise molehills, killing parts of lawns. They can undermine plant roots, indirectly causing damage or death. Moles do not eat plant roots.

Moles are controlled with traps such as mole-catchers, smoke bombs, and poisons such as calcium carbide, which produces acetylene gas to drive moles away. Strychnine was also used for this purpose in the past. The most common method now is Phostoxin or Talunex tablets. They contain aluminium phosphide and are inserted in the mole tunnels, where they turn into phosphine gas (not be confused with phosgene gas). More recently, high-grade nitrogen gas has proven effective at killing moles, with the added advantage of having no polluting effect to the environment.

Other common defensive measures include cat litter and blood meal, to repel the mole, or smoking its burrow. Devices are also sold to trap the mole in its burrow, when one sees the "mole hill" moving and therefore knows where the animal is, and then stabbing it.

Other humane options are also possible including humane traps that capture the mole alive so it may be transported elsewhere. In many contexts including ordinary gardens, the damage caused by moles to lawns is mostly visual, and it is possible instead of extermination to simply remove the earth of the molehills as they appear, leaving their permanent galleries for the moles to continue their existence underground. However, when the tunnels are near the surface in soft ground or after heavy rain, they may collapse, leaving (small) unsightly furrows in the lawn.

Meat
William Buckland, known for eating every animal he could, opined that mole meat tasted vile.

The mole in prophetic literature
According to the first prophecy of the 'Six Kings to follow King John', written about 1312, the six kings could be likened to animals. The sixth king after John would be the Mouldwarp or Mole, who would be proud, contemptible and cowardly, having a skin like a goat. The prophecy gained popularity during the 14th century and was used by the enemies of Henry IV alluded to by Shakespeare in Henry IV, Part 1. It was again used during the disturbances leading to the Pilgrimage of Grace 1535–7 but this time was applied by the rebels to Henry VIII.

Archaeology
Moles can inadvertently help archaeologists by bringing small artifacts to the surface through their digging. By examining molehills for sherds and other small objects, archaeologists can find evidence of human habitation.

title: Mole (animal)


text:
Monroe County

Monroe County may refer to seventeen counties in the United States, all named for James Monroe:

 * Monroe County, Alabama
 * Monroe County, Arkansas
 * Monroe County, Florida
 * Monroe County, Georgia
 * Monroe County, Illinois
 * Monroe County, Indiana
 * Monroe County, Iowa
 * Monroe County, Kentucky
 * Monroe County, Michigan
 * Monroe County, Mississippi
 * Monroe County, Missouri
 * Monroe County, New York
 * Monroe County, Ohio
 * Monroe County, Pennsylvania
 * Monroe County, Tennessee
 * Monroe County, West Virginia, originally Monroe County, Virginia (1799–1863)
 * Monroe County, Wisconsin

title: Monroe County