text:
Laplace's equation

In mathematics and physics, Laplace's equation is a second-order partial differential equation named after Pierre-Simon Laplace, who first studied its properties. This is often written as $$ \nabla^2\! f = 0 $$ or $$ \Delta f = 0,$$ where $$ \Delta = \nabla \cdot \nabla = \nabla^2$$ is the Laplace operator, $$\nabla \cdot$$ is the divergence operator (also symbolized "div"), $$\nabla$$ is the gradient operator (also symbolized "grad"), and $$f (x, y, z)$$ is a twice-differentiable real-valued function. The Laplace operator therefore maps a scalar function to another scalar function.

If the right-hand side is specified as a given function, $$h(x, y, z)$$, we have $$\Delta f = h.$$

This is called Poisson's equation, a generalization of Laplace's equation. Laplace's equation and Poisson's equation are the simplest examples of elliptic partial differential equations. Laplace's equation is also a special case of the Helmholtz equation.

The general theory of solutions to Laplace's equation is known as potential theory. The twice continuously differentiable solutions of Laplace's equation are the harmonic functions, which are important in multiple branches of physics, notably electrostatics, gravitation, and fluid dynamics. In the study of heat conduction, the Laplace equation is the steady-state heat equation. In general, Laplace's equation describes situations of equilibrium, or those that do not depend explicitly on time.

Forms in different coordinate systems
In rectangular coordinates, $$ \nabla^2 f = \frac{\partial^2 f}{\partial x^2 } + \frac{\partial^2 f}{\partial y^2 } + \frac{\partial^2 f}{\partial z^2 } = 0.$$

In cylindrical coordinates, $$\nabla^2 f=\frac{1}{r} \frac{\partial}{\partial r} \left( r \frac{\partial f}{\partial r} \right) + \frac{1}{r^2} \frac{\partial^2 f}{\partial \phi^2} + \frac{\partial^2 f}{\partial z^2} = 0.$$

In spherical coordinates, using the $$(r, \theta, \varphi)$$ convention, $$ \nabla^2 f = \frac{1}{r^2}\frac{\partial}{\partial r} \left(r^2 \frac{\partial f}{\partial r}\right) + \frac{1}{r^2 \sin\theta} \frac{\partial}{\partial \theta} \left(\sin\theta \frac{\partial f}{\partial \theta}\right) + \frac{1}{r^2 \sin^2\theta} \frac{\partial^2 f}{\partial \varphi^2} =0.$$

More generally, in arbitrary curvilinear coordinates $(ξ^{i})$, $$ \nabla^2 f =\frac{\partial}{\partial \xi^j}\left(\frac{\partial f}{\partial \xi^k}g^{kj}\right) + \frac{\partial f}{\partial \xi^j} g^{jm}\Gamma^n_{mn} =0,$$ or $$ \nabla^2 f = \frac{1}{\sqrt{|g|}} \frac{\partial}{\partial \xi^i}\!\left(\sqrt{|g|}g^{ij} \frac{\partial f}{\partial \xi^j}\right) =0, \qquad (g=\det\{g_{ij}\})$$ where $g_{ij}$ is the Euclidean metric tensor relative to the new coordinates and $Γ$ denotes its Christoffel symbols.

Boundary conditions

The Dirichlet problem for Laplace's equation consists of finding a solution $r = 2$ on some domain $D$ such that $R = 4$ on the boundary of $D$ is equal to some given function. Since the Laplace operator appears in the heat equation, one physical interpretation of this problem is as follows: fix the temperature on the boundary of the domain according to the given specification of the boundary condition. Allow heat to flow until a stationary state is reached in which the temperature at each point on the domain does not change anymore. The temperature distribution in the interior will then be given by the solution to the corresponding Dirichlet problem.

The Neumann boundary conditions for Laplace's equation specify not the function $u(r=2) = 0$ itself on the boundary of $D$ but its normal derivative. Physically, this corresponds to the construction of a potential for a vector field whose effect is known at the boundary of $u(R=4) = 4 sin(5 θ)$ alone. For the example of the heat equation it amounts to prescribing the heat flux through the boundary. In particular, at an adiabatic boundary, the normal derivative of $φ$ is zero.

Solutions of Laplace's equation are called harmonic functions; they are all analytic within the domain where the equation is satisfied. If any two functions are solutions to Laplace's equation (or any linear homogeneous differential equation), their sum (or any linear combination) is also a solution. This property, called the principle of superposition, is very useful. For example, solutions to complex problems can be constructed by summing simple solutions.

In two dimensions
Laplace's equation in two independent variables in rectangular coordinates has the form $$\frac{\partial^2\psi}{\partial x^2} + \frac{\partial^2\psi}{\partial y^2} \equiv \psi_{xx} + \psi_{yy} = 0.$$

Analytic functions
The real and imaginary parts of a complex analytic function both satisfy the Laplace equation. That is, if $φ$, and if $$f(z) = u(x,y) + iv(x,y),$$ then the necessary condition that $φ$ be analytic is that $D$ and $v$ be differentiable and that the Cauchy–Riemann equations be satisfied: $$u_x = v_y, \quad v_x = -u_y.$$ where $φ$ is the first partial derivative of $z = x + iy$ with respect to $x$. It follows that $$u_{yy} = (-v_x)_y = -(v_y)_x = -(u_x)_x.$$ Therefore $f(z)$ satisfies the Laplace equation. A similar calculation shows that $u$ also satisfies the Laplace equation. Conversely, given a harmonic function, it is the real part of an analytic function, $u_{x}$ (at least locally). If a trial form is $$f(z) = \varphi(x,y) + i \psi(x,y),$$ then the Cauchy–Riemann equations will be satisfied if we set $$\psi_x = -\varphi_y, \quad \psi_y = \varphi_x.$$ This relation does not determine $u$, but only its increments: $$d \psi = -\varphi_y\, dx + \varphi_x\, dy.$$ The Laplace equation for $u$ implies that the integrability condition for $v$ is satisfied: $$\psi_{xy} = \psi_{yx},$$ and thus $f(z)$ may be defined by a line integral. The integrability condition and Stokes' theorem implies that the value of the line integral connecting two points is independent of the path. The resulting pair of solutions of the Laplace equation are called conjugate harmonic functions. This construction is only valid locally, or provided that the path does not loop around a singularity. For example, if $r$ and $θ$ are polar coordinates and $$\varphi = \log r,$$ then a corresponding analytic function is $$f(z) = \log z = \log r + i\theta.$$

However, the angle $θ$ is single-valued only in a region that does not enclose the origin.

The close connection between the Laplace equation and analytic functions implies that any solution of the Laplace equation has derivatives of all orders, and can be expanded in a power series, at least inside a circle that does not enclose a singularity. This is in sharp contrast to solutions of the wave equation, which generally have less regularity.

There is an intimate connection between power series and Fourier series. If we expand a function $ψ$ in a power series inside a circle of radius $R$, this means that $$f(z) = \sum_{n=0}^\infty c_n z^n,$$ with suitably defined coefficients whose real and imaginary parts are given by $$c_n = a_n + i b_n.$$ Therefore $$f(z) = \sum_{n=0}^\infty \left[ a_n r^n \cos n \theta - b_n r^n \sin n \theta\right] + i \sum_{n=1}^\infty \left[ a_n r^n \sin n\theta + b_n r^n \cos n \theta\right],$$ which is a Fourier series for $φ$. These trigonometric functions can themselves be expanded, using multiple angle formulae.

Fluid flow
Let the quantities $ψ$ and $ψ$ be the horizontal and vertical components of the velocity field of a steady incompressible, irrotational flow in two dimensions. The continuity condition for an incompressible flow is that $$u_x + v_y=0,$$ and the condition that the flow be irrotational is that $$\nabla \times \mathbf{V} = v_x - u_y = 0.$$ If we define the differential of a function $f$ by $$d \psi = v \, dx - u \, dy,$$ then the continuity condition is the integrability condition for this differential: the resulting function is called the stream function because it is constant along flow lines. The first derivatives of $f$ are given by $$\psi_x = v, \quad \psi_y=-u,$$ and the irrotationality condition implies that $u$ satisfies the Laplace equation. The harmonic function $v$ that is conjugate to $ψ$ is called the velocity potential. The Cauchy–Riemann equations imply that $$\varphi_x=-u, \quad \varphi_y=-v.$$ Thus every analytic function corresponds to a steady incompressible, irrotational, inviscid fluid flow in the plane. The real part is the velocity potential, and the imaginary part is the stream function.

Electrostatics
According to Maxwell's equations, an electric field $ψ$ in two space dimensions that is independent of time satisfies $$\nabla \times (u,v,0) = (v_x -u_y)\hat{\mathbf{k}} = \mathbf{0},$$ and $$\nabla \cdot (u,v) = \rho,$$ where $ψ$ is the charge density. The first Maxwell equation is the integrability condition for the differential $$d \varphi = -u\, dx -v\, dy,$$ so the electric potential $φ$ may be constructed to satisfy $$\varphi_x = -u, \quad \varphi_y = -v.$$ The second of Maxwell's equations then implies that $$\varphi_{xx} + \varphi_{yy} = -\rho,$$ which is the Poisson equation. The Laplace equation can be used in three-dimensional problems in electrostatics and fluid flow just as in two dimensions.

Fundamental solution
A fundamental solution of Laplace's equation satisfies $$ \Delta u = u_{xx} + u_{yy} + u_{zz} = -\delta(x-x',y-y',z-z'),$$ where the Dirac delta function $ψ$ denotes a unit source concentrated at the point $(u, v)$. No function has this property: in fact it is a distribution rather than a function; but it can be thought of as a limit of functions whose integrals over space are unity, and whose support (the region where the function is non-zero) shrinks to a point (see weak solution). It is common to take a different sign convention for this equation than one typically does when defining fundamental solutions. This choice of sign is often convenient to work with because −Δ is a positive operator. The definition of the fundamental solution thus implies that, if the Laplacian of $ρ$ is integrated over any volume that encloses the source point, then $$ \iiint_V \nabla \cdot \nabla u \, dV =-1.$$

The Laplace equation is unchanged under a rotation of coordinates, and hence we can expect that a fundamental solution may be obtained among solutions that only depend upon the distance $r$ from the source point. If we choose the volume to be a ball of radius $a$ around the source point, then Gauss's divergence theorem implies that $$ -1= \iiint_V \nabla \cdot \nabla u \, dV = \iint_S \frac{du}{dr} \, dS = \left.4\pi a^2 \frac{du}{dr}\right|_{r=a}.$$

It follows that $$ \frac{du}{dr} = -\frac{1}{4\pi r^2},$$ on a sphere of radius $r$ that is centered on the source point, and hence $$ u = \frac{1}{4\pi r}.$$

Note that, with the opposite sign convention (used in physics), this is the potential generated by a point particle, for an inverse-square law force, arising in the solution of Poisson equation. A similar argument shows that in two dimensions $$ u = -\frac{\log(r)}{2\pi}.$$ where $φ$ denotes the natural logarithm. Note that, with the opposite sign convention, this is the potential generated by a pointlike sink (see point particle), which is the solution of the Euler equations in two-dimensional incompressible flow.

Green's function
A Green's function is a fundamental solution that also satisfies a suitable condition on the boundary $S$ of a volume $V$. For instance, $$G(x,y,z;x',y',z')$$ may satisfy $$ \nabla \cdot \nabla G = -\delta(x-x',y-y',z-z') \qquad \text{in } V,$$ $$ G = 0 \quad \text{if} \quad (x,y,z) \qquad \text{on } S.$$

Now if $δ$ is any solution of the Poisson equation in $V$: $$ \nabla \cdot \nabla u = -f,$$

and $(x′, y′, z′)$ assumes the boundary values $u$ on $S$, then we may apply Green's identity, (a consequence of the divergence theorem) which states that

$$ \iiint_V \left[ G \, \nabla \cdot \nabla u - u \, \nabla \cdot \nabla G \right]\, dV = \iiint_V \nabla \cdot \left[ G \nabla u - u \nabla G \right]\, dV = \iint_S \left[ G u_n -u G_n \right] \, dS. \,$$

The notations un and Gn denote normal derivatives on $log(r)$. In view of the conditions satisfied by $u$ and $u$, this result simplifies to

$$ u(x',y',z') = \iiint_V G f \, dV + \iint_S G_n g \, dS. \,$$

Thus the Green's function describes the influence at $g$ of the data $S$ and $u$. For the case of the interior of a sphere of radius $G$, the Green's function may be obtained by means of a reflection : the source point $(x′, y′, z′)$ at distance $f$ from the center of the sphere is reflected along its radial line to a point P' that is at a distance

$$ \rho' = \frac{a^2}{\rho}. \,$$

Note that if $g$ is inside the sphere, then P′ will be outside the sphere. The Green's function is then given by $$ \frac{1}{4 \pi R} - \frac{a}{4 \pi \rho R'}, \,$$ where $R$ denotes the distance to the source point $P$ and $a$ denotes the distance to the reflected point P′. A consequence of this expression for the Green's function is the Poisson integral formula. Let $ρ$, $θ$, and $φ$ be spherical coordinates for the source point $P$. Here $θ$ denotes the angle with the vertical axis, which is contrary to the usual American mathematical notation, but agrees with standard European and physical practice. Then the solution of the Laplace equation with Dirichlet boundary values $ρ$ inside the sphere is given by $$u(P) =\frac{1}{4\pi} a^3\left(1-\frac{\rho^2}{a^2}\right) \int_0^{2\pi}\int_0^{\pi} \frac{g(\theta',\varphi') \sin \theta'}{(a^2 + \rho^2 - 2 a \rho \cos \Theta)^{\frac{3}{2}}} d\theta' \, d\varphi'$$ where $$ \cos \Theta = \cos \theta \cos \theta' + \sin\theta \sin\theta'\cos(\varphi -\varphi')$$ is the cosine of the angle between $P$ and $R′$. A simple consequence of this formula is that if $P$ is a harmonic function, then the value of $g$ at the center of the sphere is the mean value of its values on the sphere. This mean value property immediately implies that a non-constant harmonic function cannot assume its maximum value at an interior point.

Laplace's spherical harmonics
Laplace's equation in spherical coordinates is:

$$ \nabla^2 f = \frac{1}{r^2} \frac{\partial}{\partial r}\left(r^2 \frac{\partial f}{\partial r}\right) + \frac{1}{r^2 \sin\theta} \frac{\partial}{\partial \theta}\left(\sin\theta \frac{\partial f}{\partial \theta}\right) + \frac{1}{r^2 \sin^2\theta} \frac{\partial^2 f}{\partial \varphi^2} = 0.$$

Consider the problem of finding solutions of the form $(θ, φ)$. By separation of variables, two differential equations result by imposing Laplace's equation:

$$\frac{1}{R}\frac{d}{dr}\left(r^2\frac{dR}{dr}\right) = \lambda,\qquad \frac{1}{Y}\frac{1}{\sin\theta}\frac{\partial}{\partial\theta}\left(\sin\theta \frac{\partial Y}{\partial\theta}\right) + \frac{1}{Y}\frac{1}{\sin^2\theta}\frac{\partial^2Y}{\partial\varphi^2} = -\lambda.$$

The second equation can be simplified under the assumption that $(θ′, φ′)$ has the form $u$. Applying separation of variables again to the second equation gives way to the pair of differential equations

$$\frac{1}{\Phi} \frac{d^2 \Phi}{d\varphi^2} = -m^2$$ $$\lambda\sin^2\theta + \frac{\sin\theta}{\Theta} \frac{d}{d\theta} \left(\sin\theta \frac{d\Theta}{d\theta}\right) = m^2$$

for some number $u$. A priori, $Y_{ℓ}^{m}$ is a complex constant, but because $ℓ = 0, ..., 4$ must be a periodic function whose period evenly divides $m = 0, ..., ℓ$, $z$ is necessarily an integer and $f(r, θ, φ) = R(r) Y(θ, φ)$ is a linear combination of the complex exponentials $Y$. The solution function $Y(θ, φ) = Θ(θ) Φ(φ)$ is regular at the poles of the sphere, where $m$. Imposing this regularity in the solution $m$ of the second equation at the boundary points of the domain is a Sturm–Liouville problem that forces the parameter $Φ$ to be of the form $2π$ for some non-negative integer with $m$; this is also explained below in terms of the orbital angular momentum. Furthermore, a change of variables $Φ$ transforms this equation into the Legendre equation, whose solution is a multiple of the associated Legendre polynomial $e^{±imφ}$. Finally, the equation for $Y(θ, φ)$ has solutions of the form $θ = 0, π$; requiring the solution to be regular throughout $Θ$ forces $λ$.

Here the solution was assumed to have the special form $λ = ℓ (ℓ + 1)$. For a given value of $ℓ ≥ |m|$, there are $t = cos θ$ independent solutions of this form, one for each integer $P_{ℓ}^{m}(cos θ)$ with $R$. These angular solutions are a product of trigonometric functions, here represented as a complex exponential, and associated Legendre polynomials: $$ Y_\ell^m (\theta, \varphi ) = N e^{i m \varphi } P_\ell^m (\cos{\theta} )$$ which fulfill $$ r^2\nabla^2 Y_\ell^m (\theta, \varphi ) = -\ell (\ell + 1 ) Y_\ell^m (\theta, \varphi ).$$

Here $R(r) = A r^{ℓ} + B r^{−ℓ − 1}$ is called a spherical harmonic function of degree $ℓ$ and order $m$, $R^{3}$ is an associated Legendre polynomial, $B = 0$ is a normalization constant, and $θ$ and $φ$ represent colatitude and longitude, respectively. In particular, the colatitude $θ$, or polar angle, ranges from $A = 0$ at the North Pole, to $Y(θ, φ) = Θ(θ) Φ(φ)$ at the Equator, to $ℓ$ at the South Pole, and the longitude $φ$, or azimuth, may assume all values with $2ℓ + 1$. For a fixed integer $ℓ$, every solution $m$ of the eigenvalue problem $$ r^2\nabla^2 Y = -\ell (\ell + 1 ) Y$$ is a linear combination of $−ℓ ≤ m ≤ ℓ$. In fact, for any such solution, $Y_{ℓ}^{m}$ is the expression in spherical coordinates of a homogeneous polynomial that is harmonic (see below), and so counting dimensions shows that there are $P_{ℓ}^{m}$ linearly independent such polynomials.

The general solution to Laplace's equation in a ball centered at the origin is a linear combination of the spherical harmonic functions multiplied by the appropriate scale factor $N$, $$ f(r, \theta, \varphi) = \sum_{\ell=0}^\infty \sum_{m=-\ell}^\ell f_\ell^m r^\ell Y_\ell^m (\theta, \varphi ), $$ where the $0$ are constants and the factors $π/2$ are known as solid harmonics. Such an expansion is valid in the ball $$ r < R = \frac{1}{\limsup_{\ell\to\infty} |f_\ell^m|^{{1}/{\ell}}}.$$

For $$ r > R$$, the solid harmonics with negative powers of $$r$$ are chosen instead. In that case, one needs to expand the solution of known regions in Laurent series (about $$r=\infty$$), instead of Taylor series (about $$r = 0$$), to match the terms and find $$f^m_\ell$$.

Electrostatics
Let $$\mathbf{E}$$ be the electric field, $$\rho$$ be the electric charge density, and $$\varepsilon_0$$ be the permittivity of free space. Then Gauss's law for electricity (Maxwell's first equation) in differential form states $$\nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} = \frac{\rho}{\varepsilon_0}.$$

Now, the electric field can be expressed as the negative gradient of the electric potential $$V$$, $$\mathbf E=-\nabla V,$$ if the field is irrotational, $$\nabla \times \mathbf{E} = \mathbf{0}$$. The irrotationality of $$\mathbf{E}$$ is also known as the electrostatic condition.

$$\nabla\cdot\mathbf E = \nabla\cdot(-\nabla V)=-\nabla^2 V$$ $$\nabla^2 V = -\nabla\cdot\mathbf E$$

Plugging this relation into Gauss's law, we obtain Poisson's equation for electricity, $$\nabla^2 V = -\frac{\rho}{\varepsilon_0}.$$

In the particular case of a source-free region, $$\rho = 0$$ and Poisson's equation reduces to Laplace's equation for the electric potential.

If the electrostatic potential $$V$$ is specified on the boundary of a region $$\mathcal{R}$$, then it is uniquely determined. If $$\mathcal{R}$$ is surrounded by a conducting material with a specified charge density $$\rho$$, and if the total charge $$Q$$ is known, then $$V$$ is also unique.

A potential that does not satisfy Laplace's equation together with the boundary condition is an invalid electrostatic potential.

Gravitation
Let $$\mathbf{g}$$ be the gravitational field, $$\rho$$ the mass density, and $$G$$ the gravitational constant. Then Gauss's law for gravitation in differential form is $$\nabla\cdot\mathbf g=-4\pi G\rho.$$

The gravitational field is conservative and can therefore be expressed as the negative gradient of the gravitational potential: $$\begin{align} \mathbf g &= -\nabla V, \\ \nabla\cdot\mathbf g &= \nabla\cdot(-\nabla V) = -\nabla^2 V, \\ \implies\nabla^2 V &= -\nabla\cdot\mathbf g. \end{align}$$

Using the differential form of Gauss's law of gravitation, we have $$\nabla^2 V = 4\pi G\rho,$$ which is Poisson's equation for gravitational fields.

In empty space, $$\rho=0$$ and we have $$\nabla^2 V = 0,$$ which is Laplace's equation for gravitational fields.

In the Schwarzschild metric
S. Persides solved the Laplace equation in Schwarzschild spacetime on hypersurfaces of constant $t$. Using the canonical variables $r$, $θ$, $φ$ the solution is $$\Psi(r,\theta,\varphi) = R(r)Y_l(\theta,\varphi),$$ where $π$ is a spherical harmonic function, and $$ R(r) = (-1)^l\frac{(l!)^2r_s^l}{(2l)!}P_l\left(1-\frac{2r}{r_s}\right)+(-1)^{l+1}\frac{2(2l+1)!}{(l)!^2r_s^{l+1}}Q_l\left(1-\frac{2r}{r_s}\right). $$

Here $0 ≤ φ < 2π$ and $Y(θ, φ)$ are Legendre functions of the first and second kind, respectively, while $Y_{ℓ}^{m}$ is the Schwarzschild radius. The parameter $l$ is an arbitrary non-negative integer.

title: Laplace's equation


text:
Christopher Tolkien

Christopher John Reuel Tolkien (21 November 1924 – 16 January 2020) was an English and naturalised French academic editor. The son of the author and academic J. R. R. Tolkien, Christopher edited 24 volumes of his father's posthumously published work, including The Silmarillion and the 12-volume series The History of Middle-Earth, a task that took 45 years. He also drew the original maps for his father's fantasy novel The Lord of the Rings.

Outside his father's unfinished works, Christopher edited three tales by Geoffrey Chaucer (with Nevill Coghill) and his father's translation of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Tolkien scholars have remarked that he used his skill as a philologist, demonstrated in his editing of those medieval works, to research, collate, edit, and comment on his father's Middle-earth writings exactly as if they were real-world legends. The effect is both to frame his father's works and to insert himself as a narrator. They have further noted that his additions to The Silmarillion, such as to fill in gaps, and his composition of the text in his own literary style, place him as an author as well as an editor of that book.

Early life and education
Christopher Tolkien was born on 21 November 1924 in Leeds, England, the third of four children and the youngest son of J. R. R. and Edith Tolkien (née Bratt). He was educated at the Dragon School in Oxford, and later at the Roman Catholic Oratory School near Reading.

He won a place to study English at Trinity College, Oxford, still aged 17, but after a year and a half there he received his call-up papers for military service. He joined the Royal Air Force in July 1943 and at the start of 1944 was sent to South Africa for flight training. He gained his "wings" as a fighter pilot and was commissioned in January 1945. He was given a posting back in England in February 1945, at Market Drayton in Shropshire. In June 1945 he switched to the Fleet Air Arm. While still in the service, he resumed his degree in April 1946; he was demobilised at the end of that year. He took his B.A. in 1948, and his B.Litt. in 1953 under the philologist Gabriel Turville-Petre.

Career
Tolkien was for a long time part of the critical audience for his father's fiction, first as a child listening to tales of Bilbo Baggins (published as The Hobbit), and then as a teenager and young adult offering feedback on The Lord of the Rings throughout its 15-year gestation. He also redrew his father's working maps for inclusion in The Lord of the Rings. His father invited him to join the Inklings, a literary discussion group, when Christopher was 21 years old. His father called this "a quite unprecedented honour". He became a lecturer in English language at St Catherine's Society, Oxford in 1954.

Away from his father's writings, he published The Saga of King Heidrek the Wise: "Translated from the Icelandic with Introduction, Notes and Appendices by Christopher Tolkien" in 1960. Later, he followed in his father's footsteps, becoming a lecturer and tutor in English language at New College, Oxford in 1963.

In 1967 his father named him as his literary executor, and more specifically as his co-author of The Silmarillion. After his father's death in 1973, he took a large quantity of legendarium manuscripts to his Oxfordshire home, where he converted a barn into a workspace. He and the young Guy Gavriel Kay started work on the documents, discovering by 1975 how complex the task was likely to be. In September 1975 he resigned from New College to work exclusively on editing his father's writings. He moved to France and continued this task for 45 years. In all, he edited and published 24 volumes of his father's writings, most of them to do with the Middle-earth legendarium.

In 2016 Christopher won a Bodley Medal, an award that recognises outstanding contributions to literature, culture, science, and communication.

He served as chairman of the Tolkien Estate, the entity formed to handle the business side of his father's literary legacy, and as a trustee of the Tolkien Charitable Trust. He resigned as director of the estate in 2017.

The challenge of the legendarium
His father wrote a great deal of material in the Middle-earth legendarium that remained unpublished in his lifetime. He had originally intended to publish The Silmarillion alongside The Lord of the Rings in the 1950s, but it was rejected by his publisher. Parts of it were in a finished state when he died in 1973, but the project was incomplete. Tolkien once called his son his "chief critic and collaborator", and named him his literary executor. Christopher organised the masses of his father's unpublished writings, some of them written on odd scraps of paper half a century earlier. Much of the material was handwritten; frequently a fair draft was written over a half-erased first draft, and names of characters routinely changed between the beginning and the end of the same draft. He explained:

"By the time of my father's death the amount of writing in existence on the subject of the Three Ages was huge in quantity (since it extended over a lifetime), disordered, more full of beginnings than of ends, and varying in content from heroic verse in the ancient English alliterative metre to severe historical analysis of his own extremely difficult languages: a vast repository and labyrinth of story, of poetry, of philosophy, and of philology ... To bring it into publishable form was a task at once utterly absorbing and alarming in its responsibility toward something that is unique."

From The Silmarillion to The History of Middle-earth
Christopher and Kay produced a single-volume edition of The Silmarillion for publication in 1977. Its success led to the publication of Unfinished Tales in 1980, and then to the far larger project of The History of Middle-earth in 12 volumes between 1983 and 1996. Most of the original source-texts that Christopher used to construct The Silmarillion were published in this way. Charles Noad comments that the 12-volume History had done something that a putative single-volume edition of The Silmarillion with embedded commentary could not have achieved: it had changed people's perspective on Tolkien's Middle-earth writings, from being centred on The Lord of the Rings to what it had always been in Tolkien's mind: Silmarillion-centred. Noad adds that "The whole series of The History of Middle-earth is a tremendous achievement and makes a worthy and enduring testament to one man's creative endeavours and to another's explicatory devotion. It reveals far more about Tolkien's invented world than any of his readers in pre-Silmarillion days could ever have imagined or hoped for."

"Great Tales" of the "Elder Days"
In April 2007, he published The Children of Húrin, whose story his father had brought to a relatively complete stage between 1951 and 1957, but then abandoned. This was one of his father's earliest stories, its first version dating back to 1918; several versions are published in The Silmarillion, Unfinished Tales, and The History of Middle-earth. The Children of Húrin is a synthesis of these and other sources. It, along with Beren and Lúthien, published in 2017, and The Fall of Gondolin, published in 2018, constituted what J. R. R. Tolkien called the three "Great Tales" of the "Elder Days".

Medieval works
Christopher edited some works by his father that were unconnected to the Middle-earth legendarium. The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún appeared in May 2009, a verse retelling of the Norse Völsung cycle, followed by The Fall of Arthur in May 2013, and by Beowulf: A Translation and Commentary in May 2014.

Editor or author
Vincent Ferré comments that early in the process of editing his father's unpublished writings, "the real nature of Christopher Tolkien's work was a matter of debate, before a more simplistic consensus began to prevail." Christopher Tolkien explained in The Silmarillion foreword in 1977 "I set myself therefore to work out a single text, selecting and arranging in such a way as seemed to me to produce the most coherent and internally self-consistent narrative." In Ferré's opinion, "This choice remains one of his [most] distinctive marks on the book", noting that J. R. R. Tolkien had foreseen in a 1963 letter that the presentation of the stories "will need a lot of work ... the legends have to be worked over ... and made consistent ... and they have to be given some progressive shape."

In 1981, the scholar of literature Randel Helms, taking that statement as definitive of Christopher Tolkien's editorial, indeed authorial, intentions: stated in terms that "The Silmarillion in the shape that we have it [a single-volume narrative] is the invention of the son not the father".

Christopher Tolkien disagreed, stating in the foreword to the 1983 The Book of Lost Tales, that the outcome of his work had been "to add a further dimension of obscurity to The Silmarillion, ... about the age of the work ... and about the degree of editorial intrusion and manipulation (or even invention), is a stumbling-block and a source of much misapprehension." In the same foreword, while rebuffing Helms but without explaining why Helms's opinion was wrong, Christopher Tolkien admitted that the wisdom of publishing The Silmarillion with (unlike The Lord of the Rings) no frame story, "no suggestion of what it is and how (within the imagined world) it came to be", was "certainly debatable". He added "This I now think to have been an error." He noted, too, that the philologist and Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey, in his book The Road to Middle-earth, was "clearly reluctant to see [The Silmarillion] as other than a 'late' work, even the latest work of its author", i.e. that its text owes as much to Christopher Tolkien as to his father.

Ferré records that, much later, in 2021, Christopher Tolkien admitted "I had had to invent some passages", that he had had a dream that his father was anxiously searching for something, and that he had "realized in horror that it was The Silmarillion." In Ferré's view, he should be thought of as "a writer in his own right, and not only as an 'editor' of his father's manuscripts". He gives two reasons for this: that The Silmarillion reveals his own writing style and "the choices he made in 'constructing'" the narrative; and that he had to devise parts of the story, both to fill gaps and when "threads were impossible to weave together".

Christopher Tolkien's editing of the 12 volumes of The History of Middle-earth, using his skill as a philologist, created an editorial frame for his father's legendarium, and for the books derived from it. Ferré comments that this presented his father's writings as historical, a real set of legends from the past, in just the same way that his editing of The Monsters and the Critics, and Other Essays presented his father's essays as scholarly work.

Reaction to filmed versions
In 2001 Christopher Tolkien expressed doubts over The Lord of the Rings film trilogy directed by Peter Jackson, questioning the viability of a film interpretation that retained the essence of the work, but stressed that this was just his opinion. In a 2012 interview with Le Monde, he criticised the films, saying: "They gutted the book, making an action film for 15 to 25-year-olds." In 2008 he commenced legal proceedings against New Line Cinema, which he claimed owed his family £80 million in unpaid royalties. In September 2009, he and New Line reached an undisclosed settlement, and he withdrew his legal objection to The Hobbit films.

Personal life
Tolkien was married twice. He had two sons and one daughter. His first marriage in 1951 was to the sculptor Faith Lucy Tilly Tolkien (née Faulconbridge) (1928–2017). They separated in 1964, and divorced in 1967. Her work is featured in the National Portrait Gallery. Their son Simon Mario Reuel Tolkien is a barrister and novelist.

He married Baillie Klass in 1967; they had two children, Adam and Rachel. In 1975 they moved to the south of France, where she edited her father-in-law's The Father Christmas Letters for posthumous publication.

In the wake of a dispute surrounding the making of The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, he is said to have disapproved of the views of his son Simon. He felt that The Lord of the Rings was "peculiarly unsuitable for transformation into visual dramatic form", whilst his son became involved as an advisor with the series. They later reconciled, and Simon dedicated one of his novels to his father.

Tolkien died on 16 January 2020, at the age of 95, in Draguignan, Var, France.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Christopher Tolkien


text:
User:Guppie

"Guppie" is the nickname of an occasional contributor.

I am interested in history, especially concerning Eastern Europe, and have helped writing the following pages:

Russia / Soviet Union: Russia, Soviet Union, History of the Soviet Union, Gulag, Collapse of the Soviet Union, Commonwealth of Independent States, History of post-communist Russia, Cheka, OGPU, NKVD, MVD, Great Purges, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, Nikolai Yezhov, Mikhail Gorbachev, Boris Yeltsin, Ruslan Khasbulatov, Aleksandr Rutskoy, Vladimir Putin, and Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn.

WWII: History of Finland, Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, Moldavia, Continuation War, Lapland war, Yugoslavia/History, Tito and Stalin.

The Norther Ireland conflict: Northern Ireland, The Troubles, Special Air Service

End of communism in Eastern Europe: Bulgaria, Romania/History, Moldova, Yugoslavia, 1989, 1991, and Warsaw Pact.

Balkan: Yugoslavia, FYROM Macedonia/History, Kosovo war, KLA, UCPMB, Macedonian UCK

Middle East: Yasser Arafat, PLO, DFLP, PFLP, PFLP-GC, Black September, Israel Defence Forces, and Kurdistan

General stuff: Coup d'état, Mr. Burns, NUTS, Pax Romana, Pax Americana, Anti-capitalism and Anti-communism.

Article Licensing
All Wikipedia main, main talk, and template namespace articles or edits produced by Guppie are dual licensed as described below. Any other namespace (such as Wikipedia:) is excluded. This license is retroactive, however, I reserve the right to cease using the dual license at any time by removing this notice from my page. The most recent notice shall have priority.

title: User:Guppie


text:
Indemnity

In contract law, an indemnity is a contractual obligation of one party (the indemnitor) to compensate the loss incurred by another party (the indemnitee) due to the relevant acts of the indemnitor or any other party. The duty to indemnify is usually, but not always, coextensive with the contractual duty to "hold harmless" or "save harmless". In contrast, a "guarantee" is an obligation of one party (the guarantor) to another party to perform the promise of a relevant other party if that other party defaults.

Indemnities form the basis of many insurance contracts; for example, a car owner may purchase different kinds of insurance as an indemnity for various kinds of loss arising from operation of the car, such as damage to the car itself, or medical expenses following an accident. In an agency context, a principal may be obligated to indemnify their agent for liabilities incurred while carrying out responsibilities under the relationship. While the events giving rise to an indemnity may be specified by contract, the actions that must be taken to compensate the injured party are largely unpredictable, and the maximum compensation is often expressly limited.

Indemnity clauses
Under section 4 of the Statute of Frauds (1677), a "guarantee" (an undertaking of secondary liability; to answer for another's default) must be evidenced in writing. No such formal requirement exists in respect of indemnities (involving the assumption of primary liability; to pay irrespective of another's default) which are enforceable even if made orally.

Under current English law, indemnities must be clearly and precisely worded in the contract in order to be enforceable. The Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 stated that a consumer cannot be made to unreasonably indemnify another for their breach of contract or negligence, though this section was repealed by the Consumer Rights Act 2015 schedule 4 paragraph 6.

Contract award
In England and Wales an "indemnity" monetary award may form part of rescission during an action of restitutio in integrum. The property and funds are exchanged, but indemnity may be granted for costs necessarily incurred to the innocent party pursuant to the contract. The leading case is Whittington v Seale-Hayne, in which a contaminated farm was sold. The contract made the buyers renovate the real estate and, the contamination incurred medical expenses for their manager, who had fallen ill. Once the contract was rescinded, the buyer could be indemnified for the cost of renovation as this was necessary to the contract, but not the medical expenses as the contract did not require them to hire a manager. Were the sellers at fault, damages would clearly be available.

The distinction between indemnity and damages is subtle and may be differentiated by considering the roots of the law of obligations: how can money be paid if the defendant is not at fault? The contract before rescission is voidable but not void, so, for a period of time, there is a legal contract. During that time, both parties have legal obligation. If the contract is to be voided ab initio the obligations performed must also be compensated. Therefore, the costs of indemnity arise from the (transient and performed) obligations of the claimant rather than a breach of obligation by the defendant.

Distinction from guarantees
An indemnity is distinct from a guarantee, which is the promise of a third party to honor the obligation of a party to a contract should that party be unable or unwilling to do so (usually a guarantee is limited to an obligation to pay a debt). This distinction between indemnity and guarantee was discussed as early as the eighteenth century in Birkmyr v Darnell. In that case, concerned with a guarantee of payment for goods rather than payment of rent, the presiding judge explained that a guarantee effectively says "Let him have the goods; if he does not pay you, I will."

Distinction from warranties
An indemnity is distinct from a warranty in that:
 * An indemnity guarantees compensation equal to the amount of loss subject to the indemnity, while a warranty only guarantees compensation for the reduction in value of the acquired asset due to the warranted fact being untrue (and the beneficiary must prove such diminution in value).
 * Warranties require the beneficiary to mitigate their losses, while indemnities do not.
 * Warranties do not cover problems known to the beneficiary at the time the warranty is given, while indemnities do.

United States contracts
Many private contracts and terms of service in the United States require one party (indemnitor, typically a customer) to pay (indemnify) the other side's costs for legal claims arising from the relationship. They are particularly common in online services.

The US government publishes special Terms of Service, which it has negotiated with many companies, to exclude indemnification for official US government work. US law "is violated by any indemnification agreement that, without statutory authorization, imposes on the United States an open-ended, potentially unrestricted liability." The Attorney General says federal agencies "should renegotiate the terms of service to revise or eliminate the indemnification clause or cancel the [government]'s enrollments in social media applications when their operators insist on such a clause."

State variations
Under US law, interpretation of indemnification clauses varies by state. For example, in California indemnification clauses do not cover certain risks unless the risks are listed in the contract, but in New York, the brief clause, "X shall defend and indemnify Y for all claims arising from the Product" makes X responsible for all claims against Y. Indemnity can be extremely costly since X's liability insurance typically does not cover claims against Y, but X still has to cover them.

In 2017, the Utah Supreme Court stated, "By statute, a contractual provision requiring a purchaser of a product to indemnify a manufacturer is 'void and unenforceable' in certain circumstances. UTAH CODE § 78B-6-707."

In 2012–2014, a New Jersey woman had to pay a lawyer to get out of an indemnity payment for injury at a storage unit. When someone slipped on ice in 2012 while going to a unit, Public Storage sued in court to make the woman who rented the unit pay for the injury. She tried to ignore the case and so state court ruled that she had to pay. She then retained a lawyer and went to court. In 2014, the US District Court decided that the specific indemnity clause was unenforceable in New Jersey because it covered Public Storage's own negligence without explicitly saying so, contrary to New Jersey law (other states differ). A 2013 decision in New Jersey upheld a broad indemnity clause since it was followed by another sentence: "indemnity agreement is intended to be as broad and inclusive as is permitted by the law of the State of New Jersey." The judge said, "It is true that a consumer, unfamiliar with the laws of New Jersey, would not be able to state with certainty how far the waiver extends."

In 2010, the Colorado Supreme Court required a flower shop to indemnify its shopping center for a customer who slipped on the icy parking lot, though of no fault of the flower shop, because the tenant was there to visit that shop, and the shop's lease had a broad indemnity clause.

In 1999, the United States District Court for the District of Wyoming did not require a customer to indemnify a whitewater rafting company for injury to his wife since the wording may have applied only to him and his children, and clauses cannot be enforced in Wyoming to indemnify a company for its own negligence.

In 1979, the Minnesota Supreme Court ruled that a subcontractor must indemnify the builder for damages that it caused, according to an indemnification clause in their purchase order.

In 1966, the Supreme Court of California ruled that The Hertz Corporation could not enforce its clause requiring renters to indemnify Hertz's insurer.

With negotiations
Indemnities can be expensive enough to bankrupt a company which pays them: "If manufacturers ... are to survive, they will need liability insurance, as well as favorable contracts with retailers. If you look at a big retailers, such as Trader Joe's or Costco or Walmart or Randalls, very often there will be an indemnity provision providing that, if you want to sell a product in our stores, and if it gets someone sick or if it has to be recalled, and it's your fault, you must pay us back for that."

When a contract is "negotiable," the indemnitor negotiates to control those legal costs. It will not let the indemnified party (indemnitee) overspend: "An arrangement in which the indemnitee makes decisions about how to defend and settle the claim while the indemnitor writes the checks presents a moral hazard. Knowing that its defense and settlement costs are being borne by the indemnitor, the indemnitee may be encouraged to engage a more expensive legal team or pursue a riskier defense strategy than it would otherwise. For this reason, most indemnitors are unwilling to indemnify against claims when they do not control the defense of the claim."

The American Bar Association has published advice on negotiations of construction contracts: that (1) owners try to get contractors to indemnify as much as possible and for (2) contractors (a) indemnify only for their own negligence and (b) "establish a right but not a duty for the contractor to defend under an indemnification claim."

An example of letting the indemnitor control costs is in the case of a contractor for a homeowners' association (HOA) in which "Contractor shall indemnify, defend (by counsel reasonably acceptable to Association) and hold harmless the Association." Companies and HOAs also use indemnity to protect directors since few would serve as directors if their risks were not indemnified. Negotiation is important for both parties. "Just about all homeowner association management contracts have a provision which states that the HOA shall indemnify the manager under certain circumstances ... There are several ways the indemnification clause can be drafted and both management and HOA must take into account what protects each the best."

If indemnitors can negotiate a limit on liability in their contract, that limits the cost of a potential indemnity if they "make clear in the agreement that any limitations of liability (whether in the form of caps or exclusions of certain types of damages – e.g., consequential) apply to the ... indemnification."

Without negotiations
When a contract is negotiable (adhesion contract), the wording often lets the indemnitee decide what to spend on legal costs and bill the indemnitor. Most clauses are quite broad. The following are examples of indemnity requirements from a range of businesses. The last one, Angie's List, limits issues to the user's fault, but decisions and costs are still controlled by the indemnitee (Angie's List).
 * "The yacht owner shall indemnify, defend, and hold harmless the marina from any costs, expenses, damages, and against all claims, demands, loss, lawsuits, including judgments and attorney fees for damages to property, injury or life to third parties resulting or arising from the yacht owner's use of the yacht." The lawyer for a boat owners' group interpreted that as meaning: "By signing a marina contract with such provisions, you may find yourself responsible for costs not covered by your insurance policy ... What it means is that if your guest is injured at the marina, even if it's the marina's fault, you agree that you will defend the marina against the claim and pay any damages for which the marina is deemed responsible."
 * "You agree to indemnify and hold Uber ... harmless from any and all claims ... in connection with: (i) your use of the Services ..."
 * "Occupant shall indemnify and hold Owner [Public Storage] and Owner's Agents harmless from any loss incurred by Owner and Owner's Agents in any way arising out of Occupant's use of the Premises or the Property including, but not limited to, claims of injury or loss by Occupant's visitors or invitees."
 * "You agree to defend, hold harmless and indemnify edX [founded by Harvard and MIT] ... against any third-party claims ... in any way related to your use of the Site ..."
 * "You agree that you will indemnify and hold harmless NPR ... from any and all claims ... arising from ... (2) your use of the NPR Services, (3) the User Materials you have Submitted on or through the NPR Services, or (4) NPR's publication, distribution or use of such User Materials ..."
 * "If you are using our Services on behalf of a business, that business accepts these terms. It will hold harmless and indemnify Google ... from any claim, action or proceedings arising from or related to the use of the Services ..."
 * "Upon request by Bank of America or its Affiliates, you agree to defend, indemnify and hold harmless Bank of America ... from all liabilities, claims and expenses, including attorneys fees, that arise from ... third party claims arising from your use of the Sites. Bank of America and its Affiliates reserve the right to assume the exclusive defense and control of any matter otherwise subject to indemnification by you. Notwithstanding the foregoing, you are not required to indemnify Bank of America or its Affiliates for its own violations of applicable laws."
 * "You agree to indemnify, defend and hold harmless Verizon Parties from and against all losses ... related to claims made by any third-party due to or arising out of (a) Submitted Material ... (b) your use of the Sites or Resources ... Verizon reserves the right to assume the defense and control of any matter subject to indemnification by you, in which event you will cooperate with Verizon in asserting any available defenses."
 * "You agree to indemnify, defend and hold harmless Angie's List ... against all losses ... arising from: (a) any violation of this Agreement by You; (b) the inaccurate or untruthful Content or other information provided by You to Angie's List or that You submit, transmit or otherwise make available through the Service; or (c) any intentional or willful violation of any rights of another or harm You may have caused to another. Angie's List will have sole control of the defense of any such damage or claim."

Insurance
Indemnity insurance compensates the beneficiaries of the policies for their actual economic losses, up to the limiting amount of the insurance policy. It generally requires the insured to prove the amount of its loss before it can recover. Recovery is limited to the amount of the provable loss even if the face amount of the policy is higher. This is in contrast to, for example, life insurance, where the amount of the beneficiary's economic loss is irrelevant. The death of the person whose life is insured for reasons not excluded from the policy obligate the insurer to pay the entire policy amount to the beneficiary.

Most business interruption insurance policies contain an Extended Period of Indemnity Endorsement, which extends coverage beyond the time that it takes to physically restore the property. This provision covers additional expenses that allow the business to return to prosperity and help the business restore revenues to pre-loss levels.

Indemnity agreement for board members
As part of the appointment of officers, the board will often approve indemnification agreements with the officer. Such agreements provide for indemnification of officers for personal liability for actions taken on behalf of the corporation. The board will also approve separate resolutions that approve indemnification for decisions made by directors. Indemnity agreements are included in the post-incorporation processes of companies.

Freeing of slaves and indentured servants
Slave owners were considered to have suffered a loss whenever their slaves were granted their freedom.

When the slaves of Zanzibar were freed in 1897, it was by compensation since the prevailing opinion was that the slave owners suffered the loss of an asset whenever a slave was freed.

In the 1860s in the United States, U.S. President Abraham Lincoln had requested many millions of dollars from Congress with which to compensate slave owners for the loss of their slaves. On 9 July 1868, Section IV of the Fourteenth Amendment dismissed all of the claims that slave owners had been injured by the freeing of the slaves.

In 1807–1808, in Prussia, statesman Baron Heinrich vom Stein introduced a series of reforms, the principal of which was the abolition of serfdom with indemnification to territorial lords.

Haiti was required to pay an indemnity of 150,000,000 francs to France in order to atone for the loss suffered by the French slave owners.

In Peru, Antonio Salinas y Castañeda (1810–1874), a wealthy Peruvian landowner and conservative politician, led the meeting of the main landowners of the country for an indemnity after slavery abolition and ruled the commission who promoted the immigration of Asians to replace former slaves as a workforce during Ramón Castilla government.

Costs of war
The nation that wins a war may insist on being paid compensations for the costs of the war, even after having been the instigator of the war.
 * Following the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895, the Treaty of Shimonoseki required that China pay Japan the sum of 200,000,000 taels.
 * Following the massacres of foreigners during the Boxer Rebellion, the defeated Qing Empire were to pay 450 million taels of fine silver as indemnity over a course of 39 years to the eight nations involved. Under the exchange rates at the time, this was equal to 335 million US gold dollars or £67 million.

title: Indemnity


text:
Giuseppe Mazzini

Giuseppe Mazzini (,, ; 22 June 1805  – 10 March 1872) was an Italian politician, journalist, and activist for the unification of Italy (Risorgimento) and spearhead of the Italian revolutionary movement. His efforts helped bring about the independent and unified Italy in place of the several separate states, many dominated by foreign powers, that existed until the 19th century. An Italian nationalist in the historical radical tradition and a proponent of a republicanism of social-democratic inspiration, Mazzini helped define the modern European movement for popular democracy in a republican state.

Mazzini's thoughts had a very considerable influence on the Italian and European republican movements, in the Constitution of Italy, about Europeanism and more nuanced on many politicians of a later period, among them American president Woodrow Wilson, British prime minister David Lloyd George, Mahatma Gandhi, Indian prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru, Indian independence activist Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, and Israeli prime minister Golda Meir.

Early years

Mazzini was born in Genoa, which had recently been annexed by the First French Empire. His father Giacomo Mazzini, originally from Chiavari, was a university professor who had adhered to Jacobin ideology, while his mother Maria Drago was renowned for her beauty and religious Jansenist fervour. From a very early age, Mazzini showed good learning qualities as well as a precocious interest in politics and literature. He was admitted to university at 14, graduating in law in 1826 and initially practised as a "poor man's lawyer". Mazzini also hoped to become a historical novelist or a dramatist and in the same year wrote his first essay, Dell'amor patrio di Dante ("On Dante's Patriotic Love"), published in 1827. In 1828–1829, he collaborated with the Genoese newspaper L'Indicatore Genovese which was soon closed by the Piedmontese authorities. He then became one of the leading authors of L'Indicatore Livornese, published at Livorno by Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi, until this paper was closed down by the authorities.

In 1827, Mazzini travelled to Tuscany, where he became a member of the Carbonari, a secret association with political purposes. On 31 October of that year, he was arrested at Genoa and interned at Savona. In early 1831, he was released from prison, but confined to a small hamlet. He chose exile instead, moving to Geneva, Switzerland.

Failed insurrections

In 1831, Mazzini went to Marseille, where he became a popular figure among the Italian exiles. He was a frequent visitor to the apartment of Giuditta Bellerio Sidoli, a Modenese widow who became his lover. In August 1832 Giuditta Sidoli gave birth to a boy, almost certainly Mazzini's son, whom she named Joseph Démosthène Adolpe Aristide after members of the family of Démosthène Ollivier, with whom Mazzini was staying. The Olliviers took care of the child in June 1833 when Giuditta and Mazzini left for Switzerland. The child died in February 1835.

Mazzini organized a new political society called Young Italy. It was a secret society formed to promote Italian unification: "One, free, independent, republican nation." Mazzini believed that a popular uprising would create a unified Italy, and would touch off a European-wide revolutionary movement. The group's motto was God and the People, and its basic principle was the unification of the several states and kingdoms of the peninsula into a single republic as the only true foundation of Italian liberty. The new nation had to be "One, Independent, Free Republic".

Mazzini's political activism met some success in Tuscany, Abruzzi, Sicily, Piedmont, and his native Liguria, especially among several military officers. Young Italy counted about 60,000 adherents in 1833, with branches in Genoa and other cities. In that year Mazzini first attempted insurrection, which would spread from Chambéry (then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia), Alessandria, Turin, and Genoa. However, the Savoy government discovered the plot before it could begin and many revolutionaries (including Vincenzo Gioberti) were arrested. The repression was ruthless: 12 participants were executed, while Mazzini's best friend and director of the Genoese section of the Giovine Italia, Jacopo Ruffini, killed himself. Mazzini was tried in absentia and sentenced to death.

Despite this setback, whose victims later created numerous doubts and psychological strife in Mazzini, he organized another uprising for the following year. A group of Italian exiles were to enter Piedmont from Switzerland and spread the revolution there, while Giuseppe Garibaldi, who had recently joined Young Italy, was to do the same from Genoa. However, the Piedmontese troops easily crushed the new attempt. Denis Mack Smith writes: "In the spring of 1834, while at Bern, Mazzini and a dozen refugees from Italy, Poland, and Germany founded a new association with the grandiose name of Young Europe. Its basic, and equally grandiose idea, was that, as the French Revolution of 1789 had enlarged the concept of individual liberty, another revolution would now be needed for national liberty, and his vision went further because he hoped that in the no doubt distant future free nations might combine to form a loosely federal Europe with some kind of federal assembly to regulate their common interests. ... His intention was nothing less than to overturn the European settlement agreed in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, which had reestablished an oppressive hegemony of a few great powers and blocked the emergence of smaller nations. ... Mazzini hoped, but without much confidence, that his vision of a league or society of independent nations would be realized in his own lifetime. In practice, Young Europe lacked the money and popular support for more than a short-term existence. Nevertheless, he always remained faithful to the ideal of a united continent for which the creation of individual nations would be an indispensable preliminary."

On 28 May 1834, Mazzini was arrested at Solothurn, and exiled from Switzerland. He moved to Paris, where he was again imprisoned on 5 July. He was released only after promising he would move to England. Mazzini, together with a few Italian friends, moved in January 1837 to live in London in very poor economic conditions.

Exile in London

On 30 April 1840, Mazzini reformed the Giovine Italia in London, and on 10 November of the same year, he began issuing the Apostolato popolare ("Apostleship of the People").

A succession of failed attempts at promoting further uprisings in Sicily, Abruzzi, Tuscany, and Lombardy-Venetia discouraged Mazzini for a long period, which dragged on until 1840. He was also abandoned by Sidoli, who had returned to Italy to rejoin her children. The help of his mother pushed Mazzini to create several organizations aimed at the unification or liberation of other nations, in the wake of Giovine Italia: "Young Germany", "Young Poland", and "Young Switzerland", which were under the aegis of "Young Europe" (Giovine Europa). He also created an Italian school for poor people active from 10 November 1841 at 5 Greville Street, London. From London he also wrote an endless series of letters to his agents in Europe and South America and made friends with Thomas Carlyle and his wife Jane. The "Young Europe" movement also inspired a group of young Turkish army cadets and students who, later in history, named themselves the "Young Turks".

In 1843, he organized another riot in Bologna, which attracted the attention of two young officers of the Austrian Navy, Attilio and Emilio Bandiera. With Mazzini's support, they landed near Cosenza (Kingdom of Naples) but were arrested and executed. Mazzini accused the British government of having passed information about the expeditions to the Neapolitans, and the question was raised in the British Parliament. When it was admitted that his private letters had indeed been opened, and its contents revealed by the Foreign Office to the Austrian and Neapolitan governments, Mazzini gained popularity and support among the British liberals, who were outraged by such a blatant intrusion of the government into his private correspondence.

In 1847, he moved again to London, where he wrote a long "open letter" to Pope Pius IX, whose apparently liberal reforms had gained him a momentary status as a possible paladin of the unification of Italy, but The Pope did not reply. He also founded the People's International League. By 8 March 1848, Mazzini was in Paris, where he launched a new political association, the Associazione Nazionale Italiana. In apologising for not being able to attend the first annual celebration of the Leeds Redemption Society (a communitarian experiment) on 7 January 1847 he offered to become a subscriber.

1848–1849 revolts

On 7 April 1848, Mazzini reached Milan, whose population had rebelled against the Austrian garrison and established a provisional government. The First Italian War of Independence, started by the Piedmontese king Charles Albert to exploit the favourable circumstances in Milan, turned into a total failure. Mazzini, who had never been popular in the city because he wanted Lombardy to become a republic instead of joining Piedmont, abandoned Milan. He joined Garibaldi's irregular force at Bergamo, moving to Switzerland with him. Mazzini was one of the founders and leaders of the Action Party, the first organized party in the history of Italy.

On 9 February 1849, a republic was declared in Rome, with Pius IX already having been forced to flee to Gaeta the preceding November. On the same day the Republic was declared, Mazzini reached the city. He was appointed, together with Carlo Armellini and Aurelio Saffi, as a member of the triumvirate of the new republic on 29 March, becoming soon the true leader of the government and showing good administrative capabilities in social reforms. However, the French troops called by the Pope made clear that the resistance of the Republican troops, led by Garibaldi, was in vain. On 12 July 1849, Mazzini set out for Marseille, from where he moved again to Switzerland.

Late activities

Mazzini spent all of 1850 hiding from the Swiss police. In July he founded the association Amici di Italia ("Friends of Italy") in London, to attract consensus towards the Italian liberation cause. Two failed riots in Mantua (1852) and Milan (1853) were a crippling blow for the Mazzinian organization, whose prestige never recovered. He later opposed the alliance signed by Savoy with Austria for the Crimean War. Also in vain was the expedition of Felice Orsini in Carrara of 1853–1854.

In 1856, he returned to Genoa to organize a series of uprisings: the only serious attempt was that of Carlo Pisacane in Calabria, which again met a disappointing end. Mazzini managed to escape the police but was condemned to death by default. From this moment on, Mazzini was more of a spectator than a protagonist of the Italian Risorgimento, whose reins were now strongly in the hands of the Savoyard monarch Victor Emmanuel II and his skilled prime minister, Camillo Benso, Conte di Cavour. The latter defined him as "Chief of the Assassins".

In 1858, he founded another journal in London called Pensiero e azione ("Thought and Action"). On 21 February 1859, together with 151 republicans, he signed a manifesto against the alliance between Piedmont and the Emperor of France which resulted in the Second War of Italian Independence and the conquest of Lombardy. On 2 May 1860, he tried to reach Garibaldi, who was going to launch his famous Expedition of the Thousand in southern Italy. In the same year, he released Doveri dell'uomo ("Duties of Man"), a synthesis of his moral, political and social thoughts. In mid-September, he was in Naples, then under Garibaldi's dictatorship, but was invited by the local vice-dictator Giorgio Pallavicino to move away.

The new Kingdom of Italy was created in 1861 under the Savoy monarchy. In 1862, Mazzini joined Garibaldi in his failed attempt to free Rome. In 1866, Italy joined the Austro-Prussian War and gained Venetia. At this time, Mazzini frequently spoke out against how the unification of his country was being achieved. In 1867, he refused a seat in the Italian Chamber of Deputies. In 1870, he tried to start a rebellion in Sicily and was arrested and imprisoned in Gaeta. In October, he was freed in the amnesty declared after the Kingdom finally took Rome and returned to London in mid-December.

Mazzini died of pleurisy at the house known now as Domus Mazziniana in Pisa in 1872, aged 66. His body was embalmed by Paolo Gorini. His funeral was held in Genoa, with 100,000 people taking part in it.

Ideology

An Italian nationalist, Mazzini was a fervent advocate of republicanism and envisioned a united, free and independent Italy. Unlike his contemporary Giuseppe Garibaldi, who was also a republican, Mazzini refused to swear an oath of allegiance to the House of Savoy until after the Capture of Rome. He and his followers were sensitive to the question of social justice, starting a dialogue with socialism, and Mazzini in particular finding many affinities with the Saint-Simonians. At the same time, Mazzini was vigorously opposed to Marxism, which for him was "a dreadful perversion of utilitarianism because of its insistence on class interests, especially class struggle, a conflictual vision that could not harmonize with Mazzini's unitarianism". Mazzini also rejected the classical liberal principles of the Age of Enlightenment based on the doctrine of individualism, which he criticized as "presupposing either metaphysical materialism or political atheism". In the first volume of Carl Landauer's European Socialism, Mazzini is mentioned alongside Garibaldi as outstanding "Italian revolutionaries". Albert Charles Brouse argued that "socialism is found in its entirety in the doctrine of Mazzini", his republicanism being both "democratic and social".

In 1871, Mazzini condemned the radical, anti-religious and revolutionary socialist revolt in France that led to the creation of the short-lived Paris Commune. This caused Karl Marx to refer to Mazzini as a reactionary after 1848. It also prompted anarchist Mikhail Bakunin to write The Political Theology of Mazzini and the International, whose "defence of the International and the Paris Commune caused a stir in Italy and provoked many renunciations of Mazzini and declarations of support for the International in the press", even leading to "the first nationwide increase in membership in the organisation". In an interview by R. Landor from 1871, Marx stated that Mazzini's ideas represented "nothing better than the old idea of a middle-class republic". Marx believed that Mazzini's point of view, especially after the Revolutions of 1848 and the Paris Commune, had become reactionary and the proletariat had nothing to do with it.

In another interview, Marx described Mazzini as "that everlasting old ass". In turn, Mazzini described Marx as "a destructive spirit whose heart was filled with hatred rather than love of mankind" and declared that "[d]espite the communist egalitarianism which [Marx] preaches, he is the absolute ruler of his party, admittedly he does everything himself, but he is also the only one to give orders and he tolerates no opposition". While Mazzini saw the Paris Commune as "a socially divisive mistake", many other radicals "followed the socialist lead and mythologised the Commune as a social revolution ('the glorius harbinger of a new society' in Karl Marx's words)". This event "allowed a significant section of the radical left, especially a younger generation of radicals led by the poet and satirist Felice Cavallotti and grouped around the newspaper Il Gazzettino Rosa, to break openly and decisively with both Mazzini and the principles and methods of Mazzinian politics. While Il Gazzettino Rosa praised Mazzini as "the 'saviour' and teacher of Italy", it insisted: "We have no more idols, we don't accept abstruse, incomprehensible formulas. ... What we object to in Mazzini is not his opinion in itself, as much as his opinion erected into a system and a political dogma. We are materialists, but we don't make a political school out of our materialism. To us it does not matter if one believes or does not believe in God. ... [I]nstead Mazzini wants to impose a new religion on us."

According to Lucy Riall, "the emphasis by younger radicals on the 'social question' was paralleled by an increase in what was called 'internationalist' or socialist activity (mostly Bakuninist anarchism) throughout northern and southern Italy, which was given a big boost by the Paris Commune." The rise of this socialism "represented a genuine challenge to Mazzini and the Mazzinian emphasis on politics and culture, and Mazzinis' death early in 1872 only served to underline the prevailing sense that his political era was over. Garibaldi now broke definitively with Mazzini, and this time he moved to the left of him. He came out entirely in favour of the Paris Commune and internationalism, and his stance brought him much closer to the younger radicals, ... and gave him a new lease on political life. From his support was born an initiative to relaunch a broad party of the radical left."

For Seamus Flahert, Henry Hyndman, who was an admirer of Mazzini, thought that "Mazzini's greatness ... was obscured for younger socialists by his 'opposition to Marx in the early days of the 'International', and his vigorous condemnation a little later of the Paris Commune", insisting that "Mazzini's conception of the conduct of human life' had been 'a high and noble one'", praising the "No duties without rights" mention in the "General Rules" that Marx composed and passed as "a concession Marx made to Mazzini's followers within the organisation". In his two-volume autobiography, Hyndman spoke at length about Mazzini, even comparing him to Marx.

Christopher Bayly wrote that Mazzini "had arrived at similar conclusions", referring to "the Saint-Simonian ideas of association and Charles Fourier's 'law of attraction'", but "through an emotive process that owed little to rationalisation". As with the Christian socialist George D. Herron, Mazzini's socialism was "essentially a religious and moral revival". Mazzini rejected the Marxist doctrines of class struggle and materialism, stressing the need for class collaboration. Nonetheless, there was a more radical, socialist interpretation of Mazzini's doctrine within the Italian Republican Party, a Mazzinian party, where "there were many who believed the teachings of the Genoese patriot could be compatible with the Marxist doctrine and ... considered an alliance with the left-wing to be legitimate and desirable".

Mazzini's Italian nationalism has been described as "cosmopolitan patriotism". In Socialism: National or International, first published in 1942, Franz Borkenau described Mazzini as "that impressive Genoese" and "leader of the Italian underground democratic and unitarian movement". About Mazzini and the underground movement, Borkenau further wrote: "Mazzini did a great deal to organize and united this underground movement, known under the name of 'Young Italy'. He conceived the idea of parallel organizations in other European countries, which should all of them join in a 'Young Europe' movement. The plan had only incipient success and Italy remained the sole stronghold of this underground movement. But the idea, though not its practical execution, caught on in other European countries. One reason of Mazzini's partial failure was the emergence of socialism in France and England. France, at any rate, had a strong underground movement, much stronger under Louis-Philippe than previously under the Bourbon restoration. But this movement gradually evolved towards the left. Ordinary democrats of the Mazzini type were no longer persecuted in France after 1830. But to the left of them arose more advanced movements."

When he was a socialist, Benito Mussolini harshly criticized Mazzini, "the religious Mazzini in particular", being "particularly opposed to Mazzini's 'sanctification'". After advocating interventionism in World War I and enlisting, Mussolini "found himself immersed in a patriotic atmosphere permeated by Mazzinian references".

Religion
Influenced by his Jansenist upbringing, Mazzini's thought is characterized by a strong religious fervour and a deep sense of spirituality. A deist who believed in divine providence, Mazzini described himself as a Christian and emphasized the necessity of faith and a relationship with God while vehemently denouncing atheism and rationalism. His motto was Dio e Popolo ("God and People"). Mazzini regarded patriotism as a duty and love for the fatherland as a divine mission, stating that the fatherland was "the home wherein God has placed us, among brothers and sisters linked to us by the family ties of a common religion, history, and language". According to A. James Gregor, "Mazzini's creed for the New Age thus radically distinguished itself from the orthodox Marxism of the nineteenth century. His Socialism was alive with moral purpose, rather than class identity, infused with exalted intent and specifically inspired by a sense of national, rather than class, mission. It saw itself, unabashedly, as a new religion, a 'climb through philosophy to faith '. It was a religion predicated on a 'living faith in one God, one Law, general and immutable ... and one End."

In his 1835 publication Fede e avvenire ("Faith and the Future"), Mazzini wrote: "We must rise again as a religious party. The religious element is universal and immortal. ... The initiators of a new world, we are bound to lay the foundations of a moral unity, a Humanitarian Catholicism." However, Mazzini's relationship with the Catholic Church and the Papacy was not always a kind one. While he initially supported Pope Pius IX upon his election, writing an open letter to him in 1847, Mazzini later published a scathing attack against the pope in his Sull'Enciclica di Papa Pio IX ("On the Encyclical of Pope Pius IX") in 1849. Although some of his religious views were at odds with the Catholic Church and the Papacy, with his writings often tinged with anti-clericalism, Mazzini also criticized Protestantism, stating that it is "divided and subdivided into a thousand sects, all founded on the rights of individual conscience, all eager to make war on one another, and perpetuating that anarchy of beliefs which is the sole true cause of the social and political disturbances that torment the peoples of Europe".

Thought and action
Mazzini rejected the concept of the "rights of man" which had developed during the Age of Enlightenment, arguing instead that individual rights were a duty to be won through hard work, sacrifice and virtue, rather than "rights" which were intrinsically owed to man. Mazzini outlined his thought in his Doveri dell'uomo ("Duties of Man"), published in 1860. Similarly, Mazzini formulated a concept known as "thought and action" in which thought and action must be joined together and every thought must be followed by action, therefore rejecting intellectualism and the notion of divorcing theory from practice.

Women's rights
In "Duties of Man", Mazzini called for recognition of women's rights. After his many encounters with political philosophers in England, France and across Europe, Mazzini had decided that the principle of equality between men and women was fundamental to building a truly democratic Italian nation. He called for the end of women's social and judicial subordination to men. Mazzini's vigorous position heightened attention to gender among European thinkers who were already considering democracy and nationalism. He helped intellectuals see women's rights not merely as a peripheral topic, but rather as a fundamental goal necessary for the regeneration of old nations and the rebirth of new ones. Mazzini admired Jessie White Mario, who was described by Giuseppe Garibaldi as the "Bravest Woman of Modern Time". Mario joined Garibaldi's Redshirts for the 1859–1860 campaign during the Second Italian War of Independence. As a correspondent for the Daily News, she witnessed almost every fight that had brought on the unification of Italy.

Legacy
Mazzini's socio-political thought has been referred to as Mazzinianism and his worldview as the Mazzinian conception, terms that were later used by Mussolini and Italian fascists, such as Giovanni Gentile, to describe their political ideology and spiritual conception of life.

In the first volume of his Reminiscences, Carl Schurz gives a biographical sketch of Mazzini and recalls two meetings he had with him when they were both in London in 1851. While the book 10,000 Famous Freemasons by William R. Denslow lists Mazzini as a Mason and even a Past Grand Master of the Grand Orient of Italy, articles on the Grand Orient of Italy's own website question whether he was ever a regular Mason and do not list him as a Past Grand Master.

Often viewed in Italy of the time as a god-like figure, Mazzini was nonetheless denounced by many of his compatriots as a traitor. Contemporary historians tended to believe that he ceased to contribute anything productive or useful after 1849, but their modern counterparts take a more favourable view of him. The antifascist Mazzini Society, founded in the United States in 1939 by Italian political refugees, took his name and served Italy from exile, as he had.

In London, Mazzini resided at 155 North Gower Street, near Euston Square, which is now marked with a commemorative blue plaque. A plaque on Laystall Street in Clerkenwell, London's Little Italy during the 1850s, also pays tribute to Mazzini, calling him "The Apostle of Modern Democracy". A bust of Mazzini is in New York's Central Park between 67th and 68th streets just west of the West Drive. The 1973–1974 academic year at the College of Europe was named in his honor.

Works

 * Warfare Against  (1825)
 * On Nationality (1852)
 * The Duties of Man and Other Essays (1860). J.M. Dent & Sons, London, 1907. ISBN 1596052198.
 * A Cosmopolitanism of Nations: Giuseppe Mazzini's Writings on Democracy, Nation Building, and International Relations Recchia, Stefano, and Urbinati, Nadia, editors. Princeton University Press, 2009.

Articles

 * "Is it Revolt or a Revolution?" in Tait's Edinburgh Magazine, June 1840, pp. 385–390

Other languages

 * Giuseppe Leone e Roberto Zambonini, "Mozart e Mazzini – Paesaggi poetico-musicali tra flauti magici e voci "segrete", Malgrate, Palazzo Agudio, 25 agosto 2007, ore 21.
 * Giuseppe Leone e Roberto Zambonini, "Mozart e Mazzini – Paesaggi poetico-musicali tra flauti magici e voci "segrete", Malgrate, Palazzo Agudio, 25 agosto 2007, ore 21.
 * Giuseppe Leone e Roberto Zambonini, "Mozart e Mazzini – Paesaggi poetico-musicali tra flauti magici e voci "segrete", Malgrate, Palazzo Agudio, 25 agosto 2007, ore 21.
 * Giuseppe Leone e Roberto Zambonini, "Mozart e Mazzini – Paesaggi poetico-musicali tra flauti magici e voci "segrete", Malgrate, Palazzo Agudio, 25 agosto 2007, ore 21.

title: Giuseppe Mazzini


text:
User talk:Goran~enwiki

Hi! Could you please help out a little with the Yugoslavia/History page? It's appalingly short and not very NPOV. I might try to put something together by copying from Croatia/History and Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/History, but it would be so much better if a former Yugoslav quality-checked it. (I'm from Norway...) -Guppie

Your old user page
Hi Goran, I've placed the history of your old user page at User:Pingos. Hope you don't mind. Graham 87 13:39, 28 January 2009 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Goran. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Goran~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 00:15, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 13:23, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

Invitation to join the Fifteen Year Society
Dear ,

I'd like to extend a cordial invitation to you to join the Fifteen Year Society, an informal group for editors who've been participating in the Wikipedia project for fifteen years or more.

Best regards, Urhixidur (talk) 16:46, 6 June 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:Goran~enwiki


text:
Heavy Metal: F.A.K.K. 2

Heavy Metal: F.A.K.K. 2 is a third-person shooter video game made by Ritual Entertainment in 2000. The sequel to the Heavy Metal 2000 animated film, the game stars Julie in her quest to save her home planet of Eden from GITH, an ancient entity seeking to conquer the universe. Using a variety of weapons, Julie must fight off GITH's forces while at the same time uncovering a secret hidden deep within the planet.

F.A.K.K. 2 allows players to pair up and use two weapons at the same time depending on the situation. Players can block enemy attacks and execute powerful combo moves to deal deadly blows to their enemies. The game uses the Quake III Arena engine (modified with Ritual's ÜberTools) and combines action with puzzle-solving. The game was ported to Linux by Loki Software, who had previously ported Quake III Arena to Linux.

Plot
F.A.K.K. 2 takes place 30 years after the events of Heavy Metal 2000.

F.A.K.K. 2 stands for "Federation-Assigned Ketogenic Killzone to the second level", and is the alias both of the heroine, Julie, and also her homeworld. Before the game begins, Julie has previously killed a tyrant and "would-be God" named Lord Tyler (during the events of Heavy Metal 2000), and brought the remnant of her people to a planet called Eden. The people of Eden have made a startling discovery: the waters of the planet grant an eternal life to those who drink it, and they have restored ti-rural paradise, pasturing 'creepers' (large bull-like creatures) and peacefully going about their business.

This planet is camouflaged by a F.A.K.K. 2 beacon and made to look like a biohazard-strewn wasteland in the hope that it will remain hidden from any threat. However, a creature named Gith, who appears only as a disembodied cybernetic head, runs a hyper-corporation called GITH Industries whose "employees" are little more than slaves. He scavenges the universe in a ship composed of three-quarters of a planet, and is headed for a place called Na'ChThraThull, or the "place of the soft machines", which turns out to be Eden.

Julie resides in the town of Eden with her sister Kerrie, who is pregnant. She interacts with various citizens, including her brother-in-law, Germain St. Germain. Peace is suddenly disturbed by the appearance of hostile insect-like creatures called Vymishes. Julie springs into combat, killing many of the creatures and saving a pregnant creeper in the process. She also kills a Vymish Mama, a queen-like Vymish. Afterward, Julie heads into town and meets Otto, the town's gunsmith, who she gives a glowing green asteroid to for examination. Another asteroid knocks out the shield, and Julie, accompanied by Jared and Eon, is tasked with resetting the shield generator. Underground, Julie's accomplices are killed by creatures called Grawlix, and she is forced to continue alone. She eventually resets the shield generator, but is too late to discover that GITH has arrived, and he teleports troops in to destroy the generator.

Julie returns to town to find it under siege by GITH's forces. Many citizens are dead, while others are hypnotized. Julie finds Otto, who has recovered a mysterious object from the asteroid. It turns out to be a message for Julie from the "Belphigoreans", warning her that Gith is seeking the "Heart of the We". Otto tells Julie about the Heart of the We, and tasks her with finding a native of Eden named Gruff. Julie leaves the besieged Eden, then journeys through the Mooagly swamps to find Gruff, who unlocks the path to the Temple of the We for her. She then overcomes the four challenges of the We before entering the final temple where the Heart of the We is kept. GITH is waiting for her, and he steals the Heart and uses it to bring Lord Tyler back to life, so he could have his revenge on Julie. Julie fights and kills Lord Tyler and wins the Heart, banishing GITH. She returns to town only to find out that her pregnant sister is kidnapped by GITH, who returns in a giant space station.

Gameplay
The game contains various references to Goddess-cults. Much of the imagery surrounding GITH satirizes ad campaigns (the Recruiter who spawns Swarmers in the game periodically exhorts his victims in a cheery voice to 'Join us' and claims to promote 'Peace' and 'Love'). The Fleshbinders are cyborgs who communicate by radio and have various weapons integral to their bodies. Furthermore, if Julie wounds any Eden citizen she automatically fails in her mission. The game is somewhat more narrative-driven and less strident than some of Heavy Metal's other creations or associated works.

The heroine, Julie, was inspired by Julie Strain, who provided the voice for the heroine in the film and game. The game is linked to Heavy Metal magazine.

Reception
The game received "generally favorable reviews" according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. Jim Preston of NextGen was positive to the game and its protagonist.

GamePro was critical to the game's short length and lack of multiplayer, but praised gameplay, graphics and level design. GameZone gave the game nine out of ten: "In-game cinematics, challenging puzzles, plenty of weapons, hordes of bad guys, sprawling landscapes, and beautiful women, what more could you want?"

The game sold 44,000 units in the U.S. by October 2001.

Game designer Tom Mustaine tweeted in July 2015 that he had been trying to get F.A.K.K. 2 re-released for years but was unable to do so due to copyright issues.

title: Heavy Metal: F.A.K.K. 2


text:
Ritual Entertainment

Ritual Entertainment was an American video game developer established in 1996 by Robert Atkins, Mark Dochtermann, Jim Dosé, Richard 'Levelord' Gray, Michael Hadwin, Harry Miller, and Tom Mustaine. Based in Dallas, Texas, Ritual Entertainment was formerly known as Hipnotic Interactive, during which period they began development of their signature video game SiN.

History
Members of the Ritual Entertainment development team have contributed assets to other games such as American McGee's Alice, Medal of Honor: Airborne, Tomb Raider: Legend, and 25 to Life, and are also the creators of "Übertools" for id Tech 3, which has been licensed for a number of other games.

Shortly after signing Hipnotic, publisher Activision claimed that Hipnotic had been at the core of the Duke Nukem 3D development team. Duke Nukem 3D developer 3D Realms vigorously denied this, stating that only five members of Hipnotic Interactive were former staff of 3D Realms, and of these five only three had a significant role in making Duke Nukem 3D.

In late 1997, Hipnotic changed their name to Ritual Entertainment in order to avoid a trademark conflict with another video-game developer, Hypnotix.

On January 24, 2007, developer MumboJumbo announced the acquisition of Ritual Entertainment. With this acquisition, Ritual's focus on traditional action-oriented games was changed to casual games, essentially "stalling" Ritual's latest game series, SiN Episodes, after releasing only one episode out of a planned nine.

The purchase followed months of departures of several key employees, including chief executive officer Steve Nix, who became director of business development at id Software, vice president and co-founder Tom Mustaine, who left to found Escalation Studios. Several months after the acquisition, community relations manager Steve Hessel left the company to join Splash Damage.

Prior to the announcement, on December 6, 2006, Ritual announced the appointment of Ken Harward as the company's new studio director.

Following the company's closure, many of the deveopers have left to other companies such as id Software, Gearbox Software, Nerve Software, Escalation Studios, and the now-defunct Paradigm Entertainment.

Unreleased

 * The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (PC) – canceled
 * SiN II publisher demo (2003, PC) – Ritual Entertainment made a game demo to show potential publishers.
 * Legacy of Kain: The Dark Prophecy (2004) – canceled
 * SiN Episode 2 – canceled
 * Quake 4: Awakening – unreleased expansion pack for Quake 4

title: Ritual Entertainment


text:
User:Drj

Professional software engineer in the video game industry. skeptic (to some extent, don't assume much by that statement). Avid weekend rock climber. Interested in many things.

I know how to bind books, repair bikes, punt, configure sendmail, and other things too. I really like finding primary sources.

Expertise:
 * C programming language (12 years, 7 professionally)
 * AWK - am currently writing my own implementation
 * assembly - light knowledge of PowerPC, IA-32, Z80, Alpha AXP, SPARC (in best to worst knowledge order).
 * UNIX - I run and maintain a few FreeBSD systems.
 * memory management - I used to write garbage collectors for a living.
 * RFC 822 - wrote parser as part of (now shelved) project to write an MUA.
 * vi
 * ed
 * sed
 * unix shell
 * rock climbing (lead on sight in UK at grade VS-HVS)
 * mathematics - I have a degree in it, but it's all mostly forgotten.
 * programming language - both implementation and design, and smattering of knowledge of a large number of languages. Ones not mentioned already (random order): Forth, Icon, Lisp including Emacs Lisp, Logo, ML, Perl, Lua, PostScript, Scheme.
 * video games. I play them as well as write them.  My top five games are probably:  NetHack, Super Bomberman, Super Mario 64, GoldenEye 007, The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time. Tetris and Dr. Mario deserve an honourable mention too.

I'll add more as I think of them.

Email me at [mailto:drj@pobox.com drj@pobox.com]

I have significantly contributed to the following wikipedia pages:
 * BCPL
 * Boston Tea Party
 * Computer memory garbage collection
 * Gulf War
 * Lisp
 * LR parser
 * Missile
 * Rock climbing
 * Telnet

Todo

 * programming language heavily edit
 * magnetic media - bring in content from floppy disk disk storage et al

Chat
Ah, cool! Another book binder. I've been meaning to put up a page about that some day. --Pinkunicorn

Re LALR_parser ... yeah I'd grabbed the 1st edition Dragon Book. A later copy is around here somewhere, but you would not want to see my pile-o-books library scheme. Terminology evolves, c'est la vie. --User:Hornlo

Well I guess, but I'd still like to know what people are likely to mean by "LALR parser".

/Test

/Talk

title: User:Drj