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Attorney general

In most common law jurisdictions, the attorney general (: attorneys general) or attorney-general (AG or Atty.-Gen ) is the main legal advisor to the government. In some jurisdictions, attorneys general also have executive responsibility for law enforcement, prosecutions or even responsibility for legal affairs generally. In practice, the extent to which the attorney general personally provides legal advice to the government varies between jurisdictions, and even between individual office-holders within the same jurisdiction, often depending on the level and nature of the office-holder's prior legal experience.

Where the attorney general has ministerial responsibility for legal affairs in general (as is the case, for example, with the United States Attorney General or the Attorney-General for Australia, and the respective attorneys general of the states in each country), the ministerial portfolio is largely equivalent to that of a Minister of Justice in some other countries.

The term was originally used to refer to any person who holds a general power of attorney to represent a principal in all matters. In the common law tradition, anyone who represents the state, especially in criminal prosecutions, is such an attorney. Although a government may designate some official as the permanent attorney general, anyone who came to represent the state in the same way could, in the past, be referred to as such, even if only for a particular case. Today, however, in most jurisdictions, the term is largely reserved as a title of the permanently appointed attorney general of the state, sovereign or other member of the royal family.

Civil law jurisdictions have similar offices, which may be variously called "public prosecutor general", "procurators", "advocates general", "public attorneys", and other titles. Many of these offices also use "attorney general" or "attorney-general" as the English translation of the title, although because of different historical provenance, the nature of such offices is usually different from that of attorneys-general in common law jurisdictions.

Etymology
In regard to the etymology of the phrase Attorney General, Steven Pinker writes that the earliest citation in the Oxford English Dictionary is from 1292: "Tous attorneyz general purrount lever fins et cirrographer" (All general attorneys may levy fines and make legal documents). The phrase was borrowed from Anglo-Norman French when England was ruled by Normans after the conquest of England in the 11th-century. As a variety of French, which was spoken in the law courts, schools, universities and in sections of the gentry and the bourgeoisie, the term relating to government was introduced into English. The phrase attorney general is composed of a noun followed by the postpositive adjective general and as other French compounds its plural form also appears as "attorneys generals". As compared to major generals, a term that also originates from French ("major-général") and also has a postpositive adjective, it also appears incorrectly as "attorney generals". While Steven Pinker writes: "So if you are ever challenged for saying attorney-generals, mother-in-laws, passerbys ... you can reply, 'They are the very model of the modern major general'" (a reference to the Major-General's Song, from the operetta The Pirates of Penzance). The modern title of major general is a military rank in which the word "general" is not used as an adjective but as a noun, which can be pluralized. In modern public discourse, attorneys general are often referred to or addressed as “general”. In this construction, the word “general” is an adjective, and its use as a noun is incorrect. Attorneys general are not military officers, have no rank, and therefore should not be referred to as “general”.

Attorneys-general in common law and hybrid jurisdictions
Attorneys-General in common law jurisdictions, and jurisdictions with a legal system which is partially derived from the common law tradition, share a common provenance.

Australia
In Australia, the attorney-general is the chief law officer of the Crown and a member of the Cabinet. The Attorney-General is the minister responsible for legal affairs, national and public security, and the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation. Mark Dreyfus is the current Attorney-General. The Australian states each have separate attorneys-general, who are state ministers with similar responsibilities to the federal minister with respect to state law.

Functions of the state and federal attorneys-general include the administration of the selection of persons for nomination to judicial posts, and authorizing prosecutions. In normal circumstances, the prosecutorial powers of the attorney-general are exercised by the Director of Public Prosecutions and staff; however, the attorney-general maintains formal control, including the power to initiate and terminate public prosecutions and take over private prosecutions. Statutory criminal law provides that prosecutions for certain offences require the individual consent of the attorney-general. This is generally for offences whose illegality is of a somewhat controversial nature or where there is perceived to be a significant risk that prosecutions of a political nature may be embarked upon. The Attorney-General also generally has the power to issue certificates legally conclusive of certain facts (e.g., that the revelation of certain matters in court proceedings might constitute a risk to national security); the facts stated in such certificates must be accepted by the courts and cannot legally be disputed by any parties. The Attorney-General also has the power to issue a nolle prosequi with respect to a case, which authoritatively determines that the state (in whose name prosecutions are brought) does not wish to prosecute the case, so preventing any person from doing so.

For the attorneys-general of the various states and territories of Australia see:
 * Attorney-General of the Australian Capital Territory
 * Attorney-General of New South Wales
 * Attorney-General of the Northern Territory
 * Attorney-General of Queensland
 * Attorney-General of South Australia
 * Attorney-General of Tasmania
 * Attorney-General of Victoria
 * Attorney-General of Western Australia

Canada
The Attorney General of Canada (Procureur général du Canada) is a separate title held by the Canadian Minister of Justice (Ministre de la Justice), a member of the Cabinet. The Minister of Justice is concerned with questions of policy and their relationship to the justice system. In their role as attorney general, they are the chief law officer of the Crown.

A separate cabinet position, the Minister of Public Safety (Ministre de la Sécurité publique), formerly the "Solicitor General", administers the law enforcement agencies (police, prisons, and security) of the federal government.

For the attorneys-general of the various provinces of Canada see:
 * Alberta Minister of Justice and Attorney General
 * Attorney General of British Columbia
 * Minister of Justice and Attorney General (Manitoba)
 * Office of the Attorney General (New Brunswick)
 * Minister of Justice and Public Safety and Attorney General of Newfoundland and Labrador
 * Minister of Justice of the Northwest Territories
 * Attorney General and Minister of Justice of Nova Scotia
 * Minister of Justice of Nunavut
 * Attorney General of Ontario
 * Minister of Justice and Public Safety and Attorney General of Prince Edward Island
 * Ministry of Justice (Quebec) (also as attorney general)
 * Minister of Justice and Attorney General of Saskatchewan
 * Minister of Justice (Yukon)

Cyprus
The Attorney General of the Republic is an independent official of the Republic of Cyprus, head of the Legal Service of the state.[1] He is the legal advisor of the Government of Cyprus.[1] Hierarchically, it is the 3rd highest institution of the state, after the President of the Republic and the President of the Parliament. This institution originates from the time of the British rule, and was preserved even after the independence of Cyprus in 1960 due to the Anglo-Saxon law which continues to exist in Cyprus, as in other Commonwealth states.

Fiji
In Fiji, the role of the attorney general is defined as "providing essential legal expertise and support to the Government". More specific functions include "legislative drafting", "legal aid", "the prerogative of mercy" (advising the President), "liquor licensing" and "film censorship".

The current Attorney General is Aiyaz Sayed-Khaiyum. In January 2008, he sparked controversy by accepting other government positions in addition to his role as attorney general. Sayed-Khaiyum is currently responsible also for "Public Enterprise, Electoral Reform and Anti-Corruption". An article in the Fiji Times pointed out that "never before in the history of this nation has the Attorney-General held a portfolio dealing with matters other than the law and the judiciary", and criticised the decision.

Hong Kong
The Secretary for Justice, known as the attorney-general before the handover of Hong Kong in 1997, is the legal adviser to the Hong Kong Government and heads the Department of Justice. They are assisted by five law officers, namely: (The Administration and Development Division is headed by an Administrative Officer.)
 * the Solicitor General who heads the Legal Policy Division,
 * the Director of Public Prosecutions who head the Prosecutions Division,
 * the Law Officer (Civil Law) who heads the Civil Law Division,
 * the Law Officer (International Law) who heads the International Law Division, and
 * the Law Draftsman who heads the Law Drafting Division

Crimes and offences are prosecuted at the suit of the Secretary of Justice.

The Secretary of Justice, appointed by the Chinese government on the advice of the Chief Executive of Hong Kong, is an ex officio member of the Executive Council of Hong Kong. The position is normally held by a legal professional, and was, before July 2002, a civil service position.

India
The Attorney General for India is the Indian government's chief legal advisor, and is its principal Advocate before the Supreme Court of India. They are appointed by the President of India on the advice of the Union Cabinet under Article 76(1) of the Constitution and hold office during the pleasure of the President. The current Attorney General for India is R. Venkataramani.

Ireland
The Mission of the Office of the Attorney General is to provide the highest standard of professional legal services to Government, Departments and Offices.

The Attorney General of Ireland is the legal adviser to the Government and is therefore the chief law officer of the State. The Office of the Attorney General, is made up of a number of different offices: Since the enactment of the Prosecution of Offenses Act 1974 the responsibility for the prosecution of indictable criminal offences is mostly in the hands of the Director of Public Prosecutions who is by law independent of the attorney general and the State. The current attorney general is Rossa Fanning, SC.
 * The Attorney General's Office (located at Merrion Street, Dublin 2) containing the Advisory Counsel to the Attorney General
 * The Office of Parliamentary Counsel to the Government (also located at Merrion Street, Dublin 2) containing the Parliamentary Counsel who draft legislation and have responsibilities in the area of Statute Law revision
 * The Chief State Solicitor's Office (CSSO) (located at Little Ship Street, Dublin 8) containing the solicitors representing the Attorney and the State

Isle of Man
In the Isle of Man, the Attorney General is a Crown appointment (appointed by the UK government) and sits in the Legislative Council of the Isle of Man, 'ex officio'.

Israel
The Attorney General of Israel is the head of the public prosecution from the state, the person who advises the government in legal matters, the person who represents the state's authorities in the courts, and advises in preparation of law memoranda of the government in general and the Justice Minister in particular (likewise he examines and advises for private proposals for a law of Knesset members).

Jamaica
This is a position which existed in Jamaica for a long time.

The Hon. Marlene Malahoo Forte, QC, MP is the new Attorney General of Jamaica as of March 7, 2016.

Kenya
In Kenya the Attorney General is the Principal Legal Adviser to the Government and ex officio Member of Parliament and Cabinet. His duties include the formulation of legal policy and ensuring proper administration of Kenya's legal system including professional legal education. Assisting the attorney general in the performance of his duties as principal legal adviser to the government are: The Hon. Justice (Rtd) Paul Kihara Kariuki is the current Attorney-General of Kenya as of April 2018.
 * Solicitor general
 * Senior Deputy Solicitor General
 * Director of Public Prosecutions
 * Registrar General
 * Administrator General
 * Chairman of Advocates Complaints Commission
 * Chief Parliamentary Counsel
 * Chief State Counsel

Kiribati
In Kiribati, the attorney general is defined by section 42 of the Constitution as "the principal legal adviser to the Government". The Constitution specifies: "No person shall be qualified to hold or to act in the office of Attorney-General unless he is qualified to practise in Kiribati as an advocate in the High Court." The current Attorney General, as of 2016, was the Honourable Tetiro Semilota, until her nomination as Acting Chief Justice in October 2022.

Malaysia
In Malaysia the attorney-general or Peguam Negara (as he is referred to in Bahasa Melayu) is the principal legal adviser to the Government. He is also the principal public prosecutor in the country, and is also known as the Public Prosecutor. He has the power, exercisable at his discretion, to institute, conduct or discontinue any proceedings for an offence, other than proceedings before a Syariah court, a native court or a court-martial. The current Attorney-General of Malaysia is Idris Harun since 2020.

Mauritius
In Mauritius, the attorney-general, who should be a barrister, is the principal legal adviser to the government and holds the office of a minister.

The Attorney-General's Office is also responsible for the drafting of legislation, and vetting of all contracts or agreements of which the government is a party, including international agreements, treaties or conventions.

Nepal
In Nepal, the attorney general is the chief legal adviser of the Government of Nepal as well as its chief public prosecutor. An Attorney General is appointed by the President on recommendation of the Prime Minister. The Attorney General's Office is a constitutional body under the Constitution of Nepal (2015). For a person to be eligible for the post of Attorney General, they must also be qualified to be appointed as a judge of the Supreme Court.

New Zealand
In New Zealand, the attorney-general is the chief law officer and primary legal advisor of the New Zealand government. The Attorney-General is the Minister responsible for the Crown Law Office, the Parliamentary Counsel Office, and the Serious Fraud Office. Historically, the post could be held either by a politician or by a senior jurist, but today, it is invariably held by a member of Parliament. The Attorney-General attends Cabinet, but the post is not the same as the Minister of Justice. By tradition, persons appointed to the position of Attorney-General have been lawyers. Only two former attorneys-general have not been lawyers, most recently Dr Michael Cullen who held the post in 2005, and again from 2006.

Pakistan
The Attorney-General of Pakistan is the legal adviser to the government of the Pakistan and its public prosecutor.

Philippines
The Attorney General of the Philippines was an office that existed from 1901 until 1932, when the office was abolished and its functions taken over by the Secretary of Justice. Since then, the Solicitor General of the Philippines, previously the second law officer, has been the principal law officer and legal defender of the Philippine Government. The Office of the Solicitor General is the law firm of the Republic of the Philippines. It is tasked with representing the Philippines, the Philippine Government, and all its officials in any litigation or matter requiring the services of a lawyer especially before appellate courts. It is an independent and autonomous office attached to the Department of Justice for budgetary purposes.

Samoa
In Samoa, the attorney general is the legal adviser to the government. Since 2016, the attorney general is Lemalu Hermann Retzlaff (whose father Misa Telefoni Retzlaff also served as attorney general from 1986 to 1988)

Singapore
The Attorney-General of Singapore is the legal adviser to the government of the Republic of Singapore and its public prosecutor. The current Attorney-General is Lucien Wong.

Sri Lanka
The attorney-general of Sri Lanka is the chief legal adviser of the Government of Sri Lanka and head of the attorney-general department which is the public prosecutor.

Sudan
, the Attorney General of Sudan is Tag el-Sir el-Hibir.

Tonga
The office of Attorney General was established in Tonga in 1988, and was held jointly with the portfolio of Justice Minister until the two were separated in 2009. The Attorney General is defined as the "Chief Legal Advisor to Government".

Trinidad & Tobago
According to the Constitution of Trinidad and Tobago, the supreme law of the nation, The Attorney General shall be responsible for the administration of legal affairs in Trinidad and Tobago and legal proceedings for and against the State shall be taken— (a) in the case of civil proceedings, in the name of the attorney general; (b) in the case of criminal proceedings, in the name of the State.

England and Wales
The attorney general for England and Wales is similarly the chief law officer of the Crown in England and Wales, and advises and represents the Crown and government departments in court. In practice, the Treasury Solicitor (who also has the title of Procurator General) normally provides the lawyers or briefs Treasury Counsel to appear in court, although the attorney general may appear in person. The person appointed to this role provides legal advice to the Government, acts as the representative of the public interest and resolves issues between government departments.

The attorney general has supervisory powers over the prosecution of criminal offences, but is not personally involved with prosecutions; however, some prosecutions (e.g. riot) cannot be commenced without their consent, and they have the power to halt prosecutions generally. Criminal prosecutions are the responsibility of the Crown Prosecution Service, headed by the Director of Public Prosecutions. The Attorney General may appeal cases to the higher courts where, although the particular case is settled, there may be a point of law of public importance at issue.

The Attorney General's deputy is the Solicitor General for England and Wales.

Under the Government of Wales Act 2006, the Counsel General is the chief legal adviser to the Welsh Government.

Northern Ireland
Since the prorogation of the Parliament of Northern Ireland in 1972, the Attorney General for England and Wales was also Attorney General for Northern Ireland. The separate office of Attorney General for Northern Ireland was re-created alongside the new office of Advocate General for Northern Ireland upon the devolution of policing and justice powers to the Northern Ireland Assembly in 2010.

Scotland
Historically, the Lord Advocate was the equivalent for Scotland of the attorney general for England and Wales, being a legal advisor to the King of Scotland. After the Acts of Union 1707, the Lord Advocate became the chief legal advisor to the British government in respect of Scotland.

Under constitutional reforms enacted in 1999, the Lord Advocate has become an officer of the Scottish Government, while the United Kingdom Government is advised on Scots law by the Advocate General for Scotland, a position created in 1999.

The Lord Advocate is assisted by the Solicitor General for Scotland. The Advocate General is assisted by the Solicitor to the Advocate General for Scotland, based in Edinburgh.

Other attorneys-general in the UK
The Attorney General of the Duchy of Cornwall is the chief legal adviser to the Prince of Wales, and there is a separate Attorney General for the Duchy of Lancaster, an appointment that is held by the Crown.

United States
In the federal government of the United States, the Attorney General is a member of the Cabinet and, as head of the Department of Justice, is the top law enforcement officer and lawyer for the government. The Attorney General may need to be distinguished from the Solicitor General, a high Justice Department official with the responsibility of representing the government before the Supreme Court. In cases of exceptional importance, however, the attorney general may choose personally to represent the government to the Supreme Court.

The individual U.S. states and territories, as well as the federal district of Washington, D.C. also have attorneys general with similar responsibilities. The majority of state attorneys general are chosen by popular election, as opposed to the U.S. Attorney General, who is a presidential appointee confirmed by the Senate.

In nearly all United States jurisdictions, the attorney general is that jurisdiction's chief law enforcement officer; as such, an attorney general may also be considered a police rank. The proper way to address a person holding the office is Mister or Madam Attorney General, or just as Attorney General. The plural is "Attorneys General" or "Attorneys-General".

Zimbabwe
The Attorney General is the chief legal advisor of the government of Zimbabwe. The office falls under the Ministry of Justice and Legal Affairs.

Similar offices in non-common law jurisdictions
Non-common law jurisdictions usually have one or more offices which are similar to attorneys-general in common law jurisdictions, some of which use "attorney-general" as the English translation of their titles.

Iceland
The state attorney (ríkislögmaður) represents the state in civil lawsuits. The state attorney is appointed by the Prime Minister for a period of 5 years and must have the same qualifications required to serve as a Supreme Court justice. The state prosecutor (ríkissaksóknari) represents the state in criminal trials and is appointed by the Minister of Justice for an indefinite period. The Minister of Justice oversees the judiciary, prosecution, policing, prison system et al.

Netherlands
In the Netherlands, there are two types of attorneys-general, that are only historically related.

The first type of attorney-general ("advocaat-generaal" in Dutch) is the public prosecutor in criminal cases at appellate courts.

The second type of attorney-general ("procureur-generaal", while their replacements are called "advocaat-generaal") is an independent advisor to the Supreme Court. These people give an opinion on cases (called "conclusies") in any field of law (not just criminal law), supported by a scientific staff. The Supreme Court may either follow or reject the opinion of the attorney-general (which is published together with the eventual decision). In a way, an attorney-general acts as yet another judge, but in the Dutch system that does not allow dissenting opinions to be published, it is the only way to reflect different perceptions on a case. The Procureur-Generaal also prosecutes members of parliament in the case of misfeance.

Dutch attorneys-general do not normally advise the government.

title: Attorney general


text:
Talk:Rhode Island

Clear the area
1. In the legend at top, you tell me how 1,055 sq. mi. land area plus 169 sq. mi. water adds up to 1,545 sq. mi. total.

2. In the text you state a third figure, 1,214 sq. mi. What does that mean?

3. 1,055 plus 169 equals 1,224, not 1,214. Is that what you mean?

Fix this mess.

Jimlue (talk) 03:47, 26 July 2023 (UTC)
 * Good catch! The top infobox used to say 1055 + 169 = 1214, cited to the website of the RI Secretary of State website. That same ref is used for the still-present 1214 value you saw as #2. But that source actually says 1045 not 1055, seems like a simple transcription typo, as you note in #3. But then in March 2023 it was changed to 1055 + 169 = 1545, cited to the US Census website, which makes no sense. That source actually says 1034 + 511 = 1545, which is sensible but the article does not look like a simple transcription mistake from that. Easy enough to get them all consistent and matching a source. But which source is more reliable? DMacks (talk) 05:07, 26 July 2023 (UTC)
 * Wikipedia talk:WikiProject United States pinged for assistance. DMacks (talk) 23:59, 27 August 2023 (UTC)
 * The US census bureau says this
 * https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference-files/2010/geo/state-area.html Mickey J. Hartford (talk) 21:12, 10 September 2023 (UTC)
 * Also fixed land area to make it make more sense Mickey J. Hartford (talk) 02:20, 21 September 2023 (UTC)

Land area
I don't found any areas in this article. 2001:448A:11A3:1039:FDF7:E9C:8899:6659 (talk) 06:05, 10 September 2023 (UTC)
 * There is contradictory information in various sources. See above. DMacks (talk) 06:23, 10 September 2023 (UTC)
 * Oh, I know that's it. I know that it has already mentioned above. 2001:448A:11A3:1039:FDF7:E9C:8899:6659 (talk) 07:59, 10 September 2023 (UTC)

actually useful map of the state?
The map in the infobox "zooms" in on the state, but details remain pitifully small. Scrolling down, there really isn't any useful map giving overview of the state.

Compare the map in the Aquidneck Island article. Immediately much more useful scale, though perhaps lacking even the bare amount of details (since its only purpose is to compare the island to the state).

CapnZapp (talk) 17:23, 8 January 2024 (UTC)

 * There are multiple maps of the state in the geography section, including a map showing highways and cities, and a topo map. Perhaps a newer instance of the political map would be useful. The infobox map is the same type used for every single U.S. state. Rhode Island is the smallest state, of course it will not show up large on that map. Trainsandotherthings (talk) 19:02, 8 January 2024 (UTC)

0.0% population growth from 1970 to 1980 can't be true
I found this in the population growth chart: This can't be right. There is a definite population growth of about 400 in the 10-year difference. It's a very small change in this context, but can't be 0.0% is impossible. I'm pretty new to Wikipedia, so I don't know how to edit tables. Can somebody fix this? Thanks. TheFluffyProto (talk) 23:02, 7 February 2024 (UTC)TheFluffyProto

 * I did the math and that is a 0.045% change in population. That rounds to 0.0% with the number of significant figures used in the table. Trainsandotherthings (talk) 14:15, 10 February 2024 (UTC)

Two paragraphs hidden in 'growth' section; do not fit in section
I have hidden two paragraphs in the growth sections. Two disasters have nothing to do with growth. Possibly not even in the article. — N eonorange (talk to Phil) (he, they) 16:53, 23 June 2024 (UTC) —

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Rhode Island


text:
Sturmabteilung

The Sturmabteilung (SA; literally "Storm Division" or Storm Troopers) was the original paramilitary wing of the Nazi Party. It played a significant role in Adolf Hitler's rise to power in the 1920s and early 1930s. Its primary purposes were providing protection for Nazi rallies and assemblies, disrupting the meetings of opposing parties, fighting against the paramilitary units of the opposing parties, especially the Roter Frontkämpferbund of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and the Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), and intimidating Romani, trade unionists, and especially Jews.

The SA were colloquially called Brownshirts (Braunhemden) because of the colour of their uniform's shirts, similar to Benito Mussolini's blackshirts. The official uniform of the SA was a brown shirt with a brown tie. The color came about because a large shipment of Lettow-shirts, originally intended for the German colonial troops in Germany's former East Africa colony, was purchased in 1921 by Gerhard Roßbach for use by his Freikorps paramilitary unit. They were later used for his Schill Youth organization in Salzburg, and in 1924 were adopted by the Schill Youth in Germany. The "Schill Sportversand" then became the main supplier for the SA's brown shirts. The SA developed pseudo-military titles for its members, with ranks that were later adopted by several other Nazi Party groups.

Following Adolf Hitler's rise to Nazi Party leadership in 1921, he formalized the party's militant supporters into the SA as a group that was to protect party gatherings. In 1923, owing to his growing distrust of the SA, Adolf Hitler ordered the creation of a bodyguard unit, which was ultimately abolished after the failed Beer Hall Putsch later that year. Not long after Hitler's release from prison, he ordered the creation of another bodyguard unit in 1925 that ultimately became the Schutzstaffel (SS). During the Night of the Long Knives (die Nacht der langen Messer) in 1934, the SA's then-leader Ernst Röhm was arrested and executed. The SA continued to exist but lost almost all its influence and was effectively superseded by the SS, which took part in the purge. The SA remained in existence until after Nazi Germany's final capitulation to the Allies in 1945, after which it was disbanded and outlawed by the Allied Control Council.

Rise
The term Sturmabteilung predates the founding of the Nazi Party in 1919. Originally it was applied to the specialized assault troops of Imperial Germany in World War I who used infiltration tactics based on being organized into small squads of a few soldiers each. The first official German stormtrooper unit was authorized on March 2, 1915, on the Western Front. The German high command ordered the VIII Corps to form a detachment to test experimental weapons and develop tactics that could break the deadlock on the Western Front. On October 2, 1916, Generalquartiermeister Erich Ludendorff ordered all German armies in the west to form a battalion of stormtroopers. They were first used during the 8th Army's siege of Riga, and again at the Battle of Caporetto. Wider use followed on the Western Front in the German spring offensive in March 1918, when Allied lines were successfully pushed back tens of kilometers.

The DAP (Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, German Workers' Party) was formed in Munich in January 1919, and Adolf Hitler joined it in September of that year. His talents for speaking, publicity and propaganda were quickly recognized. By early 1920 he had gained authority in the party, which changed its name to the NSDAP (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or National Socialist German Workers' Party) in February 1920. The party's executive committee added "Socialist" to the name over Hitler's objections, to help the party appeal to left-wing workers.

The precursor to the Sturmabteilung had acted informally and on an ad hoc basis for some time before this. Hitler, with an eye to helping the party to grow through propaganda, convinced the leadership committee to invest in an advertisement in the Münchener Beobachter (later renamed the Völkischer Beobachter) for a mass meeting in the Hofbräuhaus, to be held in Munich on October 16, 1919. Some 70 people attended, and a second such meeting was advertised for November 13 in the Eberl-Bräu beer hall, also in Munich. About 130 people attended; there were hecklers, but Hitler's military friends promptly ejected them by force, and the agitators "flew down the stairs with gashed heads". The next year on February 24, he announced the party's Twenty-Five Point program at a mass meeting of some 2,000 people at the Hofbräuhaus. Protesters tried to shout Hitler down, but his former army companions, armed with rubber truncheons, ejected the dissenters. The basis for the SA had been formed.

A permanent group of party members, who would serve as the Saalschutzabteilung (meeting hall protection detachment) for the DAP, gathered around Emil Maurice after the February 1920 incident at the Hofbräuhaus. There was little organization or structure to this group. The group was also called the "Stewards Troop" (Ordnertruppen) around this time. More than a year later, on August 3, 1921, Hitler redefined the group as the "Gymnastic and Sports Division" of the party (Turn- und Sportabteilung), perhaps to avoid trouble with the government. It was by now well recognized as an appropriate, even necessary, function or organ of the party. The future SA developed by organizing and formalizing the groups of ex-soldiers and beer-hall brawlers who were to protect gatherings of the Nazi Party from disruptions from Social Democrats (SPD) and Communists (KPD), and to disrupt meetings of the other political parties. By September 1921 the name Sturmabteilung (SA) was being used informally for the group. Hitler was the official head of the Nazi Party by this time.

The Nazi Party held a large public meeting in the Munich Hofbräuhaus on November 4, 1921, which attracted many Communists and other enemies of the Nazis. After Hitler had spoken for some time, the meeting erupted into a mêlée in which a small company of SA thrashed the opposition. The Nazis called this event the Saalschlacht, and it assumed legendary proportions in SA lore with the passage of time. Thereafter, the group was officially known as the Sturmabteilung.

The leadership of the SA passed from Maurice to the young Hans Ulrich Klintzsch in this period. He had been a naval officer and a member of the Ehrhardt Brigade, which had taken part in the failed Kapp Putsch attempted coup. When he took over command of the SA, he was a member of the notorious Organisation Consul (OC). The Nazis under Hitler began to adopt the more professional management techniques of the military.

In 1922, the Nazi Party created a youth section, the Jugendbund, for young men between the ages of 14 and 18 years. Its successor, the Hitler Youth (Hitlerjugend or HJ), remained under SA command until May 1932. Hermann Göring joined the Nazi Party in 1922 after hearing a speech by Hitler. He was given command of the SA as the Oberster SA-Führer in 1923. He was later appointed an SA-Obergruppenführer (general) and held this rank on the SA rolls until 1945.

From April 1924 until late February 1925, the SA was reorganized into a front organization known as the Frontbann to circumvent Bavaria's ban on the Nazi Party and its organs. (This had been instituted after the abortive Beer Hall Putsch of November 1923). While Hitler was in prison, Ernst Röhm helped to create the Frontbann as a legal alternative to the then-outlawed SA. In April 1924, Röhm had also been given authority by Hitler to rebuild the SA in any way he saw fit. When in April 1925 Hitler and Ludendorff disapproved of the proposals under which Röhm was prepared to integrate the 30,000-strong Frontbann into the SA, Röhm resigned from all political movements and military brigades on May 1, 1925. He felt great contempt for the "legalistic" path the party leaders wanted to follow and sought seclusion from public life. Throughout the 1920s and into the 1930s, members of the SA were often involved in street fights, called Zusammenstöße (collisions), with members of the Communist Party (KPD). In 1929, the SA added a Motor Corps for better mobility and a faster mustering of units. It also acquired an independent source of funds: royalties from its own Sturm Cigarette Company. Previously, the SA had been financially dependent on the party leadership, as it charged no membership fees; the SA recruited particularly among the many unemployed in the economic crisis. The SA used violence against shops and shopkeepers stocking competing cigarette brands; it also punished any SA member caught with non-Sturm cigarettes. Sturm marketing was also used to make military service more appealing. Cigarettes were sold with collectible sets of images of historical German army uniforms.

In September 1930, as a consequence of the Stennes revolt in Berlin, Hitler assumed supreme command of the SA as its new Oberster SA-Führer. He sent a personal request to Röhm, asking him to return to serve as the SA's chief of staff. Röhm accepted this offer and began his new assignment on January 5, 1931. He brought radical new ideas to the SA and appointed several close friends to its senior leadership.

Previously, the SA formations were subordinate to the Nazi Party leadership of each Gau. Röhm established new Gruppen that had no regional Nazi Party oversight. Each Gruppe extended over several regions and was commanded by a SA-Gruppenführer who answered only to Röhm or Hitler. Under Röhm as its popular leader and Stabschef (Staff Chief), the SA grew in importance within the Nazi power structure and expanded to have thousands of members. In the early 1930s, the Nazis expanded from an extremist fringe group to the largest political party in Germany, and the SA expanded with it. By January 1932, the SA numbered approximately 400,000.

Many of these stormtroopers believed in the strasserist promise of nazism. They expected the Nazi regime to take more radical economic action, such as breaking up the vast landed estates of the aristocracy, once they obtained national power. By the time Hitler assumed power in January 1933, SA membership had increased to approximately 2,000,000—twenty times as large as the number of troops and officers in the Reichswehr (German Army).

Fall

After Hitler and the Nazis obtained national power, the SA leadership also became increasingly eager for power. By the end of 1933, the SA numbered more than 3 million men, and many believed they were the replacement for the "antiquated" Reichswehr. Röhm's ideal was to absorb the army (then limited by law to no more than 100,000 men) into the SA, which would be a new "people's army". This deeply offended and alarmed the professional army leaders and threatened Hitler's goal of co-opting the Reichswehr. The SA's increasing power and ambitions also posed a threat to other Nazi leaders. Originally an adjunct to the SA, the Schutzstaffel (SS) was placed under the control of Heinrich Himmler, in part to restrict the power of the SA and their leaders. The younger SS had evolved to be more than a bodyguard unit for Hitler and demonstrated that it was better suited to carry out Hitler's policies, including those of a criminal nature.

Although some of the conflicts between the SS and SA were based on personal rivalries of leaders, the mass of members had key socio-economic differences and related conflicts. SS members generally came from the middle class, while the SA had its base among the unemployed and working class. Politically speaking, the SA was more radical than the SS, with its leaders arguing the Nazi revolution had not ended when Hitler achieved power, but rather needed to implement Strasserism in Germany. Hitler believed that the defiant and rebellious culture encouraged before the seizure of power had to give way to using these forces for community organization. But the SA members resented tasks such as canvassing and fundraising, considering them Kleinarbeit ("little work"), which had typically been performed by women before the Nazi seizure of power. Rudolf Diels, the first Gestapo chief, estimated that in 1933 Berlin, 70 percent of new SA recruits were former Communists.

In 1933, General Werner von Blomberg, the Minister of Defence, and General Walter von Reichenau, the chief of the Reichswehr's Ministerial Department, became increasingly concerned about the growing power of the SA. Röhm had been given a seat on the National Defence Council and began to demand more say over military matters. On October 2, 1933, Röhm sent a letter to Reichenau that said: "I regard the Reichswehr now only as a training school for the German people. The conduct of war, and therefore of mobilization as well, in the future is the task of the SA."

Blomberg and von Reichenau began to conspire with Göring and Himmler against Röhm and the SA. Himmler asked Reinhard Heydrich to assemble a dossier on Röhm. Heydrich recognized that for the SS to gain full national power, the SA had to be broken. He manufactured evidence to suggest that Röhm had been paid 12 million marks by French agents to overthrow Hitler. Hitler liked Röhm and initially refused to believe the dossier provided by Heydrich. Röhm had been one of his first supporters and, without his ability to obtain army funds in the early days of the movement, it is unlikely that the Nazis would have ever become established. The SA under Röhm's leadership had also played a vital role in destroying the opposition during the elections of 1932 and 1933.

Night of the Long Knives

Hitler had his own reasons for wanting Röhm removed. Some of his powerful supporters had been complaining about Röhm for some time. The generals opposed Röhm's desire to have the SA, a force of over three million men, absorb the much smaller German Army into its ranks under his leadership. Since the officers had developed the Reichswehr as a professional force of 100,000, they believed that it would be destroyed if merged with millions of untrained SA thugs. Furthermore, the army commanders were greatly concerned about reports of a huge cache of weapons in the hands of SA members. Industrialists, who had provided the funds for the Nazi victory, were unhappy with Röhm's socialistic views on the economy and his claims that the real revolution had still to take place. President Hindenburg informed Hitler in June 1934 that if a move to curb the SA was not forthcoming, he would dissolve the government and declare martial law.

Hitler was also concerned that Röhm and the SA had the power to remove him as leader. Göring and Himmler played on this fear by constantly feeding Hitler with new information on Röhm's proposed coup. A masterstroke was to claim that Gregor Strasser, whom Hitler felt had betrayed him, was part of the planned conspiracy against him. With this news, Hitler ordered all the SA leaders to attend a meeting in the Hanselbauer Hotel in Bad Wiessee.

On June 30, 1934, Hitler, accompanied by SS units, arrived at Bad Wiessee, where he personally placed Röhm and other high-ranking SA leaders under arrest. Over the next 48 hours, 200 other senior SA officers were arrested on the way to Wiessee. Many were shot and killed as soon as they were captured, but Hitler decided to pardon Röhm because of his past services to the movement. On July 1, after much pressure from Göring and Himmler, Hitler agreed that Röhm should die. Hitler insisted that Röhm should first be allowed to commit suicide. When Röhm refused to do so, he was shot by two SS officers, Theodor Eicke and Michael Lippert. Though the names of 85 victims are known, estimates place the total number killed at between 150 and 200 men, the rest of whom remain unidentified.

Some Germans were shocked by the executions, but many others perceived Hitler to have restored "order" to the country. Goebbels' propaganda highlighted the "Röhm-Putsch" in the days that followed. The homosexuality of Röhm and other SA leaders was made public to add "shock value", although Hitler and other Nazi leaders had known for years about the sexuality of Röhm and other named SA leaders.

After the purge
After the Night of the Long Knives, the SA continued to operate, under the leadership of Stabschef Viktor Lutze, but the group was significantly downsized. Within a year's time, the SA membership was reduced by more than 40%. However, the Nazis increased attacks against Jews in the early 1930s and used the SA to carry these out.

In November 1938, after the assassination of German diplomat Ernst vom Rath by Herschel Grynszpan (a Polish Jew), the SA was used for "demonstrations" against the act. In violent riots, members of the SA shattered the glass storefronts of about 7,500 Jewish stores and businesses. The events were referred to as Kristallnacht ('Night of Broken Glass', more literally 'Crystal Night'). Jewish homes were ransacked throughout Germany. This pogrom damaged, and in many cases destroyed, about 200 synagogues (constituting nearly all Germany had), many Jewish cemeteries, more than 7,000 Jewish shops, and 29 department stores. Some Jews were beaten to death and more than 30,000 Jewish men were arrested and taken to concentration camps.

Thereafter, the SA became overshadowed by the SS; by 1939 it had little remaining significance in the Nazi Party, though it was never formally disbanded and continued to exist until the war ended. In January 1939, the role of the SA was officially established as a training school for the armed forces, with the establishment of the SA Wehrmannschaften (SA Military Units). With the start of World War II in September 1939, the SA lost most of its remaining members to military service in the Wehrmacht (armed forces).

In January 1941, long-standing rivalries between the Auswärtiges Amt (Foreign Office) and the SS exploded with the attempted coup d'état in Bucharest that saw SS back the coup by the Iron Guard under its leader Horia Sima against the Prime Minister, General Ion Antonescu, while the Auswärtiges Amt together with the Wehrmacht backed Antonescu. In the aftermath of the coup, the Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop made an effort to curb the power of the SS to conduct a foreign policy independent of the Auswärtiges Amt. Taking an advantage of the long-standing rivalries between the SS and the SA, in 1941, Ribbentrop appointed an assemblage of SA men to head the German embassies in Eastern Europe, with Manfred Freiherr von Killinger going to Romania, Siegfried Kasche to Croatia, Adolf-Heinz Beckerle to Bulgaria, Dietrich von Jagow to Hungary, and Hanns Ludin to Slovakia in order to ensure that there would be minimal co-operation with the SS. The role of the SA ambassadors was that of "quasi-Reich governors" as they aggressively supervised the internal affairs of the nations they were stationed in, making them very much unlike traditional ambassadors. The SA leaders ambassadors fulfilled Ribbentrop's hopes in that all had distant relations with the SS, but as a group they were notably inept as diplomats with Beckerle being so crude and vulgar in his manners that King Boris III almost refused to allow him to present his credentials at the Vrana Palace. As the ambassador in Bratislava, Ludin arranged the deportation of 50,000 Slovak Jews to Auschwitz in 1942. On 23–24 August 1944, Killinger notably bungled the German response to King Michael I's Coup that saw King Michael I of Romania dismiss Antonescu, sign an armistice with the Allies, and declare war on Germany, thereby costing the Reich its largest source of oil. Of the SA ambassadors, Killinger and Jagow committed suicide in 1944 and 1945 respectively while Kasche and Ludin were executed for war crimes in 1947 in Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia respectively. Beckerle spent 11 years in a Soviet POW camp, was released to West Germany in 1955, was charged with war crimes in 1966 for his role in the deportation of Macedonian Jews, which were dropped on grounds of ill health in 1968 and died in 1976 at a retirement home in West Germany.

In 1943, Viktor Lutze was killed in an automobile accident, and Wilhelm Schepmann was appointed as leader. Schepmann did his best to run the SA for the remainder of the war, attempting to restore the group as a predominant force within the Nazi Party and to mend years of distrust and bad feelings between the SA and SS. On the night of 29–30 March 1945, Austrian SA members were involved in a death march of Hungarian Jews from a work camp at Engerau (modern Petržalka, Slovakia) to Bad Deutsch-Altenburg that saw 102 of the Jews being killed, being either shot or beaten to death.

The SA ceased to exist in May 1945 when Nazi Germany collapsed. It was formally disbanded and outlawed by the Allied Control Council enacting Control Council Law No. 2 on October 10, 1945. In 1946, the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg formally ruled that the SA was not a criminal organization.

Leadership
The leader of the SA was known as the Oberster SA-Führer, translated as Supreme SA-Leader. The following men held this position:

 * Emil Maurice (1920–1921)
 * Hans Ulrich Klintzsch (1921–1923)
 * Hermann Göring (1923)
 * None (1923–1925)
 * Franz Pfeffer von Salomon (1926–1930)
 * Adolf Hitler (1930–1945)

In September 1930, to quell the Stennes Revolt and to try to ensure the personal loyalty of the SA to himself, Hitler assumed command of the entire organization and remained Oberster SA-Führer for the remainder of the group's existence until 1945. The day-to-day running of the SA was conducted by the Stabschef-SA (SA Chief of Staff), a position Hitler designated for Ernst Röhm. After Hitler's assumption of the supreme command of the SA, it was the Stabschef-SA who was generally accepted as the Commander of the SA, acting in Hitler's name. The following personnel held the position of Stabschef-SA:

 * Otto Wagener (1929–1931)
 * Ernst Röhm (1931–1934)
 * Viktor Lutze (1934–1943)
 * Max Jüttner (acting, May–August 1943)
 * Wilhelm Schepmann (1943–1945)

Organization

The SA was organized into several large regional Gruppen ("Groups"). The group leader answered only to the Stabschef-SA or Hitler. Each Gruppe was made up of subordinate Brigaden ("Brigades"). Subordinate to the Brigaden were the smaller regiment-sized Standarten. SA-Standarten operated in every major German city and were split into even smaller units, known as Sturmbanne and Stürme.

The command nexus for the entire SA was the Oberste SA-Führung, located in Stuttgart. The SA supreme command had many sub-offices to handle supply, finance and recruiting.

The SA also had several military training units. The largest was the SA-Marine, which served as an auxiliary to the Kriegsmarine (German Navy) and performed search and rescue operations as well as harbor defense. The SA also had an "army" wing, similar to the Waffen-SS, known as Feldherrnhalle. This formation expanded from regimental size in 1940 to a fully-fledged armored corps (Panzerkorps Feldherrnhalle) in 1945. As for units formed outside of Germany, after the success of the invasion of Poland in 1939, an SA unit, "Great Government" was formed. The units were renamed SA Wehrschützen-Bereitschaften in 1942. The title was abbreviated to SA Wehrbereitschaften, thereafter.

Organization structure August 1934–1945

 * Oberste SA-Führung (Supreme SA-Command & Control)
 * Gruppe (Group): consisting of several brigades
 * Brigade: 3 to 9 Standarten
 * Standarte (Standard, regiment sized unit) : 3 to 5 Sturmbanner
 * Sturmbann (Storm bann, battalion sized unit) : 3 to 5 Stürme
 * Sturm (Storm, company sized sub-unit) : 3 to 4 Trupps
 * Trupp (Troupe, platoon sized sub-unit) : 3 to 4 Scharen
 * Schar (section) : 1 to 2 Rotten (squads or teams)
 * Rotte (squad or team) : 4 to 8 SA-Men/SA-Troopers
 * SA-Mann (SA-Man/SA-Trooper)

"Beefsteaks" within the ranks
In his 1936 Hitler: A Biography, German historian Konrad Heiden remarked that within the SA ranks, there were "large numbers of former Communists and Social Democrats" and that "many of the storm troops were called 'beefsteaks' – brown outside and red within." The influx of non-Nazis into the Sturmabteilung membership was so prevalent that SA men would joke that "In our storm troop there are three Nazis, but we shall soon have spewed them out."

The number of "beefsteaks" was estimated to be large in some cities, especially in northern Germany, where the influence of Gregor Strasser and Strasserism was significant. The head of the Gestapo from 1933 to 1934, Rudolf Diels, reported that "70 percent" of the new SA recruits in the city of Berlin had been communists. This is evidenced further by historians, "As for the prior youth group memberships, nearly half of the SS members and nearly one-third of the instant stormtroopers were with the Free Corps, vigilantes, or militant veterans' groups during their first 25 years of life. They also came in disproportionate numbers from left-wing youth groups such as the Socialist or Communist Youth or the Red Front (RFB)."

Some have argued that since most SA members came from working-class families or were unemployed, they were more amenable to Marxist-leaning socialism, expecting Hitler to fulfill the 25-point National Socialist Program. However, historian Thomas Friedrich reports that the repeated efforts by the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) to appeal to the working-class backgrounds of the SA were "doomed to failure", because most SA men were focused on the nationalistic cult of Hitler and destroying the "Marxist enemy", a term that was used to identify both the KPD and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD).

The "beefsteak" name also referred to party-switching between Nazi and Communist party members, particularly involving those within the SA ranks.

title: Sturmabteilung


text:
Houghton, Michigan

Houghton is the largest city and county seat of Houghton County in the U.S. state of Michigan. Located on the Keweenaw Peninsula, Houghton is the largest city in the Copper Country region. It is the fifth-largest city in the Upper Peninsula, with a population of 8,386 at the 2020 census. Houghton is the principal city of the Houghton micropolitan area, which includes all of Houghton and Keweenaw counties. Houghton lies upon the Keweenaw Waterway, a partly natural, partly artificial waterway connecting at both ends to Lake Superior. Across the waterway from Houghton lies the city of Hancock.

The city of Houghton was named for Douglass Houghton, an American geologist and physician, primarily known for his exploration of the Keweenaw Peninsula. Houghton is home to Michigan Technological University, a public research university founded in 1885. Michigan Tech hosts a yearly Winter Carnival in February, drawing thousands of visitors from around the world. Michigan Tech's athletic teams are nicknamed the Huskies, and compete primarily in the NCAA Division II Great Lakes Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (GLIAC). The Michigan Tech Huskies men's ice hockey team competes in the NCAA Division I Central Collegiate Hockey Association (CCHA), and has won three national championships, in 1962, 1965, and 1975.

History
Native Americans mined copper in and around what would later be Houghton thousands of years before European settlement. "French explorers had noted... [its] existence [in the area] as early as the seventeenth century, [and in] 1772 Alexander Henry had prospected for copper on the Ontonagon River near Victoria."

Many Cornish and Finnish immigrants arrived in the Houghton area to work in the copper mines in the mining boom that made Copper Country on the Keweenaw Peninsula; both groups have had a great influence on the culture and cuisine of the local area. The Finns and others called much of the area Copper Island. Smaller numbers of French-Canadian immigrants moved to Houghton, while more of them settled elsewhere in Houghton County.

The last nearby mines closed in the late 1960s, but a school founded in 1885 by the Michigan State Legislature to teach metallurgy and mining engineering, the Michigan College of Mines, continues today under the name of Michigan Technological University and is the primary employer in the city.

The first known European settler of Houghton was named Ransom Shelden, who set up a store named Ransom's near Portage Lake, though it is unclear whether this was in the same building as the 1852 Shelden and Shafer drugs, sometimes described as "the first commercial building constructed in Houghton," which Shelden owned with his son Ransom B. The main street of Houghton, variously called "Sheldon Avenue," (incorrectly) Sheldon Street, and Shelden Avenue, is named for him. In the 1970s the construction of a parking deck and the connection of downtown stores to create Shelden Center significantly changed the downtown.

William W. Henderson was appointed the first postmaster of Houghton in 1852.

In 1854, Ernest F. Pletschke platted Houghton, and was incorporated as a village in 1861. In Houghton's first days it was said that "only thieves, crooks, murderers and Indians" lived there. The postwar boom and increasing demand for copper wiring fueled the development of Houghton in the 1860s and 1870s.

Houghton gained in importance as a port with the opening of the Keweenaw Waterway in 1873, the waterway being the cumulative dredging and extension of the Portage Lake, Portage Shipping Canal and Lily Pond so as to isolate the northern part of the Keweenaw Peninsula into Copper Island. By 1880 Houghton had become "a burgeoning city" and in 1883, the railroad was extended from Marquette.

1909 saw the founding of what would later become Portage Lake District Library.

During the bitter Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914, the Michigan National Guard was called in after the sheriff petitioned the governor.

Houghton was the birthplace of professional ice hockey in the United States when the Portage Lakers were formed in 1903. Houghton is the home of the Portage Lake Pioneers Senior Hockey Team. The team's home ice is Dee Stadium, named after James R. Dee. Dee Stadium was originally called the Amphidrome, before it was severely damaged in a 1927 fire.

Houghton was incorporated as a city in 1970.

In the winter of 2001, Houghton was the site of one of the first lumitalos (Finnish temporary snow houses) to be constructed in the United States.

Philatelic history
On October 28, 2002, the first day of issue ceremony was held in Houghton for the "snowman stamps" issued by the United States Postal Service.

One of the 2006 United States Postal Service snowflake stamps ("photographed in Houghton by Caltech physicist Kenneth Libbrecht using a digital camera and special microscope") were unveiled in Houghton.

A pictorial postmark commemorating Winter Carnival 2007, "Ancient Worlds Come to Play in Snowy Drifts of Modern Day", was applied at the Winter Carnival temporary station in Michigan Technological University's Memorial Union Building, February 10, 2007.

Geography
The city is located on the south shore of the Keweenaw Waterway, on rolling wooded hills, less than a mile across Portage Lake from Hancock. The city is bounded on the east by Portage Township and Pilgrim, on the west by Dakota Heights and Adams Township, and on the south by Hurontown and Isle Royale Location, unincorporated communities that are part of Portage Township. Houghton is named after Douglass Houghton, discoverer of copper nearby. Houghton is also the home of Michigan Technological University. The city is served by Houghton County Memorial Airport in nearby Oneco.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 4.69 sqmi, of which 4.45 sqmi is land and 0.24 sqmi is water.

In the West Houghton neighborhood is West Houghton Park, featuring an outdoor ice rink and lawn tennis courts. Along Portage Lake is the Raymond Kestner Waterfront Recreation Area, the principal feature of which is a large "Chutes and Ladders" playground; it also includes Houghton Beach. Along the waterfront, in the area that used to be occupied by the railroad tracks, runs the flat, paved Waterfront Trail for cyclists and pedestrians; at one end of this is the Houghton RV Park, at the other end the Nara Nature Park and midway along this corridor is Mattila Square. Prince's Point is also along this trail. Veterans Park is just across the Portage Lake Lift Bridge from Hancock, and contains the memorial to the Houghton Company, which fought in the Civil War. Houghton is the headquarters for Isle Royale National Park.

The Portage Lift Bridge spans Portage Lake, which is part of the river and canal system that crosses the entire peninsula, connecting Hancock and Houghton. The bridge, which provides 100 ft of vertical clearance for ships when open, is the world's heaviest and widest double-decked vertical lift bridge. Since rail traffic was discontinued in the Keweenaw, the lower deck is used to accommodate snowmobile traffic in the winter. The bridge provides the only link between the north and south sections of the Keweenaw peninsula.

Climate

Houghton has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb) but the (typically) long and snowy (due to lake-effect snow, with an average of 218 in) winters make the city feel as though it is in a climate much farther north. It holds the distinction of having the third-most (behind Duluth and International Falls in Minnesota) maxima below 32 F of any incorporated city in the contiguous US, with the top temperature failing to rise above freezing an average of 100.9 days per year. It is sometimes said that Houghton has "two seasons: winter’s here and winter’s coming".

While Houghton's winters may be the subject of humor, residents take the subject of snow and winter very seriously. Houghton is a Winter City—a community that accommodates winter, celebrates it, and whose residents generally enjoy the season by participating in a variety of outdoor activities. Among those activities are cross country skiing, snow-shoeing, ice fishing, snowmobiling, ice skating and outdoor ice hockey, among other activities. Houghton celebrates winter through the “Winter Carnival” organized by Michigan Tech every year in February.

Houghton's summer climate tends to be especially pleasant, as hot temperatures are often moderated by the cool waters of nearby Lake Superior. The city's record high temperature of 102 F was recorded July 7, 1988; this is the only day in the city's history with a temperature over 100 F. Temperatures below 0 F are also relatively infrequent due to the moderating effect of the lake, being reached only on 18.3 nights per year as against over fifty at International Falls. The coldest temperature on record is -30 F, set on February 9, 1951. The heaviest monthly snow total was 119 in in December 1978; the winter of 1978–1979 saw 354.1 in of snow fall, making it the snowiest in 109 years of continuous records at the county airport (1891–2000). The greatest snow depth recorded was 73 in at the end of February 1937; in only two winters between 1891–1892 and 1999–2000 (1925–26 with 16 in and 1932–33 with 19 in) has the snow depth never reached at least two feet (24 in).

People and culture
Every summer, the city of Houghton hosts a festival known as "Bridgefest", to commemorate the building of the Portage Lake Lift Bridge; this is often held in conjunction with "Seafoodfest". Every fall, the Parade of Nations takes place in downtown Houghton to commemorate the ethnic diversity of Michigan Technological University. "Strawberry Fest" is held in neighboring Chassell every summer, which not only celebrates the fruit, but also includes an art market with paintings, photos, sculptures, and crafts.

The city houses two museums. The Carnegie Museum, located in the former Portage Lake District Library building, contains photographs from the Raffaelli Historical Photo Collection, other artifacts on the history of the local area, a mural depicting the history of Houghton, Ontonagon, Baraga and Keweenaw Counties and exhibits of artwork. The AE Seaman Mineral Museum, state mineral museum of Michigan, is located on the campus of Michigan Technological University.

Houghton is often the host of winter sporting events, due to its long winters and many ski hills. The 2006 cross-country skiing Junior Olympics took place in Houghton. The US National Championships for Nordic skiing took place in Houghton in January 2007. In addition, the International Frisbee Tournament (IFT) takes place every year in Houghton and the roll-out of the distance events of the Keweenaw Chain Drive bike races of Houghton and Hancock takes place in downtown Houghton.

Other winter events focus around Michigan Technological University. Michigan Tech hosts a yearly Winter Carnival in which thousands of visitors come to see snow sculptures built by members of fraternities, sororities, other student organizations, as well as a few community groups, and participate in the week-long celebration. Students at the university also receive several days of vacation for Carnival. As part of Winter Carnival 2006, the city of Houghton and the university broke three world records: the largest snowball, the largest snowball fight, and the largest number of people making snow angels in one place. They currently still hold two of these records: largest snowball and largest snowball fight.

The Daily Mining Gazette (formerly The Mining Gazette) is a daily newspaper published in Houghton.

The town is sometimes referred to by locals as "Hoton" or "Ho-town." "Hoton" is even stenciled on city property. Since Houghton and Hancock are very near each other, their combined area is often referred to as "Houghton-Hancock," though the towns are often fierce rivals, something particularly manifested by the sports rivalry between Houghton High School and Hancock Central.

Tourism is a major industry in Houghton. Summer tourism is very popular, especially among those wishing to tour old mines, visit various historical sites, and camp. Winter tourism is also very active from November through April, for snowmobiling, skiing and other winter sports.

2020 census
As of the census of 2020, there were 8,386 people residing in the city, living in 2,533 households with an average of 2.30 people per household.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 7,708 people, 2,380 households, and 907 families residing in the city. The population density was 1732.1 PD/sqmi. There were 2,516 housing units at an average density of 565.4 /mi2. The racial makeup of the city was 85.2% White, 1.0% African American, 0.4% Native American, 11.2% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.4% from other races, and 1.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino residents of any race were 1.8% of the population.

There were 2,380 households, of which 18.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 28.6% were married couples living together, 6.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 61.9% were non-families. 32.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.37 and the average family size was 2.82.

The median age in the city was 22.1 years. 10.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 56.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 16.1% were from 25 to 44; 10.5% were from 45 to 64; and 7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 64.3% male and 35.7% female.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 7,010 people, 2,114 households, and 877 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,625.5 PD/sqmi. There were 2,222 housing units at an average density of 515.2 /mi2. The racial makeup of the city was 89.24% White, 1.87% Black or African American, 0.40% Native American, 6.79% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.24% from other races, and 1.44% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.77% of the population. 16.4% were of German, 12.7% Finnish, 8.2% Irish, 8.0% English, 6.0% Polish and 5.1% Italian ancestry according to Census 2000. 94.8% spoke English, 1.8% Spanish and 1.2% Chinese as their first language.

There were 2,114 households, out of which 21.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.6% were married couples living together, 7.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 58.5% were non-families. 35.2% of all households were one-person households, and 12.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34 and the average family size was 2.94.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 12.0% under the age of 18, 55.2% from 18 to 24, 15.3% from 25 to 44, 10.3% from 45 to 64, and 7.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 22 years. For every 100 females, there were 160.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 173.2 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $21,186, and the median income for a family was $41,779. Males had a median income of $36,161 versus $28,639 for females. The per capita income for the city was $11,750. About 20.3% of families and 36.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 21.9% of those under age 18 and 18.2% of those age 65 or over.

Education
The local school district is Houghton-Portage Township Schools. Students K-12 are served by Houghton Elementary (K-5), Middle (6–8), and High (9–12) Schools. Houghton is also the home of Michigan Technological University.

Highways

 * courses north to Hancock and Copper Harbor. To the south and east US 41 routes to L'Anse and Marquette.
 * connects Houghton southwest to US 45.
 * provides a loop route from US 41 in neighboring Hancock to McLain State Park. and then back to US 41.

Bus
Indian Trails bus lines operates daily intercity bus service between Hancock, Michigan, and Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Houghton Motor Transit operates both a demand bus and a route bus throughout Houghton and in nearby parts of Portage Township; there are also night trips to Mont Ripley in Ripley.

Ferry
Houghton is the port of departure for Isle Royale National Park. Cruise ships on the great lakes formerly (in the 1950s) used to frequently stop in Houghton, but this is now an exceedingly rare occurrence.

Airport
Houghton is served by the Houghton County Memorial Airport, which has limited commercial service.

Houghton was formerly served by airship. A seaplane departs from Houghton to Isle Royale National Park.

Snowmobiling
Snowmobiling is a major winter activity in the area, both locally (snowmobiles are often the best available means of transportation after a blizzard) and as a tourist industry. The Bill Nichols Snowmobile Trail has a terminus in Houghton.

Local radio

 * WMPL AM 920
 * WCCY (AM) 1400
 * WKMJ-FM FM 93.5
 * WOLV 97.7
 * WUPY FM 101.1
 * WHKB FM 102.3
 * WMTU-FM 91.9
 * WGGL-FM 91.1

Neighborhoods
Houghton is generally said to be divided into East Houghton, the Central Houghton area (which includes the downtown) and West Houghton.

 * East Houghton runs from Franklin Square to the eastern city limits. A principal street is College Avenue, characterized by Colonial Revival homes, which formerly ran from urbanized Houghton "farms, villas and mining operations... and the Michigan School of Mines, now Michigan Technological University;" today the main campus of MTU has taken over much of the College Avenue area and some of East Houghton generally, though it remains a primarily residential neighborhood. (However, this has changed somewhat with construction of the Pearl Street Mall. The Chassell Sands, which are usually considered apart from it, are partially zoned "Industrial.") It is home to East Houghton Park. The park was established in 1974 and contains tennis courts and playground equipment. The Chassell sands may be technically said to be part of this neighborhood, but are usually considered as apart from it, as is Minoru Yamasaki-designed Daniell Heights, married-student housing at Tech.
 * Central Houghton is a relatively urbanized area of the town, generally considered as being roughly between Franklin Square and the Portage Lake Lift Bridge. The "heart of Houghton's commercial district" is characterized by sandstone (frequently mined from Jacobsville or Portage Entry) buildings with the frequent "classical detail"; it is centered on Shelden Avenue, the downtown lying in Central Houghton between Montezuma Avenue and Lake Street / Brew Alley / Lakeshore Drive, which are generally considered one continuous street. South of this area are a series of streets with small wooden houses, primarily from mining days, rising over the arc of the hills that the city is built upon. Northward is the waterfront, which has several dockyards, and older buildings alongside it. While Corktown is the area around St. Ignatius Catholic Church, this neighborhood is rarely spoken of today.
 * West Houghton is the site of more recent construction compared to the other two neighborhoods. Therefore, the area has a more modern, suburban feel to it than the other areas. This includes larger middle-class houses built with large wooded lots between them. Most prominent in this area, however, are the retail stores which are becoming the new commercial heart of the city. These include Walmart and several recent strip malls, with numerous small stores housed under a single roof. Several prominent beach areas are located on this side of the city. It is often referred to by locals as "ShopKo Heights (Sho Hi)," the "neighborhood behind ShopKo," or "ShopKoville" as a ShopKo store had been located there prior to the company's closure.

Micropolitan area
The Houghton, Michigan micropolitan area is a statistical aggregation of the United States census bureau.

In popular culture
Houghton features in the novels A Superior Death and Winter Study by Nevada Barr and the Robin Hamilton mystery series by Nancy Barr. Much of Ander Monson's Other Electricities takes place in Houghton.

Notable people

 * Norm Breyfogle, American comic book artist
 * George Brunet, Major League Baseball pitcher for nine teams
 * Avis DeVoto, American culinary editor, book reviewer, and cook
 * Dolly Gray, baseball player, MLB and Pacific Coast League Hall of Fame
 * Chuck Klingbeil, former National Football League player for the Miami Dolphins
 * Nancy Harkness Love, World War II pilot
 * William A. Longacre, archaeologist
 * P.J. Olsson, rock singer
 * Eugene Parker, solar astrophysicist and namesake of the Parker Solar Probe
 * Percy Loomis Sperr, historical photographer

title: Houghton, Michigan


text:
Pangram

A pangram or holoalphabetic sentence is a sentence using every letter of a given alphabet at least once. Pangrams have been used to display typefaces, test equipment, and develop skills in handwriting, calligraphy, and typing.

Origins
The best-known English pangram is "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog". It has been used since at least the late 19th century and was used by Western Union to test Telex/TWX data communication equipment for accuracy and reliability. Pangrams like this are now used by a number of computer programs to display computer typefaces.

Short pangrams
Short pangrams in English are more difficult to devise and tend to use uncommon words and unnatural sentences. Longer pangrams afford more opportunity for humor, cleverness, or thoughtfulness.

The following are examples of pangrams that are shorter than "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog" (which has 35 letters) and use standard written English without abbreviations or proper nouns:

 * "Waltz, bad nymph, for quick jigs vex." (28 letters)
 * "Glib jocks quiz nymph to vex dwarf." (28 letters)
 * "Sphinx of black quartz, judge my vow." (29 letters)
 * "How quickly daft jumping zebras vex!" (30 letters)
 * "The five boxing wizards jump quickly." (31 letters)
 * "Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz." (31 letters)
 * "Pack my box with five dozen liquor jugs." (32 letters)

Perfect pangrams
A perfect pangram contains every letter of the alphabet only once and can be considered an anagram of the alphabet. The only perfect pangrams of the English alphabet that are known use abbreviations or other non-dictionary words, such as "Blowzy night-frumps vex'd Jack Q." or "Mr Jock, TV quiz PhD, bags few lynx," or they include words so obscure that the phrase is challenging to understand, such as "Cwm fjord-bank glyphs vext quiz", in which cwm is a loan word from the Welsh language meaning an amphitheatre-like glaciated depression, vext is an uncommon way to spell vexed, and quiz is used in an archaic sense to mean a puzzling or eccentric person. It means that symbols in the bowl-like depression on the edge of a long steep sea inlet confused an eccentric person.

Other writing systems may present more options: The Iroha is a well-known perfect pangram of the Japanese syllabary, while the Hanacaraka is a perfect pangram for the Javanese script and is commonly used to order its letters in sequence.

Using the Latin script
Whereas the English language uses all 26 letters of the Latin alphabet in native and naturalized words, many other languages using the same alphabet do not. Pangram writers in these languages are forced to choose between only using those letters found in native words or incorporating exotic loanwords into their pangrams. Some words, such as the Gaelic-derived whisk(e)y, which has been borrowed by many languages and uses the letters k, w and y, are a frequent fixture of many foreign pangrams.

There are also languages that use other Latin characters that do not appear in the traditional 26 letters of the Latin alphabet. This differs further from English pangrams, with letters such as ç, ä, and š.

 * Azeri: Zəfər, jaketini də papağını da götür, bu axşam hava çox soyuq olacaq. ("Zafer, take your jacket and cap, it will be very cold tonight") is a pangram that contains all 32 letters from the Azeri alphabet.

 * Czech: Příliš žluťoučký kůň úpěl ďábelské ódy. ("A horse that was too yellow moaned devilish odes") is the most commonly used one, especially to test alphabet support with fonts. This sentence includes all Czech letters with diacritics, but not all basic letters. To include all basic letters, including letters that only occur in loanwords (g, q, w, x), this one is used: Nechť již hříšné saxofony ďáblů rozezvučí síň úděsnými tóny waltzu, tanga a quickstepu. ("May the sinful saxophones of devils echo through the hall with dreadful melodies of waltz, tango and quickstep.").

 * Danish: Høj bly gom vandt fræk sexquiz på wc. ("Tall shy groom won naughty sexquiz on wc") A perfect pangram, using every letter exactly once (Including the more unusual letters as q, w, and x, and including the Danish æ, ø, and å).

 * Dutch: Pa's wijze lynx bezag vroom het fikse aquaduct. ("Dad's wise lynx piously looked at the sizable aqueduct.")

 * Esperanto: Eble ĉiu kvazaŭ-deca fuŝĥoraĵo ĝojigos homtipon. ("Maybe every quasi-fitting bungle-choir makes a human type happy.")
 * Laŭ Ludoviko Zamenhof bongustas freŝa ĉeĥa manĝaĵo kun spicoj. ("According to Ludwig Zamenhof, fresh Czech food with spices tastes good.")
 * Eĥoŝanĝoj ĉiuĵaŭde. ("Echo-changes every Thursday"). Doesn't contain every letter but contains all accented letters.

 * Ewe: "Dzigbe zã nyuie na wò, ɣeyiɣi didi aɖee nye sia no see, ɣeyiɣi aɖee nye sia tso esime míeyi suku", "Ŋdɔ nyui, ɛ nyteƒe, míagakpɔ wò ake wuieve kele ʋ heda kpedeŋu". ("Have a nice birthday tonight, it's been a long time no see, it's been a while since we were in school. Good afternoon, yes, see you again at twelve o'clock in the morning.") is a two-part pangram consisting of a statement and response.

 * Finnish: Törkylempijävongahdus. (Although difficult to translate because of its non-practical use, it roughly means "a whinge of a sleazy lover".) A perfect pangram not using any of the special letters used in Finnish only for foreign words (b, c, f, q, š, w, x, z, ž, å).
 * Albert osti fagotin ja töräytti puhkuvan melodian. ("Albert bought a bassoon and blew a puffing tune"). An imperfect pangram not using some of the special letters used in Finnish only for foreign words (q, w, x, z, å) but which makes perfect everyday sense.
 * On sangen hauskaa, että polkupyörä on maanteiden jokapäiväinen ilmiö. ("It is rather fun that bicycles are a daily phenomenon on the countryroads.") An imperfect pangram not containing the previously mentioned special letters.
 * Wieniläinen siouxia puhuva ökyzombi diggaa Åsan roquefort-tacoja ("Viennese rich zombie who can speak Sioux likes Åsa's Roquefort tacos") contains all the letters of the Finnish alphabet.

 * French: Portez ce vieux whisky au juge blond qui fume ("Take this old whisky to the blond judge who is smoking") uses each basic consonant once, though not any letters with diacritics.

 * German: Victor jagt zwölf Boxkämpfer quer über den großen Sylter Deich ("Victor chases twelve boxers across the Great Levee of Sylt") contains all letters, including the umlauted vowels (ä, ö, ü) and ß. The letter y is limited to loanwords and proper names like Sylt.

 * Hungarian: Egy hűtlen vejét fülöncsípő, dühös mexikói úr ázik Quitóban. ("An unfaithful son-in-law is being treated by a sniveling, angry Mexican lord in Quito.") contains all 44 letters of the Hungarian alphabet, with a total of 50 letters.

 * Icelandic: Kæmi ný öxi hér, ykist þjófum nú bæði víl og ádrepa. ("If a new axe were here, thieves would feel increasing deterrence and punishment") contains all 32 letters in the Icelandic alphabet including the vowels with diacritics (á, é, í, ó, ú, ý, and ö) as well as the letters ð, þ, and æ.

 * Indonesian: Muharjo seorang xenofobia universal yang takut pada warga jazirah, contohnya Qatar. ("Muharjo is a universal xenophobic who fears the peninsula residents, such as Qatar.") contains all 26 letters in the Indonesian alphabet, including the foreign letters q, v and x.
 * Tokoh qari bonceng juru xilofon di vespanya muzawir. ("The quran reciter figure gives the xylophone expert a ride on the tour guide's vespa.") contains all 26 letters in the Indonesian alphabet. It also contains only the words that are in the Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia.

 * Irish: D'ith cat mór dubh na héisc lofa go pras ("A large black cat ate the rotten fish promptly") has 31 letters and includes all 18 letters found in native Irish words, but does not include the accented á, í, or ú, nor the non-accented e.

 * Italian: Pranzo d'acqua fa volti sghembi ("A lunch of water makes twisted faces") has 26 letters and includes all 21 letters found in native Italian words. It does not include the five letters which are not found in any Italian words, except for some loanwords: j, k, w, y, and x.: Cantami o Diva del pelide Achille l'ira funesta. (Sing to me, O Diva of the hairy Achilles, the raging wrath.) has 39 characters without considering any apostrophe and space; it's used in Microsoft Windows operating system if the language is set to Italian (Italiano)

 * Kurdish: Cem vî Feqoyê pîs zêdetir ji çar gulên xweşik hebûn ("There were more than four beautiful flowers near the filthy Feqo") has 42 letters and includes all 31 letters found in Kurdish words. This pangram was created by Îrec Mêhrbexş in 2023.

 * Polish: Zażółć gęślą jaźń ("Make the ego yellow with a gusle") - contains all diactrics, but not every letter and is mainly used to test font support
 * To test all letters used in Polish language, two perfect pangrams are most commonly used:
 * Pchnąć w tę łódź jeża lub ośm skrzyń fig ("Push a hedgehog or eight crates of figs in this boat") - most commonly used, perfect pangram, archaic spelling of osiem
 * Mężny bądź, chroń pułk twój i sześć flag ("Be brave, protect your regiment and six flags") - another pangram in common use
 * Stróż pchnął kość w quiz gędźb vel fax myjń. ("The watchman pushed the bone into a quiz of the musics or a fax of the washes") - a perfect pangram containing all letters, including those used only in loan words: q, v, x.

 * Portuguese: Ré só que vê galã sexy pôr kiwi talhado à força em baú põe juíza má em pânico. ("Lone defendant that sees a sexy hunk forcibly stuff a chopped kiwi in a trunk sets bad judge in a panic.") uses all diacritics and all 23 letters from the Portuguese alphabet (before the Orthographic Agreement of 1990; the letters k, w, and y are found mainly in loanwords).

 * Romanian: Încă vând gem, whisky bej și tequila roz, preț fix. ("[I'm] still selling jam, beige whisky, and pink tequila, [with a] fixed price.") contains all letters, including Romanian diacritics: ă, â, î, ș, and ț. The letters q, w, and y were introduced in the Romanian alphabet in 1982 with the first DOOM dictionary. They are used for loan words such as quodlibet, watt, and yoga. The letter k is also rarely used, mainly for names and international neologisms such as kilogram and folk.

 * Serbian: Ljubazni fenjerdžija čađavog lica hoće da mi pokaže štos. (A kind lamplighter with a sooty face wants to show me a prank.)

 * Spanish: Benjamín pidió una bebida de kiwi y fresa. Noé, sin vergüenza, la más exquisita champaña del menú ("Benjamin ordered a kiwi and strawberry drink. Noah, without shame, the most exquisite champagne on the menu") uses all diacritics and the foreign letters k and w.: El veloz murciélago hindú comía feliz cardillo y kiwi. La cigüeña tocaba el saxofón detrás del palenque de paja. (The quick Indian bat was happily eating cardillo and kiwi. The stork was playing the saxophone behind the straw palenque.) contains 2 sentences and 92 letters; it's used in Microsoft Windows operating system if the language is set to Spanish (Español).

 * Slovak: Kŕdeľ šťastných ďatľov učí pri ústí Váhu mĺkveho koňa obhrýzať kôru a žrať čerstvé mäso. ("A flock of happy woodpeckers by the mouth of the river Váh is teaching a silent horse to nibble on bark and feed on fresh meat") contains all letters in the Slovak alphabet. It does not include the letters f, g, j, l, q, w, x, y, as well as accented vowels á and ó.

 * Swedish : Flygande bäckasiner söka hwila på mjuka tuvor ("Flying snipes seek rest on soft tussocks") is missing q, x and z. Uses archaic spellings.
 * Yxmördaren Julia Blomqvist på fäktning i Schweiz ("Axe killer Julia Blomqvist on fencing in Switzerland") uses the name "Julia Blomqvist" and the Swedish name for Switzerland.
 * Schweiz för lyxfjäder på qvist bakom ugn ("Switzerland brings luxury feather on branch behind oven") feels quite contrived. The duplicated letters spell out serif.
 * FAQ om Schweiz: Klöv du trång pjäxby? ("FAQ about Switzerland: Did you cleave a narrow village of ski boots?") uses the English abbreviation FAQ alongside some made-up compounds.
 * Yxskaftbud, ge vår WC-zonmö IQ-hjälp ("Axe-handle carrier, give our WC zone-maiden IQ support")
 * Gud hjälpe Zorns mö qwickt få byx av ("God help Zorn's maiden quickly get her pants off") uses both old-fashioned spelling and the dialectal form byx.
 * Byxfjärmat föl gick på duvshowen ("Foal without pants went to the dove show") is missing q and z.

 * Turkish: Pijamalı hasta yağız şoföre çabucak güvendi ("The sick person in pyjamas quickly trusted the swarthy driver") contains all of the letters in the Turkish alphabet.

Other alphabetic scripts
Non-Latin alphabetic or phonetic scripts such as Greek, Armenian, and others can also have pangrams. In some writing systems, exactly what counts as a distinct symbol can be debated. For example, many languages have accents or other diacritics, but one might count "é" and "e" as the same for pangrams. A similar problem arises for older English orthography that includes the long s ("ſ").

 * Armenian: Չին ֆիզիկոսը օճառաջուր ցողելով բժշկում է հայ գնդապետի փքված ձախ թևը։ ("The Chinese physicist treats the swollen left arm of the Armenian colonel by spraying it with soapwater").

 * Belarusian: У Іўі худы жвавы чорт у зялёнай камізэльцы пабег пад’есці фаршу з юшкай ("In Ivy, a thin, lively devil in a green vest ran to eat minced meat with soup"), Я жорстка заб’ю проста ў сэрца гэты расквечаны профіль, што ходзіць ля маёй хаты ("I will brutally kill this flowery profile that walks by my house straight to the heart").

 * Bulgarian: Под южно дърво, цъфтящо в синьо, бягаше малко пухкаво зайче ("Under a southern tree, blooming in blue, ran a little fluffy bunny").

 * Georgian: გვიპყრობდა კვამლი, ჩიტებს გაჰქონდათ ჟღურტული ზეცაში, ძილს უფრთხობს ჭიქების ჯახუნი მიწებში ("We were overcome by smoke, the birds were carried away by chirping in the sky, sleep is disturbed by the clatter of glasses on the ground") contains all the letters of the Georgian alphabet.

 * Hebrew: קזחסטן ארץ מעלפת, גדושה בכי. ("Kazakhstan is a beautiful country, full of tears."), שפן אכל קצת גזר בטעם חסה, ודי. ("A bunny ate some lettuce-flavored carrots, and he had enough"), איש עם זקן טס לצרפת ודג בחכה. ("A man with a beard flew to France and fished with a fishing pole").

 * Russian: Съешь ещё этих мягких французских булок, да выпей же чаю ("Eat some more of these soft French loaves and drink some tea") is most commonly used. Its variation is used by Windows FontView. Another popular pangram is В чащах юга жил бы цитрус? Да, но фальшивый экземпляр! ("Would a citrus live in the jungles of the south? Yes, but a fake specimen!"). This pangram is used by GNOME.

("Mr.Sangkhaphant Hengpithakfang - an elderly man who earns a living by selling bottles - was arrested for prosecution by police because he stole Lady Chatchada Chansamat's watch.") contains all the letters in the Thai alphabet, both obsolete and non-obsolete.
 * Thai: นายสังฆภัณฑ์ เฮงพิทักษ์ฝั่ง ผู้เฒ่าซึ่งมีอาชีพเป็นฅนขายฃวด ถูกตำรวจปฏิบัติการจับฟ้องศาล ฐานลักนาฬิกาคุณหญิงฉัตรชฎา ฌานสมาธิ

Non-alphabetic scripts
Logographic scripts, or writing systems such as Chinese that do not use an alphabet but are composed principally of logograms, cannot produce pangrams in a literal sense (or at least, not pangrams of reasonable size). The total number of signs is large and imprecisely defined, so producing a text with every possible sign is practically impossible. However, various analogies to pangrams are feasible, including traditional pangrams in a romanization.

In Japanese, although typical orthography uses kanji (logograms), pangrams can be made using every kana, or syllabic character. The Iroha is a classic example of a perfect pangram in non-Latin script.

In Chinese, the Thousand Character Classic is a 1000-character poem in which each character is used exactly once; however, it does not include all Chinese characters. The single character 永 (permanence) incorporates all the basic strokes used to write Chinese characters, using each stroke exactly once, as described in the Eight Principles of Yong.

Among abugida scripts, an example of a perfect pangram is the Hanacaraka (hana caraka; data sawala; padha jayanya; maga bathanga) of the Javanese script, which is used to write the Javanese language in Indonesia.
 * Bengali: ঊনিশে কার্তিক রাত্র সাড়ে আট ঘটিকায় ভৈরবনিবাসী ব্যাংকের ক্ষুদ্র ঋণগ্রস্ত অভাবী দুঃস্থ পৌঢ় কৃষক এজাজ মিঞা হাতের কাছে ঔষধ থাকিতেও ঐ ঋণের ডরেই চোখে ঝাপসা দেখিয়া বুকের যন্ত্রণায় ঈষৎ কাঁপিয়া উঠিয়া উঠানে বিছানো ধূসর রঙের ফরাশের উপর ঢলিয়া পড়িলেন। All 50 letters of the Bengali alphabet are present in this pangram created by Sahidul and published in Shubach Little Mag.

Self-enumerating pangrams
A self-enumerating pangram is a pangrammatic autogram, or a sentence that inventories its own letters, each of which occurs at least once. The first example was produced by Rudy Kousbroek, a Dutch journalist and essayist, who publicly challenged Lee Sallows, a British recreational mathematician resident in the Netherlands, to produce an English translation of his Dutch pangram. In the sequel, Sallows built an electronic "pangram machine", that performed a systematic search among millions of candidate solutions. The machine was successful in identifying the following 'magic' translation:

 * This pangram contains four As, one B, two Cs, one D, thirty Es, six Fs, five Gs, seven Hs, eleven Is, one J, one K, two Ls, two Ms, eighteen Ns, fifteen Os, two Ps, one Q, five Rs, twenty-seven Ss, eighteen Ts, two Us, seven Vs, eight Ws, two Xs, three Ys, & one Z.

Chris Patuzzo was able to reduce the problem of finding a self-enumerating pangram to the boolean satisfiability problem. He did this by using a made-to-order hardware description language as a stepping stone and then applied the Tseytin transformation to the resulting chip.

Pangrams in literature
The pangram "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog", and the search for a shorter pangram, are the cornerstone of the plot of the novel Ella Minnow Pea by Mark Dunn. The search successfully comes to an end when the phrase "Pack my box with five dozen liquor jugs" is discovered (which has only 6 duplicated vowels).

The scientific paper Cneoridium dumosum (Nuttall) Hooker F. Collected March 26, 1960, at an Elevation of about 1450 Meters on Cerro Quemazón, 15 Miles South of Bahía de Los Angeles, Baja California, México, Apparently for a Southeastward Range Extension of Some 140 Miles has a pangrammatic title, seemingly by pure chance. As of January 2022, its English Wikipedia article is the only English Wikipedia article to have a pangrammatic title without having been constructed as a pangram.

title: Pangram


text:
Awá (Brazil)

The Awá are an Indigenous people of Brazil living in the Amazon rain forest. There are approximately 350 members, and 100 of them have no contact with the outside world. They are considered highly endangered because of conflicts with logging interests in their territory.

The Awá people speak Guajá, a Tupi–Guaraní language. Originally living in settlements, they adopted a nomadic lifestyle around 1800 to escape incursions by Europeans.

History
During the 19th century, the Awá came under increasing attack by European settlers in the region, who cleared most of the forests from their land. Beginning around 1800, the Awá people adopted an increasingly nomadic lifestyle in order to avoid European invaders.

From the mid-1980s onward, some Awá moved to government-established settlements. However, for the most part, they were able to maintain their traditional way of life. Sustaining themselves entirely from their forests in nomadic groups of a few dozen people, and with little or no contact with the outside world.

In 1982, the Brazilian government received a loan of US$900 million from the World Bank and the European Union. One condition of the loan was that the lands of certain Indigenous peoples, including the Awá, would be demarcated and protected; this held particular importance for the Awá, whose forests were being increasingly invaded by outsiders, with many cases of tribespeople being killed by settlers, and the forest on which they depended being destroyed by logging and land clearance for farming.

Without government intervention, it seemed very likely that the Awá and their culture would become extinct. However, the Brazilian government was extraordinarily slow to act on its commitment. It took 20 years of sustained pressure from campaigning organisations such as Survival International and, earlier, the Forest Peoples Programme before, in March 2003, the Awá's land was finally demarcated.

Meanwhile, encroachment on their land and a series of massacres had reduced their numbers to about 300, only about 60 of whom were still living their traditional hunter-gatherer way of life.

In late 2011, illegal loggers burned an 8-year-old Awá girl alive after she wandered out of her village. The murder happened inside a protected area in the state of Maranhão. Luis Carlos Guajajaras, a leader from another people, said that the girl had been killed as a warning to other native peoples living in the protected area.

According to the Indigenous Missionary Council, about 450 Indigenous people were murdered between 2003 and 2010. An investigation discovered the Awá camp in question had been destroyed by loggers. According to Survival International, a human rights organization which campaigns for the rights of Indigenous tribal peoples and considers them to be the "earth's most threatened tribe," Awá forests are now disappearing faster than in any other Indian area in the Brazilian Amazon.

In April 2012, Survival International launched a worldwide campaign, backed by the actor Colin Firth, to protect the Awá people.

In September 2012, Brazil's Indian Affairs Department claimed that loggers were only 6 km away from the Awá.

In 2019, Reuters published a rough cut video of uncontacted tribe members, as activists warn of growing threats to this tribe from loggers who are nearing their traditional hunting ground. In July 2021, it was confirmed that one of the tribe's members, Karapiru Awá Guajá, had died of COVID-19 earlier in the month, at an estimated age of 75. Guajá, who campaigned against the destruction of Awá land and for the rights of Indigenous Brazilian peoples, had been vaccinated against the virus.

title: Awá (Brazil)