text:
1849

January–March

 * January 1 – France begins issue of the Ceres series, the nation's first postage stamps.
 * January 5 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The Austrian army, led by Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, enters in the Hungarian capitals, Buda and Pest. The Hungarian government and parliament flee to Debrecen.
 * January 8 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: Romanian armed groups massacre 600 unarmed Hungarian civilians, at Nagyenyed.
 * January 13
 * Second Anglo-Sikh War – Battle of Tooele: British forces retreat from the Sikhs.
 * The Colony of Vancouver Island is established.
 * January 21
 * General elections are held in the Papal States.
 * Hungarian Revolution of 1848: Nagyszeben – The Hungarian army in Transylvania, led by Josef Bem, is defeated by the Austrians, led by Anton Puchner.
 * January 23 – Elizabeth Blackwell is awarded her M.D. by the Medical Institute of Geneva, New York, thus becoming the United States' first woman doctor.
 * January 27
 * The Fayetteville and Western Plank Road Company is incorporated, to build a plank road from Fayetteville to Bethania, North Carolina.
 * The North Carolina General Assembly incorporates the North Carolina Railroad, to complete a rail line from Goldsboro through Raleigh, and Salisbury to Charlotte.
 * February 1 – The abolition of the Corn Laws by the United Kingdom's Importation Act 1846 comes fully into effect.
 * February 2 – The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo is signed, ending the Mexican–American War (effective on exchange of ratifications, May 30; proclaimed July 4).
 * February 4 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: Battle of Vízakna – The Austrian army, led by Anton Puchner, defeats the Hungarians, led by general Josef Bem.
 * February 5 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The Hungarian revolutionary army, led by Richard Guyon, breaks through the pass of Branyiszkó, defeating the Austrian defenders.
 * February 8 – The new Roman Republic is proclaimed.
 * February 9 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: Battle of Piski – Josef Bem's Hungarian army defeats Anton Puchner.
 * February 14 – In New York City, James Knox Polk becomes the first President of the United States to have his photograph taken.
 * February 21 – Second Anglo-Sikh War: Battle of Gujrat – Forces of the British East India Company defeat those of the Sikh Empire in Punjab.
 * February 27 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: Battle of Kápolna – The Austrians defeat the Hungarians.
 * February 28 – Regular steamboat service from the west to the east coast of the United States begins, with the arrival of the SS California in San Francisco Bay. The California leaves New York Harbor on October 6, 1848, rounds Cape Horn at the tip of South America, and arrives at San Francisco after the 4-month, 21-day journey.
 * March – The Frankfurt Parliament completes its drafting of a liberal constitution, and elects Frederick William IV emperor of the new German national state.
 * March 3
 * The United States Department of the Interior is established, incorporating the Census Office, United States General Land Office, Office of Indian Affairs and Patent and Trademark Office.
 * Minnesota becomes a United States territory.
 * The United States Congress passes the Gold Coinage Act allowing the minting of two additional denominations of gold coins, the gold dollar and the double eagle.
 * March 4
 * Zachary Taylor becomes the 12th president of the United States, but refuses to be sworn into office on a Sunday. Urban legend holds that David Rice Atchison, President pro tempore of the United States Senate, is President de jure for a single day.
 * Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The Habsburg emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria promulgates at Olomouc the March Constitution of Austria, which abolishes the April Laws promulgated by the Hungarian Batthyány-govern, and degrades Hungary to a simple Austrian province.
 * March 5
 * Hungarian Revolution of 1848 – Second Battle of Szolnok: The Hungarians led by János Damjanich and Károly Vécsey defeat the Austrians.
 * President Zachary Taylor is sworn in.
 * March 11 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The Hungarian army of Transylvania, under general Josef Bem, defeats the Russian-Austrian army at Second Battle of Nagyszeben, capturing the city which is the headquarters of Austrian general Anton Puchner. Most of Transylvania is liberated from the Austrian rule. The Austrian and the Russian troops flee to Wallachia.
 * March 22–23 – First Italian War of Independence: Battle of Novara – The Kingdom of Sardinia suffers a huge defeat, and Charles Albert abdicates.
 * March 28 – Four Christians are ordered to be burnt alive in Antananarivo, Madagascar, by Queen Ranavalona I, and 14 others are executed.
 * March 30 – The Second Anglo-Sikh War ends, with the United Kingdom annexing the Punjab.
 * March 30 – Maharaja Duleep Singh is exiled to England.

April–June

 * April 1
 * After 10 days, the insurrection in Brescia is ended by Austrian troops.
 * Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The Hungarian Revolutionary Army, under the leadership of Arthur Görgey, starts the victorious Spring Campaign, which leads to the liberation of much of Hungary from the Austrian forces.
 * April 2
 * The German revolutions of 1848–49 end in failure, as King Frederick William IV of Prussia refuses to accept the offer of the Frankfurt National Assembly, to be crowned as German emperor.
 * Hungarian Revolution of 1848 – Battle of Hatvan: The Hungarian revolutionary army, under the command of András Gáspár, defeats the Austrians, led by general Franz Schlik.
 * April 4 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848 – Battle of Tápióbicske: Hungarian forces, under the generals György Klapka and János Damjanich, defeat the Austrian-Croatian army, led by Franz Schlik and Josip Jelačić.
 * April 6 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848 – Battle of Isaszeg: The main Hungarian forces, led by Arthur Görgey, defeat the main imperial forces, led by Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, forcing them to retreat westward.
 * April 10 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848 – Battle of Vác: The Hungarians, led by János Damjanich, defeat the Austrians, led by Christian Götz, who dies after the battle due to his injuries.
 * April 12
 * Hungarian Revolution of 1848: Because of his series of defeats suffered from the Hungarian army, Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz is released from the supreme command of the Austrian forces in Hungary, and replaced by Ludwig von Welden.
 * Astronomer Annibale de Gasparis discovers the asteroid 10 Hygiea.
 * April 14 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The Hungarian revolutionary parliament in Debrecen declares independence from the Habsburg Empire.
 * April 19 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848 – Battle of Nagysalló: The Hungarian revolutionary army, led by György Klapka and János Damjanich, defeat the Austrian army, led by Lt. Gen. Ludwig von Wohlgemuth.
 * April 21
 * Great Famine (Ireland): 96 inmates of the overcrowded Ballinrobe Union Workhouse died over the course of the preceding week from illness and other famine-related conditions, a record high.
 * The Austrian government asks Russian help against the Hungarian Revolution. Tsar Nicholas I of Russia agrees to send troops against Hungary.
 * April 22 – The first Kennedy arrives in America.
 * April 25 – James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin, the Governor General of Canada, signs the Rebellion Losses Bill, outraging Montreal's English population and triggering the Montreal Riots.
 * April 26 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848 – Battle of Komárom: Hungarian forces relieve the city and castle with the same name from a long Austrian siege. The Austrian imperial forces and their Croatian, Romanian and Serbian allies are chased out from Hungary, or near the borders of the country.
 * April 27 – Giuseppe Garibaldi enters Rome, to defend it from the French troops of General Charles Oudinot.
 * May – The Second Carlist War ends in Spain.
 * May 2 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: A new independent Hungarian government, led by Bertalan Szemere, is formed. The head of state of Hungary becomes Lajos Kossuth, as governor president.
 * May 3
 * The May Uprising in Dresden, last of the German revolutions of 1848–49, begins. Richard Wagner is among the participants.
 * The Mississippi River levee at Sauvé's Crevasse breaks, flooding much of New Orleans.
 * May 9 – The May Uprising in Dresden is suppressed by the Kingdom of Saxony.
 * May 10 – The Astor Place Riot takes place in Manhattan, over a dispute between two Shakespearean actors; over 20 people are killed when troops fire on the rioters.
 * May 15 – Troops of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies take Palermo, and crush the republican government of Sicily.
 * May 17 – The St. Louis Fire starts when a steamboat catches fire and nearly burns down the entire city.
 * May 21 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The Hungarian army, led by Arthur Görgey, captures the Castle of Buda, liberating the Hungarian capital city completely. The leader of the defending Austrian forces, General Heinrich Hentzi, dies because of his injuries. The Hungarian government moves back from Debrecen to Budapest.
 * May 30 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: Julius Jacob von Haynau replaces Ludwig von Welden as leader of the Austrian forces in Hungary, because of the failure of the latter to stop the advance of the Hungarian forces.
 * June 5
 * Denmark becomes a constitutional monarchy.
 * Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The first Russian troops, led by Lieutenant General Fyodor Sergeyevich Panyutin, who come in the aid of the Habsburgs, cross the Hungarian border at Pozsony, in order to crush the Hungarian revolution.
 * June 6 – The settlement of Fort Worth, Texas, is founded.
 * June 17 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The main Russian forces, led by Ivan Paskevich, cross the Hungarian border, and together with the Austrian troops, led by Julius Jacob von Haynau, start the final attack against the Hungarian Revolution. Now the Hungarian revolutionary troops, numbering 173,000 soldiers, which even before the Russian attack were in inferiority regarding their numbers, and the quality of their weapons and war industry, face a force of 370,000 Austro-Russian forces, and other tens of thousands of Croatian, Serbian and Romanian insurgents, who serve the Habsburg imperial interests.
 * June 20 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: Russian troops, under the command of Alexander von Lüders, break in Transylvania, and, together with the Austrian forces, start to operate against the Hungarian troops, led by Józef Bem.
 * June 21 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The Russo-Austrian army, led by Julius Jacob von Haynau, defeats the Hungarians under the command of Arthur Görgey in the Battle of Pered.
 * June 28 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The Austrian army, led by Julius Jacob von Haynau, defeats the Hungarians, led by Ernő Poeltenberg, in the Battle of Győr. The Hungarian army is forced to retreat towards Budapest.

July–September

 * July 2 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848 – Second Battle of Komárom: The Hungarian army, led by Arthur Görgey, repulses the combined attack of the Austrian and Russian troops led by Julius Jacob von Haynau. During the battle Görgey suffers a heavy head injury, which prevents him from taking advantage of this success.
 * July 3 – French troops occupy Rome; the Roman Republic surrenders.
 * July 6 – Battle of Fredericia: The Danish Army beats the Prussian army at Fredericia, Jutland, thereby putting an end to the Prussian-Danish War until 1864.
 * July 11 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848 – Third Battle of Komárom: The Hungarian army, led by Arthur Görgey, is defeated by the Austrians, led by Julius Jacob von Haynau.
 * July 13 – Charleston Workhouse Slave Rebellion: A slave uprising led by Nicholas Kelly took place at the Workhouse in Charleston, South Carolina; the white community quickly suppressed the revolt, captured 37 freedom seekers, and tried and hanged 3 of the leaders.
 * July 14 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848:
 * Because of the imminent Austrian attack, the Hungarian government moves from Budapest to Szeged.
 * Hungarian troops, led by Richard Guyon, defeat the Croatian-Austrian army led by Josip Jelačić in the Battle of Kishegyes, securing southern Hungary for the revolutionary government.
 * July 15 – The first airstrike in history: Austria launches pilotless balloons against the city of Venice.
 * July 17 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: Hungarians, led by Arthur Görgey, and the Russians, led by Ivan Paskevich, battle indecisively in the Second Battle of Vác. The Russians are unsuccessful in destroying the Hungarian army, which retreats towards the east.
 * July 23 – French scientist Hippolyte Fizeau makes a measurement of the speed of light in air using specially devized apparatus.
 * July 28 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The Hungarian government, led by Bertalan Szemere promulgates the Nationality Law, which gives important rights to the nationalities of Hungary, like the right to use their mother tongue in school, church, army, court and administration. The Romanians are declared a nation, and not a minority, in Transylvania. The Jews receive equality thanks to the Emancipation Decree.
 * July 31 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848 – Battle of Segesvár: The Russian troops in Transylvania, led by Alexander von Lüders, crush the Hungarian forces, under the lead of Józef Bem. Hungarian poet and revolutionary Sándor Petőfi is killed in the battle by the Russians.
 * July 31–August 1 – Joven Daniel wrecks at the coast of Araucanía, Chile, leading to allegations that local Mapuche tribes murdered survivors and kidnapped Elisa Bravo.
 * August 2 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The Russian main forces, under Ivan Paskevich, defeat the Hungarian army under József Nagysándor, in the Battle of Debrecen.
 * August 3 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The Hungarian defenders of Komárom, led by György Klapka, destroy the besieging Austrian forces in the Fourth Battle of Komárom, liberating Győr and Székesfehérvár. But this victory comes too late to change the course of military events in the eastern part of the country, where the Hungarian forces are about to crumble under the heavy Austro-Russian pressure.
 * August 5 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848 – Battle of Szőreg: Austrian forces, under Julius Jacob von Haynau, defeat the Hungarian main forces under Henryk Dembiński.
 * August 9 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848 – Battle of Temesvár: The main Russo-Austrian forces, led by Julius Jacob von Haynau, win a decisive victory against the Hungarians, led by Józef Bem.
 * August 11 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: Lajos Kossuth and the Hungarian Government of Bertalan Szemere resign, and give all powers to the hands of Arthur Görgey. After this Kossuth, the ministries and many military officers leave Hungary, and ask asylum in Turkey.
 * August 13 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The main Hungarian army, under the lead of Arthur Görgey, capitulates to the Russian troops, led by Theodor von Rüdiger, at Világos. The official end of the Hungarian Revolution, although the fortress of Komárom continue to resist.
 * August 23 – William Ernest Henley, English poet, writer, critic (d. 1903)
 * August 28 – Venice (the Republic of San Marco) surrenders to Austrian troops after a 4-month siege.
 * September 1 – The first segment of the Pennsylvania Railroad, from Lewistown to Harrisburg, opens for service.
 * September 17 – African-American abolitionist Harriet Tubman escapes from slavery.

October–December

 * October 4 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: Komárom, the last bastion of the Hungarian Revolution, surrenders to the Austrian forces.
 * October 6 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The 13 Martyrs of Arad are executed after the Hungarian War of Independence, in repression by the Austrian authorities led by Julius Jacob von Haynau (these martyrs being the generals of the Hungarian revolutionary army, who did not flee from Hungary after the suppression of the Hungarian revolution by the Russo-Austrian forces). Also today, Lajos Batthyány, the first Hungarian prime minister, is executed by Austrian authorities in Pest.
 * November – Austin College receives a charter in Huntsville, Texas.
 * November 13
 * The Constitution of California is ratified in a general election.
 * Swiss-born Marie Manning and her husband Frederick are publicly hanged for the murder of her lover in London, before a crowd of 30,000-50,000.
 * November 16 – A Russian court sentences Fyodor Dostoyevsky to death for anti-government activities linked to a radical intellectual group, the Petrashevsky Circle. Facing a firing squad on December 23, the group members are reprieved at the last moment, and exiled to the katorga prison camps in Siberia.
 * December 3
 * German missionaries Johann Ludwig Krapf and Johannes Rebmann become the first Europeans to see Mount Kenya.
 * The Abgeordnetenhaus, lower house of the parliament of the Kingdom of Bavaria, passes a bill granting German Jews the same legal rights as German Christians. The measure draws a strong reaction from Christians across Bavaria, who sign petitions urging the upper house to prevent the equal rights measure from becoming law.
 * December 22 – After 17 days of deadlock and 63 votes, Democrat Howell Cobb of Georgia is elected Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, by a plurality of 102 votes to 99 for the former Speaker, the Whig Party's Robert C. Winthrop of Massachusetts. Neither the Democrats nor the Whigs have a majority of the 230 seats in the House, and after neither candidate can obtain the required 116 votes, the Representatives agree that the plurality will decide the leadership.

Date unknown

 * Seven of the "best known" opium clippers go missing: Sylph, Coquette, Kelpie, Greyhound, Don Juan, Mischief, and Anna Eliza.
 * Global healthcare and pharmaceutical company Pfizer founded in New York, United States.

January–June

 * January 8 – Stepan Makarov, Russian admiral (d. 1904)
 * January 9 – John Hartley, English tennis player, double winner of Wimbledon (d. 1935)
 * January 11 – Ignacio Pinazo Camarlench, Spanish impressionist painter (d. 1916)
 * January 14 – James Moore, English winner of the first ever cycle race (d. 1935)
 * January 18
 * Aleksander Świętochowski, Polish writer of the Positivist period (d. 1938)
 * Sir Edmund Barton, 1st Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1920)
 * January 22 – August Strindberg, Swedish author, playwright, and painter (d. 1912)
 * February 13 – Lord Randolph Churchill, British statesman (d. 1895)
 * February 18 – Alexander Kielland, Norwegian author (d. 1906)
 * February 19 – Giovanni Passannante, Italian anarchist (d. 1910)
 * March 6 – Georg Luger, Austrian firearm designer (d. 1923)
 * March 7 – Luther Burbank, American biologist, botanist (d. 1926)
 * March 19 – Alfred von Tirpitz, German admiral (d. 1930)
 * March 24 – Franz S. Exner, Austrian physicist (d. 1926)
 * April 6 – John William Waterhouse, Italian-born British artist (d. 1917)
 * April 20 – Nikolai Nebogatov, Russian admiral (d. 1922)
 * April 21 – Oscar Hertwig, German zoologist (d. 1922)
 * April 24
 * Emma Whitcomb Babcock, American litterateur and author (d. 1926)
 * Helen Taggart Clark, American journalist and poet (d. 1918))
 * Joseph Gallieni, French general (d. 1916)
 * April 25 – Felix Klein, German mathematician (d. 1925)
 * April 28 – Augusto Aubry, Italian admiral, politician (d. 1912)
 * May 1 – Kamimura Hikonojō, Japanese admiral (d. 1916)
 * May 3
 * Bertha Benz, German automotive pioneer (d. 1944)
 * Bernhard von Bülow, 8th Chancellor of Germany (d. 1929)
 * May 9 – Empress Shōken, consort of Emperor Meiji of Japan (d. 1914)
 * May 19 – John Hubbard, American admiral (d. 1932)
 * May 22
 * Louis Perrier, member of the Swiss Federal Council (d. 1913)
 * Sir Aston Webb, British architect (d. 1930)
 * May 23 – Károly Khuen-Héderváry, 2-time prime minister of Hungary (d. 1918)
 * May 27 – Alzina Stevens, American labor leader, social reformer, and editor (d. 1900)
 * June 9 – Michael Ancher, Danish painter (d. 1927)
 * June 29 – Pedro Montt, 14th president of Chile (d. 1910)

July–December

 * July 4
 * Fernand de Langle de Cary, French general (d. 1927)
 * Vladimir Vasilyevich Smirnov, Russian general (d. 1918)
 * July 22 – Emma Lazarus, American author and activist (d. 1887)
 * July 29
 * Max Nordau, Austrian author, philosopher and Zionist leader (d. 1923)
 * Edward Theodore Compton, English-German painter and mountain climber (d. 1921)

 * August 28 – Benjamin Godard, French composer (d. 1895)
 * September 2 – Emma Curtis Hopkins, American spiritual writer (d. 1925)
 * September 3 – Sarah Orne Jewett, American writer (d. 1909)
 * September 11 – Sir Edmund Poë, British admiral (d. 1921)
 * September 12 – Alexander von Krobatin, Austro-Hungarian field marshal and politician (d. 1933)
 * September 14 – Ivan Pavlov, Russian physiologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1936)
 * September 18 – Martha Place, American murderer, first woman executed in the electric chair (d. 1899)
 * September 21 – Maurice Barrymore, British-American stage actor, playwright (d. 1905)
 * September 23 – Hugo von Seeliger, German astronomer (d. 1924)
 * October 7 – James Whitcomb Riley, American poet and author (d. 1916)
 * October 10 – Mary Baker McQuesten, Canadian letter writer and missionary (d. 1934)
 * October 26 – Ferdinand Georg Frobenius, German mathematician (d. 1917)
 * October 28 – Oskar Enkvist, Russian admiral (d. 1912)
 * October 31 – Marie Louise Andrews, American author and editor (d. 1891)
 * November 24 – Frances Hodgson Burnett, English-American playwright, author (d. 1924)
 * November 29 – Sir Ambrose Fleming, English electrical engineer, inventor (d. 1945)
 * December 5 – Eduard Seler, Prussian scholar, Mesoamericanist (d. 1922)
 * December 6 – August von Mackensen, German field marshal (d. 1945)
 * December 7 – Saionji Kinmochi, Japanese prince and prime minister (d. 1940)
 * December 12 – William Kissam Vanderbilt, American railway magnate (d. 1920)
 * December 18 – Laura M. Johns, American suffragist, journalist (d. 1935)
 * December 19 – Henry Clay Frick, American industrialist, art collector (d. 1919)
 * December 20
 * John W. Kern, American politician (d. 1917)
 * Raymond P. Rodgers, American admiral (d. 1925)
 * December 25 – Nogi Maresuke, Japanese general (d. 1912)

Date unknown

 * Muhammad Abduh, Islamic reformer (d. 1905)
 * Elisabeth Cavazza, American author, journalist, and music critic (d. 1926)
 * Harriet Abbott Lincoln Coolidge, American philanthropist, author and reformer (d. 1902)
 * Ellen Eglin, American inventor
 * Pavlos Karolidis, Greek historian (d. 1930)
 * Aleksandr Loran, Russian inventor (d. 1911)
 * Euphemia Wilson Pitblado, American activist, social reformer, and writer (d. 1928)

January–June

 * January 14 – Pierre Roch Jurien de La Gravière, French admiral (b. 1772)
 * January 18 – Panoutsos Notaras, Greek politician (b. 1752)
 * January 30 – Jonathan Alder, American settler (b. 1773)
 * February 8 – France Prešeren, Slovenian poet (b. 1800)
 * February 28 – Regina von Siebold, German physician, obstetrician (b. 1771)
 * March 14 – King Willem II of the Netherlands (b. 1792)
 * March 15 – Giuseppe Caspar Mezzofanti, Italian Catholic cardinal, linguist (b. 1774)
 * March 18 – Antonin Moine, French sculptor (b. 1796)
 * March 20 – James Justinian Morier, British diplomat, author (b. 1780)
 * March 24 – Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner, German chemist (b. 1780)
 * April 11 – Pedro Ignacio de Castro Barros, Argentine statesman, priest (b. 1777)
 * May 10 – Hokusai, Japanese Ukiyo-e Artist (b. 1760)
 * May 11
 * Juliette Récamier, French socialite (b. 1777)
 * Otto Nicolai, German composer, conductor (b. 1810)
 * May 22 – Maria Edgeworth, Irish novelist (b. 1767)
 * May 25 – Benjamin D'Urban, British general, colonial administrator (b. 1777)
 * May 28 – Anne Brontë, English author (b. 1820)
 * June 10 – Thomas Robert Bugeaud, Marshal of France, duke of Isly (b. 1784)
 * June 15 – James Knox Polk, 53, 11th president of the United States (b. 1795)

July–December

 * July 12 – Dolley Madison, 81, First Lady of the United States (b. 1768)
 * July 28 – King Charles Albert of Sardinia (b. 1798)
 * July 31 – Sándor Petőfi, Hungarian poet (b. 1823)
 * August 1 – José de Urrea, Mexican General (b. 1797)
 * August 2 – Muhammad Ali of Egypt (b. 1769)
 * August 23 – Edward Hicks American folk artist (b. 1780)
 * September 4 – Friedrich Laun, German novelist (b. 1770)
 * September 6 – Andreas Joseph Hofmann, German philosopher and revolutionary (b. 1752)
 * September 7 – Mariano Paredes, Mexican President and General
 * September 23 – Mary Elizabeth Lee, American writer (b. 1813)
 * September 25 – Johann Strauss, Senior, Austrian composer (b. 1804)
 * October 6 – Lajos Batthyány, Hungarian statesman (executed) (b. 1807)
 * October 7 – Edgar Allan Poe, American writer (b. 1809)
 * October 17 – Frédéric Chopin, Polish-French musician, composer (b. 1810)
 * October 22 – William Miller, American Baptist preacher, leader of the Second Advent Movement (b. 1782)
 * December 2 – Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, queen of William IV of the United Kingdom (b. 1792)

Date unknown

 * Cynthia Taggart, American poet (b. 1801)
 * Mupitsukupʉ (Old Owl), Comanche Civil Chief

title: 1849


text:
480

Year 480 (CDLXXX) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Basilius without colleague (or, less frequently, year 1233 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 480 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Byzantine Empire

 * Emperor Zeno officially dissolves the east/west co-emperorship, ruling as the first sole emperor of Rome in 85 years. The position of emperor is never again divided.

Balkans

 * Julius Nepos, former emperor of the Western Roman Empire, dies in exile in Dalmatia (he is murdered by his own soldiers, in his villa, near Salona).
 * December 9 – Odoacer occupies Dalmatia and prosecutes Nepos's killers. He later establishes his political power with the co-operation of the Roman Senate.

Europe

 * King Chilperic I dies and is succeeded by his nephew Gundobad, whose realm covers much of eastern Gaul and has two capitals, at Lyon and Geneva. He rules the Kingdom of Burgundy with his brothers Chilperic II, Gundomar and Godegisel.
 * Syagrius, ruler of Domain of Soissons, manages to maintain the Roman authority in northern Gaul. He defends his "kingdom" against the neighbouring Salian Franks.
 * The Visigoths under King Euric extend their rule from the Loire to Gibraltar (approximate date).
 * Ireland: The Diocese of Connor is erected.

Asia

 * Budhagupta, ruler of the Gupta Empire, establishes diplomatic relations with the Kannauj Kingdom and drives the Huns out of the fertile plains of northern India.
 * Prince Seinei succeeds his father Yūryaku and becomes the 22nd emperor of Japan.

Religion

 * Constantius of Lyon begins his research for his book Vita sancta Germani ("on the Life of Germanus"). He also writes a hagiography of Germanus of Auxerre (approximate date).

Births

 * Baderic, king of the Thuringii (approximate date)
 * Benedict of Nursia, monasticist (approximate date)
 * Boethius, Roman philosopher and writer (d. 524)
 * Dignāga, Buddhist founder of Indian logic (d. 540)
 * Eutharic, Visigothic prince (approximate date)
 * Gelimer, king of the Vandals and Alans (d. 553)
 * Scholastica, Christian nun (approximate date)
 * Xiao Zhaowen, emperor of Southern Qi (d. 494)
 * Zu Gengzhi, Chinese mathematician (d. 525)

Deaths

 * Chilperic I, king of Burgundy
 * Conall Cremthainne, king of Uisneach (Ireland)
 * Erbin of Dumnonia, Brythonic king (approximate date)
 * Julius Nepos, Western Roman Emperor
 * Nechtan I, king of the Picts
 * Tydfil, female saint (approximate date)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 480


text:
490s

The 490s decade ran from January 1, 490, to December 31, 499.

Significant people

 * Abba Afse, Abuna of Ethiopia
 * Anastasius II, Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, p. 496–498
 * Mar Aqaq-Acace, Patriarch of the Assyrian Church of the East, 484–496
 * Arthur, dux bellorum (leader of battles) and King of the Brythons of later legend
 * Mar Babai I, Patriarch of the Assyrian Church of the East, 497–503
 * Benedict of Nursia, founder of Western Christian monasticism
 * Cerdic of Wessex, Saxon invader and future king and founder of the Kingdom of Wessex
 * Cynric of Wessex, Saxon invader and future king of Wessex
 * Euphemius, Patriarch of Constantinople, 489–495
 * Felix II (excluding Antipope Felix II), Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, p. 483–492
 * Gelasius I, Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, p. 492–496
 * Macedonius II, Patriarch of Constantinople, 495–511
 * Symmachus, Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, p. 498–514

title: 490s


text:
480s

The 480s decade ran from January 1, 480, to December 31, 489.

Significant people

 * Dongseong, King of Baekje (479–501)
 * Gundobad, King of Burgundy (473–516)
 * Zeno, Emperor of the Byzantine Empire (476–491)
 * Acacius of Constantinople, Patriarch of Constantinople (471-488)
 * Fravitta of Constantinople, Patriarch of Constantinople (488-489)
 * Euphemius, Patriarch of Constantinople 489–495
 * Emperor Xiaowen, Emperor of Northern Wei (471–499)
 * Emperor Gao of Southern Qi, Emperor of Qi (479–482)
 * Emperor Wu, Emperor of Qi (482–493)
 * Loarn, King of Dál Riata (474–500)
 * Erbin of Dumnonia, King of Dumnonia (443-480)
 * Gerren Llyngesic ab Erbin, King of Dumnonia (c. 480–514)
 * Jangsu, King of Goguryeo (413–490)
 * Buddha Gupta, Gupta Emperor (477–496)
 * Einion Yrth ap Cunedda, King of Gwynedd (c. 470–500)
 * Khingila I, Tegin of Hephthalite Empire (AKA White Huns) (c. 440-490)
 * Ernakh, Ruler of the Huns (469–503)
 * Vakhtang I, King of Iberia (447–522)
 * Lughaid mac Loeguire, High King of Ireland (479–503)
 * Odoacer, King of Italy (476–493)
 * Pope Simplicius, Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, p. 468–483
 * Felix II (excluding Antipope Felix II), Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, p. 483–492
 * Emperor Seinei, Emperor of Japan (c. 480-c. 484)
 * Emperor Kenzō, Emperor of Japan (c. 485-c. 487)
 * Emperor Ninken, Emperor of Japan (c. 488-c. 498)
 * Hengist and Horsa, Co-Kings of Kent (455-488)
 * Oisc, King of Kent (488-512)
 * "Casper", Ajaw of Palenque (435–487)
 * B'utz Aj Sak Chiik, Ajaw of Palenque (487–501)
 * Skanda Varman IV, King of Pallava (460–480)
 * Nandi Varman I, King of Pallava (480–500)
 * Peroz I, Sassanid King (459–484)
 * Balash, Sassanid King (484–488)
 * Kavadh I, Sassanid dynasty King of Persia (488–496, 498–531)
 * Rhyddfedd Frych, King of Powys (c. 480–500)
 * Yujiulü Yucheng, Khan of the Rouran Khaganate (450-485)
 * Yujiulü Doulun, Khan of the Rouran Khaganate (485-492)
 * Childeric I, King of Salian Franks (457–481)
 * Clovis I, King of Salian Franks (481–509)
 * Soji, King of Silla (479–500)
 * Aelle, King of the South Saxons (c. 477–c. 514) and first Bretwalda of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy (488-514)
 * Huneric, King of the Vandals and Alans (477–484)
 * Gunthamund, King of the Vandals and Alans (484–496)
 * Euric, King of the Visigothic Kingdom (466–484)
 * Alaric II, King of the Visigothic Kingdom (484–507)

title: 480s


text:
1610s

The 1610s decade ran from January 1, 1610, to December 31, 1619.

title: 1610s


text:
2D computer graphics

2D computer graphics is the computer-based generation of digital images—mostly from two-dimensional models (such as 2D geometric models, text, and digital images) and by techniques specific to them. It may refer to the branch of computer science that comprises such techniques or to the models themselves.

2D computer graphics are mainly used in applications that were originally developed upon traditional printing and drawing technologies, such as typography, cartography, technical drawing, advertising, etc. In those applications, the two-dimensional image is not just a representation of a real-world object, but an independent artifact with added semantic value; two-dimensional models are therefore preferred, because they give more direct control of the image than 3D computer graphics (whose approach is more akin to photography than to typography).

In many domains, such as desktop publishing, engineering, and business, a description of a document based on 2D computer graphics techniques can be much smaller than the corresponding digital image—often by a factor of 1/1000 or more. This representation is also more flexible since it can be rendered at different resolutions to suit different output devices. For these reasons, documents and illustrations are often stored or transmitted as 2D graphic files.

2D computer graphics started in the 1950s, based on vector graphics devices. These were largely supplanted by raster-based devices in the following decades. The PostScript language and the X Window System protocol were landmark developments in the field.

2D graphics models may combine geometric models (also called vector graphics), digital images (also called raster graphics), text to be typeset (defined by content, font style and size, color, position, and orientation), mathematical functions and equations, and more. These components can be modified and manipulated by two-dimensional geometric transformations such as translation, rotation, and scaling. In object-oriented graphics, the image is described indirectly by an object endowed with a self-rendering method—a procedure that assigns colors to the image pixels by an arbitrary algorithm. Complex models can be built by combining simpler objects, in the paradigms of object-oriented programming.

Background (geometry)

In Euclidean geometry, a translation (geometry) moves every point a constant distance in a specified direction. A translation can be described as a rigid motion: other rigid motions include rotations and reflections. A translation can also be interpreted as the addition of a constant vector to every point, or as shifting the origin of the coordinate system. A translation operator is an operator $$T_\mathbf{\delta}$$ such that $$T_\mathbf{\delta} f(\mathbf{v}) = f(\mathbf{v}+\mathbf{\delta}).$$

If v is a fixed vector, then the translation Tv will work as Tv(p) = p + v.

If T is a translation, then the image of a subset A under the function T is the translation of A by T. The translation of A by Tv is often written A + v.

In a Euclidean space, any translation is an isometry. The set of all translations forms the translation group T, which is isomorphic to the space itself, and a normal subgroup of Euclidean group E(n ). The quotient group of E(n ) by T is isomorphic to the orthogonal group O(n ):
 * E(n ) / T ≅ O(n ).

Translation
Since a translation is an affine transformation but not a linear transformation, homogeneous coordinates are normally used to represent the translation operator by a matrix and thus to make it linear. Thus we write the 3-dimensional vector w = (wx, wy, wz) using 4 homogeneous coordinates as w = (wx, wy, wz, 1).

To translate an object by a vector v, each homogeneous vector p (written in homogeneous coordinates) would need to be multiplied by this translation matrix:

 * $$ T_{\mathbf{v}} =

\begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 & v_x \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & v_y \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & v_z \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix} $$ As shown below, the multiplication will give the expected result:
 * $$ T_{\mathbf{v}} \mathbf{p} =

\begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 & v_x \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & v_y\\ 0 & 0 & 1 & v_z\\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} p_x \\ p_y \\ p_z \\ 1 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} p_x + v_x \\ p_y + v_y \\ p_z + v_z \\ 1 \end{bmatrix} = \mathbf{p} + \mathbf{v} $$

The inverse of a translation matrix can be obtained by reversing the direction of the vector:
 * $$ T^{-1}_{\mathbf{v}} = T_{-\mathbf{v}} . \! $$

Similarly, the product of translation matrices is given by adding the vectors:
 * $$ T_{\mathbf{u}}T_{\mathbf{v}} = T_{\mathbf{u}+\mathbf{v}} . \! $$

Because addition of vectors is commutative, multiplication of translation matrices is therefore also commutative (unlike multiplication of arbitrary matrices).

Rotation
In linear algebra, a rotation matrix is a matrix that is used to perform a rotation in Euclidean space.

 * $$R =

\begin{bmatrix} \cos \theta & -\sin \theta \\ \sin \theta & \cos \theta \\ \end{bmatrix} $$

rotates points in the xy-Cartesian plane counterclockwise through an angle θ about the origin of the Cartesian coordinate system. To perform the rotation using a rotation matrix R, the position of each point must be represented by a column vector v, containing the coordinates of the point. A rotated vector is obtained by using the matrix multiplication Rv. Since matrix multiplication has no effect on the zero vector (i.e., on the coordinates of the origin), rotation matrices can only be used to describe rotations about the origin of the coordinate system.

Rotation matrices provide a simple algebraic description of such rotations, and are used extensively for computations in geometry, physics, and computer graphics. In 2-dimensional space, a rotation can be simply described by an angle θ of rotation, but it can be also represented by the 4 entries of a rotation matrix with 2 rows and 2 columns. In 3-dimensional space, every rotation can be interpreted as a rotation by a given angle about a single fixed axis of rotation (see Euler's rotation theorem), and hence it can be simply described by an angle and a vector with 3 entries. However, it can also be represented by the 9 entries of a rotation matrix with 3 rows and 3 columns. The notion of rotation is not commonly used in dimensions higher than 3; there is a notion of a rotational displacement, which can be represented by a matrix, but no associated single axis or angle.

Rotation matrices are square matrices, with real entries. More specifically they can be characterized as orthogonal matrices with determinant 1:

 * $$R^{T} = R^{-1}, \det R = 1\,$$.

The set of all such matrices of size n forms a group, known as the special orthogonal group $SO(n)$.

In two dimensions
In two dimensions every rotation matrix has the following form:

R(\theta) = \begin{bmatrix} \cos \theta & -\sin \theta \\ \sin \theta & \cos \theta \\ \end{bmatrix}$$.

This rotates column vectors by means of the following matrix multiplication:

\begin{bmatrix} x' \\ y' \\ \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} \cos \theta & -\sin \theta \\ \sin \theta & \cos \theta \\ \end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix} x \\ y \\ \end{bmatrix}$$.

So the coordinates (x',y') of the point (x,y) after rotation are:

 * $$x' = x \cos \theta - y \sin \theta\,$$,
 * $$y' = x \sin \theta + y \cos \theta\,$$.

The direction of vector rotation is counterclockwise if θ is positive (e.g. 90°), and clockwise if θ is negative (e.g. -90°).

R(-\theta) = \begin{bmatrix} \cos \theta & \sin \theta \\ -\sin \theta & \cos \theta \\ \end{bmatrix}\,$$.

Non-standard orientation of the coordinate system
If a standard right-handed Cartesian coordinate system is used, with the x axis to the right and the y axis up, the rotation R(θ) is counterclockwise. If a left-handed Cartesian coordinate system is used, with x directed to the right but y directed down, R(θ) is clockwise. Such non-standard orientations are rarely used in mathematics but are common in 2D computer graphics, which often have the origin in the top left corner and the y-axis down the screen or page.

See below for other alternative conventions which may change the sense of the rotation produced by a rotation matrix.

Common rotations
Particularly useful are the matrices for 90° and 180° rotations:

R(90^\circ) = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & -1 \\[3pt] 1 & 0 \\ \end{bmatrix}$$ (90° counterclockwise rotation)
 * $$R(180^\circ) = \begin{bmatrix}

-1 & 0 \\[3pt] 0 & -1 \\ \end{bmatrix}$$ (180° rotation in either direction – a half-turn)
 * $$R(270^\circ) = \begin{bmatrix}

0 & 1 \\[3pt] -1 & 0 \\ \end{bmatrix}$$ (270° counterclockwise rotation, the same as a 90° clockwise rotation)

Scaling
In Euclidean geometry, uniform scaling (isotropic scaling, homogeneous dilation, homothety) is a linear transformation that enlarges (increases) or shrinks (diminishes) objects by a scale factor that is the same in all directions. The result of uniform scaling is similar (in the geometric sense) to the original. A scale factor of 1 is normally allowed, so that congruent shapes are also classed as similar. (Some school text books specifically exclude this possibility, just as some exclude squares from being rectangles or circles from being ellipses.)

More general is scaling with a separate scale factor for each axis direction. Non-uniform scaling (anisotropic scaling, inhomogeneous dilation) is obtained when at least one of the scaling factors is different from the others; a special case is directional scaling or stretching (in one direction). Non-uniform scaling changes the shape of the object; e.g. a square may change into a rectangle, or into a parallelogram if the sides of the square are not parallel to the scaling axes (the angles between lines parallel to the axes are preserved, but not all angles).

A scaling can be represented by a scaling matrix. To scale an object by a vector v = (vx, vy, vz), each point p = (px, py, pz) would need to be multiplied with this scaling matrix:
 * $$ S_v =

\begin{bmatrix} v_x & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & v_y & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & v_z \\ \end{bmatrix}. $$

As shown below, the multiplication will give the expected result:

S_vp = \begin{bmatrix} v_x & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & v_y & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & v_z \\ \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} p_x \\ p_y \\ p_z \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} v_xp_x \\ v_yp_y \\ v_zp_z \end{bmatrix}. $$

Such a scaling changes the diameter of an object by a factor between the scale factors, the area by a factor between the smallest and the largest product of two scale factors, and the volume by the product of all three.

The scaling is uniform if and only if the scaling factors are equal (vx = vy = vz). If all except one of the scale factors are equal to 1, we have directional scaling.

In the case where vx = vy = vz = k, the scaling is also called an enlargement or dilation by a factor k, increasing the area by a factor of k2 and the volume by a factor of k3.

Scaling in the most general sense is any affine transformation with a diagonalizable matrix. It includes the case that the three directions of scaling are not perpendicular. It includes also the case that one or more scale factors are equal to zero (projection), and the case of one or more negative scale factors. The latter corresponds to a combination of scaling proper and a kind of reflection: along lines in a particular direction we take the reflection in the point of intersection with a plane that need not be perpendicular; therefore it is more general than ordinary reflection in the plane.

Using homogeneous coordinates
In projective geometry, often used in computer graphics, points are represented using homogeneous coordinates. To scale an object by a vector v = (vx, vy, vz), each homogeneous coordinate vector p = (px, py, pz, 1) would need to be multiplied with this projective transformation matrix:

 * $$ S_v =

\begin{bmatrix} v_x & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & v_y & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & v_z & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}. $$

As shown below, the multiplication will give the expected result:

S_vp = \begin{bmatrix} v_x & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & v_y & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & v_z & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} p_x \\ p_y \\ p_z \\ 1 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} v_xp_x \\ v_yp_y \\ v_zp_z \\ 1 \end{bmatrix}. $$

Since the last component of a homogeneous coordinate can be viewed as the denominator of the other three components, a uniform scaling by a common factor s (uniform scaling) can be accomplished by using this scaling matrix:
 * $$ S_v =

\begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & \frac{1}{s} \end{bmatrix}. $$

For each vector p = (px, py, pz, 1) we would have

S_vp = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & \frac{1}{s} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} p_x \\ p_y \\ p_z \\ 1 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} p_x \\ p_y \\ p_z \\ \frac{1}{s} \end{bmatrix} $$ which would be homogenized to

\begin{bmatrix} sp_x \\ sp_y \\ sp_z \\ 1 \end{bmatrix}. $$

Direct painting
A convenient way to create a complex image is to start with a blank "canvas" raster map (an array of pixels, also known as a bitmap) filled with some uniform background color and then "draw", "paint" or "paste" simple patches of color onto it, in an appropriate order. In particular the canvas may be the frame buffer for a computer display.

Some programs will set the pixel colors directly, but most will rely on some 2D graphics library or the machine's graphics card, which usually implement the following operations:

 * paste a given image at a specified offset onto the canvas;
 * write a string of characters with a specified font, at a given position and angle;
 * paint a simple geometric shape, such as a triangle defined by three corners, or a circle with given center and radius;
 * draw a line segment, arc, or simple curve with a virtual pen of given width.

Extended color models
Text, shapes and lines are rendered with a client-specified color. Many libraries and cards provide color gradients, which are handy for the generation of smoothly-varying backgrounds, shadow effects, etc. (See also Gouraud shading). The pixel colors can also be taken from a texture, e.g. a digital image (thus emulating rub-on screentones and the fabled checker paint which used to be available only in cartoons).

Painting a pixel with a given color usually replaces its previous color. However, many systems support painting with transparent and translucent colors, which only modify the previous pixel values.

The two colors may also be combined in more complex ways, e.g. by computing their bitwise exclusive or. This technique is known as inverting color or color inversion, and is often used in graphical user interfaces for highlighting, rubber-band drawing, and other volatile painting—since re-painting the same shapes with the same color will restore the original pixel values.

Layers

The models used in 2D computer graphics usually do not provide for three-dimensional shapes, or three-dimensional optical phenomena such as lighting, shadows, reflection, refraction, etc. However, they usually can model multiple layers (conceptually of ink, paper, or film; opaque, translucent, or transparent—stacked in a specific order. The ordering is usually defined by a single number (the layer's depth, or distance from the viewer).

Layered models are sometimes called "2$1/2$-D computer graphics". They make it possible to mimic traditional drafting and printing techniques based on film and paper, such as cutting and pasting; and allow the user to edit any layer without affecting the others. For these reasons, they are used in most graphics editors. Layered models also allow better spatial anti-aliasing of complex drawings and provide a sound model for certain techniques such as mitered joints and the even–odd rule.

Layered models are also used to allow the user to suppress unwanted information when viewing or printing a document, e.g. roads or railways from a map, certain process layers from an integrated circuit diagram, or hand annotations from a business letter.

In a layer-based model, the target image is produced by "painting" or "pasting" each layer, in order of decreasing depth, on the virtual canvas. Conceptually, each layer is first rendered on its own, yielding a digital image with the desired resolution which is then painted over the canvas, pixel by pixel. Fully transparent parts of a layer need not be rendered, of course. The rendering and painting may be done in parallel, i.e., each layer pixel may be painted on the canvas as soon as it is produced by the rendering procedure.

Layers that consist of complex geometric objects (such as text or polylines) may be broken down into simpler elements (characters or line segments, respectively), which are then painted as separate layers, in some order. However, this solution may create undesirable aliasing artifacts wherever two elements overlap the same pixel.

See also Portable Document Format.

Hardware
Modern computer graphics card displays almost overwhelmingly use raster techniques, dividing the screen into a rectangular grid of pixels, due to the relatively low cost of raster-based video hardware as compared with vector graphic hardware. Most graphic hardware has internal support for blitting operations or sprite drawing. A co-processor dedicated to blitting is known as a Blitter chip.

Classic 2D graphics chips and graphics processing units of the late 1970s to 1980s, used in 8-bit to early 16-bit, arcade games, video game consoles, and home computers, include:

 * Atari, Inc.'s TIA, ANTIC, CTIA and GTIA
 * Capcom's CPS-A and CPS-B
 * Commodore's OCS
 * MOS Technology's VIC and VIC-II
 * Hudson Soft's Cynthia and HuC6270
 * NEC's μPD7220 and μPD72120
 * Ricoh's PPU and S-PPU
 * Sega's VDP, Super Scaler, 315-5011/315-5012 and 315-5196/315-5197
 * Texas Instruments' TMS9918
 * Yamaha's V9938, V9958 and YM7101 VDP

Software
Many graphical user interfaces (GUIs), including macOS, Microsoft Windows, or the X Window System, are primarily based on 2D graphical concepts. Such software provides a visual environment for interacting with the computer, and commonly includes some form of window manager to aid the user in conceptually distinguishing between different applications. The user interface within individual software applications is typically 2D in nature as well, due in part to the fact that most common input devices, such as the mouse, are constrained to two dimensions of movement.

2D graphics are very important in the control peripherals such as printers, plotters, sheet cutting machines, etc. They were also used in most early video games; and are still used for card and board games such as solitaire, chess, mahjongg, etc.

2D graphics editors or drawing programs are application-level software for the creation of images, diagrams and illustrations by direct manipulation (through the mouse, graphics tablet, or similar device) of 2D computer graphics primitives. These editors generally provide geometric primitives as well as digital images; and some even support procedural models. The illustration is usually represented internally as a layered model, often with a hierarchical structure to make editing more convenient. These editors generally output graphics files where the layers and primitives are separately preserved in their original form. MacDraw, introduced in 1984 with the Macintosh line of computers, was an early example of this class; recent examples are the commercial products Adobe Illustrator and CorelDRAW, and the free editors such as xfig or Inkscape. There are also many 2D graphics editors specialized for certain types of drawings such as electrical, electronic and VLSI diagrams, topographic maps, computer fonts, etc.

Image editors are specialized for the manipulation of digital images, mainly by means of free-hand drawing/painting and signal processing operations. They typically use a direct-painting paradigm, where the user controls virtual pens, brushes, and other free-hand artistic instruments to apply paint to a virtual canvas. Some image editors support a multiple-layer model; however, in order to support signal-processing operations like blurring each layer is normally represented as a digital image. Therefore, any geometric primitives that are provided by the editor are immediately converted to pixels and painted onto the canvas. The name raster graphics editor is sometimes used to contrast this approach to that of general editors which also handle vector graphics. One of the first popular image editors was Apple's MacPaint, companion to MacDraw. Modern examples are the free GIMP editor, and the commercial products Photoshop and Paint Shop Pro. This class too includes many specialized editors—for medicine, remote sensing, digital photography, etc.

Developmental animation
With the resurgence of 2D animation, free and proprietary software packages have become widely available for amateurs and professional animators. With software like RETAS UbiArt Framework and Adobe After Effects, coloring and compositing can be done in less time. Various approaches have been developed to aid and speed up the process of digital 2D animation. For example, by generating vector artwork in a tool like Adobe Flash an artist may employ software-driven automatic coloring and in-betweening.

Programs like Blender or Adobe Substance allow the user to do either 3D animation, 2D animation or combine both in its software allowing experimentation with multiple forms of animation.

title: 2D computer graphics


text:
586 BC

The year 586 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as year 168 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 586 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Events

 * Some sources give 586 BC for the destruction of Jerusalem by King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon as an alternative to 587 BC.

Births

 * Duke Dao of Jin, ruler of the State of Jin (d. 558 BC)

Deaths

 * King Ding of Zhou, king of the Zhou Dynasty of China

title: 586 BC


text:
AD 32

AD 32 (XXXII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Ahenobarbus and Camillus (or, less frequently, year 785 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 32 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Events

 * Philo writes his symbolic interpretation of the Old Testament (Allegory).

Births

 * 28 April – Marcus Salvius Otho, Roman emperor (d. AD 69)
 * Ban Chao, Chinese general and diplomat (d. 102)
 * Ban Gu, Chinese historian and politician (d. AD 92)

Deaths

 * Cassius Severus, Roman rhetor and writer
 * Decimus Haterius Agrippa, Roman consul
 * Lucius Calpurnius Piso, Roman consul (b. 48 BC)
 * John the Baptist, religious figure in Christianity, Islam, and other Abrahamic religions (b. late 1st century BC)

title: AD 32


text:
AD 33

AD 33 (XXXIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known in the Roman world as the Year of the Consulship of Ocella and Sulla (or, less frequently, year 786 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 33 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in the world for naming years.

By date

 * April 3 – According to Colin Humphrey's account, Jesus of Nazareth's Last Supper takes place.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Tiberius founds a credit bank in Rome.
 * A financial crisis hits Rome, due to poorly chosen fiscal policies. Land values plummet, and credit is increased. These actions lead to a lack of money, a crisis of confidence, and much land speculation.  The primary victims are senators, knights and the wealthy.  Many aristocratic families are ruined.

China

 * Although the usurpation of Wang Mang and the Chimei Rebellion are behind him, Emperor Guangwu now faces a new threat to the Han Dynasty: the Rebellion of Gongsun Shu in the Sichuan province. Gongsun's naval forces are unsuccessful against Han General Cen Peng, so Gongsun decides to fortify his position by blockading the entire Yangtze River with a large floating pontoon bridge, complete with floating fortified posts. After Cen Peng is unable to break through, he constructs several "castle ships" with high ramparts and ramming vessels known as "colliding swoopers", which break through Gongsun's lines and allow Cen to quell his rebellion. Gongsun Shu is totally defeated three years later.

Births

 * Gaius Rubellius Plautus, son of Gaius Rubellius Blandus and Julia Livia (granddaughter of Tiberius) (d. AD 62)

Deaths

 * April 3 – Jesus of Nazareth, (possible date of the crucifixion)   The other possible dates supported by a number of scholars are April 7, AD 30 and April 6, AD 31.
 * Agrippina the Elder, daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, wife of Germanicus (suicide by starvation; b. c. 14 BC)
 * Drusus Caesar, son of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder, adoptive son of Tiberius (starvation; b. AD 8)
 * Gaius Asinius Gallus, widower of Vipsania Agrippina and alleged lover of Agrippina the elder (starvation)
 * Lucius Aelius Larnia, Roman consul, governor and praefectus urbi in Rome (natural causes; b. c. 45 BC)
 * Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Roman consul and father-in-law of Drusus Caesar (natural causes; b. c. 30 BC)
 * Marcus Cocceius Nerva, Roman jurist (suicide by starvation; b. c. 5 BC)
 * Munatia Plancina, wife of Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso (suicide)

title: AD 33


text:
AD 34

AD 34 (XXXIV) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Persicus and Vitellius (or, less frequently, year 787 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 34 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * The Roman aqueduct Pont du Gard is constructed, running for 50 km, ending at Nîmes (approximate date).
 * Naevius Sutorius Macro gains favour in the Roman Empire by prostituting his wife Ennia Thrasylla to Caligula.
 * Rome intervenes in Armenia (AD 34–37).

Europe

 * The original inhabitants of Dacia revolt against the Sarmatian tribe of Iazyges, who had enslaved them.

Religion

 * Stephen, one of the original seven deacons of the Christian Church, is martyred for his faith (possible date).
 * Saul of Tarsus, on the road to Damascus, is converted to Christianity, and becomes Paul the Apostle (possible date).
 * According to one dating scheme, Paul and Barnabas announce in Antioch that they will begin to evangelize the Gentiles.

Births

 * December 4 – Aulus Persius Flaccus, Roman poet (d. AD 62)
 * Mariamne, daughter of Herod Agrippa I (approximate date)
 * Zhang Daoling, Chinese Taoist master (d. 156)

Deaths

 * Artaxias III, Roman client king of Armenia (b. 13 BC)
 * Philip the Tetrarch, Jewish ruler of Batanaea
 * Stephen, Jewish martyr of Christianity (stoned to death)

title: AD 34


text:
AD 35

AD 35 (XXXV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Gallus and Nonianus (or, less frequently, year 788 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 35 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Tiberius names Caligula (aka Gaius) and Gamellus, a grandson, as co-heirs.
 * Pliny the Elder is brought to Rome before this year.

Persia

 * Tiridates III becomes king of Parthia (until AD 36).

Births

 * Decimus Valerius Asiaticus, Roman senator and governor
 * Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, Roman prefect (approximate date)
 * Marcus Fabius Quintilianus, Roman rhetorician (approximate date)
 * Quintus Junius Arulenus Rusticus, Roman senator (d. AD 93)
 * Statilia Messalina, Roman empress and wife of Nero (approximate date)

Deaths

 * Arsaces I (or Arshak I), Roman client king of Armenia
 * Epaticcus, British prince of the Catuvellauni (approximate date)
 * Gaius Poppaeus Sabinus, Roman statesman and consul
 * Lucius Fulcinius Trio, Roman senator and suffect consul
 * Phraates, Parthian prince and son of Phraates IV

title: AD 35


text:
AD 36

AD 36 (XXXVI) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Allenius and Plautius (or, less frequently, year 789 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 36 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

China

 * December 25 – Wu Han commands the forces of Emperor Guang Wu of the Eastern Han to conquer the separatist Chengjia Empire, reuniting China.

Roman Empire

 * Pontius Pilate is recalled to Rome, after putting down a Samaritan uprising.
 * Lucius Vitellius defeats Artabanus III of Parthia in support of another claimant to the throne, Tiridates III.
 * Herod Antipas suffers major losses in a war with Aretas IV of Nabatea, provoked partly by Antipas' divorce of Aretas' daughter. According to Josephus, Herod's defeat was popularly believed to be divine punishment for his execution of John the Baptist. Emperor Tiberius orders his governor of Syria, Vitellius, to capture or kill Aretas, but he is reluctant to support Herod and abandons his campaign upon Tiberius' death in AD 37.
 * Marcellus becomes governor of Judaea and Samaria.

Births

 * Lucius Annius Vinicianus, Roman senator and legatus in the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63.

Deaths

 * December 24 – Gongsun Shu, Chinese emperor of Chengjia
 * Gaius Sulpicius Galba, Roman senator and consul
 * Thrasyllus of Mendes, Greek grammarian and astronomer
 * Vibulenus Agrippa, Roman nobleman and knight (eques)

title: AD 36


text:
AD 38

AD 38 (XXXVIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Iulianus and Asprenas (or, less frequently, year 791 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 38 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Claudius and Messalina are most likely married at this point in time.
 * Apion heads a deputation to Emperor Caligula, to complain about the Jews in Alexandria.
 * An anti-Jewish riot breaks out in Alexandria, during a visit by King Herod Agrippa I; the mob wants to place statues of Caligula in every synagogue.

China

 * An epidemic breaks out in K'aui-chi, causing many deaths. Imperial official Ch'ung-li I provides medicines that save many lives.

Arts and sciences

 * Phaedrus writes his popular collection of fables.

Religion

 * Paul meets Peter and James in Jerusalem (approximate date) (After 3 years "from his vision on the road to Damascus " went to Jerusalem to meet Peter and stayed 15 days with him.(Epistle to Galatians chapter a 18)
 * Andrew the Apostle becomes the first patriarch of Constantinople, and resigns that position shortly thereafter.
 * Stachys the Apostle becomes the second patriarch of Constantinople.

Births

 * Drusilla, Jewish princess and daughter of Herod Agrippa I (d. AD 79)
 * Drusilla, princess of Mauretania
 * Julius Archelaus Antiochus, prince of Commagene (d. AD 92)
 * Lucius Calpurnius Piso Licinianus, Roman co-emperor (d. AD 69)
 * Marcus Valerius Martialis, Roman Latin poet (approximate date)

Deaths

 * June 10 – Julia Drusilla, sister of Caligula (b. AD 16)
 * Archelaus of Cilicia, Roman client king
 * Du Shi, Chinese inventor and politician
 * Ennia Thrasylla, Roman noblewoman
 * Naevius Sutorius Macro, Roman prefect (b. 21 BC)
 * Rhoemetalces II, Roman client king
 * Tiberius Gemellus, grandson of Tiberius (b. AD 19)
 * Tiberius Julius Aspurgus, Roman client king

title: AD 38


text:
AD 39

AD 39 (XXXIX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Augustus and Caesianus (or, less frequently, year 792 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 39 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Tigellinus, minister and favorite of the later Roman emperor Nero, is banished for adultery with Caligula's sisters.
 * Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (Caligula) and Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo become Roman consuls.
 * Caligula orders a floating bridge to be built using ships as pontoons, stretching for two miles from Baiae to the neighboring port of Puteoli.
 * Agrippa I, king of Judaea, successfully accuses Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, of conspiracy against Caligula. Antipas is exiled and Agrippa receives his territory.
 * Legio XV Primigenia and XXII Primigenia are levied by Caligula for the German frontier.
 * Caligula's campaign into Germany is stopped by a conspiracy led by Cassius Chaerea. Even though he never even reaches Germany, Caligula proclaims himself victorious and orders a triumph.
 * Caligula orders that a statue of himself be placed in the Temple in Jerusalem. The governor of Syria, Publius Petronius, who is responsible for having an erecting  the statue, faces mass demonstrations by Jews of the region and manages to delay construction of the statue until the death of Caligula in AD 41.
 * Philo leads a Jewish delegation to Rome to protest the anti-Jewish conditions in Alexandria.

Vietnam

 * The Trung Sisters resist the Chinese influences in Vietnam.

Births

 * November 3 – Marcus Annaeus Lucanus, Roman poet (d. AD 65)
 * December 30 – Titus Flavius, Roman emperor (d. AD 81)
 * Julia Drusilla, daughter of Caligula (d. AD 41)

Deaths

 * Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus, Roman consul
 * Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Roman politician (b. AD 6)
 * Seneca the Elder, Roman rhetorician (approximate date)

title: AD 39


text:
AD 40

AD 40 (XL) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Augustus without colleague (or, less frequently, year 793 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 40 for this year has been used since the Early Middle Ages, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Caligula is consul without colleague.
 * Caligula starts on a campaign to conquer Britain, which fails miserably. He declares himself victorious regardless.
 * Noricum and Mauretania are incorporated into the Roman Empire.
 * Caligula reforms the principatus into a Hellenistic Autocracy. He distributes honors carelessly, declares himself a god and orders that all the heads of the Greek deity statues be replaced by his. He also appoints his horse, Incitatus, a senator.
 * Construction begins on the Pont du Gard aqueduct in Gallia Narbonensis (approximate date).

Europe

 * The Germanic Quadi tribe begin settling in present-day Moravia and Slovakia.

Parthia

 * Vardanes I becomes king of Parthia, opposed by his brother Gotarzes II.

Vietnam

 * The Vietnamese Trưng Sisters rebel against the rule of the Chinese Emperor Guang Wu of Han.

Arts and sciences

 * Philo teaches that all men are born free.

Religion

 * Christianity comes to Egypt as a church is founded in Alexandria. Mark the Evangelist founds the Church of Alexandria as the first Patriarch (traditional date).
 * An early Christian church is erected at Corinth (most probable date).
 * The traditional date of Saint James the Great meeting Our Lady of the Pillar in Spain

Births

 * June 13 – Gnaeus Julius Agricola, Roman governor (d. AD 93)
 * Claudia Octavia, daughter of Claudius and Messalina (d. AD 62)
 * Dio Chrysostom, Greek philosopher and historian (d. c. 115)
 * Ma, Chinese empress of the Han dynasty (d. AD 79)
 * Pedanius Dioscorides, Greek physician and pharmacologist (d. AD 90)
 * Sextus Julius Frontinus, Roman general and military author (d. 103)
 * Titus Petronius Secundus, Roman prefect (d. AD 97)

Deaths

 * Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, husband of Agrippina the Younger (b. 17 BC)
 * Faustus Cornelius Sulla, Roman politician and suffect consul
 * Ptolemy of Mauretania, Roman client king (executed by Caligula)
 * Tiberius Julius Abdes Pantera, Roman soldier (hypothesized by numerous scholars to have been the father of Jesus)

title: AD 40


text:
AD 42

AD 42 (XLII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Caesar and Largus (or, less frequently, year 795 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 42 for this year has been used since the Early Middle Ages, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Romans take control of Ceuta, a port city on the North African side of the Strait of Gibraltar.
 * The territories of the current Algeria and Morocco become a Roman province.
 * Dalmatian legate Lucius Arruntius Camillus Scribonianus revolts, but his troops defect, and his rebellion quickly withers.
 * Claudius begins construction of Portus, a harbour bearing a lighthouse on the right bank of the Tiber.

Korea

 * Suro becomes the first king of Geumgwan Gaya, on the Korean Peninsula.

China

 * The Chinese General Ma Yuan represses the rebellions of the Trưng Sisters in Tonkin.

Religion

 * 25 January – The Apostle Paul is converted to Christianity (the exact date is not provided in texts, but the Roman Catholic Church chooses to commemorate this date).
 * Traditional date of foundation of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria by the apostle Mark the Evangelist.

Births

 * Herennius Philo, Greek grammarian and writer (d. 141)
 * Sixtus I, pope of the Catholic Church (d. 124)

Deaths

 * Arria, Roman noblewoman (committed suicide)
 * Aulus Caecina Paetus, Roman politician (committed suicide)
 * Gaius Appius Junius Silanus, Roman consul (executed)
 * Lucius Annius Vinicianus, Roman politician (committed suicide)
 * Lucius Arruntius Camillus Scribonianus, Roman politician (committed suicide)

title: AD 42


text:
AD 44

AD 44 (XLIV) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Crispus and Taurus (or, less frequently, year 797 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 44 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Claudius returns from his British campaign in triumph, the southeast part of Britannia now held by the Roman Empire, but the war will rage for another decade and a half.
 * Boudicca marries Prasutagus, king of the British Celtic tribe the Iceni (doubtful).
 * Mauretania becomes a Roman province.
 * The Isle of Rhodes returns to the Roman Empire.
 * Judaea is controlled by Roman governors.
 * (Approximate date, may be as late as 48) A famine takes place in Judea.
 * Cuspius Fadus (Roman governor of Judea) suppresses the revolt of Theudas, who is decapitated.

Korea

 * Minjung becomes ruler of the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo.

Arts and Science

 * Pomponius Mela writes De situ orbis, a geography of the Earth.

Deaths

 * Daemusin, Korean ruler of Goguryeo
 * Herod Agrippa I, king of Judea (b. 11 BC)
 * James the Great, apostle of Jesus (executed by the order of King Agrippa I)
 * Wu Han, general of the Han Dynasty

title: AD 44


text:
AD 45

AD 45 (XLV) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Vinicius and Corvinus (or, less frequently, year 798 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 45 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Juvavum (modern Salzburg) is awarded the status of a Roman municipium.
 * Emperor Claudius expels the Jews from Rome.
 * Claudius founds Savaria, today the Hungarian city of Szombathely.
 * The Senate holds consultations regarding real estate speculation in Rome.

China

 * Chinese general Ma Yuan conducts an expedition against the Xiongnu and the Xianbei (in Manchuria).

Religion

 * Paul of Tarsus begins his missionary travels, according to one traditional dating scheme.

Births

 * Ban Zhao, first female Chinese historian (d. 116)
 * Domitilla the Younger, Roman noblewoman (d. AD 66)
 * Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus, Roman politician (d. 136)
 * Lucius Vipstanus Messalla, Roman orator (approximate date)
 * Plutarch, Greek historian and biographer (approximate date)
 * Publius Papinius Statius, Roman poet (approximate date)
 * Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus, Roman politician

Deaths

 * Pomponius Mela, Roman geographer (approximate date)
 * Vardanes I, king of the Parthian Empire (approximate date)

title: AD 45


text:
AD 46

AD 46 (XLVI) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Asiaticus and Silanus (or, less frequently, year 799 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 46 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * The settlement at Celje gets municipal rights, and is named municipium Claudia Celeia.
 * Dobruja is annexed into Roman Moesia.
 * A census shows that there are more than 6,000,000 Roman citizens.
 * After the death of its king, Thracia becomes a Roman province.
 * Rome and its northeast border are reunited by the Danube Road.

Central Asia

 * A drought and an invasion of locusts hit the Mongolian steppes, causing a famine and a revolt at Xiongnu.

Births

 * Plutarch, Greek historian and biographer (approximate date)

Deaths

 * Marcus Vinicius, Roman consul and governor (b. c. 5 BC)
 * Rhoemetalces III, Roman client king of Thrace (murdered)
 * Servius Asinius Celer, Roman politician (executed)

title: AD 46


text:
AD 47

AD 47 (XLVII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Claudius and Vitellius (or, less frequently, year 800 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 47 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Claudius revives the censorship and ludi saeculares, and organises the order of the Haruspices, with 60 members.
 * Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo is made commander of the Roman army in Germania Inferior. He conquers the Chauci and fights against the Cherusci and Frisians.
 * Cauci pirates led by the Roman deserter Gannascus ravage the Gallic coast; Corbulo uses the Rhine fleet against them. The Frisian revolt is suppressed.
 * Publius Ostorius Scapula replaces Aulus Plautius as governor of Britain. The south-east of the island is now a Roman province, while certain states on the south coast are ruled as a nominally independent client kingdom by Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus, whose seat is probably at Fishbourne near Chichester. Ostorius immediately faces incursions from unconquered areas, which he puts down.
 * Corbulo orders the construction of the canal Fossa Corbulonis, between the Rhine and Meuse in the Netherlands, which connects the city Forum Hadriani (Voorburg).
 * Romans build the Traiectum fortification near the mouth of the Rhine, which will later grow to be the city of Utrecht.
 * Claudius founds the city Forum Claudii Vallensium (modern Martigny) in the Alpes Poeninae (Switzerland).

Religion

 * Ananias becomes high priest in Judaea.
 * Paul starts his evangelistic work (first missionary journey), accompanied by Barnabas and Mark (possible date).

Births

 * Taejodae, Korean ruler of Goguryeo (d. 165)

Deaths

 * Decimus Valerius Asiaticus, Roman politician and consul
 * Gaius Sallustius Crispus Passienus, Roman consul
 * Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, Roman nobleman
 * Quintus Sanquinius Maximus, Roman politician
 * Vardanes I, king of the Parthian Empire

title: AD 47


text:
AD 48

AD 48 (XLVIII) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Vitellius and Poplicola (or, less frequently, year 801 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 48 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Claudius invests Agrippa II with the office of superintendent of the Temple in Jerusalem.
 * After the execution of his wife Messalina, Claudius gets senatorial approval to marry his niece, Agrippina the Younger.
 * Publius Ostorius Scapula, governor of Britain, announces his intention to disarm all Britons south and east of the Trent and Severn. The Iceni, an independent, allied kingdom within that area, revolt but are defeated. Ostorius then moves against the Deceangli in north Wales, but is forced to abandon the campaign to deal with a revolt among the allied Brigantes.
 * Gallic nobles are admitted to the Roman Senate. Claudius grants the rights of citizenship to the Aedui.

China

 * Emperor Guang Wu of Han, restores Chinese domination of Inner Mongolia. The Xiongnu are made confederates and guard the Northern border of the empire.
 * The Xiangnu empire dissolves.

Korea

 * Mobon becomes ruler of the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo.

Religion

 * Paul of Tarsus through his first mission goes to Cyprus and Asia Minor.
 * According to Christian tradition, Martha travels to Avignon.

Births

 * Cai Lun, Chinese inventor and politician (d. 121)
 * Ulpia Marciana, sister of Trajan (d. 112)

Deaths

 * Gaius Silius, Roman politician (b. AD 13)
 * Minjung, Korean ruler of Goguryeo
 * Mnester, Roman pantomime actor
 * Valeria Messalina, wife of Claudius

title: AD 48


text:
AD 49

AD 49 (XLIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Longus and Veranius (or, less frequently, year 802 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 49 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Claudius marries his niece Agrippina the Younger (approximate date), and most of the real power falls to Agrippina.
 * Seneca the Younger becomes Nero's tutor.
 * Melankomas is the boxing champion, at the 207th Olympic Games.
 * Likely date for the expulsion of the Jews from Rome.
 * Nero becomes engaged to Claudia Octavia, daughter of Claudius.
 * Agrippina the Younger charges Octavia's first fiancé Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus with incest. He is brought before the Senate, and sentenced to death.
 * In Britain, governor Publius Ostorius Scapula founds a colonia for Roman veterans at Camulodunum (Colchester). Verulamium (St Albans) is probably established as a municipium the same year. A legion is stationed on the borders of the Silures of South Wales in preparation for invasion.

Religion

 * First apostolic council in Jerusalem (approximate date)
 * The Apostle Paul begins his second missionary journey with Silas while Barnabas goes to Cyprus with Mark.
 * The New Testament book Paul's Epistle to the Galatians is probably written.
 * Christianity spreads into Europe, especially at Rome and at Philippi (probable date according to chronology derived from the Acts of the Apostles).

Deaths

 * Lollia Paulina, Roman noblewoman and empress (b. AD 15)
 * Ma Yuan, Chinese general of the Han Dynasty(b. 14 BC)

title: AD 49


text:
AD 50

AD 50 (L) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time it was known in Europe as the Year of the Consulship of Vetus and Nerullinus (or, less frequently, year 803 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 50 for this year has been used since the Early Middle Ages, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Cologne is raised to the status of a city.
 * Utrecht is founded, and a Roman fortification (castellum) is constructed at the Rhine border in the present-day Netherlands.
 * Claudius adopts Nero.
 * In Judea a Roman soldier seizes and burns a Torah-scroll. Procurator Cumanus has the culprit beheaded, calming down the Jews and delaying for two decades the outbreak of their revolt.
 * In Britain, governor Publius Ostorius Scapula begins his campaign against the recalcitrant Silures of south Wales, who are led by the former Catuvellaunian prince Caratacus. London (Londinium), Exeter (Isca Dumnoniorum), Tripontium (near modern Rugby) and the fort of Manduessedum (near modern Atherstone) are founded (approximate date).
 * Roman emperor Claudius appoints Agrippa II governor of Chalcis.
 * Romans build a wooden bridge across the Thames in the London area.

South Asia

 * The Yuezhi tribes are united under the Kushan leader Kujula Kadphises, thus creating the Kushan Empire in Afghanistan and northern India. (approximate date

Americas

 * The San Bartolo pyramid is completed around this time.

Religion

 * Paul travels to Philippi, Thessaloniki, Veroia, and Athens (second missionary journey).
 * Christianity is introduced throughout Nubia by a high official of Queen Judith.
 * The Epistle to the Romans is written (approximate date).
 * The Apostles hold the Council of Jerusalem (approximate date).
 * The Hsien Taoism form of Taoism spread through China more often than before and popularized (approximate date)

Arts and sciences

 * Hero of Alexandria invents a steam turbine (possible date).
 * Pamphilus of Alexandria writes a poetic lexicon.
 * Pedanius Dioscorides describes the medical applications of plants in De Materia Medica.
 * Diogenes, the Greek explorer, discovers the African Great Lakes.
 * The distinction between chronic maladies and acute illnesses is made by Thessalos.

Births

 * Cai Lun, Chinese inventor of paper and the papermaking process (d. 121)

Deaths

 * Abgar V, Roman client king of Osroene (approximate date)
 * Aulus Cornelius Celsus, Roman author of De Medicina (b. c. 25 BC)
 * Gamaliel the Elder, Jewish ruler (Nasi) in Babylonia (approximate date)
 * Gaius Julius Phaedrus, Roman fabulist (b. c. 15 BC)
 * Philo of Alexandria, Jewish philosopher (b. c. 20 BC)
 * Scribonius Largus, Roman court physician (b. c. AD 1)

title: AD 50


text:
0s BC

The 0s BC were the period between 9 BC and 1 BC, the last nine years of the before Christ era. It is one of two "0-to-9" decade-like timespans that contain nine years, along with the 0s.

This is a list of events occurring in the 0s BC ordered by year.

Significant people

 * Tigranes IV, King of Armenia, r. 12–1 BC
 * Erato, Queen of Armenia, 8–5 BC, 2 BC – AD 2, AD 6–11
 * Artavasdes III, King of Armenia, r. 5–2 BC
 * Jesus Christ, Jewish preacher and central figure of Christianity, (ca. 4 BC–ca. AD 33)
 * Ariobarzan of Atropatene, Client King of Armenia, r. 1 BC – AD 2
 * Chend Di, Emperor of Han dynasty China, r. 32–7 BC
 * Ai Di, Emperor of Han dynasty China, r. 7–1 BC
 * Ping Di, Emperor of Han dynasty China, r. 1 BC – AD 5
 * Wang Mang, Chinese statesman and future emperor of China
 * Dong Xian, Han dynasty Chinese official under Emperor Ai of Han
 * Antiochus III, King of Commagene, r. 12 BC – AD 17
 * Arminius, Germanic war chief (18/17 BC – AD 21)
 * Arshak II, King of Caucasian Iberia, r. 20 BC – AD 1
 * Strato II and Strato III, co-kings of the Indo-Greek Kingdom, r. 25 BC – AD 10
 * Lugaid Riab nDerg, legendary High King of Ireland, r. 33–9 BC
 * Conchobar Abradruad, legendary High King of Ireland, r. 9–8 BC
 * Crimthann Nia Náir, legendary High King of Ireland, r. (8 BC – AD 9)
 * Suinin, legendary Emperor of Japan, r. 29 BC – AD 70
 * Amanishakheto, King of Kush, r. 10–1 BC
 * Natakamani, King of Kush, r. 1 BC – AD 20
 * Ma'nu III, King of Osroene, r. 23–4 BC
 * Abgar V, King of Osroene, r. 4 BC-AD 7, AD 13–50
 * Phraates IV, king of the Parthian Empire, r. 38–2 BC
 * Phraates V, king of the Parthian Empire, r. 2 BC – AD 4
 * Musa of Parthia, mother and co-ruler with Phraates V, r. 2 BC – AD 4
 * Caesar Augustus, Roman Emperor (27 BC – AD 14)
 * Nero Claudius Drusus, Roman Consul, in office 9 BC
 * Gaius Caesar, Roman general
 * Livy, Roman historian
 * Ovid, Roman poet
 * Quirinius, Roman nobleman and politician
 * Tiberius, Roman general, statesman, and future emperor.
 * Herod the Great, client king of Judea
 * Hillel the Elder, Jewish scholar and Nasi of the Sanhedrin, in office c. 31 BC – AD 9
 * Shammai, Jewish scholar and Av Beit Din of the Sanhedrin, in office 20 BC – AD 20
 * Hyeokgeose, King of Silla, r. 57 BC – AD 4

title: 0s BC


text:
AD 51

AD 51 (LI) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Caesar and Scipio (or, less frequently, year 804 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 51 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Claudius and future emperor Titus Flavius Vespasianus are Roman Consuls.
 * Burrus, praetorian prefect (51–62 AD), charges Seneca with the education of Nero.
 * In Britain, governor Publius Ostorius Scapula defeats Caratacus and the Silures in the territory of the Ordovices in central Wales. Caratacus seeks sanctuary with Cartimandua, queen of the Brigantes in northern England, but she is a Roman ally and hands him over to Ostorius. Despite the defeat, the Silures continue to fight.
 * The captured Caratacus is exhibited in chains in Claudius' triumph in Rome, but his dignified demeanour persuades the emperor to spare his life and allow his family to live free in the capital for a short period of time.

Parthia

 * Vonones II dies a few months after he had ascended to the throne. His son Vologases I becomes king of the Parthian Empire.

Religion

 * Paul travels to Corinth; he remains for 18 months, and writes the epistles I and II to the Thessalonians.
 * Paul of Tarsus begins his second mission (approximate date).
 * The New Testament book 1 Thessalonians is written (possible date).
 * In the Epistle to the Galatians, Paul supports the separation of Christianity and Judaism.

Births

 * October 24 – Titus Flavius Domitianus, Roman emperor (d. AD 96)

Deaths

 * Gotarzes II, king of the Parthian Empire
 * Lucius Vitellius the Elder, Roman consul (b. 5 BC)
 * Mithridates of Armenia, Roman client king
 * Vonones II, king of the Parthian Empire

title: AD 51


text:
AD 52

AD 52 (LII) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Sulla and Otho (or, less frequently, year 805 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 52 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Claudius attempts to control the Fucine Lake by digging a 5.6 km tunnel through Monte Salviano, requiring 30,000 workers and eleven years.
 * Claudius completes the Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus, two aqueduct projects started by Caligula
 * In Rome a law prohibits the execution of old and crippled slaves.
 * Ananias, a high priest in Jerusalem, is sent to Rome after being accused of violence.
 * Barea Soranus is consul suffectus in Rome.
 * Pliny the Elder writes his account of the German wars.
 * Tiridates I, brother of Vologases I, comes to power in Armenia as an adversary of the Romans.
 * In Britain, governor Publius Ostorius Scapula dies while campaigning against the Silures of south Wales. Following his death, the Roman Second Legion are heavily defeated by the Silures. His replacement is Aulus Didius Gallus, who quells the rebellion and consolidates the gains the Romans have so far made, but does not seek new ones.

China

 * The Yuejue Shu, the first known gazetteer of China, is written during the Han Dynasty.

Religion

 * Saint Thomas, one of the twelve disciples of Jesus, is believed to have landed in Kodungallur, India to preach the Gospel; the Marthoma Church, the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, the Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church, the Indian Orthodox Church, and the Assyrian Church of the East claim descent from him.

Deaths

 * Gamaliel, Jewish leader (nasi) (approximate date)
 * Guo Shengtong, Chinese empress of the Han Dynasty
 * Julia Iotapa, queen of Commagene (approximate date)
 * Publius Ostorius Scapula, Roman statesman and general

title: AD 52


text:
AD 53

AD 53 (LIII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Silanus and Antonius (or, less frequently, year 806 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 53 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Claudius removes Herod Agrippa II from the tetrarchy of Chalcis in Greece.
 * Decimus Junius Silanus Torquatus and Quintus Haterius Antoninus become Roman consuls.
 * Claudius secures a senatorial decree that gives jurisdiction in financial cases to imperial procurators. This marks a significant strengthening of imperial powers at the expense of the Senate.
 * June 9 – Nero is adopted by Claudius as his son and marries his 14-year-old daughter Claudia Octavia.
 * Claudius accepts Nero as his successor, to the detriment of Britannicus, his son by his first wife, Valeria Messalina.
 * Distinct fellowships within the reign of Centricles fall to the dominion of Gaulic barbarians, which provoke an enclave uprising in the foothills of what are now the Alps.
 * Cardiff is founded by Aulus Didius Gallus.

Korea

 * Taejodae becomes ruler of the kingdom of Goguryeo.

Religion

 * Evodius succeeds Saint Peter as Patriarch of Antioch.
 * Paul the Apostle writes his epistle to the Galatians from Ephesus (approximately date)

Arts and sciences

 * Seneca writes the tragedy Agamemnon, which he intends to be read as the last chapter of a trilogy including two of his other tragedies, Medea and Edipus.

Births

 * (approximate year) Marcus Ulpius Traianus, Roman emperor (d. 117)
 * Domitia Longina, Roman empress (approximate date)
 * Kanishka I, Indian ruler of the Kushan Empire (d. 150)

Deaths

 * Mobon, Korean ruler of Goguryeo

title: AD 53


text:
AD 55

AD 55 (LV) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Caesar and Vetus (or, less frequently, year 808 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 55 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Nero becomes a Roman Consul.
 * The Roman jurist Sabinus writes three books on the rights of citizens.

Religion

 * The apostle Paul writes his First Epistle to the Corinthians.

Births

 * Epictetus, Greek-Roman philosopher (d. 135)

Deaths

 * February 11 – Britannicus, son of Claudius (b. AD 41)
 * Antonia Tryphaena, Roman client queen (b. 10 BC)
 * Izates bar Monobaz, Parthian client king (b. c. AD 1)

title: AD 55


text:
AD 56

AD 56 (LVI) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known in the Roman Empire as the Year of the Consulship of Saturninus and Scipio (or, less frequently, year 809 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 56 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * War between Rome and Parthia breaks out due to the invasion of Armenia by King Vologases I, who has replaced the Roman-supported ruler with his brother Tiridates I of Armenia. (approximate date)
 * Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus becomes a consul in Rome.

Asian Calendar

 * The Jianwu era of the Eastern Han dynasty changes to the Jianwuzhongyuan era.

Religion

 * The apostle Paul writes his second Epistle to the Corinthians, probably from Philippi.
 * The apostle Paul writes his Epistle to the Romans, from Corinth.

Births

 * Gaius Cornelius Tacitus, Roman historian.

Deaths

 * Lucius Volusius Saturninus, Roman politician and governor

title: AD 56


text:
AD 57

AD 57 (LVII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Caesar and Piso (or, less frequently, year 810 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 57 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Envoys from Cilicia come to Rome to accuse their late governor, Cossutianus Capito, of extortion; the Roman Senate is supported in the case by Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus.
 * Emperor Nero becomes a Roman consul again.
 * In Britain, Quintus Veranius Nepos becomes governor in place of Aulus Didius Gallus. He begins a campaign against the Silures of south Wales.
 * Also in Britain Venutius begins his rebellion against his wife Cartimandua.

Asia

 * Emperor Guang Wu grants Nakoku (located around modern-day Fukuoka City) a golden seal, being the oldest evidence of writing in Japan. In return King Na sends an envoy to China.
 * March 29 – Guang Wu dies after a 32-year reign and is succeeded by his son Han Mingdi.
 * Accession of King Talhae as Korean ruler of Silla.

Religion

 * Paul of Tarsus writes his Second Epistle to the Corinthians and his Epistle to the Romans (probable date).

Births

 * Han Zhang Di, Chinese emperor (d. AD 88)

Deaths

 * March 29 – Guang Wu, Chinese emperor (b. 5 BC)
 * Quintus Veranius, Roman consul and general
 * Yuri, Korean ruler of Silla

title: AD 57


text:
AD 58

AD 58 (LVIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Caesar and Messalla (or, less frequently, year 811 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 58 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Nero and Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus become Roman consuls.
 * The friendship between Nero and Marcus Salvius Otho ends when they both fall in love with Poppea Sabina, and Otho is sent to Lusitania as governor.
 * Agrippina the Younger is expelled from the imperial palace by her son Nero, who installs her in Villa Antonia in Misenum, and leaving more of the effective and real power of Empire in the hands of Nero.
 * Roman-Parthian War: Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, commander in the East, launches his Armenian offensive against Parthia. He leads a Roman army (four legions) through the mountainous country of Armenia, against the fortress at Volandum, to the southwest of Artaxata. After a siege of eight hours Corbulo takes the city; the legionnaires massacre the defenders and plunder Volandum to their hearts' content.
 * Corbulo marches to Artaxata crossing the Aras River; along the valley he is shadowed by tens of thousands of mounted Parthian archers led by king Tiridates I. The city opens its gates to Corbulo, just as it had to Germanicus four decades before. When he takes the 250-year-old Armenian capital, Corbulo gives the residents a few hours to collect their valuables and burns the city to the ground.
 * The Ficus Ruminalis begins to die (see Rumina).
 * Agrippina the Younger, conspired with the senators in late 58 to overthrow Nero.
 * Gnaeus Julius Agricola, 18 years old, is serving as a military tribune in Britain under Gaius Suetonius Paulinus and is attached to Legio II Augusta.

Europe

 * In Thuringia conflict between two Germanic tribes erupts over access to water.
 * Romans learn the use of soap from the Gauls (approximate date).

Asia

 * Emperor Ming of Han introduces Buddhism to China inviting monks from the western Indus Valley.
 * In China, sacrifices to Confucius are ordered in all government schools.
 * Start of Yongping era of the Chinese Han dynasty.

Religion

 * The apostle Paul returns to Jerusalem with the money he has collected to give the Christian community there. However, he is accused of defiling the temple, and is arrested and imprisoned in Caesarea. He then invokes his Roman citizenship and is sent to Rome to be judged.
 * Paul writes his Epistle to the Romans (approximate date).

Births

 * Juvenal, Roman poet and writer (approximate date)
 * Xu Shen, Chinese politician and writer (approximate date)

Deaths

 * Deng Yu, Chinese general of the Han dynasty (b. AD 2)
 * Geng Yan, Chinese general of the Han dynasty (b. AD 3)
 * Pharasmanes I, Roman client king of Iberia
 * Rhadamistus, Roman client king of Armenia

title: AD 58


text:
AD 59

AD 59 (LIX) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Apronianus and Capito (or, less frequently, year 812 Ab urbe condita). The denomination AD 59 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * March 23 – Emperor Nero orders the murder of his mother Agrippina the Younger. He tries to kill her through a planned shipwreck, but when she survives, he has her executed and frames it as a suicide.
 * Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, Roman commander in the east, captures Tigranocerta in Mesopotamia. He installs Tigranes VI, a Cappadocian prince, as ruler of Armenia. For the next four years, a cohort from Legio VI Ferrata and Legio X Fretensis is stationed in the capital as bodyguard to the king, supported by fifteen hundred auxiliaries.
 * Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus retires from the Roman Senate. He openly shows his disgust at the behaviour of Nero regarding the murder of Agrippina.
 * Rioting breaks out between the people of Pompeii and the people of Nuceria during a gladiator fight in Pompeii. Thousands are killed.

Arts and sciences

 * In the Satyricon, Petronius pokes fun at Roman immorality.
 * An eclipse on 30 April over North Africa is recorded by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History.

Religion

 * Paul the Apostle pleads his case and testifies to his Christianity before King Agrippa II of the Herodians, who responds "You almost persuade me to be a Christian."

Deaths

 * March 23 – Agrippina the Younger, mother of Nero (b. AD 15)
 * Domitia Lepida the Elder, granddaughter of Mark Antony
 * Gnaeus Domitius Afer, Roman politician and orator
 * Servilius Nonianus, Roman consul and historian

title: AD 59