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New-school hip hop

The new school of hip hop was a movement in hip hop music, beginning in 1983–84 with the early records of Run–D.M.C., Whodini, and LL Cool J. Predominantly from Queens and Brooklyn, it was characterized by Drum Machine-led minimalism, often tinged with elements of Rock; rapped taunts, boasts, and socio-political commentary; and aggressive, self-assertive delivery. In song and image, its artists projected a tough, cool, street B-boy attitude. These elements contrasted sharply with Funk and Disco, Novelty hits, live bands, synthesizers, and party rhymes of artists prevalent in the early 1980s. Compared to their older hip hop counterparts, new school artists crafted more cohesive LPs and shorter songs more amenable to airplay. By 1986, their releases began to establish hip hop in the mainstream.

The somewhat broader era of Golden age hip hop is applied to late 1980s-to-early 1990s mainstream hip hop, characterized by diversity, quality, innovation and influence, and associated with Public Enemy, KRS-One and his Boogie Down Productions, Eric B. & Rakim, Ultramagnetic MCs, De La Soul, A Tribe Called Quest, and the Jungle Brothers, known for themes of Afrocentricity and political militancy, experimental music, and eclectic sampling. This period is sometimes referred to as "Mid-school" or "middle school"; associated acts included Gang Starr, The UMC's, Main Source, Lord Finesse, EPMD, Just Ice, Stetsasonic, True Mathematics, and Mantronix.

The innovations of Run-D.M.C., MC Shan, and LL Cool J, and New School Producers such as Larry Smith and Rick Rubin of Def Jam, were quickly surpassed by Beastie Boys, Marley Marl and his Juice Crew MCs, Boogie Down Productions, Public Enemy, and Eric B. & Rakim. Hip-hop production became denser, rhymes and beats faster, as the drum machine was augmented with Sampler technology. Rakim took lyrics about the art of rapping to new heights, while KRS-One and Chuck D pushed "message rap" towards black activism. Native Tongues artists' inclusive, sample-crowded music accompanied their positivity, Afrocentricity, and playful energy. The new school/golden age ended with the eventual commercial dominance of West Coast gangsta rap, particularly the emergence of the relaxed sounds of G-funk by the early nineties, while the East Coast scene became dominated by hardcore rappers such as the Wu-Tang Clan and gangsta rappers such as Nas and The Notorious B.I.G.

The terms "old school" and "new school" fell into the vernacular as synonyms for "old" and "new" in hip hop, to the confusion and occasional exasperation of writers who use the terms historically. The phrase "Leader of The New School", coined in hip hop by Chuck D in 1988, and given further currency by the eponymous group Leaders of the New School (who were named by Chuck D before signing with Elektra in 1989), remains popular. It has been applied to artists ranging from Jay-Z to Lupe Fiasco.

Prehistory
Elements of new school had existed in some form in the popular culture since hip-hop's birth. The first MC's rapped over DJs swapping back and forth between two copies of the same record playing the same drum break, or playing instrumental portions or versions of a broad range of records. This part of the culture was initiated by DJ Kool Herc in 1973  using breaks from James Brown, The Incredible Bongo Band and English rock group Babe Ruth in his block parties. Brown's music—"extensive vamps" in which his voice was "a percussive instrument with frequent rhythmic grunts", and "with rhythm-section patterns ... [resembling] West African polyrhythms"—was a keynote of hip hop's early days. By 1975, Grandmaster Flash and Afrika Bambaataa had taken up Kool Herc's breakbeat style of DJing, each with their own accompanying rappers. Flash was especially associated with an important break known as "The Bells"—a cut-up of the intro to Bob James's jazz cover of Paul Simon's "Take Me To The Mardi Gras"—while Bambaataa delighted in springing occasional rock music breaks from records like "Mary, Mary", "Honky Tonk Women", "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" and Grand Funk Railroad's "Inside Looking Out" on unsuspecting b-boys.

The earliest hip-hop records replaced the DJ with a live band playing funk and disco influenced tunes, or "interpolating" the tunes themselves, as in "Rapper's Delight" (Sugar Hill, 1979) and "King Tim III (Personality Jock)" (Spring, 1979). It was the soft, futuristic funk closely tied to disco that ruled hip hop's early days on record, to the exclusion of the hard James Brown beats so beloved of the first b-boys. Figures such as Flash and Bambaataa were involved in some early instances of moving the sound away from that of a live band, as in Flash's DJ track "The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel" (Sugar Hill, 1981), and even innovating popular new sounds and subgenres, as in the synthesizer-laden electro of Bambaataa's "Planet Rock" (Tommy Boy, 1982). Often though the rawer elements present in live shows did not make it past the recording studio.

Bambaataa's first records, for instance, two versions of "Zulu Nation Throwdown" (Winley, 1980), were recorded with just drums and rhymes. When Bambaataa heard the released records, a complete live band had been added. Something closer to his intentions can be heard on a portion of Death Mix, a low-quality bootleg of a Zulu Nation night at James Monroe High School in the Bronx, released without his permission on Winley Records in 1983. Likewise on the bootleg Live Convention '82 (Disco Wax, 1982), Grand Wizard Theodore cuts the first six bars of Rufus Thomas's "Do the Funky Penguin" together for five and a half minutes while an MC raps over the top. Grandmaster Flash's "Superrappin'" (Enjoy, 1979) had a pumping syncopated rhythm and The Furious Five emulating his spinbacks and needle drops and chanting that "that Flash is on the beatbox going ..." The beatbox itself however, a drum machine which Flash had added to his turntable set-up some time earlier, was absent on the record, the drums being produced by a live drummer.

Kool Moe Dee's verbal personal attacks on Busy Bee Starski live at Harlem World in 1982 caused a popular sensation in hip hop circles. In the same way, groups like the Cold Crush Brothers and The Force MCs were known for their routines, competitive attitude, and battle rhymes. Tapes of battles like these circulated widely, even without them becoming viable recordings. Apart from some social commentary like Melle Mel's one verse on "Superrappin'", Kurtis Blow's ruefully comedic "The Breaks" (Mercury, 1980) and a spurt of records following the success of Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five's "The Message" (Sugar Hill, 1982), the old school specialized lyrically in party rhymes.

Advent
"One time, in probably 1983, I was in the park in Brooklyn. I was getting beat up by about eight kids, I don't even remember why. But as it was happening, this dude was walkin' by with one of those big boom boxes. And as he's walking by, we hear [imitates the unmistakable intro drum pattern from Run-D.M.C.'s 'Sucker MCs', loudly]. They all stopped beating me, and we all just stood there, listening to this phenomenon. I could have run, but I didn't, I was just so entranced by what I heard. Then the dude with the box passed by and the kids continued to beat me up. But it didn't matter. I felt good. I knew right then that I had to get into this hip hop shit."

- Pras of the Fugees, 2003, as told to Brian Coleman

David Toop writes of 1984 that "pundits were writing obituaries for hip hop, a passing fad" which "Hollywood had mutated into an all-singing, all-dancing romance" in movies like Flashdance and Breakin'. Against this, Run-D.M.C., The Beastie Boys and the label Def Jam were "consciously hardcore", "a reaction against the populist trend in hip hop at the time", and "an explosive emergence of an underground alternative". For Peter Shapiro, Run-D.M.C.'s 1983 two-song release "It's like That"/"Sucker MCs" "completely changed hip-hop" "rendering everything that preceded it distinctly old school with one fell swoop." In a 47-point timeline of hip hop and its antecedents spanning 64 years, Shapiro lists this release as his 43rd point. Reviewing Toop's book in the LA Weekly, Oliver Wang of Soul Sides concurs, hailing Run-D.M.C. as inaugurating the new school of rap.

Run-D.M.C.
Run-D.M.C. rapped over the most sparse of musical backing tracks. In the case of "Sucker MCs", there was a loud, Oberheim DMX drum machine, a few scratches and nothing else, while the rhymes harangued weak rappers and contrasted them to the group's success. "It's like That" was an aggressively delivered message rap whose social commentary has been defined variously as "objective fatalism", "frustrated and renunciatory", and just plain "reportage". Run-D.M.C. wore street clothes, tracksuits, sneakers, one even wore glasses. Their only possible concession to an image extraneous to that of kids on the street was the stylistic flourish of black fedoras atop their heads. This stood in sharp contrast to the popular artists of the time, who had variously bedecked themselves with feathers, suede boots, jerri curls, and red or even pink leather suits.

The group's early singles are collected on their eponymous debut (Profile, 1984), introducing rock references in "Rock Box", and recognized then and now as the best album of hip hop's early years. The next year, they appeared at Live Aid and released King of Rock (Profile, 1985), on which they asserted that they were "never ever old school". Raising Hell (Profile, 1986) was a landmark, containing quintessentially hip hop tracks like "Peter Piper", "Perfection" and "It's Tricky", and going platinum in the year of its release on the back of the huge crossover hit "Walk This Way". The group had rapped over the beat from the 1975 original in their early days, without so much as knowing the name of the band. When Raising Hell ' s producer Rick Rubin heard them playing around with it in the studio, he suggested using the Aerosmith lyrics, and the collaboration between the two groups came about. The album's last track was "Proud To Be Black", written under the influence of Chuck D of the as-yet unrecorded Public Enemy. On "My Adidas" the band rapped that they "took the beat from the street and put it on TV".

Comments from Darryl McDaniels, AKA DMC of Run-D.M.C., make this connection to the underground explicit: "[T]hat's exactly what we did. We didn't really think it was pioneering, we just did what rappers did before us was doing on tapes. When a lot of the old guys, like Kool Moe Dee, The Treacherous Three, and Grandmaster Flash, got in the studio, they never put their greatness on records. Me and Run and Jay would listen ... and we'd say, 'They didn't do that shit last night in the Bronx!' ... So we said that we weren't going to be fake. We ain't gonna wear no costumes. We're gonna keep it real."

Whodini
Coming out of the fertile New York rap scene of the early 1980s, Whodini was one of the first rap groups to add a R&B twist to their music, thus laying the foundation for a new genre, new jack swing. The group made its name with good-humored songs such as "Magic's Wand" (the first rap song accompanied by a video), "The Haunted House of Rock", "Friends", "Five Minutes of Funk", and "Freaks Come Out at Night". Live performances of the group were the first rap concerts with the participation of breakdance dancers from the group UTFO. Russell Simmons was the manager of the group in the 1980s.

The group released six studio albums. Fourteen of the group's singles hit the Billboard charts. Four of the group's albums were certified Platinum by the RIAA.

In 1984, the group released the second album Escape. The entire album was fully produced by Larry Smith. From the laid back groove titled "Five Minutes of Funk" to "Friends", a cynical story of betrayal sampled everywhere from Nas' "If I Ruled the World (Imagine That)" to 2Pac's "Troublesome '96", to harder edged singles "Freaks Come Out at Nite" and "Big Mouth".

In 1986, the group released a third album Back in Black, fully produced by Smith. A number of songs from the album received heavy local New York airplay, such as "Funky Beat" and the controversial "I'm a Ho". "Fugitive" was guitar-driven funk and "Last Night (I Had a Long Talk With...)" was introspective. Paul Kodish, the drummer of Pendulum, was featured on the album.

Def Jam
The other production credit on Raising Hell went to Run's brother, Russell Simmons; he ran Rush Artist Management, now Rush Communications, which as well as handling Run-D.M.C., managed the Beastie Boys, LL Cool J, Whodini and Public Enemy. Simmons also co-owned Def Jam Recordings, an important new-school label, with Rubin. Simmons rose with Def Jam to become one of the biggest moguls in rap, while Rubin claimed credit for introducing radio-friendly brevity and song structure to hip hop. Def Jam's first 12-inch release was the minimalist drum machine breakdown "I Need A Beat" by LL Cool J (1984). This was followed by "I Can't Live Without My Radio" (Def Jam, 1985), a loud, defiant declaration of public loyalty to his boom box which the New York Times in 1987 called "quintessential rap in its directness, immediacy and assertion of self". Both were on his debut album for Def Jam, 1985's Radio (described as "Reduced by Rick Rubin" in its liner notes), which also contained the minimalist and rock-influenced track "Rock the Bells". Rubin also produced music for Beastie Boys, who sampled AC/DC on their Rock Hard EP on Def Jam in 1984 and recorded a Run-D.M.C. outtake and a heavy metal parody on their hugely commercially successful debut album Licensed To Ill (Def Jam, 1986). In 1987, Raising Hell surpassed three million units sold, and Licensed to Ill five million. Faced with figures like these, major labels finally began buying into independent New York hip hop imprints.

The Juice Crew
One of hip hop's most important producers and innovators, Marley Marl found Cold Chillin' Records and assembled various hip hop acts, including MC Shan, Big Daddy Kane, Biz Markie, Roxanne Shanté, Kool G Rap & DJ Polo, and Masta Ace. His Juice Crew collective was an important force in ushering the "golden age" era of hip hop, with advances in lyrical technique, distinctive personalities of emerging stars like Biz Markie and Big Daddy Kane, and attaining crossover commercial success for hip hop music.

Marley Marl's first production was an "answer record" to "Sucker MCs" in 1983 entitled "Sucker DJs" by Dimples D. Soon after came 14-year-old Roxanne Shanté's answer to UTFO's "Roxanne Roxanne", "Roxanne's Revenge" (1985), sparking off the huge wave of answer records known as the Roxanne Wars. More disses (insults intended to show disrespect) from Shanté followed: "Bite This" (1985), "Queen of Rox" (1985), introducing Biz Markie on "Def Fresh Crew" (1986), "Payback" (1987), and perhaps her greatest record, "Have a Nice Day" (1987).

Boogie Down Productions
Shante's "Have a Nice Day" had aimed some barbs at the principal two members of a new group from the Bronx called Boogie Down Productions (BDP): "Now KRS-ONE you should go on vacation with that name soundin' like a wack radio station, and as for Scott La Rock, you should be ashamed, when T La Rock said "It's Yours", he didn't mean his name". Boogie Down Productions had manufactured a disagreement with the Juice Crew's MC Shan, releasing "South Bronx" and "The Bridge is Over" in reply to his "The Bridge" and "Kill That Noise" respectively. KRS-One considered Run-D.M.C. the epitome of rap music in 1984 and had begun to rap following their lead. But he has also said that BDP's approach reflected a feeling that the early innovators like Run-D.M.C. and LL Cool J were by 1986 tainted by commercial success and out of touch with the streets.

Boogie Down's first album Criminal Minded (B-Boy, 1987) admitted a reggae influence and had KRS-One imititating the Beatles' "Hey Jude" on the title track. It also contained two tales of grim street life, yet played for callous laughs: "The P Is Free", in which KRS speals of throwing out his girl who wants crack cocaine in exchange for sex, and "9mm Goes Bang", in which he shoots a drug dealer then cheerfully sings "la la la la la la". Songs like these presaged the rise of an underground that matched violent lyrics to the hardcore drum machine tracks of the new school. The cover of Criminal Minded was a further reflection of a move towards this sort of radical image, depicting the group in a half-light, holding firearms. The next album By All Means Necessary (B-Boy, 1988) left that element behind for political radicalism following the murder of Scott La Rock, with the title and cover alluding to Malcolm X. KRS-One became involved with the Stop the Violence Movement at this time. Boogie Down Productions, along with Run-D.M.C. and Public Enemy, associated the new school as rap music with a strong message.

Eric B. & Rakim
Eric B. & Rakim appeared with the Marley Marl-produced "Eric B. Is President" and "My Melody" on Zakia Records in 1986. Both tracks appeared on Paid in Full (4th & Broadway, 1987). Just as B.D.P. had, the pair reflected changes in street life on their debut's cover, which depicted the two wearing huge gold chains and surrounded by money. Like Criminal Minded, the sampling prevalent in the album cemented James Brown's status as a hip hop source, while Rakim's allusions showed the growing influence of mystic Nation of Islam-offshoot The Nation of Gods and Earths in hip-hop. The music was minimalist, austerely so, with many writers noting that coupled with Rakim's precise, logical style, the effect was almost one of scientific rigour. The group followed Paid in Full with Follow The Leader (Uni, 1988), Let the Rhythm Hit 'Em (MCA, 1990) and Don't Sweat The Technique (MCA, 1992).

Rakim is generally regarded as the most cutting-edge of the MCs of the new school era. Jess Harvell in Pitchfork in 2005 wrote that "Rakim's innovation was applying a patina of intellectual detachment to rap's most sacred cause: talking shit about how you're a better rapper than everyone else." Christgau in the Village Voice in 1990 wrote of Rakim's style as "calm, confident, clear. On their third album, as on their phase-shifting 1986 debut," he continues, "Eric B.'s samples truly are beats, designed to accentuate the natural music of an idealized black man's voice." Looking back at the late eighties in Rolling Stone in 1997, Moralez describes Rakim as "the new-school MC of the moment, using a smooth baritone to become the jazz soloist of mystic Afrocentric rap."

Public Enemy
Public Enemy, having been reluctantly convinced to sign to a record label, released Yo! Bum Rush the Show on Def Jam in 1987. It debuted the Public Enemy logo, which depicted a hatted b-boy in a sniper's crosshairs, and was replete with battle rhymes ("Miuzi Weighs a Ton", "Public Enemy #1"), social-political fare ("Rightstarter, Message to a Black Man)" and anti-crack messages ("Megablast").

The album was a critical and commercial success, particularly in Europe, unusually so for a hip hop album at that time. ''Yo! Bum Rush the Show had been recorded on the heels of Run-D.M.C.'s Raising Hell, but was held back by Def Jam in order for them to concentrate on releasing and promoting the Beastie Boys' License to Ill''. Chuck D of Public Enemy felt that by the time their first record was released, BDP and Rakim had already changed the landscape for how an MC could rap. Public Enemy were already recording their second album It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back (Def Jam, 1988) when ''Yo! Bum Rush the Show'' hit stores.

Gangsta rap
The underground sound centered on urban violence that was to become gangsta rap existed on the East Coast from soon after Run–D.M.C. had inaugurated the new school of hip hop. Philadelphia's Schoolly D self-released "Gangsta Boogie" in 1984, and "P.S.K. What Does It Mean?"/"Gucci Time" in 1985, leading to Saturday Night (Schoolly D, 1986, Jive, 1987). The West Coast, which became the home of gangsta rap, had Toddy Tee's influential Batteram mixtape in 1985, and Ice-T's "Six in the Morning" in 1986 before N.W.A's first records, leading to the hugely successful Straight Outta Compton in 1988.

Native Tongues
Developments in the New York new school continuum in this climate were represented by the Native Tongues groups—The Jungle Brothers, De La Soul, A Tribe Called Quest, Queen Latifah and Monie Love—along with fellow travellers like Leaders of the New School, KMD and Brand Nubian. They moved away from aggressive, macho posturing, towards ambiguity, fun and Afrocentricity. Their music was sample-crowded, more open and accessible than their new school predecessors. De La Soul's debut sampled everyone from The Turtles to Steely Dan, while A Tribe Called Quest matched tough beats to mellow jazz samples and playful, thoughtful raps.

title: New-school hip hop


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French hip hop

French hip hop or French rap (rap français, ), is the hip hop music style developed in French-speaking countries. France is the second largest hip-hop market in the world after the United States.

Beginning of French hip hop: the 70s and 80s
By 1982 and 1983, a number of hip hop radio shows had appeared on Paris radio, including "Rapper Dapper" (hosted by Sidney Duteil) and "Funk à Billy" (hosted by DJ Dee Nasty). In November 1982 the New York City Rap Tour traveled around France and to London featuring Afrika Bambaataa, Grandmixer DST, Fab 5 Freddy, Mr Freeze and the Rock Steady Crew.

The first major star of French hip hop was MC Solaar. Born Claude M'Barali in Dakar, Senegal, he moved as a child to France in 1970 and lived in Villeneuve-Saint-Georges. His 1991 album, Qui sème le vent récolte le tempo, was a major hit. The European Music Office's report on Music in Europe said that the French language was well-suited for rapping. He set many records, including being the first French hip hop recording artist to go platinum. Some artists claim that the French language hip hop style was influenced by the music of French singer Renaud.

Following MC Solaar's breakthrough, two broad styles emerged within the French hip hop scene; artists such as Solaar, Dee Nasty, and Lionel D championed a more mellow, sanguine style, while more hardcore performers such as Assassin and Suprême NTM assumed a more aggressive aesthetic. Many such artists found themselves at the heart of controversies over lyrics that were seen as glorifying the murder of police officers and other crimes, similar to outcries over violent thuggish lyrics in American gangsta rap. The cases include the notorious Ministère AMER's "Sacrifice de poulet", NTM's "Police" and later Lunatic's "Le crime paie".

Influence of American hip-hop
French hip-hop, like hip-hop in other countries, is highly influenced by American hip-hop. Columnist David Brooks wrote that "ghetto life, at least as portrayed in rap videos, now defines for the young, poor and disaffected what it means to be oppressed. Gangsta resistance is the most compelling model for how to rebel against that oppression." He argued that the gangster image of American hip hop appeals to mostly young & impoverished immigrant minorities in France, as a means to oppose the racism and oppression they experience. Jody Rosen counters Brooks' argument, criticizing that Brooks makes use of only a few, old samples of potential French gangsta rap that contain violent or misogynistic lyrics, and asserting that Brooks fails to accurately assess French hip hop's larger scope and discounts its potential for "rappers of amazing skill, style, and wit."

Francophone rap was given a boost in the early 21st century by a decision of the French ministry of culture, which insisted that French-language stations play a minimum of 40 percent of French-language music during transmission.

This makes up one quarter of the radio's top 100, ten percent of local music production and has sold hundreds of thousands of CDs. French hip hop, however, is often criticized for imitating American hip hop style. French rapper MC Solaar agrees sarcastically, saying, "French rap is pretty much a U.S. branch office... we copy everything, don't we? We don't even take a step back."

Parts of American hip-hop culture have left a mark on the culture of French hip-hop as well in terms of fashion, clothing, music videos, jewelry, sounds and other things. Hip-hop culture was imported from America, especially with the influence of New York rappers and the music that came out of New York.

The 1990s and 2000s
Through the 1990s, the music grew to become one of the most popular genres in France; in 1997, IAM's release "L'école du Micro d'Argent" sold more than 1 million discs, with NTM moving more than 700,000 copies of their final album "Suprême NTM". The group went their separate ways in 2000.

As hip hop moved into a new millennium, French hip hop artists developed rapidly, seeing commercial success, and even some international appeal. One of the most influential French hip hop albums of all time, Cinquième As, was released by MC Solaar in 2001. At the same time, new artists like Sinik and Diam's began to see significant success, as well, bringing a new sound and genre of lyrical prowess to the game.

Themes
Themes in French hip hop include opposition to the social order, humor and puns, as well as ethnic and cultural identity. Whereas early French hip hop was seen as mimicking American hip hop in terms of aesthetic appeal, later French rappers added their own cultural and ethnic identities to the mix. With the rise of IAM's pharaoism, or allusions to ancient Egyptian pharaohs, the French hip hop artists are seen attempting to negotiate and create a space for themselves in a social scene rife with discrimination and racist ideologies.

French hip hop can be defined by two major categories or subgenres: hip-hop from the north, mainly centered around major cities like Paris and its suburbs, and hip-hop from the south which focuses around cities like Marseille. The different social climates in the regions make the two subgenres distinct from one another. Lyrics from the south tend to be more socially conscious, with content mainly focusing on the fight against discrimination. Rappers from the south of France are known to tell the 'cold reality' of life in France. In the north, however, content tends to be more straightforward, with rappers typically talking about the drug trade, gang wars, ghetto life and clashes with the police, etc.

Many of the French hip hop artists come from the poor urban areas on the outskirts of large cities known as banlieues ("suburbs"). Paris, Marseille, Lyon, Nantes, Lille, Strasbourg, Rennes, Caen, Le Havre, Rouen, Toulouse, Bordeaux, Grenoble and Nice have produced various French hip hop artists. The political and social status of the minority immigrant groups living in France have a direct influence on French hip hop.

French hip hop has been political in its history as well. Hip-hop in France owes its success to a strong social demand for it. Historically, France adopted a series of hostile policy against immigrant families. For example, a contentious debate is currently being fought out in the political realm as to whether or not Muslim women should be permitted to wear head scarves. Domestic policy in the period since decolonization has resulted in the development of stifling set of inequalities. Most of these political outcries and demands are coming from the younger generation. Hip-Hop remains to be a place where young people can express their needs and themselves politically and freely.

The protest at the heart of French hip-hop can be traced directly to the economic boom following World War II. France required manpower to sustain its newly booming industries and the governmental solution was the mass immigration of peoples from regions of past French colonial empire to fill the gaps caused by shortage in personnel. As early as 1945, l'Office national d'immigration (ONI) was formed to supervise the immigration of new workers. Newly arrived Africans were not given the same employment opportunities as their French Caribbean counterparts because they were not citizens and often Africans ended up working as civil servants and menial employees living in dilapidated housing projects. Much of the resistance to social and economic imbalances in French hip-hop relate to this historically unequal situation. This is proved by lyrics of Aktivist's song, "Ils ont", the extract when translated states "Aktivist denounces intolerance to all immigrant fathers/Exploited in France since the 50s-60s/...their bodies are falling apart/And their children are still being judged according to their origins.

Relationship with Africa and the Caribbean
When hip-hop reached the European continent in the 1980s Afrika Bambaataa was an early pioneer, and when he came to France he was overwhelmed by the great importance of African culture coming from Africa and the Caribbean.

Many French hip hop artists express strong ties to Africa, though not overtly. Rappers from the 1980s and 90s needed to keep their references to Africa subtle for a few reasons. First, explicitly praising Africa would have been offensive to the many immigrants who fled Algeria and other North African countries because of the economic adversity they faced there, and many rappers probably had parents who had done so. Also, obvious Afrocentrism would have provided the French anti-Maghrebi extreme right with an opportunity to tell Maghrebi  immigrants to return to North Africa. And finally, rising conservative Islamism in North Africa would have prevented rappers from being able to imitate their behavior in their native land.

The progress of rap in France is associated with the postcolonial relationships founded with former colonies of Africa and the Caribbean. Therefore, the definition of Africa according to French ideas, and the nature of racism in French society is crucial to understanding the reason for the hip hop and rap sensation in France. Rappers are overwhelmingly of African descent, and in tackling the issue of their invisibility in French society and declaring their origins, they redefine their identity and defy French notions of ethnicity and citizenship.

Some French hip hop artists of African origin have used their music to address challenges and issues that cause poverty in African nations. The French hip hop group Bisso Na Bisso's song "Dans la peau d'un chef" refers to the corruption of African heads of state. Though their music and the issues they cover focus more on their home country, the Republic of the Congo, all members of Bisso Na Bisso live in France and rap in French. Although many artists that have dominated the hip hop scene in France are of African descent, themes dealing with the intimate connection between France and various African countries tend not to get much promotion on mainstream radio and even less consideration in scholarly research on the subject. While the popularity of nationally grown rap in France grew with the presence of MC Solaar, his involvement in the overall French hip hop subculture is non-existent as many consider his work to be in the traditional vein of French pop.

Specifically, IAM incorporates many African-related themes into its music. Their 1991 song "Les tam-tam de l'Afrique" was one of the first French rap hits to deal explicitly with slavery. This particular track "focused on the plunder of Africa, the abduction of its inhabitants, the Middle Passage, and the plantation system in the Americas." It uses a sample from a Stevie Wonder song called "Past Time Paradise", which, appropriately, touches on race relations and slavery as well. Many other French hip hop artists made similar statements through their music, by collaborating to celebrate the 150th anniversary of the abolition of slavery in France in 1998. In order to mark the anniversary of the abolition of slavery in Martinique (which is an overseas department of France in the Caribbean), on May 22, Paris's Olympia theater hosted a concert that opened with "drummers chained together" and featured performances from "rappers of African descent such as Doc Gyneco, Stomy Bugsy, Arsenik, and Hamed Daye."

IAM also incorporates images associated with ancient Egypt. Several group members assumed names reflective of this influence. For example, IAM member Eric Mazel goes by the name Kheops, the name of the builder of the Egyptian pyramids.

The African music influences in French hip hop also extend to the use of African instruments such as the Kora, balafon, and ngoni. Many of the drums played in Africa and the Caribbean music such as "derbuka from North Africa, djembe from Senegal, gwo ka drums from Guadeloupe, bèlè drums from Martinique and Dominica, zouk, bouyon music, etc.). The mixture of the diverse traditional African, Caribbean, and other instrumentals is what produced the French hip-hop and made it distinct.

Today, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and it's global diaspora, especially in Belgium and France has brought about some of the largest and fastest growing French-language rap singers. Traditional Congolese music including in the local Lingala language has become popular globally including by artists with Congolese origin such as Tiakola, Dadju, Damso, and GIMS all of which have worked with Congolese singer, Fally Ipupa.

French Antilles hip hop
The French Antilles hip hop is a style of hip hop music originating from the French departments of Guadeloupe and Martinique in the Caribbean. Usually in French and Antillean creole, the French Antilles hip hop is most popular in the French Antilles and France.

Sidney Duteil (born Patrick Duteil in 1955 in Argenteuil, Val-d'Oise), better known as Sidney, is a French musician, rapper, DJ, television and radio host, and occasional actor of Guadeloupean origin. He is well known in France for his connection with the beginnings of the French hip hop scene.

Language
Although hip hop in France has been greatly influenced by American hip hop culture, the lyrics remain typically in French. Other than English, other language influences are based on oral traditions such as African griots, "talk over" of Jamaica and the blues. French music lyrics typically feature puns, play on words and suggestive phonetic combinations. Such artists as Boby Lapointe often use alliterations, onomatopoeia and puns or double entendre lyrics. The dialect of choice for many hip hop artists in France is verlan which is based on the inverse of original French words. In some cases artists rap in several different languages on a track including Arabic, French and English. The purpose of the lyrics, no matter the language, is "to popularize and vent the anger and frustrations of many disadvantaged and sometimes mistreated individuals, and to defend the cause of the poorest and least socially integrated segment of French society".

French hip hop stands out for its "flowing, expressive tones of the language [that] give it a clear identity within the rap world." In many French rap songs, verlan is used which is a slang that twists words by reversing and recombining them. This makes it difficult for even French speaking listeners to understand what the MC is saying. Even though it is difficult at times to understand completely the lyrics that are being said rappers still get the heat for causing violence and disturbance within society because of their intense message of rebelling against the system.

It is said that one of the most interesting points about French rap is the idea that "poetry and philosophy are greatly esteemed in France, and that they're even more greatly esteemed in French."

David Brooks claims that French rap is a copy of American gangsta rap of the early 1990s. However, his position was attacked by Jody Rosen in his article which debunks Brooks's belief that the French hip hop scene is no more than a carbon copy of earlier American work.

Like much of the hip hop from the United States, many French hip hop artists use the genre to address pressing social issues. The authors of "Arab Noise and Ramadan Nights: Rai, Rap, and Franco-Maghrebi Identity" state that French rappers rap about "the history of slavery, humanity's origins in Africa, Europe's destruction of African civilizations and the independence struggle led by the Front De Liberation Nationale." The components of their music are mostly influenced by the American rappers, but they also have their own style such as having their culture's tune in the beat. And they rap in their language and their phonetic sounds differ in time to time.

As France has embraced hip hop, they put a huge emphasis on the lyrics. They love to sing about love and poetry, and they also love to rap in French dialect. The French government has a mandate that 40 percent of the music played on the radio must be in French. Hip hop is a way for artists to express these feelings. More precisely, a hip hop built of French language lyrics laid on top of traditional break beats and samples.

Influence on pop culture
The image of the banlieue, comparable to what in the United States would be called one's "hood", has propagated itself into French pop culture in the form of clothing, accessories, attitude and of course the hip-hop music it yields. This fascination with the banlieue image has also found its way into the big screen with the movie B-13. This action/martial arts film depicts a somewhat exaggerated view of what one of the worst suburbs (which is what banlieue means, roughly translated) would be like 6 years in the future. One finds within this movie almost every iconic paradigm inherent to the gangster image in the U.S. We have a plethora of drugs and guns. We have a Don Corleone/Scarface figure who, under the influence of enough of his own product, considers himself invincible. There is, of course, a general disdain for corrupt police and politicians, and last but not least, there is the unfair imprisonment of the protagonist. The aforementioned traits contained the sub-plots of Menace II Society, Juice, Boyz n the Hood, Belly and New Jack City among other movies considered pivotal to gangsta rap culture. The obvious parallels seen in the glorification of the banlieue and that of one's "hood" is not one to overlook. The commonalities in the two cultures are indicative of the fact that a.) almost every hip hop movement was bred from necessity and from rebellion. The guns, drugs and money of the hood are typically not the aftermath of an easy life but the result of a struggle whether it is as a hustler or as a gangbanger. Hip-hop provides an outlet for people in the struggle to lash out at the powers that be, and to rebel in some small way against the life they're stuck in. b.) the glorification of the banlieue also reminds us that there will always be a consumerist market of people, not in the struggle, who will take advantage of the allure of the image without totally understanding it.

Such as much of the rap and hip hop in the United States talks about money, women, guns, etc., rap in France is also somewhat following this path. Yet, many artists still rap about their ties to Africa, culture, and sending out important messages. However, hip hop in France is taking on the same image as hip hop in the United States. It's changed to talking about gang-banging and other illegal activities. Not only in France, but in many African countries, French hip hop is played and heard. "The images, modes and attitudes of hip-hop and gangsta rap are so powerful they are having a hegemonic effect across the globe."

Breakdancing
The break-dancing scene in France is widespread, and some French B-boys are well known for taking part in competitions such as BOTY. Two of the most well-known crews from France are the Vagabonds and the Pockemon, as both of them won the BOTY.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: French hip hop


text:
Sam Snead

Samuel Jackson Snead (May 27, 1912 – May 23, 2002) was an American professional golfer who was one of the top players in the world for the better part of four decades (having won PGA of America and Senior PGA Tour events over six decades) and widely regarded as one of the greatest players of all time. Snead was awarded a record 94 gold medallions, for wins in PGA of America (referred to by most as the PGA) Tour events and later credited with winning a record 82 PGA Tour events tied with Tiger Woods, including seven majors. He never won the U.S. Open, though he was runner-up four times. Snead was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame in 1974.

Snead's nicknames included "The Slammer", "Slammin' Sammy Snead", and "The Long Ball Hitter from West Virginia", and he was admired by many for having a "perfect swing", which generated many imitators. Snead was famed for his folksy image, wearing a straw hat, and making such statements as "Keep close count of your nickels and dimes, stay away from whiskey, and never concede a putt." and "There are no short hitters on the tour anymore, just long and unbelievably long." Fellow West Virginia Golf Hall of Fame Inductee Bill Campbell has said of Snead, "He was the best natural player ever. He had the eye of an eagle, the grace of a leopard and the strength of a lion." Gary Player once said that, "I don't think there's any question in my mind that Sam Snead had the greatest golf swing of any human being that ever lived." Jack Nicklaus said that Snead's swing was "so perfect."

Awards
Snead was the PGA leading money winner in 1938, 1949 and 1950. He won the Vardon Trophy, for lowest scoring average, four times: 1938, 1949, 1950, and 1955. In 1949, he was PGA Golfer of the Year.

Snead was inducted into the Virginia Sports Hall of Fame in 1973. In 1986, Snead was inducted into the Middle Atlantic PGA Hall of Fame. Snead was also inducted into the PGA of America Hall of Fame and the Helms Hall of Fame. Snead received the PGA Tour Lifetime Achievement Award in 1998. In 2009, Snead was inducted into the inaugural class of the West Virginia Golf Hall of Fame  and in 2016, Snead was the unanimous top choice for inclusion in the Virginia Golf Hall of Fame's inaugural class.

Personal life
Born in Ashwood, Virginia, near Hot Springs, Snead began caddying at age seven at The Homestead's Old Course in Hot Springs. He worked as an assistant pro at The Homestead at 17 in 1929, then moved to the Cascades Course and turned professional in 1934. During the depression, Snead taught himself the game of golf from a set of clubs carved from tree limbs. Snead joined the PGA Tour in 1936, and achieved immediate success by winning the West Virginia Closed Pro tournament.

In 1936 he won two matches at the Meadow Brook Club, earning a $10,000 prize. This gave him the money he needed to start playing professionally full-time. In 1944 he became resident playing professional at The Greenbrier Resort in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia, and maintained ties to Hot Springs and The Homestead all of his life. During the winter, he was resident playing pro at the Boca Raton Resort from 1956 to 1969. Each spring he returned to the Mid-Atlantic, stopping at The Masters Tournament on his way back to The Greenbrier.

Snead served in the U.S. Navy during World War II from 1942 to 1944. He was an athletic specialist in Cmdr. Gene Tunney's program in San Diego, and was given a medical discharge for a back injury in September 1944.

Snead appeared as himself in an episode of The Phil Silvers Show, "The Colonel Breaks Par", in 1957.

His nephew, J. C. Snead, was also a successful professional golfer, winning tournaments on both the PGA Tour and the Champions Tour.

Career
In July 1936, Snead won his first tournament, the West Virginia Closed Pro, contested at The Greenbrier's Championship Course and Old White Course. He shot rounds of 70–61 to rout Logan, West Virginia professional, Clem Wiechman by 16 strokes (74-73). The following month, he won the first of 17 West Virginia Open championships by beating Art Clark by five strokes at Guyan Country Club in Huntington, West Virginia.

In 1937, Snead's first full year on the PGA Tour, he won six events, including the Oakland Open at Claremont Country Club in California and his second West Virginia Open. In Snead's debut in the U.S. Open hosted at Oakland Hills, he finishes runner-up to Ralph Guldahl (who won with 19 clubs in his bag). Snead shared the first round lead shooting 69 with fellow West Virginian Denny Shute (1936 and 1937 PGA Champion). In Snead's first of two attempts in The Open Championship, he finished tied for 11th. While working at The Greenbrier, Snead played in the U.S. Pro Tennis Championships. In the first round, he faced eventual winner Karel Kozeluh, losing to Kozeluh by scores of 6–1, 6–1, and 6–1.

In 1938, Snead first won the Greater Greensboro Open, the first of eight times, the Tour record for victories of a single tournament event. Snead's last win at Greensboro was in 1965, at the age of 52 years, 324 days, making him the oldest player to win a PGA Tour event. Snead introduced his first book, Sam Snead's quick way to better golf.

In 1939, Snead won three times. 1939 was the first of four times (although Snead had already come close in 1937, losing to the eventual champion who had 19 clubs in his bag) where Snead failed at crucial moments of the U.S. Open, the only major event he never won. Needing par to win at the Philadelphia C.C., but not knowing that, since on-course scoreboards did not exist at that time, Snead posted a triple-bogey 8 on the par-5 72nd hole, taking a risky shot from a difficult lie in the fairway. Snead had been told on the 18th tee by a spectator that he needed a birdie to win. Snead ended up in fifth place, two shots behind three players who went into a playoff.

During World War II, Snead was prevented from participating in 14 major championships (1940–1945 Open Championship, 1942–1945 U.S. Open, 1943–1945 Masters, 1943 PGA Championship), due to their cancellations. Snead served in the U.S. Navy from 1942 to 1944.

In 1946, Snead won six times including the Open Championship at St Andrews. His expenses for playing there were more than three times his winning purse. Snead tied for sixth in the Open in 1962. Snead introduced the book, ''Sam Snead's How to play golf, and professional tips on improving your score. Also, rules of the game of golf, as approved by the United States Golf Association, and by the Royal and ancient golf club of St. Andrews''.

At the U.S. Open in 1947, Snead missed a 30 in putt on the final playoff hole to finish runner-up to Lew Worsham.

Snead won three times in 1948, including his first Texas Open and fourth West Virginia Open.

In 1949, Snead won nine PGA events including two majors including the Masters and the PGA Championship and was awarded Golfer of the Year. For Snead, it was the third of four second-place finishes at the U.S. Open, the only major championship he never won. Needing two pars to finish in a tie for the lead, Snead took three shots to hole out his ball from the fringe of the green on the 17th hole.

In 1950, Snead won 11 events, placing him third in that category behind Byron Nelson (18, in 1945) and Ben Hogan (13, in 1946). Snead claimed that 1950 was his "greatest year" winning "eleven tournaments" including a playoff victory over Hogan in the L.A. Open yet lost the "Golfer of the Year" to Hogan, who won one "tournament". His scoring average of 69.23 was a Vardon Trophy record that stood for 50 years.

In 1952, Snead won ten events including the Masters. At the Jacksonville Open, Snead forfeited rather than play an 18-hole playoff against Doug Ford after the two golfers finished in a tie at the end of regulation play. The forfeit stemmed from a ruling Snead received during the tournament's second round of play. On the 10th hole, Snead's drive landed behind an out-of-bounds stake. While Chick Harbert, who was playing with Snead, thought the ball was out of bounds, a rules official ruled differently due to the starter not telling players the stakes had been moved after the previous day's play had ended. Afterwards, Snead explained why he forfeited even though Ford suggested they play sudden death for the title. "I want to be fair about it. I don't want anyone to think I took advantage of the ruling." Snead set the record for most PGA wins after reaching age 40, with 17.

In 1953, Snead won three events. He finished runner-up to Ben Hogan at the U.S. Open (the fourth time he would finish runner-up at the U.S. Open).

In 1954, Snead won two events, one of which was the Masters in an 18-hole playoff over Ben Hogan.

In December 1959, Snead took part in a controversial match against Mason Rudolph, at the Mid Ocean Club in Bermuda. Snead decided to deliberately lose the televised match, played under the "World Championship Golf" series, during its final holes, after he discovered on the 12th hole that he had too many golf clubs in his bag. (A player is limited to 14 clubs during competitive rounds.) The match was tied at that stage. The extra club in his bag, a fairway wood Snead had been experimenting with in practice, meant Rudolph had won on the 12th hole immediately, 11 and 7, after applying the loss of hole penalty, even though he did not use it during the round. After the match was over, Snead explained the matter, and said he did not disqualify himself in order not to spoil the show. The problem did not become known outside a small circle until the show was televised four months later. After the incident came to light, the sponsor cancelled further participation in the series. The rule was changed for the 1964 Rules of Golf, where the penalty is capped at two holes (match play) or four strokes (stroke play) can be assessed.

Beginning in 1960, Snead hosted television's Celebrity Golf program, emceed by Harry von Zell, competing for charity in nine-hole contests against Hollywood celebrities like Dean Martin, Jerry Lewis and Bob Hope. Snead had appeared with Martin and Lewis in their 1953 comedy film, The Caddy.

On February 7, 1962, at age 49, Snead won the Royal Poinciana Plaza Invitational, an LPGA Tour "Battle of the Sexes" tournament where he faced off against 14 LPGA pros. The low woman was Mickey Wright, herself Snead's equivalent in women's golf, with the most wins on that tour.

His 1962 autobiography was titled The Education of a Golfer. Snead later wrote several golf instructional books, and frequently wrote instructional columns in golf magazines.

In 1965, Snead became the oldest player (52 years, 10 months and 8 days) to win on the PGA Tour (the Greater Greensboro Open).

Snead played on seven Ryder Cup teams: 1937, 1947, 1949, 1951, 1953, 1955, and 1959. Snead was selected to the 1939 Ryder Cup team however the event was never played due to World War II. He captained the team in 1951, 1959, and 1969.

In 1971, he won the PGA Club Professional Championship at Pinehurst Resort.

In 1973, Snead became the oldest player to make a cut in a U.S. Open at age 61.

In 1974, at age 61, he shot a third-round 66 at the Los Angeles Open at Riviera Country Club to move into contention. A birdie at #17 in the last round moved him to within one stroke of the lead. Dave Stockton hit a miraculous fairway wood on the final hole. Snead was joint runner-up.

He shot a final-round 68 at the 1974 PGA Championship to finish tied for third, three strokes behind winner Lee Trevino. At age 62, it was Snead's third consecutive top-10 finish at the PGA Championship, but his last time in contention at a major.

In 1978, he won the first Legends of Golf event, which was the impetus for the creation, two years later, of the Senior PGA Tour, now the Champions Tour.

In 1979, he was the youngest PGA Tour golfer to shoot his age (67) in the second round of the 1979 Quad Cities Open. He shot under his age (66) in the final round.

In 1982, he teamed with Don January to shoot 27-under-par to win the rain-shortened 54-hole Liberty Mutual Legends of Golf event at Onion Creek Club "The Birthplace of the Senior PGA Tour" in Austin, Texas. This victory would mark victories for Snead that spanned over six decades (1930s–1980s) winning tour and senior tour events.

In 1983, at age 71, he shot a round of 60 (12-under-par) at The Homestead in Hot Springs, Virginia.

In 1986, Snead wrote the book, Pigeons, Marks, Hustlers and Other Golf Bettors You Can Beat.

In 1997, at age 85, he shot a round of 78 at the Old White course of The Greenbrier in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia.

In 1998, he received the PGA Tour Lifetime Achievement Award, the fourth person to be so honored.

From 1984 to 2002, he hit the honorary starting tee shot at the Masters Tournament. Until 1999, he was joined by Gene Sarazen, and until 2001, by Byron Nelson.

In 2000, Snead was ranked the third greatest golfer of all time, in Golf Digest magazine's rankings, behind only Jack Nicklaus and Ben Hogan.

Death
Snead died in Hot Springs, Virginia in 2002 following complications from a stroke, four days before his 90th birthday. He was survived by two sons: Sam Jr. of Hot Springs, and Terry, of Mountain Grove, Virginia, and a brother, Pete, of Pittsburgh, as well as two grandchildren. His wife Audrey died in 1990. His nephew J. C. Snead was also a PGA Tour golfer.

In popular culture
Snead was mentioned several times in the comic strip Peanuts at the height of his popularity during the 1950s and 1960s. As its creator and avid golfer Charles M. Schulz said in a 1971 interview: "I was a great admirer of Sam Snead. I once watched him play a round in the St. Paul tournament when he hit every green in regulation figures – and all the par fives in two – for a truly flawless round."

He played himself in the 1951 Ben Hogan semi-autobiographical movie starring Glenn Ford and Anne Baxter called Follow the Sun.

Playing style
During his peak years, Snead was an exceptionally long driver, particularly into the wind, with very good accuracy as well. He was a superb player with the long irons. Snead was also known for a very creative short game, pioneering use of the sand wedge for short shots from grass. As he aged, he began to experiment with different putting styles. Snead pioneered croquet-style putting in the 1960s, where he straddled the ball with one leg on each side. The United States Golf Association banned this technique in 1968 by amending the old Rule 35–1, since, until that time, golfers had always faced the ball when striking. Snead then went to side-saddle putting, where he crouched and angled his feet towards the hole, and held the club with a split grip. He used that style for the rest of his career.

Records
Snead holds the following records:

 * Most PGA Tour victories: 82
 * Most PGA sanctioned tour victories: 94
 * Became the first player to win 17 times at an event: at the West Virginia Open (1936–1938, 1948, 1949, 1952, 1957, 1958, 1960, 1961, 1966–1968, 1970–1973)
 * First player to win an event in six different decades (1930s–1980s).
 * Became the first player to win 8 times at an event: at the Greater Greensboro Open (1938, 1946, 1949, 1950, 1955, 1956, 1960, 1965)
 * First player to be credited with winning a PGA Tour event in four different decades.
 * Oldest player to be credited with winning a PGA Tour event: age 52 years, 10 months, 8 days at the 1965 Greater Greensboro Open
 * Oldest player to make the cut at a major: age 67 years, 2 months, 7 days at the 1979 PGA Championship
 * First PGA Tour player to shoot his age: 67 in the second round of the 1979 Quad Cities Open
 * Oldest player to make a cut on the PGA Tour: age 67 years, 2 months, 21 days at the 1979 Manufacturers Hanover Westchester Classic.
 * Only player to post a top-10 finish in at least one major championship in five different decades.
 * Became the first player to win PGA and Senior PGA Tour events over six decades (1930s–1980s)

Sources:

PGA Tour wins (82)
 * Note: Tournament shortened to 18/54 holes due to weather.

PGA Tour playoff record (12–6) Sources:

Other wins (45)

 * 1936 West Virginia Open
 * 1937 West Virginia Open
 * 1938 West Virginia Open
 * 1940 Ontario Open (Canada)
 * 1941 Center Open (Argentina)
 * 1941 St Augustine Pro-am (with Wilford Wehrle)
 * 1942 St Augustine Pro-am (with Wilford Wehrle)
 * 1948 West Virginia Open, Havana Invitational
 * 1949 North and South Open, West Virginia Open, National Celebrities Open
 * 1951 Greenbrier Pro-Am
 * 1952 West Virginia Open, Brazil Open, Greenbrier Pro-Am, Julius Boros Open, Seminole Pro-am
 * 1953 Greenbrier Pro-Am, Orlando International Mixed Best Ball (with Betty MacKinnon)
 * 1954 Panama Open
 * 1955 McNaughtons Pro-am
 * 1956 Canada Cup (with Ben Hogan), Boca Raton Open
 * 1957 West Virginia Open
 * 1958 West Virginia Open, Greenbrier Invitational
 * 1959 Sam Snead Festival, Eldorado Professional (tied with Doug Ford)
 * 1960 West Virginia Open, Canada Cup (with Arnold Palmer)
 * 1961 West Virginia Open, Sam Snead Festival, Canada Cup (with Jimmy Demaret), Canada Cup – International Trophy
 * 1962 Canada Cup (with Arnold Palmer)
 * 1964 Haig & Haig Scotch Foursome (with Shirley Englehorn)
 * 1966 West Virginia Open
 * 1967 West Virginia Open
 * 1968 West Virginia Open
 * 1970 West Virginia Open
 * 1971 PGA Club Professional Championship, West Virginia Open
 * 1972 West Virginia Open
 * 1973 West Virginia Open

Note: this list is incomplete.

Senior wins (14)

 * 1964 PGA Seniors' Championship, World Senior Championship
 * 1965 PGA Seniors' Championship, World Senior Championship
 * 1967 PGA Seniors' Championship
 * 1970 PGA Seniors' Championship, World Senior Championship
 * 1972 PGA Seniors' Championship, World Senior Championship
 * 1973 PGA Seniors' Championship, World Senior Championship
 * 1978 Legends of Golf (with Gardner Dickinson)
 * 1980 Golf Digest Commemorative Pro-Am
 * 1982 Liberty Mutual Legends of Golf (with Don January)

Wins (7)
Note: The PGA Championship was match play until 1958. 1Defeated Ben Hogan in 18-hole playoff – Snead 70 (−2), Hogan 71 (−1).

Results timeline
{{legend|lime|Win}} {{legend|yellow|Top 10}} {{legend|#eeeeee|Did not play}} NT = no tournament

WD = withdrew

CUT = missed the half-way cut

"T" indicates a tie for a place

R64, R32, R16, QF, SF = Round in which player lost in PGA Championship match play

Summary

 * Most consecutive cuts made – 55 (1937 Masters – 1958 Masters)
 * Longest streak of top-10s – 6 (1948 U.S. Open – 1950 Masters)

U.S. national team appearances
Professional
 * Ryder Cup: 1937 (winners), 1947 (winners), 1949 (winners), 1951 (winners, playing captain), 1953 (winners), 1955 (winners), 1959 (winners, playing captain), 1969 (tied, non-playing captain)
 * Canada Cup: 1954, 1956 (winners), 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960 (winners), 1961 (winners, individual winner), 1962 (winners)

title: Sam Snead


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Italian hip hop

Italian hip hop is hip hop music rapped in the Italian language and/or made by Italian artists. One of the first hip hop crews to catch the attention of the Italian mainstream was Bologna's Isola Posse All Star, then and still today produced by Sandro Orru, who had written the soundtrack to the animated Signor Rossi TV series Signor Rossi in the 1970s. The European Music Office's report on Music in Europe claimed that in general, hip hop from the south of Italy tends to be harder than that from the north.

1980s
In the early 1980s, hip hop spread to Italy through posse cuts, which were popular in social centers, alternative centers where several left-wing young people regularly meet, and where the extremely influential Italian hardcore punk scene was flourishing, from which the Italian posse cut movement inherited its social conscious. The first star to emerge from this scene was Jovanotti, who would rap in otherwise standard Italian pop. While Jovanotti was discovered by the famous producer Claudio Cecchetto and quickly reached fame, in the underground Radical Stuff published the first Italian hip hop street video Let's Get Dizzy, featuring lo Greco Bros in 1989. Also that year, Marko Von Schoenberg of Stone Castle Records in Italy produced Dre' n OG along with Andre Herring (now known as the King of Art) and Nathaniel Goodwin, with songs such as AK-47, Got Damn, Do Beat, and Spread Your Legs. But DRE and OG never received any payments for recordings.

Underground hip hop group Assalti Frontali, was founded in Rome in 1988. They are known for their left-wing politically and socially charged lyrics.

1990s
In 1991, the posse cut movement produced its first underground rap in the Italian language, with tracks such as "Stop al panico" by Isola Posse All Star, a track against murders and violence in the streets.

Articolo 31, formed by J-Ax and DJ Jad: they started out as a mainly East Coast hip hop-inspired hip hop duo, rapped in two commercials (for big companies such as Fiat and Big Bubble) in 1993. The duo had always been criticized for their connection to the Italian pop music market. In 1996, as they started their performance at Venice's hip hop festival, the others rappers left the stage as a symbolic protest against them.

Later that decade, a dissing battle started between them and the Zero Stress Crew (formed by Sangue Misto and Radical Stuff). Other important crews and rappers included Bologna's Porzione Massiccia Crew, Sangue Misto (project born from Isola Posse All Star), with their 1994 album SXM, which has influenced all subsequent Italian hip hop tracks.

At the end of 1999, the Milanese group Sacre Scuole, made up of Jake La Furia, Gué Pequeno and Dargen D'Amico, released the album 3 MC's al cubo.

The group Gemelli DiVersi was founded in 1997, it is a group which blends hip hop with vocal harmonies, and often with socially conscious lyrics. Their first single was the Pooh sampling "Un attimo ancora" (1998). The group had a peak of success in the 2000s, with songs such as "Un altro ballo" (2004), "Vivi per un miracolo" (2007) and their biggest hit, "Mary" (2003).

2000s
At the beginning of the new millennium, the Apulian rapper Caparezza achieves success with the album Verità supposte. In 2001, the group Sottotono took part in the Sanremo Music Festival and then broke up shortly after. After the dissolution of the Articolo 31 and the abandonment of Neffa from the rap scene, there is a period of fatigue for the Italian scene that awakens with some productions: first of all we must remember Mi fist by Club Dogo, 60 Hz by DJ Shocca, Fabiano detto Inoki by Inoki, Mondo Marcio by Mondo Marcio, and above all Mr. Simpatia by Fabri Fibra.

Although the Italian hip hop scene remains firm in the underground, the record market, and headed by independent labels such as Portafoglio Lainz or Vibra Records. In 2006, several MCs manage to get a record deal with major majors: Mondo Marcio, a Milanese rapper, signs for EMI, Inoki with Warner, Fabri Fibra and Club Dogo with Universal, while Cor Veleno sign for H2O Music, being the first Italian artists to exploit digital music. Some video clips, such as that of "Applausi per Fibra" by Fabri Fibra, manage to reach broadcasters such as AllMusic or MTV and gain decent positions in the charts. Between 2006 and 2008, the genre expands to a wider audience, initially thanks to the album Solo un uomo by Mondo Marcio, which brought the genre to the general public in Italy, then followed by the albums Tradimento by Fabri Fibra and Marracash by Marracash, who managed to conquer the top positions in the standings.

2010s
Since 2010, after the success of the single "Tranne te" by Fabri Fibra, a real phenomenon of the mainstream rapper is created. Artists such as Emis Killa, Clementino, Fedez, Gemitaiz, MadMan, Rocco Hunt, Baby K, and Salmo make their debut in Italian hip hop.

At the same time artists are born who manage to bring their music to high levels of sale, examples of these artists are Noyz Narcos and Nitro. Around 2015, the trap influence arrives in Italy starting from albums like Santeria by Gué Pequeno and Marracash, XDVR and Sfera Ebbasta by Sfera Ebbasta, 23 6451 by tha Supreme and The Dark Album by the Dark Polo Gang.

It is followed by new artists such as Achille Lauro, Capo Plaza, Izi, Ghali, Ketama126, Massimo Pericolo, Ernia, tha Supreme and many others. Although, the underground remains firm with artists such as Jack the Smoker, Lord Madness, Murubutu, Claver Gold, Primo Brown (died in 2016), DJ Fastcut, Suarez, Leslie, Hard Squat Crew, Inoki, Rancore, Mezzosangue, Lanz Khan, Mattak (Italian-speaking but Swiss), Gionni Gioielli, L'Elfo, En?gma and many others.

During the decade, albums that have already become classics of the genre such as Il ragazzo d'oro by Guè Pequeno, Mea culpa by Clementino, The Island Chainsaw massacre by Salmo, Il cuore e la fame by Egreen and Dead Poets by DJ FastCut are released.

2020s
Among the artists of the alternative hip hop genre that include En?gma, with the series of albums Totem, started with Totem – Episodio uno, anticipated by the single "Bomaye". Other important artists are Madame and Willie Peyote, both present at the 71st edition of the Sanremo Music Festival respectively with the songs "Voce", produced by Dardust and "Mai dire mai (La locura)". At the start of 2021, Il Tre released his first album, Ali, that debuted on the first place in the FIMI chart just 1 week after its release.

Freestyle
The first to have practiced freestyle in Italy were Neffa, Danno from Colle der Fomento, El Presidente and Moddi MC from the crew Pooglia Tribe. Clementino is a multiple-time Italian freestyle champion.

DJing, writing and breakdancing
From the overseas situation, writing, beatboxing and breakdancing have been "imported", as well as DJing. DJs include DJ Jad, Don Joe, Shablo, DJ Tayone, DJ Squarta (Cor Veleno), DJ Double S, Deleterio, DJ Nais, DJ Gruff, DJ Shocca, Mr. Phil, DJ 2P, Bassi Maestro, Big Joe and DJ Harsh.

title: Italian hip hop


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GNU Bison

GNU Bison, commonly known as Bison, is a parser generator that is part of the GNU Project. Bison reads a specification in Bison syntax (described as "machine-readable BNF" ), warns about any parsing ambiguities, and generates a parser that reads sequences of tokens and decides whether the sequence conforms to the syntax specified by the grammar.

The generated parsers are portable: they do not require any specific compilers. Bison by default generates LALR(1) parsers but it can also generate canonical LR, IELR(1) and GLR parsers.

In POSIX mode, Bison is compatible with Yacc, but also has several extensions over this earlier program, including
 * Generation of counterexamples for conflicts
 * Location tracking (e.g., file, line, column)
 * Rich and internationalizable syntax error messages in the generated parsers
 * Customizable syntax error generation,
 * Reentrant parsers
 * Push parsers, with autocompletion
 * Support for named references
 * Several types of reports (graphical, XML) on the generated parser
 * Support for several programming languages (C, C++, D, or Java)

Flex, an automatic lexical analyser, is often used with Bison, to tokenise input data and provide Bison with tokens.

Bison was originally written by Robert Corbett in 1985. Later, in 1989, Robert Corbett released another parser generator named Berkeley Yacc. Bison was made Yacc-compatible by Richard Stallman.

Bison is free software and is available under the GNU General Public License, with an exception (discussed below) allowing its generated code to be used without triggering the copyleft requirements of the licence.

Counterexample generation
One delicate issue with LR parser generators is the resolution of conflicts (shift/reduce and reduce/reduce conflicts). With many LR parser generators, resolving conflicts requires the analysis of the parser automaton, which demands some expertise from the user.

To aid the user in understanding conflicts more intuitively, Bison can instead automatically generate counterexamples. For ambiguous grammars, Bison often can even produce counterexamples that show the grammar is ambiguous.

For instance, on a grammar suffering from the infamous dangling else problem, Bison reports

doc/if-then-else.y: warning: shift/reduce conflict on token "else" [-Wcounterexamples] Example: "if" expr "then" "if" expr "then" stmt • "else" stmt Shift derivation if_stmt ↳ "if" expr "then" stmt ↳ if_stmt ↳ "if" expr "then" stmt • "else" stmt Example: "if" expr "then" "if" expr "then" stmt • "else" stmt Reduce derivation if_stmt ↳ "if" expr "then" stmt                       "else" stmt ↳ if_stmt ↳ "if" expr "then" stmt •

Reentrancy
Reentrancy is a feature which has been added to Bison and does not exist in Yacc.

Normally, Bison generates a parser which is not reentrant. In order to achieve reentrancy the declaration  must be used. More details on Bison reentrancy can be found in the Bison manual.

Output languages
Bison can generate code for C, C++, D and Java.

For using the Bison-generated parser from other languages a language binding tool such as SWIG can be used.

License and distribution of generated code
Because Bison generates source code that in turn gets added to the source code of other software projects, it raises some simple but interesting copyright questions.

A GPL-compatible license is not required
The code generated by Bison includes significant amounts of code from the Bison project itself. The Bison package is distributed under the terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL) but an exception has been added so that the GPL does not apply to output.

Earlier releases of Bison stipulated that parts of its output were also licensed under the GPL, due to the inclusion of the yyparse function from the original source code in the output.

Distribution of packages using Bison
Free software projects that use Bison may have a choice of whether to distribute the source code which their project feeds into Bison, or the resulting C code made output by Bison. Both are sufficient for a recipient to be able to compile the project source code. However, distributing only the input carries the minor inconvenience that the recipients must have a compatible copy of Bison installed so that they can generate the necessary C code when compiling the project. And distributing only the C code in output, creates the problem of making it very difficult for the recipients to modify the parser since this code was written neither by a human nor for humans - its purpose is to be fed directly into a C compiler.

These problems can be avoided by distributing both the input files and the generated code. Most people will compile using the generated code, no different from any other software package, but anyone who wants to modify the parser component can modify the input files first and re-generate the generated files before compiling. Projects distributing both usually do not have the generated files in their revision control systems. The files are only generated when making a release.

Some licenses, such as the GPL, require that the source code be in "the preferred form of the work for making modifications to it". GPL'd projects using Bison must thus distribute the files which are the input for Bison. Of course, they can also include the generated files.

Use
Because Bison was written as a replacement for Yacc, and is largely compatible, the code from a lot of projects using Bison could equally be fed into Yacc. This makes it difficult to determine if a project "uses" Bison-specific source code or not. In many cases, the "use" of Bison could be trivially replaced by the equivalent use of Yacc or one of its other derivatives.

Bison has features not found in Yacc, so some projects can be truly said to "use" Bison, since Yacc would not suffice.

The following list is of projects which are known to "use" Bison in the looser sense, that they use free software development tools and distribute code which is intended to be fed into Bison or a Bison-compatible package.

 * Bash shell uses a yacc grammar for parsing the command input.
 * Bison's own grammar parser is generated by Bison.
 * CMake uses several Bison grammars.
 * GCC started out using Bison, but switched to a hand-written recursive-descent parser for C++ in 2004 (version 3.4), and for C and Objective-C in 2006 (version 4.1)
 * The Go programming language (GC) used Bison, but switched to a hand-written scanner and parser in version 1.5.
 * LilyPond requires Bison to generate its parser.
 * MySQL
 * GNU Octave uses a Bison-generated parser.
 * Perl 5 uses a Bison-generated parser starting in 5.10.
 * The PHP programming language (Zend Parser).
 * PostgreSQL
 * Ruby MRI, the reference implementation of the Ruby programming language, relies on a Bison grammar.
 * syslog-ng uses several Bison grammars assembled together.

A complete reentrant parser example
The following example shows how to use Bison and flex to write a simple calculator program (only addition and multiplication) and a program for creating an abstract syntax tree. The next two files provide definition and implementation of the syntax tree functions.

The tokens needed by the Bison parser will be generated using flex.

The names of the tokens are typically neutral: "TOKEN_PLUS" and "TOKEN_STAR", not "TOKEN_ADD" and "TOKEN_MULTIPLY". For instance if we were to support the unary "+" (as in "+1"), it would be wrong to name this "+" "TOKEN_ADD". In a language such as C, "int *ptr" denotes the definition of a pointer, not a product: it would be wrong to name this "*" "TOKEN_MULTIPLY".

Since the tokens are provided by flex we must provide the means to communicate between the parser and the lexer. The data type used for communication, YYSTYPE, is set using Bison %union declaration.

Since in this sample we use the reentrant version of both flex and yacc we are forced to provide parameters for the yylex function, when called from yyparse. This is done through Bison %lex-param and %parse-param declarations.

The code needed to obtain the syntax tree using the parser generated by Bison and the scanner generated by flex is the following.

A simple makefile to build the project is the following.

title: GNU Bison


text:
German hip hop

German hip hop (locally known as Deutschrap, Deutsch meaning German) refers to hip hop music produced in Germany. Elements of American hip hop culture, such as graffiti art and breakdancing, diffused into Western Europe in the early 1980s.

1980–1990
Early underground artists included Cora E. and Advanced Chemistry. It was not until the early 1990s that German hip hop entered the mainstream as groups like Die Fantastischen Vier and the Rödelheim Hartreim Projekt gained popularity. German hip hop was heavily influenced by films, leading to a strong emphasis on visual and cultural elements such as graffiti and breakdancing beyond the music itself.

In addition to films, such as Wild Style and Beat Street, American expats and soldiers stationed in Germany facilitated the introduction of hip hop music and culture into German pop culture.

GLS United released the first German language hip hop song, Rapper's Deutsch, in 1980. While the group (consisting of three radio DJs including the later comedian and TV host Thomas Gottschalk) was formed explicitly for the one song, and the song was intended primarily as a parody of Rapper's Delight by The Sugarhill Gang, it was none-the-less the first German hip hop group and first German-language hip hop track. Also the punk rock band Die Toten Hosen released one of the first German hip hop songs, Hip Hop Bommi Bop, in 1983, which also was one of the first rap rock crossovers ever. The song, created in collaboration with Fab 5 Freddy, is a parody hip hop version of their song Eisgekühlter Bommerlunder. Nina Hagen also raps in her 1983 single New York / N.Y. New York New York, the English version of New York / N.Y., was successful in American dance charts, peaking at number nine on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs.

These hip hop movies -Wild Style and Beat Street- led the younger audiences in Germany to realize that hip hop was much more than just rap music, but was very much a cultural movement in and of itself. Though at the time of the release of the movie, it did not have a great overall impact, once German reunification began in 1990, the hip hop scene began to flourish. As one German remembers on a visit to the US in 1986, things were much different. MTV did not exist in Europe at the time, and the scene was still very much underground. Moreover, there was a lack of European hip hop clubs.

After this initial wave of popularity, hip hop fans were few and far between. However, the fans that did remain would play a role in the resuscitation of the hip hop culture. "The hardcore hip-hop fans that remained after the breakdance craze faded from the media were central to the further development of hip hop in Germany-they supplied much of the personnel for the important rap groups that began to develop in the late 1980s and early '90s." "Graffiti and breakdancing came out big but it only lasted for a short period of time. But hip hop survived in the underground."

American hip hop continued to influence the German scene, influencing emergent acts such as Rock Da Most. Originally most German rappers relied on English language lyrics, a fact which has led some academics and groups of the German public to interpret the emergence of hip hop in German pop culture as cultural imperialism: that is to say, as a movement that emulated the culture of the United States at the expense of their native German cultural traditions. The influence of American hip hop artists remains strong even in today's German language hip hop scene: music videos rely on similar symbols of power and affluence, such as cars and jewelry.

Many German hip hop artists are of Turkish-German or Arab-German descent, often second- and third-generation German citizens who grew up in comparatively poor or "tough" neighborhoods, which has become an influential hip hop narrative. Identification with their roots in neighborhoods remains an important aspect of the identity of individual rappers and their "crews".

When not rapping in English, many German rappers employ a dialect of German developed in these communities and which is therefore associated with immigrants and the German "ghetto". Using this language in their music, some academics have argued, enables them to levy criticism and protest aspects of society and politics that they perceive as having disadvantaged them and their communities.

Die Fantastischen Vier (the Fantastic Four) are another important German hip hop group, who also began to rap in German around the same time as Advanced Chemistry. Die Fantastischen Vier saw English rap in Germany as meaningless loyalty to "surface elements" of U.S. rap, and devoid of any German political or social context. They sought to appropriate hip hop from its foreign framework, and use it to bring a voice to historical and contemporary problems in Germany. The shift of rapping from English into German increased hip hop's appeal to the German people, Gastarbeiter (guest workers) included. Growing self-confidence among Germany's immigrant population coincided with the use of the German language in German hip hop, and provided them with a vocal outlet in line with the plight of poor African Americans, out of which hip hop had originally emerged.

The Group Advanced Chemistry originated from Heidelberg, Germany. As they were one of the few early hip hop groups to rap in English, they were extremely influential in promoting the hip hop scene in Germany. More importantly, however, Advanced Chemistry was a prominent hip hop group, because of the ethnic diversity of the members. Torch, the leader of the group for instance is both of a Haitian and German ethnic background. Advanced Chemistry exploded onto the German hip hop scene in November 1992 with their first mixed single entitled Fremd im eigenen Land (Foreign in Your Own Country). This song was immensely popular because it directly addressed the issue of immigrants in Germany: "In the video of the song, a band member brandishes a German passport in a symbolic challenge to traditional assumptions about what it means to be German. If the passport is not enough, the video implies, then what is required? German Blood?".

After the reunification of Germany in 1990, many Germans saw a growing wave of racism. Because many hip hop artists were children of immigrants, this became a major theme of German hip hop.

During the 1980s Germany first saw a wave of second generation immigrants coming into the country. Immigration became a big issue in hip hop albums at this point. The German synonym for an immigrant is Gastarbeiter, which means guest worker, and these guest workers were rapped about often. Immigrant teenagers commonly use rap and hip hop as a way to defend themselves in their new countries. "Since honour cannot be gained, but only lost, a permanent readiness to fight is required. Thus social approval is acquired by actually defending one's honour or by exhibiting abilities such as the willingness to face physical encounter, talkativeness and humour... According to the rules of the game, the first one to whom nothing clever comes to the mind is the loser. This concept is quite similar to 'dissing' in rap."

1990–1995
In 1991, the German music label Bombastic released the record Krauts with Attitude: German Hip Hop Vol. 1. The album featured fifteen songs – three in German, eleven in English, and one in French. The album was produced by DJ Michael Reinboth, a popular hip hop DJ at that time. Michael Reinboth moved to Munich in 1982 and was the first DJ to introduce Garage House and Old school hip hop music to the Munich club scene. His compilation Krauts with Attitude is considered one of the first German hip hop albums, as it features Die Fantastischen Vier. The title refers to N.W.A (Niggaz with Attitude), one of the most controversial hip hop groups of the time in the United States. Krauts with Attitude was the first album to nationalize German hip hop, and its album packaging reflected this. "The cover was designed in the colours of the national flag (black, red and yellow), and the liner notes read as follows: 'Now is the time to oppose somehow the self confidence of the English and the American.'"

In the early 1990s, hip hop established itself in the mainstream, and many new rappers emerged on the scene. One such band was Die Fantastischen Vier, four rappers from Stuttgart, whose optimistic sound and lighthearted lyrics have brought them fame both in Germany and abroad. Apparently, original crew members Smudo and Thomas D, were inspired to begin rapping in German following a six-month visit to the United States. It became apparent that they had nothing in common with U.S. rappers and their essentially middle-class upbringing was foreign to that of the cultural environment of U.S. hip hop. "The group subsequently decided to concentrate on issues they saw around them, using their own language, rather than aping American styles."

Although Die Fantastischen Vier achieved commercial success and helped to pioneer hip hop music in Germany, they were contested for sounding "too American." The group's lack of socially conscious topics and simplistic delivery and material informed the ways in which they were viewed as a trite pop group.

During 1992–93 many acts of protest occurred in the wake of rising anti-immigration sentiment in Germany. Amongst the angst of this period, the content of German hip hop started to become more politicized. Additionally, the language of the music started to reflect a more local voice. The group Advanced Chemistry has been noted as one of the first to incorporate social critiques of growing prejudice and racism in Germany. "…the newly emerging hip hop movement took a clear stance for the minorities and against the marginalisation of immigrants who, as the song said, might be German on paper, but not in real life" In 1992 the group released the single Fremd im eigenen Land. The song dealt with the widespread racism that non-white German citizens faced. In the same year, another rock-hip-hop collaboration emerged. The punk rock band Die Goldenen Zitronen, together with the US-American rapper Eric IQ Gray and the hip-hop group Easy Business, released the maxi-single 80 000 000 Hooligans, which includes a rap version of their song 80 Million Hooligans. The song addressed the nationalism and hatred against foreigners that emerged in Germany after the reunification.

During the inception of hip hop into Germany, most popular hip hop artists have come from West Germany. This could be because of the large immigrant population there at the time. "By 1994, the number of immigrants living in Germany had reached 6.9 million. 97 per cent of all immigrants were resident in the western part of the country, which meant that in the former Federal Republic of Germany and in West Berlin every tenth citizen was a foreigner." Of those 97% of immigrants in the Western part of Germany over 1.5 million of them originated from a European country. For example, the community with the largest number of immigrants (roughly 1.9 million people) was the Turkish community. Within the Turkish community only 5% of its people were of age 60 or older. Such statistics give justification for why hip hop may have flourished in Germany; many of the people were young. Furthermore, German hip hop, much like many other countries, was heavily influenced by the western world. During that time, a rises of anti-immigrant feelings resulted in the acts of arson and murder against the Turkish asylum seekers. In May 1993, 5 Turkish people were killed and many injured when someone attacked the home of a Turkish family with a firebomb. In 1993 German hip hop "globalized" with the emergence of Viva's Freestyle; the equivalent to the American Yo! MTV Raps show. Viva's freestyle consisted of hip hop songs from the United States, United Kingdom, and Germany. The influx of immigrants into Germany caused an adverse effect on employment and wages. It was found that immigrants and native Germans were imperfect substitutes for each other, while old and new immigrants were interchangeable exposing an inelastic labor market.

In the mid-1990s German hip hop was growing. John Clarke used the term 'recontextualization' to describe the process of borrowing cultural ideas and integrating them into a new society. German hip hop did just this as it took US hip-hop and gave it a new meaning and identity in German culture. Black American gangsta rap, however, is not the only type of rap that has developed in Germany. Some of the most innovative rap music in Germany is made by Germans or by underground crews dedicated to rap for both political and artistic reasons. Rap has been able to succeed in Germany not just due to a different national culture of the U.S., but also because people are responding to other racial and ethnic cultures. At this time, in the mid-1990s, the relation of import and domestic rap was 70% import to 30% domestic, but domestic was increasing rapidly. CD's had practically taken over the market in Germany and cassettes were almost out and were just used for black copies. German hip hop was yet to have a specific identity as different styles occurred due to ethnic and musical background.

1995–2000
This was also a time that a lot of immigrants were moving to Germany and they all came with their own culture which contrasted with or added to that of Germany.

Karakan also emerged in the German hip hop scene. In 1991, Alper Aga & Kabus Kerim formed the group in Nuremberg, Germany. This year, they released the first-ever Turkish language rap track in, named "Bir Yabancının Hayatı" (Life of a Foreigner). Two years later, they released classic tracks like "Cehenneme Hoşgeldin" (Welcome to Hell) and the controversial "Defol Dazlak" (Begone Skinhead), which was released as a Maxi Single. "Big Porno Ahmet" joined the group as a producer/beatmaker. Shortly, the success of Karakan spread beyond the borders of Germany and the group started to get well known within the European hip hop scene. During jams, they met Cinai Sebeke (Da Crime Posse) and Erci-E. Together, they established the legendary group CARTEL and released a compilation album in 1995. In 1997, KARAKAN finally released his first official album "Al Sana Karakan" and shot 2 videos, which marked a high point in Turkish hip hop.

The multilingual and multinational group TCA- The Microphone Mafia is an example of 'Oriental Hip Hop in the German Diaspora'. They combine Spanish, Italian, Turkish and German raps with live music and samples of traditional music from all the previously named countries.

2000 to present
In October 2006, what is thought to be the first US-released commercial compilation of German hip hop (and reggae), "Big Up Berlin," was released in the US. It received 4.5 of 5 stars in All Music Guide (now known as All Music) and featured artists such as Bushido, Fler, Kool Savas, Azad and others.

Today, the German hip hop scene is a reflection of the many dimensions that Germany has come to represent in a unified image of Europe. Everything from "migrant hip hop," which is known as hip hop from the large Turkish immigrant population, to the more humour-based groups paint a portrait of a vibrant and diverse hip hop community in Germany.

Despite common notions of the Old School German hip hop's emulation of US hip hop styles and the New School's attempt to rap about crime and violence, some "Old Schoolers " feel that the New School has, in fact, forgotten about its roots. Old School supporters and Scholars disagree on the nature of the recent transformation in German hip hop. Scholars have argued that the Old School German hip hop "scene was musically and vocally oriented to American role models. Rhymes were written in English; funk and soul samples dominated musical structures". However, Old Schoolers themselves contend that it is the New School German rap artists who have been "Americanized," and therefore lack the authenticity of the struggle of the ghetto in West Germany. The German old school acknowledged that there were many differences between the situation in the United States and the situation in Germany, and aimed at expressing the concept of "realness," meaning to "be true to oneself". Different from the US hip hop's equating "realness" with a tougher "street credibility," many raps that came out of the old school German hip hop "address this issue and reject unreflected imitation of US hip hop as clichés and as the betrayal of the concept of realness". Furthermore, the Old School of German hip hop may have been seen as representing "a critique of White America" because of its modeling after US hip hop; however, Old schoolers dispute that hip hop in Germany was about the oppression of people in Germany. One Old School artist, DJ Cutfaster lamented that, "Most people have forgotten that hip hop functions as a mouthpiece against violence and oppression and ultimately against the ghetto, which has become the metaphor for the deplorable state of our world". Contrary to the New School hip hop's attempts to crossover into the mainstream popular culture, the Old School "envisioned and propagated hip hop as an underground community that needed to keep its distance from and to create resistance to mainstream culture in order to avoid co-optation".

German rappers with most No. 1 on German album charts
10 Albums 9 albums 6 albums 5 albums
 * Bushido
 * Kollegah
 * Fler
 * Kontra K
 * Kool Savas
 * Farid Bang
 * Bonez MC
 * RAF Camora
 * KC Rebell
 * Shindy
 * Ufo361

German rappers who reached No. 1 on German single charts
22 Singles 12 Singles 9 Singles 8 Singles 6 Singles 5 Singles
 * Capital Bra
 * Samra
 * Apache 207
 * Bonez MC
 * Loredana
 * Shirin David
 * Cro
 * Mero

 * Other artists
 * Azad
 * Marteria
 * Sido
 * Kay One
 * Kollegah
 * Farid Bang
 * Bausa
 * Olexesh
 * Ufo361
 * Bushido
 * RAF Camora
 * Gzuz
 * Eno
 * Luciano
 * Trettmann
 * Gringo
 * Shindy
 * KC Rebell
 * Summer Cem
 * Kalazh44
 * Nimo
 * Zuna
 * AK Ausserkontrolle
 * Jamule
 * Kasimir1441
 * Namika
 * Juju
 * Hava
 * Céline
 * Elif
 * Katja Krasavice
 * Badmómzjay
 * Kitty Kat

Other influential and successful artists

 * Kurdo
 * Xatar
 * Haftbefehl
 * Capo
 * Eko Fresh
 * Veysel
 * Alpa Gun
 * Mert
 * Hasan K.
 * Metrickz
 * KMN Gang (rappers: Azet, Nash, Zuna, Miami Yacine)
 * SXTN (rappers: Juju, Nura)
 * Celo & Abdi
 * Dú Maroc
 * MC Rene
 * Hanybal
 * Said
 * MoTrip
 * Baba Saad
 * Moe Phoenix
 * Tony D
 * Mudi
 * Massiv
 * Ali Bumaye
 * PA Sports
 * Kianush
 * Fard
 * SSIO
 * SadiQ
 * Casper
 * Alligatoah
 * Dendemann
 * Prinz Pi
 * Ferris MC
 * Curse
 * Favorite
 * Hollywood Hank
 * 187 Strassenbande (rappers: Bonez MC, Gzuz, Maxwell, LX, Sa4)
 * Beginner (rappers: Jan Delay, Denyo)
 * Fünf Sterne deluxe (rappers: Das Bo, Tobi Tobsen)
 * K.I.Z. (rappers: Tarek, Nico, Maxim)
 * Advanced Chemistry (rappers: Torch, Toni L, Linguist)
 * Manuellsen
 * Nate57
 * Samy Deluxe
 * Afrob
 * B-Tight
 * J-Luv
 * Moses Pelham
 * Taktloss
 * Dardan
 * RIN
 * Sun Diego
 * Genetikk
 * Vega
 * Bass Sultan Hengst
 * Schwesta Ewa
 * Money Boy
 * Chakuza
 * Nazar
 * Denots Crew

title: German hip hop


text:
User:Toby Bartels/todo

'''This page is for my use only. You're certainly free to look at it, but I'm not trying to keep it any more accurate than I need myself. Best just to ignore this page, as the edit summaries suggest.'''

Featured article candidates the first Monday of the month.

Begin Abelian category, Jan 7, Mar 24.

Write History of the separation axioms.

Rewrite Abelian category in light of its siblings.

Write Mal'cev algebra.

Write articles potentially linked from Topology glossary.

Clarify Logical implication and its relatives.

title: User:Toby Bartels/todo


text:
Swiss hip hop

The Swiss hip hop culture began in the early 1980s.

Crews
The most known, active dancers and crews were:
 * Fantastic Rockers from Zürich: Power, Fast5, Prince Crime, Chase, Sky
 * Battle Rockers (formerly known as "Back Street Crew") from Zürich: Charly, Duster, Csizee, Spinkie, Steve
 * City Rockers (’83–’84) from Bern: Zed & Ice (later joined Jazzy Rockers), Silvano, Mike, J.K., Scholl, Tweety
 * Jam Power (ca. ’82–’83) from Geneva: Pascal, Punchy, Fred, Jose, Emilio (a.k.a. Joe B & DJ Mil of rap crew "Duty Free")
 * Supreme Rockers from Lausanne: Speedy & Carlos (rap group "Sens Unik"), Oswaldo, Nino, JP
 * Jazzy Rockers from Biel/Bienne: Seyo, Eduzy, Kid Rock, Rubber Band, Dee, Chico Rock, Zed, Soul, (around ’86 Carlos a.k.a. Risk Leader of the African Posse, Shy One, Lee joined)
 * Basel City Breakers from Basel: Melo, N-Top, Steve, Ricki, Oli, Willi & others

(Of course there were also others who played a significant role along with those above.)

These crews were the Swiss hip hop founders and brought the hip hop culture fundamentals (Peace, love & unity state of mind, graffiti, breakdance, DJing, MCs) and clothing styles straight from the roots and basic founders in New York City (Kool Herc, Afrika Bambaataa & The Zulu Nation, Fab 5 Freddy, Grandmaster Flash, The Rock Steady Crew, The New York City Breakers and many other U.S. hip hop masters…). They led the hip hop culture in Switzerland until the end of the 1980s and even after.

Although some of them returned to anonymity since then or died young, the most of these "old schoolers" are still around, watching what's going on. Some of them are still taking part of actual hip hop events and others are even still active (like Seyo in Painting Art, others are dealing with music industry in different music styles) and living this culture yet mostly in their heart with a nostalgic state of mind.

Rap
Early Swiss German rappers started rapping in English, but after the bilingual track "Murder by Dialect" by P-27 featuring Black Tiger, rappers switched to their native Swiss German dialects. Rappers from the French-speaking part (where the traditional dialects died out in most parts) and from the Italian-speaking part (where most people mix dialects and Standard Italian freely) rap in the standard languages.

The issue of language choice has become a major influence in the Swiss hip hop scene: As author Pascale Hofmeier notes, the creation of "Mundartrap" (dialect rap) has enabled Switzerland to develop a unique scene that, due to the lingual choice, is immediately identifiable as a distinctly Swiss product. The importance of language in Swiss hip hop can also create tension, however: Although the members of the Italian-speaking group Stoffunita live in Switzerland and consider it their home, their choice of language combined with their lack of Swiss citizenship earmark them as "Secondo", a term used to indicate people of foreign descent born in Switzerland. Given Switzerland's particularly strong opinions on who is "Swiss" and who is "other", it is easy to see that groups such as Stoffunita make use of the fact that hip hop "is still considered a voice for the oppressed" as hip hop scholar and author Jeff Chang notes.

The European Music Office's report on Music in Europe claimed that Switzerland's hip hop scene is "particularly innovative and advanced", featuring Unik Records (the first European indie rap label).

title: Swiss hip hop


text:
Greek hip hop

Greek hip hop (Ελληνικό χιπ χοπ, ), is the chief genre of rap music in Greece.

History
The earliest indications of the localized genre date back to 1987 the Maxi-single Deejays's with the group FF.C, though native language albums did not appear until the mid-1990s. The first hip hop album was Diamartiria (protest) in 1993 of Active Member along with "Σκληροί καιροί" (Hard Times) by FF.C. Both albums released under the independent label "Freestyle Productions". Though many can argue that the album Modern Fears "Η Αναμέτρηση" (circa 1992) by Aris Thomas was the first hip hop influenced record in Greece. Then Razastarr followed with their unreleased demo on Freestyle Productions, and TXC (now Artemis/Efthimis) with their single Terror X Crew in 1995.

Gangsta rap came to Greece in 1997 with the group Zontanoi Nekroi (Ζωντανοί Νεκροί; Living Dead). In 1999 the group Paremvoles (Παρεμβολές) released the first hardcore CD named En Opsi (Εν όψει; In consideration of). In 2000 the group Alfa Gama (Άλφα Γάμα [Α.Γ.]) continued with the CD named Agnostofovia (Αγνωστοφοβία; Fear of the unknown). Imiskoumbria and Goin' Through made Greek hip-hop famous in the mainstream Greek audience. Goin' Through changed their way of music from hip hop to a kind of R&B or Pop music. The political issues and the society also invaded to this type of music. Terror X Crew introduced a new style of rapping with their CDs "I Polis Ealo" (1997) and "Essetai Imar" (2001). These ethnocentric albums signified the first time Greek nationalism was involved with hip-hop music. In 2001 Makis Voridis, the then president of the Hellenic Front, awarded the band for its service to contemporary Greek music.

Nowadays Greek hip hop covers a broad spectrum, all the way from hardcore hip hop to urban pop.

title: Greek hip hop