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Jørn Utzon

Jørn Oberg Utzon (9 April 1918 – 29 November 2008) was a Danish architect. In 1957, he won an international design competition for his design of the Sydney Opera House in Australia. Utzon's revised design, which he completed in 1961, was the basis for the landmark, although it was not completed until 1973.

When the Sydney Opera House was declared a World Heritage Site on 28 June 2007, Utzon became only the second person to have received such recognition for one of his works during his lifetime, after Oscar Niemeyer. Other noteworthy works include Bagsværd Church near Copenhagen and the National Assembly Building in Kuwait. He also made important contributions to housing design, especially with his Kingo Houses near Helsingør.

Utzon attended the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts (1937–42) and was influenced early on by Gunnar Asplund and Alvar Aalto.

Early life and career
Utzon was born in Copenhagen, the son of a naval architect, and grew up in Aalborg, Denmark, where he became interested in ships and a possible naval career. As a result of his family's interest in art, from 1937 he attended the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts where he studied under Kay Fisker and Steen Eiler Rasmussen. Following his graduation in 1942, he joined Gunnar Asplund in Stockholm where he worked together with Arne Jacobsen and Poul Henningsen. He took a particular interest in the works of American architect Frank Lloyd Wright. After the end of World War II and the German Occupation of Denmark, he returned to Copenhagen.

In 1946 he visited Alvar Aalto in Helsinki. In 1947–48 he travelled in Europe, in 1948 he went to Morocco where he was taken by the tall clay buildings. In 1949, he travelled to the United States and Mexico, where the pyramids provided further inspiration. Fascinated by the way the Mayans built towards the sky to get closer to God, he commented that his time in Mexico was "One of the greatest architectural experiences in my life."

In America, he visited Frank Lloyd Wright's home, Taliesin West, in the Arizona desert and met Charles and Ray Eames. In 1950 he established his own studio in Copenhagen and, in 1952, built an open-plan house for himself, the first of its kind in Denmark. In 1957, he travelled first to China (where he was particularly interested in the Chinese desire for harmony), Japan (where he learnt much about the interaction between interiors and exteriors) and India, before arriving in Australia in 1957 where he stayed until 1966. All this contributed to Utzon's understanding of factors which contribute to successful architectural design.

Architectural approach
Utzon had a Nordic sense of concern for nature which, in his design, emphasized the synthesis of form, material and function for social values. His fascination with the architectural legacies of the ancient Mayas, the Islamic world, China, and Japan also informed his practice. This developed into what Utzon later referred to as Additive Architecture, comparing his approach to the growth patterns of nature. A design can grow like a tree, he explained: "If it grows naturally, the architecture will look after itself."

Sydney Opera House
In 1957, Utzon unexpectedly won the competition to design the Sydney Opera House. His submission was one of 233 designs from 32 countries, many of them from the most famous architects of the time. Although he had won six other architectural competitions previously, the Opera House was his first non-domestic project. One of the judges, Eero Saarinen, described it as "genius" and declared he could not endorse any other choice.

The designs Utzon submitted were little more than preliminary drawings. Emory Kemp's consulting career began at Ove Arup, where, he conducted analytical calculations for the roof, noting this was no simple task, as Utzon's sketches were designed to embellish the beauty of the international landmark, not necessarily for simple mathematics. Concerned that delays would lead to lack of public support, the Cahill government of New South Wales nonetheless gave the go-ahead for work to begin in 1958. The British engineering consultancy Ove Arup and Partners put out tenders without adequate working drawings and construction work began on 2 March 1959. As a result, the podium columns were not strong enough to support the roof and had to be rebuilt. The situation was complicated by Cahill's death in October 1959.

The extraordinary structure of the shells themselves represented a puzzle for the engineers. This was not resolved until 1961, when Utzon himself finally came up with the solution. He replaced the original elliptical shells with a design based on complex sections of a sphere. Utzon says his design was inspired by the simple act of peeling an orange: the 14 shells of the building, if combined, would form a perfect sphere.

Although Utzon had spectacular, innovative plans for the interior of these halls, he was unable to realise this part of his design. In mid-1965, the New South Wales Liberal government of Robert Askin was elected. Askin had been a 'vocal critic of the project prior to gaining office.' His new Minister for Public Works, Davis Hughes, was even less sympathetic. Elizabeth Farrelly, Australian architecture critic has written that "at an election night dinner party in Mosman, Hughes' daughter Sue Burgoyne boasted that her father would soon sack Utzon. Hughes had no interest in art, architecture or aesthetics. A fraud, as well as a philistine, he had been exposed before Parliament and dumped as Country Party leader for 19 years of falsely claiming a university degree. The Opera House gave Hughes a second chance. For him, as for Utzon, it was all about control; about the triumph of homegrown mediocrity over foreign genius."

Utzon soon found himself in conflict with the new Minister. Attempting to rein in the escalating cost of the project, Hughes began questioning Utzon's capability, his designs, schedules and cost estimates, refusing to pay running costs. In 1966, after a final request from Utzon that plywood manufacturer Ralph Symonds should be one of the suppliers for the roof structure was refused, he resigned from the job, closed his Sydney office and vowed never to return to Australia. When Utzon left, the shells were almost complete, and costs amounted to only $22.9 million. Following major changes to the original plans for the interiors, costs finally rose to $103 million.

The Opera House was finally completed in 1973 and Elizabeth II attended its opening. Utzon was invited to the opening ceremony by the Premier and while pleased by the invitation, he declined commenting "I cannot be a guest of the Government of New South Wales and at the same time criticize one of its ministers". He was, however, to be recognised later when he was asked to design updates to the interior of the opera house. The Utzon Room, overlooking Sydney Harbour, was officially dedicated in October 2004. In a statement at the time Utzon wrote: "The fact that I'm mentioned in such a marvellous way, it gives me the greatest pleasure and satisfaction. I don't think you can give me more joy as the architect. It supersedes any medal of any kind that I could get and have got." Furthermore, Frank Gehry, one of the Pritzker Prize judges, commented: "Utzon made a building well ahead of its time, far ahead of available technology, and he persevered through extraordinarily malicious publicity and negative criticism to build a building that changed the image of an entire country."

Works in Denmark

While some of Utzon's most notable works are spread around the globe, he was most prolific in his native Denmark, whose landscape inspired him more than any other. Bagsværd Church, just north of Copenhagen, is considered to be a masterpiece of contemporary church architecture, thanks to its bright, naturally illuminated interior and its concrete ceiling straddled with softly-rounded vaulting inspired by clouds. Designed in 1968, the church was completed in 1976. In the church there is a grand piano by Steingraeber designed by Utzon. The Kingo Houses in Helsingør (1958) consist of 63 L-shaped homes based on the design of traditional Danish farmhouses with central courtyards. Built in rows following the undulations of the site, each of the houses not only has a view of its own but enjoys the best possible conditions for sunlight and shelter from the wind. Utzon described the arrangement as "flowers on the branch of a cherry tree, each turning towards the sun." In general, Utzon's houses display sophisticated and varied relationships to the path of the sun.

A few years later, he went on to design the Fredensborg Houses (1963) for Danish pensioners who had worked for long periods abroad. Utzon helped select the site, and planned a complex consisting of 47 courtyard homes and 30 terraced houses as well as a central building with a restaurant, meeting rooms and nine guest rooms. His design was inspired by housing in Beijing's Forbidden City. The homes are located around a square in groups of three, designed to maximize privacy, natural lighting, and views of the surrounding countryside. When he was awarded the Pritzker Prize in 2003, Utzon was specifically lauded for his working designing housing projects that, the jury said, were "designed with people in mind."

His Paustian Furniture Store (1988) on Copenhagen's waterfront stands on a multitude of columns inspired by a beech forest. A temple-like finish is achieved by 11 columns with fan-shaped capitals overlooking the harbour. Similar columns are also present inside the spacious interior, stretching up to the skylight dominating the roof.

In 2005, in close collaboration with his son Kim Utzon, he helped to plan the Utzon Center in Aalborg (completed 2008) designed to inspire young students of architecture. Located on the waterfront, its high sculptured roofs rise over an auditorium, a boathall and a library while the lower roofs of its exhibition rooms and workshops surround a central courtyard, sheltered from the wind.

Other works
Kuwait's National Assembly Building, completed in 1982, stands on the sea front with (in Utzon's words) "haze and white light and an untidy town behind." Benefiting from an understanding of Islamic architecture, Utzon designed a building consisting of a covered square, a parliamentary chamber, a conference hall, and a mosque. Its waving roof conveys the impression of moving fabric. Its columns are reminiscent of the Karnak temples. He was also referenced in a Durham University tour video by Youtuber Jack Edwards as being the designer for the University's Student's Union building.

The Melli Bank building in Tehran, slightly set back from the lines of the busy street where it stands, has a reinforced concrete frame faced with natural stone. The ground-level banking hall, naturally illuminated by skylight vaults, is connected to the upper floor by a central spiral staircase, providing maximum flexibility of space.

Later life
On his return from Australia in 1966, Utzon made a stop on Mallorca. Fascinated by the island, he decided to build a summer house there on the top of a cliff near the fishing village of Portopetro. Named Can Lis after his wife, the house was based on the home he had intended to build in Australia but was inspired by local materials and climate, setting standards for contemporary Mediterranean architecture. The house consists of five loosely linked blocks with a colonnaded outdoor area, a living room and two bedrooms, each with its own courtyard. The use of locally sourced pink stone in rough pillars is designed to give the impression of a much older building, in keeping with the landscape.

Although Utzon and his wife spent an increasing amount of time on Mallorca, they became disturbed by all the tourists who came to see their home. They decided to move to a more remote area in the mountains where they built a second house known as Can Feliz, consisting of three blocks for dining, living and sleeping, separated by courtyards. The upper part of the grand theatrical living space is furnished for working with heavy timber bookcases and a large table. A huge window provides magnificent views of the pine forests and the sea beyond.

The Utzon Center in Aalborg, designed together with his son Kim, was the architect's last assignment. In 2005 he commented, "From the bottom of my heart, I hope that the Utzon Center will be a place where positive thoughts converge and where students from the School of Architecture gather when they want to get together to discuss their ideas. It is intended to be a power centre for the architects and people of the future."

Utzon died in Copenhagen on 29 November 2008, aged 90, of a heart attack in his sleep after a series of operations. He had never returned to Australia to see the completed opera house. On 2 December 2008 the Parliament of New South Wales passed a special motion of condolence to honour Utzon's life and work. He was survived by his wife, Lis, his sons Jan and Kim, his daughter Lin, and several grandchildren. His sons are trained architects and his daughter is a designer, muralist and artist who was at one time married to the Australian architect Alex Popov.

Buildings and projects

 * Major built projects:
 * Water tower in Svaneke, Bornholm, Denmark, 1952
 * Architect's own house, Hellebæk, Denmark, 1952
 * House in Holte, Denmark, 1953
 * Kingo Houses, Helsingør, Denmark 1956–59
 * Elineberg Housing, Helsingborg, Sweden, 1966
 * Planetstaden housing project in Lund, Sweden, 1957–58
 * Sydney Opera House, Sydney, Australia, 1973
 * Fredensborg Houses, courtyard housing in Fredensborg, Denmark, 1965
 * Melli Bank, University of Tehran Branch, Tehran, Iran, 1962
 * Hammershøj Care Centre, Helsingør, Denmark, 1966
 * Espansiva building system, pre-fabricated single-family houses, Denmark, 1960s
 * Bagsværd Church, Bagsværd, Denmark, 1976
 * Can Lis, Architect's own house, Majorca, Spain, 1971
 * National Assembly of Kuwait, Kuwait City, Kuwait, 1982
 * Paustian Furniture Store, Copenhagen, Denmark, 1987
 * Can Feliz, Majorca, Spain, 1994
 * Skagen Odde Nature Centre, Skagen, Denmark, 1989 (completed by his son Jan Utzon in 1999–2000)
 * Esbjerg Performing Arts Centre, Esbjerg, Denmark, 1997
 * Utzon Center, Aalborg, 2008 (with Kim Utzon)

Written works

 * Books:
 * Jørn Utzon, The Courtyard Houses: Logbook Vol. I, Copenhagen, Edition Bløndal, 2004, 180 pages. ISBN 87-91567-01-7
 * Jørn Utzon, Bagsværd Church: Logbook Vol. II, Copenhagen, Edition Bløndal, 2005, 168 pages. ISBN 87-91567-07-6
 * Jørn Utzon, Two Houses on Majorca: Logbook Vol. III, Copenhagen, Edition Bløndal, 2004, 76 pages. ISBN 87-91567-03-3
 * Jørn Utzon, Kuwait National Assembly: Logbook Vol. IV, Copenhagen, Edition Bløndal, 2008, 312 pages. ISBN 87-91567-21-1
 * Jørn Utzon, Additive Architecture: Logbook Vol. V, Copenhagen, Edition Bløndal, 2009, 312 pages. ISBN 87-91567-23-8
 * Jørn Utzon and Philip Drew, Sydney Opera House, London, Phaidon Press, 1995, 60 pages. ISBN 0-7148-3297-9
 * Martin Keiding and Kim Dirckinck-Holmfeld (ed.), Utzon and the new tradition, Utzon Library, Copenhagen, Danish Architectural Press, 2005, 262 pages. ISBN 87-7407-313-3
 * Martin Keiding and Kim Dirckinck-Holmfeld (ed.), Utzon's own houses, Utzon Library, Copenhagen, Danish Architectural Press, 2004. ISBN 87-7407-316-8

 * Journal articles:
 * Jørn Utzon and Tobias Faber, Tendenser i nutidens arkitektur, Arkitektur, Copenhagen, 1947
 * Jørn Utzon, Additiv arkitektur, Arkitektur, Copenhagen 1970, No. 1
 * Jørn Utzon, Platforms and Plateaus: Ideas of a Danish Architect, Zodiac 10, Milan 1962
 * Jørn Utzon and others, A survey of Utzon's work, some descriptions by Utzon, and the Sydney Opera House as finally contemplated, Zodiac 5, Milan 1959
 * Jørn Utzon and others, Utzon's descriptions of the Sydney Opera House, the Silkeborg Museum and the Zurich Theatre. Also Giedion's Jørn Utzon and the Third Generation, Zodiac 14, Milan 1965

Awards and recognition
Utzon was bestowed an Honorary Fellowship of the American Institute of Architects (Hon. FAIA) in 1970 for his distinguished achievements as an foreign architect. On 17 May 1985, he was made an Honorary Companion of the Order of Australia (AC). He was given the Keys to the City of Sydney in 1998. He was involved in redesigning the Opera House, and in particular, the Reception Hall, beginning in 1999. In 2003, he received in his absence an honorary Doctor of Science degree in Architecture (Hon. DScArch) from the University of Sydney; his son accepted the award on his behalf. In 2003, he was awarded the Pritzker Prize, architecture's highest honor.

In March 2006, Queen Elizabeth II opened the western colonnade addition to the building designed by Utzon who had not returned to Australia since 1966. His son, Jan, took his place at the opening ceremony instead, saying his father was "too old by now to take the long flight to Australia. But he lives and breathes the Opera House, and as its creator he just has to close his eyes to see it."

On 28 June 2007, the Sydney Opera House was declared a World Heritage Site.

In 2007 the Australian Institute of Architects named their annual international award the Jørn Utzon Award for International Architecture.

Following Utzon's death in 2008, on 25 March 2009, a state memorial and reconciliation concert was held in the Concert Hall at Sydney Opera House.

 * List of awards:

 * 1967 C. F. Hansen Medal
 * 1973 RAIA Gold Medal from the Royal Australian Institute of Architects
 * 1978 RIBA Royal Gold Medal
 * 1980 The Daylight and Building Component Award
 * 1982 Alvar Aalto Medal
 * 1987 Nykredit Architecture Prize
 * 1992 Wolf Prize
 * 1998 Sonning Prize
 * 2000 Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement
 * 2003 Pritzker Prize

Influence
According to Kenneth Frampton, Utzon's architectural influence is manifest on three levels: the emphasis given to the roof element, the importance given to the grounding of the building, and the commitment to "the cultural validity of organic growth". Kim Dirkinck-Holmfeld, writing in Dansk Arkitektur: 1960–1995, comments: Utzon did not obtain many commissions in his mother country but his importance was considerable in terms of direct imitation or inspiration. And he was the only Danish architect who made a significant contribution to the global development of Modernism.

title: Jørn Utzon


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Talk:African Americans

Semi-protected edit request on 17 May 2024
17:05, 17 May 2024 (UTC)188.10.18.131 (talk) Most African Americans are descendants of enslaved people within the boundaries of the present United States. While some Black immigrants or their children may also come to identify as African American, the majority of first-generation immigrants do not, preferring to identify with their nation of origin. Most African Americans are of West African and coastal Central African ancestry, with varying amounts of Western Europe.

188.10.18.131 (talk) 17:05, 17 May 2024 (UTC) https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/decennial-census-measurement-of-race-and-ethnicity-across-the-decades-1790-2020.html 188.10.18.131 (talk) 17:05, 17 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. GrayStorm(User_talk:GrayStorm|Special:Contributions/GrayStorm) 18:00, 17 May 2024 (UTC)

Obama once again
Please stop edit warring ! If you see that another editor disagrees, you should not simply restore your edit, but start a discussion here, see WP:BRD. Not everything that is true or sourced is also relevant, see WP:ONUS. Now, please explain why you think that Obama's parents and Kamala Harris are important enough to be mentioned in a lead section that doesn't mention giants like Douglass, King, Tubman, Jacobs, DuBois, .... I'd also like to know some good sources for your idea that only descendants of slavery are "conventional" African Americans. It sounds a bit like the idea that a person is defined by their great-great-great-grandparents. Rsk6400 (talk) 19:11, 4 July 2024 (UTC)

 * Firstly, I don't have that idea and it isn't mentioned in my edits today. Correct me if I'm wrong.
 * Secondly, the lede abruptly mentioned Obama after multiple paragraphs that themselves minimized the importance of immigrants in the definition of "African American". It implied that Obama fits within that framework; he does not. I have actually added a new paragraph that actually reflects the article's content and the sources, noting that immigration is important to the identity, as seen in recent statistics and the fact that Obama (and Harris), second-generation immigrants, are the first two African Americans in the White House. natemup (talk) 19:41, 4 July 2024 (UTC)
 * I agree with natemup that the lead minimizes immigrant African-Americans, but I don't think it's best resolved by including parentage details for Obama and Harris. I've moved that info to the body, where it was previously not presented at all. Something I'd love to do if I had the time: survey some high-quality sources for basic definitions of "African-American". My suspicion is that the two sources we're currently citing for —both of which are very high quality, if a bit dated—are cherry picked. Anecdotally, usage of the term tends to be dominated by the US Census definition, which is much more expansive. Firefangledfeathers (talk / contribs) 01:58, 5 July 2024 (UTC)
 * As explained, I added an entire paragraph that includes statistics about the influence of immigration on the African-American community. It concludes with the fact that the two most powerful African Americans in history are themselves second-generation immigrants. Removing this information from the lede and putting it in the body, where it already is present, doesn't really make any sense. natemup (talk) 03:00, 5 July 2024 (UTC)
 * The information is not present in the body, which mentions neither Obama's nor Harris's mother. The part you added about influence of immigration needs could be appended to the end of the preceding paragraph, as it slots well into the chronology. I'm not sure why you wouldn't follow BRD on this, especially since two editors have now reverted it. Firefangledfeathers (talk / contribs) 03:07, 5 July 2024 (UTC)
 * The relevant info is already included in the body: their Black immigrant parents, which I connected to the preceding statistics. What paragraph it is included in makes no difference to me—though making the third paragraph any longer than it already is seems imprudent.
 * I can remove the part about their mothers, if that's really the issue. (Note that you removed all the information from the lede about their parents, even though their paternal ancestry was certainly mentioned in the body already.) natemup (talk) 14:02, 5 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Natemup, from your edit summary: ... presented Obama as if he were a descendant of slavery (a conventional "African American") In my opinion, that's the idea that only descendants of slavery are "conventional" African Americans. Since I don't believe in that idea (but would like to be convinced by good sources), I don't think the parents are important enough to be mentioned in the lead. Rsk6400 (talk) 15:14, 5 July 2024 (UTC)
 * I was referring to the description already present in the lede, which says the term "African American" mostly (or conventionally) refers to descendants of U.S. slavery and its outworkings, and that immigrants typically don't use the term for themselves. These are obviously true statements and are supported by content and sources throughout the article. How and why you specifically may not be convinced seems irrelevant. Moreover, you implied that linking the term "African American" to slavery (which the article already does, with sources) means we are defining people by their "great-great-great-grandparents". This is POV, unsupported by content or sources, and manifestly inaccurate: I'm a 32-year-old African American and my great-grandfather was enslaved. Slavery wasn't eons ago. You also say we shouldn't mention Obama's literal parent in the lede, for reasons still unclear. In your position, which seems to be original research, it seems people can't be delineated by their distant ancestors or their immediate ancestors.
 * Obama was originally introduced in the same lede paragraph linking the term "African American" to slavery and its outworkings, as though he fits in that framework. This made no sense. He is clearly an African American but he isn't a descendant of U.S. slavery and his Kenyan father lived in the U.S. for a total of five years. Obama (and in my addition, Harris) are thus better connected to the recent immigrant influence on the African-American community (regardless of terminology), in which 20% are descendants of immigrants or immigrants themselves. This crucial stat is in the article but wasn't even mentioned in the lede, so I added it and mentioned Obama and Harris thereafter, since their immigrant parents are a major theme of the content and sources concerning them in the article already.
 * Your preferred edits, which you have now restored via revert for the second time while decrying "edit warring", leave the lede somewhat incomprehensible: Obama and Harris, African Americans who uniquely belong in the lede due to their service at the pinnacle of American government, are mentioned after a statistic on immigrants but no mention is made that they are second-generation immigrants themselves. As such, I think my edits should be restored. natemup (talk) 16:44, 5 July 2024 (UTC)
 * There seems to be a misunderstanding: I didn't restore my "preferred edits" with my second revert, I restored Firefangledfeather's version. Also: WP:NOCONSENSUS, WP:ONUS, WP:BRD. Rsk6400 (talk) 05:44, 6 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Are you two serious? When have Black Americans been anything but the descendants of slaves in America? Where you are born doesn't determine what you are and we are the only ones who fall for this nonsense. The only place on earth where you sign documents and become another nationality. If you're born on an airplane it doesn't make you an "airplanian" neither would people tell you so. Barack Obama is a Kenyan American, point, blank, period. Do you think he'll win an argument about reparations? This is the confusion America is causing. Do you think we'll be part the tribe of we were in Kenya for 3 generations? Hell no! We'd be an entirely different ethnic group. So-called "African-americans" (black Americans) are a distinct ethnic group and that's what we have to realize. These people do not claim us and spreading this misinformation is not helping us in the world view. In Japan they do not accept foreigners as being Japanese, you could be Chinese in Japan for 3-4 generations and the Japanese will still look at you as a china man. So-called African Americans (black Americans)are the descendants of the slaves who were brought here to the Americas, nothing else. Userace1117 (talk) 08:09, 6 July 2024 (UTC)
 * I agree that Black descendants of U.S. slavery are a distinct ethnic group, but as it stands, this page is not limited to that group. How to fix that, I do not know. Maybe make a new page? There is a page for ADOS (though it's mostly about the organization/movement). natemup (talk) 09:26, 6 July 2024 (UTC)
 * so what happens when more white south Africans start moving to the Americas, will they be "African American" too? Maybe we should start a page for American blacks" (the ethnic group, those of slave descent in America). Userace1117 (talk) 14:14, 6 July 2024 (UTC)
 * You clearly restored Firefangledfeather's edits because you prefer them (and because they remove from the lede the info you previously removed from the lede), not because there was any consensus, sources, or improvement.
 * Notice you didn't respond to anything else I presented here. WP:ONUS is about adding new info to a page, not deciding what already-included info belongs in the lede. You have yet to provide any reason for not including certain info in the lede other than you "prefer not to mention" certain things there, per your most recent edit summary. You say we should discuss it but are not discussing anything, instead posting links to misapplied policies. It reeks of gaming the system and wikilawyering. natemup (talk) 09:35, 6 July 2024 (UTC)
 * We're pretty stuck. Rsk6400 and I think that details of Obama's and Harris's parentage are too much for the lead, you think otherwise. We've all presented reasons, and no one has said "prefer not to mention". When deciding what is too much detail for the lead, there are really no options other than editorial judgment, unless someone wants to do an exhaustive source survey.
 * No one is gaming or wikilawyering. This is a garden variety content dispute. Maybe we seek out some dispute resolution? Firefangledfeathers (talk / contribs) 17:00, 6 July 2024 (UTC)
 * "prefer not to mention" is in fact a quote from RSK's edit summary on their last revert. It follows similar reverts they have made in the past, on the grounds of personal preference (though with the facade of consensus and edit-warring). This is why they titled the above talk heading "Obama again"; they don't like this content being in the article and have removed it before from the body, IIRC. That is why I brought up wikilawyering and gaming the system. The blocking of this info is entirely untethered from sources, content, consensus, or reason. Just POV and vibes.
 * Moreover, "too much for the lede" isn't really a reason. Too much "detail" relative to what? The lede would be too long? Their parentage doesn't matter? Immigration shouldn't be mentioned at all in relation to important individuals? Help me out here. This is a massive article with a relatively modest lede overall. Adding ~10 words is nothing and I've already explained why it makes sense given the lede as it stands. natemup (talk) 03:16, 7 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Thanks for explaining the quote. In Rsk's summary the "prefer not to mention" was about mentioning Harris at all, not about the thing we're discussing here. I would say the lead is overlong already, so I am eager to cut it down, not expand it. POV and vibes is just a dismissive way of referring to someone else's editorial judgment. There is too much well-sourced content about African Americans to fit it all in the lead. We have to decide somehow what to include. I think immigration should be mentioned; again, compared to my experience with good sources, I think the lead is weirdly hostile to Black immigrants.
 * I am not sure how to phrase my objection in a way that would make sense to you. I feel like it already makes sense, but you've proposed some explanations that are very distant from what I'm trying to say. Let's say I wanted to include ~10 words about "Lift Every Voice and Sing", 10 words about soul food, 10 words about Jehovah's Witnesses, and 10 words about using "counseling" instead of "psychotherapy". Presume you oppose one or many of those. Is there a way you could phrase your opposition that couldn't be dismissed with "POV and vibes" or "personal preference"? Firefangledfeathers (talk / contribs) 03:36, 7 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Firefangledfeathers, I agree with you in everything except one: I don't think that it's only up to editorial judgment whether to include the parentage of Obama / Harris in the lead. If we include that, we implicitly say that this is very important, and that can only mean one thing: Obama and Harris are not real African Americans. Modern societies are built on the assumption that you belong to a group if you identify with the group and are accepted by the group. Obama identifies as African American, and he got something like 90% of the African-American vote. Rsk6400 (talk) 16:53, 7 July 2024 (UTC)
 * I couldn't disagree more. I take natemup at his word that the purpose of noting the parentage is to emphasize the importance of immigrant African-Americans to the community overall. As I read natemup's proposed version, that's the main way that I read it. If we're worried about pushing the view that immigrants are not real African Americans—and I really do worry about that—there are other parts of the lead that need more attention than this proposal. Also, when we're evaluating language based on how the reader will interpret it, we're engaging our editorial judgment! Firefangledfeathers (talk / contribs) 17:19, 7 July 2024 (UTC)
 * In short, there are many reasons why Obama and Harris having immigrant Black parents is very important. That's why the article already mentions their parentage in the body multiple times. That's why I belongs in the lede. In my opinion, it's a neutral fact worth highlighting.
 * And again, not mentioning it—in a paragraph immediately following descriptions of the importance of U.S. slavery to the term "African American"—gives a false impression about Obama and Harris. Specifying their parentage does not make them less African American, but makes their identity more clear, highlighting the diversity that the community now comprises. (That diversity is a crucial evolution of the group, after all, and was previously left out the lede altogether.)
 * But since the sources linking the term "African American" to slavery are now in question anyway, it seems prudent to figure out what the term really does refer to most often in (modern?) reliable sources. natemup (talk) 18:59, 7 July 2024 (UTC)

Black Americans
Some of this needs to be corrected. I understand the shift of different people coming to the Americas but I can't just identify with a people because it suits you or fits your situation. American blacks are specifically the descendants of slaves brought to America. Immigrants don't constitute American blacks. The distinction needs to be made. Userace1117 (talk) 07:30, 6 July 2024 (UTC)

 * I agree that there's a distinction, but the current parlance is that "African American" most often refers to descendants of U.S. slavery, but not exclusively. This is clear in all the reliable sources. There probably should be a Wiki article about the descendants of U.S. slavery specifically, but there's no agreed-upon name for that group, so the ADOS page is probably the best we can do for now. natemup (talk) 09:38, 6 July 2024 (UTC)
 * This should be exclusive. Maybe there should be a separate page for those of other origins. There has to be distinction to avoid confusion and preserve our distinct history. No offense but these people did not build this country. American blacks did. Userace1117 (talk) 14:18, 6 July 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 9 July 2024
Can you change this sentence: "African Americans, also known as Black Americans or Afro-Americans, are an ethnic group consisting of Americans with partial or total ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa."

To this:

"African Americans, also known as Black Americans or Afro-Americans, are an ethnic group consisting of Americans who descend from the formerly enslaved Africans of the United States."

The issue with the prior statement is that it is not specific enough and it is causing erasure. Caribbean, Latin American and Continental African immigrants all fall under the initial statement and they are not members of our ethnic group. You can not immigrate into an ethnic group. I can not provide a source because our ethnic group is not formerly defined. There are only articles that debate who belong to our ethnic group, or there are articles (and official statistics) who lump us in with Caribbean, Latin American and African peoples. We Black Americans know who we are and who our people are. Anyone who descends from the freed enslaved of 1865 are Afro / Black Americans. This change is imperative for us to begin defining who we are because many come to Wikipedia as the first line of research and we need this page to be as accurate as possible.

If you need me to prove that I am Black American I would be more than happy to if it means our ethnic group can gain more specificity. Asahae (talk) 18:15, 9 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done for now: please establish a consensus for this alteration before using the template. -  FlightTime  ( open channel ) 18:20, 9 July 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:African Americans


text:
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen

Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (Fürstentum Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen) was a principality in southwestern Germany. Its rulers belonged to the senior Swabian branch of the House of Hohenzollern. The Swabian Hohenzollerns were elevated to princes in 1623. The small sovereign state with the capital city of Sigmaringen was annexed to the Kingdom of Prussia in 1850 following the abdication of its sovereign in the wake of the revolutions of 1848, then became part of the newly created Province of Hohenzollern.

History
The senior Swabian branch is less well known to history than the junior Franconian line, the latter of which became Burgraves of Nuremberg and later ruled Brandenburg and Prussia, and the German Empire.

The County of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was created in 1576, upon the partition of the County of Hohenzollern, a fief of the Holy Roman Empire. When the last count of Hohenzollern, Karl I (1512–1579) died, the territory was divided among his three sons:
 * Eitel Friedrich IV of Hohenzollern-Hechingen (1545–1605)
 * Charles II of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1547–1606)
 * Christoph of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch (1552–1592)

The princes of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen ruled over a small principality in south-western Germany, with a seat at Sigmaringen Castle. Unlike the Hohenzollerns of Brandenburg-Prussia, the Hohenzollerns of Sigmaringen remained Roman Catholic, along with their cousins of Hohenzollern-Hechingen (the senior line of the Swabian branch of the House of Hohenzollern) and Hohenzollern-Haigerloch.

The principality became a sovereign state in 1815 after the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and an independent realm following the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. Its ruler, Charles, was deposed in the revolutions of 1848. His son, Karl Anton, succeeded him, and turned to Prussia for aid. Prussian troops arrived in August 1849, and in a treaty signed in December Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was annexed by Prussia, effective in March 1850. The annexation of their state did not, however, mean the end of the importance of the House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.

The last prince, Karl Anton, served as Minister President of Prussia from 1858 to 1861. Karl Anton's second son, Karl Eitel of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen became prince (1866–1881) and then King of Romania, under the name Carol (reigned 1881–1914). The house remained on the throne until the end of the Romanian monarchy in 1947. The last King of Romania, Michael, died on 5 December 2017.

Because the eldest Hechingen line of the Hohenzollerns became extinct in 1869 with the death of Constantine, Prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, the head of the Sigmaringen branch, Karl Anton, dropped his line's suffix and took the title of Prince (Fürst) of (all) Hohenzollern.

French opposition to the candidacy of Carol's elder brother Prince Leopold for the throne of Spain triggered the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), which led to the founding of the German Empire in January 1871.

Jurisdiction
The head of the Swabian branch of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen ruled over the following territories:
 * County of Hohenzollern (1061)
 * Burgraviate of Nuremberg (1192)
 * County of Veringen (1535)
 * Lordship of Haigerloch (1634)
 * Lordship of Wehrstein (1634)
 * County of Bergh (1781)

From 1061 until 1806 five of these fiefs (not including Nuremberg) constituted an immediate territory of the Holy Roman Empire under the counts of Zollern, vassals of the Holy Roman Emperor.

From 1806 until 1813 the Hohenzollern lands were a realm of the Confederation of the Rhine, a short-lived state set up by Napoleon I Bonaparte. From 1815 until 1849 the principality was a sovereign country and a member of the German Confederation. In 1849 it lost its independence, and was incorporated into the Kingdom of Prussia as the Province of Hohenzollern.

The German Confederation was succeeded in 1866 by the North German Confederation, which itself was succeeded by the German Empire in 1871. In 1918, the Kingdom of Prussia became the Free State of Prussia, and the German Empire was replaced by the Weimar Republic. In 1933 the republic was replaced by the Third Reich. After the defeat of the Nazis the province of Hohenzollern was merged with other territories into the state of Württemberg-Hohenzollern. This state was part of the Allied Occupation Zones in Germany until 1952. In that year, the state of Württemberg-Hohenzollern was merged into Baden-Württemberg, a state of the Federal Republic of Germany.

Karl Friedrich, Prince of Hohenzollern is the head of the princely Swabian line.

Titles
The head of the House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen is the historical heir to the titles of:
 * Prince (Fürst) of Hohenzollern
 * Burgrave (Burggraf) of Nuremberg
 * Imperial Count (Reichsgraf) of Hohenzollern
 * Count (Graf) of Sigmaringen
 * Count (Graf) of Veringen
 * Count (Graf) of Bergh
 * Lord (Herr) of Haigerloch
 * Lord (Herr) of Wehrstein

Styles
The historical titulature of rulers of the House of Hohenzollern was, in the German original: Seine Durchlaucht (S.D.) [name] von Gottes Gnaden, Fürst von Hohenzollern, Burggraf von Nürnberg, Graf zu Sigmaringen, Veringen und Berg, Herr zu Haigerloch und Wehrstein

The English translation is: His Serene Highness (HSH) [name] by the Grace of God, Prince of Hohenzollern, Burgrave of Nuremberg, Count of Sigmaringen, Veringen and Berg, Lord of Haigerloch and Wehrstein.

Romanian branch
The modern state of Romania was formed by union of the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859, under the prince domnitor Alexandru Ioan Cuza. He was replaced by Karl Eitel of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen in 1866, who ascended the throne as Carol I, Prince of Romania.

During the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78), Romania, which was a functionally independent vassal of the Ottoman Empire, proclaimed its full independence. After the commander of the Russian armies had requested Romania's help, Carol accepted to enter the war with the condition of being appointed as commander of the armies that were besieging Plevna. After the end of the Romanian War of Independence in the 1878, at the Treaty of Berlin, Romania was subsequently recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers.

In return for reverting to the Russian Empire three southern Bessarabian districts that had been regained by Moldavia after the Crimean War in 1852, Dobruja was acquired.

In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I. He reigned until his death in 1914, and was succeeded by his nephew, Ferdinand. Shortly after taking the throne, Ferdinand, a Roman Catholic like his predecessor, agreed to have his children reared in the Romanian Orthodox Church.

In 1918 Transylvania and Bessarabia were incorporated. In 1918–19, confirmed by the Treaty of Versailles of 1919 and the Treaty of Trianon of 1920, most of the Banat became part of Romania. Also, Bukovina was incorporated in 1918.

Ferdinand died in 1927. His eldest son, Crown Prince Carol, having renounced his rights, Carol's only son Michael ascended the throne. In 1930, however, Carol reclaimed the throne and was crowned Carol II. Carol was forced to abdicate in 1940, and Michael re-mounted the throne. His reign, and that of the dynasty, ended when he was forced to abdicate by a communist regime in 1947.

On 10 May 2011, following lawsuits brought in Germany against his family by his German relatives regarding attribution of the title Prince of Hohenzollern-Veringen to his son-in-law, Radu Duda, Michael severed dynastic ties with the princely house of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, changed the name of his family to "of Romania", and ceased the use of all princely titles borne by him and his family that derived from the German Hohenzollerns.

Titles
The head of the Romanian branch continued, since abolition of the monarchy, to use the hereditary title he bore while reigning:
 * Michael I, King of Romania

During the reign of Carol II of Romania his son, Michael, was styled "Măria Sa (M.S.) Marele Voievod de Alba Iulia" or the English translation "His Highness The Grand Voivode of Alba Julia".

Styles
The Romanian original is: Majestatea Sa (M.S.) N.N., Regele Românilor (or Maiestatea Sa (M.S.) N.N., Regele României; both forms are accepted by the Romanian Academy)

The English translation is: His Majesty (H.M.) N.N., King of Romania

Major coat of arms

The combined coat of arms of the House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen is:

 * Escutcheon: quartering of the shield, parted per pale, twice parted per fess, with an inescutcheon
 * first sixth: Burgraviate of Nuremberg (1214), on or (gold) a lion rampant sable (black) and a bordure of argent (silver) and gules (red)
 * second sixth: Hereditary Chamberlain of the Holy Roman Empire (1504), on gules (red, two crossed scepters in or (gold) Hereditary Chamberlain HRE.png
 * third sixth: Lordship of Haigerloch and Wehrstein (1634), parted per fess gules (red) and argent (silver) Wappen Haigerloch.svg
 * fourth sixth: Countship of Sigmaringen (1535), on gules (red) a deer or (gold) Wappen Sigmaringen.svg
 * fifth sixth: Countship of Veringen (1535), on or (gold) three deerhorns horizontally with twice four, and once three antlerpoints gules (red) Veringen Arms.svg
 * sixth sixth: County of Berg (1781), on argent (white) a lion rampant gules (red) and a bordure of sable (black) with roundels or (gold) Arms of Richard of Cornwall, Earl of Cornwall.svg
 * inescutcheon: Countship of Zollern (1061), quarterly sable (black) and argent (silver)
 * helm: or (gold) a helmet barred and affronté (sovereign), crowned with a coronet of a German prince (Fürstenkrone)
 * crest: sable (black) and argent (white) a head and shoulders of a German hound (Deutsche Bracke) (1317)
 * wreath: sable (black) and argent (white)
 * mantling: manteld sable (black), doubled argent (white) upon a crowned (Fürstenkrone) baldeqin gules (red), doubled ermine
 * motto:
 * until the 19th century: Hie guet Zollere allwege (We were always good Zollern)
 * from the 19th century onwards: Nihil Sine Deo (Nothing without God)

Family coat of arms

The combined coat of arms with inclusion of the House coat of arms of the House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen is:

 * Escutcheon: quartering of the shield, parted per pale, twice parted per fess, with an inescutcheon
 * first sixth: Burgraviate of Nuremberg (1214), on or (gold) a lion rampant sable (black) and a bordure of argent (silver) and gules (red)
 * second sixth: Hereditary Chamberlain of the Holy Roman Empire, on gules (red, two crossed scepters in or (gold) Hereditary Chamberlain HRE.png
 * third sixth: Lordship of Haigerloch and Wehrstein (1634), parted per fess gules (red) and argent (silver) Wappen Haigerloch.svg
 * fourth sixth: Countship of Sigmaringen (1535), on gules (red) a deer or (gold)Wappen Sigmaringen.svg
 * fifth sixth: Countship of Veringen (1535), on or (gold) three dearhorns horizontally with twice four, and once three antlerpoints gules (red) Veringen Arms.svg
 * sixth sixth: County of Berg (1781), on argent (white) a lion rampant gules (red) and a bordure of sable (black) with roundels or (gold) Arms of Richard of Cornwall, Earl of Cornwall.svg
 * inescutcheon: Countship of Zollern (1061), quarterly sable (black) and argent (silver)
 * helm: seven particular helmets, equivalent to the seven particular coat of arms (Hohenzollern, Nuremberg, Sigmaringen, Veringen, Berg, Haigerloch and Wehrstein)
 * crest: seven particular crests, equivalent to the seven particular coat of arms (Hohenzollern, Nuremberg, Sigmaringen, Veringen, Berg, Haigerloch and Wehrstein)
 * wreath: sable (black) and argent (white)
 * mantling: manteld sable (black), doubled argent (white)
 * supporter: two German hounds
 * compartment: grassy

Romania

The major coat of arms of the kingdom of the Romanians consisted, from 1922 onwards, of:

 * an escutcheon of the combination of the territories of Kingdom of Romania - Small CoA.svg :
 * Wallachia Coat of arms of Wallachia.svg
 * Moldavia Coat of arms of Moldavia.svg
 * Dobruja StemaDobrogea.jpg
 * Transylvania Coat of arms of Transylvania.svg
 * Bessarabia Герб Молдавской демократической республики.svg
 * Banat StemaBanat.jpg
 * Oltenia Oltenia1483 (svg version).svg
 * Bukovina Coat of arms of Bucovina.svg
 * an inescutcheon of the House of Hohenzollern (quarterly sable (black) and argent (silver)
 * helm: The Steel Crown of Romania
 * mantling: a crowned baldeqin gules (red), doubled ermine
 * motto: Nihil Sine Deo (Nothing without God)
 * supporter: two rampant lions
 * compartment: ground

Rulers
Members of the House of Hohenzollern reigned as monarchs in Europe.

Counts (Grafen) of Hohenzollern (1576–1623)

 * Karl II, Count 1576–1606 (1547–1606), second surviving son of Karl I of Hohenzollern
 * Johann, Count 1606–1623 (1578–1638), created Reichsfürst von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen 1623

Princes (Fürsten) of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1623–1849)

 * Johann, 1st Prince 1623–1638 (1578–1638)
 * Meinrad I, 2nd Prince 1638–1681 (1605–1681)
 * Maximilian, 3rd Prince 1681–1689 (1636–1689)
 * Meinrad II, 4th Prince 1689–1715 (1673–1715)
 * Josef Friedrich Ernst, 5th Prince 1715–1769 (1702–1769)
 * Karl Friedrich, 6th Prince 1769–1785 (1724–1785)
 * Anton Aloys, 7th Prince 1785–1831 (1762–1831)
 * Karl, 8th Prince 1831–1848 (1785–1853), abdicated 1848
 * Karl Anton, 9th Prince 1848–1849 (1811–1885), ceded sovereignty to Prussia 1849

(1849–present)

Following cession of their sovereignty over the principality to their kinsmen the kings of Prussia in 1849, the heirs of Karl Anton continued to bear the same title, "Prince (Fürst) of Hohenzollern":

 * Karl Anton, Prince 1849–1885 (1811–1885), became Prince of Hohenzollern on the death of the last Prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen in 1869
 * Leopold, Prince 1885–1905 (1835–1905)
 * Wilhelm, Prince 1905–1927 (1864–1927)
 * Friedrich, Prince 1927–1965 (1891–1965)
 * Friedrich Wilhelm, Prince 1965–2010 (1924–2010)
 * Karl Friedrich, Prince 2010–present (born 1952)
 * Alexander, Hereditary Prince (born 1987)
 * Prince Albrecht of Hohenzollern (born 1954)
 * Prince Ferdinand of Hohenzollern (born 1960)
 * Prince Aloys of Hohenzollern (1999)
 * Prince Fidelis of Hohenzollern (born 2001)
 * Prince Johann Georg of Hohenzollern (1932–2016)
 * Prince Carl Christian of Hohenzollern (born 1962)
 * Prince Nicolas of Hohenzollern (born 1999)
 * Prince Hubertus of Hohenzollern (born 1966)
 * Franz Joseph, Prince of Hohenzollern-Emden (1891–1964)
 * Prince Emanuel of Hohenzollern-Emden (1929–1999)
 * Prince Carl Alexander of Hohenzollern-Emden (born 1970)

Princes of Romania (1866–1881)

 * Carol I 1866–1881

King of Romania (1881–1947)

 * Carol I 1881–1914
 * Ferdinand 1914–1927
 * Michael 1927–1930
 * Carol II 1930–1940
 * Michael 1940–1947

title: Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen


text:
Ferdinand I of Romania

Ferdinand I (Ferdinand Viktor Albert Meinrad; 24 August 1865 – 20 July 1927), nicknamed Întregitorul ("the Unifier"), was King of Romania from 1914 until his death in 1927. Ferdinand was the second son of Leopold, Prince of Hohenzollern, and Infanta Antónia of Portugal, daughter of Ferdinand II of Portugal and Maria II of Portugal. His family was part of the Catholic branch of the Prussian royal family Hohenzollern.

In 1889, Ferdinand became Crown Prince of the Kingdom of Romania, following the renunciation of his father and older brother to the rights of succession to the royal crown of Romania. From the moment he settled in Romania, he continued his military career, gaining a series of honorary commands and being promoted to the rank of corps general. He married in 1893 Princess Marie of Edinburgh, granddaughter of both Queen Victoria and Emperor Alexander II.

Ferdinand became King of Romania on 10 October 1914, under the name Ferdinand I, following the death of his uncle, King Carol I. He ruled Romania during World War I, choosing to side with the Triple Entente against the Central Powers. This led to Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany removing his name from the royal house of Hohenzollern. At the war's end, Romania emerged as a much-enlarged kingdom due to Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania and parts of Banat, Crișana, and Maramureș becoming part of the Kingdom of Romania in 1920, and Ferdinand was crowned king of "Greater Romania" in a grand ceremony in 1922. In the years following the establishment of Greater Romania, Romanian society went through a series of major transformations, especially to the application of the agrarian reform and of the universal vote. In 1925, his eldest son, Prince Carol, gave up the rights of succession to the royal crown of Romania leading to a dynastic crisis, as the next prince in line of succession was Carol's 4-year-old son, Prince Michael. This led Ferdinand to remove Prince Carol's name from the royal house of Romania.

Ferdinand died from cancer in 1927 and was succeeded by his grandson Michael under a regency formed by three people: Prince Nicholas of Romania, the younger brother of Prince Carol; patriarch Miron Cristea; and president of the Supreme Court of Justice Gheorghe Buzdugan.

Early life
Prince Ferdinand Viktor Albert Meinrad of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was born in Sigmaringen in southwestern Germany. The name was later shortened simply to Hohenzollern after the extinction of the Hohenzollern-Hechingen branch in 1869. The princes of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen had ruled the principality until 1850, when it was annexed to Prussia.

Ferdinand I was the son of Leopold, Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, and Infanta Antónia of Portugal (1845–1913), daughter of Queen Maria II of Portugal and Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, heir to the Hungarian magnates of Koháry on his mother's side.

Following the renunciations, first of his father in 1880 and then of his elder brother Prince Wilhelm of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen in 1886, young Ferdinand became the heir-presumptive to the throne of his childless uncle, King Carol I of Romania, who would reign until his death in October 1914. In 1889, the Romanian parliament recognized Ferdinand as a prince of Romania. The Romanian government did not require his conversion to Eastern Orthodoxy from Catholicism, as was the common practice prior to this date, thus allowing him to continue with his born creed, but it was required that his children be raised Orthodox, the state religion of Romania. For agreeing to this, Ferdinand was excommunicated from the Catholic Church, although this was later lifted.

Ferdinand's mother's first cousin Tsar Ferdinand I of Bulgaria sat on the throne of the neighbouring Bulgaria beginning in 1887, and was to become the greatest opponent of the kingdom of his Romanian cousins. The neighboring Emperor Francis Joseph, monarch of Austria-Hungary and as such, ruler of Transylvania, was Ferdinand's grandmother's first cousin.

Ferdinand, a complete stranger in his new home, started to get close to one of Queen Elisabeth's ladies in waiting, Elena Văcărescu. Elisabeth, the Queen consort of Romania, very close to Elena herself, encouraged the romance, although she was perfectly aware of the fact that a marriage between the two was forbidden by the Romanian constitution (according to the 1866 Constitution of Romania, the heir-presumptive to the throne was not allowed to marry a Romanian).

The affair caused a sort of dynastic crisis in 1891. The result of this was the exile of both Elisabeth (in Neuwied) and Elena (in Paris), as well as a trip by Ferdinand through Europe in search of a suitable bride, whom he eventually found in Queen Victoria's granddaughter, Princess Marie of Edinburgh.

Marriage
In Sigmaringen on 10 January 1893, Prince Ferdinand of Romania married his distant cousin, the Lutheran Princess Marie of Edinburgh, daughter of Anglican Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, and the Orthodox Grand Duchess Marie Alexandrovna of Russia. Marie and Ferdinand were third cousins in descent from Franz Frederick Anton, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. Marie's paternal grandparents were Victoria of the United Kingdom and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha; her maternal grandparents were Alexander II of Russia and Marie of Hesse and by Rhine. The reigning emperor of neighbouring Russia at the time of the marriage was Marie's uncle, Tsar Alexander III, who would be succeeded by his eldest son, Marie's first cousin, Tsar Nicholas II, the following year.

The royal Romanian marriage produced three sons (Carol, Nicholas, and Mircea – the last of whom died in infancy) and three daughters (Elisabeta, Maria – called "Mignon" – and Ileana), but it was unhappy. Indeed, the couple's two youngest children, Ileana and Mircea, are widely believed to have been sired by Marie's long-time lover, Barbu Știrbey.

King of Romania
On 10 October 1914, Ferdinand's uncle, Carol I, died without surviving issue. Ferdinand succeeded him as King of Romania, reigning until his own death on 20 July 1927.

Ferdinand was appointed as the 1,174th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Austria in 1909 and as the 868th Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1924.

World War I
Though a member of a cadet branch of Germany's ruling Hohenzollern imperial family, Ferdinand presided over his country's entry into World War I on the side of the Triple Entente against the Central Powers, on 27 August 1916. Thus he gained the sobriquet "the Loyal", having kept the oath he swore before the Romanian Parliament in 1914: "I will reign as a good Romanian."

As a consequence of this "betrayal" of his German origin, German Emperor Wilhelm II had Ferdinand's name erased from the Hohenzollern House register.

Despite the setbacks after the entry into war, when Dobruja and Wallachia were occupied by the Central Powers, Romania fought in 1917 and stopped the German advance into Moldavia. When the new Bolshevik government of Russia sued for peace in 1918, Romania was surrounded by the Central Powers and forced to conclude a peace treaty of its own; however, Ferdinand refused to sign and ratify the Treaty of Bucharest. Allied forces then advanced on the Thessaloniki front and they knocked Bulgaria out of the war. Ferdinand ordered the re-mobilization of the Romanian Army, and Romania re-entered the war on the side of the Triple Entente.

The outcome of Romania's war effort was the union of Bessarabia, Bukovina, and Transylvania with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. Ferdinand became the ruler of a greatly enlarged Romanian state in 1918–1920 following the victory of the Entente over the Central Powers, a war between the Kingdom of Romania and the new Hungarian Soviet Republic, and the Russian Civil War. He was crowned king of "Greater Romania" in a spectacular ceremony on 15 October 1922 in the courtyard of the newly consecrated "Coronation Cathedral" in the historic princely seat of Alba Iulia in Transylvania.

A new period of Romanian history began on the day of the Union of Transylvania with Romania (Great Union Day, Marea Unire). This period would come to an end with international treaties, in the years leading to World War II, which ceded parts of Romania to its neighbors. As such, they are widely seen as an attempt to provoke the country into taking sides and joining the war.

After the war
Domestic political life during his reign was dominated by the conservative National Liberal Party, which was led by the brothers Ion and Vintilă Brătianu. The acquisition of Transylvania had the unintended effect of enlarging the electoral base of the opposition, whose principal parties united in January 1925 – October 1926 to form the National Peasant Party.

Death
Ferdinand died from cancer in Sinaia in 1927, and was succeeded by his grandson Michael under a regency (King Michael's father having renounced his rights to the throne in December 1925). The regency had three members, one of whom was Ferdinand's second son, Prince Nicholas.

Honours
He received the following honours: • undefined:

• * Grand Cross of the Star of Romania

• * Grand Cross of the Crown of Romania

• * Grand Cross of the Order of Carol I, with Collar, 1906

• * Founder of the Order of Michael the Brave, 26 September 1916

•  Hohenzollern: Cross of Honour of the Princely House Order of Hohenzollern, 1st Class

•  Kingdom of Prussia:

• * Knight of the Black Eagle, 10 January 1893; with Collar

• * Grand Cross of the Red Eagle, with Swords

•  Duchy of Anhalt: Grand Cross of the Order of Albert the Bear, 1887

•  Kingdom of Bavaria: Knight of St. Hubert, 1908

•    Ernestine duchies: Grand Cross of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order

•  Grand Duchy of Hesse: Grand Cross of the Ludwig Order, 19 April 1894

•  Kingdom of Saxony: Knight of the Rue Crown

•   Austria-Hungary:

• * Grand Cross of the Royal Hungarian Order of St. Stephen, 1890

• * Knight of the Golden Fleece, 1909

• 🇧🇪 Belgium: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold

•  undefined: Grand Cross of St. Alexander

•  Czechoslovakia: Collar of the White Lion, 1925

• 🇩🇰 Denmark: Knight of the Elephant, 8 January 1908

•  undefined: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour

• 🇬🇷 Greece: Grand Cross of the Redeemer

•  undefined: Knight of the Annunciation, 30 January 1893

•  Sovereign Military Order of Malta: Knight of Honour and Devotion

•  undefined: Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I

• 🇳🇱 Netherlands: Grand Cross of the Netherlands Lion

• 🇵🇱 Poland:

• * Knight of the White Eagle, 31 August 1921

• * Grand Cross of the Virtuti Militari, with Star, 21 June 1923

• Portugal:

• * Kingdom of Portugal: Grand Cross of the Sash of the Two Orders

• * Portuguese Republic: Grand Cross of the Tower and Sword, 11 May 1921

•  undefined:

• * Knight of St. Andrew, 1894

• * Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky

• * Knight of the White Eagle

• * Knight of St. Anna, 1st Class

• * Knight of St. Stanislaus, 1st Class

• * Knight of St. George, 2nd Class, 15 March 1918

•  undefined:

• * Grand Cross of the White Eagle

• * Grand Cross of the Star of Karađorđe, with Swords

• 🇸🇪 Sweden: Knight of the Seraphim, 18 December 1907

•  undefined:

• * Honorary Grand Cross of the Bath (civil), 21 December 1892

• * Stranger Knight Companion of the Garter, 14 May 1924

• * Royal Victorian Chain

• * Honorary Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order

title: Ferdinand I of Romania


text:
Cephalic index

The cephalic index or cranial index is a number obtained by taking the maximum width (biparietal diameter or BPD, side to side) of the head of an organism, multiplying it by 100 and then dividing it by their maximum length (occipitofrontal diameter or OFD, front to back). The index was once used to categorize human beings in the first half of the 20th century, but today it is used to categorize dogs and cats.

Early anthropology
The cephalic index was used by anthropologists in the early 20th century as a tool to categorize human populations. It was used to describe an individual's appearance and for estimating the age of fetuses for legal and obstetrical reasons.

The cephalic index was defined by Swedish professor of anatomy Anders Retzius (1796–1860) and first used in physical anthropology to classify ancient human remains found in Europe. The theory became closely associated with the development of racial anthropology in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when historians attempted to use ancient remains to model population movements in terms of racial categories. American anthropologist Carleton S. Coon also used the index in the 1960s, by which time it had been largely discredited.

In the cephalic index model, human beings were characterized by having either a dolichocephalic (long-headed), mesaticephalic (moderate-headed), or brachycephalic (short-headed) cephalic index or cranial index.

Indices
Cephalic indices are grouped as in the following table:

Technically, the measured factors are defined as the maximum width of the bones that surround the head above the supramastoid crest (behind the cheekbones), and the maximum length from the most easily noticed part of the glabella (between the eyebrows) to the most easily noticed point on the back part of the head.

Controversy
The usefulness of the cephalic index was questioned by Giuseppe Sergi, who argued that cranial morphology provided a better means to model racial ancestry. Also, Franz Boas studied the children of immigrants to the United States in 1910 to 1912, noting that the children's cephalic index differed significantly from their parents', implying that local environmental conditions had a significant effect on the development of head shape.

Boas argued that if craniofacial features were so malleable in a single generation, then the cephalic index was of little use for defining race and mapping ancestral populations. Scholars such as Earnest Hooton continued to argue that both environment and heredity were involved. Boas did not himself claim it was totally plastic.

In 2002, a paper by Sparks and Jantz re-evaluated some of Boas's original data using new statistical techniques and concluded that there was a "relatively high genetic component" of head shape. Ralph Holloway of Columbia University argues that the new research raises questions about whether the variations in skull shape have "adaptive meaning and whether, in fact, normalizing selection might be at work on the trait, where both extremes, hyperdolichocephaly and hyperbrachycephaly, are at a slight selective disadvantage."

In 2003, anthropologists Clarence C. Gravlee, H. Russell Bernard, and William R. Leonard reanalyzed Boas's data and concluded that most of Boas's original findings were correct. Moreover, they applied new statistical, computer-assisted methods to Boas's data and discovered more evidence for cranial plasticity. In a later publication, Gravlee, Bernard and Leonard reviewed Sparks's and Jantz's analysis. They argue that Sparks and Jantz misrepresented Boas's claims, and that Sparks's and Jantz's data support Boas. For example, they point out that Sparks and Jantz look at changes in cranial size in relation to how long an individual has been in the United States in order to test the influence of the environment. Boas, however, looked at changes in cranial size in relation to how long the mother had been in the United States. They argue that Boas's method is more useful, because the prenatal environment is a crucial developmental factor.

Jantz and Sparks responded to Gravlee et al., reiterating that Boas' findings lacked biological meaning, and that the interpretation of Boas' results common in the literature was biologically inaccurate. In a later study, the same authors concluded that the effects Boas observed were likely the result of population-specific environmental effects such as changes in cultural practices for cradling infants, rather than the effects of a general "American environment" which caused populations in America to converge to a common cranial type, as Boas had suggested.

Vertical cephalic index
The vertical cephalic index, also known as the length-height index, was a less-commonly measured head ratio. In the vertical cephalic index model, humans beings were characterized by having either a chamaecranic (low-skulled), orthocranic (medium high-skulled), or hypsicranic (high-skulled) cephalic index or cranial index.

Medicine
The cephalic index is also used in medicine, especially in the planning and effectiveness analysis of cranial deformity corrections. The index is a useful tool in assessing the morphology of cranial deformities in clinical settings. The index is used while looking at the fetal head shape, and can change in certain situations (ex. breech presentation, ruptured membranes, twin pregnancy).

Modern use in animal breeding
The cephalic index is used in the categorisation of animals, especially breeds of dogs and cats.

Brachycephalic animals

A brachycephalic skull is relatively broad and short (typically with the breadth at least 80% of the length). Dog breeds such as the pug are sometimes classified as "extreme brachycephalic". Because of health issues brachycephaly is regarded in some countries as "qualzucht", which literally translates to "torture breeding"   as it often leads to brachycephalic airway obstructive syndrome.

List of brachycephalic dogs

 * Affenpinscher
 * American Bulldog
 * American Bully
 * Boston Terrier
 * Boxer
 * Brussels Griffon
 * Bulldog
 * Bullmastiff
 * Cane Corso
 * Cavalier King Charles Spaniel
 * Apple-headed Chihuahua
 * Chow Chow
 * Dogo Argentino
 * Dogue de Bordeaux
 * English Mastiff
 * English Bulldog
 * Fila Brasileiro
 * French Bulldog
 * Japanese Chin
 * King Charles Spaniel
 * Lhasa Apso
 * Lowchen
 * Neapolitan Mastiff
 * Newfoundland
 * Olde English Bulldogge
 * Pekingese
 * Perro de Presa Canario
 * Pit bull
 * Pug
 * Pyrenean Mastiff
 * Shar-Pei
 * Shih Tzu
 * Tibetan Spaniel
 * Tosa

List of brachycephalic cats

 * British Shorthair
 * Burmese cat
 * Exotic Shorthair
 * Himalayan cat
 * Persian cat
 * Scottish Fold
 * White tiger

List of brachycephalic pigs

 * Middle White
 * Neijiang

List of brachycephalic rabbits

 * Lionhead rabbit
 * Lop rabbit
 * Netherland Dwarf rabbit
 * Dwarf Papillon rabbit
 * Dwarf Hotot rabbit
 * Jersey Wooly rabbit
 * American Fuzzylop rabbit

Other

 * Giant panda
 * Ross seal
 * Spectacled bear
 * Walrus
 * Wombat

Mesaticephalic animals

A mesaticephalic skull is of intermediate length and width. Mesaticephalic skulls are not markedly brachycephalic or dolichocephalic. When dealing with animals, especially dogs, the more appropriate and commonly used term is not "mesocephalic", but rather "mesaticephalic", which is a ratio of head to nasal cavity. The breeds below exemplify this category.

List of mesaticephalic canines

 * African Wild Dog
 * Alaskan Malamute
 * almost all spaniels
 * almost all spitz, except for the Chow Chow
 * American Eskimo Dog
 * American Foxhound
 * Appenzeller Sennenhund
 * Australian Cattle Dog
 * Australian Shepherd
 * Basenji
 * Beagle
 * Bearded Collie
 * Beauceron
 * Belgian Malinois
 * Belgian Sheepdog
 * Bernese Mountain Dog
 * Bichon Frisé
 * Black and Tan Coonhound
 * Border Collie
 * Cardigan Welsh Corgi
 * Chesapeake Bay Retriever
 * pear- and deer-headed Chihuahuas
 * Chinese Crested
 * Chinook
 * Curly-Coated Retriever
 * Dalmatian
 * Dhole
 * English Foxhound
 * Field Spaniel
 * Finnish Lapphund
 * Finnish Spitz
 * Flat-Coated Retriever
 * German Shorthaired Pointer
 * German Wirehaired Pointer
 * German Spitz
 * Golden Retriever
 * Irish Setter
 * Komondor
 * Labrador Retriever
 * Miniature Pinscher
 * Pomeranian
 * Poodle (Miniature and Toy)
 * most terriers
 * Mudi
 * Pembroke Welsh Corgi
 * Puli
 * Rottweiler
 * Samoyed
 * Siberian Husky
 * St. Bernard
 * Vizsla
 * Weimaraner
 * Wirehaired Vizsla
 * Xoloitzcuintle

List of mesaticephalic cats
Note: Almost all domestic felines are mesaticephalic

 * Abyssinian
 * American Shorthair
 * American Bobtail
 * Bengal cat
 * Birman
 * Bombay cat
 * Burmese cat
 * Chartreux
 * Chausie
 * Colorpoint Shorthair
 * Cymric cat
 * Egyptian Mau
 * Felid hybrids
 * Felis, or small cats
 * Maine Coon
 * Manx
 * Munchkin cat
 * Norwegian forest cat
 * Ocicat
 * Pallas's cat
 * Ragdoll
 * Russian Blue
 * Russian White, Black and Tabby
 * Selkirk Rex
 * Siberian cat
 * Somali
 * Toyger
 * Turkish Angora
 * Turkish Van

List of mesaticephalic rabbits

 * Dutch rabbit
 * Mini Rex
 * Polish rabbit
 * New Zealand rabbit
 * American Sable

Other

 * Aardwolf
 * Alligator
 * American black bear
 * Brown bear
 * Brown hyena
 * Fur seal
 * Guinea pig
 * Leopard seal
 * Raccoon
 * Sea lion
 * Sloth bear
 * Spotted hyena
 * Striped hyena
 * Sun bear
 * Tasmanian devil

Dolichocephalic animals
A dolichocephalic skull is relatively long-headed (typically with the breadth less than 80% or 75% of the length).

Note: Almost all representatives of the infraphylum Gnathostomata (with rare exceptions) are dolichocephalic.

List of dolichocephalic canids
Note: Almost all canidae are dolichocephalic
 * Afghan Hound
 * Airedale Terrier
 * Azawakh
 * Basset Hound
 * Bedlington Terrier
 * Bloodhound
 * Borzoi
 * Bull terrier
 * Cesky Terrier
 * Coyote
 * Dachshund
 * Doberman Pinscher
 * Dingo
 * Fox Terrier
 * Galgo Español
 * German Shepherd Dog
 * Great Dane
 * Greyhound
 * Irish Terrier
 * Irish Wolfhound
 * Italian Greyhound
 * Kangaroo hound
 * Kanni
 * Kerry Blue Terrier
 * Khalag Tazi
 * Long dog
 * Lurcher
 * Manchester Terrier
 * Miniature Bull Terrier
 * Peruvian Inca Orchid
 * Pharaoh Hound
 * Poodle (Standard)
 * Rampur Greyhound
 * Red fox
 * Rough Collie
 * Russian Black Terrier
 * Saluki
 * Schnauzer
 * Scottish Deerhound
 * Scottish Terrier
 * Sealyham Terrier
 * Serbian Hound
 * Shetland Sheepdog
 * Silken Windhound
 * Sloughi
 * Smooth Collie
 * Taigan
 * Welsh Terrier
 * Whippet
 * Wolf

List of dolichocephalic felines

 * Balinese
 * Devon Rex
 * Donskoy
 * Jaguar
 * Javanese
 * Leopard
 * Lion
 * Ocelot
 * Oriental Bicolor and Tricolor
 * Oriental Longhair
 * Oriental Shorthair
 * Panthera hybrid
 * Peterbald
 * Sabertooth cats
 * Savannah
 * Siamese
 * Snow leopard
 * Sphynx
 * Tiger

List of dolichocephalic leporids

 * English Spot
 * English Lop
 * Belgian Hare
 * All true hares

Other

 * Bontebok
 * Crocodile
 * Cow
 * Domestic horse
 * Donkey
 * Gharial
 * Grevy's zebra
 * Hartebeest
 * Hyrax
 * Kangaroo
 * Mule
 * Onager
 * Plains zebra
 * Polar bear
 * Thylacine
 * Warthog
 * Whale
 * Wild boar
 * Wildebeest

title: Cephalic index


text:
Talk:Biological anthropology

Citations list useful for updating this article and related articles
You may find it helpful while reading or editing articles to look at a bibliography of Anthropology and Human Biology Citations, posted for the use of all Wikipedians who have occasion to edit articles on human genetics and related issues. I happen to have circulating access to a huge academic research library system at a university with an active research program in these issues (and to other academic libraries in the same large metropolitan area) and have been researching these issues sporadically since 1989. You are welcome to use these citations for your own research. You can help other Wikipedians by suggesting new sources through comments on that page. It will be extremely helpful for articles on human genetics to edit them according to the Wikipedia standards for reliable sources for medicine-related articles, as it is important to get these issues as well verified as possible. -- WeijiBaikeBianji (talk, how I edit) 17:51, 19 November 2013 (UTC)

Phrenology
I can't help feeling that Phrenology should probably be listed here - regardless of what it actually is as a discipline. Measuring the skull and expecting to find accompanying intellectual or cultural traits seems pretty linked to Physical Anthropology to me... —Brigade Piron (talk) 08:10, 28 January 2015 (UTC)

Belief in a European origin of humans is "scientific racism"?
I'm pretty sure that's a big NPOV. Otherwise we should call the "out of Africa" theory scientific racism as well. Hamstergamer (talk) 20:05, 25 April 2018 (UTC)

Adding Forensic anthropology
Does anyone object to adding Forensic anthropology under branches or does anyone propose a better alternative for placement?

Anthropology has it listed under 'Key topics by field: archaeological and biological' so I feel like it should also be mentioned here.Kuiet (talk) 23:37, 15 February 2020 (UTC)

 * Go for it. Boneyard90 (talk) 05:58, 16 February 2020 (UTC)

External link
I have found a website about biological anthropology (The Society for Nordish Physical Anthropology), but I do not know whether Wikipedia will accept it. תיל"ם (talk) 14:02, 10 January 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Information Literacy and Scholarly Discourse
— Assignment last updated by Mlclark1 (talk) 13:23, 10 June 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Biological anthropology