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Heinrich Anton de Bary

Heinrich Anton de Bary (26 January 1831 – 19 January 1888) was a German surgeon, botanist, microbiologist, and mycologist (fungal systematics and physiology). He is considered a founding father of plant pathology (phytopathology) as well as the founder of modern mycology. His extensive and careful studies of the life history of fungi and contribution to the understanding of algae and higher plants established landmarks in biology.

Early life and education
Born in Frankfurt to physician August Theodor de Bary (1802–1873) and Emilie Meyer de Bary, Anton de Bary was one of ten children. He joined excursions of naturalists who collected local specimens. De Bary’s interest was further inspired by George Fresenius, a physician, who also taught botany at Senckenberg Institute. Fresenius was an expert on thallophytes. In 1848, de Bary graduated from a gymnasium at Frankfurt, and began to study medicine at Heidelberg, continuing at Marburg. In 1850, he went to Berlin to continue pursuing his study of medicine, and also continued to explore and develop his interest in plant science. Although he received his degree in medicine, his dissertation at Berlin in 1853 was titled "De plantarum generatione sexuali", a botanical subject. He also published a book on fungi and the causes of rusts and smuts.

Early career
After graduation, de Bary briefly practiced medicine in Frankfurt, but he was drawn back to botany and became Privatdozent in botany at the University of Tübingen, where he worked for a while as an assistant to Hugo von Mohl (1805–1872). In 1855, he succeeded the botanist Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli (1818–1891) at Freiburg, where he established the most advanced botanical laboratory at the time and directed many students.

Later career and research
In 1867, de Bary moved to the University of Halle as successor to Professor Diederich Franz Leonhard von Schlechtendal, who, with Hugo von Mohl, co-founded the pioneer botanical journal Botanische Zeitung. De Bary became its coeditor and later sole editor. As an editor of and contributor to the journal, he exercised great influence upon the development of botany. Following the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), de Bary took the position of professor of botany at the University of Strasbourg, where he was the director of the Jardin botanique de l'Université de Strasbourg, and founder of its New Garden. He was also elected as the inaugural rector of the reorganized university. He conducted much research in the university botanical institute, attracted many international students, and made a large contribution to the development of botany.

His 1884 book Vergleichende Morphologie und Biologie der Pilze, Mycetozoen und Bakterien was translated into English as Comparative Morphology and Biology of the Fungi, Mycetozoa, and Bacteria (Clarendon Press, 1887).

Fungi and plant diseases
De Bary was devoted to the study of the life history of fungi. At that time, various fungi were still considered to arise via spontaneous generation. He proved that pathogenic fungi were like other plants, and not the products of secretions from sick cells.

In de Bary’s time, potato late blight had caused sweeping crop devastation and economic loss. The origin of such plant diseases was not known at that time. de Bary studied the pathogen Phytophthora infestans (formerly Peronospora infestans) and elucidated its life cycle. Miles Joseph Berkeley (1803–1889) had insisted in 1841 that the oomycete found in potato blight caused the disease. Similarly, de Bary asserted that rust and smut fungi caused the pathological changes that affected diseased plants. He concluded that Uredinales and Ustilaginales were parasites.

De Bary spent much time studying the morphology of fungi and noticed that certain forms that were classed as separate species were actually successive stages of development of the same organism. De Bary studied the developmental history of Myxomycetes (slime molds), and thought it was necessary to reclassify the lower animals. He first coined the term Mycetozoa to include lower animals and slime molds. In his work on Myxomycetes (1858), he pointed out that at one stage of their life cycle (the plasmodial stage), they were nearly-formless, motile masses of a substance that Félix Dujardin (1801–1860) had called sarcode (protoplasm). This is the fundamental basis of the protoplasmic theory of life.

De Bary was the first to demonstrate sexuality in fungi. In 1858, he had observed conjugation in the alga Spirogyra, and in 1861, he described sexual reproduction in the fungus Peronospora sp. He saw the importance of observing pathogens throughout their whole life cycle and attempted to follow that practice in his studies of living host plants.

Peronosporeae
De Bary published his first work on potato blight fungi in 1861, and then spent more than 15 years studying Peronosporeae, particularly Phytophthora infestans (formerly Peronospora infestans) and Cystopus (Albugo), parasites of potato. In his published work in 1863 entitled "Recherches sur le developpement de quelques champignons parasites", he reported inoculating healthy potato leaves with spores of P. infestans. He observed that mycelium penetrated the leaf and affected the tissue, forming conidia and the black spots characteristic of potato blight. He did similar experiments on tubers and potato stalks. He watched conidia in the soil and their infection of the tubers, observing that mycelium could survive the cold winter in the tubers. Based on these studies, he concluded that organisms were not being generated spontaneously.

Puccinia graminis
He did a thorough investigation on Puccinia graminis, the pathogen that produces rust in wheat, rye and other grains. He noticed that P. graminis produced reddish summer spores or "urediospores", and darker winter spores or "teleutospores". He inoculated the leaves of barberry (Berberis vulgaris) with sporidia from winter spores of wheat rust. The sporidia germinated, leading to the forming of aecia with yellow spores, the familiar symptoms of infection on the barberry. De Bary then inoculated aecidiospores on moisture-retaining slides and then transferred them to the leaves of seedling of rye plants. In time, he observed the reddish summer spores appearing in the leaves. Sporidia from winter spores germinated only on barberry. De Bary clearly demonstrated that P. graminis lived upon different hosts at different stages of its development. He called this phenomenon "heteroecism" in contrast to "autoecism", in which development takes place only in one host. De Bary’s discovery explained why the practice of eradicating barberry plants was important as a control for rust.

Lichen
De Bary also studied the formation of lichens which are the result of an association between a fungus and an alga. He traced their stages of growth and reproduction and showed how adaptations helped them to survive conditions of drought and winter. In 1879 he coined the word "symbiosis", meaning "the living together of unlike organisms",  in the publication "Die Erscheinung der Symbiose" (Strasbourg, 1879). He carefully studied the morphology of molds, yeasts, and fungi and basically established mycology as an independent science.

Influence
De Bary's concept and methods had a great impact on the fields of bacteriology and botany, making him one of the most influential bioscientists of the 19th century. He published more than 100 research papers. Many of his students later became distinguished botanists and microbiologists including Sergei Winogradsky (1856–1953), William Gilson Farlow (1844–1919), and Pierre-Marie-Alexis Millardet (1838–1902).

Personal life and death
De Bary came from a noble family of Huguenots from Wallonia, which was driven out from there by the Spanish Habsburgs under Emperor Charles V and can be found in Frankfurt since 1555. Anton's father and his brother Johann Jakob de Bary were respected doctors in Frankfurt. His mother was Caroline Emilie von Meyer (1805–1887), whose family produced two renowned scientists.

De Bary married Antonie Einert (21 January 1831, Leipzig – 22 Mai 1892, Thann, Alsace–Lorraine) in 1861; they raised four children: Wilhelm, August, Marie and Hermann. Antonie was a talented artist and painter, particularly of plants, who contributed to her husband's scientific work.

He died on 19 January 1888 in Strasbourg, of a tumor of the jaw, after undergoing extensive surgery.

title: Heinrich Anton de Bary


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Elias Magnus Fries

Elias Magnus Fries (15 August 1794 – 8 February 1878) was a Swedish mycologist and botanist. He is sometimes called the "Linnaeus of Mycology". In his works he described and assigned botanical names to hundreds of fungus and lichen species, many of which remain authoritative today.

Career
Fries was born at Femsjö (Hylte Municipality), Småland, the son of the pastor there. He attended school in Växjö.

He acquired an extensive knowledge of flowering plants from his father. In 1811 Fries entered Lund University where he studied under Carl Adolph Agardh and Anders Jahan Retzius. He obtained his doctorate in 1814. In the same year he was appointed an associate professorship in botany. Fries edited several exsiccata series, the first starting in 1818 under the title Lichenes Sveciae exsiccati, curante Elia Fries and the last together with Franz Joseph Lagger under the title Hieracia europaea exsiccata. He was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and in 1824, became a full professor. In 1834 he became Borgström professor (Swed. Borgströmianska professuren, a chair endowed by Erik Eriksson Borgström, 1708–1770) in applied economics at Uppsala University. The position was changed to "professor of botany and applied economics" in 1851. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1849. That year he was also appointed director of the Uppsala University Botanical Garden. In 1853, he became rector of the University.

Fries most important works were the three-volume Systema mycologicum (1821–1832), Elenchus fungorum (1828), the two-volume Monographia hymenomycetum Sueciae (1857 and 1863) and Hymenomycetes Europaei (1874).

Fries is considered to be, after Christian Hendrik Persoon, a founding father of the modern taxonomy of mushrooms. His taxonomy of mushrooms was influenced by Goethe and the German romantics. He utilized spore color and arrangement of the hymenophore (pores, gills, teeth etc.) as major taxonomic characteristics. He was one of the most prolific authors of new fungal species, having formally described 3210 in his career.

Fries died in Uppsala on 8 February 1878. When he died, The Times commented: "His very numerous works, especially on fungi and lichens, give him a position as regards those groups of plants comparable only to that of Linnaeus." Fries was succeeded in the Borgström professorship (from 1859 to 1876) by Johan Erhard Areschoug, after whom Theodor Magnus Fries, the son of Elias, held the chair (from 1877 to 1899).

Publications

 * Monographia Pyrenomycetum Sueciae (1816)
 * Systema Mycologicum (1821)
 * Systema Orbis Vegetabilis (1825)
 * Elenchus Fungorem (1828)
 * Lichenographia Europaea Reformata (1831)
 * Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici: seu synopsis hymenomycetum (1838)

Family
His wife was Christina Wieslander (1808–1862), with whom he raised nine children. His son Theodor Magnus Fries became a botanist and lichenologist, eventually holding the Borgström professorship himself, and another son, Oscar Robert Fries, became a physician in Gothenburg while maintaining a keen interest in mycology. Theodor "Thore" Magnus's sons Thore Christian Elias Fries and Robert Elias Fries also became botanists.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Elias Magnus Fries


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Christiaan Hendrik Persoon

Christiaan Hendrik Persoon (1 February 1761 – 16 November 1836) was a Cape Colony mycologist who made additions to Linnaeus' mushroom taxonomy.

Early life
Persoon was born in Cape Colony at the Cape of Good Hope, the third child of an immigrant Pomeranian father and Dutch mother. His mother died soon after he was born; at the age of thirteen his father (who died a year later) sent him to Europe for his education.

Education
Initially studying theology at Halle, at age 22 (in 1784) Persoon switched to medicine at Leiden and Göttingen. He received a doctorate from the "Kaiserlich-Leopoldinisch-Carolinische Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher" in 1799.

Later years
He moved to Paris in 1802, where he spent the rest of his life, renting an upper floor of a house in a poor part of town. He was apparently unemployed, unmarried, poverty-stricken and a recluse, although he corresponded with botanists throughout Europe. Because of his financial difficulties, Persoon agreed to donate his herbarium to the House of Orange, in return for an adequate pension for life.

Academic career
The origin of Persoon's botanical interest is unknown. The earliest of his works was Abbildungen der Schwämme (Illustrations of the fungi), published in three parts, in 1790, 1791, and 1793. In 1794, Persoon introduced the term for the furrowed ascomata of the lichen genus Graphis. Between 1805 and 1807, he published two volumes of his Synopsis plantarum, a popular work describing 20,000 species of all types of plants. But his pioneering work was in the fungi, for which he published several works, beginning with the Synopsis methodica fungorum (1801); it is the starting point for nomenclature of the Uredinales, Ustilaginales, and the Gasteromycetes. Persoon described many polypore species; most were from his own collections in central Europe, while several other tropical species were sent to him from collections made by French botanist Charles Gaudichaud-Beaupré during his circumglobal expedition. These latter fungi are among the first tropical polypores ever described. In 1815, Persoon was elected a corresponding member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

Persoon was a prolific author of new fungal species, having formally described 2269 in his career.

Recognition
The genus Persoonia, a variety of small Australian trees and shrubs, was named after him. The title Persoonia is also given to a biannual scientific journal of molecular phylogeny and evolution of fungi, published jointly by the National Herbarium of the Netherlands and the CBS Fungal Biodiversity Centre.

title: Christiaan Hendrik Persoon


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Geostatistics

Geostatistics is a branch of statistics focusing on spatial or spatiotemporal datasets. Developed originally to predict probability distributions of ore grades for mining operations, it is currently applied in diverse disciplines including petroleum geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, meteorology, oceanography, geochemistry, geometallurgy, geography, forestry, environmental control, landscape ecology, soil science, and agriculture (esp. in precision farming). Geostatistics is applied in varied branches of geography, particularly those involving the spread of diseases (epidemiology), the practice of commerce and military planning (logistics), and the development of efficient spatial networks. Geostatistical algorithms are incorporated in many places, including geographic information systems (GIS).

Background
Geostatistics is intimately related to interpolation methods, but extends far beyond simple interpolation problems. Geostatistical techniques rely on statistical models that are based on random function (or random variable) theory to model the uncertainty associated with spatial estimation and simulation.

A number of simpler interpolation methods/algorithms, such as inverse distance weighting, bilinear interpolation and nearest-neighbor interpolation, were already well known before geostatistics. Geostatistics goes beyond the interpolation problem by considering the studied phenomenon at unknown locations as a set of correlated random variables.

Let $Z(x)$ be the value of the variable of interest at a certain location $x$. This value is unknown (e.g. temperature, rainfall, piezometric level, geological facies, etc.). Although there exists a value at location $x$ that could be measured, geostatistics considers this value as random since it was not measured, or has not been measured yet. However, the randomness of $Z(x)$ is not complete, but defined by a cumulative distribution function (CDF) that depends on certain information that is known about the value $Z(x)$:

 * $$F(\mathit{z}, \mathbf{x}) = \operatorname{Prob} \lbrace Z(\mathbf{x}) \leqslant \mathit{z} \mid \text{information} \rbrace . $$

Typically, if the value of $Z$ is known at locations close to $x$ (or in the neighborhood of $x$) one can constrain the CDF of $Z(x)$ by this neighborhood: if a high spatial continuity is assumed, $Z(x)$ can only have values similar to the ones found in the neighborhood. Conversely, in the absence of spatial continuity $Z(x)$ can take any value. The spatial continuity of the random variables is described by a model of spatial continuity that can be either a parametric function in the case of variogram-based geostatistics, or have a non-parametric form when using other methods such as multiple-point simulation or pseudo-genetic techniques.

By applying a single spatial model on an entire domain, one makes the assumption that $Z$ is a stationary process. It means that the same statistical properties are applicable on the entire domain. Several geostatistical methods provide ways of relaxing this stationarity assumption.

In this framework, one can distinguish two modeling goals:

 * 1) Estimating the value for $Z(x)$, typically by the expectation, the median or the mode of the CDF $f(z,x)$. This is usually denoted as an estimation problem.
 * 2) Sampling from the entire probability density function $f(z,x)$ by actually considering each possible outcome of it at each location. This is generally done by creating several alternative maps of $Z$, called realizations. Consider a domain discretized in $N$ grid nodes (or pixels). Each realization is a sample of the complete $N$-dimensional joint distribution function

 * $$F(\mathbf{z}, \mathbf{x}) = \operatorname{Prob} \lbrace Z(\mathbf{x}_1) \leqslant z_1, Z(\mathbf{x}_2) \leqslant z_2, ..., Z(\mathbf{x}_N) \leqslant z_N \rbrace .$$

 * In this approach, the presence of multiple solutions to the interpolation problem is acknowledged. Each realization is considered as a possible scenario of what the real variable could be. All associated workflows are then considering ensemble of realizations, and consequently ensemble of predictions that allow for probabilistic forecasting. Therefore, geostatistics is often used to generate or update spatial models when solving inverse problems.

A number of methods exist for both geostatistical estimation and multiple realizations approaches. Several reference books provide a comprehensive overview of the discipline.

Kriging
Kriging is a group of geostatistical techniques to interpolate the value of a random field (e.g., the elevation, z, of the landscape as a function of the geographic location) at an unobserved location from observations of its value at nearby locations.

Bayesian estimation
Bayesian inference is a method of statistical inference in which Bayes' theorem is used to update a probability model as more evidence or information becomes available. Bayesian inference is playing an increasingly important role in Geostatistics. Bayesian estimation implements kriging through a spatial process, most commonly a Gaussian process, and updates the process using Bayes' Theorem to calculate its posterior. High-dimensional Bayesian Geostatistics

Finite difference method
Considering the principle of conservation of probability, recurrent difference equations (finite difference equations) were used in conjunction with lattices to compute probabilities quantifying uncertainty about the geological structures. This procedure is a numerical alternative method to Markov chains and Bayesian models.

Simulation

 * Aggregation
 * Dissagregation
 * Turning bands
 * Cholesky decomposition
 * Truncated Gaussian
 * Plurigaussian
 * Annealing
 * Spectral simulation
 * Sequential Indicator
 * Sequential Gaussian
 * Dead Leave
 * Transition probabilities
 * Markov chain geostatistics
 * Support vector machine
 * Boolean simulation
 * Genetic models
 * Pseudo-genetic models
 * Cellular automata
 * Multiple-Point Geostatistics

Definitions and tools

 * Regionalized variable theory
 * Covariance function
 * Semi-variance
 * Variogram
 * Kriging
 * Range (geostatistics)
 * Sill (geostatistics)
 * Nugget effect
 * Training image
 * Finite difference method

title: Geostatistics


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Talk:Medium

Should it be pointed out somewhere that the plural is "media"?

Daniel C. Boyer

I removed the first example because, IMHO, water is not a medium for salt, since a medium is not only a carrier, but (being in the middle, as in the latin sense) it is necessarily a carrier OF something TO something else, with both a starting and an ending point of the journey, and water brings salt TO nowhere specifically (salt moistures with water making a composite newer "thing", and it would get out of it only after a separation of the resulting composite). The example of art can be accepted if we commonly intend that (quite rethorically) - i.e. - "marble was the medium that let us appreciate today the art of Michelangelo". But, is this really worth being the first example?

 * The following sentence was found in the editing history, but it has been removed:
 * In religion, a medium is a person who acts as a 'mediator' between the living and the dead spirits.
 * I have seen that the term is widely used in english with this meaning too. Given that, in case, it refers to spiritism rather than to religion, why was it deleted by previous contributors instead of correcting it?
 * I'd add it again to the article, if someone agrees.
 * I have added it again. People may want to copyedit this but I think it has to be there (it is linked from automatism, for example.
 * Daniel C. Boyer

Finally, human brain isn't in any intermediate position: it receives or it (hopefully) produces, it is either the starting point or the final stop of information, unless we wish to discuss whether there is something else in us apart from head and heart (but this would be inappropriate here) or that a man's brain can be merely instrumental to us (to which part of us?) or to someone else, but this would perhaps be satire. --Gianfranco

Parapsychology meaning
The trouble with calling it phenomenon was that some here believe that this necessitates inserting criticism into the definition, so we might as well avoid that.

Also, if a medium is a medium, he/she does serve as a channell for spirits, so it isn't correct to say that a person is a medium when they say they are. It's a matter of definition, not truth.

 * "why was it deleted by previous contributors instead of correcting it?"

The reason is probably that many here on wikipedia do not want this kind of stuff spread around. It gets really emotional.  Martinphi  (Talk Ψ Contribs) 21:56, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

Mediumship is completely within the study of Parapsychology. There is nothing in the article that covers anything outside the scope of parapsychology like UFOs, cryptozoology or other non-psychical subjects. To imply that Mediumship is outside of the scope or Parapsychology falsely implies that there is real evidence of mediumship phenomena that can't be explained by parapsychology. Oicumayberight 23:12, 8 March 2007 (UTC)

 * So, to you, parapsychology is the explanation for mediumship? Well, I'll leave it.  No harm in it.  Martinphi  (Talk Ψ Contribs) 01:15, 9 March 2007 (UTC)
 * I'm saying parapsychology is the only science capable of explaining mediumship phenomena until there is a record of scientific evidence of a mediumship phenomena that can't be explained by parasychology, in which case it would be a natural phenomena for the realm of natural science. I don't think there is any such natural scientific evidence on record. Oicumayberight 01:30, 9 March 2007 (UTC)

 * If parapsychology can explaim mediumship, then it is a natural explanation- it is science. Parapsychology doesn't do non-scientific explanations.  Most people would say parapsychology can't explain mediumship.  Martinphi  (Talk Ψ Contribs) 02:08, 9 March 2007 (UTC)
 * I was just making the contrast between natural science and social/behavioral science. When you talk about phenomena, it's sciences job to explain even when they don't get around to it or don't explain it adequately. As most of the design subjects I'm interested are not in the realm of natural science either, I understand what you mean about science not being able to explain adequately. So we have to work with whatever laws the social and behavioral sciences give us and hope they are adequate. The only way to improve it is to improve the science. Oicumayberight 02:23, 9 March 2007 (UTC)

Ok, I understand now. Yeah, parapsychology is like a social science. I think it is a mistake to go into parapsychology from psychology. Because it's really a physics problem which has psychological and consciousness correlates. Strange how successful human civilization is relative to how little we know, huh?  Martinphi  (Talk Ψ Contribs) 05:21, 9 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Depends on how you define success. I took the red pill. Oicumayberight 06:11, 9 March 2007 (UTC)

Pretty funny username. You should do mediation (= .  Martinphi  (Talk Ψ Contribs) 05:22, 9 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Yeah yeah, OK. So did I.  Still, what I meant is, we know nothing, but we still survive, and we have technology and we can see billions of years back in time, and we can cure some disease even though we don't know much about the body or how to manipulate it etc.  I mean, life expectancy used to be between 17 and 30.  A little knowledge seems to go a long way.

I like that about the red pill. I'll use it (:  Martinphi  (Talk Ψ Contribs) 06:23, 9 March 2007 (UTC)

Parapsychology vs Paranormal
To avoid an edit war, let's discuss why parapsychology may be a better umbrella for mediumship than paranormal. Since parapsychology studies the paranormal with a broader scope, medumship is also studied by parapsychology. It's misleading to narrow the scope of term usage. It implies that there are evidence of mediumship that cannot be explained by parapsychology. The world has yet to see such evidence. Oicumayberight 18:11, 14 July 2007 (UTC) tyesha padett look at me now mw love me — Preceding unsigned comment added by 204.78.76.12 (talk) 16:52, 30 March 2012 (UTC)

Medium in painting
I came here to find out what exactly medium means in oil painting but it is not mentioned here. Should be added I think. -- PyroPi (talk) 02:54, 14 November 2009 (UTC)
 * That sounds more like a dictionary definition, which wouldn't be found here unless there's an actual article about it. Check the Wiktionary definition here -- item 6 under "noun". --Auntof6 (talk) 03:51, 14 November 2009 (UTC)

There should be an article on the use of medium in painting. It is used in both oil and acrylic painting, if memory serves, and its use and purpose should be described. There are varieties of medium, as well, and the explanation of their qualities and use ought to go well beyond a bare dictionary definition. I am not qualified to write such an article, but it should exist. The wiktionary definition, by the way, no longer mentions painting medium. J. D. Crutchfield | Talk 23:59, 10 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Medium


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Brenner Pass

The Brenner Pass (Brennerpass, shortly Brenner; Passo del Brennero ) is a mountain pass over the Alps which forms the border between Italy and Austria. It is one of the principal passes of the Eastern Alpine range and has the lowest altitude among Alpine passes of the area.

Dairy cattle graze in alpine pastures throughout the summer in valleys beneath the pass and on the mountain slopes. At lower altitudes, farmers log pine trees, plant crops and harvest hay for winter fodder. Many of the high pastures are at an altitude of over 1500 m; a small number stand high in the mountains at around 2000 m.

The central section of the Brenner Pass covers a four-lane motorway and railway tracks connecting Bozen/Bolzano in the south and Innsbruck to the north. The village of Brenner consists of an outlet shopping centre (supermarkets and stores), fruit stores, restaurants, cafés, hotels and a gas station. It has a population of 400 to 600.

Etymology
Older, obsolete theories suggested a connection of the name Brenner with the ancient tribe of the Breuni or the Gaulish chieftain Brennus, but since the pass name appears for the first time only in the 14th century, a more recent etymology is far more likely. Prenner was originally the name of a nearby farm, which itself was named after its former owner. The farm of a certain Prennerius is mentioned in documents in 1288, a certain Chunradus Prenner de Mittenwalde is mentioned in 1299. The German word Prenner probably refers to somebody who uses slash-and-burn techniques for land clearing. A name for the pass itself appears for the first time in 1328 as ob dem Prenner (German for above the Prenner).

Roman Empire

The Romans regularised the mountain pass at Brenner, which had already been under frequent use during the prehistoric eras since the most recent Ice Age. The Brenner Pass, however, was not the first trans-Alpine Roman road to become regularised under the Roman Empire.

The first Roman road to cross the Alpine range, Via Claudia Augusta, connected Verona in northern Italy with Augusta Vindelicorum (modern-day Augsburg) in the Roman province of Raetia. Via Augusta was completed in 46–47 AD; the route took its course along the Adige valley to the neighbouring Reschen Pass (west of the Brenner Pass), then descended into the Inn valley before rising to Fern Pass towards Augsburg.

The Roman road that physically crossed over the Brenner Pass did not exist until the 2nd century AD. It took the "eastern" route through the Puster Valley and descended into Veldidena (modern-day Wilten), where it crossed the Inn and into Zirl and arrived at Augsburg via Füssen.

The Alamanni (Germanic tribe) crossed the Brenner Pass southward into modern-day Italy in 268 AD, but they were stopped in November of that year at the Battle of Lake Benacus. The Romans kept control over the mountain pass until the end of their empire in the 5th century.

Holy Roman Empire
During the High Middle Ages, Brenner Pass was a part of the important Via Imperii, an imperial road linking the Kingdom of Germany north of the Alps with the Italian March of Verona. In the carolingian Divisio Regnorum of 806 the Brenner region is called per alpes Noricas, the transit through the Noric Alps. Since the 12th century, the Brenner Pass was controlled by the Counts of Tyrol within the Holy Roman Empire. Emperor Frederick Barbarossa made frequent uses of the Brenner Pass to cross the Alps during his imperial expeditions into Italy. The 12th-century Brenner Pass was a trackway for mule trains and carts.

Modernisation of the Brenner Pass started in 1777, when a carriage road was laid out at the behest of Empress Maria Theresa.

Austrian Empire
Modernisation further took place under the Austrian Empire and the Brenner Railway, which was completed in stages from 1853 to 1867. It became the first trans-Alpine railway without a major tunnel and at high altitude (crossing the Brenner Pass at 1,371 m). Completion of the railway enabled the Austrians to move their troops more efficiently; the Austrians had hoped to secure their territories of Venetia and Lombardy (south of the Alps), but lost them to Italy following the Second Italian War of Independence in 1859 and Austro-Prussian War in 1866.

Recent history
At the end of World War I in 1918, the control of the Brenner Pass became shared between Italy and Austria under the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919). The Treaty of London (1915) secretly awarded Italy the territories south of the Brenner Pass for supporting the Entente Powers. Welschtirol/Trentino, along with the southern part of County of Tyrol (now South Tyrol), was transferred to Italy, and Italian troops occupied Tyrol and arrived at the Brenner Pass in 1919 to 20.

During World War II, Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini met at the Brenner Pass to celebrate their Pact of Steel on 18 March 1940. Later, in 1943, following the Italian armistice with the Allies, the Brenner Pass was annexed by Nazi Germany, shifting the border with the Italian Social Republic, the Nazi puppet state headed by Mussolini, much further south. In 1945, the area was occupied by the US Army and returned to Italy after the end of the war. The Brenner Pass was part of the ratlines that were used by senior Nazis fleeing the allies after the German surrender in 1945.

Following World War II, the pass once again formed the border between Italy and the newly independent Republic of Austria, and maintained its importance as a key trade route. On January 1, 1995, the Schengen Agreement entered into force in Austria, a treaty Italy ratified on October 26. As a consequence, border checks were abolished in the Brenner Pass for goods and people between the two countries. On November 19, 1995, the border barrier between Italy and Austria at Brenner was officially abolished, with a commemoration attended by Austrian Minister of the Interior Karl Schlögl, Italian Minister of the Interior Giorgio Napolitano, and the governors of Innsbruck and Bolzano.

Motorway
The motorway E45 (European designation; in Italy A22, in Austria the A13), Brenner Autobahn/Autostrada del Brennero, begins in Innsbruck, runs through the Brenner Pass, Bozen/Bolzano, Verona and finishes outside Modena. It is one of the most important routes of north–south connections in Europe.

After the signing of the Schengen Agreement in 1992 and Austria's subsequent entry into the European Union in 1995, customs and immigration posts at the Brenner Pass were removed in 1997. However, Austria reinstituted border checks in 2015 as a response to the European migrant crisis. In April 2016, Austria announced it would build a 370-meter long fence at the Pass but clarify that "it would be used only to "channel" people and was not a barrier. "

The Europabrücke (Europe Bridge), located roughly halfway between Innsbruck and the Brenner Pass, is a large concrete bridge carrying the six-lane Brenner Autobahn over the valley of Sill River (Wipptal). At a height of 180 m and span of 820 m, the bridge was celebrated as a masterpiece of engineering upon its completion in 1963. It is a site where bungee-jumping from the bridge has become a popular tourist attraction.

The ever-increasing freight and leisure traffic, however, has been causing long traffic jams at busy times even without border enforcements. The Brenner Pass is the only major mountain pass within the area; other nearby alternatives are footpaths across higher mountains at an altitude of above 2000 m. As a result, air and noise pollution have generated heavy debate in regional and European politics. , about 1.8 million trucks crossed the Europa Bridge per year.

Railway
In order to ease the road traffic, there are plans to upgrade the Brenner Railway from Verona to Innsbruck with a series of tunnels, including the Brenner Base Tunnel underneath Brenner. While the official groundbreaking of the tunnel had taken place in 2006 (with survey tunnels drilled in the same year), substantial work did not begin until 2011. Funding issues have delayed the tunnel's scheduled date of completion from 2022 to no earlier than 2032.

title: Brenner Pass


text:
Hydraulic fill

Hydraulic fill is a means of selectively emplacing soil or other materials using a stream of water. It is also a term used to describe the materials thus emplaced. Gravity, coupled with velocity control, is used to effect the selected deposition of the material.

Borrow pits containing suitable material are accessible at an elevation such that the earth can be sluiced to the fill after being washed from the bank by high-pressure nozzles. Hydraulic fill is likely to be the most economic method of construction. Even when the source material lacks sufficient elevation, it can be elevated to the sluice by a dredge pump.

In the construction of a hydraulic fill dam, the edges of the dam are defined by low embankments or dykes which are built upward as the fill progresses. The sluices are carried parallel to, and just inside of, these dykes. The sluices discharge their water-earth mixture at intervals, the water fanning out and flowing towards the central pool which is maintained at the desired level by discharge control. While flowing from the sluices, coarse material is deposited first and then finer material is deposited (fine material has a slower terminal velocity thus takes longer to settle, see Stoke's Law) as the flow velocity is reduced towards the center of the dam. This fine material forms an impervious core to the dam. The water flow must be well controlled at all times, otherwise the central section may be bridged by tongues of coarse material which would facilitate seepage through the dam later.

Hydraulic fill dams can be dangerous in areas of seismic activity due to the high susceptibility of the uncompacted, cohesion-less soils in them to liquefaction. The Lower San Fernando Dam is an example of a hydraulic fill dam that failed during an earthquake. In these situations, a dam built of compacted soil may be a better choice.

Poorly built hydraulic fill dams pose a risk of catastrophic failure. The Fort Peck Dam is an example of a hydraulic fill dam that failed during construction where the hydraulic filling process may have contributed to the failure.

Hydraulic fill is also a term used in hard rock mining and describes the placement of finely ground mining wastes into underground stopes in a slurry by boreholes and pipes to stabilize the voids.

title: Hydraulic fill


text:
Category 5 cable

Category 5 cable (Cat 5) is a twisted pair cable for computer networks. Since 2001, the variant commonly in use is the Category 5e specification (Cat 5e). The cable standard provides performance of up to 100 MHz and is suitable for most varieties of Ethernet over twisted pair up to 2.5GBASE-T   but more commonly runs at 1000BASE-T (Gigabit Ethernet) speeds. Cat 5 is also used to carry other signals such as telephone and video.

This cable is commonly connected using punch-down blocks and modular connectors. Most Category 5 cables are unshielded, relying on the balanced line twisted pair design and differential signaling for noise suppression.

Standards
Category 5 is currently defined in ISO/IEC 11801, IEC 61156 and EN 50173, though it was originally defined in ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-A (with clarification in TSB-95). These documents specify performance characteristics and test requirements for frequencies up to 100 MHz.

The cable is available in both stranded and solid conductor forms. The stranded form is more flexible and withstands more bending without breaking. Patch cables are stranded. Permanent wiring used in structured cabling is solid. The category and type of cable can be identified by the printing on the jacket.

The Category 5 specification requires conductors to be pure copper. There has been a rise in counterfeit cables, especially of the copper-clad aluminum (CCA) variety. This has exposed the manufacturers and installers of such fake cable to legal liabilities.

Variants and comparisons
The Category 5e specification improves upon the Category 5 specification by further mitigating crosstalk. The bandwidth (100 MHz) and physical construction are the same between the two, and most Cat 5 cables actually happen to meet Cat 5e specifications even though they are not certified as such. Category 5 was deprecated in 2001 and superseded by the Category 5e specification.

The Category 6 specification improves upon the Category 5e specification by extending frequency response and further reducing crosstalk. The improved performance of Cat 6 provides 250 MHz bandwidth. Category 6A cable provides 500 MHz bandwidth. Both variants are backward compatible with Category 5 and 5e cables.

Termination

Cable types, connector types and cabling topologies are defined by ANSI/TIA-568. Category 5 cable is nearly always terminated with 8P8C modular connectors (often referred to incorrectly as RJ45 connectors ). The cable is terminated in either the T568A scheme or the T568B scheme. The two schemes work equally well and may be mixed in an installation so long as the same scheme is used on both ends of each cable.

Applications
Category 5 cable is used in structured cabling for computer networks such as Ethernet over twisted pair. The cable standard prescribes performance parameters for frequencies up to 100 MHz and is suitable for 10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX (Fast Ethernet), 1000BASE-T (Gigabit Ethernet), and 2.5GBASE-T. 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX Ethernet connections require two wire pairs. 1000BASE-T and faster Ethernet connections require four wire pairs. Through the use of power over Ethernet (PoE), power can be carried over the cable in addition to Ethernet data.

Cat 5 is also used to carry other signals such as telephony and video. In some cases, multiple signals can be carried on a single cable; Cat 5 can carry two conventional telephone lines as well as 100BASE-TX in a single cable. The USOC/RJ-61 wiring standard may be used in multi-line telephone connections. Various schemes exist for transporting both analog and digital video over the cable. HDBaseT (10.2 Gbit/s) is one such scheme.

Characteristics
The use of balanced lines helps preserve a high signal-to-noise ratio despite interference from both external sources and crosstalk from other pairs.

Insulation
Outer insulation is typically polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or low smoke zero halogen (LS0H).

Bending radius
Most Category 5 cables can be bent at any radius exceeding approximately four times the outside diameter of the cable.

Maximum cable segment length
The maximum length for a cable segment is 100 m per TIA/EIA 568-5-A. If longer runs are required, the use of active hardware such as a repeater or switch is necessary. The specifications for 10BASE-T networking specify a 100-meter length between active devices. This allows for 90 meters of solid-core permanent wiring, two connectors and two stranded patch cables of 5 meters, one at each end.

Conductors
Since 1995, solid-conductor UTP cables for backbone cabling is required to be no thicker than 22 American Wire Gauge (AWG) and no thinner than 24 AWG, or 26 AWG for shorter-distance cabling. This standard has been retained with the 2009 revision of ANSI TIA/EIA 568.

Although cable assemblies containing four pairs are common, Category 5 is not limited to four pairs. Backbone applications involve using up to 100 pairs.

Individual twist lengths
The distance per twist is commonly referred to as pitch. Each of the four pairs in a Cat 5 cable has a differing pitch to minimize crosstalk between the pairs. The pitch of the twisted pairs is not specified in the standard.

Environmental ratings
Some cables are UV-rated or UV-stable meaning they can be exposed to outdoor UV radiation without significant degradation.

Plenum-rated cables are slower to burn and produce less smoke than cables using a mantle of materials like PVC. Plenum-rated cables may be installed in plenum spaces where PVC is not allowed.

Shielded cables (FTP or STP) are useful for environments where proximity to RF equipment may introduce electromagnetic interference, and can also be used where eavesdropping likelihood should be minimized.

title: Category 5 cable


text:
Washington County, New York

Washington County is a county in the U.S. state of New York. As of the 2020 census, the population was 61,302. The county seat is Fort Edward. The county was named for U.S. President George Washington. The county is part of the Capital District region of the state.

History
When counties were established in the colony of New York in 1683, the present Washington County was part of Albany County. This was an enormous county, including the northern part of New York State as well as all of the present state of Vermont and, in theory, extending westward to the Pacific Ocean. This county was reduced in size on July 3, 1766, by the creation of Cumberland County, and further on March 16, 1770, by the creation of Gloucester County, both containing territory now in Vermont.

On March 12, 1772, what was left of Albany County was split into three parts, one remaining under the name Albany County. The other two were called Tryon County (later renamed Montgomery County) and Charlotte County.

On April 2, 1784, Charlotte County was renamed Washington County in honor of George Washington, the American Revolutionary War general and later President of the United States of America.

In 1788, Clinton County was split off from Washington County. This was a much larger area than the present Clinton County, including several other counties or county parts of the present New York State.

In 1791, the Town of Cambridge was transferred from Albany County to Washington County.

In 1813, Warren County was split off from Washington County.

In 1994, with the completion of the new municipal center, the county seat was moved from Hudson Falls to Fort Edward.

In 2006, Cambridge Town Supervisor Jo Ann Trinkle made history by being elected as the first chairwoman of the Board of Supervisors.

Historic sites
Washington County has four historic covered bridges, each listed on the National Register of Historic Places: Including those, it has a total of 35 sites listed on the National Register. The Lemuel Haynes House is designated as a National Historic Landmark, the highest level of significance.
 * Buskirk Bridge
 * Eagleville Bridge
 * Rexleigh Bridge
 * Shushan Bridge

Geography

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 846 sqmi, of which 831 sqmi is land and 15 sqmi (1.7%) is water.

Washington County is a long narrow county located in the northeastern section of the State. It is known for its rich valley farm land and is part of the Great Appalachian Valley (also known simply as the 'Great Valley') which is a long narrow valley strip often between tall mountain ranges. The county transitions from the Taconic Mountains to the Adirondack Mountains, and from the Lake Champlain Valley to Hudson River Valley.

Much of the county is part of the slate valley of the Upper Taconic Mountains (Taghkanic, meaning 'in the trees'). The eastern boundary of Washington County is the New York–Vermont border, part of which is Lake Champlain. This is also the border with New England proper. The northern end of the county is within the 6.1 million acre Adirondack Park. Western boundaries include primarily the Hudson River and Lake George.

Washington County belongs to the following valleys and watersheds: Champlain Valley / Lake George Watershed—02010001 Hudson River Valley / Hudson-Hoosic Watershed—02020003 Waters in the northern part drain into Lake Champlain via Lake George (Horican) or the Mettawee River, and then flow into the Saint Lawrence River (Kaniatarowanenneh). These waters mingle in the Saint Lawrence with waters of all the Great Lakes as they flow northeast into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, and ultimately join the Atlantic Ocean. Meanwhile, the remainder of waters drain south via the Hudson River (Muh-he-kun-ne-tuk or Muhheakantuck), and ultimately flow south into the Atlantic Ocean below New York City. See the approximation of the watershed divide mapped in context of mountains and valleys.

Nearly half of its borders are by long bodies of water. Winding across the bottom of the county is the legendary Batten Kill (Dionondehowa), famous for its worldclass flyfishing, and its marvelous falls (near the Washington County fairgrounds).

Black Mountain, in the Adirondacks, is the tallest peak in Washington County at approximately 2,640 ft, and has beautiful views of Lake George, Lake Champlain, the surrounding countryside, and the Adirondacks, Taconic Mountains and Green Mountains. Willard Mountain is a ski center in the southern part of the county.

Adjacent counties

 * Essex County – north
 * Addison County, Vermont – northeast
 * Rutland County, Vermont – east
 * Bennington County, Vermont – southeast
 * Rensselaer County – south
 * Saratoga County – southwest
 * Warren County – west

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 61,042 people, 22,458 households, and 15,787 families residing in the county. The population density was 73 PD/sqmi. There were 26,794 housing units at an average density of 32 /mi2. The racial makeup of the county was 94.97% White, 2.92% Black or African American, 0.20% Native American, 0.28% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.84% from other races, and 0.77% from two or more races. 2.02% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 17.5% were of Irish, 14.1% French, 12.1% English, 11.1% American, 9.0% Italian and 7.7% German ancestry according to Census 2000. 96.9% spoke English and 1.4% Spanish as their first language.

There were 22,458 households, out of which 33.20% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.20% were married couples living together, 10.40% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.70% were non-families. 24.00% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.01.

In the county, the population was spread out, with 24.60% under the age of 18, 8.30% from 18 to 24, 29.40% from 25 to 44, 23.70% from 45 to 64, and 14.00% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 105.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104.50 males.

The median income for a household in the county was $37,668, and the median income for a family was $43,500. Males had a median income of $31,537 versus $22,160 for females. The per capita income for the county was $17,958. About 6.80% of families and 9.40% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.30% of those under age 18 and 7.30% of those age 65 or over.

Government
The county government consists of a board of supervisors with weighted votes. Each town supervisor holds a seat on the county government, and their votes are based on the population of their town, with Kingsbury and Fort Edward supervisors having the largest number of votes, and Putnam having the fewest votes. The 2017 weighted vote totals are available on the county website.

Politics
Prior to 1996, Washington County was a Republican stronghold, with the only time between 1884 and 1992 that a Republican presidential candidate failed to win the county being 1964 when Barry Goldwater lost every county in New York in his statewide and national landslide loss. Since 1996, it has become a bellwether county, but Republican candidate margins of victory have been greater than those by Democratic candidates and broke its bellwether streak in 2020 when Donald Trump won the county. In his 2020 performance, Trump received the highest percentage of the vote for a Republican since 1988 when George H. W. Bush received 62 percent. No Democrat aside from Lyndon B. Johnson in the aforementioned 1964 election has managed to win majority of the county's votes.

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Airports
The following public use airports are located in the county:
 * Argyle Airport (1C3) – Argyle
 * Chapin Field (1B8) – Cambridge
 * Granville Airport (B01) – Granville

Rail
Amtrak's Adirondack and Ethan Allen Express services each travel through Washington County once a day in each direction on their routes between New York, New York and Montreal, Québec or Burlington, Vermont, respectively. Both routes stop in Fort Edward and the Adirondack additionally serves Whitehall. The Adirondack was temporarily suspended from March 2020 through early April 2023 due to the closure of the Canadian/American border in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and related logistical challenges.

Towns

 * Argyle
 * Cambridge
 * Dresden
 * Easton
 * Fort Ann
 * Fort Edward (county seat)
 * Granville
 * Greenwich
 * Hampton
 * Hartford
 * Hebron
 * Jackson
 * Kingsbury
 * Putnam
 * Salem
 * White Creek
 * Whitehall

Villages

 * Argyle
 * Cambridge
 * Fort Ann
 * Fort Edward
 * Granville
 * Greenwich
 * Hudson Falls
 * Whitehall

Census-designated places

 * North Granville
 * Salem

Hamlets

 * East Greenwich
 * East Lake George
 * Goose Island
 * Huletts Landing
 * Kattskill Bay
 * Shushan

Notable people

 * Frank Buckley Walker, a talent agent who discovered the likes of Bessie Smith and Hank Williams.
 * Townsend Harris, the first United States Consul-General to Japan.
 * Chester A. Arthur – Lived in Greenwich/Union Village for five years in his youth before becoming 21st President of the United States in 1881.
 * Grandma Moses, American painter
 * Josh Carter, musician in American music duo Phantogram
 * Susan B. Anthony (February 15, 1820 – March 13, 1906) was a prominent American civil rights leader who played a pivotal role in the 19th-century women's rights movement to gain women's suffrage in the United States. She moved with her family to Battenville, New York when she was six.
 * Solomon Northup was a free-born African American fiddler who had a farm in Hebron before moving to Saratoga Springs. Kidnapped in 1841 and sold into slavery in Louisiana, he was freed in 1853, and that year published his memoir Twelve Years a Slave (1853). In 1984, the memoir was adapted as a PBS television movie entitled Solomon Northup's Odyssey, directed by Gordon Parks; in 2013 it was adapted as a feature movie 12 Years a Slave (film).
 * Sigurd Raschèr (pronounced 'Rah-sher') (May 15, 1907, in Elberfeld, Germany – February 25, 2001, in Shushan, New York) was an American saxophonist of German birth. He became one of the most important figures in the development of the 20th century repertoire for the concert saxophone.
 * James Howard Kunstler (b. October 19, 1948). Author of The Geography of Nowhere, The Long Emergency, and the World Made By Hand novel series.
 * Frank J. Kimball, Wisconsin State Assemblyman, was born in Washington County.
 * Curtis Mann, Wisconsin State Senator, was born in Washington County.
 * E. D. Rogers, Wisconsin State Assembly, was born in Washington County.
 * John L. Beveridge, 16th Governor of Illinois (January 23, 1873 – January 8, 1877), 18th Lt. Governor of Illinois (January 13, 1873 – January 23, 1873), Member from Illinois of the U.S. House of Representatives, (42nd Congress), Republican Party, born in town of Greenwich in Washington County on July 6, 1824
 * James M. Hinds (December 5, 1833 – October 22, 1868) was born and raised in the town of Hebron in Washington County. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives from July to October 1868 representing the 2nd Congressional District of Arkansas as a Republican. He became the first congressional representative to be assassinated while in office after being targeted by the Ku Klux Klan for advocating for civil rights for former slaves. He is buried in Salem's Evergreen Cemetery.

History

 * Political history/notable people of Washington County
 * Richard Clayton Photography Vintage Washington County, New York and area photos
 * Old Landowners Map of Washington County
 * Twelve Years a Slave at Internet Archive (scanned books original editions color illustrated)

Watershed/Conservancy

 * Lake George Watershed – 02010001 Northern Hebron's north-draining waters
 * Hudson-Hoosic Watershed – 02020003 Hebron's south-draining waters
 * Mountains of Northern Appalachians Thick red line shows approx watershed divide
 * Watershed divide Map of Champlain/Hudson valley divide w/Taconics
 * Association for the Protection of the Adirondacks
 * Adirondack Council
 * Residents' Committee to Protect the Adirondacks
 * Adirondack Mountain Club (ADK)
 * Poultney Mettowee Watershed Partnership
 * Lake George Land Conservancy
 * Hudson River Watershed Alliance
 * Battenkill Conservancy
 * Battenkill Watershed Council

State agencies

 * NYS Adirondack Park Agency - Extensive park information
 * Adirondack Park Visitor Interpretive Centers

Museums

 * Hyde Collection Art Museum, Historic House & Gardens
 * Rexleigh Covered Bridge Museum
 * Georgi Museum European Art
 * Slate Valley Museum
 * Rathbuns Maple Sugar House Museum and Restaurant
 * Hicks Orchard
 * Pember Library and Museum

title: Washington County, New York


text:
Cat5

Cat5 or CAT5 may refer to:

 * Category 5 hurricane, used in the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale
 * Category 5 cable, unshielded twisted pair type cable
 * Port McNeill Airport, the ICAO airport code (CAT5)
 * LTE User Equipment Category 5

title: Cat5


text:
Phonetic complement

A phonetic complement is a phonetic symbol used to disambiguate word characters (logograms) that have multiple readings, in mixed logographic-phonetic scripts such as Egyptian hieroglyphs, Akkadian cuneiform, Japanese, and Mayan. Often they reenforce the communication of the ideogram by repeating the first or last syllable in the term.

Written English has few logograms, primarily numerals, and therefore few phonetic complements. An example is the nd of 2nd 'second', which avoids ambiguity with 2 standing for the word 'two'. In addition to numerals, other examples include Xmas, Xianity, and Xing for Christmas, Christianity, and Crossing – note the separate readings Christ and Cross.

In cuneiform
In Sumerian, the single word kur (𒆳) had two main meanings: 'hill' and 'country'. Akkadian, however, had separate words for these two meanings: šadú 'hill' and mātu 'country'. When Sumerian cuneiform was adapted (known as orthographic borrowing) for writing Akkadian, this was ambiguous because both words were written with the same character (𒆳, conventionally transcribed KUR, after its Sumerian pronunciation). To alert the reader as to which Akkadian word was intended, the phonetic complement -ú was written after KUR if 'hill' was intended, so that the characters KUR-ú were pronounced šadú, whereas KUR without a phonetic complement was understood to mean mātu 'country'.

Phonetic complements also indicated the Akkadian nominative and genitive cases. Similarly, Hittite cuneiform occasionally uses phonetic complements to attach Hittite case endings to Sumerograms and Akkadograms.

Phonetic complements should not be confused with determinatives (which were also used to disambiguate) since determinatives were used specifically to indicate the category of the word they preceded or followed. For example, the sign DINGIR (𒀭) often precedes names of gods, as LUGAL (𒈗) does for kings. It is believed that determinatives were not pronounced.

In Japanese
As in Akkadian, Japanese borrowed a logographic script, Chinese, designed for a very different language. The Chinese phonetic components built into these kanji (漢字) do not work when they are pronounced in Japanese, and there is not a one-to-one relationship between them and the Japanese words they represent.

For example, the kanji 生, pronounced shō or sei in borrowed Chinese vocabulary, stands for several native Japanese words as well. When these words have inflectional endings (verbs/adjectives and adverbs), the end of the stem is written phonetically: as well as the hybrid Chinese-Japanese word Note that some of these verbs share a kanji reading (i, u, and ha), and okurigana are conventionally picked to maximize these sharings.
 * 生 nama 'raw' or ki 'alive'
 * 生う [生u] o-u 'expand'
 * 生きる [生kiru] i-kiru 'live'
 * 生かす [生kasu] i-kasu 'make use of'
 * 生ける [生keru] i-keru 'living, arrange'
 * 生む　[生mu] u-mu 'produce, give birth to'
 * 生まれる or 生れる [生mareru or 生reru] u-mareru or uma-reru 'be born'
 * 生える [生eru] ha-eru 'grow' (intransitive)
 * 生やす [生yasu] ha-yasu 'grow' (transitive)
 * 生じる [生jiru] shō-jiru 'occur'

These phonetic characters are called okurigana. They are used even when the inflection of the stem can be determined by a following inflectional suffix, so the primary function of okurigana for many kanji is that of a phonetic complement.

Generally it is the final syllable containing the inflectional ending is written phonetically. However, in adjectival verbs ending in -shii (-しい), and in those verbs ending in -ru (-る) in which this syllable drops in derived nouns, the final two syllables are written phonetically. There are also irregularities. For example, the word umareru 'be born' is derived from umu 'to bear, to produce'. As such, it may be written 生まれる [生mareru], reflecting its derivation, or 生れる [生reru], as with other verbs ending in elidable -ru.

In Chinese
Chinese never developed a system of purely phonetic characters. Instead, about 90% of Chinese characters are compounds of a determinative (called a 'radical'), which may not exist independently, and a phonetic complement indicates the approximate pronunciation of the morpheme. However, the phonetic element is basic, and these might be better thought of as characters used for multiple near homonyms, the identity of which is constrained by the determiner. Due to sound changes over the last several millennia, the phonetic complements are not a reliable guide to pronunciation. Also, sometimes it is not obvious at all where the phonetic complements reside, for instance, the phonetic complement in 聽 is 𡈼, in 類 is 頪, and in 勝 is 朕, etc.

In Vietnamese
Chữ Nôm of Vietnamese is almost all constructed as phono-semantic characters, whose phonetic component and semantic component are usually individual unabridged Chinese characters (like the Chữ Nôm 𣎏 and 𣩂), instead of often radicals as in Sinographs.

In Korean
A handful of Korean gukja are also constructed as phono-semantic characters, such as 乭 (pronounced as 돌, dol) whose phonetic complement is the bottom 乙.

In Japanese
Some of Japanese Kokuji are phono-semantic characters, like 働, 腺, 鑓, whose phonetic complement is 動, 泉, 遣 respectively.

In the Maya Script
The Maya Script, the logosyllabic orthography of the Maya Civilization, used phonetic complements extensively and phonetic complements could be used synharmonically or disharmonically. The former is exemplified by the placement of the syllabogram for ma underneath the logogram for "jaguar" (in Classic Maya, BALAM): thus, though pronounced "BALAM", the word for "jaguar" was spelled "BALAM-m(a)". Disharmonic spellings also existed in the Maya Script.

title: Phonetic complement


text:
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) is an advanced distance-vector routing protocol that is used on a computer network for automating routing decisions and configuration. The protocol was designed by Cisco Systems as a proprietary protocol, available only on Cisco routers. In 2013, Cisco permitted other vendors to freely implement a limited version of EIGRP with some of its associated features such as High Availability (HA), while withholding other EIGRP features such as EIGRP stub, needed for DMVPN and large-scale campus deployment. Information needed for implementation was published with informational status as in 2016, which did not advance to Internet Standards Track level, and allowed Cisco to retain control of the EIGRP protocol.

EIGRP is used on a router to share routes with other routers within the same autonomous system. Unlike other well known routing protocols, such as RIP, EIGRP only sends incremental updates, reducing the workload on the router and the amount of data that needs to be transmitted.

EIGRP replaced the Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) in 1993. One of the major reasons for this was the change to classless IPv4 addresses in the Internet Protocol, which IGRP could not support.

Overview
Almost all routers contain a routing table that contains rules by which traffic is forwarded in a network. If the router does not contain a valid path to the destination, the traffic is discarded. EIGRP is a dynamic routing protocol by which routers automatically share route information. This eases the workload on a network administrator who does not have to configure changes to the routing table manually.

In addition to the routing table, EIGRP uses the following tables to store information:
 * Neighbor Table: The neighbor table keeps a record of the IP addresses of routers that have a direct physical connection with this router. Routers that are connected to this router indirectly, through another router, are not recorded in this table as they are not considered neighbors.
 * Topology Table: The topology table stores routes that it has learned from neighbor routing tables. Unlike a routing table, the topology table does not store all routes, but only routes that have been determined by EIGRP. The topology table also records the metrics for each of the listed EIGRP routes, the feasible successor and the successors. Routes in the topology table are marked as "passive" or "active". Passive indicates that EIGRP has determined the path for the specific route and has finished processing. Active indicates that EIGRP is still trying to calculate the best path for the specific route. Routes in the topology table are not usable by the router until they are inserted into the routing table. The topology table is never used by the router to forward traffic. Routes in the topology table will not be inserted into the routing table if they are active, are a feasible successor, or have a higher administrative distance than an equivalent path.

Information in the topology table may be inserted into the router's routing table and can then be used to forward traffic. If the network changes (for example, a physical link fails or is disconnected), the path will become unavailable. EIGRP is designed to detect these changes and will attempt to find a new path to the destination. The old path that is no longer available is removed from the routing table. Unlike most distance vector routing protocols, EIGRP does not transmit all the data in the router's routing table when a change is made, but will only transmit the changes that have been made since the routing table was last updated. EIGRP does not send its routing table periodically, but will only send routing table data when an actual change has occurred. This behavior is more inline with link-state routing protocols, thus EIGRP is mostly considered a hybrid protocol.

When a router running EIGRP is connected to another router also running EIGRP, information is exchanged between the two routers. They form a relationship, known as an adjacency. The entire routing table is exchanged between both routers at this time. After the exchange has completed, only differential changes are sent.

EIGRP is often considered a hybrid protocol because it also sends link state updates when link states change.

Features
EIGRP supports the following features:
 * Support for load balancing on parallel links between sites.
 * The ability to use different authentication passwords at different times.
 * MD5 and SHA-2 authentication between two routers.
 * Sends topology changes, rather than sending the entire routing table when a route is changed.
 * Periodically checks if a route is available, and propagates routing changes to neighboring routers if any changes have occurred.
 * Runs separate routing processes for Internet Protocol (IP), IPv6, IPX and AppleTalk, through the use of protocol-dependent modules (PDMs).
 * Backwards compatibility with the IGRP routing protocols.

Cisco IOS example
Example of setting up EIGRP on a Cisco IOS router for a private network. The 0.0.15.255 wildcard in this example indicates a subnetwork with a maximum of 4094 hosts—it is the bitwise complement of the subnet mask 255.255.240.0. The no auto-summary command prevents automatic route summarization on classful boundaries, which would otherwise result in routing loops in discontiguous networks. Router# configure terminal Router(config)# router eigrp 1 Router (config-router)# network 10.201.96.0 0.0.15.255 Router (config-router)# no auto-summary Router (config-router)# exit

Technical details
EIGRP is a distance vector & Link State routing protocol that uses the diffusing update algorithm (DUAL) (based on work from SRI International) to improve the efficiency of the protocol and to help prevent calculation errors when attempting to determine the best path to a remote network. EIGRP determines the value of the path using five metrics: bandwidth, load, delay, reliability and MTU. EIGRP uses five different messages to communicate with its neighbor routers – Hello, Update, Query, Reply, and Acknowledgement.

EIGRP routing information, exchanged to a router from another router within the same autonomous system, has a default administrative distance of 90. EIGRP routing information, that has come from an EIGRP-enabled router outside the autonomous system, has a default administrative distance of 170.

EIGRP does not operate using the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). This means that EIGRP does not use a port number to identify traffic. Rather, EIGRP is designed to work on top of Layer 3 (i.e. the IP protocol). Since EIGRP does not use TCP for communication, it implements Cisco's Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP) to ensure that EIGRP router updates are delivered to all neighbors completely. The Reliable Transport Protocol also contains other mechanisms to maximize efficiency and support multicasting. EIGRP uses 224.0.0.10 as its multicast address and protocol number 88.

Distance vector routing protocol
Cisco Systems now classifies EIGRP as a distance vector routing protocol, but it is normally said to be a hybrid routing protocol. While EIGRP is an advanced routing protocol that combines many of the features of both link-state and distance-vector routing protocols, EIGRP's DUAL algorithm contains many features which make it more of a distance vector routing protocol than a link-state routing protocol. Despite this, EIGRP contains many differences from most other distance-vector routing protocols, including:

 * the use of explicit hello packets to discover and maintain adjacencies between routers.
 * the use of a reliable protocol to transport routing updates.
 * the use of a feasibility condition to select a loop-free path.
 * the use of diffusing computations to involve the affected part of the network into computing a new shortest path.

EIGRP composite and vector metrics
EIGRP associates six different vector metrics with each route and considers only four of the vector metrics in computing the Composite metric: Router1# show ip eigrp topology 10.0.0.1 255.255.255.255 IP-EIGRP topology entry for 10.0.0.1/32 State is Passive, Query origin flag is 1, 1 Successor(s), FD is 40640000 Routing Descriptor Blocks: 10.0.0.1 (Serial0/0/0), from 10.0.0.1, Send flag is 0x0 Composite metric is (40640000/128256), Route is Internal Vector metric: Minimum bandwidth is 64 Kbit Total delay is 25000 microseconds Reliability is 255/255 Load is 197/255 Minimum MTU is 576 Hop count is 2
 * Bandwidth: Minimum Bandwidth (in kilobits per second) along the path from router to destination network.

 * Load: Number in range 1 to 255; 255 being saturated

 * Total Delay: Delay, in 10s of microseconds, along the path from router to destination network

 * Reliability: Number in range 1 to 255; 255 being the most reliable

 * MTU:Minimum path Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) (never used in the metric calculation)

 * Hop Count: Number of routers a packet passes through when routing to a remote network, used to limit the EIGRP AS. EIGRP maintains a hop count for every route, however, the hop count is not used in metric calculation. It is only verified against a predefined maximum on an EIGRP router (by default it is set to 100 and can be changed to any value between 1 and 255). Routes having a hop count higher than the maximum will be advertised as unreachable by an EIGRP router.

Routing metric
The composite routing metric calculation uses five parameters, so-called K values, K1 through K5. These act as multipliers or modifiers in the composite metric calculation. K1 is not equal to Bandwidth, etc.

By default, only total delay and minimum bandwidth are considered when EIGRP is started on a router, but an administrator can enable or disable all the K values as needed to consider the other Vector metrics.

For the purposes of comparing routes, these are combined together in a weighted formula to produce a single overall metric:

 * $$\bigg [ \bigg ( K_1 \cdot {\text{Bandwidth}}_{E} + \frac{K_2 \cdot {\text{Bandwidth}}_{E}}{256-\text{Load}} + K_3 \cdot {\text{Delay}}_{E}

\bigg )        \cdot \frac {K_5}{K_4 + \text{Reliability}} \bigg ] \cdot 256$$

where the various constants ($$K_1$$ through $$K_5$$) can be set by the user to produce varying behaviors. An important and unintuitive fact is that if $$K_5$$ is set to zero, the term $$\tfrac {K_5}{K_4 + \text{Reliability}}$$ is not used (i.e. taken as 1).

The default is for $$K_1$$ and $$K_3$$ to be set to 1, and the rest to zero, effectively reducing the above formula to $$({\text{Bandwidth}}_{E} + \text{Delay}_{E}) \cdot 256$$.

Obviously, these constants must be set to the same value on all routers in an EIGRP system, or permanent routing loops may result. Cisco routers running EIGRP will not form an EIGRP adjacency and will complain about K-values mismatch until these values are identical on these routers.

EIGRP scales the interface Bandwidth and Delay configuration values with following calculations:
 * $${\text{Bandwidth}}_{E}$$ = 107 / Value of the bandwidth interface command
 * $${\text{Delay}}_{E}$$ = Value of the delay interface command

On Cisco routers, the interface bandwidth is a configurable static parameter expressed in kilobits per second (setting this only affects metric calculation and not actual line bandwidth). Dividing a value of 107 kbit/s (i.e. 10 Gbit/s) by the interface bandwidth statement value yields a result that is used in the weighted formula. The interface delay is a configurable static parameter expressed in tens of microseconds. EIGRP takes this value directly without scaling into the weighted formula. However, various show commands display the interface delay in microseconds. Therefore, if given a delay value in microseconds, it must first be divided by 10 before using it in the weighted formula.

IGRP uses the same basic formula for computing the overall metric, the only difference is that in IGRP, the formula does not contain the scaling factor of 256. In fact, this scaling factor was introduced as a simple means to facilitate backward compatility between EIGRP and IGRP: In IGRP, the overall metric is a 24-bit value while EIGRP uses a 32-bit value to express this metric. By multiplying a 24-bit value with the factor of 256 (effectively bit-shifting it 8 bits to the left), the value is extended into 32 bits, and vice versa. This way, redistributing information between EIGRP and IGRP involves simply dividing or multiplying the metric value by a factor of 256, which is done automatically.

Feasible successor
A feasible successor for a particular destination is a next hop router that is guaranteed not to be a part of a routing loop. This condition is verified by testing the feasibility condition.

Thus, every successor is also a feasible successor. However, in most references about EIGRP the term feasible successor is used to denote only those routes which provide a loop-free path but which are not successors (i.e. they do not provide the least distance). From this point of view, for a reachable destination, there is always at least one successor, however, there might not be any feasible successors.

A feasible successor provides a working route to the same destination, although with a higher distance. At any time, a router can send a packet to a destination marked "Passive" through any of its successors or feasible successors without alerting them in the first place, and this packet will be delivered properly. Feasible successors are also recorded in the topology table.

The feasible successor effectively provides a backup route in the case that existing successors become unavailable. Also, when performing unequal-cost load-balancing (balancing the network traffic in inverse proportion to the cost of the routes), the feasible successors are used as next hops in the routing table for the load-balanced destination.

By default, the total count of successors and feasible successors for a destination stored in the routing table is limited to four. This limit can be changed in the range from 1 to 6. In more recent versions of Cisco IOS (e.g. 12.4), this range is between 1 and 16.

Active and passive state
A destination in the topology table can be marked either as passive or active. A passive state is a state when the router has identified the successor(s) for the destination. The destination changes to active state when the current successor no longer satisfies the feasibility condition and there are no feasible successors identified for that destination (i.e. no backup routes are available). The destination changes back from active to passive when the router received replies to all queries it has sent to its neighbors. Notice that if a successor stops satisfying the feasibility condition but there is at least one feasible successor available, the router will promote a feasible successor with the lowest total distance (the distance as reported by the feasible successor plus the cost of the link to this neighbor) to a new successor and the destination will remain in the passive state.

Feasibility condition
The feasibility condition is a sufficient condition for loop freedom in EIGRP-routed network. It is used to select the successors and feasible successors that are guaranteed to be on a loop-free route to a destination. Its simplified formulation is strikingly simple:

 * If, for a destination, a neighbor router advertises a distance that is strictly lower than our feasible distance, then this neighbor lies on a loop-free route to this destination.

or in other words,

 * If, for a destination, a neighbor router tells us that it is closer to the destination than we have ever been, then this neighbor lies on a loop-free route to this destination.

It is important to realize that this condition is a sufficient, not a necessary, condition. That means that neighbors which satisfy this condition are guaranteed to be on a loop-free path to some destination, however, there may be also other neighbors on a loop-free path which do not satisfy this condition. However, such neighbors do not provide the shortest path to a destination, therefore, not using them does not present any significant impairment of the network functionality. These neighbors will be re-evaluated for possible usage if the router transitions to Active state for that destination.

Unequal Path Cost Load Balancing
EIGRP features load balancing on paths with different costs. A multiplier, called variance, is used to determine which paths to include into load balancing. The variance is set to 1 by default, which means load balancing on equal cost paths. The maximum variance is 128. The minimum metric of a route is multiplied by the variance value. Each path with a metric that is smaller than the result is used in load balancing.

With the functionality of the Unequal Path Cost Load Balancing on EIGRP, OSPF protocol is unable to design the network by Unequal Path Cost Load Balancing. Regarding the Unequal Path Cost Load Balancing function on industry usage, the network design can be flexible with the traffic management.

EIGRP and compatibility to other vendors
Cisco released details of the proprietary EIGRP routing protocol in an RFC in an effort to assist companies whose networks operate in a multi-vendor environment. The protocol is described in. EIGRP was developed 20 years ago, yet it is still one of the primary Cisco routing protocols due to its purported usability and scalability in comparison to other protocols.

Cisco has stated that EIGRP is an open standard but they leave out several core details in the RFC definition which makes interoperability hard to set up between different vendors' routers when the protocol is used. Even Cisco NX-OS for example does not support unequal cost load balancing.

As of 2022 EIGRP has alpha support in FRRouting and it seems to be generally unsupported by other routing software.


text:
Elam, son of Shem

Elam ( ‘Elam) in the Hebrew Bible (Genesis 10:22, Ezra 4:9) is said to be one of the sons of Shem, the son of Noah. The name is also used (as in Akkadian) for the ancient country of Elam in what is now southern Iran, whose people the Hebrews believed to be the offspring of Elam, son of Shem (Genesis 10:22). This implies that the Elamites were considered Semites by the Hebrews. Their language was not one of the Semitic languages, but is considered a linguistic isolate.

Elam (the nation) is also mentioned in Genesis 14, describing an ancient war in the time of Abraham, involving Chedorlaomer, the king of Elam at that time.

The prophecies of the Book of Isaiah (11:11, 21:2, 22:6) and the Book of Jeremiah (25:25) also mention Elam. The last part of Jeremiah 49 is an apocalyptic oracle against Elam which states that Elam will be scattered to the four winds of the earth, but "will be, in the end of days, that I will return their captivity," a prophecy self-dated to the first year of Zedekiah (597 BC).

The Book of Jubilees may reflect ancient tradition when it mentions a son (or daughter, in some versions) of Elam named "Susan", whose daughter Rasuaya married Arpachshad, progenitor of another branch of Shemites. Shushan (or Susa) was the ancient capital of the Elamite Empire. (Dan. 8:2)

Elam as a personal name also refers to other figures appearing in the Hebrew Bible:
 * Elam is a son of Shashak of the tribe of Benjamin in 1 Chronicles 8:24.
 * Elam is the son of Meshelemiah, a Levite of the family of Kohath in 1 Chronicles 26:3.
 * Elam is the ancestor of a family that returned with Zerubbabel in Ezra 2:1-2,7.
 * Elam is the ancestor of a family that returned from the Captivity in Ezra 2:31. This is possibly the same man and family as in Ezra 2:1-2,7.
 * Elam is the ancestor of a family that returned with Ezra in Ezra 8:7.
 * Elam is the father of Jehiel and the grandfather of Shecaniah in Ezra 10:2.
 * Elam is one of the men who joins Nehemiah in sealing the new covenant in Nehemiah 10:14.
 * Elam is a priest who helps in the rededication of the rebuilt walls of Jerusalem in Nehemiah 12:42.

title: Elam, son of Shem