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Talk:Johann Mühlegg

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Question: the article doesn't say when his naturalisation to Spanish citizenship occurred, and as a result it's not clear for which country he competed in 1999. That's something we should clear up, if possible. -- Finlay McWalter 00:20, 19 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Right-O, done (a quick Google-search helped me out; I thought of this at my first edit, but such is one's sloth, y'know...) :-) I guess the guy technically could compete for Germany until the day of his Spanish naturalisation, although 1) he was by that time thoroughly p-o'ed at the German national team, and vice versa, and 2) practicalities of season would come into play. --Wernher 10:04, 19 Dec 2003 (UTC)

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Rahsaan Roland Kirk

Rahsaan Roland Kirk (born Ronald Theodore Kirk; August 7, 1935 – December 5, 1977), known earlier in his career simply as Roland Kirk, was an American jazz multi-instrumentalist who played tenor saxophone, flute, and many other instruments. He was renowned for his onstage vitality, during which virtuoso improvisation was accompanied by comic banter, political ranting, and the ability to play several instruments simultaneously.

Life
Ronald Theodore Kirk was born in Columbus, Ohio, where he lived in a neighborhood known as Flytown. He became blind at two years old, which he said was a result of improper medical treatment. As a teenager, Kirk studied at the Ohio State School for the Blind. By 15, he was on the road playing rhythm and blues on weekends with Boyd Moore's band. According to saxophonist Hank Crawford, "He would be like this 14-year-old blind kid playing two horns at once. They would bring him out and he would tear the joint up." Crawford heard him during this period and said he was unbelievable. He remarked, "Now they had him doing all kinds of goofy stuff but he was playing the two horns and he was playing the shit out of them. He was an original from the beginning." Kirk felt compelled by a dream to transpose two letters in his first name to make '"Roland". In 1970, Kirk added "Rahsaan" to his name after hearing it in a dream.

Kirk was politically outspoken. During his concerts, between songs he often talked about topical issues, including African-American history and the Civil Rights Movement. His monologues were often laced with satire and absurdist humor. According to comedian Jay Leno, when Leno toured with Kirk as Kirk's opening act, Kirk would introduce him by saying: "I want to introduce a young brother who knows the black experience and knows all about the white devils.... Please welcome Jay Leno!"

In 1975, Kirk had a major stroke which led to partial paralysis of one side of his body. He continued to perform and record, modifying his instruments to enable him to play with one arm. At a live performance at Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club in London he even managed to play two instruments, and carried on to tour internationally and to appear on television.

He died from a second stroke in 1977, aged 42, the morning after performing in the Frangipani Room of the Indiana University Student Union in Bloomington, Indiana.

Columbus Mayor Jack Sensenbrenner had declared Saturday, Dec. 10, 1970, "Rahsaan day," according to the Columbus Dispatch obituary that appeared on Thursday, Dec. 8, 1977.

Kirk's hometown of Columbus was not appreciative of his work for most of his career. He was thrown out of a local nightclub because his music was too difficult to understand, and he left for Los Angeles and further touring. In the 21st century, jazz fans in Columbus have been embracing his legacy.

Instruments and techniques
Kirk's musical career spans from 1955 until his death in 1977. He preferred to lead his own bands and rarely performed as a sideman, although he did record with arranger Quincy Jones, drummer Roy Haynes and worked with bassist Charles Mingus. One of his best-known recorded performances is the lead flute and solo on Jones' "Soul Bossa Nova", a 1964 hit song repopularized in the Austin Powers films.

Kirk's multi-instrumentality was credited as having a substantial musical conception. This inclusivity included blues music, a love of stride piano and early jazz, and an appreciation for pop tunes. But his vision was much wider than that of most of his contemporaries. According to producer Joel Dorn, he was also hugely knowledgeable about classical music. Pieces by Saint-Saëns, Hindemith, Tchaikovsky, Dvorak and Villa-Lobos would all feature on his albums over the years, alongside standards, pop songs and original compositions. Rahsaan's influences went beyond jazz and consequentially, he preferred the term "Black Classical Music".

His playing was generally rooted in soul jazz or hard bop, but Kirk's knowledge of jazz history allowed him to draw from many elements of the music's past, from ragtime to swing and free jazz. Kirk also absorbed classical influences, and his artistry reflected elements of pop music by composers such as Smokey Robinson and Burt Bacharach, as well as Duke Ellington, John Coltrane and other jazz musicians.

Kirk played and collected many musical instruments, mainly multiple saxophones, clarinets and flutes. His primary saxophones were a standard tenor saxophone, stritch (a straight alto sax lacking the instrument's conventional upturned bell), and a manzello (a modified saxello soprano sax, with a larger, upturned bell). A number of his instruments were exotic or homemade. Kirk modified instruments himself to accommodate his simultaneous playing technique. Critic Gary Giddins wrote that Kirk's tenor playing alone was enough to bring him "renown".

Usually, he appeared on stage with all three horns hanging around his neck, and at times he would play a number of these horns at once, harmonizing with himself, or sustain a note for lengthy durations by using circular breathing. He used the multiple horns to play true chords, essentially functioning as a one-man saxophone section. Kirk insisted that he was only trying to emulate the sounds he heard in his head. Even while playing two or three saxophones at once, the music was intricate, powerful jazz with a strong feel for the blues. The live album Bright Moments (1973) is an example of one of his shows.

Kirk was also an influential flute player, including recorders. According to Giddins, Kirk was the first major jazz innovator on flute after Eric Dolphy (who died in 1964). Kirk employed several techniques, including singing or humming into the flute at the same time as playing. Another was to play the standard transverse flute at the same time as a nose flute.

He played a variety of other instruments, including whistles; often kept a gong within reach; the clarinet, harmonica, English horn, and was a competent trumpeter. He utilized unique approaches, such as playing a trumpet with a saxophone mouthpiece.

He also made use of non-musical devices, such as alarm clocks, sirens, or a section of common garden hose (dubbed "the black mystery pipes"). From the early 1970s, his studio recordings used tape-manipulated musique concrète and primitive electronic sounds before such things became commonplace.

The Case of the 3 Sided Dream in Audio Color was a unique album in the annals of recorded jazz and popular music. It was a two-LP set, with Side 4 apparently "blank", the label not indicating any content. However, once word of "the secret message" got around among Rahsaan's fans, one would find that about 12 minutes into Side 4 appeared the first of two telephone answering machine messages recorded by Kirk, the second following soon thereafter (but separated by more blank grooves). The surprise impact of these segments appearing on "blank" Side 4 was lost on the initial CD reissue of this album (though restored as track 20 on the CD re-release).

He gleaned information on what was happening in the world via radio and TV. His later recordings often incorporated his spoken commentaries on current events, including Richard Nixon's involvement in the Watergate scandal. The 3-Sided Dream album was a "concept album" which incorporated "found" or environmental sounds and tape loops, tapes being played backwards, etc. Snippets of Billie Holiday singing are also heard briefly. The album even confronts the rise of influence of computers in society, as Rahsaan threatens to pull the plug on the machine trying to tell him what to do.

In the album Other Folks' Music the spoken words of Paul Robeson, another outspoken black artist, can be briefly heard.

Legacy and influence

 * Ian Anderson, leader and flautist of Jethro Tull recorded a version of Kirk's "Serenade to a Cuckoo" on their first album This Was (1968). Roland Kirk was the very reason Anderson thought he could bring a flute into rock music. Anderson learned Kirk's vocalizing style on the flute and Anderson's flute playing became the signature element of Jethro Tull's sound. Kirk and Anderson took the flute's refined upper crust classical nature and commonized it. Anderson got to know Kirk at the 1969 Newport Jazz Festival where they both performed the same night. Anderson said of Kirk "There's something about these colourful shamans. They can tease us, but we go along with it, because we know they're touched by genius, but at the same time there's a little bit of the snake oil for sale."
 * Jeff Coffin, the saxophonist in Béla Fleck and the Flecktones was heavily influenced by Kirk's music and says he learned through Kirk that it's OK to experiment with an instrument. He used Kirk's multi-horn inventions with the Flecktones and on his solo album Mutopia.
 * Guitarist Jimi Hendrix "idolized" Kirk, and even hoped to collaborate with him one day.
 * Frank Zappa had been influenced by Kirk's music to a considerable extent early in his career. In the liner notes to his 1966 debut album with The Mothers of Invention, Freak Out!, Zappa cites Kirk as one of many in a lengthy list of personal musical influences. Kirk and Zappa performed live together at least once, at the 1969 Boston Globe Jazz Festival.
 * Derek Trucks, a huge Kirk fan, recorded Kirk's composition "Volunteered Slavery" with his namesake group for the 2004 album Live at Georgia Theatre, the 2006 studio album Songlines, and the DVD Songlines Live. He said that hearing Kirk's music "felt much the same way those Hendrix records felt, that he was blowing the rules wide open..."
 * David Jackson, of Van der Graaf Generator, was also highly influenced by the style and technique of Kirk, and he plays multiple saxophones simultaneously since at least 1969.
 * Guitarist Michael Angelo Batio said in a 2008 interview with Ultimate Guitar Archive that Kirk's playing of two saxophones at once inspired him to create his "double guitar".
 * T.J. Kirk was a band named after the three artists it tributed: Thelonious Monk, James Brown, and Rahsaan Roland Kirk. Formed by eight-string guitarist Charlie Hunter as a side group to his own self-titled band, the band's other members include Scott Amendola, Will Bernard, and John Schott.
 * Paul Weller cited the Kirk album I Talk with the Spirits (1964) as one of his "Most Influential Albums" in an interview with The Times in 2009.
 * Björk named The Inflated Tear as one of her favorite jazz pieces, calling it "primitive and instinctive", "open to nature", and "punk".
 * Davey Payne's twin saxophone solo on "Hit Me with Your Rhythm Stick" (Ian Dury & the Blockheads, 1978) was inspired by Kirk.
 * Terry Edwards' twin saxophone solo on "The Ministry of Defence" by PJ Harvey (2016) was inspired by Kirk.
 * Eric Burdon and War's 1970 debut album Eric Burdon Declares War features the track "The Vision of Rassan", which is broken up into two pieces "Dedication" and "Roll on Kirk".
 * The English post-punk group Rip Rig + Panic were named after the album of the same name by Roland Kirk.
 * Clutch pay tribute to Roland Kirk in the song "Three Golden Horns" off their 2022 album Sunrise on Slaughter Beach.

As leader

 * 1956: Triple Threat (King, 1957)
 * 1960: Introducing Roland Kirk (Argo/Cadet/Chess, 1960)
 * 1961: Kirk's Work (Prestige, 1961)
 * 1961: We Free Kings (Mercury, 1962)
 * 1962: Domino (Mercury, 1962)
 * 1963: Reeds & Deeds (Mercury, 1963)
 * 1963: The Roland Kirk Quartet Meets the Benny Golson Orchestra (Mercury, 1963)
 * 1963: Kirk in Copenhagen (Mercury, 1964) – live
 * 1964: Gifts & Messages (Mercury, 1964)
 * 1964: I Talk with the Spirits (Limelight, 1965)
 * 1965: Rip, Rig and Panic (Limelight, 1965)
 * 1965: Here Comes the Whistleman (Atlantic, 1967)
 * 1965: Slightly Latin (Limelight, 1966)
 * 1967: Now Please Don't You Cry, Beautiful Edith (Verve, 1967)
 * 1967: The Inflated Tear (Atlantic, 1968)
 * 1968: Left & Right (Atlantic, 1969)
 * 1968–69: Volunteered Slavery (Atlantic, 1969)
 * 1970: Rahsaan Rahsaan (Atlantic, 1970) – live
 * 1971: Natural Black Inventions: Root Strata (Atlantic, 1971)
 * 1971: Blacknuss (Atlantic, 1972)
 * 1965, 72: A Meeting of the Times (Atlantic, 1972)
 * 1972: I, Eye, Aye: Live at the Montreux Jazz Festival, 1972 (Rhino, 1996) – live. posthumous release.
 * 1972: Brotherman in the Fatherland (Hyena, 2006) – live in Germany. posthumous release.
 * 1973: Prepare Thyself to Deal With a Miracle (Atlantic, 1973)
 * 1973: Bright Moments (Atlantic, 1974)
 * 1974: Compliments of the Mysterious Phantom (Hyena, 2003) – live. posthumous release.
 * 1975: The Case of the 3 Sided Dream in Audio Color (Atlantic, 1975)
 * 1975: The Return of the 5000 Lb. Man (Warner Bros., 1976)
 * 1975–76: Kirkatron (Warner Bros., 1977) – partially live
 * 1975–76: Boogie-Woogie String Along for Real (Warner Bros., 1977)
 * 1976: Other Folks' Music (Atlantic, 1976)

Compilations and box sets
 * Hip (Fontana, 1965)
 * The Man Who Cried Fire (Night, 1990)
 * Rahsaan: The Complete Mercury Recordings of Roland Kirk (Mercury, 1990)[10CD]
 * Does Your House Have Lions: The Rahsaan Roland Kirk Anthology (Rhino, 1993)[2CD]
 * Simmer, Reduce, Garnish & Serve (Warner Archives, 1995) – compilation from his last three albums
 * Talkin' Verve: Roots of Acid Jazz (Verve, 1996)
 * The Art of Rahsaan Roland Kirk - The Atlantic (Atlantic, 1996)[2LP]
 * Dog Years in the Fourth Ring (32 Jazz, 1997) – rec. 1963-75
 * Aces Back to Back (32 Jazz, 1998)[4CD] – combines Left & Right (1968), Rahsaan Rahsaan (1970), Prepare Thyself to Deal With a Miracle (1973) and Other Folks' Music (1976)
 * A Standing Eight (32 Jazz, 1998)[2CD] – combines The Return of the 5000 Lb. Man (1976), Kirkatron (1977) and Boogie-Woogie String Along for Real (1977)
 * Left Hook, Right Cross (32 Jazz, 1999)[2CD] – combines Volunteered Slavery (1969) and Blacknuss (1972)
 * Third Dimension and Beyond (Gambit, 2005) – combines Triple Threat (1957) and Introducing Roland Kirk (1960)
 * Only The Best of Rahsaan Roland Kirk Volume 1 (Collectables, 2009)[7CD] – combines Blacknuss, The Case of the 3 Sided Dream in Audio Color, The Inflated Tear/Natural Black Inventions: Root Strata, Kirkatron, Boogie-Woogie String Along for Real, and Other Folks' Music

As sideman
With Quincy Jones
 * Big Band Bossa Nova (Mercury, 1962)
 * Quincy Jones Explores the Music of Henry Mancini (Mercury, 1964)
 * I/We Had a Ball (Limelight, 1965) – rec. 1964–65
 * Quincy Plays for Pussycats (Mercury, 1965) – rec. 1959–65
 * In the Heat of the Night OST (United Artists, 1967)
 * Walking in Space (CTI, 1969)

With Charles Mingus
 * Tonight at Noon (Atlantic, 1964) – rec. 1961
 * Oh Yeah (Atlantic, 1962)
 * Mingus at Carnegie Hall (Atlantic, 1974)

With others
 * Jaki Byard, The Jaki Byard Experience (Prestige, 1969) – rec. 1968
 * Tubby Hayes, Tubby's Back in Town (Smash, 1962)
 * Roy Haynes, Out of the Afternoon (Impulse!, 1962)
 * Les McCann, Live at Montreux (Atlantic, 1973) – live rec. 1972
 * Tommy Peltier, The Jazz Corps Under the Direction of Tommy Peltier (Pacific Jazz, 1967)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Rahsaan Roland Kirk


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User:Justrob

Hey all. Somehow my account seems to have been removed, as well as all the edit histories of the stuff I added late last year - Oregon & such. What happened to the stuff? Anyway - 41 M - Beaverton Oregon. Will contribute on an irregular basis - mostly oregon & Oregon history.

Edit: Wow. 15 years later - i'm still in Oregon, but no longer 41. :) Edit: Double Wow.  Another 5 years.   I'm still in Oregon, but ... older. Edit:  20 years this March.  Its quite fun to see the 20somethings roll their eyes when I mention that I was registered on wikipedia in 2001.

1/16/2019 I had an older editor account RobSalzman - but it was lost for some reason. Now I'm here as justrob. This account I first edited an article in 2004. So I'm guessing I was here in ... 2001/2? There used to be a list of the old editor accounts, but I never linked to the page. Can anyone recall it? Does anyone have a reference to it?

I *think* I was the 12th editor. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:List_of_Wikipedians_in_order_of_arrival/2001

title: User:Justrob


text: Wikipedia:Blocked IPs

title: Wikipedia:Blocked IPs


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John McLoughlin

John McLoughlin, baptized Jean-Baptiste McLoughlin, (October 19, 1784 – September 3, 1857) was a French-Canadian, later American, Chief Factor and Superintendent of the Columbia District of the Hudson's Bay Company at Fort Vancouver from 1824 to 1845. He was later known as the "Father of Oregon" for his role in assisting the American cause in the Oregon Country. In the late 1840s, his general store in Oregon City was famous as the last stop on the Oregon Trail.

Early days
McLoughlin was born in October 1784 in Rivière-du-Loup, Quebec, and was of Scottish and French Canadian descent. He lived with his great uncle, Colonel William Fraser, for a while as a child. Though baptized Roman Catholic, he was raised Anglican. In his later life, he returned to the Roman Catholic faith.

In 1798, he began to study medicine under Sir James Fisher of Quebec. McLoughlin was granted a licence to practice medicine in Lower Canada (now Quebec) in 1803. He evidently completed his course, as he is widely referred to as "Dr. John McLoughlin".

North West Company
McLoughlin was hired as a physician at Fort William, the inland headquarters and a fur trade post of the North West Company on Lake Superior. There he became a trader and mastered several Indian languages. In 1814, he became a partner in the company.

In 1816 McLoughlin was charged with complicity in the massacre at the Red River Colony after the Battle of Seven Oaks. He and all the other parties from the North West Company were exonerated. The Hudson's Bay Company was found culpable by the appointed Royal Commissioner at its trial on October 30, 1818, and in the later prosecutions by Lord Selkirk and the successful counter-suits.

McLoughlin was instrumental in the negotiations leading to the North West Company's 1821 merger with the Hudson's Bay Company. He was promoted to head the Lac la Pluie district temporarily shortly after the merger.

Hudson's Bay Company

In 1824, the Hudson's Bay Company appointed McLoughlin, already a Chief Factor, as Superintendent of the Columbia Department (roughly parallel to what Americans know as the Oregon Country), and Peter Skene Ogden was appointed to assist him. At the time, the region was under joint occupation of both the United States and Britain pursuant to the Treaty of 1818. Upon his arrival, McLoughlin determined that the headquarters of the company at Fort Astoria (now Astoria, Oregon), at the mouth of the Columbia River, was unfit. The York Factory Express trade route had evolved from an earlier express brigade used by the North West Company between Fort George, founded in 1811 by John Jacob Astor's American Fur Company) at the mouth of the Columbia River, to Fort William on Lake Superior.

In the 1821 merger with the North West Company, the Hudson's Bay Company gained control of North West Company trading posts west of the Rocky Mountains. They established headquarters at Fort George (formerly Astoria). George Simpson, Governor of Hudson's Bay Company, visited the Columbia District in 1824–25, journeying from York Factory. He investigated a quicker route than previously used, following the Saskatchewan River and crossing the mountains at Athabasca Pass. This route was thereafter followed by the York Factory Express brigades.

Fort Vancouver
McLoughlin built Fort Vancouver as a replacement for Fort George, on the north side of the Columbia River, a few miles upstream from the confluence of the Columbia and Willamette Rivers. The site was chosen by Sir George Simpson. The post was opened for business on March 19, 1825. From his Columbia Department headquarters in Fort Vancouver, McLoughlin supervised trade and kept peace with the Indians, inaugurated salmon and timber trade with Mexican-controlled California and Hawaii, and supplied Russian America with produce.

Fort Vancouver became the center of activity in the Pacific Northwest. Every year ships would come from London to drop off supplies and trade goods in exchange for the furs. It was the nexus for the fur trade on the Pacific Coast; its influence reached from the Rocky Mountains to the Hawaiian Islands, and from Russian Alaska into Mexican-controlled California. From Fort Vancouver, at its pinnacle, McLoughlin watched over 34 outposts, 24 ports, six ships, and 600 employees. Under McLoughlin's management, the Columbia Department remained highly profitable, in part due to the ongoing high demand for beaver hats in Europe. John McLoughlin was worried Fort Vancouver would be attacked and plundered of its heavy stock of supplies, due to its proximity to the Willamette Valley, in which there was already an American settlement of some size.

York Factory Express
By 1825 there were usually two brigades from opposite ends of the route, (Fort Vancouver in the Columbia District on the lower Columbia River and the other from York Factory on Hudson Bay), that set out in spring and passed each other in the middle of the continent. Each brigade consisted of about forty to seventy-five men and two to five specially made boats that travelled at breakneck speed (for the time). These brigades often needed help from Indians, who would help the men portage around falls and unnavigable rapids; in return, the Indians were paid with trade goods. An 1839 report cites the travel time as three months and ten days—almost 26 miles (40 km) per day on average. The brigades used boat, horseback, and backpacks to bring the supplies in and furs out to the forts and trading posts along the route.

Puget Sound Agricultural Company
The Hudson Bay Company officially discouraged settlement because it interfered with the lucrative fur trade. Two developments in the late 1830s made a reappraisal of Hudson's Bay Company operations in the Columbia Department necessary. Apprehensions about American antagonism rose due to U.S. Senator Lewis F. Linn, who in 1838 called for a naval force to be dispatched to the Columbia River, although the measure never passed. Favorable relations with the Russian-American Company (RAC) were established with the signing of the RAC-HBC Agreement in 1839.

To meet the new commercial obligations and to support British claims in the Oregon Question, the Hudson's Bay Company formally incorporated the Puget Sound Agricultural Company (PSAC) subsidiary in 1840. The new venture, while nominally independent, was administratively included within the Columbia Department. McLoughlin criticized the idea of a fur trading monopoly maintaining agricultural operations, as he felt independent farmers would be efficient. Nonetheless, he was appointed as the PSAC supervisor.

The fertile plains near the Cowlitz River were selected as a suitable location for Cowlitz Farm, the principal PSAC farm. Fort Nisqually was also assigned to the PSAC, where numerous livestock herds were maintained. Several locations were considered for potential farmers, including among the French-Canadian and Métis farmers of the Willamette Valley, Scotland, and the Red River colony.

In November 1839 Sir George Simpson instructed Duncan Finlayson to begin promoting the PSAC among the Red River colonists. James Sinclair was appointed by Duncan Finlayson to guide the mostly Métis settler families to Fort Vancouver. In June 1841, the party left Fort Garry with 23 families consisting of 121 people. When they arrived at Fort Vancouver, they numbered 21 families of 116 people. Fourteen families were relocated to Fort Nisqually, while the remaining seven families were sent to Fort Cowlitz.

Japanese shipwreck
When three Japanese sailors, among them Otokichi, were shipwrecked on the Olympic Peninsula in 1834, McLoughlin thought they might present an opportunity to open trade with Japan. He sent the three men to London on the Eagle to try to convince the Crown of his plan. They reached London in 1835, probably the first Japanese to do so since the 16th century Christopher and Cosmas. When the British Government did not show interest, the castaways were sent to Macau so that they could be returned to Japan. Even that was not possible, as Japan did not allow any outside ships to enter its waters.

Relations with American settlers
In 1821, with the merger of HBC and the North West Company, the British Parliament imposed the laws of Upper Canada on British subjects in Rupert’s Land and the Columbia District, and gave the authority to enforce those laws to the newly reconfigured Hudson's Bay Company. McLoughlin, as Superintendent of Fort Vancouver, applied the law to British subjects, kept peace with the natives and sought to maintain law and order over American settlers as well.

In August 1828, McLoughlin was in charge at Fort Vancouver when American explorer Jedediah Smith, John Turner, Arthur Black, and Richard Leland arrived, the only survivors of the massacre of fifteen members of his exploring party by Umpqua people, who lived to the south in Oregon. McLoughlin sent a party headed by Alexander Roderick McLeod to recover Smith's property.

In the early 1840s, with the arrival of the first wagon trains via the Oregon Trail, McLoughlin disobeyed company orders and extended substantial aid to the American settlers. Relations between Britain and the United States had become very strained, and many expected war to break out any time. McLoughlin's aid probably prevented an armed attack on his outpost by the numerous American settlers. The settlers understood that his motives were not purely altruistic, and some resented the assistance, working against him for the rest of his life.

Pressure over the Pacific Northwest
As tensions mounted in the Oregon boundary dispute; Simpson, realizing that border might ultimately be as far north as the 49th parallel, ordered McLoughlin to relocate their regional headquarters to Vancouver Island. McLoughlin, in turn, directed James Douglas to construct Fort Camosun (now Victoria, British Columbia, Canada) in 1843. But McLoughlin, whose life was increasingly connected to the Willamette River Valley, refused to move there.

McLoughlin was involved with the debate over the future of the Oregon Country. He advocated an independent nation that would be free of the United States during debates at the Oregon Lyceum in 1842 through his lawyer. This view won support at first and a resolution adopted but was later moved away from in favor of a resolution by George Abernethy of the Methodist Mission to wait on forming an independent country.

In 1843, American settlers established their own government, called the Provisional Government of Oregon. A legislative committee drafted a code of laws known as the Organic Law. It included the creation of an executive committee of three, a judiciary, militia, land laws, and four counties. There was vagueness and confusion over the nature of the 1843 Organic Law, in particular, whether it was constitutional or statutory. In 1844, a new legislative committee decided to consider it statutory. The 1845 Organic Law made additional changes, including allowing the participation of British subjects in the government. Although the Oregon Treaty of 1846 settled the boundaries of US jurisdiction upon all lands south of the 49th parallel, the Provisional Government continued to function until 1849, when the first governor of Oregon Territory arrived.

Personal life
Around 1810, McLoughlin entered into a relationship with Marguerite Waddens McKay. McKay was the daughter of Jean-Étienne Waddens, who was one of the original partners of the North West Company, and an indigenous woman whose name is unknown. She was the widow of Alexander McKay, a trader killed in the Tonquin incident. Her son Thomas became McLoughlin's stepson. McLoughlin and McKay had four children: John Jr., Elisabeth, Eloisa, and David. They were legally married in 1842 at Fort Vancouver.

McLoughlin's appearance, 6 foot 4 inches (193 cm) tall with long, prematurely white hair, brought him respect; but he was also generally known for his fair treatment of the people with whom he dealt, whether they were British subjects, U.S. citizens, or of indigenous origin (notwithstanding for example, his asymmetric use of force against the S'Klallam tribe after an earlier raid--an HBC ship under his command fired its cannons into an unrelated village near Port Townsend in the early morning, killing twenty-seven people and leveling the village. ). At the time, the wives of many Hudson's Bay field employees were indigenous, including McLoughlin's own wife.

John McLoughlin lost one son to a violent death. John McLoughlin, Jr. had been appointed the second Clerk in Charge at Fort Stikine, only to die in April 1842 at the hands of one of the fort employees, Urbain Heroux, who was charged with his murder but acquitted for lack of evidence, which added to the grievances John Sr. held against the company.

Later life in the Oregon Territory
After resigning from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1846, McLoughlin moved his family south to Oregon City in the Willamette Valley. The Oregon Treaty had been ratified by that time, and the region, now known as the Oregon Territory, was part of the United States. The valley was the destination of choice for settlers streaming in over the Oregon Trail. At his Oregon City store, he sold food and farming tools to settlers.

In 1847, McLoughlin was given the Knighthood of St. Gregory, bestowed on him by Pope Gregory XVI. He became a U.S. citizen in 1849. McLoughlin's opponents succeeded in inserting a clause forfeiting his land claim in the Donation Land Claim Act of 1850 by Samuel R. Thurston. Although it was never enforced, it embittered the elderly McLoughlin. He served as mayor of Oregon City in 1851, winning 44 of 66 votes. He died of natural causes in 1857. His grave is now located beside his home overlooking downtown Oregon City.

Legacy
McLoughlin is featured on the 1925 Fort Vancouver Centennial half dollar designed by Laura Gardin Fraser.

In 1953, the state of Oregon donated to the National Statuary Hall Collection a bronze statue of McLoughlin, which is currently displayed at the Capitol Visitor Center. The title "Father of Oregon" was officially bestowed on him by the Oregon Legislative Assembly in 1957, on the centennial of his death. Many landmarks in Oregon are named after him, including:
 * Mount McLoughlin
 * The John McLoughlin Bridge
 * McLoughlin Boulevard, the street name of Oregon Route 99E between Oregon City and Portland
 * Numerous schools

McLoughlin's former residence in Oregon City, now known as the McLoughlin House, is today a museum; it is part of the Fort Vancouver National Historic Site.

title: John McLoughlin


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Avogadro constant

The Avogadro constant, commonly denoted $NA$ or $L$, is an SI defining constant with an exact value of $Nundefined$ (reciprocal moles). It is defined as the number of constituent particles (usually molecules, atoms, or ions) per mole (SI unit) and used as a normalization factor in the amount of substance in a sample. The constant is named after the physicist and chemist Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856).

The Avogadro constant $NA$ is also the factor that converts the average mass of one particle, in grams, to the molar mass of the substance, in grams per mole (g/mol).

The constant $NA$ also relates the molar volume (the volume per mole) of a substance to the average volume nominally occupied by one of its particles, when both are expressed in the same units of volume. For example, since the molar volume of water in ordinary conditions is about 18 mL/mol, the volume occupied by one molecule of water is about 18/(6.022) mL, or about $L$ (cubic nanometres). For a crystalline substance, $N0$ relates the volume of a crystal with one mole worth of repeating unit cells, to the volume of a single cell (both in the same units).

In the SI dimensional analysis of measurement units, the dimension of the Avogadro constant is the reciprocal of amount of substance, denoted N−1. The Avogadro number, sometimes denoted $N0$, is the numeric value of the Avogadro constant (i.e., without a unit), namely the dimensionless number $−1$.

Definition

The Avogadro constant was historically derived from the old definition of the mole as the amount of substance in 12 grams of carbon-12 (12C); or, equivalently, the number of daltons in a gram, where the dalton is defined as 1/12 of the mass of a 12C atom. By this old definition, the numerical value of the Avogadro constant in mol−1 (the Avogadro number) was a physical constant that had to be determined experimentally.

The redefinition of the mole in 2019, as being the amount of substance containing exactly $6.022 mol-1$ particles, meant that the mass of 1 mole of a substance is now exactly the product of the Avogadro number and the average mass of its particles. The dalton however is still defined as 1/12 of the mass of a 12C atom, which must be determined experimentally and is known only with finite accuracy. The prior experiments that aimed to determine the Avogadro constant are now re-interpreted as measurements of the value in grams of the dalton.

By the old definition of mole, the numerical value of the mass of one mole of a substance, expressed in grams, was exactly equal to the average mass of one molecule (or atom) of the substance in daltons. With the new definition, this numerical equivalence is no longer exact, and is affected by the uncertainty of the value of the dalton; but it still holds for all practical purposes. For example, the average mass of one molecule of water is about 18.0153 daltons, and of one mole of water is about 18.0153 grams. Also, the Avogadro number is the approximate number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in one gram of ordinary matter.

In older literature, the Avogadro number was also denoted $0.03 nm3$, although that conflicts with the symbol for number of particles in statistical mechanics.

Origin of the concept
The Avogadro constant is named after the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856), who, in 1811, first proposed that the volume of a gas (at a given pressure and temperature) is proportional to the number of atoms or molecules regardless of the nature of the gas.

Avogadro's hypothesis was popularized by Stanislao Cannizzaro, who advocated Avogadro's work at the Karlsruhe Congress in 1860, four years after his death.

The name Avogadro's number was coined in 1909 by the physicist Jean Perrin, who defined it as the number of molecules in exactly 32 grams of oxygen gas. The goal of this definition was to make the mass of a mole of a substance, in grams, be numerically equal to the mass of one molecule relative to the mass of the hydrogen atom; which, because of the law of definite proportions, was the natural unit of atomic mass, and was assumed to be 1/16 of the atomic mass of oxygen.

First measurements
The value of Avogadro's number (not yet known by that name) was first obtained indirectly by Josef Loschmidt in 1865, by estimating the number of particles in a given volume of gas. This value, the number density $n0$ of particles in an ideal gas, is now called the Loschmidt constant in his honor, and is related to the Avogadro constant, $NA$, by
 * $$n_0 = \frac{p_0N_{\rm A}}{R\,T_0},$$

where $p0$ is the pressure, $R$ is the gas constant, and $T0$ is the absolute temperature. Because of this work, the symbol $L$ is sometimes used for the Avogadro constant, and, in German literature, that name may be used for both constants, distinguished only by the units of measurement. (However, $NA$ should not be confused with the entirely different Loschmidt constant in English-language literature.)

Perrin himself determined the Avogadro number by several different experimental methods. He was awarded the 1926 Nobel Prize in Physics, largely for this work.

The electric charge per mole of electrons is a constant called the Faraday constant and has been known since 1834, when Michael Faraday published his works on electrolysis. In 1910, Robert Millikan with the help of Harvey Fletcher obtained the first measurement of the charge on an electron. Dividing the charge on a mole of electrons by the charge on a single electron provided a more accurate estimate of the Avogadro number.

SI definition of 1971
In 1971, in its 14th conference, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) decided to regard the amount of substance as an independent dimension of measurement, with the mole as its base unit in the International System of Units (SI). Specifically, the mole was defined as an amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 12 grams (0.012 kilograms) of carbon-12 (12C). Thus, in particular, one mole of carbon-12 was exactly 12 grams of the element.

By this definition, one mole of any substance contained exactly as many molecules as one mole of any other substance. However, this number $N0$ was a physical constant that had to be experimentally determined, since it depended on the mass (in grams) of one atom of 12C, and therefore it was known only to a limited number of decimal digits. The common rule of thumb that "one gram of matter contains $N0$ nucleons" was exact for carbon-12, but slightly inexact for other elements and isotopes.

In the same conference, the BIPM also named $NA$ (the factor that converted moles into number of particles) the "Avogadro constant". However, the term "Avogadro number" continued to be used, especially in introductory works. As a consequence of this definition, $NA$ was not a pure number, but had the metric dimension of reciprocal of amount of substance (mol-1).

SI redefinition of 2019
In its 26th Conference, the BIPM adopted a different approach: effective 20 May 2019, it defined the Avogadro constant $NA$ as the exact value $6.022$, thus redefining the mole as exactly $6.022$ constituent particles of the substance under consideration. One consequence of this change is that the mass of a mole of 12C atoms is no longer exactly 0.012 kg. On the other hand, the dalton (a.k.a. universal atomic mass unit) remains unchanged as 1/12 of the mass of 12C. Thus, the molar mass constant remains very close to but no longer exactly equal to 1 g/mol, although the difference ($N$ in relative terms, as of March 2019) is insignificant for all practical purposes.

Connection to other constants
The Avogadro constant $NA$ is related to other physical constants and properties.
 * It relates the molar gas constant $6.022 mol-1$ and the Boltzmann constant $kB$, which in the SI is defined to be exactly $6.022$:
 * It relates the Faraday constant $4.5$ and the elementary charge $R$, which in the SI is defined as exactly $1.381 J/K$:
 * It relates the molar mass constant $R = kB NA =$ and the atomic mass constant $F = e NA =$ currently
 * It relates the molar mass constant $Mu$ and the atomic mass constant $mu$ currently
 * It relates the molar mass constant $Mu = mu NA =$ and the atomic mass constant ᙭᙭᙭ currently

title: Avogadro constant