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Price revolution

The Price Revolution, sometimes known as the Spanish Price Revolution, was a series of economic events that occurred between the second half of the 16th century and the first half of the 17th century, and most specifically linked to the high rate of inflation that occurred during this period across Western Europe. Prices rose on average roughly sixfold over 150 years. This level of inflation amounts to 1.2% per year compounded, a relatively low inflation rate for modern-day standards, but rather high given the monetary policy in place in the 16th century.

Generally it is thought that this high inflation was caused by the large influx of gold and silver from the Spanish treasure fleet from the New World; including Mexico, Peru, Bolivia and the rest of the Spanish Empire.

Specie flowed through Spain increasing its prices and those of allied European countries (e.g., the imperial territories of Charles V). Wealth then spread to the rest of Western Europe as a result of the Spanish balance of payments deficit, or was directly introduced to countries like Great Britain and France, using piracy to attack the Spanish fleet. This enlarged the monetary supply and price levels of many European countries.

Background
Most historians look at the end of the Renaissance as the start of the Price Revolution. An era that was often considered a time of peace for the Western European population, the Renaissance was a period when Western Europe experienced equilibrium in the price of commodities and labor. It also was a period when there was a high concentration of wealth in the hands of a few (the Black Death had wiped out nearly a third of the population a century before). Additionally, Europe experienced technological advancement in the mining industry, the stream of currency through debasement from royals, and the emergence of Protestantism.

The severe shortage of precious metals during the late 15th and early 16th centuries eased in the second half of the 16th century. The Spanish mined American gold and silver at minimal cost and flooded the European market with an abundance of specie. This influx caused a relative decrease in the value of these metals in comparison with agricultural and craft products. Furthermore, depopulation – specifically in southern Spain – resulted in a high rate of inflation. The failure of the Spanish to control the influx of gold and the price fluctuations of gold and silver from the American mines, combined with war expenditures, led to three bankruptcies of the Spanish monarchy by the end of the 16th century.

In the 16th century, prices increased consistently throughout Western Europe, and by the end of the century prices reached levels three to four times higher than at the beginning. The annual inflation rate ranged from 1% to 1.5%. Since the monetary system of the 16th century was based on specie (mostly silver) this inflation rate was significant. The specie-centered monetary organization had its own price-level stabilization property: rising commodity prices led to a fall in the purchasing power of the monetary metals, and therefore less incentive to mine them and more incentive to use them for non-monetary purposes. This stabilizing adjustment of the money supply led to long-run stability of price levels regardless of permanent shifts in money demand over time. Therefore, the long-run inflation can only be explained either by the devaluation of coins or by shifts in the supply of the specie. An increase in the productivity of mining in Peru led to a fall in the price of metals relative to rising prices for other commodities in Europe. This process is only remedied if the purchasing power of the metal is equal to its production costs.

Influx of gold and silver
From an economic viewpoint the discovery of new silver and gold deposits as well as the productivity increase in the silver mining industry perpetuated the price revolution. When precious metals entered Spain, this influx drove up the Spanish price level and caused a balance of payments deficit. This deficit occurred on account of Spanish demand for foreign products exceeding exports to foreign markets. The deficit was financed by the metals that entered these foreign countries and in turn increased their money supply and drove up their price levels.

The increased importation of specie to Spain started in Central Europe around the beginning of the sixteenth century. According to Michael North (1994) central European silver output doubled between 1470 and 1520, and increased even more in the 1520s with the new mine of Joachimsthal. Also during this time the Spanish and Portuguese brought a large amount of gold from the New World to Europe. Starting in the 1540s a growing amount of silver was shipped to Europe from Zacatecas, Guanajuato and Taxco mines in Mexico and the Potosí mountain in Peru. The production of the Potosí mine increased greatly in the 1560s after mercury deposits had been discovered in the Andes, as mercury was necessary to process the silver. Based on the records of Earl J. Hamilton (1934), the total imports of specie from the Americas during the 16th century amounted to around 210 million pesos, with 160 million of these pesos being imported in the second half of the 16th century. The total amount of silver imported added up to about 3,915 metric tons of silver. However these numbers underestimate the total amount imported to Spain because Hamilton only counted imports recorded by the official Casa de Contratación in Seville, not including the specie shipped directly to Cadiz by the Dutch and British East India Companies. The influx of these precious metals and the resulting money supply shocks help explain the price increase in Spain during the 16th century.

European silver production
Some accounts emphasize the role of increased silver production within Europe itself. According to Nef, the output of silver mines in Bohemia, Germany and Hungary increased rapidly from c. 1460 to c. 1510. Production peaked in the 1530s, thereafter slowly declining for the next 30 years. After 1560, the decline in European silver production was rapid. Flynn contends that imports of silver from Spanish America is behind this decline in European silver mining.

Quantity theory of money
The first scholar to make a quantity-theory link between the influx of American "treasure" and the Price Revolution was supposedly the French philosopher Jean Bodin in his 1568 response to a 1566 treatise by the Royal Councilor Jean de Malestroit. Malestroit argued that lower-quality coins were the chief culprit of price influx—similar to the periodic inflations of the 14th and 15th centuries. Bodin dismissed this argument, contending that the growing influx of silver from the Spanish Americas was the primary cause of price inflation. Championed for the quantity theory of money, Bodin was able to demonstrate that the inflation of prices in France was due far more to Spanish-American influx than to any change in coin debasement.

Earl Hamilton, a contemporary price revolution theorist, found that no Spanish writer of the 16th century had voiced opinions similar to those of Jean Bodin despite having conducted meticulous research into Spanish treatises, letters, and other documents. This, however, was not true; less well known is an even earlier Spanish publication in a treatise from 1556 by the cleric Martín de Azpilcueta of the Salamanca School, which made virtually the same claim about the role of Spanish-American silver in the rise of prices.

Debasement
Regardless, Malestroit did put forth several valid claims about the price revolution that continue to hold up today, particularly his argument explaining the different price indexes and why the Spanish prices rose the least and the Brabantine the most. Spain, unlike most other European countries of this era, underwent no debasements of the gold and silver coinages during most of the period, but that all changed in 1599, when the new Spanish king Philip III (1598–1621) introduced the purely copper "vellon" coinage.

Following Henry VIII of England and his infamous "Great Debasement" programme that began 1526, the Spanish King Philip III tried to cement his Spanish legacy through changes in coinage strategy. Previously, Spanish kings (at least from 1471) issued a largely copper fractional coinage called blancas, with a nominal money-of-account value of 0.5 maravedí, but with a very small amount of silver to convince the public that it was indeed precious-metal "money". The blanca issued in 1471 had a silver fineness of 10 grains or 3.47% (weighing 1.107 g). In 1497, that fineness was reduced to 7 grains (2.43% fine); in 1552, to 5.5 grains (1.909% fine); in 1566, to 4 grains (1.39% fine). By the start of the 17th century, inflation took hold of Spain as the gap between nominal and silver-based prices dramatically shifted. The purely copper coinage had done its damage to Spain. The difference between the silver- and vellon-based price indexes in Spain showed that the purely copper coinage other European countries used made up a much smaller proportion of the total coined money supply (something the Spanish kings had overlooked and Malestroit was able to pinpoint).

Black Death
Demographic factors also contributed to upward pressure on prices with the resurgence of European population growth after the century of depopulation following the Black Death (1347–1353). The price of food rose during the years of the plague, and then began to fall as the population of nations decreased. At the same time prices of manufactured goods rose because of a displacement of supply. As the nations began to recover and repopulate after the Black Death, the increase in population placed greater demands on agriculture. Later on, increased population placed greater demands on an agricultural area that had contracted significantly after the 1340s, or had been converted from arable to less intensive livestock production.

However, population growth and recovery in countries such as England are not consistent with inflation during the early stages of the price revolution. In 1520 at the beginning of the price revolution England's population was roughly 2.5 million people. This is about half of the English population of 5 million in 1300. Critics of the population argument raise the question that if England at the beginning stages of the price revolution was very unpopulated, how could any renewed growth from such a low level immediately spark inflation? It can be argued that population growth led to a price increase in the agrarian sector because of an increase demand for food. Marginal lands that were not very fertile and far away from markets were unable to adopt the technological developments to offset the lower returns of farming. In turn this led to a higher marginal cost to farming and resulted in a price increase for grains and other agricultural goods that surpassed the price increase for non-agrarian commodities during the 16th and beginning of the 17th century. The resurgence of population after the plague is linked with the demand-pull explanation of the price revolution. This "demand-pull" theory states that an increase in the demand for money and the growth of economic activity produced the rise in prices and a pressure to increase the supply of money.

Urbanization
Some accounts emphasize the role of urbanization. Urbanization contributed to increased trade between Europe's regions, which made prices more responsive to distant changes in demand, and provided a network for the flow of silver from Spain through western and central Europe. Urbanization is often connected with the increased velocity of money theory because the frequency of transactions increases as urban centers grow relative to rural areas. For example, in England, many lands held as common lands were enclosed so that only the landlord could graze his animals. This forced his former tenants either to pay an increased rent, or to leave their own farms. An increase in the number of people unable to afford their farms led to migration into the cities in search of employment. This in turn led to an increase in the velocity of monetary transactions, but was frustrated by the high demand and inelastic supply of food.

Population and agricultural growth
If the influx of Spanish silver was not the initial cause of the European Price Revolution then the best explanation for the Price Revolution is population growth. This theory developed under Earl Hamilton argues that prices were not driven by specie (which, at most, sets a floor to prices) but by the actions of monopolists (or governments) whose positions in this period were enhanced by the steady population growth in Western Europe (The resurgence of population after the plague is linked to the "demand-pull" explanation of the price revolution, which states that an increase in the demand for money and the growth of economic activity produced the rise in prices and a pressure to increase the supply of money.

The significant increase of European population in the period 1460–1620 meant that there were now more people to be fed, clothed, and housed raising the demand for goods of all kinds. Agricultural products then became crucial to the European market. Producers were unable to respond to the rising demand as new and less fertile land were cultivated. Essentially, marginal costs were increasing and per-capita yields were shrinking, while demand continued to rise. The price of agricultural commodities, especially grain, rose sooner and faster than those of other goods, and the inflation of agricultural prices eventually caused a general increase in price level in all industries. Until the mid-17th century, the number of mouths to feed outran the capacity of agriculture to supply basic foodstuffs, causing the vast majority of people to live in a constant state of hunger. Until food production could catch up with the increasing population, prices, especially those of the staple food, bread, continued to rise. Hamilton's theory pointed to evidence of agricultural price growth, slow nonagricultural price growth and poor timing (of the specie outflow to the East) as tangible evidence of the failure to fix prices and feed the growing populace. Hamilton also pointed to monopolistic and other non-competitive techniques as the typical pricing behavior for European products and factor markets of the period.

External debt
Rising costs to sustain Habsburg war efforts eventually led to a severe rise of the Spanish public debt, of which German and Italian bankers were the creditors. The Habsburg Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor was also King of Spain and borrowed enormous amounts of money from the Fuggers, the Welsers, and Genoese banking families, in order to be elected Emperor and sustain, for over 35 years, the Imperial foreign policy. To repay such loans, he relied primarily on the vast stream of bullion provided by Spanish America. In the 1520s and 1530s, ships full of Aztec and Inca treasures arrived from Mexico and Peru to the courts of Charles V as homage of Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro. Those treasures were usually minted into coins in Seville and transferred to German bankers in Antwerp, a port city of the Burgundian Low Countries where major agencies of the Fugger and Welser were located. This allowed Antwerp to become the center of the international economy and accelerated the capitalist transition of the Low Countries. Certain golden objects have survived in descriptions: for example, some were displayed in Brussels to the German artist Albrecht Dürer who wrote: "In all my life, I have seen nothing that rejoiced my heart so much as these things". French corsaires were constantly disrupting this trade: notably, the treasure of the Aztec emperor Cuauhtémoc was captured by the French corsair Jean Fleury.

Silver arrived in large amounts, whereas gold was rarer to be found. In 1528, Charles V carved out a colony in Venezuela for his German bankers, hoping to discover the legendary golden city of El Dorado. In 1546, the project came to an end and the German colony was disbanded. In the 1540s and 1550s, the discovery of silver mines in the Americas (such as Potosí, Zacatecas, Taxco, Guanajuato, Sombrerete) increased the flows of precious metals. Overall, 15 million ducats' worth of bullion reached the Imperial treasury during Charles's reign. This contributed to the higher inflation known as the Spanish price revolution: prices doubled in the first half of the 16th century. The rising costs of war had dramatic consequences on Habsburg finances: one campaign in the 1550s costed as much as one war in the 1520s. Charles V was forced to borrow even more and at higher interest rates, which grew from 17% to 48%.

Despite opposition from the Cortes Generales, Charles V managed to impose this vicious circle that progressively weakened the Spanish finances. Furthermore, in the last years of his reign, Charles V could not be economically supported by his non-Spanish possessions: he exempted the Low Countries from taxation after the Revolt of Ghent in 1540, Germany was in the middle of the Schmalkaldic Wars, and the budget surplus of Italian states was wiped out by the Italian Wars. This ultimately put the financial burden of the Holy Roman Empire on the Spanish kingdoms and led to the bankruptcy of Spain. Unable to sustain his projects financially, Charles V abdicated in 1556 and retired to a monastery in 1558. Sovereign default was declared in 1557.

Landowners
Conditions in 16th century Europe support the view that the separation of constantly rising prices and fixed rents destroyed landowners. But this did not apply to Spain, where rent was not fixed and the power of landowners allowed them to raise rent and replace their tenants based on the tenants' ability to meet payments.

On the other hand, the price revolution brought impoverishment to those who lived on fixed income and small rents, as their earning could not keep pace with Spanish prices. Small landowners of the hidalgo class, the lower clergy, government officials, and many others all found their standard of living reduced as commodity prices rose beyond their means. The situation of the peasants is less clear, for it is difficult to reconcile agricultural prosperity and the great rural emigration to the towns, which in turn makes it difficult to explain the alleged extension of cultivation in Spain. But one thing is certain—wages lagged behind prices.

Sellers and traders
But landowners and the rich were not the only ones gaining from the price revolution. Anyone with something to sell or trade could reap the benefits of inflation, particularly manufacturers and merchants. However in the second half of the century, when the conditions of the Price Revolution got worse and relentless inflation began to make Spanish enterprise less competitive in the international and colonial market, not all merchants and manufactures found life enjoyable. Only the more powerful merchants were able to survive foreign competition and in doing so prospered boundlessly. Enormous fortunes were made in the Indies trade (whose expansion was related directly to the rise of prices) and this encouraged more investment and profitable returns. Profitable returns were distributed beyond the merchant houses of Seville to entrepreneurs in other parts of Spain, as the American market took the oil and wine of Andalusia, the wool of Castile, the metallurgical products and ships of the Basque country. To at least the end of the 16th century there was still money to be made in Spain for selected merchants and manufactures.

The Crown
The Crown, like its ally the aristocracy, was less crippled by the price revolution than the majority of its subjects. Certainly the cost of administration, and of paying, feeding, and equipping its armed forces, rose for the Crown just as the cost of goods did for the private consumer; unlike other countries, Spain was willing to spend at a higher level to maintain their status as a world power. However, the aristocracy in contrast lost less of its savings than the Crown. The aristocracy could raise rents to increase revenue and not face the full consequences of the Price Revolution. The aristocracy allowed prices to remain high, while inflation alleviated the burden of loans, which became a substantial part of their income.

Republic of Genoa
Unlike many other states of the period, the Republic of Genoa gambled the majority of its economic interest on the Spanish monarchy—bankers invested their money in the crown and farmers of Spanish revenue, while Genoa's merchants and nobles settled in Spain (Madrid, Seville, Kingdom of Naples and Sicily) marrying local nobility and monopolizing majority of the trade. As long as New Spain was sending silver and gold to the consulado de mercaderes in Seville, Genoa could flourish. Genoa became a large credit market as the capital of Italian cities was all drained towards Genoa.

A multitude of small investors, Genoese and others, obtained from the Crown long-term securities (juros de resguardo) as collateral for their loans. Also short-term loans known as asientos could be converted into long-term juros. The contracts specified that these securities would be sold if the Crown did not repay the loans. In essence, the Genoese bankers had worked out an interest rate swap. Furthermore, the Crown sold silver spot in Spain to the Genoese in exchange for future delivery of gold in Antwerp, where the gold was used to pay Spanish troops fighting in the Low Countries. Genoa benefited from the price revolution as they enjoyed the advantage of "increasing returns to scale in international financial services". Genoa during the price revolution was a snapshot of global finance at its best. Unfortunately, the decline of Spain in the 17th century brought also the decline of Genoa (due to the Spanish crown's frequent bankruptcies); Genoa's merchant houses particularly suffered. In 1684, Genoa was bombed by a French fleet as punishment for its long alliance with Spain. As a result the Genoese bankers and traders made new economic and financial links with Louis XIV.

Long term decline of inflation
The inflation of c. 1520–1640 eventually petered out with the end of the initial rush of New World bullion. Prices remained around or slightly below the levels of the first half of the 17th century until the onset of new inflationary pressures in the latter decades of the 18th century.

title: Price revolution


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Eridu

Eridu (Sumerian: eridugki; Akkadian: irîtu) was a Sumerian city located at Tell Abu Shahrain (تل أبو شهرين), also Abu Shahrein or Tell Abu Shahrayn, an archaeological site in Lower Mesopotamia. It is located in Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq, near the modern city of Basra. Eridu is traditionally considered the earliest city in southern Mesopotamia based on the Sumerian King List. Located 12 kilometers southwest of the ancient site of Ur, Eridu was the southernmost of a conglomeration of Sumerian cities that grew around temples, almost in sight of one another. The city gods of Eridu were Enki and his consort Damkina. Enki, later known as Ea, was considered to have founded the city. His temple was called E-Abzu, as Enki was believed to live in Abzu, an aquifer from which all life was thought to stem. According to Sumerian temple hymns, another name for the temple of Ea/Enki was called Esira (Esirra). "'... The temple is constructed with gold and lapis lazuli, Its foundation on the nether-sea (apsu) is filled in. By the river of Sippar (Euphrates) it stands. O Apsu pure place of propriety, Esira, may thy king stand within thee. ...'"

At nearby Ur there was a temple of Ishtar of Eridu (built by Lagash's ruler Ur-Baba) and a sanctuary of Inanna of Eridu (built by Ur III ruler Ur-Nammu). Ur-Nammu also recorded building a temple of Ishtar of Eridu at Ur which is assumed to have been a rebuild.

One of the religious quarters of Babylon, containing the temple called the Esagila as well as the temple of Annunitum, among others, was also named Eridu.

History
Eridu is one of the earliest settlements in the region, founded c. 5400 BC during the early Ubaid period, at that time close to the Persian Gulf near the mouth of the Euphrates, although in modern times it is about 90 miles inland. Excavation has shown that the city was founded on a virgin sand dune site with no previous habitation. According to the excavators, construction of the Ur III ziggurat and associated buildings was preceded by the destruction of preceding construction and its use as leveling fill so no remains from that time were found. At a small mound 1 kilometer north of Eridu two Early Dynastic III palaces were found, with an enclosure wall. The palaces measured 45 meters by 65 meters with 2.6 meter wide walls and were constructed in the standard Early Dynastic period method of plano-convex bricks laid in a herringbone fashion.

With possible breaks in occupation in the Early Dynastic III and Akkadian Empire periods, the city was inhabited until the Neo-Babylonian Empire, though in later times it was primarily a cultic site.

During the Ubaid period the site extended out to an area of about 12 hectares (about 30 acres). Twelve neolithic clay tokens, the precursor to Proto-cuneiform, were found in the Ubaid levels of the site. Eighteen superimposed mudbrick temples at the site underlie the unfinished ziggurat of Amar-Sin (c. 2047–2039 BC). Levels XIX to VI were from the Ubaid period and Levels V to I were dated to the Uruk period. Significant habitation was found from the Uruk period with "non-secular" buildings being found in soundings. Uruk finds included decorative terracotta cones topped with copper, copper nails topped with gold, a pair of basalt stone lion statues, columns several meters in diameter coated with cones and gypsum, and extensive Uruk period pottery. Occupation increased in the Early Dynastic period with a monumental 100 meter by 100 meter palace being constructed. An inscription of Elulu, a ruler of the First Dynasty of Ur (c. 2600 BC), was found at Eridu. On a statue of the Early Dynastic ruler of Lagash named Entemena (c. 2400 BC), it reads, "he built Ab-zupasira for Enki, king of Eridu ...",

Eridu was active during the Third Dynasty of Ur (22nd to 21st century BC) and royal building activity is known from inscribed bricks notably those of Ur-Nammu from his ziggurat marked "Ur-Nammu, king of Ur, the one who built the temple of the god Enki in Eridu." Three Third Dynasty rulers designated Year Names based on the appointment of an en(tu)-priestess (high priestess) of the temple of Enki in Eridu, the highest religious office in the land at that time. In each the first two cases it was also used as the succeeding Year Name.

 * Sulgi Year 28 - "Year the szita-priest-who-intercedes-for-Szulgi, the son of Szulgi, the strong man, the king of Ur, the king of the four corners of the universe, was installed as en-priest of Enki in Eridu"
 * Amar-Sin Year 8 - "Year (Ennune-kiag-Amar-Sin) Ennune-the beloved (of Amar-Sin, was installed as en-priestess of Enki in Eridu)"
 * Ibbi-Sin Year 11 - "Year the szita-priest who prays piously for Ibbi-Sin was chosen by means of the omens as en-priest of Enki in Eridu"

After the fall of Ur III the site was occupied and active during the Isin-Larsa period (early 2nd Millennium BC) as evidenced by a Year Name of Nur-Adad, ruler of Larsa "Year the temple of Enki in Eridu was built" and texts of Larsa rulers Ishbi-Erra and  Ishme-Dagan showing control over Eridu. Inscribed construction bricks of Nur-Adad have also been found at Eridu. This continued in the Old Babylonian period with Hammurabi stating in his 33rd Year Name "Year Hammu-rabi the king dug the canal (called) 'Hammu-rabi is abundance to the people', the beloved of An and Enlil, established the everlasting waters of plentifulness for Nippur, Eridu, Ur, Larsa, Uruk and Isin, restored Sumer and Akkad which had been scattered, overthrew in battle the army of Mari and Malgium and caused Mari and its territory and the various cities of Subartu to dwell under his authority in friendship"

In an inscription of Kurigalzu I (c. 1375 BC), a ruler of the Kassite dynasty one of his epitaphs is "[he one  who  ke]eps  the  sanctuary  in  Eridu  in  order".

An inscription of the Second Sealand Dynastic ruler Simbar-shipak (c. 1021–1004 BCE) mentions a priest of Eridu.

The Neo-Assyrian emperor Sargon II (722–705 BCE) awarded andurāru-status (described as "a periodic reinstatement of goods and persons, alienated because of want, to their original status") to Eridu.

The Neo-Babylonian ruler Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BC) built at Eridu as evidenced by inscribed bricks found there.

Archaeology

Eridu is located on a natural hill in a basin approximately 15 miles long and 20 feet deep, which is separated from the Euphrates by a sandstone ridge called the Hazem. This basin, the As Sulaybiyat Depression (formerly: Khor en-Nejeif), becomes a seasonal lake (Arabic: Sebkha) during the rainy season from November to April. During this period, it is filled by the discharge of the Wadi Khanega. Adjacent to eastern edge of the seasonal lake are the Hammar Marshes.

In the 3rd Millennium BC a canal, Id-edin-Eriduga (NUN)ki "the canal  of  the  Eridug  plain", connected Eridu to the Euphrates river, which later shifted its course. The path of the canal is marked by several low tells with 2nd Millennium BC surface pottery and later burials.

The site contains 8 mounds:
 * Mound 1 - Abū Šahrain, 580 meters x 540 meters in area NW to WE, 25 meters in height, Enki Temple, Ur III Ziggurat (É-u₆-nir) Sacred Area, Early Dynastic plano-convex bricks found, Ubaid Period cemetery
 * Mound 2 - 350 meters x 350 meters in area, 4.3 meters in height, 1 kilometer N of Abū Šahrain, Early Dynastic Palace, remnants of city wall built with plano-convex bricks
 * Mound 3 - 300 × 150 meters in area, 2.5 meters high, 2.2 kilometers SSW of Abū Šahrain, Isin-Larsa pottery found
 * Mound 4 - 600 × 300 meters in area, 2.5 kilometers SW of Abū Šahrain, Kassite pottery found
 * Mound 5 - 500 × 300 meters in area, 3 meters high, 1.5 kilometers SE of Abū Šahrain, Neo-Babylonian and Achaemenid periods
 * Mound 6 - 300 × 200 meters in area, 2 meters high, 2.5 kilometers SW of Abū Šahrain
 * Mound 7 - 400 × 200 meters in area, 1.5 meters high, 3 kilometers E of Abū Šahrai
 * Mound 8 - Usalla, flat area, 8 kilometers NW of Abū Šahrain, Hajj Mohammed and later Ubaid

The site was initially excavated by John George Taylor, the British Vice-counsel at Basra, in 1855. Among the finds were inscribed bricks enabling the identification of the site as Eridu. Excavation on the main tell next occurred by R. Campbell Thompson in 1918, and H. R. Hall in 1919, who also conducted a survey in the area around the tell. An interesting find by Hall was a piece of manufactured blue glass which he dated to c. 2000 BC. The blue color was achieved with cobalt, long before this technique emerged in Egypt.

Excavation there resumed from 1946 to 1949 under Fuad Safar and Seton Lloyd of the Iraqi Directorate General of Antiquities and Heritage. Among the finds were a Ubaid period terracotta boat model, complete with a socket amidship for a mast and hole for stays and rudder and a "lizard type" figurine like those found in a sounding under the Royal Cemetery of Ur. Soundings in the cemetery showed it to have about 1000 graves, all from the end of the Ubaid period (Temple levels VI and VII). They found a sequence of 17 Ubaid Period superseding temples and an Ubaid Period graveyard with 1000 graves of mud-brick boxes oriented to the southeast. The temple began as a 2 meter by 3 meter mud brick square with a niche. At Level XI it was rebuilt and eventually reached its final tripartite form in Level VI. In Ur III times a 300 square meter platform was constructed as a base for a ziggurat. These archaeological investigations showed that, according to A. Leo Oppenheim, "eventually the entire south lapsed into stagnation, abandoning the political initiative to the rulers of the northern cities", probably as a result of increasing salinity produced by continuous irrigation, and the city was abandoned in 600 BC. In 1990 the site was visited by A. M. T. Moore who found two areas of surface pottery kilns not noted by the earlier excavators.

In October 2014 Franco D’Agostino visited the site in preparation for the coming resumption of excavation, noting a number of inscribed Amar-Sin brick fragments on the surface. In 2019, excavations at Eridu were resumed by a joint Italian, French, and Iraqi effort which included the University of Rome La Sapienza and the University of Strasbourg.

Tablet controversy

In March 2006, Giovanni Pettinato and S. Chiod from Rome's La Sapienza University claimed to have discovered 500 Early Dynastic historical and literary cuneiform tablets on the surface at Eridu "disturbed by an explosion". The tablets were said to be from 2600 to 2100 BC (rulers Eannatum to Amar-Sin) and be part of a library. A team was sent to the site by Iraq's State Board of Antiquities and Heritage which found no tablets, only stamped bricks from Eridu and surrounding sites such as Ur. Nor was there a permit to excavate at the site issued to anyone. At this point Pettinato stated that they had actually found 70 inscribed bricks. This turned out to be stamped bricks used to build the modern Eridu dig-house. The dig-house had been built using bricks from the demolished Leonard Woolley’s expedition house at Ur (clearly spelled out in the 1981 Iraqi excavation report to avoid confusion to future archaeologists.

Myth and legend
In some, but not all, versions of the Sumerian King List, Eridu is the first of five cities where kingship was received before a flood came over the land. The list mentions two rulers of Eridu from the Early Dynastic period, Alulim and Alalngar.

The bright star Canopus was known to the ancient Mesopotamians and represented the city of Eridu in the Three Stars Each Babylonian star catalogues and later around 1100 BC on the MUL.APIN tablets. Canopus was called MUL.NUNKI by the Babylonians, which translates as "star of the city of Eridu". From most southern city of Mesopotamia, Eridu, there is a good view to the south, so that about 6000 years ago due to the precession of the Earth's axis the first rising of the star Canopus in Mesopotamia could be observed only from there at the southern meridian at midnight. In the city of Ur this was the case only 60 years later.

In the flood myth tablet found in Ur, how Eridu and Alulim were chosen by gods as first city and first priest-king is described in more detail. The following is the English translation of the tablet:

Adapa, a man of Eridu, is depicted as an early culture hero. Although earlier tradition, Me-Turan/Tell-Haddad tablet, describes Adapa as postdiluvian ruler of Eridu, in late tradition, Adapa came to be viewed as Alulim’s vizier, and he was considered to have brought civilization to the city as the sage of King Alulim.

In Sumerian mythology, Eridu was the home of the Abzu temple of the god Enki, the Sumerian counterpart of the Akkadian god Ea, god of deep waters, wisdom and magic. Like all the Sumerian and Babylonian gods, Enki/Ea began as a local god who, according to the later cosmology, came to share the rule of the cosmos with Anu and Enlil. His kingdom was the sweet waters that lay below earth (Sumerian ab=water; zu=far).

The stories of Inanna, goddess of Uruk, describe how she had to go to Eridu in order to receive the gifts of civilization. At first Enki, the god of Eridu, attempted to retrieve these sources of his power but later willingly accepted that Uruk now was the centre of the land.

The fall of early Mesopotamia cities and empires was typically believed to be the result of falling out of favor with the gods. A genre called City Laments developed during the Isin-Larsa period, of which the Lament for Ur is the most famous. These laments had a number of sections (kirugu) of which only fragments have been recovered. The Lament for Eridu describes the fall of that city.

"'Its king stayed outside his city as if it were an alien city. He wept bitter tears. Father Enki stayed outside his city as if it were an alien city. He wept bitter tears. For the sake of his harmed city, he wept bitter tears. Its lady, like a flying bird, left her city. The mother of E-maḫ, holy Damgalnuna, left her city. The divine powers of the city of holiest divine powers were overturned. The divine powers of the rites of the greatest divine powers were altered. In Eridug everything was reduced to ruin, was wrought with confusion.'"

Architecture
The urban nucleus of Eridu was Enki's temple, called House of the Aquifer (Cuneiform:, E₂.ZU.AB; Sumerian: e₂-abzu; Akkadian: bītu apsû), which in later history was called House of the Waters (Cuneiform: , E₂.LAGAB×HAL; Sumerian: e₂-engur; Akkadian: bītu engurru). The name refers to Enki's realm. His consort Ninhursag had a nearby temple at Ubaid.

During the Ur III period Ur-Nammu had a ziggurat built over the remains of previous temples.

Aside from Enmerkar of Uruk (as mentioned in the Aratta epics), several later historical Sumerian kings are said in inscriptions found here to have worked on or renewed the e-abzu temple, including Elili of Ur; Ur-Nammu, Shulgi and Amar-Sin of Ur-III, and Nur-Adad of Larsa.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Eridu


text:
Talk:Pinyin

Wiki Education assignment: Writing Workshop
— Assignment last updated by Wwwe123321 (talk) 21:01, 9 November 2023 (UTC)

Tones
I'm trying to make the tones in pinyin more clear by mentioning the neutral tone in pinyin. Also, I provide a brief interpretation of how to pronounce the tones.

The pinyin system also uses diacritics to mark the four tones of Mandarin (or it could be five tones when considering the neutral tone). In the pinyinn system, four main tones of Mandarin are shown by diacritics: ā (tone 1: high-level), á (tone 2: rising), ǎ (tone 3: low-falling-rising), and the last one à (tone 4: high-falling). And there is no symbol or diacritic for the neutral tone. The diacritic is placed over the letter that represents the syllable nucleus, unless that letter is missing (see below). Tones are used in Hanyu Pinyin symbols, and they don't appear in Chinese characters.

Tones are written on the finals of Chinese pinyin. If the tone mark is written over an i, the tittle above the i is omitted, as in yī.

I have the citation for the part I revised, but it wasn't shown here. One citation is used for the addition of the neutral tone, while the other one is the way of pronouncing tones. If there is any grammar mistake, please point it out, and I'll do my best to revise it. HaEvNa (talk) 03:01, 29 November 2023 (UTC)

 * I think this is a bit over-written for what it is, if that makes sense. It requires a bit of attention regarding style of the prose. For example, I think it's odd to say the tittle of the i is omitted per se, I would simply say it has been replaced by the macron.
 * There's a bad habit we have of clustering information together in brackets on articles like these, but it often ends up more confusing for readers than we realize as people familiar with the subject. If you find yourself constantly repeating the same lists of the same types of information, maybe it's best to make it a table and then allow the reader to refer to it as needed. Remsense  留  03:21, 29 November 2023 (UTC)
 * Thank you so much for the response, and sorry for the late reply. I looked through both the original article and my revision again and figured out that it's true that my revision could be a little bit wordy. My consideration is that for someone who's in a hurry to look through the article, they would probably just see the first paragraph of each section. And that's why I want to show them the most important things in tones of pinyin. And if they have time to view it in detail, they can see the chart below (I think I would add "see below").
 * For the section about the tone mark, it's actually from the original article. I think I'll do my best to make it clear. HaEvNa (talk) 20:21, 30 November 2023 (UTC)
 * Your reply was perfectly prompt, don't worry about that. I also want to improve this article—it's very high-traffic, and should probably have my attention more than my other projects frankly. Remsense  留  21:00, 30 November 2023 (UTC)

Applications of Pinyin
The inclusion of this piece of information can help readers, especially foreigners who don't know pinyin, to have a more comprehensive understanding of the "new concept" of pinyin, and I think this piece of information can be added to the introduction, which will make the Wikipedia article even more helpful.

Pinyin, a vital component of Chinese language education, facilitates language acquisition, particularly for non-native speakers. Widely employed in educational institutions from elementary to university levels, Pinyin serves as a foundational tool for teaching pronunciation and aiding learners in understanding Mandarin phonetics. (Jian, 2017, 553-567)

Pinyin's role extends beyond national borders, emerging as an invaluable asset in the global context of Chinese language education. It has evolved into a universally recognized method for teaching Chinese pronunciation, offering learners a consistent and systematic approach to mastering the nuances of Mandarin tones and sounds. With the burgeoning interest in learning Chinese worldwide, the pragmatic application of Pinyin has gained prominence, particularly in the realm of online language courses and educational materials in recent years. (Jian, 2017, 553-567) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Aikeee (talk • contribs) 20:09, 30 November 2023 (UTC)

Restructuring
The article's layout presently makes very little sense, which is particularly bad for what is one of the most highly important, and one of the highest trafficked articles that we have concerning the Chinese language. its sections are:History — fine.Initials and finals — describes the important core of Chinese morphology and the internal linguistic model, fine, but tries to do so and properly introduce the topic of the article at the same time?Tones — Maybe shouldn't be its own top-level section.Orthographic rules — Oh dear, huh? Pinyin as a whole is a collection of orthographic rules, that's what a transliteration system is. Also has this incredibly long, branching choose-your-own-adventure list that is totally unwieldy in an encyclopedia article, as opposed to a technical manual, say.Comparison with other orthographies — overbroad, should stick to other romanization systems, dawdles about Literary Chinese for unknown reasons.Unicode code points — does not need this huge table for what are pretty ordinary code points not specifically encoded for pinyin (as far as I know.)Usage — this needs to be higher up, some bits merged with history, and about half of it stripped out entirely, it is laden with original research and WP:FANCRUFT. Maybe some of it could find its own article? Even for the good headings, all are unfocused and unduly overlap/repeat one another. There are generally not clear distinctions made between various phonological, orthographic, syntactic, and pragmatic concepts. That said, I'm not quite sure how to draw the new sections, suggestions are very much appreciated. Remsense 留  16:24, 1 December 2023 (UTC)
 * I've started the rework, and this involves cutting a huge chunk, almost half, of the article out. I am working quickly, and I haven't damaged the article so that a general audience can't find what they're looking for. Normally I would not work this way, but this article was so messy and structurally awry that I really do believe it will be better and quicker to rewrite a lot of content from scratch, and I think its continued presence is a net negative for both reader and editor. Remsense  留  01:05, 2 December 2023 (UTC)
 * (I've put the pre-rework diff at Draft:Pinyin, in case anyone would like to look at it or use it. Remsense  留  01:39, 2 December 2023 (UTC)
 * I might be busy this weekend, so the article may remain in this state for a few days. If anyone wants to revert it to the re-rework state because they feel it is unpresentable—though I don't think so—that's completely understandable and I'd prefer the revert than misgivings. Remsense  留  15:54, 2 December 2023 (UTC)
 * @Remsense Could we please restore the section that maps pinyin to Zhuyin/Bopomofo? It's how the standard is defined, but that information is no longer there for any of the initials. Theknightwho (talk) 10:07, 22 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Theknightwho, please do. — Remsense  诉  02:46, 23 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pinyin


text:
The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert

The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert for AIDS Awareness was a benefit concert held on Easter Monday, 20 April 1992, at Wembley Stadium in London, England, for an audience of 72,000. The concert was produced for television by Ray Burdis, directed by David Mallet and broadcast live on television and radio to 76 countries around the world, with an audience of up to one billion. The concert was a tribute to Queen's lead vocalist, Freddie Mercury, who died of AIDS on 24 November 1991.

The show marked bassist John Deacon's final full-length concert with Queen (save a short live appearance with Brian May, Roger Taylor and Elton John in 1997). The profits from the concert were used to launch the Mercury Phoenix Trust, an AIDS charity organization.

History
Following Freddie Mercury's death on 24 November 1991 from AIDS, the remaining members of Queen (John Deacon, Brian May and Roger Taylor) came together with their manager, Jim Beach, to organise a concert to celebrate the life and legacy of Mercury (and to raise money for AIDS research and spread awareness about the disease). In the 1992 BRIT Awards ceremony, May and Taylor announced plans for the concert. When tickets finally went on sale, all 72,000 tickets sold out in just three hours, even though no performers were announced apart from the remaining members of Queen.

Concert
The concert opened with a message from the three remaining members of Queen in tribute to Mercury. The music then commenced with short sets from artists that were influenced by the music of Queen, including Metallica, Extreme (playing a Queen medley), Def Leppard (who brought Brian May onstage for a version of "Now I'm Here"), and Guns N' Roses. Between bands, several video clips honouring Freddie Mercury were shown while roadies changed the stage for the following act's performance. Elizabeth Taylor then gave an AIDS prevention speech, which was followed by a compilation of Mercury's various interactions with audiences.

The second half of the concert featured the three remaining Queen members – John Deacon (on bass), Brian May (on guitar) and Roger Taylor (on drums) – along with guest singers and guitarists, including Elton John, Roger Daltrey (of The Who), Tony Iommi (of Black Sabbath), Ian Hunter, David Bowie, Mick Ronson, James Hetfield (of Metallica), George Michael, Seal, Paul Young, Annie Lennox, Lisa Stansfield, Robert Plant (of Led Zeppelin), Joe Elliott and Phil Collen (of Def Leppard), Axl Rose and Slash (of Guns N' Roses), Liza Minnelli, and others. Via satellite from Sacramento, California, U2 dedicated a live performance of "Until the End of the World" to Mercury.

Home releases
The concert was originally released in VHS form (usually in two-tape releases worldwide), but due to time limitations, "Love of My Life" and "More Than Words" by Extreme, "Animal" and "Let's Get Rocked" by Def Leppard, Spinal Tap's "The Majesty of Rock", U2's "Until The End of the World", Mango Groove's "Special Star" and Robert Plant's version of "Innuendo" were removed from the original release. The US release also omitted Bob Geldof's performance of "Too Late God", and Zucchero's performance of "Las Palabras de Amor".

In April 2002, for the 10th anniversary of the Mercury Phoenix Trust, the second half of the concert (featuring the performances by the surviving members of Queen) was released on DVD and entered the UK charts at No. 1. "Innuendo" was not included on the DVD, at Plant's request. In addition, the original 4:3 footage had been cropped down to widescreen. The DVD was certified Gold in Poland.

On 24 June 2013, Queen announced on their Facebook page that a new remastered version of the concert would be released in late 2013 on DVD and Blu-ray. The DVD and Blu-ray was released on 2 September 2013. Like the earlier VHS release, this version excludes Extreme's "Love of My Life" and "More Than Words", Def Leppard's "Animal" and "Let's Get Rocked", performance by Spinal Tap, U2 and Mango Groove from the opening acts segment, and Plant's "Innuendo" from the Queen+ segment. It was certified Platinum in the UK.

Clips of rehearsals and of Metallica's set (as well as James Hetfield's performance of "Stone Cold Crazy" with Queen and Tony Iommi) were featured in the 1992 documentary A Year and a Half in the Life of Metallica.

In May 2020, Queen announced that they would be premiering the concert on YouTube to raise money for the COVID-19 Solidarity Response Fund. It was available for 48 hours. In April 2022, Queen streamed the concert again to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the concert as well as the Mercury Phoenix Trust.

Several songs from the concert have also been released in audio-only format:
 * Metallica's three-song performance was made into a UK tour edition single for "Nothing Else Matters", entitled Live at Wembley Stadium and released in Europe just one week after the concert, on 27 April 1992. The band later released in 2021 a re-mixed and re-mastered version of their performance as well as a rendition of Queen's Stone Cold Crazy with James Hetfield and Tony Iommi on the remastered box set of their album Metallica.
 * Guns N' Roses' performance of "Knockin' on Heaven's Door" was released in May 1992 as a double A-side, with the band's studio recording of the song; it was also featured on their album Live Era '87–'93. The single entered the UK charts at No. 2.
 * Def Leppard released their version of "Now I'm Here" (with May) from the concert, as a B-side to their single "Tonight" in April 1993.
 * an EP of the George Michael performances with Queen was released as Five Live in April 1993. It entered the UK singles chart at No. 1.
 * the Queen + Ian Hunter, Mick Ronson, David Bowie and Def Leppard performance of the song "All the Young Dudes" was released on the Mick Ronson album 'Heaven and Hull'.
 * the Queen + David Bowie performances of the songs "All the Young Dudes" and Heroes were released on the soundtrack album to the 2018 film Beside Bowie: The Mick Ronson Story.

Without Queen

 * 1) Metallica – "Enter Sandman", "Sad but True", "Nothing Else Matters"
 * 2) Extreme – Queen Medley (including "Mustapha" (intro), "Bohemian Rhapsody" (Rock Section), "Keep Yourself Alive", "I Want To Break Free", "Fat Bottomed Girls", "Bicycle Race", "Another One Bites The Dust", "We Will Rock You", "Stone Cold Crazy" and "Radio Ga Ga"), “Love Of My Life” and "More Than Words" (Gary Cherone and Nuno Bettencourt)
 * 3) Def Leppard – "Animal", "Let's Get Rocked", "Now I'm Here" (With Brian May)
 * 4) Bob Geldof – "Too Late God"
 * 5) Spinal Tap – "The Majesty of Rock"
 * 6) U2 – "Until the End of the World" – beamed via satellite, pre-recorded on 18 April in Oakland, California. Cindy Crawford announces as "via satellite... straight from Sacramento, California".
 * 7) Guns N' Roses – "Paradise City", "Only Women Bleed", "Knockin' on Heaven's Door"
 * 8) Mango Groove – "Special Star" – played via satellite from Johannesburg, South Africa
 * 9) Elizabeth Taylor – AIDS Prevention Speech
 * 10) Freddie Mercury – compilation of various interactions with the audience

With Queen

 * 1) Queen + Joe Elliott and Slash – "Tie Your Mother Down" (May)
 * 2) Queen + Roger Daltrey and Tony Iommi – "Heaven and Hell" (intro), "Pinball Wizard" (intro), "I Want It All" (May)
 * 3) Queen + Zucchero – "Las Palabras de Amor" (May)
 * 4) Queen + Gary Cherone and Tony Iommi – "Hammer to Fall" (May)
 * 5) Queen + James Hetfield and Tony Iommi – "Stone Cold Crazy" (Queen)
 * 6) Queen + Robert Plant – "Innuendo" (Queen) (including parts of "Kashmir"), "Thank You" (intro), "Crazy Little Thing Called Love" (Mercury)
 * 7) Brian May + Spike Edney – "Too Much Love Will Kill You" (May)
 * 8) Queen + Paul Young – "Radio Ga Ga" (Taylor)
 * 9) Queen + Seal – "Who Wants to Live Forever" (May)
 * 10) Queen + Lisa Stansfield – "I Want to Break Free" (Deacon)
 * 11) Queen + David Bowie and Annie Lennox – "Under Pressure" (Queen and Bowie)
 * 12) Queen + Ian Hunter, David Bowie, Mick Ronson, Joe Elliott and Phil Collen – "All the Young Dudes" (Bowie)
 * 13) Queen + David Bowie and Mick Ronson – "Heroes" (Bowie)
 * 14) David Bowie – "Lord's Prayer"
 * 15) Queen + George Michael – "'39" (May)
 * 16) Queen + George Michael and Lisa Stansfield – "These Are the Days of Our Lives" (Taylor)
 * 17) Queen + George Michael – "Somebody to Love" (Mercury)
 * 18) Queen + Elton John and Axl Rose – "Bohemian Rhapsody" (Mercury)
 * 19) Queen + Elton John and Tony Iommi – "The Show Must Go On" (May)
 * 20) Queen + Axl Rose – "We Will Rock You" (May)
 * 21) Queen + Liza Minnelli, supported by the rest of the cast – "We Are the Champions" (Mercury)
 * 22) Queen – "God Save the Queen" (taped outro)

(Several of Mercury's most famous songs, including "Seven Seas of Rhye", "Killer Queen," "Love of My Life", "Play the Game", "Don't Stop Me Now" and "Made in Heaven", were not performed by the remaining members of the band with guest artists.)

Queen's activity

 * Freddie Mercury – pre-recorded piano and vocals (on "Bohemian Rhapsody") and compilation of various interactions with the audience during the section before the Queen + section of the concert.
 * Brian May – electric and acoustic guitars, keyboards (on "Too Much Love Will Kill You" and "Who Wants To Live Forever"), lead vocals (on "Tie Your Mother Down" for 1st verse, then co-lead vocals with Roger Taylor on 1st chorus on "Tie Your Mother Down" and "Too Much Love Will Kill You"), co-lead vocals (on "I Want It All"), backing vocals
 * Roger Taylor – drums, tambourine, backing vocals, co-lead vocals (on "Tie Your Mother Down" with Brian May on 1st chorus, and on "Under Pressure" as a trio with David Bowie and Annie Lennox on choruses).
 * John Deacon – bass guitar, backing vocals

Guest musicians

 * Elton John – piano on "Bohemian Rhapsody"
 * Slash – electric guitar on "Tie Your Mother Down"
 * Tony Iommi – electric guitar on "Heaven and Hell" (intro), "Pinball Wizard" (intro), "I Want It All", "Hammer to Fall", "Stone Cold Crazy" and "The Show Must Go On"
 * Ian Hunter – electric guitar on "All the Young Dudes"
 * Mick Ronson – electric guitar on "All the Young Dudes" and "Heroes"
 * David Bowie – alto saxophone, backing vocals on "All the Young Dudes"
 * Joe Elliott – backing vocals on "All the Young Dudes"
 * Phil Collen – backing vocals on "All the Young Dudes"

Backing musicians
Queen were backed by the following musicians:
 * Spike Edney – keyboards, piano, backing vocals
 * Mike Moran – piano on "Who Wants to Live Forever" and "Somebody to Love"
 * Josh Macrae – percussion in some Queen tracks
 * Chris Thompson – backing vocals, acoustic guitar on "I Want It All", "Crazy Little Thing Called Love" and "Heroes", additional percussion
 * Maggie Ryder – backing vocals
 * Miriam Stockley – backing vocals
 * London Community Gospel Choir – backing vocals on "Somebody to Love" and "We Are the Champions"
 * John Jones – organ and backing vocals on "We Are the Champions"

title: The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert


text:
Grace Kelly

Grace Patricia Kelly (November 12, 1929 – September 14, 1982), also known as Grace of Monaco, was an American actress and Princess of Monaco as the wife of Prince Rainier III from their marriage on April 18, 1956, until her death in 1982. Prior to her marriage, she starred in several significant films in the early to mid-1950s. She received an Academy Award, three Golden Globe Awards and was ranked 13th on the American Film Institute's 25 Greatest Female Stars list.

Kelly was born into a prominent Catholic family in Philadelphia. After graduating from the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in 1949, she began appearing in New York City theatrical productions and television broadcasts. Kelly made her film debut in Fourteen Hours (1951) and gained stardom from her roles in Fred Zinnemann's western film High Noon (1952), and John Ford's adventure-romance Mogambo (1953), the latter of which earned her the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress nomination. She won the Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance in the drama The Country Girl (1954). Other notable works include the war film The Bridges at Toko-Ri (1954), the romantic comedy High Society (1956), and three Alfred Hitchcock suspense thrillers: Dial M for Murder (1954), Rear Window (1954), and To Catch a Thief (1955).

Kelly retired from acting at age 26 to marry Rainier and began her duties as Princess of Monaco. Grace and Rainier had three children: Princess Caroline, Prince Albert, and Princess Stéphanie. Princess Grace's charity work focused on young children and the arts. In 1964, she established the Princess Grace Foundation to support local artisans. Her organization for children's rights, AMADE Mondiale, gained consultive status within UNICEF and UNESCO. Her final film role was narrating The Children of Theatre Street (1977), which was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature.

Grace died at the age of 52 at Monaco Hospital, from injuries sustained in a car crash. Her son, Prince Albert, helped establish the Princess Grace Awards in 1984 to recognize emerging performers in film, theatre, and dance.

Early life and family
Grace Patricia Kelly was born on November 12, 1929, at Hahnemann University Hospital in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to an affluent and influential family. Her father, John B. Kelly Sr., was born to Irish immigrants and won three Olympic gold medals for sculling. He owned a successful brickwork contracting company that was well known on the East Coast. As Democratic nominee in the 1935 election for Mayor of Philadelphia, he lost by the closest margin in the city's history. In later years he served on the Fairmount Park Commission and, during World War II, was appointed by President Roosevelt as National Director of Physical Fitness. His brother Walter C. Kelly was a vaudeville star, who also made films for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and Paramount Pictures, and another named George was a Pulitzer Prize-winning dramatist, screenwriter, and director. He built the family home at 3901 Henry Ave in the East Falls, Philadelphia neighborhood. The Kelly's former family home went up for sale for $1 million in June 2016. It wound up selling in September 2016 for $775,000.

Kelly's mother, Margaret Majer, was of German ancestry. Margaret had taught physical education at the University of Pennsylvania and had been the first woman to coach women's athletics at Penn. She also modeled for a time in her youth. After marrying John Kelly in 1924, Margaret focused on being a homemaker until all her children were of school age, following which she began actively participating in various civic organizations. Patrilineally, Margaret descended from Prof. Johann Christian von Majer (1741–1821) from Ludwigsburg, who worked as a political scientist, jurist and theologian, and was elected five times Rector of the University of Tübingen. Through him, Grace was descended from the Stauffenberg family and many other minor German noble families, such as von Plieningen, von Münchingen, von Ow, von Bettendorf, von Nippenburg, and von Roth.

Kelly had two older siblings, Margaret and John Jr., and a younger sister, Elizabeth. The children were raised in the Catholic faith.

Kelly grew up in a small, close-knit Catholic community. She was baptized and received her elementary education in the parish of Saint Bridget's in East Falls. Founded in 1853 by Saint John Neumann, the fourth Bishop of Philadelphia, Saint Bridget's was a relatively young parish, with families very familiar with one another. While attending Ravenhill Academy, a Catholic girls' school, Kelly modeled fashions at local charity events with her mother and sisters. In 1942, at the age of 12, she played the lead in Don't Feed the Animals, a play produced by the Old Academy Players also in East Falls.

In May 1947, Kelly graduated from Stevens School, a private institution in nearby Chestnut Hill, where she participated in drama and dance programs. Her graduation yearbook listed her favorite actress as Ingrid Bergman and her favorite actor as Joseph Cotten. Written in the "Stevens' Prophecy" section was: "Miss Grace P. Kelly – a famous star of stage and screen". Owing to her low mathematics scores, Kelly was rejected by Bennington College in July 1947. Despite her parents' initial disapproval, Kelly decided to pursue her dreams of becoming an actress. Her father was particularly displeased with her decision, as he viewed acting as "a slim cut above streetwalker" at the time. In 1947, Kelly signed with the Walter Thornton Model Agency gracing the covers of magazines.

In 1954, Kelly dated and was engaged to Oleg Cassini after his divorce from Gene Tierney.

1949–1950: Beginnings
To start her career, she auditioned for the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in New York, using a scene from her uncle George Kelly's The Torch-Bearers (1923). Although the school had already met its semester quota, she obtained an interview with the admissions department, and was admitted through George's influence. Kelly worked diligently, and practiced her speech by using a tape recorder. Her early acting pursuits led her to the stage, and she made her Broadway debut in Strindberg's The Father, alongside Raymond Massey. At 19, her graduation performance was as Tracy Lord in The Philadelphia Story. Her uncle continued to advise and mentor Kelly throughout her acting career.

At her father's insistence, she lived at the Barbizon Hotel for Women in Manhattan. She was hired as a model by the John Robert Powers agency, where some of her first modeling jobs were doing commercials for bug spray and cigarettes. Kelly was reportedly "fond of dancing to Hawaiian music down the hallways of the Barbizon, and given to shocking her fellow residents by performing topless". She later wrote that she had "wonderful memories of the three years I spent at the Barbizon."

Television producer Delbert Mann cast Kelly as the lead in an adaptation of the Sinclair Lewis novel Bethel Merriday; this was her first of nearly sixty live television programs. She was mentioned in Theatre World magazine as "[a] most promising personality of the Broadway stage of 1950". Some of her well-known works as a theater actress were: The Father, The Rockingham Tea Set, The Apple Tree, The Mirror of Delusion, Episode (for Somerset Maugham's tele-serial), among others.

Impressed by her work in The Father, Henry Hathaway, director of the Twentieth Century-Fox film Fourteen Hours (1951), offered her a small role in the film. Kelly had a minor role opposite Paul Douglas, Richard Basehart, and Barbara Bel Geddes, as a young woman contemplating divorce. Douglas commented: "In two senses, she did not have a bad side – you could film her from any angle, and she was one of the most un-temperamental, cooperative people in the business." Following the release of the film, the "Grace Kelly Fan Club" was established, gaining popularity across the country with local chapters springing up and attracting many members. Kelly referred to her fan club as "terrifically amusing".

Kelly was noticed during a visit to the set of Fourteen Hours by Gary Cooper. However, Kelly's performance in Fourteen Hours went largely unnoticed by critics and did not contribute to her film career's momentum. She continued her work in the theater and on television, although she lacked "vocal horsepower", and it was thought she would likely not have had a lengthy stage career.

1951–1953: Early films and breakthrough
Kelly was performing at Colorado's Elitch Theatre when producer Stanley Kramer offered her a role co-starring opposite Cooper in Fred Zinnemann's High Noon (1952), a Western filmed in Columbia, California. She accepted the role, and the film was shot in the late summer and early fall of 1951 over a 28-day shooting schedule in hot weather conditions. She was cast as a "young Quaker bride to Gary Cooper's stoic marshal", and wore a "suitably demure vaguely Victorian dress". High Noon garnered four Academy Awards, and has since been ranked by some reviewers among the best films of all time.

Biographer H. Haughland stated: "Miss Kelly's acting did not excite the critics, or live up to her own expectations." Some critics scoffed at the conclusion of the film in which Cooper's character has to be saved by Kelly's. One critic argued that her pacifist character, killing a man who is about to shoot her husband, was cold and abstract. Alfred Hitchcock described her performance as "rather mousey", and stated that it lacked animation. He said that it was only in her later films that she "really blossomed" and showed her quality.

After filming High Noon, Kelly returned to New York City and took private acting lessons, wanting to be taken seriously as an actress. She performed in a few dramas in the theater, and in TV serials. She appeared in several television plays, and screen-tested for the film Taxi in the spring of 1952. Director John Ford noticed Kelly in the screen test, and his studio flew her out to Los Angeles to audition in September 1952. Ford said that Kelly showed "breeding, quality, and class". She was given the role, along with a seven-year contract at the relatively low salary of $850 a week. Kelly signed the deal under two conditions: first, that one out of every two years, she had time off to work in the theatre; and second, that she be able to live in New York City at her residence in Manhattan House, at 200 E. 66th Street, now a landmark.

In November 1952, Kelly and the cast arrived in Nairobi to begin the production of the film Mogambo, replacing Gene Tierney, who dropped out at the last minute due to personal issues. Kelly later told Hollywood columnist Hedda Hopper, "Mogambo had three things that interested me: John Ford, Clark Gable, and a trip to Africa, with expenses paid. If Mogambo had been made in Arizona, I wouldn't have done it." Kelly played Linda Nordley, a contemplative English wife with a romantic interest in Clark Gable's character. Filming took place over the course of three months. The costumes were designed by Helen Rose. A break in the filming schedule afforded her and Mogambo co-star Ava Gardner a visit to Rome. The film was released in 1953, and had a successful run at the box office. Kelly won a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress, and received her first Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress for her performance.

1954–1956: Critical acclaim and final films

After the success of Mogambo, Kelly starred in the television play The Way of an Eagle with Jean-Pierre Aumont, before being cast in the film adaptation of Frederick Knott's Broadway play Dial M for Murder, opposite Ray Milland and Robert Cummings. Kelly played the role of the wealthy wife of a retired professional tennis player. Alfred Hitchcock became one of Kelly's mentors during the last years of her career. She was subsequently loaned by MGM to work in several Hitchcock films, which would become some of her most critically acclaimed and recognized work. Kelly began filming scenes for her next film, The Bridges at Toko-Ri, in early 1954, with William Holden, for Paramount Pictures. The story, based on the novel by James Michener, is about American Navy jet fighters stationed to fight in Asia. Kelly played the role of Holden's wife. Edith Head, with whom she had established a friendly relationship, did her costumes.

Kelly unhesitatingly turned down the opportunity to star alongside Marlon Brando in On the Waterfront (1954). Eva Marie Saint, who replaced her, went on to win an Academy Award for the role. Instead, Kelly played the role of Lisa Fremont in Rear Window. Kelly stated, "All through the making of Dial M for Murder, he (Hitchcock) sat and talked to me about Rear Window all the time, even before we had discussed my being in it." Kelly's co-star, James Stewart, was highly enthusiastic about working with her. The role of Lisa Fremont, a wealthy Manhattan socialite and fashion model who "never wore the same dress twice," was unlike any of the previous women she had played. This marked her first performance as an independent career woman. In line with their previous collaborations, Hitchcock provided the camera with a slow-sequenced silhouette of Kelly, along with close-ups of the two stars kissing, finally lingering closely on her profile. Hitchcock brought her elegance to the foreground by changing her dresses many times, including: "glamorous evening short dresses, a sheer negligee over a sleek nightgown, a full-skirted floral dress, and a casual pair of jeans". Upon the film's opening in October 1954, Kelly was again praised. Variety's film critic remarked on the casting, commenting on the "earthy quality to the relationship between Stewart and Miss Kelly", as "both do a fine job of the picture's acting demands".

Kelly played the role of Bing Crosby's long-suffering wife, Georgie Elgin, in The Country Girl (1954), after a pregnant Jennifer Jones bowed out. Already familiar with the play, Kelly was highly interested in the part. To do it, MGM once again would have to lend Kelly to Paramount Pictures. Kelly was adamant, and threatened the studio, saying that if they did not allow her to do the film she would pack her bags and leave for New York for good. MGM eventually relented. Kelly also negotiated a more lucrative contract in light of her recent success. In the film, Kelly played the wife of a washed-up, alcoholic singer, played by Crosby. Her character becomes torn emotionally between her two lovers, played by Crosby and William Holden. She was again dressed by Edith Head to suit her role in the film, initially appearing in fashionable dresses, shifting to ordinary-looking cardigans toward the end of the film.

As a result of her performance in The Country Girl, Kelly won the Academy Award for Best Actress. Her acceptance speech was brief: "The thrill of this moment keeps me from saying what I really feel. I can only say thank you with all my heart to all who made this possible for me. Thank you." Her main competitor was Judy Garland for her performance in A Star Is Born. After receiving the Oscar nomination, Kelly won the New York Film Critics Circle Award for best actress for her performances in her three big movie roles of 1954: Rear Window, Dial M For Murder, and The Country Girl. At the Golden Globe Awards in 1955, Kelly won the Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama. The New York Times praised her performance in The Country Girl as "excellent", and Rear Window got her marquee credits on par with, and beyond, those of Stewart and Hitchcock.

In April 1954, Kelly flew to Colombia for a 10-day shoot on her next project, Green Fire, with Stewart Granger. She played Catherine Knowland, a coffee plantation owner. Kelly told Hedda Hopper, "It wasn't pleasant. We worked at a pathetic village – miserable huts and dirty. Part of the crew got shipwrecked ... It was awful." After the consecutive filming of Rear Window, Toko-Ri, Country Girl, and Green Fire, Kelly flew to the French Riviera to work on her third, and last, film for Hitchcock, To Catch a Thief. Loaned to Paramount for the fifth time, Kelly played the role of a temptress who wears "luxurious and alluring clothes", while Cary Grant played the role of a former cat burglar, then looking to catch a thief who is imitating him. Kelly and Grant developed a mutual bond and admiration for each other. Years later, when asked to name his all-time favorite actress, Grant replied: "Well, with all due respect to dear Ingrid Bergman, I much preferred Grace. She had serenity."

In 1956, Kelly resided in a home rented from Bill Lear in the Pacific Palisades, California for the duration of her filming. She portrayed Princess Alexandra in the film The Swan, directed by Charles Vidor, opposite Alec Guinness and Louis Jourdan. Her final role was in Charles Walters's musical film High Society, a re-make of MGM's The Philadelphia Story (1940). She portrayed Tracy Lord, opposite Bing Crosby, Frank Sinatra, and Celeste Holm in the other leads. When it was released in July 1956. Variety stated, "Miss Kelly impresses as the femme lead with pleasantly comedienne overtones," and that it was "possibly her most relaxed performance."

Marriage
Kelly headed the U.S. delegation at the Cannes Film Festival in April 1955. While there, she was invited to participate in a photo session with Prince Rainier III, the sovereign of the Principality of Monaco, at the Prince's Palace of Monaco. After a series of delays and complications, she met him at the palace on May 6, 1955. After a year-long courtship described as containing "a good deal of rational appraisal on both sides," they married on April 19, 1956.

The Napoleonic Code of Monaco and the laws of the Catholic Church necessitated two ceremonies, civil and religious. The 16-minute civil ceremony took place in the Palace Throne Room of Monaco on April 18, 1956, and a reception later in the day was attended by 3,000 Monégasque citizens. The 142 official titles that she acquired in the union (counterparts of her husband's) were formally recited. The church ceremony took place the following day at Monaco's Saint Nicholas Cathedral, presided over by Bishop Gilles Barthe. The wedding was estimated to have been watched by over 30 million viewers on television, and was described by biographer Robert Lacey in 2010 as "the first modern event to generate media overkill". Her wedding dress, designed by MGM's Helen Rose, was worked on for 6 weeks by three dozen dress makers. The couple left that night for their seven-week Mediterranean honeymoon cruise on the prince's yacht.

Princess of Monaco

Princess Grace gave birth to the couple's first child, Princess Caroline, on January 23, 1957. Their next child and the heir to the throne, Prince Albert, was born on March 14, 1958. Their youngest, Princess Stéphanie, was born on February 1, 1965.

During her marriage, Grace discontinued her acting career. Instead, she performed her daily duties as princess and became involved in philanthropic work. As princess consort, she became the President of the Red Cross of Monaco (with her sister Peggy Davis and sister-in-law Princess Antoinette as the Vice-Presidents) and the Patron of Rainbow Coalition Children, an orphanage which was run by former dancer, singer and actress Josephine Baker. She hosted an annual Christmas celebration with presents for orphaned children in Monaco. The Princess also served as president of the Garden Club of Monaco, and president of the organizing committee of the International Arts Foundation. Grace retained her link to America by her dual U.S. and Monégasque citizenship.

Grace and her husband visited Ireland on three occasions, and in 1976 she purchased her family's ancestral homestead in Drumilra, near Newport, County Mayo.

Grace founded AMADE Mondiale, a Monaco-based, non-profit organization which is recognized by the UN, after she witnessed the plight of Vietnamese children in 1963. According to UNESCO's website, AMADE promotes and protects the "moral and physical integrity" and the "spiritual well-being of children throughout the world, without distinction of race, nationality or religion, and in a spirit of complete political independence." The organization currently has cooperative branches across Europe, Asia, South America, and Africa. They retain consultive status with UNICEF, UNESCO, and U.N. Economic & Social Council, alongside participative status with The Council of Europe. Princess Grace was active in improving the arts institutions of Monaco, forming the Princess Grace Foundation in 1964 to support local artisans. In 1965, she accepted the invitation to be an honorary member of La Leche League, a worldwide mother-to-mother support group which focuses on mothering through breastfeeding. She was a speaker at their 1971 conference in Chicago, addressing 1,400 mothers, 1,600 fathers and babies. Grace was a known advocate of breastfeeding, and successfully fed her three children. In 1975, Grace helped found the Princess Grace Academy, the resident school of the Monte Carlo Ballet. She later advocated to preserve the Belle Époque-era architecture of the principality. Grace hosted a yearly American Week in Monaco, where guests would play baseball and eat ice cream. The palace also celebrated American Thanksgiving annually.

Alfred Hitchcock offered Princess Grace the lead in his film Marnie in 1962. She was eager, but public outcry in Monaco against her involvement in a film where she would play a kleptomaniac made her reconsider and ultimately reject the project. Director Herbert Ross tried to interest her in a part in his film The Turning Point (1977), but Rainier dismissed the idea. Later that year, she returned to the arts in a series of poetry readings on stage and narration of the documentary The Children of Theatre Street. She also narrated ABC's made-for-television film The Poppy Is Also a Flower (1966).

Grace joined the board of the 20th Century-Fox Film Corporation in 1976, becoming one of its first female members. In 1980, she published My Book of Flowers with Gwen Robyns, detailing her sense of floral aesthetics, symbolism, and flower pressing. Grace and Rainier worked together on a 33-minute independent film titled Rearranged in 1979, which received interest from ABC TV executives in 1982 after its premiere in Monaco, on the condition that it be extended to an hour. Before more scenes could be shot, Grace died and the film was never released, nor was it publicly shown again.

In the early 1980s, Grace collaborated with Springmaid Company, the now-defunct bed linen brand. The collaboration was titled GPK after the initials of her maiden name and features bed linens, tablecloths, napkins, placemats, and others. Both collaborated after Neil Mandell, a newly hired Springmaid stylist, found the designs Grace made in a People magazine article on the exhibition in a Paris Gallery. Princess Grace received more than $1 million in royalties, which she donated to her favorite charities.

Death and funeral
On September 13, 1982, Grace suffered a mild cerebral hemorrhage while driving back to Monaco from her country home in Roc Agel. As a result, she lost control of her 1972 Rover P6 3500 References:
 * Establishing the age and marque of the car:
 * Establishing the model:
 * Establishing the platform: and drove off the steep, winding road and down the 120 foot mountainside. Her daughter Stéphanie, who was in the passenger seat, unsuccessfully tried to regain control of the car.

The Princess was taken to the Monaco Hospital (later named the Princess Grace Hospital Centre) with injuries to the brain and thorax and a fractured femur. Initially that afternoon, she was officially diagnosed with the cerebral hemorrhage and was said to be able to make a full recovery before a second, more severe, hemorrhage struck while at the hospital. With no reasonable chance of recovery, she died the following night at 10:55 p.m. after Rainier decided to turn off her life support.

Stéphanie suffered a light concussion and a hairline fracture of a cervical vertebra, and was unable to attend her mother's funeral.

Princess Grace's funeral was held at the Cathedral of Our Lady Immaculate in Monaco-Ville, on September 18, 1982. After a Requiem Mass, she was buried in the Grimaldi family vault. Over 400 people attended, including Cary Grant, Nancy Reagan, Danielle Mitterrand, Empress Farah of Iran, and Diana, Princess of Wales.

Rainier, who did not remarry, was buried alongside her after his death in 2005.

Legacy
"'I would like to be remembered as someone who accomplished useful deeds, and who was a kind and loving person. I would like to leave the memory of a human being with a correct attitude and who did her best to help others.'"

Kelly left a lasting legacy as a theater artist, television actress, and iconic Hollywood film star. Kelly has been cited as one of the "classic Hitchcock blondes", and as one of the most elegant women in cinematic and world history. One author describes her as the "elegant glamour girl of the screen". In 1999, Kelly was listed by Joan McIver as one of "30 Irish-American Women Who Changed Our World." In a 2019 edition of the American Journal of Irish Studies, she was described as "Irish America's poster girl" and "an understated Irish-American icon." Katherine Boyle of The Washington Post claimed that Kelly "had dramatic effects on views of Irish Catholic immigrants in the 1950s. Indeed, America seemed to pardon her tainted blood, tuning into her televised nuptial Mass in droves despite aversion to the religious spectacle."

Kelly appeared on the cover of the January 31, 1955, issue of the weekly magazine Time. The magazine hailed her as the top movie star who brought about "a startling change from the run of smoky film sirens and bumptious cuties". She was described as the "Girl in White Gloves" because she wore "prim and noticeable white gloves", and journalists often called her the "lady" or "Miss Kelly" for this reason. In appreciation of her work with Hitchcock in three of his films, Kelly later wrote a foreword to the book The Art of Alfred Hitchcock by Donald Spoto. Spoto also has written High Society: The Life of Grace Kelly, a biography published 25 years after her death.

In 1982, the Princess Grace Foundation-USA was established by her husband to continue the work she had done anonymously during her lifetime, assisting emerging theater, dance and film artists in America. Incorporated in 1982, PGF-USA is headquartered in New York City and is a tax-exempt, non-profit, publicly supported organization. The Princess Grace Awards, a program of the Princess Grace Foundation-USA, has awarded nearly 800 artists at more than 100 institutions in the U.S. with more than $15 million to date. The foundation also says it "holds the exclusive rights and facilitates the licensing of her name and likeness throughout the world." Her daughter Princess Caroline took over as president for both the Foundation and AMADE Mondiale after her death, with Prince Albert as vice president. The original Monaco branch of her foundation, named Fondation Princesse Grace, remains active and continues to provide direct aid to students and children within the Monaco and France regions. In 1955, Kelly was photographed by Howell Conant in Jamaica. He photographed her without makeup in a naturalistic setting, a departure from the traditional portrayal of actresses. The resulting photographs were published in Collier's, with a celebrated photo of her rising from the water with wet hair making the cover. Following Grace's marriage, Conant was the unofficial photographer to the House of Grimaldi and extensively photographed her, Rainier, and their three children. In 1992, Conant published Grace, a book of photographs that he took during her 26-year tenure as Princess of Monaco. Princess Grace has been depicted by many pop artists, including Andy Warhol and James Gill. Warhol made a portrait of her for the Institute of Contemporary Art, Philadelphia as a limited edition silkscreen in 1984.

In 2012, Grace's childhood home was made a Pennsylvania historic landmark, and a historical marker was placed on the site. The house, located at 3901 Henry Avenue in the East Falls section of Philadelphia, was built by her father John B. Kelly Sr. in 1929. Grace lived in the house until 1950, and Prince Rainier III proposed to her there in 1955. The Kelly family sold the property in 1974. Prince Albert of Monaco purchased the property, speculating that the home would be used either as museum space or as offices for the Princess Grace Foundation.

Fashion and style
While pregnant with her daughter Caroline in 1956, Princess Grace was frequently photographed clutching a distinctive leather handbag manufactured by Hermès. The purse, or Sac à dépêches, was likely a shield to prevent her pregnant abdomen from being exposed to the prying eyes of the paparazzi. The photographs, however, popularized the purse and became so closely associated with the fashion icon that it would thereafter be known as the Kelly bag.

Grace was inaugurated into the International Best Dressed List Hall of Fame in 1960 and in 1955, the Custom Tailored Guild of America listed her as the "Best-Tailored Woman". Numerous exhibitions have been held of Kelly's life and clothing. The Philadelphia Museum of Art presented her wedding dress in a 2006 exhibition to mark the 50th anniversary of her marriage, and a retrospective of her wardrobe was held at London's Victoria and Albert Museum in 2010. The V&A exhibition continued in Australia at the Bendigo Art Gallery in 2012. This famous dress, seen around the world, took thirty five tailors six weeks to complete. An exhibition of her life as Princess of Monaco was held at the Ekaterina Cultural Foundation in Moscow in 2008 in conjunction with Monaco's Grimaldi Forum. In 2009, a plaque was placed on the "Rodeo Drive Walk of Style" in recognition of her contributions to style and fashion.

After her death, Grace's legacy as a fashion icon lived on. Modern designers, such as Tommy Hilfiger and Zac Posen, have cited her as a fashion inspiration. During her lifetime, she was known for introducing the "fresh faced" look, one that involved bright skin and natural beauty with little makeup. Her fashion legacy was even commemorated at the Victoria and Albert Museum of London, where an exhibit titled, "Grace Kelly: Style Icon" paid tribute to her impact on the world of fashion. The exhibit included 50 of her legendary ensembles. She is remembered for her "college-girl" everyday fashion, defined by her pulled-together yet simple look. In 2016, Forbes included her on the list 10 Fashion Icons and the Trends They Made Famous.

The look and style of TV series Mad Men's Betty Draper is influenced by Grace Kelly, and she is frequently complimented in the show by other characters for resembling her. American actress Elle Fanning attended 78th Golden Globe Awards with mint-green Gucci gown designed by Alessandro Michele that was inspired by Grace Kelly's gown worn at the 27th Academy Awards. According to Vogue, American singer-songwriter Billie Eilish, who attended 2021 Met Gala, wore a red Oscar de la Renta gown inspired by Kelly's gown worn in the 1955 film To Catch a Thief. The gown was designed by Fernando Garcia and Laura Kim.

On July 15, 2021, the Princess Grace Foundation-USA launched Grace de Monaco, a luxury brand. The brand had been planned since 2019. On the same day, Grace de Monaco launched their first fragrance named Promenade sur le Rocher. The product was named after the official residence of the princely family for over seven centuries.

Monaco and elsewhere
A rose garden in Monaco's Fontvieille district is dedicated to the memory of Kelly. It was opened in 1984 by Rainier. A hybrid tea rose, named Rosa 'Princesse de Monaco', was named after her. She is commemorated in a statue by Kees Verkade in the garden, which features 4,000 roses. Prince Rainier also established the Princess Grace Irish Library in her memory, containing her personal collection of over 9,000 books and sheet music. Avenue Princesse Grace in Monaco, "the most expensive street in the world", is named for her, as is Boulevard Princesse Grâce de Monaco in Nice, France.

In 2007, Monaco hosted an international-scale exhibition in honor of Princess Grace, named "The Grace Kelly Years, Princess of Monaco", containing letters, personal belongings, fashion accessories, and sound recordings on display. Les Ballets de Monte-Carlo was established in 1985, in accordance to the wishes of Princess Grace, with its first performance taking place on December 21. In 1993, Kelly appeared on a U.S. postage stamp, released in conjunction with a Monaco postage stamp featuring her image on the same day. To commemorate the 25th anniversary of Kelly's death, €2 commemorative coins were issued on July 1, 2007, with the "national" side bearing the image of her. In 2019, the government of Monaco released three designs of commemorative postage stamps, each depicting a different phase of her life, to mark the 90th anniversary of her birth.

In 2003, the Henley Royal Regatta renamed the Women's Quadruple Sculls the "Princess Grace Challenge Cup". The Henley Stewards invited her to present the prizes at the 1981 regatta, expiating the ill will from her father's falling foul of its amateurism rules in 1920. Prince Albert presented the prizes at the 2004 regatta. Various hotels, including Hotel Bel-Air, the Ritz-Carlton Hotel de la Paix, the InterContinental Carlton Cannes Hotel, and the Shelbourne Hotel established suites inspired by her life and likeness. A yacht in Monaco, M/Y Grace, was named after her.

Cheryl Ladd portrayed Kelly in the made-for-TV film Grace Kelly in 1983. The film received mixed reviews. Nicole Kidman portrayed Kelly in Grace of Monaco (2014), directed by Olivier Dahan. Reaction to the film was largely negative; many people, including the princely family of Monaco, felt it was overly dramatic, had historical errors, and lacked depth.

In November 2022, the Monnaie de Paris (Paris Mint) issued silver and gold coins to commemorate the 40th anniversary of Grace Kelly's death, with the consent of Prince Albert II.

Discography

 * "True Love", a duet with Bing Crosby from High Society (1956)
 * L'Oiseau du Nord et L'Oiseau du Soleil, in French and in English (1978)
 * Birds, Beasts & Flowers: A Programme of Poetry, Prose and Music (1980)

Awards and nominations

Other honors
 * Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame (1960)
 * American Film Institute's 13th Greatest Female Star of Classic American Cinema (1999)
 * Rosa 'Princesse de Monaco' (1981)

Titles, styles, and honors
Upon her marriage to Prince Rainier III in 1956, as the consort of the reigning sovereign prince of Monaco, she was styled "Her Serene Highness Princess Grace of Monaco". She also bore all historical titles of her husband, in the feminine.

National honors

 * 🇲🇨 Monaco: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saint-Charles

Foreign honors

 * 🇦🇹 Austria: Recipient of the Red Cross Medal
 * 🇧🇪 Belgium: Recipient of the Red Cross Medal
 * 🇫🇷 France: Recipient of the Red Cross Medal
 * Greek Royal Family: Dame Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Beneficence
 * 🇮🇷 Iranian Imperial Family: Recipient of the Commemorative Medal of the 2,500 year Celebration of the Persian Empire
 * 🇮🇹 Italy: Grand Officer of the Order of the Star of Solidarity
 * Vatican: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre
 * Sovereign Military Order of Malta: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Merit, Special Class
 * 🇳🇮 Nicaragua: Grand Cross of the Order of Rubén Darío
 * 🇪🇸 Spain: Recipient of the Red Cross Plaque of Honor and Merit

title: Grace Kelly