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Help:Searching

Wikipedia uses a powerful search engine, with a search box on every page. The search box will navigate directly to a given page name upon an exact match. But, you can force it to show you other pages that include your search string by including a tilde character ~ anywhere in the query. The maximum search string is 300 characters long. However, search can instantly search all pages on the wiki when the search is kept to a simple word or two.

Wikipedia's searches can be made domain-specific (i.e., search in desired namespaces). The search engine also supports special characters and parameters to extend the power of searches and allow users to make their search strings more specific.

Advanced features of the Wikipedia search engine include multi-word proximity-searches (in which the user indicates how close the words in a phrase might be), wildcard searches, "fuzzy" ~ searches (handles typo-correction and questionable spelling), and several wiki-oriented operators and parameters for weighting and filtering. Search can also handle regular expressions, a sophisticated exact-string and string-pattern search tool that is not offered by most public search engines.

Search can also filter results by template names used, category membership, or pages linking to a specific page.

Special:Preferences offers several search options, and Wikipedia:Tools § Searching offers the setups of other users.

Search box

The search box is an input box with the term "Search Wikipedia" in it. In Wikipedia's default Vector skin, it is located in the top right corner of the screen. In the former default sink Monobook, it is in the middle of the sidebar on the left of the screen.

To use the search box, click in it, or jump to it, and type in your search string. To jump to the search box, "focus" your cursor to there by pressing.

In Vector, instead of a search button, there is an icon of a magnifying glass on the right-hand end of the search box. Pressing or clicking on the magnifying glass when the box is empty takes you directly to Wikipedia's search page.

If your search matches a page name the search box may instead of search. To get instead, prepend the tilde ~ character to the first word of the title. (Or choose "undefined" from the suggestions that drop down as you type.)

JavaScript and skins have an effect on the search/navigate default behavior. Monobook's default is to navigate, and Vector's default is search; however, when JavaScript is on, the Vector skin will navigate. Monobook's will navigate, and is the default, but Monobook has a  button.

Search string
Whatever you type into the search box is called the "search string". It may also be referred to as the "search query".

A basic search string is simply the topic you are interested in reading about. A direct match of a basic search string will navigate you directly to Wikipedia's article that has that title. A non-match, or any other type of search string will take you to Wikipedia's search results page, where the results of your search are displayed.

Terms in the search string are subject to stem matching, except for anything included between double quotation marks.

You can include in your search string special characters and parameters that activate specific search capabilities. Using any of these will take you to Wikipedia's search results page with the results of your search displayed.

The maximum search string is 300 characters long.

The format of the text that is entered is called search string syntax.

Search string syntax
Search is case insensitive, that is, upper and lowercase is ignored.

Search "folds" character families, matching similar-looking letters across alphabets, to match foreign terms. So, you don't have to type in diacritical letters, and your terms will still match. For example, a search on Citroen will also match Citroën, and Aeroskobing matches Ærøskøbing.

Characters that are not numbers or letters (punctuation marks, brackets and slashes, math and other symbols) are generally ignored. For example, Credit (finance) will return articles with the words credit and finance, ignoring the parentheses, unless an article with exact title  exists. Similarly, a search for the string LT (letters LT between two pipe symbols) will only return articles with lt. In order to search for terms that contain non-alphanumeric characters, a regex search must be used instead (using the \ escape character if required); for example, insource:/\ will successfully return all instances of undefined.

The source text is what is searched, which is not always what is displayed on the screen. This distinction is relevant for piped links, for interlanguage links (to find links to Chinese articles, search for zh, not for Zhongwen), special characters (if ê is coded as  it is found searching for ecirc), etc.

Namespaces
The default search domain is the article space, but any namespace may be specified in a query.

At the search results page, any number of namespaces can be specified, and users can keep those namespaces as their own default search domain. Partial namespace searches can be made by specifying the initial letters of a page name.

Spaces
The use of spaces is, in general, intuitive. Unnecessary spaces, and all non-alphanumeric characters except  are ignored, which makes for flexibility; it is simplest and best to avoid typing unnecessary spaces, although the tolerance for grey space simplifies copying and pasting search terms without the need for cleanup. For example, credit card is obviously reasonable; copying and pasting Credit(?!)card is equivalent and convenient; "credit card""payment card" is actually correct and minimal, but "credit card" "payment card" is an intuitive equivalent.

Any of the following characters will be treated as a space character:. The double quotation mark  is not one of these characters, because it has the special purpose of specifying an exact phrase search, and   and   can be used to exclude results if either occurs at the beginning of a word or phrase (see more below). We use the term grey-space instead of whitespace here to include the space character itself and all these characters. Multiple [grey-]spaces are equivalent to a single space.

Grey-space is ignored between the words of exact-phrase searches, between adjacent items in the query, and in starting characters of the search box query. All filters can have grey-space between them without affecting search results. Most operators, such as  and , ignore unnecessary spaces, or grey-space, after the colon.

Where spaces are significant: single search terms cannot have embedded spaces; work space, "work space", and workspace are all different. The particular keywords  and   must be followed immediately by a colon   and their arguments, without intervening [grey-]spaces.

Special characters
For regex searches, see the  parameter below.

Double quotes for exact phrase search
A phrase can be matched by enclosing it in double quotes, "like this". Double quotes can define a single search term that contains spaces. For example, where the space is quoted as a character, differs much from  where the space is interpreted as a logical AND.

Suffixed tilde character for fuzzy search
Spelling relaxation is requested by suffixing a tilde ~, like this~ to match results like thus and thins. It covers any two character-changes for any character except the first: it returns addition, exchange, or subtraction. This search technique is sometimes called a "sounds-like" search. For example, searching for returns Charlie Parker, Charles Palmer, Charley Parks, etc.

Prefixed tilde character for forced search
To force a search rather than navigate directly to a matching page, include a tilde character ~ anywhere in the query. It always takes you to the search results page, never jumping to a single title. For example, the misspelling similiar is redirected to the Similarity article (or, in this case, disambiguation page); but prefixing a tilde,, lists pages containing that misspelling.

Prefixed hyphen or exclamation point for exclusion
Pages matching a search term can be excluded by prefixing an exclamation point (!) or a hyphen (-) to the term. This is the logical NOT. For example, finds all articles with credit and card  those with the phrase credit card.

Wildcard characters
The two wildcard characters are * and \?, and both can come in the middle or end of a word. The escaped question mark stands for one character and the star stands for any number of characters. Because many users ask questions when searching, question marks are ignored by default, and the escaped question mark (\?) must be used for a wildcard.

Non-alphabetic characters
For non-alphabetic characters, regex expressions are needed.

Logical operators
The search engine supports boolean logic in searches. Logical NOT (negation) can be indicated by a "-" (minus sign) or a "!" (exclamation point) character prefixed to a search term, or by the NOT keyword.

Parentheses (…) are ignored by the search engine and have no effect.

Search terms are implicitly joined by logical AND (conjunction). For example "credit card" housecat searches for pages containing both "credit card" and "housecat". An OR operator is supported, but will only give intuitive results (corresponding to logical disjunction) if all search terms are separated by OR (e.g. red OR green OR blue has the expected behaviour, but red OR green blue does not). OR also does not behave predictably with special keywords (like ) or namespaces.

Parameters
Parameters function as name filters, each followed by the search term it operates on. Their search term may be a word or a phrase. The main parameters are  ,  ,  ,  , and   (namespace as used here isn't literal – use the name of the actual namespace desired).

differs from the other parameters in that it can only be used at the end of a search string.

A single  filter can go first, and a single   filter can go last.

Only articles are searched by default because most users are only readers. Given only at the of the query, a namespace name followed by a colon limits search results to that namespace. It is a filter without a query string. The namespace can also be selected at Special:Search.

Namespace aliases like  or   instead of   are accepted.

will normally go directly to a user page even if it doesn't exist. To search userspace, use Special:Search or click "" below the search box.

will search all namespaces.

To search multiple namespaces but not all, use "" at Special:Search.

all:
Prefixing  (in lower case) searches all namespaces, sorted by namespace, and with substring matches at the end.

Page titles and redirects can be searched with, where query is the search string. The search results highlight occurrences in both the title and page content. Multiple  filters may be used to search for words in titles regardless of order, or in different titles (i.e., redirects) for the same article. Regular expressions can be used with  or the case insensitive.

This can find template arguments, URLs, links, html, etc. It has two forms, one is an indexed search, and the other is regex-based.

Given as incategory:category, where category is the page name of a category page, it lists pages assigned to the given category by methods including the addition of to their wikitext. (Editors searching in namespaces other than mainspace will need to know the limitations these search results may contain.) If the category page name includes space characters; replace the spaces with underscores (e.g. incategory:Pages_of_interest), surround the page name with double quotes (e.g. incategory:"Pages of interest") or both (but not on the Wikimedia Commons site). will also return pages in the adjacent subcategory. Multiple  filters may be applied. A more graphical alternative to a single filter is at Special:CategoryTree. Because categories are important structures for for related articles, any use of this prefix is particularly effective for searching.

Also, this allows you to search in a category and all its subcategories. The depth of the tree is currently limited to 5 levels, and the overall number of categories is limited to 256.

Examples:

patterns of a page name. Because the "beginning" characters can, if you need, go on to include the characters all the way to the end of the page name, prefix must include spaces, since page names often include spaces. For this reason  must only ever be given as the  of a search box query, and next character after the colon cannot be a space. does not search for partial namespace names, but requires at least a full namespace name to start to find pages, but  also recognizes an alias of a namespace, and it recognizes redirects (or shortcut). Prefix is the most widely used and powerful filter as it can mimic the namespace filter, and because  cannot easily target a single page, even together with other filters. Special:PrefixIndex is a MediaWiki, graphical, version, using only  to find pages.

searches in pages that link to the given page. Can be used negatively by prefixing a hyphen, which will return pages that link to the given page. Unlike with some other keywords, the page name is case-sensitive.

This limits searches to subpages of the specified page. You can also negate the subpages from a search by preceding subpageof: with a hyphen. Note that articles on Wikipedia don't have subpages, but the pages of the other namespaces do. Therefore, use the namespace parameter also, or select the namespace at Special:Search. Here are some examples:

For  searches, click "Search for pages containing" or use Special:Search. This is not needed for other namespaces. To look at all the subpages of a user, try this:

User:subpageof:AzaToth

That will display all the subpages of User:AzaToth. They can also be seen at Special:PrefixIndex/User:AzaToth/ but Special:PrefixIndex cannot be combined with a search.

To make sure Articles for deletion pages do not show up in the results of a Wikipedia namespace search, try this:

Wikipedia:"Hi there" -subpageof:"Articles for deletion"

That will show pages from the Wikipedia namespace with "Hi there" in them, and the list of results will not be cluttered with any WP:Articles for deletion debates (there are hundreds of thousands). Notice the use of the hyphen (that makes it mean "not subpages of").

This finds pages that use the specified Template|template. Input the canonical page name to find all usage of the template, but use any of its redirect page names finds just that naming. Namespace aliases are accepted, capitalization is entirely ignored, and redirects are found, all in one name-search.

This is more thorough than, in that it will find meta-templates (templates called by another template). Meta-templates don't show up in the local page's wikitext.

Example of  usage:

hastemplate:"Article for deletion/dated"

This lets you find all the articles being considered for deletion.

intitle:"Outline of " -hastemplate:"Outline footer"

This lets you find Wikipedia outlines that lack the outline footer template. (Notice the use of the hyphen to indicate "NOT").

This keyword allows filtering search results by topic. E.g. articletopic:books will filter the search results to articles about books. articletopic:books will filter to articles about books or films. articletopic:books articletopic:films will filter to articles which are about both books and films.

Only mainspace articles belong to topics. Unlike most other filters,  also does page weighting: articles which are a stronger match for a topic will be higher in the search results (while articles which aren't about that subject at all will be removed from the result set completely).

Topic models are derived via machine learning from ORES. Any given article receives a score on dozens of different topics, and therefore may appear under different keywords. For instance, the article on Albert Einstein may appear as a "physics" article and a "biography" article. Topic-related search data is updated weekly, so recently created articles might not show up in topic-based search queries.

Search page

The search page features a search box, with some links to search domains beneath it.

The main difference between this search box and the one that appears on article pages is that exact matches on this one will not navigate you directly to an article page. This search box will produce the search results page showing what all matches your search on Wikipedia.

To get to the search page, do an empty search (press while in the search box before typing anything else in), or click on the magnifying glass in the search box. The link Special:Search, which can be inserted onto user pages or project pages, for example, also leads to the search page.

While the entire contents of the search page is included in the search results page, it is a distinct page. User scripts might be designed to work on the search results page but not the search page, for example.

Search results page
The search results page looks just like the search page, with the results for your search query presented below it.

The search results page is displayed when a search is done from the search page, when a search from the regular search box does not exactly match a page title, or when any parameters or special characters are included in a search string.

Understanding search results
The search string entered will be displayed in the search box on the page, in case you wish to modify it.

Spelling corrections and query corrections are offered at the top of the results.

Note that search results include content from templates displayed on the pages searched.

The order that search results are presented in is based on the page ranking software.

Results match word stems, along with their various tenses (past tense, plural tense, etc.), except for anything included between double quotation marks.

Throughout the results, matching terms are highlighted in bold. All matches in the title show for sure, while matches within the details may show, but not if they are far apart on the page.

Matches are included for section headings, members of matching categories, and destination pages of redirects. These will show off to the side of the page name, parenthetically.

A single result (one each) from selected sister projects appears on the right side of the page (the most likely relevant match for each). This feature may be permanently turned off in Preferences.

Files from Wikimedia Commons are included within the results when the  namespace has been selected. You can prepend search terms with  to limit results to locally uploaded files.

Preliminary reports
Search results will often be accompanied by a preliminary report. The Did you mean report corrects dictionary word spellings and gives a link that is either a wikilink that will navigate to an article or a search link that will perform a query. The distinction can be made by observing the presence of a You may create the page report. Another report corrects "spellings" to coincide with any "word" found in a search index (any word on the wiki):
 * There is a page named "Page name" (a wikilink to an existing page)
 * Did you mean: spelling correction (either a wikilink or a search-link)
 * You may create the page "New title" (a redlink to a new page name)

Refining results
The Search page is designed for presenting and refining results in a re-search loop controlled by modifying the query or the search parameters, such as namespace.

Namespaces
Articles are in the main namespace, or "article space", but Special:Statistics will show that there are many times more pages on Wikipedia than there are articles on Wikipedia. Other types of pages are in other namespaces, and these can be selected using the checkboxes that appear when expanding the section labelled Search in: under the search box.
 * "": Only search encyclopedia articles (also called mainspace).
 * "": Search talk pages. Some discussions are in the  namespace, which can be included by also selecting "General help" (which also adds help pages) or by selecting "Wikipedia" under "".
 * "": Search the  namespace and   namespace (also called project namespace). The latter contains various types of pages including many help pages.
 * Unfortunarely, there is no reliable way to exclude discussion pages from the results, but you can try adding to your query -insource:/\(UTC\)/ (which would also exclude help pages containing "(UTC)"); or try something more delicate like this (which would also exclude help subpages of WikiProjects).
 * "": Search every page on the entire wiki, for example also drafts and user pages.

Click "" to select namespaces individually.

In order to fully interpret the search results page, check which search domains are checked off, but also remember to check for a namespace name at the beginning or a  parameter at the end of the search box query. A namespace entered in a query always takes priority for determination of the search domain of a query, and will at any time override your default search domain, or any displayed profile. A  parameter at  of a query in the search box, furthermore, will override any namespace there, or any profile underneath that. Equivalently, you could check the URL in your browser's address bar for profile and namespace parameter settings, because the search query was sent to the search engine by way of that URL.

Sorting
By default, results are ordered by relevance. The "Sorting order" control in the "Advanced search" section allows you to select two other sort orders: most recently edited, and most recently created.

An advanced technique is to manually modify the URL to achieve other sort orders. For example, adding &sort=incoming_links_desc to the end of the URL will sort pages with the most incoming links to the top, and &sort=random will randomly order results. For a full list of available sort orders, see mw:Help:CirrusSearch.

Search settings
There is a tab. (You must be logged in.)

The default search domain is article space, but any user can change this default, and have their own default search domain for all the queries they run. In any case a query always can specify a namespace to make the search domain explicit and override any default. At the search results page, Special:Search, Advanced dialog, a search can specify any number of namespaces, and logged-in users can set their default search domain there by clicking "Remember selection for future searches".

Visit your page (requires JavaScript) to set up:
 * several external search engines' views of Wikipedia. The search results page will then have a pull down list to the left of its search box, offering your choice as, say, a modification of a word or phrase search, or a page ranking refinement. Go to Appearance, and see "Add a selector to the Wikipedia search page allowing the use of external search engines."
 * a wider search box. Go to Appearance and find "Widen the search box in the Vector skin."
 * . Spell-correct titles dropped-down from the search box as you type, or not. Or go to and see "Disable the suggestions dropdown-lists of the search fields".

The search results page can open in a new tab. See Browsing There are also custom user-scripts to make all search results always open in a new tab. (See the scripts available in See also.)

To hide/opt-out the search results snippets from sister projects, go to and see "Do not show search results for sister projects on the search results page".

Searching within a page
The internal search engine cannot locate occurrences of a string within the page you are viewing but browsers can usually do this with, or on a Mac.

Searching for a specific person's contributions
Due to the way the wikimedia database is indexed, there's no direct way to search for something like insource:foo author:person. But, you can come close in some situations. If you're looking for something on a talk (or, sometimes, project) page, people tend to leave a signature after each edit, and such pages are usually set up so old edits roll off onto archive pages. In this case, the proximity search operator can find instances of your search term near the user's name. Something like foo person ~50 might find what you are looking for.

Search Wikipedia from any web page
To get Wikipedia search results while on any web page, you can temporarily set your web browser's search box to become a Wikipedia search search box, even though you're on another web site. This trick removes the need to first navigate to Wikipedia from a web page, and do the search or navigation. It is a temporary change, and then you put it back to your preferred web-search engine.

You can just drag items on the page the name up to the web browser search box, even in the lower sections of a Wikipedia page, where no search box is immediately available.

You can reach all twelve sister projects the same way by using interwiki prefixes in the web browser's search box. For example, you can go straight to a Wiktionary entry by using the prefix  from your web-search box.

SQL searches / Quarry
The entire wikipedia database (with some redactions for privacy) is exposed for SQL queries at the experimental Quarry service. Using this requires a high degree of technical skill; you must not only know SQL, but also be able to navigate the complex (and not always well documented) database schema. For those who are so equipped, it may provide another option for searches which would be impossible to do via the standard search interface.

Other search tools
Other search tools include:
 * Your own browser, to search the current page only. Try, , or.
 * https://www.wikipedia.org, to search other language editions of Wikipedia.
 * Search-related templates

Internal search tools:
 * ISBN
 * Prefix
 * And many other SpecialPages

External tools dedicated to Wikipedia Database searches include:
 * Article title grep: searches page titles using regular expressions. This search is much slower than standard search. In particular this tool can search for exact strings of characters, including punctuation and with case sensitivity. For example the pattern \(& Co\. Ltd\. will find only titles containing (& Co. Ltd. exactly as shown. Regular expressions are precisely defined, and not intuitively obvious.
 * PetScan: about 20 search parameters, three for categories
 * WikiBlame: search for text in the revision history of a page
 * User Contribution Search: reports anyone's contributions to a page
 * Edit summary search: search for text in anyone's edit summaries
 * whichsub: finds transcluded templates of a given page which contain a given string.

If you cannot find what you are looking for
If you're looking for a place where wine comes from pronounced "Bordo", you can try searching for a more general article such as "Wine", "Wine regions" (returning "List of wine-producing regions") or other wine types such as "Burgundy" and see if it's mentioned there or follow links (in this case, to "Burgundy wine", which has several mentions of "Bordeaux", and links to "French wine" and "Bordeaux wine"). If you know it's in France, look at "France" or the Category:Cities in France, from where you can easily find Bordeaux. You can try various things depending upon the particular case; for "Bordo" wine, it's quite likely that the first letters are "bord", so search an article you've landed on for these letters. If you use Google to search Wikipedia, and click on "cache" at the bottom of any result in the search engine results page, you'll see the word(s) that you searched for highlighted in context.

If there is no appropriate page on Wikipedia, consider creating a page, since you can edit Wikipedia right now. Or consider adding what you were looking for to the Requested articles page.

If you have a question, then see Where to ask questions, which is a list of departments where our volunteers answer questions, any question you can possibly imagine.

A common mistake is to type a natural-language question into the search bar and expect an answer. While some Web search tools support this, the Wikipedia search is a text search only; questions, as such, can be asked at the reference desk and similar places. A search for how do clocks work? will return articles with the words how, do, clocks, and work, ignoring the question mark (in practice this can lead to articles answering simple questions).

Delay in updating the search index
Because people like to see their work in search results, the search engine attempts to update in near real-time. Edits made to pages via templates can take a little longer to propagate. If you see the index lagging more than a day or so, report it. For other technical issues with the search engine, please leave a message on the talk page.

Under the hood
To power its search feature, Wikipedia uses CirrusSearch, a MediaWiki extension that uses Elasticsearch to provide enhanced search features.

Stem matching
Search results will include the roots of words included in the search string, and their various tenses (plural, past-tense, etc.). If stem matching is not wanted, use double quotes around the word or phrase you want to match verbatim. Here are some examples:

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Help:Searching


text:
Talk:John Hancock Center

Untitled
The restaurant is filled with raptors? Don't want to eat there I guess. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.83.34.196 (talk) 02:29, 3 April 2010 (UTC)

What are the official names of these two buildings? I thought the one in Chicago is called John Hancock Center, the one in Boston is call John Hancock building. Anyone from these two cities to confirm this?
 * Chicago = John Hancock Center
 * Boston = Hancock Place, but commonly called John Hancock Tower in city Raime 12:41, 28 June 2007 (UTC)

By the way, I'm pretty sure I.M. Pei didn't design the Boston John Hancock; it was another architect in his firm. i'd need a reference to take this comment out of Talk, though. --The Cunctator
 * Yes, you are right. Pei is credited for designing the building, but Pei himself gives credit for the building's design to Henry Cobb. See this site Raime 12:41, 28 June 2007 (UTC)

Hmm. Well, there are three Hancock buildings in Boston, all fairly close to one another. The tallest is the John Hancock Tower (this is the one called the building in the article), the next one down is the John Hancock Building (this is the one with the weather light thingy on top), and I forget what the smallest / oldest one is called. -- EdwardOConnor
 * While all three buildings may have been officially called "John Hancock Building" at one point, the current names now are Hancock Place for the tallest and newest tower, The Berkeley Building for the tower commonly referred to as the "old John Hancock Building", and The Stephen L. Brown Building for the oldest and shortest building completed in 1922. Raime 12:41, 28 June 2007 (UTC)

One thing to keep in mind if you visit the building, if you're on the 94th floor observation level and you want to go to the resturant and lounge on the 95th and 96th floors, you have to go back down to the ground level, and then take another elevator from ground level to the resturant.

JesseG 01:39, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)

The picture titled "The 95th and 96th Floor's Resturant and Lounge" is not of a quality that warrants being on this page. I think it should be removed, but I would like to hear some thoughts on this before I make the change. Please let me know if you agree or disagree with my plan to remove that picture. Badammcqueen 04:44, Jun 5, 2005 (UTC)

 * I agree. Besides, removing it would better balance the number the images with the lenght of the text. Lawrence Lavigne 07:01, Jun 5, 2005 (UTC)

 * I removed both of the pictures I had taken and had placed in this article.
 * JesseG 16:57, Jun 6, 2005 (UTC)

 * Thanks Jesse. Badammcqueen 17:14, Jun 6, 2005 (UTC)

 * No, don't thank me. I feel that the pictures I had taken and had taken the time to add to this article added to the article, but apparently my pictures aren't good enough.
 * JesseG 22:23, Jun 6, 2005 (UTC)

 * I disagree with the removal of Image:JHancockAug2004.jpg. I think it should be added back.  It might not be the best picture we can get of the tower but it illustrates the "x-bracing" architecture mentioned in the article.  Not to mention, it's actually a picture of the tower itself, which we don't really have  (except the view from Sears Tower).  I haven't seen the picture of the restaurant (has it been completely removed?), so I can't comment on that.
 * Neil McKillop 14:59, 4 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I agree with McKillop: the tower's bracing structure was my main reason for visiting the page and would love to see this photo restored. --Myke Cuthbert 20:27, 28 December 2005 (UTC)

I changed the location from Streeterville to Gold Coast. According to the official city of Chicago neighborhood map, this is Gold Coast. Streeterville (regardless of where the dear captain landed) ends at Grand. See: http://www.cityofchicago.org/webportal/COCWebPortal/COC_EDITORIAL/City_Neighborhoods_11x17.pdf -- Reaperducer 20:18, 20 June 2009 (UTC)

I took out the paragraph about Jerry Springer and Chris Farley. It stated that Jerry Springer moved out in May of 2009. This is incorrect. It is now June and I have seen him in the building in June. Also, it stated that Springer's apartment was adjacent to Chris Farley's. This is incorrect. Springer's is on 91, Farley's was on the 60th floor (6002 to be exact). FWIW, I am a resident. The most complete page for reference information on this topic is here: http://chicagoarchitecture.info/Building/1006/The_John_Hancock_Center.php -- Reaperducer 20:18, 20 June 2009 (UTC)

Help stamp out redundancy and repetition!
Take a look at:

"The 95th floor has long been home to a fine restaurant, the latest incarnation being called The Signature Room on the 95th Floor."

Shouldn't "on the 95th Floor" be dropped from the end of this sentence?

TJSwoboda 18:14, 23 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * No, because the full name of the restaurant is "The Signature Room on the 95th Floor."Shsilver 18:56, 23 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Ah! And I call myself a native Illinoian... :)

TJSwoboda 01:02, 26 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Good picture?
How about a good picture of the building? Currently, we only have a very distant shot and a view from the center away. Anybody from Chicago mind to add a good picture? Peter S. 13:51, 24 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I changed it to a slightly better version from Chicago -- however I can crop it when I have a few free minutes to make this pic better. --Quasipalm 16:17, 24 October 2005 (UTC)

View
The official website says the view from the obersvatory spans four states. this cant be true, can it?--Atticus2020 14:48, 14 July 2006 (UTC)

 * No, it's true. Illinois, Wisconsin, Indiana, Michigan. --spyguy 16:02, 14 July 2006 (UTC)

 * That's f-ing crazy.--Atticus2020 23:59, 23 July 2006 (UTC)

This Article is Bad
Not to underestimate the work of those that came ahead, but this article contains may inaccuracies and incorrect information. For example: -the building's skin does not play any structural role, that is the definition of a skyscraper; -the difference between "commercial district" and "financial district" is connotatively non-existent; -generally, the structural information was not put together with much structural knowledge -it looks like the article was cobbled together, with no allowance for structure and flow. I can make an attempt to clean it up.
 * This article has gotten a lot better. Thanks to all who contributed to this. Also, the thing that fell off the tower is called a "swing stage", I am an architect and have been on one. I added and slightly modified this in the article.Gary Joseph 01:34, 19 April 2007 (UTC)

Base and peak
To me, the most salient fact about this building is the fact that its width and breadth are much larger at its base than at its peak, i.e. the sides are not completely vertical, but rather slope inward. Isn't this unusual among skyscrapers? Isn't it worth mentioning? (Not worth mentioning in the article is the fact that this monumental black building with its two antennas sticking up like ears has always somehow reminded me of Darth Vader.) —Angr 23:09, 16 December 2006 (UTC)

Is this really the third tallest building in the world?
As seen from the Chicago skyline picture toward the end of the article, it's the third largest building in Chicago! Who laid claim to this being the third largest in the world, only behind the Sears Tower and Taipei 101? Can this be accurate?
 * It is completely accurate, but only when measuring to the tips of its antennae. See List of tallest buildings in the world. When measuring to architectural detail (which is far common to use when ranking skyscrapers by height, and excludes antennae), it is only the 16th-tallest. Rai - me  02:39, 21 September 2007 (UTC)

Both this and the Aon article claim to be the third tallest in Chicago. 151.185.60.250 (talk) 12:46, 7 November 2008 (UTC)

Dab link too long
I've edited the extremely long dab link at the top of this article down to a shorter version. It previously read: 'Several buildings bear this name, all built by John Hancock Insurance and named after John Hancock. For the John Hancock Tower in Boston, Massachusetts, see John Hancock Tower'. I've shortened it to: For the tower in Boston, Massachusetts, see John Hancock Tower. Why is a link needed to John Hancock Insurance and John Hancock? There is clearly no chance of confusion with either of these articles, so it did not make sense to have them in the dab link. The "several" was also ambiguous: There are only two John Hancock Towers/Centers that I know of, the one in Boston and the one in Chicago. (There were two buildings in Boston that were formerly called the John Hancock Tower, but both were renamed after the completion of the modern John Hancock Tower.) Raime 02:15, 25 August 2007 (UTC)

Images
I moved some of the images to a gallery at the end. A panoramic image of the skyline appeared too! Strange why i could not see it before... Looks slightly better now i think? ← κεηηε∂γ (talk) (contribs) 10:25, 28 March 2008 (UTC)

Steps or stairs
I know you have a yearly run up the stairs in the building. How many stairs are there exactly? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.21.97.212 (talk) 18:50, 8 April 2008 (UTC)

Possible semantic inaccuracy
The introduction says, "The building ... contains the highest residences in the world". There's an ambiguity in the phrasing. It should be rewritten to make clear that the baseline is the structure's base level, since in terms of sea level, there are many human settlements at higher altitudes. - Gyan (talk) 10:40, 27 June 2008 (UTC)

Second paragraph
The second paragraph in the opening of this article needs to be cleaned up, it seems a bit much like advertisement. Neutral point-of-view might be the wrong flag, if there's a better flag feel free to change it. Organman91 (talk) 02:36, 29 June 2010 (UTC)
 * I've done a bit of trimming, taken some of teh blatant advertsising and informal text away. I don't know if it ok now, but I think it's a bit better. VanillaBear23 (talk) 13:21, 17 July 2010 (UTC)

Highest residence?
"and contains the third highest residence in the world, after the Trump Tower also in Chicago and the Burj Khalifa in Dubai." Well, I own a house on Mau'i that is higher than this entire building, so *I* must own the highest residence in the world. Oh, wait, there are some further up the volcano. Drat! I'm not even sure how to reword the statement, so I'll leave it to you all, but none of the buildings mentioned even come close to having the "highest residence in the world". —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.141.145.218 (talk • contribs)

Perhaps by phrasing it as "highest residence above ground-level" or "highest residence in relation to ground-level of a skyscraper"??? SecretName101 (talk) 15:56, 10 August 2017 (UTC)

Deaths?
"A little over three years after the Hancock’s completion, a 29-year-old Chicago woman named Lorraine Kowalski fell to her death from her boyfriend’s 90th-floor Hancock Center apartment. To this day, detectives are dumbfounded by the event; the building’s windows are capable of withstanding more than 200 pounds of pressure per square foot and winds of more than 150 miles per hour, yet Kowalski actually broke through the glass. Four years later, a transmitter technician for a local radio station plunged to his death from the 97th floor offices of his television station. Just three months later, a 27-year old tenant “fell” from his 91st-floor apartment while studying for an exam at breakfast. In 1978, a 31-year old woman shot a man to death in his home on the Hancock’s 65th floor, and in 1998, beloved comedian Chris Farley was found dead in the entrance hall of his 60th-floor apartment. Most recently, in March of 2002, a 25-foot aluminum scaffold fell from the building’s 43rd floor, crushing three cars, killing three women and injuring 8 others."

http://www.chicagohauntings.com/hancock.html

There was also the death of an iron worker during construction. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.239.231.71 (talk) 14:34, 12 September 2011 (UTC)

Impressive video !!!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RpXL_QaK17E#t=597 NYCFC (talk) 23:22, 16 August 2014 (UTC)

Goodwin
Did they really try to knock him off the building? I'm at least assuming very near to the bottom. Was the 80s really that bad? B137 (talk) 06:14, 6 March 2015 (UTC)

photo
here it is under construction : https://www.flickr.com/photos/davidwilson1949/5582470062/in/album-72157614049704111/ Victor Grigas (talk) 04:55, 16 June 2015 (UTC)

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Restaurant
Mention should be made of its 95th/96th floor restaurant The Signature Room SecretName101 (talk) 15:55, 10 August 2017 (UTC)

And a more detailed reference should be made than simply listing it as a tenant. Clarify that it is a restaurant at the very least.SecretName101 (talk) 20:42, 20 August 2017 (UTC)

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John Hancock Center No More
As reflected in today's revisions, John Hancock Insurance has requested that their name and logos be removed from this building. I leave it to an editor to decide how to reflect the name change in the naming of this article - and also to change the tower's name in the Chicago Skyscrapers graphic - DiogenesNY (talk) 03:13, 13 February 2018 (UTC)
 * Wikipedia is not obliged to slavishly obey the dictates of a corporation. Abductive  (reasoning) 15:12, 13 February 2018 (UTC)
 * Ridiculous. Not even the building's owners refer to it as the John Hancock Center anymore. Are you suggesting that Wikipedia deliberately publish obsolete references? - DiogenesNY (talk) 05:00, 14 February 2018 (UTC)
 * I have undone the move. Triplecaña (talk) 16:32, 3 August 2018 (UTC)

Requested move 29 November 2019

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: No consensus to move at this time. (non-admin closure) Cwmhiraeth (talk) 14:19, 6 December 2019 (UTC)

John Hancock Center → 875 North Michigan Avenue – I honestly don't know how controversial this move is, but the name of the John Hancock Center officially changed to 875 North Michigan Avenue almost 2 years ago. TonyTheTiger (T / C / WP:FOUR / WP:CHICAGO / WP:WAWARD) 03:45, 29 November 2019 (UTC) (UTC)
 * This is a contested technical request (permalink). -- / Alex /21  04:01, 29 November 2019 (UTC)

 * Oppose for now I still hear of it referred to only as the "Hancock Center", so it appears that the status quo should remain considering only COMMONNAME, but I am a lifelong resident of the city. We did change the name of the far better known Willis Tower, so I'll see how it's referred to (to the extent that it is) in references and by non-residents. – John M Wolfson (talk • contribs) 05:14, 29 November 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose. This is the common name, and we don't necessarily use official names (WP:OFFICIAL). I find it somewhat doubtful that the number will ever become the common name, since it isn't very recognizable. Dekimasu よ! 08:43, 29 November 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose per WP:COMMONNAME. Reliable sources still call it the John Hancock Center. In a recent article CBS 2 Chicago notes that the building is rarely called anything other than the "John Hancock Center" or "Big John" .--Tdl1060 (talk) 10:40, 29 November 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose move. Given that the last attempts to move the page were almost immediately reverted, and "John Hancock Center" remains the common name, it makes sense to keep the page where it is.  O.N.R.  (talk) 14:46, 29 November 2019 (UTC)
 * Support I know I'm in the minority here, but I'd be OK with a page move. I've always felt uncomfortable seeing WP:COMMONNAME used to preserve article titles that are out of date. Wikipedia is wildly inconsistent when it comes to "common names", anyway. We use Cloud Gate, but not "The Bean". Zagal e jo^^^ 03:50, 3 December 2019 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

 * Unfortunately I didn't find time do the research before this closed, but I note the following for the record:

 * 1. In general, moves should occur once a clear majority of published written sources use the new name.

 * 2. Spoken usage is of minimal relevance both because it is hard to track empirically, and because an encyclopedia is a formal written document and hence should track the formal written usage.

 * 3. Sources used for the article should carry some additional weight compared to non-sources, as an encyclopedia should reflect its sources. However, what's important is which name those sources use in their most recent publications/editions not what they used in old editions or old articles even if those are what the encyclopedia directly cites.

 *  𝒬 𝔔  23:24, 7 December 2019 (UTC)

Two Towers center?
I heard the Story that Original TWO towers were planned, but they not get the building ground for second. 2A02:908:1015:D440:755F:109C:77A5:B0B7 (talk) 11:10, 6 October 2020 (UTC)

Elevators
The article states the elevators were mfg'd by Otis, I'm pretty sure the original elevators were made by Schindler. Valgrus Thunderaxe (talk) 20:07, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion: You can see the reason for deletion at the file description page linked above. —Community Tech bot (talk) 23:35, 9 January 2022 (UTC)
 * USA Illinois location map.svg

Move
Move to 875 North Michigan Avenue. That is the real name. 2A02:C7E:3AA0:9200:78F8:A724:D9D2:96E6 (talk) 23:44, 28 January 2022 (UTC)

 * We use WP:CommonName SecretName101 (talk) 20:18, 30 September 2023 (UTC)
 * Is WP:CommonName even based on anything? Even the tour guides in Chicago these days use 875 N Michigan.
 * Also if we use WP:CommonName, then why is the Sears Tower page (which everyone, including tour guides, uses) "Willis Tower". Piemadd (talk) 05:13, 2 March 2024 (UTC)

Floor plan and tenants section
The large table that attempts to visualize floors in the "Floor plan and tenants" section is unwieldy, not easily viewable on mobile, and really doesn't add much information that a simple list or prose could provide. I suggest removing it. -- Zim Zala Bim talk 21:34, 5 October 2023 (UTC)

Signature Room and Lounge has closed.
The Signature Room restaurant and the Signature Lounge have permanently closed. This needs to be updated. Building owners and the business owners could not come to a lease agreement. 208.59.176.245 (talk) 13:51, 4 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:John Hancock Center


text:
Johann Eck

Johann Maier von Eck (13 November 1486 – 13 February 1543), often anglicized as John Eck, was a German Catholic theologian, scholastic, prelate, and a pioneer of the counter-reformation who was among Martin Luther's most important interlocutors and theological opponents.

Life
Johann Eck was born Johann Maier at Eck (later Egg, near Memmingen, Swabia) and derived his additional surname from his birthplace, which he himself, after 1523, always modified into Eckius or Eccius, i.e. "of Eck". His father, Michael Maier, was a peasant and bailiff, or Amtmann, of the village. The boy's education was undertaken by his uncle, Martin Maier, parish priest at Rottenburg on the river Neckar.

At the age of 12 he entered the University of Heidelberg, which he left in the following year for Tübingen. After taking his master's degree in 1501, he began the study of theology under Johann Jakob Lempp, and studied the elements of Hebrew and political economy with Konrad Summenhart.

He left Tübingen in 1501 on account of the plague and after a year at Cologne finally settled at Freiburg University, at first as a student of theology and law and later as a successful teacher where he was mentor to the prominent Anabaptist leader of Waldshut and Nikolsburg, Balthasar Hubmaier, and later retaining this relationship during their move to the University of Ingolstadt. In 1508 he entered the priesthood in Strasbourg and two years later obtained his doctorate in theology.

At Freiburg in 1506 he published his first work, Ludicra logices exercitamenta and also proved himself a brilliant and subtle orator, although obsessed by an untamable controversial spirit and unrestrained powers of invective. At odds with his colleagues, he was glad to accept a call to a theological chair at Ingolstadt in November 1510, receiving at the same time the honors and income of a canon at Eichstadt. In 1512 he became prochancellor at the university and made the institution a bulwark of Catholicism. His wide knowledge found expression in numerous writings. In the theological field he produced his Chrysopassus (Augsburg, 1514), in which he developed a theory of predestination, while he obtained some fame as commentator on the Summulae of Peter of Spain and on Aristotle's De caelo and De anima.

As a political economist he defended the lawfulness of putting out capital at interest and successfully argued his view at disputations at Augsburg (1514) and Bologna (1515), where he also disputed about predestination. These triumphs were repeated at Vienna in 1516. Through these successes he gained the patronage of the Fuggers, but they scandalized Martin Luther.

A ducal commission, appointed to find a way of ending the interminable strife between rival academic parties, asked Eck to prepare fresh commentaries on Aristotle and Peter of Spain. Between 1516 and 1520, in addition to all his other duties, he published commentaries on the Summulae of Petrus Hispanus, and on the Dialectics, Physics and lesser scientific works of Aristotle, which became the textbooks of the university. During these early years, Eck was considered a modern theologian, and his commentaries are inspired with much of the scientific spirit of the New Learning. His aim, however, had been to find a via media between old and new. He championed the cause of the papacy. The result of this new resolve were his chief work, De primatu Petri (1519), and his Enchiridion locorum communium adversus Lutherum ran through 46 editions between 1525 and 1576. From 1530 to 1535 he published a collection of his writings against Luther, Opera contra Ludderum, in 4 vols. He verbally assailed his friend, humanist and jurist Ulrich Zasius, for a doctrine proclaimed ten years before, and Erasmus's Annotationes in Novum Testamentum. Eck died at Ingolstadt on 10 February 1543.

Disputations with Luther and Karlstadt
As early as the spring of 1517 Eck had entered into friendly relations with Martin Luther, who had regarded him as in harmony with his own views, but this relationship was short-lived. In his Obelisci, Eck attacked Luther's theses, which had been sent to him by Christoph von Scheurl, and accused him of promoting the "heresy of the Bohemian Brethren", fostering anarchy within the Church and branded him a Hussite. Luther replied in his Asterisci adversus obeliscos Eccii, while Andreas Karlstadt defended Luther's views of indulgences and engaged in a violent controversy with Eck.

A mutual desire for a public disputation led to a compact between Eck and Luther by which the former pledged himself to meet Karlstadt in debate at Erfurt or Leipzig, on condition that Luther abstain from all participation in the discussion. In December 1518, Eck published the twelve theses which he was prepared to uphold against Karlstadt, but since they were aimed at Luther rather than at the ostensible opponent, Luther addressed an open letter to Karlstadt, in which he declared himself ready to meet Eck in debate.

The disputation between Eck and Karlstadt began at Leipzig on 27 June 1519. In the first four sessions Eck maintained the thesis that free will is the active agent in the creation of good works, but he was compelled by his opponent to modify his position so as to concede that the grace of God and free will work in harmony toward the common end. Karlstadt then proceeded to argue that good works are to be ascribed to the agency of God alone, whereupon Eck yielded so far as to admit that free will is passive in the beginning of conversion, although he maintained that in the course of time it enters into its rights; so that while the entirety of good works originates in God, their accomplishment is not entirely the work of God.

Despite the fact that Eck was thus virtually forced to abandon his position, he succeeded in confusing Karlstadt and carried off the victory. He was less successful against Luther, who, according to Eck, was his superior in memory, acumen, and learning. After a disputation on the supremacy of the papacy, purgatory, penance, etc., lasting twenty-three days (4 July–27 July), the arbitrators declined to give a verdict. Eck did succeed in making Luther admit that there was some truth in the Hussite opinions and declare himself against the Pope, but this success only embittered his animosity against his opponents. Eck also forced Luther to declare that Ecumenical Councils were sometimes errant, as in the case when Constance (1414–1418) condemned Hus (1415). Luther effectively denied the authority of both pope and council. Eck was greeted as victor by the theologians of the University of Leipzig.

Attacks on Luther and Melanchthon
Soon after his return to Ingolstadt, Eck attempted to persuade Elector Frederick of Saxony to have Luther's works burned in public, and during the year 1519 he published no less than eight writings against the new movement. He failed, however, to obtain a condemnatory decision from the universities appointed to pronounce on the outcome of the Leipzig disputation. Erfurt returned the proceedings of the meeting to the Saxon duke without signifying its approval, while Paris, after repeated urging, gave an ambiguous decision limited to "the doctrine of Luther so far as investigated".

Eck's only followers were the aged heretic-hunter Hoogstraten and Emser of Leipzig, together with the allied authorities of the universities of Cologne and Leuven. Luther returned Eck's assaults with more than equal vehemence and about this time Philipp Melanchthon wrote to Œcolampadius that at Leipzig he had first become distinctly aware of the difference between what he considered to be true Christian theology and the scholasticism of the Aristotelian doctors. In his Excusatio Eck, irritated all the more because early in the year he had induced Erasmus to caution, retorted that Melanchthon knew nothing of theology, a claim Melanchthon responded to in his reply.

Eck fared still worse in October of the same year when he sought to aid Emser with a strongly worded tirade against Luther. Two satires, one by Œcolampadius and the other by Willibald Pirckheimer, angered Eck who pushed for the public burning of the entire literature in the market-place at Ingolstadt, an act from which he was restrained by his colleague Reuchlin.

Papal emissary and inquisitor
Eck was more highly esteemed as "the dauntless champion of the true faith" at Rome than in Germany, where he induced the universities of Cologne and Louvain to condemn Luther's writings, but failed to enlist the German princes. In January 1520, he visited Italy at the invitation of Pope Leo X, to whom he presented his latest work De primate Petri adversus Ludderum (Ingolstadt, 1520) for which he was rewarded with the nomination to the office of papal protonotary, although his efforts to urge the Curia to decisive action against Luther were unsuccessful for some time.

In July he returned to Germany with the bull Exsurge Domine directed against Luther's writings, in which forty-one propositions of Luther were condemned as heretical or erroneous. He now believed himself in a position to crush not only the "Lutheran heretics", but also his humanist critics. The effect of the publication of the bull, however, made this difficult. Universities and humanists were at one in denunciation of the outrage; and, due the attitude of the people, Eck was barely able to escape from Saxony alive.

At Meissen, Brandenburg, and Merseburg, he succeeded in giving the papal measure due official publicity, but at Leipzig he was the object of the ridicule of the student body and was compelled to flee by night to Freiberg, where he was again prevented from proclaiming the bull. At Erfurt the students tore the bull down and threw it into the water, while in other places the papal decree was subjected to still greater insults.

In his anger he appealed to force, and his Epistola ad Carolum V (18 February 1521) called on the emperor to take measures against Luther, an appeal soon answered by the Edict of Worms (May 1521). In 1521 and 1522 Eck was again in Rome, reporting on the results of his nunciature. On his return from his second visit he was the prime mover in the promulgation of the Bavarian religious edict of 1522, which practically established the senate of the University of Ingolstadt as a tribunal of the Inquisition. In return for this action of the duke, who had at first been opposed to the policy of repression, Eck obtained for him, during a third visit to Rome in 1523, valuable ecclesiastical concessions. He continued unabated in his zeal against the reformers, publishing eight major works from 1522 to 1526.

Wealth and power were included in the aspirations of Eck. He appropriated the revenues of his parish of Günzburg, while he relegated its duties to a vicar. Twice he visited Rome as a diplomatic representative of the Bavarian court to obtain sanction for the establishment of a court of inquisition against the Lutheran teachings at Ingolstadt. The first of these journeys, late in the autumn of 1521, was fruitless on account of the death of Leo X, but his second journey two years later, in 1523, was successful. Eck was the prime mover in many heresy trials, including that of Leonhard Kaser, whose history was published by Luther.

Zwingli and his followers
In addition to his inquisitorial duties, every year witnessed the publication of one or more writings against iconoclasm and in defense of the doctrines of the Mass, purgatory, and auricular confession. His Enchiridion locorum communium adversus Lutherum et alios hostes ecclesiae (Landshut, 1525) went through forty-six editions before 1576. As its title indicates, it was directed primarily against Melanchthon's Loci Communes, although it also concerned itself to some extent with the teachings of Huldrych Zwingli.

At Baden-in-Aargau from 21 May until 18 June 1526 a public disputation on the doctrine of transubstantiation was held, in which Eck and Thomas Murner were pitted against Johann Oecolampadius. The affair ended decidedly in favor of Eck, who induced the authorities to enter on a course of active persecution of Zwingli and his followers (Conference of Baden).

The effect of his victory at Baden was dissipated, however, at the Bern Disputation (January 1528), where the propositions advanced by the Reformers were debated in the absence of Eck, and Bern, Basel, and other places were definitely won for the Reformation. At the Diet of Augsburg (1530), Eck played the leading part among the Roman Catholic theologians.

Peace overtures
For the Diet of Augsburg, while still at Ingolstadt, Eck compiled what he considered to be 404 heretical propositions from the writings of the reformers as an aid to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.

At Augsburg he was charged by the Emperor to draw up, in concert with twenty other theologians, a refutation of the Lutheran Augsburg Confession, which had been delivered to the emperor on 25 June 1530, but he had to rewrite it five times before it suited the emperor. It was known as the Confutatio pontificia, embodying the Catholic reaction to the reformers. He also was involved in the fruitless negotiations with the Protestant theologians, including Philipp Melanchthon, that took place at Augsburg; Eck with Wimpina and Cochlæus met the Lutherans in August.

He was at the Colloquy of Worms in 1540 where he showed some signs of a willingness to compromise. In January 1541 he renewed these efforts and succeeded in impressing Melanchthon as being prepared to give his assent to the main principles of the reformers, e.g. justification by faith; but at the diet of Regensburg in the spring and summer of 1541, he reasserted his opposition. Afterwards Eck clashed with Martin Bucer over the latter's published report of the diet.

Eck's German New Testament
Special mention should be made, among Eck's many writings, of his German translation of the Bible (the New Testament, a revision of H. Emser's rendering) which was first published at Ingolstadt in 1537.

Eck and the genealogy of Christ
Eck made a sermon on the genealogy of Christ, naming Mary's mother's parents as Emerentia and Stollanus: "The renowned Father John of Eck of Ingolstadt, in a sermon on St. Anne (published at Paris in 1579), pretends to know even the names of the parents St. Anne. He calls them Stollanus and Emerentia. He says that St. Anne was born after Stollanus and Emerentia had been childless for twenty years".

Eck and the Jews
In 1541 Eck published his Against the Defense of the Jews (German: Ains Juden-büechlins Verlegung). In it he opposes the position of the Nuremberg reformer Andreas Osiander, who in the pamphlet Whether It Be True and Credible That the Jews Secretly Strangulate Christian Children and Make Use of Their Blood wanted to quash medieval suspicion that Jews were responsible for killing Christian children, desecrating the eucharistic Host, and poisoning wells. Eck accused Osiander of being a "Jew-protector" and "Jew-father", and no fewer than nineteen times reviled the Jews, and called them "a blasphemous race".

Works

 * Eck, Johann (1538), Explanatio Psalmi vigesimi, ed., Bernhard Walde, 1928, Münster in Westfalen: Aschendorff.
 * Eck, Johann (1538), Explanatio Psalmi vigesimi, ed., Bernhard Walde, 1928, Münster in Westfalen: Aschendorff.
 * Eck, Johann (1538), Explanatio Psalmi vigesimi, ed., Bernhard Walde, 1928, Münster in Westfalen: Aschendorff.
 * Eck, Johann (1538), Explanatio Psalmi vigesimi, ed., Bernhard Walde, 1928, Münster in Westfalen: Aschendorff.

title: Johann Eck


text:
The Greatest Show on Earth (film)

The Greatest Show on Earth is a 1952 American drama film produced and directed by Cecil B. DeMille, shot in Technicolor and released by Paramount Pictures. Set in the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus, the film stars Betty Hutton and Cornel Wilde as trapeze artists competing for the center ring and Charlton Heston as the circus manager. James Stewart also stars as a mysterious clown who never removes his makeup, and Dorothy Lamour and Gloria Grahame also play supporting roles.

In addition to the actors, the real Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey's Circus' 1951 troupe appears in the film with its complement of 1,400 people, hundreds of animals and 60 railroad cars of equipment and tents. The actors learned their circus roles and participated in the acts. The film's storyline is supported by lavish production values, actual circus acts and documentary-style views into the complex logistics behind big-top circuses.

The film won two Academy Awards for Best Picture and Best Story, and was nominated for Best Costume Design, Best Director and Best Film Editing. It also won Golden Globe Awards for Best Cinematography, Best Director and Best Motion Picture – Drama.

Plot
Brad Braden is the no-nonsense general manager of the world's largest railroad circus. The show's board of directors plans to run a short 10-week season rather than risk losing money in a shaky postwar economy. Brad bargains to keep the circus on the road as long as it makes a profit, thus keeping the 1,400 performers and roustabouts employed.

Brad reluctantly tells Holly, his aerialist girlfriend, that she will no longer be the star. He has been forced to hire world-famous aerialist (and notorious ladies man) "The Great Sebastian" as the star and main attraction of that year's show. Holly is heartbroken and claims that Brad has no feelings. Trouble is also brewing for beloved Buttons the Clown, who never appears without his makeup and seems to possess medical knowledge. Holly finds a newspaper article about a mercy killer, but does not immediately connect the doctor who killed his wife to Buttons.

Sebastian arrives and is coldly greeted by two former lovers: Angel, who performs in the elephant act with the pathologically jealous Klaus, and Phyllis, who has a dual role as an iron jaw artist and a singer in one of the musical numbers. Sebastian is attracted to Holly, and offers her the center ring. When Brad refuses, Holly vows to make her ring the focus of attention.

Buttons' mother attends a performance, warning him the police are on his trail. Meanwhile, the competition between the two aerialists becomes increasingly dangerous; the duel ends when Sebastian removes his safety net, then suffers a serious fall when a stunt goes wrong. Buttons tends to him before the ambulance comes, impressing the circus' doctor. Holly finally has the center ring and star billing, but is not happy at how she got it. Brad cannot comfort her, as she now has feelings for Sebastian.

Brad, who runs a clean show, catches crooked midway concessionaire Harry cheating the customers. Harry is fired, vows revenge, and hangs about the periphery of the show sowing disaffection, particularly with Klaus. Several months later, Sebastian rejoins the show, but his right arm is paralyzed. A guilt-ridden Holly professes her love for Sebastian, believing Brad is unfeeling. Angel berates Holly for her actions and starts a relationship with Brad herself. During one of the performances, a furious Klaus threatens to have an elephant step on Angel rather than let her go to another man. Brad intervenes to save her and fires Klaus.

After one performance, FBI Special Agent Gregory, who is hunting for the mercy killer, joins the circus train. He shows Brad a photo of Buttons without makeup, but Brad does not recognize him. Later, Buttons tells Brad that Sebastian has feeling in his injured hand, a sign that his disability is not permanent. Brad makes the connection and casually observes that Gregory will be taking fingerprints at the next stop, so Buttons can escape or lie low if he wishes.

Harry and Klaus stop the first section of the train to rob the pay wagon. Klaus sees the second section coming, and realizes that Angel is aboard that train. He turns his car's headlights down the track to warn the oncoming train. Unable to brake in time, the second train smashes the car off the tracks, killing Klaus and Harry. It also collides with the first train, causing great damage and many injuries.

Brad is pinned in the wreckage, bleeding from a cut artery. Buttons tries to slip away from the wreck site, but Holly, realizing whom she truly loves, begs Buttons for help. Buttons gives Brad a direct transfusion from Sebastian, who has the same rare blood type. Gregory assists Buttons and afterwards reluctantly arrests him, telling him "You're all right." Buttons gives his dog to a child and leaves with Gregory to face an unknown fate.

Holly takes command of the show, mounting a parade that leads the whole nearby town to an open-air performance. Brad realizes how much he loves Holly, but she now has no time for him because the show must go on. Sebastian proposes marriage to Angel, and she accepts. Holly leads the performers in an improvised "spec" around the three rings – a magnificent recovery from the disaster that ensures the circus will continue its national tour.

Cast

 * Betty Hutton as Holly
 * Cornel Wilde as The Great Sebastian
 * Charlton Heston as Brad Braden
 * James Stewart as Buttons the Clown
 * Dorothy Lamour as Phyllis
 * Gloria Grahame as Angel
 * Henry Wilcoxon as FBI Agent Gregory
 * Lawrence Tierney as Mr. Henderson
 * Lyle Bettger as Klaus
 * Bob Carson as Ringmaster
 * John Ridgely as Assistant Manager
 * Frank Wilcox as Circus doctor
 * Brad Johnson as unnamed reporter
 * John Kellogg as Harry
 * Julia Faye as Birdie
 * Lillian Albertson as Buttons' mother
 * Cecil B. DeMille as Narrator (uncredited)
 * Charmienne Harker as Charmienne (uncredited)

The film features about 85 Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus acts, including clowns Emmett Kelly and Lou Jacobs, midget Cucciola, bandmaster Merle Evans, foot juggler Miss Loni and aerialist Antoinette Concello. John Ringling North plays himself as the owner of the circus.

The film includes several unbilled cameo appearances (mostly in the circus audiences) including Bob Hope and Bing Crosby, Lamour's costars in the Road to ... films. William Boyd appears in his usual guise of Hopalong Cassidy. Danny Thomas, Van Heflin, character actor Oliver Blake and Noel Neill are seen as circus patrons. Leon Ames is seen and heard in the train wreck sequence. A barker, kept anonymous until the film's end, is seen in the closing moments of the film. The voice is finally revealed to be that of Edmond O'Brien.

Production

The film was shot in Sarasota, Florida, where locals were paid 75 cents per hour as extras.

One story concerning the movie says that Lucille Ball was offered Gloria Grahame's role but withdrew when she discovered that she was pregnant with her first child, Lucie Arnaz. However, this account has been disputed because when DeMille was filming with Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus, Ball was preparing I Love Lucy for its launch on CBS.

Aerialist Art Concello, who was the general manager of Ringling Bros. at the time when DeMille was traveling with the show, figured out how to execute the stunt and doubled for Cornel Wilde in the Great Sebastian's fall scene. He had been a headlining aerialist when he was a performer.

Betty Hutton and Wilde had to learn how to fly on the trapeze for their scenes. Wilde may have faced difficulty because of his acrophobia. Hutton became quite proficient with the single bar. Film footage exists showing Hutton rehearsing 40 ft in the air, talking to DeMille who had ridden to her height on a camera crane. Hutton's stunt double was La Norma Fox, also from Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus.

The music for the song "Lovely Luawana Lady" was written by John Ringling North, who appears briefly as himself during the discussion about whether the show would play the road rather than have a short ten-week season. North was a nephew of the five Ringling brothers who founded Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus, and was its owner at the time.

Release
The film premiered at the Florida Theater (now the Sarasota Opera House) in Sarasota, Florida.

The film earned $12.8 million at the box office in the United States and Canada, making it the highest-grossing film of 1952, as well as Paramount's most successful film to that time. It was also the most popular film in Britain in 1952 and the most popular film of the year in France in 1953.

The film played for 11 weeks at New York's Radio City Music Hall, a record duration that it shared with Random Harvest in 1942 and that would last until at least the 1960s.

Contemporary
When the movie premiered at the Radio City Music Hall, Bosley Crowther in The New York Times called The Greatest Show on Earth a "lusty triumph of circus showmanship and movie skill" and a "piece of entertainment that will delight movie audiences for years":
 * Sprawling across a mammoth canvas, crammed with the real-life acts and thrills, as well as the vast backstage minutiae, that make the circus the glamorous thing it is and glittering in marvelous Technicolor—truly marvelous color, we repeat—this huge motion picture of the big-top is the dandiest ever put upon the screen.

Time magazine called the film a "mammoth merger of two masters of malarkey for the masses: P. T. Barnum and Cecil B. de Mille" that "fills the screen with pageants and parades [and] finds a spot for 60-odd circus acts," but its plot "does not quite hold all this pageantry together." Variety wrote that the film "effectively serve[s] the purpose of a framework for all the atmosphere and excitement of the circus on both sides of the big canvas."

Retrospective
In 1977, Joe Walders wrote in TV Guide that a film's box-office success does not necessarily translate to continued popularity on television, and cited The Greatest Show on Earth as a primary example: "[It] was not only the top moneymaker of the year, but it also won the Academy Award for Best Picture. Yet it has rarely done well on television."

Critic Leonard Maltin opined that "like most of DeMille's movies, this may not be art, but it's hugely enjoyable."

In 2005, The Official Razzie Movie Guide: Enjoying the Best of Hollywood's Worst included The Greatest Show on Earth.

On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a score of 50% from 44 reviews, with an average rating of 5.9/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "The Greatest Show on Earth is melodramatic, short on plot, excessively lengthy and bogged down with cliches, but not without a certain innocent charm." On Metacritic, the film holds a weighted average score of 76 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".

Awards

At the 25th Academy Awards, the movie won Oscars for Best Picture and Best Story and received nominations for Best Director, Best Film Editing and Best Costume Design, Color. It was the last Best Picture winner to win fewer than three Academy Awards until Spotlight (2015).

Some reviewers consider The Greatest Show on Earth among the weakest selections for the Academy Award for Best Picture, as it defeated highly rated films such as High Noon, The Quiet Man, Ivanhoe and the unnominated Singin' in the Rain. In 2005, Empire listed it as the third-worst Best Picture winner. MSNBC's Erik Lundegaard called Crash the "worst Best Picture winner since the 'dull, bloated' film The Greatest Show on Earth." In 2013, the selection of The Greatest Show on Earth rather than High Noon was listed by Time among the 10 most controversial Best Picture races. Premiere placed the film on its list of the 10 worst Oscar winners. It holds the second-lowest spot on Rotten Tomatoes' 2011 list of the 90 films to win Best Picture (ahead of only 1929's The Broadway Melody).

Stanley Kramer alleged that the film's Best Picture Oscar was the result of the political climate in Hollywood in 1952. Senator Joseph McCarthy was pursuing communists at the time, and DeMille was a conservative Republican involved with the National Committee for a Free Europe. Another Best Picture nominee, High Noon, was produced by Carl Foreman, who would soon appear on the Hollywood blacklist, and one of the scriptwriters of Ivanhoe, Marguerite Roberts, was also blacklisted.

However, it is also possible that The Greatest Show On Earth won Best Picture because it was seen as a last chance for DeMille to win a competitive Oscar. A Hollywood legend, DeMille's best work had been done during the silent film era, before the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences was established. It is possible that the members of the Academy who were veterans of the silent era felt that he, as an elder statesman of Hollywood and one of the founders of the Academy, deserved the honor even if the other nominees for Best Picture were in some ways better than The Greatest Show On Earth.

Influence
A television series with the same title was inspired by the film, with Jack Palance in the role of Charlton Heston's character. The program ran on Tuesday evenings for 30 episodes on ABC during the 1963–1964 season.

The self-titled theme song later served as the theme for WGN-TV's long-running Bozo's Circus.

The Greatest Show on Earth was the first film that director Steven Spielberg saw, and he credits it as one of the major inspirations that led him into a film career. He identifies the film's train crash scene as a major influence, reflected in the science-fiction film Super 8 (2011), which he produced. In an early scene in Spielberg's 2005 remake of War of the Worlds, the train-wreck sequence from The Greatest Show on Earth is briefly shown on a television. The opening scene of Spielberg's 2022 semi-autobiographical film The Fabelmans dramatizes his seeing the film on the big screen, in which Sammy Fabelman (the fictional version of young Spielberg) watches it with his parents in a cinema and is mesmerized by the train-wreck sequence.

title: The Greatest Show on Earth (film)


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Garden

A garden is a planned space, usually outdoors, set aside for the cultivation, display, and enjoyment of plants and other forms of nature. The single feature identifying even the wildest wild garden is control. The garden can incorporate both natural and artificial materials.

Gardens often have design features including statuary, follies, pergolas, trellises, stumperies, dry creek beds, and water features such as fountains, ponds (with or without fish), waterfalls or creeks. Some gardens are for ornamental purposes only, while others also produce food crops, sometimes in separate areas, or sometimes intermixed with the ornamental plants. Food-producing gardens are distinguished from farms by their smaller scale, more labor-intensive methods, and their purpose (enjoyment of a hobby or self-sustenance rather than producing for sale, as in a market garden). Flower gardens combine plants of different heights, colors, textures, and fragrances to create interest and delight the senses.

The most common form today is a residential or public garden, but the term garden has traditionally been a more general one. Zoos, which display wild animals in simulated natural habitats, were formerly called zoological gardens. Western gardens are almost universally based on plants, with garden, which etymologically implies enclosure, often signifying a shortened form of botanical garden. Some traditional types of eastern gardens, such as Zen gardens, however, use plants sparsely or not at all. Landscape gardens, on the other hand, such as the English landscape gardens first developed in the 18th century, may omit flowers altogether.

Landscape architecture is a related professional activity with landscape architects tending to engage in design at many scales and working on both public and private projects.

Etymology
The etymology of the word gardening refers to enclosure: it is from Middle English gardin, from Anglo-French gardin, jardin, of Germanic origin; akin to Old High German gard, gart, an enclosure or compound, as in Stuttgart. See Grad (Slavic settlement) for more complete etymology. The words yard, court, and Latin hortus (meaning "garden", hence horticulture and orchard), are cognates—all referring to an enclosed space.

The term "garden" in British English refers to a small enclosed area of land, usually adjoining a building. This would be referred to as a yard in American English.

Uses
A garden can have aesthetic, functional, and recreational uses:
 * Cooperation with nature
 * Plant cultivation
 * Garden-based learning
 * Observation of nature
 * Bird- and insect-watching
 * Reflection on the changing seasons
 * Relaxation
 * Placing down different types of garden gnomes
 * Family dinners on the terrace
 * Children playing in the garden
 * Reading and relaxing in a hammock
 * Maintaining the flowerbeds
 * Pottering in the shed
 * Basking in warm sunshine
 * Escaping oppressive sunlight and heat
 * Growing useful produce
 * Flowers to cut and bring inside for indoor beauty
 * Fresh herbs and vegetables for cooking

China

The earliest recorded Chinese gardens were created in the valley of the Yellow River, during the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC). These gardens were large enclosed parks where the kings and nobles hunted game, or where fruit and vegetables were grown. Early inscriptions from this period, carved on tortoise shells, have three Chinese characters for garden, you, pu and yuan. You was a royal garden where birds and animals were kept, while pu was a garden for plants. During the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC), yuan became the character for all gardens. The old character for yuan is a small picture of a garden; it is enclosed in a square which can represent a wall, and has symbols which can represent the plan of a structure, a small square which can represent a pond, and a symbol for a plantation or a pomegranate tree.

A famous royal garden of the late Shang dynasty was the Terrace, Pond and Park of the Spirit (Lingtai, Lingzhao Lingyou) built by King Wenwang west of his capital city, Yin. The park was described in the Classic of Poetry this way:

 * The King makes his promenade in the Park of the Spirit,
 * The deer are kneeling on the grass, feeding their fawns,
 * The deer are beautiful and resplendent.
 * The immaculate cranes have plumes of a brilliant white.
 * The King makes his promenade to the Pond of the Spirit,
 * The water is full of fish, who wriggle.

Another early royal garden was Shaqui, or the Dunes of Sand, built by the last Shang ruler, King Zhou (1075–1046 BC). It was composed of an earth terrace, or tai, which served as an observation platform in the center of a large square park. It was described in one of the early classics of Chinese literature, the Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji). According to the Shiji, one of the most famous features of this garden was the Wine Pool and Meat Forest (酒池肉林). A large pool, big enough for several small boats, was constructed on the palace grounds, with inner linings of polished oval shaped stones from the seashore. The pool was then filled with wine. A small island was constructed in the middle of the pool, where trees were planted, which had skewers of roasted meat hanging from their branches. King Zhou and his friends and concubines drifted in their boats, drinking the wine with their hands and eating the roasted meat from the trees. Later Chinese philosophers and historians cited this garden as an example of decadence and bad taste.

During the Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BC), in 535 BC, the Terrace of Shanghua, with lavishly decorated palaces, was built by King Jing of the Zhou dynasty. In 505 BC, an even more elaborate garden, the Terrace of Gusu, was begun. It was located on the side of a mountain, and included a series of terraces connected by galleries, along with a lake where boats in the form of blue dragons navigated. From the highest terrace, a view extended as far as Lake Tai, the Great Lake.

India
Manasollasa is a twelfth century Sanskrit text that offers details on garden design and a variety of other subjects. Both public parks and woodland gardens are described, with about 40 types of trees recommended for the park in the Vana-krida chapter. Shilparatna, a text from the sixteenth century, states that flower gardens or public parks should be located in the northern portion of a town.

Japan

The earliest recorded Japanese gardens were the pleasure gardens of the Emperors and nobles. They were mentioned in several brief passages of the Nihon Shoki, the first chronicle of Japanese history, published in 720 CE. In spring 74 CE, the chronicle recorded: "The Emperor Keikō put a few carp into a pond, and rejoiced to see them morning and evening". The following year, "The Emperor launched a double-hulled boat in the pond of Ijishi at Ihare, and went aboard with his imperial concubine, and they feasted sumptuously together". In 486, the chronicle recorded that "The Emperor Kenzō went into the garden and feasted at the edge of a winding stream".

Korea
Korean gardens are a type of garden described as being natural, informal, simple and unforced, seeking to merge with the natural world. They have a history that goes back more than two thousand years, but are little known in the west. The oldest records date to the Three Kingdoms period (57 BC – 668 AD) when architecture and palace gardens showed a development noted in the Korean History of the Three Kingdoms.

Europe
Gardening was not recognized as an art form in Europe until the mid 16th century when it entered the political discourse, as a symbol of the concept of the "ideal republic". Evoking utopian imagery of the Garden of Eden, a time of abundance and plenty where humans didn't know hunger or the conflicts that arose from property disputes. John Evelyn wrote in the early 17th century, "there is not a more laborious life then is that of a good Gard'ners; but a labour full of tranquility and satisfaction; Natural and Instructive, and such as (if any) contributes to Piety and Contemplation." During the era of Enclosures, the agrarian collectivism of the feudal age was idealized in literary "fantasies of liberating regression to garden and wilderness".

France
Following his campaign in Italy in 1495, where he saw the gardens and castles of Naples, King Charles VIII brought Italian craftsmen and garden designers, such as Pacello da Mercogliano, from Naples and ordered the construction of Italian-style gardens at his residence at the Château d'Amboise and at Château Gaillard, another private résidence in Amboise. His successor Henry II, who had also travelled to Italy and had met Leonardo da Vinci, created an Italian garden nearby at the Château de Blois. Beginning in 1528, King Francis I created new gardens at the Château de Fontainebleau, which featured fountains, parterres, a forest of pine trees brought from Provence, and the first artificial grotto in France. The Château de Chenonceau had two gardens in the new style, one created for Diane de Poitiers in 1551, and a second for Catherine de' Medici in 1560. In 1536, the architect Philibert de l'Orme, upon his return from Rome, created the gardens of the Château d'Anet following the Italian rules of proportion. The carefully prepared harmony of Anet, with its parterres and surfaces of water integrated with sections of greenery, became one of the earliest and most influential examples of the classic French garden.

The French formal garden (jardin à la française) contrasted with the design principles of the English landscape garden (jardin à l'anglaise) namely, to "force nature" instead of leaving it undisturbed. Typical French formal gardens had "parterres, geometrical shapes and neatly clipped topiary", in contrast to the English style of garden in which "plants and shrubs seem to grow naturally without artifice." By the mid-17th century axial symmetry had ascended to prominence in the French gardening traditions of Andre Mollet and Jacques Boyceau, from which the latter wrote: "All things, however beautiful they may be chosen, will be defective if they are not ordered and placed in proper symmetry." A good example of the French formal style are the Tuileries gardens in Paris which were originally designed during the reign of King Henry II in the mid-sixteenth century. The gardens were redesigned into the formal French style for the Sun King Louis XIV. The gardens were ordered into symmetrical lines: long rows of elm or chestnut trees, clipped hedgerows, along with parterres, "reflect[ing] the orderly triumph of man's will over nature."

The French landscape garden was influenced by the English landscape garden and gained prominence in the late eighteenth century.

United Kingdom
Before the Grand Manner era, a few significant gardens were found in Britain which were developed under the influence of the continent. Britain's homegrown domestic gardening traditions were mostly practical in purpose, rather than aesthetic, unlike the grand gardens found mostly on castle grounds, and less commonly in universities. Tudor Gardens emphasized contrast rather than transitions, distinguished by color and illusion. They were not intended as a complement to home or architecture, but conceived as independent spaces, arranged to grow and display flowers and ornamental plants. Gardeners demonstrated their artistry in knot gardens, with complex arrangements most commonly included interwoven box hedges, and less commonly fragrant herbs like rosemary. Sanded paths run between the hedgings of open knots whereas closed knots were filled with single colored flowers. The knot and parterre gardens were always placed on level ground, and elevated areas reserved for terraces from which the intricacy of the gardens could be viewed.

Jacobean gardens were described as "a delightful confusion" by Henry Wotton in 1624. Under the influence of the Italian Renaissance, Caroline gardens began to shed some of the chaos of earlier designs, marking the beginning of a trends towards symmetrical unified designs that took the building architecture into account, and featuring an elevated terrace from which home and garden could be viewed. The only surviving Caroline garden is located at Bolsover Castle in Derbyshire, but is too simple to attract much interest. During the reign of Charles II, many new Baroque style country houses were built; while in England Oliver Cromwell sought to destroy many Tudor, Jacobean and Caroline style gardens.

Design
Garden design is the process of creating plans for the layout and planting of gardens and landscapes. Gardens may be designed by garden owners themselves, or by professionals. Professional garden designers tend to be trained in principles of design and horticulture, and have a knowledge and experience of using plants. Some professional garden designers are also landscape architects, a more formal level of training that usually requires an advanced degree and often an occupational license.

Elements of garden design include the layout of hard landscape, such as paths, rockeries, walls, water features, sitting areas and decking, as well as the plants themselves, with consideration for their horticultural requirements, their season-to-season appearance, lifespan, growth habit, size, speed of growth, and combinations with other plants and landscape features. Most gardens consist of a mixture of natural and constructed elements, although even very 'natural' gardens are always an inherently artificial creation. Natural elements present in a garden principally comprise flora (such as trees and weeds), fauna (such as arthropods and birds), soil, water, air and light. Constructed elements include not only paths, patios, decking, sculptures, drainage systems, lights and buildings (such as sheds, gazebos, pergolas and follies), but also living constructions such as flower beds, ponds and lawns.

Garden needs of maintenance are also taken into consideration. Including the time or funds available for regular maintenance, (this can affect the choices of plants regarding speed of growth) spreading or self-seeding of the plants (annual or perennial), bloom-time, and many other characteristics. Garden design can be roughly divided into two groups, formal and naturalistic gardens. The most important consideration in any garden design is how the garden will be used, followed closely by the desired stylistic genres, and the way the garden space will connect to the home or other structures in the surrounding areas. All of these considerations are subject to the budget limitations. Budget limitations can be addressed by a simpler garden style with fewer plants and less costly hard landscape materials, seeds rather than sod for lawns, and plants that grow quickly; alternatively, garden owners may choose to create their garden over time, area by area.

Environmental impact
Gardeners may cause environmental damage by the way they garden, or they may enhance their local environment. Damage by gardeners can include direct destruction of natural habitats when houses and gardens are created; indirect habitat destruction and damage to provide garden materials such as peat, rock for rock gardens, and by the use of tapwater to irrigate gardens; the death of living beings in the garden itself, such as the killing not only of slugs and snails but also their predators such as hedgehogs and song thrushes by metaldehyde slug killer; the death of living beings outside the garden, such as local species extinction by indiscriminate plant collectors; and climate change caused by greenhouse gases produced by gardening.

Climate change
Gardeners can help to prevent climate change in many ways, including the use of trees, shrubs, ground cover plants and other perennial plants in their gardens, turning garden waste into soil organic matter instead of burning it, keeping soil and compost heaps aerated, avoiding peat, switching from power tools to hand tools or changing their garden design so that power tools are not needed, and using nitrogen-fixing plants instead of nitrogen fertiliser.

Climate change will have many impacts on gardens; some studies suggest most of them will be negative. Gardens also contribute to climate change. Greenhouse gases can be produced by gardeners in many ways. The three main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. Gardeners produce carbon dioxide directly by overcultivating soil and destroying soil carbon, by burning garden waste on bonfires, by using power tools which burn fossil fuel or use electricity generated by fossil fuels, and by using peat. Gardeners produce methane by compacting the soil and making it anaerobic, and by allowing their compost heaps to become compacted and anaerobic. Gardeners produce nitrous oxide by applying excess nitrogen fertiliser when plants are not actively growing so that the nitrogen in the fertiliser is converted by soil bacteria to nitrous oxide.

Irrigation
Some gardeners manage their gardens without using any water from outside the garden. Examples in Britain include Ventnor Botanic Garden on the Isle of Wight, and parts of Beth Chatto's garden in Essex, Sticky Wicket garden in Dorset, and the Royal Horticultural Society's gardens at Harlow Carr and Hyde Hall. Rain gardens absorb rainfall falling onto nearby hard surfaces, rather than sending it into stormwater drains.

title: Garden