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Network packet

In telecommunications and computer networking, a network packet is a formatted unit of data carried by a packet-switched network. A packet consists of control information and user data; the latter is also known as the payload. Control information provides data for delivering the payload (e.g., source and destination network addresses, error detection codes, or sequencing information). Typically, control information is found in packet headers and trailers.

In packet switching, the bandwidth of the transmission medium is shared between multiple communication sessions, in contrast to circuit switching, in which circuits are preallocated for the duration of one session and data is typically transmitted as a continuous bit stream.

Terminology
In the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking, packet strictly refers to a protocol data unit at layer 3, the network layer. A data unit at layer 2, the data link layer, is a frame. In layer 4, the transport layer, the data units are segments and datagrams. Thus, in the example of TCP/IP communication over Ethernet, a TCP segment is carried in one or more IP packets, which are each carried in one or more Ethernet frames.

Architecture
The basis of the packet concept is the postal letter: the header is like the envelope, the payload is the entire content inside the envelope, and the footer would be your signature at the bottom.

Network design can achieve two major results by using packets: error detection and multiple host addressing.

Framing
Communications protocols use various conventions for distinguishing the elements of a packet and for formatting the user data. For example, in Point-to-Point Protocol, the packet is formatted in 8-bit bytes, and special characters are used to delimit elements. Other protocols, like Ethernet, establish the start of the header and data elements by their location relative to the start of the packet. Some protocols format the information at a bit level instead of a byte level.

Contents
A packet may contain any of the following components:

 * Addresses
 * The routing of network packets requires two network addresses, the source address of the sending host, and the destination address of the receiving host.

 * Error detection and correction
 * Error detection and correction is performed at various layers in the protocol stack. Network packets may contain a checksum, parity bits or cyclic redundancy checks to detect errors that occur during transmission.

 * At the transmitter, the calculation is performed before the packet is sent. When received at the destination, the checksum is recalculated, and compared with the one in the packet. If discrepancies are found, the packet may be corrected or discarded. Any packet loss due to these discards is dealt with by the network protocol.

 * In some cases, modifications of the network packet may be necessary while routing, in which cases checksums are recalculated.

 * Hop limit
 * Under fault conditions, packets can end up traversing a closed circuit. If nothing was done, eventually the number of packets circulating would build up until the network was congested to the point of failure. Time to live is a field that is decreased by one each time a packet goes through a network hop. If the field reaches zero, routing has failed, and the packet is discarded.

 * Ethernet packets have no time-to-live field and so are subject to broadcast radiation in the presence of a switching loop.

 * Length
 * There may be a field to identify the overall packet length. However, in some types of networks, the length is implied by the duration of the transmission.

 * Protocol identifier
 * It is often desirable to carry multiple communication protocols on a network. A protocol identifier field specifies a packet's protocol and allows the protocol stack to process many types of packets.

 * Priority
 * Some networks implement quality of service which can prioritize some types of packets above others. This field indicates which packet queue should be used; a high priority queue is emptied more quickly than lower-priority queues at points in the network where congestion is occurring.

 * Payload
 * In general, the payload is the data that is carried on behalf of an application. It is usually of variable length, up to a maximum that is set by the network protocol and sometimes the equipment on the route. When necessary, some networks can break a larger packet into smaller packets.

Internet protocol
IP packets are composed of a header and payload. The header consists of fixed and optional fields. The payload appears immediately after the header. An IP packet has no trailer. However, an IP packet is often carried as the payload inside an Ethernet frame, which has its own header and trailer.

Per the end-to-end principle, IP networks do not provide guarantees of delivery, non-duplication, or in-order delivery of packets. However, it is common practice to layer a reliable transport protocol such as Transmission Control Protocol on top of the packet service to provide such protection.

NASA Deep Space Network
The Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS) packet telemetry standard defines the protocol used for the transmission of spacecraft instrument data over the deep-space channel. Under this standard, an image or other data sent from a spacecraft instrument is transmitted using one or more packets.

MPEG packetized stream
Packetized elementary stream (PES) is a specification associated with the MPEG-2 standard that allows an elementary stream to be divided into packets. The elementary stream is packetized by encapsulating sequential data bytes from the elementary stream between PES packet headers.

A typical method of transmitting elementary stream data from a video or audio encoder is to first create PES packets from the elementary stream data and then to encapsulate these PES packets inside an MPEG transport stream (TS) packets or an MPEG program stream (PS). The TS packets can then be transmitted using broadcasting techniques, such as those used in an ATSC and DVB.

NICAM
In order to provide mono compatibility, the NICAM signal is transmitted on a subcarrier alongside the sound carrier. This means that the FM or AM regular mono sound carrier is left alone for reception by monaural receivers. The NICAM packet (except for the header) is scrambled with a nine-bit pseudo-random bit-generator before transmission. Making the NICAM bitstream look more like white noise is important because this reduces signal patterning on adjacent TV channels.

title: Network packet


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292

Year 292 (CCXCII) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Hannibalianus and Asclepiodotus (or, less frequently, year 1045 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 292 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * The jurist Gregorius, at the court of Emperor Diocletian, produces the Gregorian Code, the first codification of Roman law (approximate date).

Asia

 * Bongsang becomes ruler of the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo.

Mesoamerica

 * The oldest known Mayan stele is erected at the capital Tikal (modern Guatemala).

Births

 * He Chong (or Cidao), Chinese politician (d. 346)
 * Pachomius, Christian theologian and writer (d. 348)
 * Zhu Jingjian, Chinese Buddhist nun (d. 361)

Deaths

 * Yang Zhi, Chinese empress of the Jin Dynasty (b. 259)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 292


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293

Year 293 (CCXCIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Diocletian and Maximian (or, less frequently, year 1046 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 293 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * March 1 – Emperors Diocletian and Maximian appoint Constantius I and Galerius as Caesars. This is considered the beginning of the Tetrarchy, known as the Quattuor Principes Mundi ("Four Rulers of the World"). (Some sources and scholars date Galerius' elevation to May 21.)
 * Constantius retakes some of the Gallic territories from the usurper Carausius. He conquers the crucial port of Bononia (modern Boulogne).
 * Towards the end of the year, Carausius is murdered by his finance minister Allectus, who proclaims himself the new emperor of Britain.
 * In this or the following year, Constantius defeats the Franks in Batavia (Netherlands).
 * Galerius begins a series of two campaigns in Upper Egypt against the rebel cities of Coptos and Boresis as well as the Blemmyes and Meroitic Nubians.
 * Over the course of his reign, but especially from the time of the Tetrarchy's creation, Diocletian divides the large provinces of the early empire into smaller administrative units, and he groups these new smaller provinces into dioceses. He also accelerates the third-century trend whereby the administration and military of the provinces are increasingly divided between governors and generals (duces) respectively, whereas formerly governors had also been in charge of the legions. This expansion of imperial personnel increases Diocletian's control over the empire and weakens the power of individual officials and officers. Moreover, Diocletian expands the retinues of the individual emperors to have more ministers and secretaries, thus establishing what will become known as the late Roman Consistorium.

Persia

 * King Bahram II of the Persian Empire dies after a 17-year reign; his son Bahram III ascends to the throne. After four months, Bahram III's great-uncle Narseh, the king of Persarmenia, marches on the Persian capital Ctesiphon with the support of a faction of the nobility and the eastern Satraps. Bahram is overthrown and Narseh is declared the new King of Kings.

China

 * Tuoba Fu succeeds his uncle Tuoba Chuo, as chieftain of the Chinese Tuoba Clan.

Religion

 * Probus succeeds Rufinus, as Bishop of Byzantium.

Deaths

 * Bahram II, king of the Sassanid Empire
 * Bahram III, king of the Sassanid Empire
 * Carausius, Roman general and usurper
 * Tuoba Chuo, Chinese chieftain of the Tuoba tribe
 * Yuwen Mohuai, Chinese chieftain of the Yuwen tribe

title: 293


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290

Year 290 (CCXC) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Valerius and Valerius (or, less frequently, year 1043 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 290 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Diocletian campaigns with success against Arabic enemies.
 * Following his victory over Emperor Maximian's fleet, the usurper Carausius invades the European mainland and re-establishes his military and administrative presence in northern Gaul.

Asia

 * May 16 – Emperor Wu of Jin, founder of the Western Jin Dynasty, dies after a 25-year reign. He reunifies north and south, but gives away many dukedoms to his kinsmen. Crown Prince Sima Zhong succeeds his father, and has to deal with conflicts among the aristocratic families in China.

Births

 * Abramios the Recluse, Christian hermit and ascetic (d. 360)
 * Pappus of Alexandria, Greek mathematician (d. 350)
 * Vitus (or Guido), Roman hagiographer and martyr

Deaths

 * May 16 – Wu of Jin, Chinese emperor of the Jin Dynasty (b. 236)
 * Tao Huang (or Shiying), Chinese general and politician

title: 290


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291

Year 291 (CCXCI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Tiberianus and Dio (or, less frequently, year 1044 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 291 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Winter: The emperors Diocletian and Maximian convene in Milan.
 * An uneasy peace is established between the emperors Diocletian and Maximian on the one hand, and the rival emperor Carausius on the other.
 * Perhaps in cooperation with the forces of Maximian, Carausius campaigns successfully against Germanic raids in Gaul and Britain. Also during his reign, Carausius begins building the forts of the Saxon Shore.

Northern Europe

 * The Alemanni, having been expelled from part of their territory by the Burgundians, seek to regain their lost lands. These peoples had unsuccessfully invaded Gaul in tandem in 285/6, and the Alemanni had likely been weakened by the Roman counter-invasions of 287 and 288.
 * A force of Goths defeat the Burgundians.
 * The Tervingian Goths and Taifali fight the Vandals and Gepids.

Africa

 * The Blemmyes invade the Kingdom of Kush.

Persian Empire

 * King Bahram II fights against a coalition consisting of his brother Hormizd of Sakastan, Sassanian vassal Hormizd I Kushashah, and the Gilans.

China

 * War of the Eight Princes: After the death of Emperor Sima Yan (Jin Wudi), a civil war breaks out among the princes and dukes of the Jin Dynasty. The struggle devastates and depopulates the provinces of northern China.

Births

 * Saint Agnes, Christian martyress (d. c. 304)
 * Saint Hilarion, anchorite and saint (d. 371)
 * Li Xiu, female general during the Jin Dynasty
 * Saint Philomena, Christian martyress (d. c. 304)

Deaths

 * Sima Liang, regent during the reign of Sima Yan
 * Sima Wei, prince during the Jin Dynasty (b. 271)
 * Wei Guan, general of the Kingdom of Wei (b. 220)
 * Wen Yang, general of the Kingdom of Wei (b. 238)
 * Yang Jun, official during the reign of Sima Yan

title: 291


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289

Year 289 (CCLXXXIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Bassus and Quintianus (or, less frequently, year 1042 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 289 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * In this or the following year, Emperor Diocletian campaigns with success against the Sarmatians. The future emperor Galerius may have distinguished himself during this campaign.
 * In this or the following year, Maximian attempts to reconquer Britain from the usurper Carausius but is defeated at sea.

Births

 * Flavia Maxima Fausta, Roman empress (d. 326)
 * Yu Liang (or Yuangui), Chinese politician (d. 340)

Deaths

 * Alexander of Rome, Christian martyr
 * Kyriaki the Great, Christian martyr
 * Xun Xu (or Gongzeng), Chinese official

title: 289


text:
288

Year 288 (CCLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Maximian and Ianuarianus (or, less frequently, year 1041 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 288 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Diocletian launches a campaign into Germanic territory from the province of Raetia (Switzerland).
 * Around this time, an army loyal to Maximian, probably led by the future emperor Constantius, defeats the usurper Carausius or his Frankish allies in northern Gaul. In this or the following year, Carausius withdraws his military forces and administrative presence from Gaul, confining himself to Roman Britain.
 * Maximian makes an alliance with the Frankish king Gennobaudes.
 * Far from Carausius' fleet, in the rivers of Gaul, Maximian builds a fleet to contest control of the North Sea and re-take Britain.
 * Around this time, Constantius marries Maximian's stepdaughter, Theodora, and it may also be around this time that the general Galerius marries Diocletian's daughter Galeria Valeria.

Births

 * Li Ban, Chinese emperor of Cheng Han (d. 334)
 * Wen Jiao (or Taizhen), Chinese politician (d. 329)

Deaths

 * Maximilian of Lorch, Christian missionary and martyr
 * Sebastian, Roman soldier and Christian martyr
 * Teng Xiu, Chinese general and governor

title: 288


text:
285

The year 285 (CCLXXXV) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as the "Year of the Consulship of Carinus and Aurelius" (or, less frequently, "year 1038 Ab urbe condita"). The denomination 285 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Spring – Emperor Carinus marches from Britain to northern Italy, and defeats the army of usurper Sabinus Julianus at Verona.
 * Summer – Battle of the Margus: Emperor Diocletian defeats the forces of Carinus in the valley of the Margus (Serbia). Numerous soldiers desert Carinus during the battle. Carinus then flees to the Pannonian fort of Cornacum, but he is soon slain by his officers.
 * July 21 or July 25 – Diocletian appoints his fellow-officer Maximian to the office of caesar, or junior co-emperor.
 * Carausius, naval commander at Bononia (modern-day Boulogne), is given the task of clearing the English Channel of Frankish and Saxon pirates.
 * Maximian is sent to pacify Gaul, where the Bagaudae, a band of peasants, are revolting against the Roman Empire.

Births

 * St. Sylvester, Italian bishop (d. 335)

Deaths

 * Marcus Aurelius Carinus, Roman consul and emperor
 * Du Yu (or Yuankai), Chinese general and politician (b. 222)
 * Sabinus Julianus, Roman usurper (approximate date)

title: 285


text:
287

Year 287 (CCLXXXVII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Diocletian and Maximian (or, less frequently, year 1040 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 287 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * On the same day that he is made consul, Maximian launches a campaign against an invasion of Gaul by the Alemanni. After defeating this invasion, he then invades Alemannia itself, entering across the Upper Rhine and returning to Roman territory via the Upper Danube.
 * Around this time, the future emperor Constantius defeats and captures a Germanic king, the latter having prepared an ambush against the Romans.
 * Diocletian signs a peace treaty with King Bahram II of Persia, and installs the pro-Roman Arsacid Tiridates III as king over the western portion of Armenia.
 * Diocletian re-organizes the Mesopotamian frontier, and fortifies various locations including the city of Circesium (modern Busayrah) on the Euphrates. Around this time, he begins the construction of the Strata Diocletiana. Throughout his reign, similar fortification efforts are conducted on the other frontiers as well, with fortifications constructed or restored behind, on and beyond the borders. Conscription and the number of legions increase, although the legions themselves are reformed into smaller and more flexible units. At some point in time, Diocletian may have also established the late Roman military system of Comitatenses (field army units) and Limitanei (border units), but some scholars date this development to the reign of Constantine I (r. 306–337).
 * September – The first Indiction begins.

Deaths

 * Justa and Rufina, Christian martyrs
 * Maurice (or Mauritius), Christian martyr
 * Quentin, Christian missionary and martyr
 * Valerius and Rufinus, Christian martyrs
 * Victoricus, Fuscian, and Gentian, Christian martyrs

title: 287


text:
283

Year 283 (CCLXXXIII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Carus and Carinus (or, less frequently, year 1036 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 283 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Spring: Emperor Carus makes his son Carinus the Augustus in the west.
 * Exploiting the Persian civil war, Carus leaves Carinus in charge of much of the Roman Empire and, accompanied by his younger son Numerian, invades the Sassanid Empire. They sack Seleucia and Ctesiphon, the capital of the Persian kingdom, and they press on beyond the Tigris. For his victories, Carus receives the title of Persicus Maximus.
 * The officer Diocles, the future Emperor Diocletian, distinguishes himself in the war against the Persians.
 * Carinus campaigns with success in Britain and on the Rhine frontier.
 * Summer: Carus dies in mysterious circumstances during the war against the Persians. Various sources claim he died of illness, was struck by lightning or was killed in combat.
 * Carinus and Numerian succeed their father Carus. Numerian, who had accompanied his father into the Persian Empire, leads the army back to Roman territory.
 * The corrector Aurelius Julianus usurps power in Pannonia but is defeated by Carinus.

Persian Empire

 * The King of Kings Bahram II fights a civil war against his brother Hormizd, the king of Sakastan.

Religion

 * December 17 – Pope Caius succeeds Eutychian as the 28th pope of Rome.

Births

 * Eusebius of Vercelli, Christian bishop and saint (d. 371)
 * Ge Hong, Chinese scholar and philosopher (d. 343)

Deaths

 * December 7 – Etychian, bishop of Rome
 * Marcus Aurelius Carus, Roman emperor (b. 224)
 * Shan Tao, Chinese scholar and politician (b. 205)
 * Sima You (or Dayou), Chinese prince (b. 248)
 * Sima Zhou (or Zijiang), Chinese prince (b. 227)

title: 283


text:
282

Year 282 (CCLXXXII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Probus and Victorinus (or, less frequently, year 1035 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 282 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Probus travels towards Sirmium (Serbia). He tries to employ his troops in peaceful projects, such as draining the swamps in Pannonia.
 * The praetorian prefect Marcus Aurelius Carus usurps power in Raetia. Probus attempts to organise a campaign against Carus but is murdered by his discontented troops in Sirmium.
 * Carus defeats the Quadi and Sarmatians on the Danube; for his victories he is given the title Germanicus Maximus.
 * Carus appoints his sons Carinus and Numerian as Caesar.

China

 * A new city is constructed in Fuzhou, slightly south of the original city Ye (the main street of the city has remained unchanged since that time).

Religion

 * The Patriarch Theonas of Alexandria becomes one of the first bishops to use the title Pope.

Deaths

 * Huangfu Mi (or Shi'an), Chinese historian (b. 215)
 * Jia Chong, Chinese politician and statesman (b. 217)
 * Marcus Aurelius Probus, Roman emperor (b. 232)
 * Xue Ying (or Daoyan), Chinese politician and poet

title: 282


text:
281

Year 281 (CCLXXXI) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Probus and Tiberianus (or, less frequently, year 1034 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 281 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. The year comes after 280 and Comes before 282.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Probus returns to Rome, where he celebrates his triumph over the Vandals and the usurpers (Bonosus, Julius Saturninus and Proculus).

Births

 * Cai Mo (or Daoming), Chinese official and politician (d. 356)
 * Theodore Stratelates, Roman general and martyr (d. 319)

Deaths

 * Proculus, Roman general and usurper

title: 281


text:
280

Year 280 (CCLXXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Messalla and Gratus (or, less frequently, year 1033 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 280 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Roman usurper Proculus starts a rebellion at Lugdunum (Lyon, France), and proclaims himself emperor.
 * Emperor Probus drives the Alans off to Asia Minor and suppresses the revolt in Gaul; Proculus is executed.
 * The Germans destroy the Roman fleet on the Rhine; Bonosus is proclaimed emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne).
 * Probus defeats the army under Bonosus. Bonosus sees no way out and hangs himself. His family is treated with honours.
 * Julius Saturninus, governor of Syria, is in Alexandria, charged with the defense of the East. He is declared emperor and withdraws to Apamea. Probus besieges the city and puts him to death.
 * Roman territory is under constant threat of raids from Franks. The cities in Gaul are reinforced with defensive walls.

Europe

 * The Thuringii, a Germanic tribe, appears in the Harz Mountains (Thuringia) of central Germania.

China

 * Emperor Wu of the Jin dynasty completes the unification of China, which was previously divided between three contending powers during the Three Kingdoms period. The Jin dynasty's capital of Luoyang becomes a thriving centre of commerce as foreign diplomats and traders travel there.

Persia

 * King Bahram II of the Sassanid Empire (Persia) sends envoys to seek peaceful relations with Rome.

India

 * The Gupta Empire (India) is founded (approximate date).

Births

 * Saint George, Roman soldier and Christian martyr (approximate date)
 * Yao Yizhong, Chinese general and warlord (d. 352)

Deaths

 * Bonosus, Roman general and usurper
 * Cen Hun, Chinese official and politician
 * Julius Saturninus, Roman usurper
 * Kang Senghui, Chinese monk and translator
 * Lu Jing, Chinese general and writer (b. 250)
 * Maharaja Sri-Gupta of the Gupta Empire
 * Yu Zhong (or Shifang), Chinese general
 * Zhang Ti (or Juxian), Chinese chancellor

title: 280


text:
279

Year 279 (CCLXXIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Probus and Paternus (or, less frequently, year 1032 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 279 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Asia

 * Winter – Conquest of Wu by Jin: The Jin Dynasty conquers Eastern Wu, the last of the three contending powers in China during the Three Kingdoms Period.

Births

 * Sima Ying, Chinese prince of the Jin Dynasty (d. 306)

Deaths

 * Johanan bar Nappaha, Jewish compiler of the Talmud
 * Tiberius Julius Teiranes, Roman prince and client king
 * Tufa Shujineng, Chinese chieftain of Jin Dynasty

title: 279


text:
274

Year 274 (CCLXXIV) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Aurelianus and Capitolinus (or, less frequently, year 1027 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 274 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Battle of Châlons: The Emperor Aurelian invades Gaul to campaign against the Gallic Empire (Gaul and Britain). In the Catalaunian Plains, the Romano-Gallic Emperor Tetricus I surrenders to Aurelian and leaves his army without an emperor. The Gallic army is then crushed by Aurelian in a major battle. With the conquests of the Palmyrene Empire and the Gallic Empire, the Roman Empire is united again. However, the heavy losses incurred by the Gallic forces compromises the Rhine frontier.
 * Rome greets Aurelian as Restitutor Orbis ("Restorer of the World") and accords him a magnificent triumph (victory procession), which is graced by his captives Zenobia, Tetricus I, and his son Tetricus II.
 * Aurelian reforms the Roman currency, replacing the denarius with a new version of the antoninianus that has a slightly improved silver-to-copper ratio. This overhaul of the currency system causes hyper-inflation.
 * Germanic tribes take advantage of the destroyed Roman forces of the Rhine to raid Gaul.
 * December 25 – Aurelian has the Temple of the Sun dedicated to Sol Invictus, on the third day after the solstice and day of rebirth of the sun. This religion, which is in essence monotheistic, becomes the state religion of Rome.

Africa

 * The Kingdom of Aksum attains great prosperity thanks to its control of Red Sea trade.

Religion

 * March 2 – Mani, a sage of Persia, dies at Gundeshapur after 30 years of preaching his "heresy" at the court of the late Sassanian King Shapur I and on long journeys to Khorasan, India and China. He is executed or allowed to die in prison, and claims to be a prophet of God. Mani combines Zoroastrian dualism with Christian theology, and his disciples gain wide support for Manichaeism, despite opposition from Roman Emperors.
 * December 30 – Pope Felix I dies in Rome after a 5-year reign.

Transportation

 * Japanese shipwrights build a 100-foot oar-powered vessel for Emperor Ōjin. The Japanese will not use sails for another seven centuries.

Births

 * Li Xiong, Chinese emperor of Cheng Han (d. 334)
 * Shi Le, Chinese emperor of the Jie state (d. 333)

Deaths

 * March 2 – Mani, prophet and founder of Manichaeism (b. 216)
 * August 25 – Yang Yan (or Qiongzhi), Chinese empress (b. 238)
 * December 30 – Felix I, bishop of Rome
 * Bahram I, king of the Sassanid Empire
 * Cao Fang, Chinese emperor of the Cao Wei state (b. 232)
 * Lu Kang (or Youjie), Chinese general and politician (b. 226)
 * Septimia Zenobia, queen of the Palmyrene Empire (b. 240)
 * Xun Yi (or Jingqian), Chinese official and politician

title: 274


text:
278

Year 278 (CCLXXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Probus and Lupus (or, less frequently, year 1031 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 278 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Probus defeats the Alamanni, advancing through the Neckar Valley. He expels the Franks from Gaul, and reorganizes the Roman defenses on the Rhine.
 * Probus resettles the Germanic tribes in the devastated provinces of the Roman Empire. He adopts the titles of Gothicus Maximus and Germanicus Maximus.
 * Piracy along the coast of Lycia et Pamphylia: The Romans besiege the city of Cremna (Pisidia) and kill the Isaurian robber Lydius.

Births

 * Sima Yu, Chinese crown prince of the Jin Dynasty (d. 300)

Deaths

 * December 27 – Yang Hu (or Shuzi), Chinese general and politician (b. 221)
 * Cao Yu (or Pengzu), Chinese prince of the Cao Wei state (b. 211)
 * Fu Xuan (or Xiuyi), Chinese historian, poet and politician (b. 217)
 * Xi Zheng (or Lingxian), Chinese essayist, poet and politician
 * Yang Huiyu, Chinese empress of the Jin Dynasty (b. 214)

title: 278


text:
273

Year 273 (CCLXXIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Tacitus and Placidianus (or, less frequently, year 1026 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 273 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. The year also saw most lost territories to rebellion returned to the Roman Empire by Emperor Aurelian.

Roman Empire

 * Marcus Claudius Tacitus, future Roman Emperor, is consul in Rome.
 * Emperor Aurelian defeats an incursion by the Carpi into Moesia and Thrace.
 * Aurelian sacks the city of Palmyra, after putting down a second revolt.
 * In bitter street-fighting, Aurelian crushes a rebellion in Alexandria by Firmus, a sympathizer of Palmyra. Firmus is strangled to death.

Persia

 * King Hormizd I of Persia dies after a brief reign in which he has shown tolerance toward the ascetic, anti-materialist Manichean faith. He is succeeded by his brother Bahram I, who has been governing the province of Atropatene. Bahram proceeds to crush a rebellion by various vassal kings.

Deaths

 * June 1 – Reverianus, Christian bishop
 * Callinicus, Greek historian and sophist
 * Cassius Longinus, Greek philosopher
 * Dexippus, Greek general and historian
 * Hormizd I, king of the Sassanid Empire
 * Septimius Antiochus, Roman usurper
 * Wei Zhao, Chinese historian and scholar (b. 204)

title: 273


text:
272

Year 272 (CCLXXII) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Postumius and Veldumnianus (or, less frequently, year 1025 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 272 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Aurelian launches a two-pronged invasion of the Palmyrene Empire, sending his commander Marcus Aurelius Probus to restore Roman rule in Egypt while he marches into Asia Minor.
 * As part of a strategy of clemency, Aurelian spares Tyana after capturing the city. This strategy encourages units under Zenobia to defect to Aurelian.
 * Battle of Immae: Aurelian defeats the Palmyrene heavy cavalry (clibanarii) near Antioch. Queen Zenobia flees under cover of darkness to Emesa (Syria).
 * Aurelian supports the bishops of Italy in deposing the bishop of Antioch, Paul of Samosata, who had been a supporter of Zenobia. This is the first recorded instance of an imperial intervention in an ecclesiastical dispute.
 * Battle of Emesa: Aurelian decisively defeats the Palmyrene army.
 * Aurelian besieges Palmyra. Zenobia attempts to escape to Persia but is captured on the Euphrates. Palmyra surrenders soon after.
 * Following a series of trials held in Emesa, Cassius Longinus and other advisors of Zenobia are executed for conspiring against Aurelian.

Religion

 * Dometius succeeds Titus as Patriarch of Constantinople.
 * Saint Denis, first Bishop of Paris, and two of his disciples are beheaded on the road to the Temple of Mercury that stands atop a hill outside of the city. The hill will later be called Montmartre (Mountain of Martyrs) in Lutetia (modern Paris).
 * Paul of Samosata is deposed as Patriarch of Antioch.

Births

 * February 27 – Constantine the Great, Roman emperor (d. 337)
 * Wei Shuo (or Mouyi), Chinese calligrapher (d. 349)

Deaths

 * Shapur I (the Great), king of the Sassanid Empire
 * Sabbas Stratelates, Roman general and martyr
 * Sima Fu, Chinese prince and statesman (b. 180)
 * Wan Yu, Chinese chancellor and politician

title: 272


text:
277

Year 277 (CCLXXVII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Probus and Paulinus (or, less frequently, year 1030 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 277 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Probus travels with his army west across the Sea of Marmara (Turkey), and through the provinces of Thrace, Moesia, and Pannonia to defeat the Goths along the lower Danube. He acquires from the troops the title of Gothicus.
 * Probus enters Rome, to have his position as Emperor ratified by the Senate.

China

 * Tuoba Xilu succeeds his father Tuoba Liwei, as chieftain of the Tuoba clan.

Births

 * Justus of Beauvais, Gallo-Roman martyr (approximate date)
 * Sima Ai, Chinese prince of the Jin Dynasty (d. 304)
 * Zhang Mao, Chinese ruler of Former Liang (d. 324)

Deaths

 * Tuoba Liwei, chieftain of the Tuoba clan (China)

title: 277


text:
276

Year 276 (CCLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Tacitus and Aemilianus (or, less frequently, year 1029 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 276 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Tacitus doubles the silver content of the aurelianianus, and halves its tariffing to 2.5 d.c. They carry the value marks X.I.
 * Tacitus campaigns successfully against the Goths who have invaded Asia Minor, and his half-brother, the praetorian prefect Marcus Annius Florianus, continues the campaign.
 * Tacitus' cousin Maximinus administers Syria in a harsh manner, and is assassinated by local men of power, who are joined in the conspiracy by the faction responsible for having assassinated Aurelian in the previous year.
 * Tacitus dies in Tyana, Cappadocia. He either dies of illness, or is murdered by the faction responsible for having assassinated Aurelian and Maximinus.
 * Florianus becomes Roman Emperor with the support of the Senate, but a general in the east, Marcus Aurelius Probus, usurps power against him. Florianus breaks off his campaign against the Goths and marches east from the Bosporus with support from the Roman legions in Britain, Gaul, Spain and Italy.
 * Florianus holds power for some weeks and fights indecisively against Probus in Cilicia, but his soldiers, many of whom are from the colder Rhine and Danube frontiers, suffer from heat and disease. He is overthrown and then assassinated by his own troops near Tarsus (Turkey), in collusion with Probus. Probus, age 44, is proclaimed new Emperor of Rome.
 * Probus returns the aurelianianus to the tariffing of Aurelian.
 * Probus invites the faction responsible for the murders of Aurelian and Tacitus to a banquet, only to massacre them. He then arrests a surviving conspirator and has him burned alive.

Sassanid Empire

 * King Bahram I of Persia dies after a 3-year reign, in which the Zoroastrian priests at Ctesiphon (Iran) put pressure on him to persecute Buddhists, Christians, and Manichaeans. He is succeeded by his son Bahram II.

Asia

 * Mahasena reigns in Ceylon. Orthodox and unpopular, he tries to introduce Mahayana Buddhism to the country.

Births

 * Gregory the Elder, bishop of Nazianzus (approximate date)
 * Guo Pu, Chinese historian, poet and writer (d. 324)
 * Wang Dao, Chinese politician and statesman (d. 339)
 * Yuan of Jin, Chinese emperor of the Jin Dynasty (d. 323)

Deaths

 * Bahram I, king of the Sassanid Empire
 * Marcus Annius Florianus, Roman emperor
 * Marcus Claudius Tacitus, Roman Emperor
 * Tiberius Julius Synges, Roman client king

title: 276


text:
275

Year 275 (CCLXXV) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Aurelianus and Marcellinus (or, less frequently, year 1028 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 275 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Aurelian puts down unrest in Gaul, and defeats Germanic incursions into Gaul and Raetia (these problems had been caused by Aurelian's defeat and overthrow of the Gallic Empire).
 * The Goths begin to raid Thrace and Asia Minor. Aurelian begins a campaign against the Goths in Thrace, but he is then assassinated near Byzantium (Turkey) by some of his officers. Aurelian had developed a reputation for punishing corruption with severity, and his secretary Eros was under suspicion. As a result, Eros, fearing for his life, had forged a list of high-ranking officers marked for execution. In this way, the secretary tricked the officers into assassinating Aurelian, and they then fled into Asia Minor to avoid the wrath of the soldiers. Unusual for the period, the imperial field army defers to the Senate to choose a successor.
 * September 25 – Marcus Claudius Tacitus is proclaimed Emperor by the Senate; his half brother Marcus Annius Florianus becomes praetorian prefect.
 * Tacitus marches into Asia Minor to fight the Goths and track down the faction responsible for assassinating Aurelian.

Asia

 * The Pallava Dynasty begins in Southern India.

Religion

 * January 4 – Eutychian succeeds Felix I as the 27th pope of Rome.

Births

 * Saint George, Roman soldier and Christian martyr (approximate date)

Deaths

 * Aurelian, Roman emperor (b. 214 or 215)
 * Peroz I Kushanshah, ruler of the Sasanian Kingdom
 * Zenobia, queen of the Palmyrene Empire (b. 240)

title: 275


text:
250

Year 250 (CCL) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Traianus and Gratus (or, less frequently, year 1003 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 250 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * A group of Franks penetrate as far as Tarragona in Spain (approximate date).
 * The Goths under King Cniva invade Moesia. They cross the Danube and lay siege to Novae and Marcianopolis.
 * Battle of Augusta Traiana: The Romans lose the battle against the Goths.
 * Cniva lays siege to Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv). After a long resistance, Cniva conquers the city and slays its one hundred thousand inhabitants.
 * The Alamanni drive the Romans from the modern area of Donau-Ries.
 * An epidemic begins in Ethiopia, moves into Egypt and the Roman colonies in North Africa, and spreads through the Roman Empire (named the Plague of Cyprian, after St. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage).

Africa

 * The Kingdom of Aksum (Axum) takes control of commerce on the Red Sea.

Asia

 * The earliest Chinese references to a device known as "emperor's south-pointing carriage" date to this period.

Mesomerica

 * Teotihuacán is rebuilt as a four-quartered cosmogram by Zapotec architects brought from Monte Albán in Oaxaca.
 * Classic period of Mesoamerican civilization begins.

Art and science

 * Diophantus writes Arithmetica, the first systematic treatise on algebra.
 * Approximate date
 * The family portrait medallion, traditionally called the Family of Vunnerius Keramus, is made (it is later placed in the Brescia Cross, and then in the Museo Civico dell'Etá Cristiana, Brescia).
 * The Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus, depicting battle between the Romans and the Barbarians, is made for use in Rome (it is later moved to the collection of the National Roman Museum).
 * The Igel Column is erected at Trier in Germany.

Religion

 * January 3 – Decian persecution of Christians is initiated when Emperor Decius orders everyone in the Roman Empire (except Jews) to perform a sacrifice to the gods of religion in ancient Rome. On January 20, Pope Fabian becomes one of the first martyrs of this persecution.
 * Possible date – Denis, a bishop of Paris, is martyred by beheading.

Births

 * March 31 – Constantius Chlorus, Roman emperor (d. 306)
 * Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus, Roman emperor (d. 311)
 * Lu Jing (or Shiren), Chinese general and writer (d. 280)
 * Maximian (Herculius), Roman consul and emperor (d. 310)
 * Zuo Si (or Taichong), Chinese poet and writer (d. 305)

Deaths

 * January 20 – Fabian (or Fabianus), pope of Rome
 * Du Qiong (or Boyu), Chinese official and astronomer
 * Faustus, Abibus and Dionysius, Christian martyrs
 * Marcus Minucius Felix, Roman apologist and writer
 * Peter, Andrew, Paul and Denise, Christian martyrs
 * Secundian, Marcellian and Verian, Christian martyrs
 * Tryphon, Respicius, and Nympha, Christian martyrs
 * Zhu Ju, Chinese general and chancellor (b. 194)

title: 250


text:
252

Year 252 (CCLII) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Trebonianus and Volusianus (or, less frequently, year 1005 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 252 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Battle of Barbalissos: King Shapur I defeats the Roman army (some 70,000 men) at Barbalissos in Syria (approximate date).

Persia

 * Shapur I puts down the revolt in Khorasan (Iran and Turkmenistan), and rejoins his army.
 * Shapur I invades Armenia, and appoints Artavazd VI as the new Armenian king.
 * Georgia submits peacefully to Shapur I, and becomes a vassal of the Sassanid Empire.

Asia

 * Sun Liang succeeds his father Sun Quan, as emperor of the Chinese state of Eastern Wu.

Religion

 * Pope Cornelius is exiled to Centumcellae, by Emperor Trebonianus Gallus.

Births

 * Eusignius of Antioch, Roman general and martyr (d. 362)
 * Wang Jun (or Pengzu), Chinese general and warlord (d. 314)
 * Wei Huacun, founder of the Shangqing sect of Daoism (d. 334)

Deaths

 * May 21 – Sun Quan, founder of the Eastern Wu state (b. 182)
 * Pan (or Pan Shu), Chinese empress of the Eastern Wu state
 * Tian Yu (or Guorang), Chinese general and politician (b. 171)
 * Tiridates II (or Khosrov), Roman client king of Armenia

title: 252


text:
256

Year 256 (CCLVI) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Claudius and Glabrio (or, less frequently, year 1009 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 256 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * February 28 – Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 3035, a warrant for the arrest of a Christian, is written.
 * The Goths invade Asia Minor. Dacia is lost for the Roman Empire, and the Goths appear at the walls of Thessalonica.
 * The Franks cross the Rhine; the Alemanni reach Mediolanum (Milan) (disputed date).
 * In Africa, the Berbers massacre Roman colonists.
 * King Shapur I of the Sasanian Empire invades Mesopotamia and Syria. He conquers and plunders Antioch, destroys Dura-Europos, and sacks the Anatolian city of Zeugma on the Euphrates. A devastating fire and an earthquake soon follow, causing Zeugma to be abandoned.
 * Cities in the Roman Empire begin to build walls, as the defense of the frontiers begins to crumble; future emperor Aurelian inspects along the Rhine.

Asia

 * Peace and unity are finally restored in China, with the victories of the Wei Kingdom in the north. The ruling dynasty is worn out by war, and the kingdom is ruled by ministers on their behalf.

Medicine

 * The great pandemic of the Roman world strikes violently in Pontus on the Black Sea, and causes enormous loss of life in Alexandria, encouraging thousands to embrace Christianity.

Religion

 * Emperor Valerian persecutes Christians.
 * Pope Stephen I threatens to excommunicate Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, and other bishops in Africa and Asia Minor, unless they stop rebaptizing heretics. Cyprian attacks the Pope in a treatise that gains support from the Council of Carthage. He sends envoys to Rome, raising the specter of a schism between the Roman and Carthaginian Churches.
 * A Synod of Carthage is held.

Births

 * Arius, Egyptian priest and founder of Arianism (d. 336)
 * Wang Yan (or Yifu), Chinese official and politician (d. 311)

Deaths

 * March 11 – Cao Lin, Chinese prince and son of Cao Cao
 * October 19 – Sun Jun (or Ziyuan), Chinese general and regent (b. 219)
 * October 21 – Lü Dai (or Dinggong), Chinese general (b. 161)
 * November 12 – Lü Ju (or Shiyi), Chinese general and politician
 * Guan Lu (or Gongming), Chinese diviner and politician (b. 209)
 * Wang Su (or Ziyong), Chinese scholar and official (b. 195)

title: 256


text:
258

Year 258 (CCLVIII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Tuscus and Bassus (or, less frequently, year 1011 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 258 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * The Goths ravage Asia Minor and Trapezus.
 * The amount of silver in the Roman currency of the denarius falls below 10%. The crisis ruins craftsmen, tradesmen, and small farmers, who are forced into bartering; landowners grow richer by buying up cheap land.
 * Valerian II, eldest son of Gallienus, dies, possibly murdered by Pannonia's governor Ingenuus; Emperor Valerian bestows on another one of Gallienus's sons, Saloninus, the title of Caesar.
 * A second Imperial edict prohibits Christianity in the Roman Empire. This edict divides Christians into four categories: priests, who are to be put to death; senators and equestrians, who are to be stripped of their positions and their property confiscated; nuns, who are to be exiled; and imperial civil servants, who are condemned to forced labour.

Asia

 * Sima Zhao quells Zhuge Dan's rebellion, thereby also ending what are known as the Three Rebellions in Shouchun.
 * Sun Xiu succeeds his brother Sun Liang as emperor of the Chinese state of Eastern Wu.

Religion

 * Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, is martyred (decapitation).
 * Pope Sixtus II, bishop of Rome, is martyred.

Births

 * Clement of Ancyra, Christian bishop and martyr (d. 312)

Deaths

 * August 6 – Sixtus II, bishop of Rome
 * September 14 – Cyprian, bishop of Carthage
 * Anak the Parthian, Parthian nobleman
 * Chen Zhi (or Fengzong), Chinese politician
 * Novatian, Italian antipope and theologian
 * Valerian II, son of co-emperor Gallienus
 * Zhuge Dan (or Gongxiu), Chinese general

title: 258


text:
259

Year 259 (CCLIX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Aemilianus and Bassus (or, less frequently, year 1012 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 259 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Valerian leads an army (70,000 men) to relieve Edessa, besieged by the forces of Persian King Shapur I. An outbreak of a plague kills many legionaries, weakening the Roman position in Syria.
 * Battle of Mediolanum: A Germanic confederation, the Alamanni (300,000 warriors), who crossed the Alps, are defeated by Roman legions under Gallienus, near Mediolanum (modern Milan).
 * Postumus revolts against Gallienus in Gaul. The western provinces of Britain and Spain join his independent realm—which is called in modern times the Gallic Empire.
 * Postumus, governor of Gaul, declares himself Emperor, and continues to rule the Gallic Empire until 269, when he is killed by his soldiers.
 * The Roman fort of Wiesbaden (Germany) is captured by the Alamanni (possibly 260).
 * The Franks, who invaded the Roman Empire near Cologne in 257, reach Tarraco in Hispania.

Persia

 * Mesopotamia: Odaenathus, the ruler of the kingdom of Palmyra, sacks the city of Nehardea, destroying its great yeshiva.

Religion

 * Pope Dionysius is elected as the pope.

Births

 * Hui of Jin, Chinese emperor of the Jin Dynasty (d. 307)
 * Tao Kan (or Shixing), Chinese general and politician (d. 334)
 * Yang Zhi, Chinese empress of the Jin Dynasty (d. 292)

Deaths

 * January 10 – Polyeuctus, Roman soldier and saint
 * January 18 – Sun Chen, Chinese general and regent (b. 232)
 * Augurius of Tarragona, Christian Hispano-Roman clergyman
 * Cao Jun (or Zi'an), Chinese prince and son of Cao Cao
 * Fructuosus of Tarragona, Christian bishop, martyr and saint
 * Wang Chang (or Wenshu), Chinese general and politician

title: 259


text:
270

Year 270 (CCLXX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Antiochianus and Orfitus (or, less frequently, year 1023 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 270 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Claudius II Gothicus fights a drawn-out campaign against the Gothic raiders in the Balkans, with setbacks suffered on both sides. Eventually, many Goths die of plague and others are absorbed into the Roman legions.
 * Zenobia seizes control of Roman Arabia and Egypt.
 * Claudius dies of plague in Sirmium while preparing to fight the Vandals and Sarmatians, who have invaded Pannonia. He is succeeded by his brother Quintillus, who briefly holds power over the Roman Empire.
 * Victorinus besieges and sacks the city of Autun, which had declared allegiance to Claudius.
 * Lucius Domitius Aurelianus (or Aurelian), the cavalry commander who distinguished himself in the previous year at the Battle of Naissus (Serbia), usurps power in Sirmium and marches against Quintillus in Aquileia. Quintillus commits suicide.
 * Aurelius defeats an incursion by the Iuthungi into Raetia, defeating them as they attempted to re-cross the Danube.

Asia

 * Fan Hsiung, aka Pham Hung, comes to power in Champa and raids the Chinese-occupied territory of Tonkin.
 * Seocheon becomes ruler of the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo.

Africa

 * The Kingdom of Aksum (modern Ethiopia) begins minting its own gold coins to facilitate international trade, following the model of Roman coinage.
 * Anthony the Great, a Christian saint from Egypt, regarded as "Father of All Monks", enters the wilderness to become ascetic.

Iran

 * Number of seats in Islamic Consultative Assembly as per Constitution of Iran Article 64

Births

 * March 15 – Saint Nicholas (Santa Claus) (d. 343)
 * Liu Kun, Chinese general and poet (d. 318)
 * Rabbah bar Nahmani, Babylonian 'amora
 * Saint Spyridon, bishop of Trimythous (d. 348)

Deaths

 * Claudius II (Gothicus), Roman emperor (b. 214)
 * Gregory Thaumaturgus, Christian bishop and theologian
 * Luo Xian (or Lingze), Chinese general and politician
 * Plotinus, Greek philosopher and founder Neoplatonism
 * Qiao Zhou (or Yunnan), Chinese official and politician
 * Quintillus, Roman emperor and brother of Claudius II
 * Shapur I (the Great), ruler of the Sassanid Empire
 * Shi Ji (or Zhu Ji), Chinese general and governor
 * Sun Fen, Chinese prince of the Eastern Wu state

title: 270


text:
260

Year 260 (CCLX) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Saecularis and Donatus (or, less frequently, year 1013 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 260 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Battle of Edessa: With a large army, said to number 70,000 men, Valerian attempts to drive the Persians back from Edessa. The Roman army is surrounded and most of its troops are killed or captured. Valerian is taken prisoner for the remainder of his life.
 * King Shapur I captures Valerian.
 * King Shapur I sends Valerian to Bishapur and uses the captured Roman army for engineering plans. They construct the Band-e Kaisar ("Bridge of Valerian").
 * Gallienus becomes the sole emperor of Rome; during his reign the Pannonian governor Ingenuus revolts on the Danube.
 * Gallienus evacuates the fortifications (limes) in the Agri Decumates (Germania Superior), covering the Black Forest area in the face of invading Alamanni.
 * Gallienus establishes himself at Mediolanum (modern Milan); he reorganizes the army, supported by elite cavalry, and dispatches troops to the Rhine frontier.
 * Postumus, Roman usurper, forms the Gallic Empire and protects the Rhine against an invasion of Germanic tribes.
 * Saloninus, son of Gallienus, is proclaimed Augustus by his troops. Postumus besieges Cologne, where Silvanus is praetorian prefect and Roman ruler of Gaul.
 * Postumus executes Saloninus and his adviser Silvanus after breaching the walls of Cologne. He is recognized as emperor and establishes his capital at Trier.
 * Postumus wins over all the Roman provinces west of the Alps, including Gaul, Britain and Hispania.
 * The Roman fort of Wiesbaden (Germany) is captured by the Alamanni.
 * The Franks take control over the Scheldt estuary (approximate date).

Persia

 * Persian king Shapur I destroys Caesarea Mazaca in Asia Minor.

China

 * Emperor Cao Mao of Former Wei state attempts to lead a coup against the powerful regent Sima Zhao, but he himself is killed before it comes to a confrontation.
 * June 2 – Cao Mao is killed in a coup d'état against Sima Zhao. The 14-year-old Cao Huan becomes ruler of Former Wei, but the Sima clan controls the state.

Art and Science

 * Earliest known date of chess (approximate date).

Religion

 * Pope Dionysius convenes a synod at Rome to demand an explanation from bishop Dionysius of Alexandria, who has been charged with separating the members of the Trinity as three distinct deities.
 * Paul of Samosata becomes Patriarch of Antioch.

Births

 * Eusebius of Caesarea, Greek bishop and historian (approximate date)

Deaths

 * June 2 – Cao Mao, Chinese emperor of the Cao Wei state (b. 241)
 * July 2 – Cao Jie, Chinese empress of the Han Dynasty (b. 197)
 * Chen Tai (or Xuanbo), Chinese general and politician
 * Regalianus (or Regalian), Roman general and usurper
 * Saloninus, Roman emperor and son of Gallienus (b.242)
 * Shapur Meshanshah, Sasanian prince and governor
 * Sun Liang, Chinese emperor of the Eastern Wu state (b. 243)
 * Valerianus I, Roman consul and emperor (approximate date)
 * Wang Guan (or Weitai), Chinese official and politician
 * Wang Jing (or Yanwei), Chinese official and politician

title: 260


text:
261

Year 261 (CCLXI) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Gallienus and Taurus (or, less frequently, year 1014 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 261 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Gallienus crushes the Alemanni at Milan (approximate date).
 * Gallienus repeals the edict of 258, which led to the persecution of the Christians.
 * Gallienus usurpers: The rebellion of Macrianus Major, Macrianus Minor, and Quietus against Gallienus comes to an end. They march from Asia to Europe but they are defeated in Thrace by Gallienus' general Aureolus, and both Macrianus Major and Macrianus Minor are killed. Quietus flees to Emesa, where he is killed by Odaenathus of Palmyra.
 * Roman–Persian Wars: Balista, Roman usurper, collects ships from Cilician ports and defeats a Persian raiding force near Pompeiopolis.

Asia

 * Michu of Silla ascends to the Korean throne of Silla, becoming the first ruler of the Long Kim line.

Births

 * Lu Ji (or Shiheng), Chinese general and politician (d. 303)

Deaths

 * June 9 – Wang Ji (or Boyu), Chinese general (b. 190)
 * Lucius Mussius Aemilianus, Roman usurper
 * Macrianus Major, Roman general and usurper
 * Macrianus Minor, Roman consul and usurper
 * Quietus, Roman consul and usurper
 * Valens Thessalonicus, Roman usurper
 * Yang Xi (or Wenran), Chinese politician

title: 261


text:
263

Year 263 (CCLXIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Albinus and Dexter (or, less frequently, year 1016 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 263 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * King Odenathus of Palmyra declares himself ruler of the area west of the River Euphrates and is declared Dux Orientalis by the Roman emperor Gallienus.

Asia

 * Conquest of Shu by Wei: The Chinese state of Cao Wei conquers Shu Han, one of its two rival states.
 * Sima Zhao, regent of the Cao Wei state, receives and accepts the nine bestowments, state chancellorship, and the title Duke of Jin from Cao Huan.

Art and Science

 * Chinese mathematician Liu Hui writes a commentary on The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, describing what will later be called Gaussian elimination, computing pi, etc.

Deaths

 * Gao Rou (or Wenhui), Chinese politician (b. 174)
 * Lady Li (or Lishi), Chinese noblewoman
 * Liu Chen, Chinese prince of the Shu Han state
 * Ruan Ji, Chinese poet and musician (b. 210)
 * Zhuge Zhan, Chinese general and politician (b. 227)

title: 263


text:
267

Year 267 (CCLXVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Paternus and Arcesilaus (or, less frequently, year 1020 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 267 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * First Gothic invasion: The Goths, originally from Scandinavia, with the Sarmatians (from modern Iran), invade the Balkans and Greece. They ravage Moesia and Thrace.
 * The Heruli invade the Black Sea coast; they unsuccessfully attack Byzantium and Cyzicus. The Roman fleet defeats the Herulian fleet (500 ships) but allows them to escape into the Aegean Sea, where they raid the islands of Lemnos and Skyros.
 * The Goths sack several cities of southern Greece including Athens, Corinth, Argos and Sparta. After the Sack of Athens, an Athenian militia force (2,000 men), under the historian Dexippus, pushes the invaders to the north where they are intercepted by the Roman army under emperor Gallienus. He wins an important victory near the Nestos River, on the boundary between Macedonia and Thrace.
 * Aureolus, charged with defending Italy, defeats Victorinus (co-emperor of Gaul), is proclaimed emperor by his troops, and begins his march on Rome.

Near East

 * King Septimius Odaenathus of Palmyra makes plans for a campaign in Cappadocia against the Goths. He is assassinated, along with his eldest son, most probably by his nephew due to a previous altercation between him and Odaenathus. His wife Zenobia succeeds him, and rules Vaballathus (the Palmyrene Empire) with her young son.

Births

 * Pei Wei (or Yimin), Chinese philosopher and politician (d. 300)

Deaths

 * Septimius Herodianus, co-king of Palmyra (assassinated)
 * Septimius Odaenathus, king of Palmyra (assassinated)

title: 267


text:
262

Year 262 (CCLXII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Gallienus and Faustianus (or, less frequently, year 1015 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 262 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * The Goths invade Asia Minor and destroy the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus.
 * An earthquake strikes Ephesus and Pergamon and another strikes Cyrene.
 * The Heruls accompany the Goths, ravaging the coasts of the Black Sea and the Aegean.

Deaths

 * Ji Kang (or Shuye), Chinese Daoist philosopher and poet (b. 223)
 * Marinus of Caesarea, Roman soldier and Christian martyr
 * Valerian, Roman consul and emperor (approximate date)

title: 262


text:
264

Year 264 (CCLXIV) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Gallienus and Saturninus (or, less frequently, year 1017 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 264 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Asia

 * March 1–3 – Zhong Hui's Rebellion in China is quelled.
 * Sima Zhao, regent of the Chinese state of Cao Wei, styles himself the "King of Jin", the penultimate step before usurpation.
 * Sun Hao succeeds Sun Xiu as emperor of the Chinese state of Eastern Wu.

Deaths

 * Zhong Hui, Chinese philosopher
 * March 3
 * Jiang Wei (or Boyue), Chinese general and regent (b. 202)
 * Zhang Yi (or Bogong), Chinese general and politician
 * September 3 – Sun Xiu (Jing of Wu), Chinese emperor (b. 235)
 * Deng Ai (or Shizai), Chinese general and politician (b. 197)
 * Guo (or Mingyuan), Chinese empress of the Cao Wei state
 * Liao Hua (or Yuanjian), Chinese general and politician
 * Liu Xuan, Chinese prince of the Shu Han state (b. 224)
 * Puyang Xing (or Ziyuan), Chinese official and chancellor
 * Zong Yu (or Deyan), Chinese general and politician

title: 264


text:
268

Year 268 (CCLXVIII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Paternus and Egnatius (or, less frequently, the year 1021 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 268 for this year has been used since the early medieval period when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * September – Battle of Naissus: Emperor Gallienus, aided by Aurelian, defeats a Gothic coalition (50,000 warriors) near Naissus (Niš, modern Serbia).
 * Gallienus is killed by his senior officers at Mediolanum (Milan) while besieging his rival Aureolus. Aureolus is murdered in turn by the Praetorian guard.
 * Marcus Aurelius Claudius, who may have murdered Gallienus, becomes the new emperor of Rome and will reign as Claudius II.
 * Claudius II asks the Senate to spare the lives of Gallienus's family and political supporters. Emperor Gallienus is deified and buried in a family tomb on the Appian Way.
 * The Alamanni invade Italy north of the Po River.
 * The Visigoths first appear as distinct people.
 * November – Battle of Lake Benacus: A Roman army (35,000 men) under emperor Claudius II defeats the Germanic tribes of the Alamanni along the banks of Lake Garda.

Europe

 * Victorinus is declared emperor of the Gallic Empire by the legions at Augusta Treverorum (Trier), following the murders of his predecessors. He is recognized by the provinces of Gaul and Britain, but Hispania might have reunited with the Roman Empire.

Religion

 * December 26 – Pope Dionysius dies in Rome after a 9-year reign and is succeeded by Felix I.

Deaths

 * December 26 – Dionysius, bishop of Rome
 * Aureolus, Roman usurper
 * Gallienus, Roman emperor (b. 218)
 * Laelianus, Roman usurper
 * Marcus Aurelius Marius, Roman emperor (Gaul)
 * Postumus, Roman emperor of the Gallic Empire

authors: قنديل البحر ليس لذيذًا

title: 268


text:
265

Year 265 (CCLXV) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Valerianus and Lucillus (or, less frequently, year 1018 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 265 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Gallienus tries twice to crush the usurper Postumus, but on the first occasion Aureolus, commander of the elite cavalry, carelessly lets him escape. The second time, Gallienus sustains an arrow wound and has to break off his siege of a Gallic town where Postumus has holed up. He makes no other serious attempt to overcome his rival, instead devoting his attention to the political and military problems in the Danube and eastern parts of the Roman Empire.
 * Postumus makes no move to march on Rome and claim his territory south of Gaul.
 * Gallienus gives the order to fortify Milan and Verona.
 * Gallienus repels the invasion of the Goths in the Balkans.
 * A general of Gallienus' army, Victorinus, defects to Postumus.

China

 * Sima Zhao, who had been the regent and de facto primary authority of the state of Cao Wei for little over 10 years by this point, passes away, leaving his authority to his eldest son, Sima Yan, who will go on to disestablish the state of Cao Wei in 266, founding the Jin dynasty.

Births

 * Eusebius of Caesarea, Greek historian (approximate date)

Deaths

 * Dionysius the Great, patriarch of Alexandria
 * September 6 – Sima Zhao, Chinese general and politician (b. 211)
 * Ma Jun, Chinese engineer and inventor of the south-pointing chariot
 * Zhu (or Jing), Chinese empress of the Eastern Wu state

title: 265


text:
266

Year 266 (CCLXVI) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Gallienus and Sabinillus (or, less frequently, year 1019 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 266 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * King Odaenathus of Palmyra invades Persia to conquer the capital, Ctesiphon, and twice comes as far as the walls of the Persian capital, but fails to take it.  After his victories in the East, he pronounces himself with the title "king of kings".
 * A powerful tropical volcanic eruption around this year brings a below-average flood of the Nile next year.

Ireland

 * The rule of High King Cormac mac Airt ends (approximate date).

Asia

 * February 4 – Sima Yan, regent of the Chinese state of Cao Wei, forces the last Cao Wei emperor Cao Huan to abdicate in his favour. The Cao Wei state's existence comes to an end. Sima Yan establishes the Jin Dynasty, and becomes its first emperor on 8 February, and is historically known as "Wu of Jin". He establishes his capital at Luoyang, and gives his male relatives independent military commands throughout his empire.

Births

 * Galeria Valeria, Roman empress and wife of Galerius (d. 315)
 * Wang Dun (or Chuzhong), Chinese general and warlord (d. 324)
 * Zu Ti (or Shizhi), Chinese general and adviser (d. 321)

Deaths

 * Wang Chen (or Chudao), Chinese general and politician
 * Wang Fan, Chinese astronomer and mathematician (b. 228)

title: 266


text:
269

Year 269 (CCLXIX) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Claudius and Paternus (or, less frequently, year 1022 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 269 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Second Gothic invasion: The Goths and other German tribes attack Bosphorean towns on the coast of the Black Sea. Some 2,000 ships and 320,000 men from the Danube enter Roman territory. Emperor Claudius II defeats the invaders and receives the title Gothicus for his triumph. Many of the prisoners will serve in the Roman legions and settle in vacant lands in the Danubian provinces.
 * Claudius II travels to Sirmium and prepares a war against the Vandals, who raid Pannonia.
 * The Heruli capture Athens and raid the Aegean Islands as far as Crete and Rhodes.
 * Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus is killed by his own troops, after not allowing them to sack the city of Mogontiacum.

Near East

 * Queen Zenobia conquers Syria, Palestine, Lebanon, parts of Mesopotamia and Anatolia and Egypt, giving her control of Rome's grain supply. The library at Alexandria is partly burned during a raid by Zabdas, general of Zenobia.

Religion

 * January 5 – Pope Felix I succeeds Dionysius as the 26th pope of Rome.
 * Paul of Samosata is deposed as Patriarch of Antioch (though he is not removed until 272).

Births

 * Chi Jian (or Daohui), Chinese general (d. 339)
 * Murong Hui, Chinese general and politician (d. 333)

Deaths

 * Jingū, Japanese empress and regent (b. 169)
 * Justin the Confessor, Christian priest and martyr
 * Liu Yin (or Xiuran), Chinese general and administrator
 * Lu Kai (or Jingfeng), Chinese general and politician (b. 198)
 * Marcus Aurelius Marius, Gallic general and emperor
 * Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus, Gallic emperor
 * Ulpius Cornelius Laelianus, Gallic emperor and usurper
 * Wang Xiang (or Xiuzheng), Chinese politician (b. 185)
 * Xin Xianying, Chinese noblewoman and advisor (b. 191)

title: 269


text:
190

Year 190 (CXC) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Aurelius and Sura (or, less frequently, year 943 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 190 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * A part of Rome burns; Emperor Commodus orders the city to be rebuilt, under the name Colonia Commodiana.
 * In his rise to power, Lucius Septimias Severus is appointed as a Roman Council (later becoming emperor during the year of the 5 emperors)
 * A Roman road crosses the Alps, by the Simplon Pass.

China

 * First year of the Chuping era of the Chinese Han Dynasty.
 * The Campaign against Dong Zhuo begins. During the Battle of Xingyang, Cao Cao's army is defeated by Dong Zhuo.
 * Luoyang is burned and plundered by the forces of Dong Zhuo. The court is moved to Chang'an.

Parthia

 * Osroes II, controlling Media, claims the throne of the Parthian Empire. King Vologases IV of Parthia puts down the rebellion and restores order.

Art and Science

 * Cleomedes teaches that the moon does not glow on its own, but rather reflects sunlight.

Economic

 * Egypt (under Roman rule) is impoverished due to an inflation rate of 100% during the previous decade.
 * The percentage of silver in the Egyptian denarius is lowered from 90% to 70%.

Births

 * Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus, Roman praetorian prefect (d. 243)
 * Liu Yin (or Xiuran), Chinese general of the Shu Han state (d. 269)
 * Ma Su, Chinese general and strategist of the Shu Han state (d. 228)
 * Quintus Egnatius Proculus, Roman politician (approximate date)
 * Wang Ji (or Boyu), Chinese general of the Cao Wei state (d. 261)

Deaths

 * March 6 – Liu Bian, Chinese emperor (poisoned by Dong Zhuo) (b. 176)
 * Athenagoras of Athens, Greek Christian apologist (b. 133)
 * Julius of Rome, Roman politician (murdered by Commodus)
 * Marcus Aurelius Cleander, Roman praetorian prefect
 * Xun Shuang, Chinese politician and writer (b. 128)
 * Zhou Bi, Chinese official (executed by Dong Zhuo)
 * Emperor Seimu of Japan, according to legend.

title: 190


text:
191

Year 191 (CXCI) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Apronianus and Bradua (or, less frequently, year 944 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 191 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Parthia

 * King Vologases IV of Parthia dies after a 44-year reign, and is succeeded by his son Vologases V.

China

 * A coalition of Chinese warlords from the east of Hangu Pass launches a punitive campaign against the warlord Dong Zhuo, who seized control of the central government in 189, and held the figurehead Emperor Xian hostage. After suffering some defeats against the coalition forces, Dong Zhuo forcefully relocates the imperial capital from Luoyang to Chang'an. Before leaving, Dong Zhuo orders his troops to loot the tombs of the Han emperors, and then destroy Luoyang by fire, to leave behind nothing for the coalition.
 * Battle of Jieqiao: Yuan Shao narrowly defeats Gongsun Zan, in northern China.

Art

 * c. 191–192 – The sculpture of Commodus as Hercules, from Esquiline Hill, Rome, is made (it is now kept at Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome).

Religion

 * Serapion becomes Patriarch of Antioch.

Births

 * Xin Xianying, Chinese noblewoman and advisor (d. 269).

Deaths

 * Bruttia Crispina, Roman empress (executed) (b. 164)
 * Han Fu, Chinese governor and warlord
 * Hua Xiong, Chinese general (executed)
 * Qiao Mao, Chinese official and warlord
 * Sun Jian, Chinese general and warlord (b. 155)
 * Vologases IV, king of the Parthian Empire
 * Zhang Wen, Chinese official and general

title: 191


text:
192

Year 192 (CXCII) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Aelius and Pertinax (or, less frequently, year 945 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 192 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method for Europeans for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * December 31 – Emperor Commodus alarms the Senate, by appearing dressed as a gladiator for his new consulship on January 1. His mistress Marcia finds her name on the imperial execution list, and hires champion wrestler Narcissus to assassinate Commodus; the Antonines Dynasty ends.
 * Civil war again strikes Ancient Rome (192–193).

China

 * May 22 – Lü Bu assassinates warlord Dong Zhuo, who has controlled the central government of the Han Dynasty (since 189).

Vietnam

 * The kingdom of Champa begins to control south and central Vietnam (approximate date).

Arts and Science

 * A fire destroys Galen's library.

Religion

 * Syriac Christians establish an early Christian community in Kerala, India.

Births

 * Cao Zhi (or King Chen), Chinese prince and poet (d. 232)
 * Gordian II, Roman emperor (Year of the Six Emperors) (d. 238)

Deaths

 * May 22 – Dong Zhuo, Chinese general and warlord (d. 134)
 * December 31 – Commodus, Roman emperor (b. 161)
 * Annia Fundania Faustina, Roman noblewoman
 * Bao Xin, Chinese general and warlord (b. 152)
 * Cai Yong, Chinese official and calligrapher (b. 132)
 * Liu Dai, Chinese official, general and politician
 * Lu Zhi, Chinese scholar and general (b. 159)
 * Wang Yun, Chinese official and politician (b. 137)
 * Yuan Yi, Chinese official and warlord
 * Zhang Zhi, Chinese scholar and calligrapher

title: 192


text:
193

Year 193 (CXCIII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Sosius and Ericius (or, less frequently, year 946 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 193 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * January 1 – Year of the Five Emperors: The Roman Senate chooses Publius Helvius Pertinax, against his will, to succeed the late Commodus as Emperor. Pertinax is forced to reorganize the handling of finances, which were wrecked under Commodus, to reestablish discipline in the Roman army, and to suspend the food programs established by Trajan, provoking the ire of the Praetorian Guard.
 * March 28 – Pertinax is assassinated by members of the Praetorian Guard, who storm the imperial palace. The Empire is auctioned off; Marcus Didius Julianus the highest bidder, offers 300 million sesterces for the throne. Roman governors Clodius Albinus (Britannia) and Pescennius Niger (Syria) claim, with support of their troops, the imperial throne.
 * April 14 – Lucius Septimius Severus is proclaimed Emperor by his troops at Carnuntum, in Pannonia Superior (Balkans). He marches with his army to Rome.
 * June 1 – Septimius Severus enters the capital, and has Julianus put to death. He replaces the Praetorian Guard with a 15,000-man force from the Danubian legions, and gains control of the Roman Empire, beginning the Severan dynasty.
 * Battle of Cyzicus and Battle of Nicaea (Asia Minor): Septimius Severus defeats the army under Pescennius.
 * In Britain, Clodius Albinus allies with Septimius Severus, and accepts the title of Caesar. British tribes take advantage of the disorder in the Empire, and damage Hadrian's Wall. Extensive repairs to the defence work is carried out by the legionaries.
 * Counterfeiting workshops begin to appear throughout the Roman Empire.
 * The Council of Rome, the pre-ecumenical council

China

 * Last (4th) year of Chuping era of the Chinese Han dynasty.
 * Cao Cao's invasion of Xu Province: Cao Cao invades Tao Qian's Xu Province, holding him responsible for the death of Cao Song.

Commerce

 * The silver content of the Roman denarius falls to 50 percent under emperor Septimius Severus, down from 68 percent under Marcus Aurelius.

Births

 * Luo Tong, Chinese official of the Eastern Wu state (d. 228)
 * Zhang Wen, Chinese official of the Eastern Wu state (d. 230)

Deaths

 * March 28 – Pertinax, Roman emperor (assassinated) (b. 126)
 * June 1 – Didius Julianus, Roman emperor (assassinated)
 * Adrianus (or Hadrian), Greek sophist, philosopher and writer
 * Cao Song (or Jugao), Chinese official and father of Cao Cao
 * Liu Yu (or Bo'an), Chinese nobleman, official and warlord
 * Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus, Roman general and politician

title: 193


text:
194

Year 194 (CXCIV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Septimius and Septimius (or, less frequently, year 947 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 194 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Decimus Clodius Septimius Albinus Caesar became a Roman Consul.
 * Battle of Issus: Septimius Severus marches with his army (12 legions) to Cilicia, and defeats Pescennius Niger, Roman governor of Syria. Pescennius retreats to Antioch, and is executed by Severus' troops.
 * Septimius Severus besieges Byzantium (194–196); the city walls suffer extensive damage.

Asia

 * Battle of Yan Province: Warlords Cao Cao and Lü Bu fight for control over Yan Province; the battle lasts for over 100 days.
 * First year of the Xingping era during the Han Dynasty in China.

Art and Science

 * Galen writes his manual on pathology, The Art of Curing (approximate date).

Religion

 * Irenaeus declares Gnostic doctrines to be heretical (approximate date).

Births

 * Sun Huan (or Jiming), Chinese general (d. 234)
 * Zhu Ju, Chinese official and general (d. 250)

Deaths

 * Liu Yan, Chinese warlord and governor
 * Ma Midi, Chinese official and politician
 * Pescennius Niger, Roman usurper (b. 140)
 * Tao Qian, Chinese warlord and governor (b. 132)

title: 194


text:
196

Year 196 (CXCVI) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Dexter and Messalla (or, less frequently, year 949 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 196 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * Emperor Septimius Severus attempts to assassinate Clodius Albinus but fails, causing Albinus to retaliate militarily.
 * Emperor Septimius Severus captures and sacks Byzantium; the city is rebuilt and regains its previous prosperity.
 * In order to assure the support of the Roman legion in Germany on his march to Rome, Clodius Albinus is declared Augustus by his army while crossing Gaul.
 * Hadrian's wall in Britain is partially destroyed.

China

 * First year of the Jian'an Era, during the reign of the Xian Emperor of the Han.
 * The Xian Emperor returns to war-ravaged Luoyang and seeks the protection of warlord Cao Cao. He is advised to move the capital to Xuchang; the emperor becomes a pawn in the hands of the Chinese warlords.

Korea

 * Naehae becomes king of Silla.

Religion

 * A church council is held in Caesarea over the date of Easter.

Births

 * Cao Chong, son of Cao Cao (d. 208)

Deaths

 * Beolhyu, Korean ruler of Silla
 * Cao Bao, Chinese general and governor
 * Chizhi Shizhu Hou, Chinese puppet ruler (b. 150)
 * Zhou Xin, Chinese official and politician

title: 196