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Kepler's Supernova

SN 1604, also known as Kepler's Supernova, Kepler's Nova or Kepler's Star, was a Type Ia supernova that occurred in the Milky Way, in the constellation Ophiuchus. Appearing in 1604, it is the most recent supernova in the Milky Way galaxy to have been unquestionably observed by the naked eye, occurring no farther than 6 kiloparsecs (20,000 light-years) from Earth. Before the adoption of the current naming system for supernovae, it was named for Johannes Kepler, the German astronomer who described it in De Stella Nova.

Observation
Visible to the naked eye, Kepler's Star was brighter at its peak than any other star in the night sky, with an apparent magnitude of −2.5. It was visible during the day for over three weeks. Records of its sighting exist in European, Chinese, Korean, and Arabic sources.

It was the second supernova to be observed in a generation (after SN 1572 seen by Tycho Brahe in Cassiopeia). As of 2023, this was the last supernova observed with certainty in the Milky Way, though many others outside the galaxy have been seen since S Andromedae in 1885. SN 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud was visible to the naked eye.

Evidence exists for two Milky Way supernovae whose signals would have reached Earth 1680 and 1870 – Cassiopeia A, and G1.9+0.3 respectively. There is no historical record of either having been detected in those years probably as absorption by interstellar dust made them fainter.

The remnant of Kepler's supernova is considered to be one of the prototypical objects of its kind and is still an object of much study in astronomy.

Controversies
Astronomers of the time (including Kepler) were concerned with observing the conjunction of Mars and Jupiter, which they saw as an auspicious conjunction linked to the Star of Bethlehem. However, cloudy weather prevented Kepler from making observations. Wilhelm Fabry, Michael Maestlin, and Helisaeus Roeslin were able to make observations on 9 October, but did not record the supernova. The first recorded observation in Europe was by Lodovico delle Colombe in northern Italy on 9 October 1604. Kepler was only able to begin his observations on 17 October while working at the imperial court in Prague for Emperor Rudolf II. The supernova was subsequently named after him, even though he was not its first observer, as his observations tracked the object for an entire year. These observations were described in his book De Stella nova in pede Serpentarii ("On the new star in Ophiuchus's foot", Prague 1606).

Delle Colombe–Galileo controversy
In 1606, Delle Colombe published Discourse of Lodovico delle Colombe in which he shows that the "Star Newly Appeared in October 1604 is neither a Comet nor a New Star" and where he defended an Aristotelian view of cosmology after Galileo Galilei had used the occasion of the supernova to challenge the Aristotelian system. The description of Galileo's claims is as follows:

"Galileo explained the meaning and relevance of parallax, reported that the nova displayed none, and concluded, as a certainty, that it lay beyond the moon. Here he might have stopped, having dispatched his single arrow. Instead he sketched a theory that ruined the Aristotelian cosmos: the nova very probably consisted of a large quantity of airy material that issued from the earth and shone by reflected sunlight, like Aristotelian comets. Unlike them, however, it could rise beyond the moon. It not only brought change to the heavens, but did so provocatively by importing corruptible earthy elements into the pure quintessence. That raised heaven-shattering possibilities. The interstellar space might be filled with something similar to our atmosphere, as in the physics of the Stoics, to which Tycho had referred in his lengthy account of the nova of 1572. And if the material of the firmament resembled that of bodies here below, a theory of motion built on experience with objects within our reach might apply also to the celestial regions. 'But I am not so bold as to think that things cannot take place differently from the way I have specified.'"

Kepler–Roeslin controversy
In Kepler's De Stella Nova (1606), he criticized Roeslin concerning this supernova. Kepler argued that in his astrological prognostications, Roeslin had picked out just the two comets, the Great Comet of 1556 and 1580. Roeslin responded in 1609 that this was indeed what he had done. When Kepler replied later that year, he simply observed that by including a broader range of data Roeslin could have made a better argument.

Supernova remnant
The supernova remnant of SN 1604, Kepler's Star, was discovered in 1941 at the Mount Wilson Observatory as a dim nebula with a brightness of 19 mag. Only filaments can be seen in visible light, but it is a strong radio and X-ray source. Its diameter is 4 arc min. Distance estimates place it between 3 and more than 7 kiloparsecs (10,000 to 23,000 lightyears), with the current consensus being a distance of $5 kpc$, as of 2021.

The available evidence supports a type Ia supernova as the source of this remnant, which is the result of a carbon-oxygen white dwarf interacting with a companion star. The integrated X-ray spectrum resembles that of Tycho's supernova remnant, a type Ia supernova. The abundance of oxygen relative to iron in the remnant of SN 1604 is roughly solar, whereas a core-collapse scenario should produce a much higher abundance of oxygen. No surviving central source has been identified, which is consistent with a type Ia event. Finally, the historical records for the brightness of this event are consistent with type Ia supernovae.

There is evidence for interaction of the supernova ejecta with circumstellar matter from the progenitor star, which is unexpected for type Ia but has been observed in some cases. A bow shock located to the north of this system is believed to have been created by mass loss prior to the explosion. Observations of the remnant are consistent with the interaction of a supernova with a bipolar planetary nebula that belonged to one or both of the progenitor stars. The remnant is not spherically symmetric, which is likely due to the progenitor being a runaway star system. The bow shock is caused by the interaction of the advancing stellar wind with the interstellar medium. A remnant rich in nitrogen and silicon indicates that the system consisted of a white dwarf with an evolved companion that had likely already passed through the asymptotic giant branch stage.

title: Kepler's Supernova


text:
Talk:SN 1987A

Colin Henshaw as co-discoverer
A statement was added that Colin Henshaw was co-discoverer of the supernova. I'd never seen that claim before, and in searching for that, I found the following set of slides claiming that. However, that set of slides references this web page from the space telescope institute, which explicitly cites only Ian Shelton as discoverer. I've reverted the change until we can find a contemporaneous and reliable source with the claim. Tarl N. ( discuss ) 19:37, 24 March 2017 (UTC)
 * I further find this reference (in June 1987), which lists observations of SN1987A, listing Colin Henshaw as one of the observers, which specifies that he discovered the supernova independently. But I can find no reference to an IAU telegram from Henshaw, which is the usual qualification for discovery of supernova. Tarl N.  ( discuss ) 19:48, 24 March 2017 (UTC)
 * And lastly, the AAVSO provides this history specifying Shelton in Las Campanas as the discoverer also mentioning Duhalde at the same location and Jones in New Zealand. No mention of Henshaw. Tarl N.  ( discuss ) 20:10, 24 March 2017 (UTC)

Hi!

I find some links.

http://www.manastro.co.uk/2011_09.pdf

https://books.google.hu/books?id=cRv4Kro_krUC&pg=PA16&lpg=PA16&dq=1987a+colin+henshaw&source=bl&ots=9DIq9j1gSr&sig=0B_pbwPVVJ4jjdxd1pBhLCM0Kvs&hl=hu&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjbq5TMl_HSAhVGCZoKHRSzAM8Q6AEINzAE#v=onepage&q=1987a%20colin%20henshaw&f=false

http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1988PASAu...7..352M

http://albireo.percek.hu/archiv_AlbireoBiblio_146_191.html

The original publication is:

Quarterly Journal of Royal Astronomical Society. 28 (4) 533-534. 1987 December. https://books.google.hu/books?id=KVqmniPg_SMC&pg=PA135&lpg=PA135&dq=1987a+colin+henshaw&source=bl&ots=0eLKg91AmM&sig=Akay73HbnGYpxk643KD5mnpn_sM&hl=hu&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjbq5TMl_HSAhVGCZoKHRSzAM8Q6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=1987a%20colin%20henshaw&f=false

Unfortunately, the original publication is not available on the web. Misib2 (talk) 08:06, 25 March 2017 (UTC)
 * Ah. Mystery explained. ...noted and photographed the supernova [...] but was in no position to send a report for days. As I understand discovery attribution, he does not qualify as a co-discoverer - the whole point of discovery is that the rest of the astronomical community is told about the event in time to do something about it. Notice McNaught in Australia is also not credited with being a co-discoverer. The timeline McNaught gives also precludes Henshaw from discovery - Henshaw was only preparing for observations at the time McNaught was already confirming location on photographic images.
 * I'll note that the Manchester Astronomical Society slides were an announcement of a presentation by Henshaw - the listing as "joint discoverer" undoubtedly came from him saying he was.
 * That Henshaw discovered it independently is not in doubt, but credit as co-discoverer doesn't seem to apply in this case because he did it in a vacuum after other people had already discovered it and communicated the discovery. Tarl N.  ( discuss ) 16:14, 25 March 2017 (UTC)

You are not a source. Cynthia A. Steinke book is a source. So it is not your decision. Your opinion does not count !! Give me a source which support your opinion. Misib2 (talk) 16:41, 25 March 2017 (UTC)
 * Essentially every source I find lists Shelton, not Henshaw. E.g., this.
 * As a secondary comment, please understand the policy at WP:BRD. You were bold, you were reverted, now we must discuss, *Before* you re-instate your edits. See WP:3RR on not re-reverting again.
 * My above explanation is indeed opinion, expressing my understanding of how different sources could be presenting different comments. Note that none of the accounts I've seen list him as "co-discoverer" (meaning sharing credit), at most he's listed as having independently discovered the supernova. But because he didn't notify anyone, he does not get credit as discoverer. The timeline in the McNaught account is pretty definitive that he observed the supernova after South Africa Chilean and New Zealand observatories were actively confirming the already-announced discovery. Tarl N.  ( discuss ) 17:18, 25 March 2017 (UTC)

Would you please read the following article.

Henshaw, Colin: The independent discovery of SN 1987 in the LMC, from Zimbabwe. Quarterly Journal of Royal Astronomical Society. 28 (4) 533-534. 1987 December. Misib2 (talk) 06:22, 26 March 2017 (UTC)
 * I would except (a) I don't have access to it, and (b) independent discovery is not the same as co-discovery. McNaugh documented that when Henshaw observed SN1987A, Chilean and New Zealand observatories were confirming their discovery, which they had already reported to the IAU bureau of telegrams. It's admirable that Henshaw made his own discovery independently, but the fact that it was independent was because he was out of the loop, not because he had priority. As best I can tell, he does not deserve credit for co-discovery.
 * At this point, we seem to have reached an impasse. Since nobody else seems to be participating in the discussion you can seek dispute resolution in a variety of ways; One of the easiest is WP:THIRDOPINION, which will bring in an independent volunteer to offer an opinion. You could also try WP:DRN (Dispute resolution noticeboard) or create a WP:RFC (request for comment) which will bring in other interested parties.
 * As a side issue, copying a warning I put on your talk page to my talk page serves no purpose. The WP:3RR template serves merely to inform you about the edit warring policy, and to document that you have been informed if it comes to administrator action. Copying that to my page, since I was the one who warned you, is irrelevant - I obviously already know the policy and any administrator will simply find it comical. Tarl N.  ( discuss ) 07:23, 26 March 2017 (UTC)

Well! For the sake of the readers of this discussion may I ask you to summarize the date and the time of all our known independent observeries, please. Thanks in advance. Misib2 (talk) 08:07, 26 March 2017 (UTC)

 * I'm here. I'm the one who posted the tag because obviously the claim required a reliable external publication to confirm. There are reliable external publications documenting, so far as I can tell, fairly reliably who saw what and when. Is it beyond the wit of man (or at least Wikipedia editors) to summarise what those publications say without adding spin or bias? Lithopsian (talk) 14:00, 26 March 2017 (UTC)
 * I'm happy with adding somewhere in the body an account of Colin Henshaw making an independent discovery along with the circumstances that caused him to be unaware of the fact that it had already been discovered and reported before he even made his observations. What I'm not happy with is crediting him in the lede with the discovery. I'm very concerned with WP:CIRCULAR, and that simply changing the "discovered by" to "Shelton and Henshaw" would distort the historical record. Independent discovery is not co-discovery (where credit is shared). As best I can tell, the references which call Henshaw as joint discoverer (as opposed to independent after-the-fact discoverer) are ones where that description comes from Henshaw. Tarl N.  ( discuss ) 15:19, 26 March 2017 (UTC)

I believe the definitive record is the IAU CBAT circular from 24-February. The sequence of events and timeframes: Note that Henshaws's observations would have been about this time (Feb 24.9), although he didn't report them; the simple geometry of earth rotation meant that Zimbabwe was in daylight when Chile and New Zealand observations were made. It's interesting that he made an independent discovery (as did Jones and probably thousands of amateur astronomers), but he doesn't get the credit discovery. Tarl N. ( discuss ) 16:05, 26 March 2017 (UTC)
 * Feb 24.23 - Image found on photograph started at 24.06 in Chile.
 * Feb 24.27 - Jones in New Zealand observes
 * Feb 24.454 - Moreno and Walker in New Zealand obtain images.
 * Feb 24.455 - McNaught in Australia observes.
 * Feb 24.9 - Menzies in South Africa observes.
 * Thanks. Misib2 (talk) 10:52, 27 March 2017 (UTC)
 * C Henshaw is only person to make claim for co discovery. No corroboration from other source at all. No reliable verify for claim ever and must be ignore. No reputable astronomer accepts the co discover claim. Jastronomer (talk) 10:00, 3 November 2017 (UTC)

Mass of progenitor
I don't see the mass of the progenitor listed anywhere here. This page suggests it was about ~18 Solar M(o). Fig (talk) 14:58, 17 August 2020 (UTC)
 * We don't really know. What we have is guesses. E.g., Initial ~20 solar masses, from here (reference in Sanduleak_-69_202). This works backwards from spectral class and luminosity, as has low confidence. Tarl N. ( discuss ) 15:37, 17 August 2020 (UTC)

Non-circumstellar rings
There is a good deal of discussion of the cause of the inner ring around the star, but none of the two rings overlapping one another that are not centred around the star.

What is the cause of those extra two rings? Also, there are two very bright stars and one less-bright reddish star on or nearly on the two rings. Are they coincidental near stars that merely happen to be on the path to the supernova? VictoriaWordNerd (talk) 23:19, 18 August 2020 (UTC)

 * The two "outer" rings are actually centred on the star, but we see the system at an angle. The rings are the tips of an hourglass of material ejected from the progenitor star before it exploded, and now highlighted by the supernova explosion.  I agree this is not explained well in the article.  There are a number of papers discussing the origin of the rings.  The two stars on the rings are probably not related, although they may well be LMC stars.  Although they appear bright in deep images, they are about 15th magnitude.  There are other, fainter, stars even closer to the supernova location, again not related so far as we know.  Lithopsian (talk) 14:20, 19 August 2020 (UTC)

remnant
Does it really not have a name other than 'SN 1987A remnant'? It's a planetary nebula, right? Arlo James Barnes 09:49, 13 July 2022 (UTC)
 * It's not a planetary nebula, it's a supernova remnant. Not surprising really since it was created by a supernova.  If you're looking for a snappy name like Supermag, you're out of luck.  All the designations I'm aware of, and there are quite a few, have both letters and numbers in them, with the possible exception of LMC SN, which Simbad lists but which I've never seen being used.  Lithopsian (talk) 13:16, 13 July 2022 (UTC)

James Webb Space Telescope planned observations
The JWST is scheduled to observe SN 1987A for 7 1/2 hours on 2022-07-16 UTC. I don't have recent editing experience; would one of you care to add this to the article? The source is https://www.stsci.edu/files/live/sites/www/files/home/jwst/science-execution/observing-schedules/_documents/2219603f02_report_20220715.txt, which is linked to by https://www.stsci.edu/jwst/science-execution/observing-schedules — Wdfarmer (talk) 20:51, 15 July 2022 (UTC)

 * Nifty news, thanks! But given that's going to be tomorrow, we probably don't have to update the article (per WP:NOTNEWS) until the observations have been made. Although this ventures into WP:CRYSTALBALL, I would assume that some form of image release will happen shortly thereafter, which would make an ideal opportunity to update the article. Tarl N. ( discuss ) 21:02, 15 July 2022 (UTC)

 * The observing run is complete, but you won't necessarily see anything about it for a while. The researchers will have the raw data, but are unlikely to produce anything printworthy until they have a paper ready to publish.  As far as I can tell, the raw data is not available publicly, although it might well be once the research team have published.  Lithopsian (talk) 13:14, 17 July 2022 (UTC)

 * https://arxiv.org/abs/2307.06692文爻林夕 (talk) 22:45, 23 July 2023 (UTC)

 * https://phys.org/news/2023-08-webb-reveals-iconic-supernova.html Arlo James Barnes 00:18, 1 September 2023 (UTC)
 * Still only preprint, submitted but not accepted yet. The image can be included though, very nice.  The paper is very detailed; I haven't read the whole thing yet, but can probably use it for some updates in the last two sections.  Lithopsian (talk) 13:23, 1 September 2023 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:SN 1987A


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Jon Appleton

Jon Howard Appleton (January 4, 1939 – January 30, 2022) was an American composer, an educator and a pioneer in electro-acoustic music. His earliest compositions in the medium, e.g. "Chef d'Oeuvre" and "Newark Airport Rock" (1967) attracted attention because they established a new tradition some have called programmatic electronic music. In 1970, he won Guggenheim, Fulbright and American-Scandinavian Foundation fellowships. When he was twenty-eight years old, he joined the faculty of Dartmouth College where he established one of the first electronic music studios in the United States. He remained there intermittently for forty-two years. In the mid-1970s, he left Dartmouth to briefly become the head of Elektronmusikstudion (EMS) (sv) in Stockholm, Sweden. In the late 1970s, together with Sydney Alonso and Cameron Jones, he helped develop the first commercial digital synthesizer called the Synclavier. For a decade he toured around the United States and Europe performing the compositions he composed for this instrument. In the early 1990s, he helped found the Theremin Center for Electronic Music at the Moscow Conservatory of Music. He also taught at Keio University (Mita) in Tokyo, Japan, CCRMA at Stanford University and the University of California Santa Cruz. In his later years, he devoted most of his time to the composition of instrumental and choral music in a quasi-Romantic vein which has largely been performed only in France, Russia and Japan.

Early life
Appleton was born in Los Angeles, California, on January 4, 1939, to Jewish parents: Helen Jacobs Appleton (born in Philadelphia, 1908) and Charles Leonard Appleton (born Chaim Epelboim in Kishinev, Bessarabia, July 14, 1900). His mother was employed by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and his father by Twentieth Century Fox film studios. His father left his family the year Appleton was born and he spent his first years in Mrs. Bell's (an orphanage) and with his brother (Michael Charles Appleton, born 1932) at Palomar Military Academy. When he was six years old his mother married Alexander "Sasha" Walden (born in Ufa, Russia, in 1897), a double-bass player in the Los Angeles Philharmonic orchestra. He was the greatest musical influence in Appleton's young life seeing that he studied piano, encouraging him to compose music and taking him to multiple concerts. Appleton's parents were true believers in the Soviet Union and active members of the multiple left-wing organizations including the Communist party. In the 1950s both his parents were blacklisted by the House Un-American Activities Committee and lost their jobs. As a child Appleton studied piano with Jacob Gimpel and Theodore Saidenberg but preferred composing his own music rather than playing the works assigned to him (e.g. Chopin, Scarlatti, Prokofiev). However, he developed a deep, lifelong affection for Russian music.

1960s
From 1957 to 1961 Appleton was a student at Reed College in Portland, Oregon. These years shaped his future life: he composed for his fellow students who performed everything he composed, he decided to become a college professor and in 1959 he married his first wife, a fellow student, Georganna Towne. Following his graduation from Reed College, Appleton moved to San Francisco, California, where his first child was born (Jennifer Appleton). Simultaneously he studied composition with Andrew Imbrie at the University of California, Berkeley, collaborated with writer Willard S. Bain (1938–2000) writing musical comedies and was employed at the Macy's department store as an assistant buyer.

In 1962–1963 Appleton was the music teacher at the Verde Valley School in Sedona, Arizona, where he conducted the choir and orchestra, taught music theory, history and piano lessons.

From 1963 to 1966 Appleton was a graduate student at the University of Oregon in Eugene, Oregon, where he studied with Homer Keller, Henri Lazarof, Felix Salzer and Robert Trotter. It was there that he assembled a primitive electronic music studio and composed his first works in this genre. His thesis was an orchestral work, After "Nude Descending a Staircase". Most of the instrumental and vocal music he composed at this time used serial technique that he loved to compose. During his years in Eugene he became a lifelong friend of the pianist Gabriel Chodos.

In 1966, on the basis of his early electronic music, he was invited by Vladimir Ussachevsky at Columbia University to study in the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center. He became an advocate for electronic music and became friends with fellow composers Charles Dodge, Emmanuel Ghent and Richard Taruskin.

During 1966–1968 he was hired by Oakland University in Rochester, Michigan, to establish an electronic music studio. When the university officials reneged on their promise, he resigned and accepted a position at Dartmouth College. It was during this year that his son, Jon Jason Appleton was born ( JJ Appleton; born April 19, 1967).

1970s
At Dartmouth College Appleton's work in electronic music was generously encouraged by the administration of President John G. Kemeny and by a generous donation from Gerald Bregman '54. The Bregman Electronic Music studio was one of the pioneering studios at American universities and became a center for many visiting composers. Two of these, Lars-Gunnar Bodin (1935, Stockholm, Sweden – 2021) and Jean-Claude Risset (born 1938, LePuy, France) became important colleagues throughout Appleton's life. In 1970 Appleton also was influenced by the work of the "father" of computer music, Max V. Mathews and by French composers François Bayle, Beatriz Ferreyra and Michel Redolfi.

It was at this time that he initiated the first competition for electronic music that was held for three years at Dartmouth College.

In 1969 Appleton's first recordings were published (Syntonic Menagerie and Human Music – the latter in collaboration with jazz musician Don Cherry – on the Flying Dutchman label, produced by Bob Thiele.

In 1973 Appleton began his collaboration with engineers Sydney Alonso and Cameron Jones, which led to the creation of the Dartmouth Digital Synthesizer and ultimately the Synclavier. However, it was not until the 1980s that Appleton composed his best works for this digital synthesizer and on which he gave concerts of his own music for the following decade.

His love of Sweden led Appleton to leave Dartmouth College in 1976–1977 and become the director of Elektronmusikstudion, Sweden's national center for electronic music. His difficulty with the Swedish bureaucracy led to his resignation and he returned to Norwich, Vermont, as a partner, for one year, in the newly formed firm New England Digital Corporation that had begun to manufacture the Synclavier. The following year he returned to the faculty of Dartmouth College.

It was also during this time in his life that Appleton developed a serious interest in the music of Polynesia and Micronesia. He led a group of Dartmouth students to the Kingdom of Tonga and later received a grant from the National Endowment for the Arts to train radio personnel on the Micronesian islands of Chuuk and Pohnpei to record and broadcast their own music.

1980s
It was during this period that Appleton began to compose his best computer music and live-electronic music. Many of his works for this genre were first premiered at the annual festival held by the Groupe de Musique Experimentale de Bourges (France) and at Fylkingen in Stockholm, Sweden.

During his time in Bourges, Appleton became a founding member of the International Confederation for Electro-Acoustic Music. His stimulating interaction with composers from many nations led him to believe that a similar organization in the United States might help raise the profile of electro-acoustic music in his own country. In 1984, together with a small group of like-minded composers, Appleton helped establish the Society for Electro-Acoustic Music in the United States (SEAMUS). He ultimately served for a time as president of the society.

In the summer of 1984 Appleton helped Moses Asch, founder of Folkways Records, release its first recordings of electro-acoustic music. According to Asch's wishes, these recordings have remained in print under the Smithsonian/Folkways auspices.

1990s
The decade of the 1990s saw Appleton spending increasing amount of time abroad: teaching at Keio University (Mita) in Tokyo, Japan, for three years and frequently visiting Moscow, Russia, where he was inspired by the enthusiasm of young composers. He encouraged the composer/engineer Andre Smirnov to establish the Theremin Center at the Moscow Conservatory of Music. Appleton was first introduced to Russian musicians and artists by the choral conductor/ethnologist Dmitri Pokrovsky (1944–1996) and this began his compositional return to instrumental and choral music, much of it composed for the pianist Julia Turkina and cellist Alexander Zagorinsky. In an essay entitled "How I Became a Russian Composer" (2009) Appleton explains his love of Russian music and culture that he believes his stepfather, Alexander Walden, instilled in him.

Also in this decade Appleton composed two full-length operas for a choir of 1500 children and professional orchestra. The works, HOPI: La naissance de Desert and Le Dernier Voyage de Jean-Gallup de la Perouse, were conducted by Alain Joutard and commissioned by the Delegation Departmental à la Musique et à la Danse of the Conseil General des Alpes-Maritimes in Nice, France.

Personal life and death
Appleton died on January 30, 2022, at his home in Vermont, at the age of 83.

Works

 * "Apolliana" (1970)
 * "Chef d'œuvre" (1967)
 * "Degitaru Ongaku" (1983)
 * "Dima Dobralsa Domoy" (1996)
 * "Dr Quisling in Stockholm" (1971)
 * "Georganna's Fancy" (1966)
 * "Georganna's Farewell" (1975)
 * "Homage To Orpheus" (1969)
 * "Homenaje a Milanés" (1987)
 * "Human Music" (1969)
 * "In Deserto" (1977)
 * "In Medias Res" (1978)
 * "King's Road #8" (1970)
 * "Mussems Sång" (1976)
 * "Newark Airport Rock" (1969)
 * "Oskuldens Dröm" (1985)
 * "Otahiti" (1973)
 * "San Francisco Airport Rock" (1996)
 * "Spuyten Duyvil" (1967)
 * "Stereopticon" (1972)
 * "The Sydsing Camklang" (1976)
 * "Syntrophia" (1977)
 * "Times Square Times Ten" (1969)
 * "U ha'amata 'atou 'i te himene" (1996)
 * "Yamanotesen To Ko" (1997)
 * "Zoetrope" (1974)
 * "Yamanotesen To Ko" (1997)
 * "Zoetrope" (1974)

Recordings
 "Georganna's Farewell" (audio via YouTube)
 * Times Square Times Ten (1969)
 * Appleton Syntonic Menagerie (Flying Dutchman Records, 1969)
 * Human Music (with Don Cherry) (1970)
 * The World Music Theatre of Jon Appleton (Folkways Records, 1974)
 * The Dartmouth Digital Synthesizer (Folkways, 1976)
 * Music for Synclavier and Other Digital Systems: With Jon Appleton, Composer (Folkways, 1978)
 * The Tale of William Mariner and The Snow Queen (1982)
 * Two Melodramas for Synclavier (Folkways, 1982)
 * Four Fantasies for Synclavier, (Folkways, 1982)
 * Centaur CRC 2052.
 * Discogs release ID 376127.
 * AllMusic album ID mw0001367376.
 * AllMusic album ID mw0001367376.

 * Centaur CRC 2133.
 * Discogs release ID 623521.
 * AllMusic album ID mw0001826434.
 * AllMusic album ID mw0001826434.

 * Centaur CRC 2190
 * Discogs release ID 1773079.
 * AllMusic album ID mw0001371262.

 * Contes de la mémoire (empreintes DIGITALes, IMED 9635, 1996)
 * Wunderbra! (with Achim Treu) (2003)
 * Syntonic Menagerie 2 (2003)
 * The Russian Music Phoenicia (2009)
 * The Scarlatti Doubles/The Couperin Doubles Phoenicia (2013)

Reviews and treatises

 * CDCM – Vol. 11:
 * CDCM – Vol. 11:

title: Jon Appleton


text:
Supernova remnant

A supernova remnant (SNR) is the structure resulting from the explosion of a star in a supernova. The supernova remnant is bounded by an expanding shock wave, and consists of ejected material expanding from the explosion, and the interstellar material it sweeps up and shocks along the way.

There are two common routes to a supernova: either a massive star may run out of fuel, ceasing to generate fusion energy in its core, and collapsing inward under the force of its own gravity to form a neutron star or a black hole; or a white dwarf star may accrete material from a companion star until it reaches a critical mass and undergoes a thermonuclear explosion.

In either case, the resulting supernova explosion expels much or all of the stellar material with velocities as much as 10% the speed of light (or approximately 30,000 km/s). These speeds are highly supersonic, so a strong shock wave forms ahead of the ejecta. That heats the upstream plasma up to temperatures well above millions of K. The shock continuously slows down over time as it sweeps up the ambient medium, but it can expand over hundreds or thousands of years and over tens of parsecs before its speed falls below the local sound speed.

One of the best observed young supernova remnants was formed by SN 1987A, a supernova in the Large Magellanic Cloud that was observed in February 1987. Other well-known supernova remnants include the Crab Nebula; Tycho, the remnant of SN 1572, named after Tycho Brahe who recorded the brightness of its original explosion; and Kepler, the remnant of SN 1604, named after Johannes Kepler. The youngest known remnant in the Milky Way is G1.9+0.3, discovered in the Galactic Center.

Stages
An SNR passes through the following stages as it expands:

 * 1) Free expansion of the ejecta, until they sweep up their own weight in circumstellar or interstellar medium.  This can last tens to a few hundred years depending on the density of the surrounding gas.
 * 2) Sweeping up of a shell of shocked circumstellar and interstellar gas. This begins the Sedov-Taylor phase, which can be well modeled by a self-similar analytic solution (see blast wave).  Strong X-ray emission traces the strong shock waves and hot shocked gas.
 * 3) Cooling of the shell, to form a thin (< 1 pc), dense (1 to 100 million atoms per cubic metre) shell surrounding the hot (few million kelvin) interior. This is the pressure-driven snowplow phase.  The shell can be clearly seen in optical emission from recombining ionized hydrogen and ionized oxygen atoms.
 * 4) Cooling of the interior.  The dense shell continues to expand from its own momentum.  This stage is best seen in the radio emission from neutral hydrogen atoms.
 * 5) Merging with the surrounding interstellar medium.  When the supernova remnant slows to the speed of the random velocities in the surrounding medium, after roughly 30,000 years, it will merge into the general turbulent flow, contributing its remaining kinetic energy to the turbulence.

Types of supernova remnant
There are three types of supernova remnant:
 * Shell-like, such as Cassiopeia A
 * Composite, in which a shell contains a central pulsar wind nebula, such as G11.2-0.3 or G21.5-0.9.
 * Mixed-morphology (also called "thermal composite") remnants, in which central thermal X-ray emission is seen, enclosed by a radio shell. The thermal X-rays are primarily from swept-up interstellar material, rather than supernova ejecta. Examples of this class include the SNRs W28 and W44. (Confusingly, W44 additionally contains a pulsar and pulsar wind nebula; so it is simultaneously both a "classic" composite and a thermal composite.)

Remnants which could only be created by significantly higher ejection energies than a standard supernova are called hypernova remnants, after the high-energy hypernova explosion that is assumed to have created them.

Origin of cosmic rays
Supernova remnants are considered the major source of galactic cosmic rays. The connection between cosmic rays and supernovas was first suggested by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky in 1934. Vitaly Ginzburg and Sergei Syrovatskii in 1964 remarked that if the efficiency of cosmic ray acceleration in supernova remnants is about 10 percent, the cosmic ray losses of the Milky Way are compensated. This hypothesis is supported by a specific mechanism called "shock wave acceleration" based on Enrico Fermi's ideas, which is still under development.

In 1949, Fermi proposed a model for the acceleration of cosmic rays through particle collisions with magnetic clouds in the interstellar medium. This process, known as the "Second Order Fermi Mechanism", increases particle energy during head-on collisions, resulting in a steady gain in energy. A later model to produce Fermi Acceleration was generated by a powerful shock front moving through space. Particles that repeatedly cross the front of the shock can gain significant increases in energy. This became known as the "First Order Fermi Mechanism".

Supernova remnants can provide the energetic shock fronts required to generate ultra-high energy cosmic rays. Observation of the SN 1006 remnant in the X-ray has shown synchrotron emission consistent with it being a source of cosmic rays. However, for energies higher than about 1018 eV a different mechanism is required as supernova remnants cannot provide sufficient energy.

It is still unclear whether supernova remnants accelerate cosmic rays up to PeV energies. The future telescope CTA will help to answer this question.

title: Supernova remnant


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Synclavier

The Synclavier is an early digital synthesizer, polyphonic digital sampling system, and music workstation manufactured by New England Digital Corporation of Norwich, Vermont. It was produced in various forms from the late 1970s into the early 1990s. The instrument has been used by prominent musicians.

History
The original design and development of the Synclavier prototype occurred at Dartmouth College with the collaboration of Jon Appleton, Professor of Digital Electronics, Sydney A. Alonso, and Cameron Jones, a software programmer and student at Dartmouth's Thayer School of Engineering.

Synclavier I
First released in 1977–78,  it proved to be highly influential among both electronic music composers and music producers, including Mike Thorne, an early adopter from the commercial world, due to its versatility, its cutting-edge technology, and distinctive sounds.

The early Synclavier I used FM synthesis, re-licensed from Yamaha, and was sold mostly to universities. The initial models had only a computer and synthesis modules; later models added a musical keyboard and control panel.

Synclavier II
The system evolved in its next generation of product, the Synclavier II, which was released in early 1980 with the strong influence of music producer Denny Jaeger of Oakland, California. It was originally Jaeger's suggestion that the FM synthesis concept be extended to allow four simultaneous channels or voices of synthesis to be triggered with one key depression to allow the final synthesized sound to have much more harmonic series activity. This change greatly improved the overall sound design of the system and was very noticeable. 16-bit user sampling (originally in mono only) was added as an option in 1982. This model was succeeded by the ABLE Model C computer-based PSMT in 1984 and then the Mac-based 3200, 6400 and 9600 models, all of which used the VPK keyboard.

Keyboard controller
Synclavier II models used an on/off type keyboard (called the "ORK") while later models, labeled simply "Synclavier", used a weighted velocity- and pressure-sensitive keyboard (called the "VPK") that was licensed from Sequential Circuits and used in their Prophet-T8 synthesizer.

Digital sampling

The company evolved the system continuously through the early 1980s to integrate the first 16-bit digital sampling system to magnetic disk, and eventually a 16-bit polyphonic sampling system to memory, as well. The company's product was the only digital sampling system that allowed sample rates to go as high as 100 kHz.

Tapeless studio concept
Ultimately, the system was referred to as the Synclavier Digital Recording "Tapeless Studio" system among many professionals. It was a pioneer system in revolutionizing movie and television sound effects and Foley effects methods of design and production starting at Glen Glenn Sound. Although pricing made it inaccessible for most musicians (a Synclavier could cost anywhere from $25,000 to $200,000), it found widespread use among producers and professional recording studios, competing at times in this market with high-end production systems such as the Fairlight CMI.

Technological achievements
When the company launched and evolved its technology, there were no off-the-shelf computing systems, integrated software, nor sound cards. Consequently, all of the hardware from the company's main real-time CPU, all input and output cards, analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog cards and its memory cards were developed internally, as well as all of the software. The hardware and software of the company's real-time capability was used in other fields completely remote to music, such as the main Dartmouth College campus computing node computers for one of the USA's first campus-wide computing networks, and in medical data acquisition research projects.

End of manufacture
New England Digital ceased operations in 1993. According to Jones, "The intellectual property was bought up by a bank—then it was owned by a Canadian company called Airworks—and I bought the intellectual property and the trademark back from a second bank which had foreclosed on it from Airworks."

Reincarnations
In 2019, Jones released an iOS version of the Synclavier dubbed Synclavier Go! using much of the original code base. Jones has also worked with Arturia to bring the Synclavier V software version of the instrument to their V Collection plugin suite.

In 2022, Synclavier Digital released and started production on the Regen, a desktop FM synthesizer.

Prototype

 * Dartmouth Digital Synthesizer (1973)

Processor

 * ABLE computer (1975): an early product of New England Digital, was a 16-bit minicomputer on two cards, using a transport-triggered architecture. It used a variant of XPL called Scientific XPL for programming. Early applications of the ABLE were for laboratory automation, data collection, and device control. The commercial version of the Dartmouth Digital Synthesizer, the Synclavier, was built on this processor.

Digital synthesis cards

 * The FM/Additive synthesis waveforms are produced by the Synclavier Synthesizer cards (named SS1 through SS5). Each set of these five cards produced 8 mono FM voices (later variants supported stereo). The processor handles sending start-stop-setPitch-setParameter commands to the SS card set(s), as well as handling scanning of the keyboard and control panel. There is little public documentation available on these cards, as their design was the unique asset of the Synclavier. However, their structure was similar to other digital synthesizers of the mid-late 1970s realized in Medium Scale Integration (MSI) hardware, such as the Bell Labs Digital Synthesizer.

Black panel models
On 1970s–late 1980s:

 * Synclavier I (1977)
 * Hand Operated Processor (HOP box): a troubleshooting tool for the Synclavier system, connected to ABLE computer via "D01 Front Panel Interface Card".

Ivory panel models
In late 1980s–1993; operated via Macintosh II as terminal.
 * Synclavier 3200
 * Synclavier 6400
 * Synclavier 9600
 * Synclavier TS (Tapeless Studio): consists of Synclavier and Direct-to-Disk
 * Synclavier Post Pro: consists of Direct-to-Disk
 * Synclavier Post Pro SD (Sound Design): consists of small Synclavier and Direct-to-Disk

Notable users

"Neil Rolnick, Joel Chadabe, and Jon Appleton himself are among those who have performed with it frequently."

 * Laurie Anderson is credited with using the Synclavier on her albums Mister Heartbreak (1984), United States Live (1984) and the 1986 soundtrack album Home of the Brave.
 * Wally Badarou: used the Synclavier II on Level 42 and solo studio albums, as well as on the 1985 Kiss of the Spider Woman movie additional soundtrack.
 * Tony Banks of Genesis used a Synclavier II (ORK version) on the albums Genesis (1983) and Invisible Touch (1986) and their respective tours, along with solo albums and soundtracks of that period, notably on "Mama" and "Home by the Sea".
 * Christopher Boyes, supervising sound editor/sound designer for the 2009 film Avatar, used the Synclavier for blending or layering different sound effects and matching pitches.
 * Joel Chadabe: composer/founder of Electronic Music Foundation. In September 1977 he bought the first Synclavier without musical keyboard (ORK) and wrote custom software to control the Synclavier via various devices.
 * Suzanne Ciani used a Synclavier to design sounds for the Bally Xenon pinball game released in 1980.
 * The Church used it on "Under the Milky Way" (1988). The way it is arranged gives a sound similar to bagpipes.
 * Chick Corea used the Synclavier on various Elektric Band albums from 1986 to 1991 as well as various Elektric Band tours.
 * Crimson Glory used acoustic drums blended with Synclavier-sampled drums on their 1988 album Transcendence.
 * Paul Davis: singer/songwriter, producer at Monarch Sound in Atlanta.
 * Depeche Mode had access to producer Daniel Miller's Synclavier, which was responsible for the character of the sound of the albums Construction Time Again (1983), Some Great Reward (1984) and Black Celebration (1986).
 * Vince DiCola: used the Synclavier extensively in creating studio albums; also for soundtracks Rocky IV (1985) and The Transformers: The Movie (1986).
 * Duran Duran used a Synclavier on the 1984 single "The Reflex".
 * Patrick Gleeson: film score composer. Used the Synclavier to score Apocalypse Now (1979) and The Plague Dogs (1982).
 * Lourett Russell Grant used a Synclavier on the 1979 disco hit "Hot to Trot".
 * Paul Hardcastle: composer and musician.
 * Robert Henke: composer, musician and software engineer. Often recording under the moniker Monolake, Henke renovated a Synclavier II and used sampled FM from it on various releases.
 * Michael Hoenig: film scoring work on the Synclavier, including the 1986 action-fantasy film, The Wraith.
 * Trevor Horn: used the Synclavier to produce records by Frankie Goes to Hollywood, Yes, and Grace Jones' 1985 album Slave to the Rhythm, among others.
 * Marlon Jackson: used by Marlon Jackson and co-producer Winston Johnson on the single "Don't Go."
 * Michael Jackson: particularly on his 1982 album Thriller, programming by Steve Porcaro, Brian Banks, and Anthony Marinelli. The gong sound at the beginning of "Beat It" comes courtesy of the Synclavier. The Synclavier was extensively used on Jackson's 1987 album Bad and on its accompanying tour, programmed and played by Christopher Currell. The Synclavier was also used by Andrew Scheps to slice and edit Jackson's beatboxing on his 1995 album HIStory.
 * Eddie Jobson: the 1985 album Theme of Secrets was completely made with a Synclavier.
 * Shane Keister: used in the 1987 American comedy film Ernest Goes to Camp.
 * Mark Knopfler: Used on the scores for the films The Princess Bride (1987) and Last Exit to Brooklyn (1989), in which all sounds except guitar (and in the latter case, violins) were produced by the Synclavier. The Synclavier is also heard on the Dire Straits albums Love over Gold (1982, played by Alan Clark), Brothers in Arms (1985, played by Guy Fletcher), and On Every Street (1991).
 * Kraftwerk acquired one in the early to mid 1980s and initially used it to re work the material later released as Electric Cafe / Techno Pop, and also on live performances in the 1990s.
 * Dave Lawson
 * Mannheim Steamroller: used on most of their albums to present.
 * John McLaughlin used it on the albums Mahavishnu (1984) and Adventures in Radioland (1987).
 * Men Without Hats used on the 1984 album Folk of the 80s (Part III).
 * Pat Metheny: American jazz guitarist.
 * Walter "Junie" Morrison: used a Synclavier on his 1984 album, Evacuate Your Seats.
 * Mr. Mister: used Synclavier on albums I Wear the Face (1984), Welcome to the Real World (1985), and Go On... (1987).
 * Puscifer: the group used Synclavier on their 2020 album Existential Reckoning.
 * Danny Quatrochi used Synclavier on Sting's album The Dream of the Blue Turtles (1985).
 * Kashif Saleem, American post-disco and contemporary R&B record producer, multi-instrumentalist, also a creative consultant with the New England Digital Corporation: Bass synthesizer music pioneer and an early Synclavier II avid user who used Synclavier in production, for instance, of his Grammy-nominated instrumental piece "The Mood" (1983). His innovating vocalist-related sampling methods (created using Synclavier) are still in use.
 * Howard Shore, film score composer: pictured with a Synclavier on the cover of Berklee Today, Fall 1997.
 * Alan Silvestri: in producing the scores for the 1980s films The Clan of the Cave Bear (1986) and Flight of the Navigator (1986).
 * Paul Simon: on Simon's 1983 album Hearts and Bones, Tom Coppola is credited for Synclavier for "When Numbers Get Serious", "Think Too Much (b)", "Song About the Moon", and "Think Too Much (a)"; and Wells Christie is credited with Synclavier on "Rene And Georgette Magritte With Their Dog After The War". On his 1986 album Graceland, Simon is credited under "Synclavier" for "I Know What I Know" and "Gumboots".
 * Mark Snow: film and television score composer; Synclavier used on The X-Files (1993–2002).
 * James Stroud: producer who used a Synclavier II on many hit albums he produced.
 * Benny Andersson: his personal studio room is still centered around a Synclavier system — he has four systems. He’s been using it since Chess in 1985.
 * Tangerine Dream: used a Synclavier on several of their studio albums including Exit in 1981.
 * Mike Thorne: producer, one of the first musicians to buy a Synclavier; used it on records by Siouxsie and the Banshees, Soft Cell ("Tainted Love", 1981), Marc Almond, and Bronski Beat, among others.
 * Pete Townshend: started using the Synclavier on the recording of All the Best Cowboys Have Chinese Eyes (1982).
 * Triumph: Rik Emmett used a Synclavier 9600 around the period of Thunder Seven (1984) to Surveillance (1987).
 * Whodini: Synclavier II was used on albums Escape (1984) and Back in Black (1986).
 * Stevie Wonder: used a Synclavier to sample the voices of Clair Huxtable and children in an episode of The Cosby Show.
 * Neil Young, who used an early Synclavier II on his 1981 album Re·ac·tor, and more extensively on his uncharacteristically electronic Trans (1982).
 * Frank Zappa: in 1982 one of the first Synclavier owners; 1984's Thing-Fish (underscoring), Boulez Conducts Zappa: The Perfect Stranger (1984, underscoring) and Francesco Zappa (1984, solely Synclavier); 1985's Frank Zappa Meets the Mothers of Prevention (sampled sounds); 1986's Grammy-winning album Jazz from Hell ("St. Etienne" excepted, solely Synclavier); 1994's Civilization Phaze III completed in 1993 shortly before his death, released posthumously, musical portions composed and recorded exclusively using the Synclavier. Zappa also used the instrument to create the music posthumously released in 2011 on Feeding the Monkies at Ma Maison.
 * Greg Hawkes of The Cars used a Synclavier II on the Hearbeat City tour as well as Live Aid, primarily for the backing vocal samples in Drive.

title: Synclavier


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Dengue fever

Dengue fever is a mosquito-borne disease caused by dengue virus, prevalent in tropical and subtropical areas. It is frequently asymptomatic; if symptoms appear they typically begin 3 to 14 days after infection. These may include a high fever, headache, vomiting, muscle and joint pains, and a characteristic skin itching and skin rash. Recovery generally takes two to seven days. In a small proportion of cases, the disease develops into severe dengue (previously known as dengue hemorrhagic fever or dengue shock syndrome) with bleeding, low levels of blood platelets, blood plasma leakage, and dangerously low blood pressure.

Dengue virus has four confirmed serotypes; infection with one type usually gives lifelong immunity to that type, but only short-term immunity to the others. Subsequent infection with a different type increases the risk of severe complications. The symptoms of dengue resemble many other diseases including malaria, influenza, and Zika. Blood tests are available to confirm the diagnosis including detecting viral RNA, or antibodies to the virus.

There is no specific treatment for dengue fever. In mild cases, treatment is focused on treating pain symptoms. Severe cases of dengue require hospitalisation; treatment of acute dengue is supportive and includes giving fluid either by mouth or intravenously.

Dengue is spread by several species of female mosquitoes of the Aedes genus, principally Aedes aegypti. Infection can be prevented by mosquito elimination and the prevention of bites. Two types of dengue vaccine have been approved and are commercially available. Dengvaxia became available in 2016 but it is only recommended to prevent re-infection in individuals who have been previously infected. The second vaccine, Qdenga, became available in 2022 and is suitable for adults, adolescents and children from four years of age.

The earliest descriptions of a dengue outbreak date from 1779; its viral cause and spread were understood by the early 20th century. Already endemic in more than one hundred countries, dengue is spreading from tropical and subtropical regions to the Iberian Peninsula and the southern states of the US, partly attributed to climate change. It is classified as a neglected tropical disease. During 2023, more than 5 million infections were reported, with more than 5,000 dengue-related deaths. As most cases are asymptomatic or mild, the actual numbers of dengue cases and deaths are under-reported.

Signs and symptoms
Typically, people infected with dengue virus are asymptomatic (80%) or have only mild symptoms such as an uncomplicated fever. Others have more severe illness (5%), and in a small proportion it is life-threatening. The incubation period (time between exposure and onset of symptoms) ranges from 3 to 14 days, but most often it is 4 to 7 days.

The characteristic symptoms of mild dengue are sudden-onset fever, headache (typically located behind the eyes), muscle and joint pains, nausea, vomiting, swollen glands and a rash. If this progresses to severe dengue the symptoms are severe abdominal pain, persistent vomiting, rapid breathing, bleeding gums or nose, fatigue, restlessness, blood in vomit or stool, extreme thirst, pale and cold skin, and feelings of weakness.

Clinical course
The course of infection is divided into three phases: febrile, critical, and recovery.

The febrile phase involves high fever (40 °C/104 °F), and is associated with generalized pain and a headache; this usually lasts two to seven days. There may also be nausea, vomiting, a rash, and pains in the muscle and joints.

Most people recover within a week or so. In about 5% of cases, symptoms worsen and can become life-threatening. This is called severe dengue, (formerly called dengue hemorrhagic fever or dengue shock syndrome). Severe dengue can lead to shock, internal bleeding, organ failure and even death. Warning signs include severe stomach pain, vomiting, difficulty breathing, and blood in the nose, gums, vomit or stools.

During this period, there is leakage of plasma from the blood vessels, together with a reduction in platelets. This may result in fluid accumulation in the chest and abdominal cavity as well as depletion of fluid from the circulation and decreased blood supply to vital organs.

The recovery phase usually lasts two to three days. The improvement is often striking, and can be accompanied with severe itching and a slow heart rate.

Complications and sequelae
Complications following severe dengue include fatigue, somnolence, headache, concentration impairment and memory impairment. A pregnant woman who develops dengue is at higher risk of miscarriage, low birth weight birth, and premature birth.

Virology

Dengue virus (DENV) is an RNA virus of the family Flaviviridae; genus Flavivirus. Other members of the same genus include yellow fever virus, West Nile virus, and Zika virus. Dengue virus genome (genetic material) contains about 11,000 nucleotide bases, which code for the three structural protein molecules (C, prM and E) that form the virus particle and seven other protein molecules that are required for replication of the virus. There are four confirmed strains of the virus, called serotypes, referred to as DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3 and DENV-4. The distinctions between the serotypes are based on their antigenicity.

Transmission

Dengue virus is most frequently transmitted by the bite of mosquitos in the Aedes genus, particularly A. aegypti. They prefer to feed at dusk and dawn, but they may bite and thus spread infection at any time of day. Other Aedes species that may transmit the disease include A. albopictus, A. polynesiensis and A. scutellaris. Humans are the primary host of the virus, but it also circulates in nonhuman primates, and can infect other mammals. An infection can be acquired via a single bite.

For 2 to 10 days after becoming newly infected, a person's bloodstream will contain a high level of virus particles (the viremic period). A female mosquito that takes a blood meal from the infected host then propagates the virus in the cells lining its gut. Over the next few days, the virus spreads to other tissues including the mosquito's salivary glands and is released into its saliva. Next time the mosquito feeds, the infectious saliva will be injected into the bloodstream of its victim, thus spreading the disease. The virus seems to have no detrimental effect on the mosquito, which remains infected for life.

Dengue can also be transmitted via infected blood products and through organ donation. Vertical transmission (from mother to child) during pregnancy or at birth has been reported.

Risk factors
The principal risk for infection with dengue is the bite of an infected mosquito. This is more probable in areas where the disease is endemic, especially where there is high population density, poor sanitation, and standing water where mosquitoes can breed. It can be mitigated by taking steps to avoid bites such as by wearing clothing that fully covers the skin, using mosquito netting while resting, and/or the application of insect repellent (DEET being the most effective).

Chronic diseases – such as asthma, sickle cell anemia, and diabetes mellitus – increase the risk of developing a severe form of the disease. Other risk factors for severe disease include female sex, and high body mass index, Infection with one serotype is thought to produce lifelong immunity to that type, but only short-term protection against the other three. Subsequent re-infection with a different serotype increases the risk of severe complications due to phenomenon known as antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE). The exact mechanism of ADE is not fully understood. It appears that ADE occurs when the antibodies generated during an immune response recognize and bind to a pathogen, but they fail to neutralize it. Instead, the antibody-virus complex has an enhanced ability to bind to the Fcγ receptors of the target immune cells, enabling the virus to infect the cell and reproduce itself.

Mechanism of infection
When a mosquito carrying dengue virus bites a person, the virus enters the skin together with the mosquito's saliva. The virus infects nearby skin cells called keratinocytes, as well as specialized immune cell located in the skin, called a Langerhans cells. The Langerhans cells migrate to the lymph nodes, where the infection spreads to white blood cells, and reproduces inside the cells while they move throughout the body.

The white blood cells respond by producing several signaling proteins, such as cytokines and interferons, which are responsible for many of the symptoms, such as the fever, the flu-like symptoms, and the severe pains. In severe infection, the virus production inside the body is greatly increased, and many more organs (such as the liver and the bone marrow) can be affected. Fluid from the bloodstream leaks through the wall of small blood vessels into body cavities due to increased capillary permeability. As a result, blood volume decreases, and the blood pressure becomes so low that it cannot supply sufficient blood to vital organs. The spread of the virus to the bone marrow leads to reduced numbers of platelets, which are necessary for effective blood clotting; this increases the risk of bleeding, the other major complication of dengue fever.

Vector control
The principal risk for infection with dengue is the bite of an infected mosquito. This is more probable in areas where the disease is endemic, especially where there is high population density, poor sanitation, and standing water where mosquitoes can breed. It can be mitigated by taking steps to avoid bites such as by wearing clothing that fully covers the skin, using mosquito netting while resting, and/or the application of insect repellent (DEET being the most effective); it's also advisable to treat clothing, nets and tents with 0.5% permethrin.

Protection of the home can be achieved with door and window screens, by using air conditioning, and by regularly emptying and cleaning all receptacles both indoors and outdoors which may accumulate water (such as buckets, planters, pools or trashcans).

The primary method of controlling A. aegypti is by eliminating its habitats. This is done by eliminating open sources of water, or if this is not possible, by adding insecticides or biological control agents to these areas. Generalized spraying with organophosphate or pyrethroid insecticides, while sometimes done, is not thought to be effective. Reducing open collections of water through environmental modification is the preferred method of control, given the concerns of negative health effects from insecticides and greater logistical difficulties with control agents. Ideally, mosquito control would be a community activity, e.g. when all members of a community clear blocked gutters and street drains and keep their yards free of containers with standing water. If residences have direct water connections this eliminates the need for wells or street pumps and water-carrying containers.

Vaccine
As of March 2024, there are two vaccines to protect against dengue infection; Dengvaxia and Qdenga. Dengvaxia (formerly CYD-TDV) became available in 2015, and is approved for use in the US, EU and in some Asian and Latin American countries. It is an attenuated virus, is suitable for individuals aged 6–45 years and protects against all four serotypes of dengue. Due to safety concerns about antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE), it should only be given to individuals who have previously been infected with dengue, in order to protect them from reinfection. It is given subcutaneously as three doses at six month intervals.

Qdenga (formerly TAK-003) completed clinical trials in 2022 and was approved for use in the European Union in December 2022; it has been approved by a number of other countries including Indonesia and Brazil, and has been recommended by the SAGE committee of the World Health Organization. It is indicated for the prevention of dengue disease in individuals four years of age and older, and can be administered to people who have not been previously infected with dengue. It is a live attenuated vaccine containing the four serotypes of dengue virus, administered subcutaneously as two doses three months apart.

Severe disease
The World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases divides dengue fever into two classes: uncomplicated and severe. Severe dengue is defined as that associated with severe bleeding, severe organ dysfunction, or severe plasma leakage.

Severe dengue can develop suddenly, sometimes after a few days as the fever subsides. Leakage of plasma from the capillaries results in extreme low blood pressure and hypovolemic shock; Patients with severe plasma leakage may have fluid accumulation in the lungs or abdomen, insufficient protein in the blood, or thickening of the blood. Severe dengue is a medical emergency which can cause damage to organs, leading to multiple organ failure and death.

Diagnosis
Mild cases of dengue fever can easily be confused with several common diseases including Influenza, measles, chikungunya, and zika. Dengue, chikungunya and zika share the same mode of transmission (Aedes mosquitoes) and are often endemic in the same regions, so that it is possible to be infected simultaneously by more than one disease. For travellers, dengue fever diagnosis should be considered in anyone who develops a fever within two weeks of being in the tropics or subtropics.

Warning symptoms of severe dengue include abdominal pain, persistent vomiting, odema, bleeding, lethargy, and liver enlargement. Once again, these symptoms can be confused with other diseases such as malaria, gastroenteritis, leptospirosis, and typhus.

Blood tests can be used to confirm a diagnosis of dengue. During the first few days of infection, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) can be used to detect the NS1 antigen; however this antigen is produced by all flaviviruses. Four or five days into the infection, it is possible to reliably detect anti-dengue IgM antibodies, but this does not determine the serotype. Nucleic acid amplification tests provide the most reliable method of diagnosis.

Treatment
As of March 2024, there is no specific antiviral treatment available for dengue fever.

Most cases of dengue fever have mild symptoms, and recovery takes place in a few days. No treatment is required for these cases. Acetaminophen (Paracetamol, Tylenol) may be used to relieve mild fever or pain. Other common pain relievers, including aspirin, ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin IB, others) and naproxen sodium (Aleve) should be avoided as they can increase the risk of bleeding complications.

For moderate illness, those who can drink, are passing urine, have no warning signs and are otherwise reasonably healthy can be monitored carefully at home. Supportive care with analgesics, fluid replacement, and bed rest are recommended.

Severe dengue is a life-threatening emergency, requiring hospitalization and potentially intensive care. Warning signs include dehydration, decreasing platelets and increasing hematocrit. Treatment modes include intravenous fluids, and transfusion with platelets or plasma.

Prognosis
Most people with dengue recover without any ongoing problems. The risk of death among those with severe dengue is 0.8% to 2.5%, and with adequate treatment this is less than 1%. However, those who develop significantly low blood pressure may have a fatality rate of up to 26%. The risk of death among children less than five years old is four times greater than among those over the age of 10. Elderly people are also at higher risk of a poor outcome.

Epidemiology
As of March 2023, dengue is endemic in more than 100 countries with cases reported in every continent with the exception of Antarctica. The Americas, Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific regions are the most seriously affected. It is difficult to estimate the full extent of the disease, as many cases are mild and not correctly diagnosed. WHO currently estimates that 3.9 billion people are at risk of dengue infection. In 2013, it was estimated that 390 million dengue infections occur every year, with 500,000 of these developing severe symptoms and 25,000 deaths.

Generally, areas where dengue is endemic have only one serotype of the virus in circulation. The disease is said to be hyperendemic in areas where more than one serotype is circulating; this increases the risk of severe disease on a second or subsequent infection.

Infections are most commonly acquired in urban environments where the virus is primarily transmitted by the mosquito species Aedes aegypti. This species has adapted to the urban environment, is generally found close to human habitation, prefers humans as its host, and takes advantage of small bodies of standing water (such as tanks and buckets) in which to breed. In rural settings the virus is transmitted to humans by A. aegypti and other related mosquitoes such as Aedes albopictus. Both these species have expanding ranges.

Dengue has increased in incidence in recent decades, with WHO recording a ten fold increase between 2010 and 2019 (from 500,000 to 5 million recorded cases). This increase is tied closely to the increasing range of Aedes mosquitoes, which is attributed to a combination of urbanization, population growth, and an increasingly warm climate. In endemic areas, dengue infections peak when rainfall is optimal for mosquito breeding.

The disease infects all races, sexes, and ages equally. In endemic areas, the infection is most commonly seen in children who then acquire a lifelong partial immunity.

History
The first historical record of a case of probable dengue fever is in a Chinese medical encyclopedia from the Jin Dynasty (266–420) which referred to a "water poison" associated with flying insects.

The principal mosquito vector of dengue, Aedes aegypti, spread out of Africa in the 15th to 19th centuries due to the slave trade and consequent expansion of international trading. There have been descriptions of epidemics of dengue-like illness in the 17th century, and it is likely that epidemics in Jakarta, Cairo, and Philadelphia during the 18th century were caused by dengue.

It is assumed that dengue was constantly present in many tropical urban centres throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, even though significant outbreaks were infrequent. The marked spread of dengue during and after the Second World War has been attributed partly to disruption caused by the war, and partly to subsequent urbanisation in south-east Asia. As novel serotypes were introduced to regions already endemic with dengue, outbreaks of severe disease followed. The severe hemorrhagic form of the disease was first reported in the Philippines in 1953; by the 1970s, it had become recognised as a major cause of child mortality in Southeast Asia.

In Central and South America, the Aedes mosquito had been eradicated in the 1950s; however the eradication program was discontinued in the 1970s and the disease re-established itself in the region during the 1980s, becoming hyperendemic and causing significant epidemics.

Dengue has continued to increase in prevalence during the 21st century, as the mosquito vector continues to expand its range. This is attributed partly to continuing urbanisation, and partly to the impact of a warmer climate.

Etymology
The name came into English in the early 19th century from West Indian Spanish, which borrowed it from the Kiswahili term dinga / denga, meaning "cramp-like seizure" - the full term of the condition being ki-dinga pepo: "a sort of cramp-like seizure (caused by) an evil spirit". The borrowed term changed to dengue in Spanish due to this word existing in Spanish with the meaning "fastidiousness" and this folk etymology referring to the dislike of movement by affected patients. Slaves in the West Indies having contracted dengue were said to have the posture and gait of a dandy, and the disease was known as "dandy fever".

The term break-bone fever was applied by physician and United States Founding Father Benjamin Rush, in a 1789 report of the 1780 epidemic in Philadelphia, due to the associated muscle and joint pains. In the report title he uses the more formal term "bilious remitting fever". The term dengue fever came into general use only after 1828. Other historical terms include "breakheart fever" and "la dengue". Terms for severe disease include "infectious thrombocytopenic purpura" and "Philippine", "Thai", or "Singapore hemorrhagic fever".

Research
Research directions include dengue pathogenesis (the process by which the disease develops in humans), as well as the biology, ecology and behaviour of the mosquito vector. Improved diagnostics would enable faster and more appropriate treatment. Attempts are ongoing to develop an antiviral medicine targeting the NS3 or NS5 proteins.

In addition to the two vaccines which are already available, several vaccine candidates are in development.

Blood donation
Outbreaks of dengue fever increase the need for blood products while decreasing the number of potential blood donors due to potential infection with the virus. Someone who has a dengue infection is typically not allowed to donate blood for at least the next six months.

Public awareness

International Anti-Dengue Day is observed every year on 15 June in a number of countries. The idea was first agreed upon in 2010 with the first event held in Jakarta, Indonesia, in 2011. Further events were held in 2012 in Yangon, Myanmar, and in 2013 in Vietnam. Goals are to increase public awareness about dengue, mobilize resources for its prevention and control and, to demonstrate the Southeast Asian region's commitment in tackling the disease. Efforts are ongoing as of 2019 to make it a global event.

The Philippines has an awareness month in June since 1998.

A National Dengue Day is held in India annually on 16 May.

Economic burden
A study estimate that the global burden of dengue in 2013 amounted to US$8·9 billion.

title: Dengue fever


text:
Finger millet

Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) is an annual herbaceous plant widely grown as a cereal crop in the arid and semiarid areas in Africa and Asia. It is a tetraploid and self-pollinating species probably evolved from its wild relative Eleusine africana.

Finger millet is native to the Ethiopian and Ugandan highlands. Interesting crop characteristics of finger millet are the ability to withstand cultivation at altitudes over 2000 m above sea level, its high drought tolerance, and the long storage time of the grains.

History
Finger millet originated in East Africa (Ethiopian and Ugandan highlands). It was claimed to have been found in an Indian archaeological site dated to 1800 BCE (Late Bronze Age); however, this was subsequently demonstrated to be incorrectly identified cleaned grains of hulled millets. The oldest record of finger millet comes from an archaeological site in Africa dating to the 3rd millennium B.C.

By 1996, cultivation of finger millet in Africa was declining rapidly because of the large amount of labor it required, with farmers preferring to grow nutritionally-inferior but less labor-intensive crops such as maize, sorghum, and cassava. Such a decline was not seen in Asia, however.

Taxonomy and botanical description
Finger millet is under the genus Eleusine Gaertn.

Growing regions
Main cultivation areas are parts of eastern and southern Africa – particularly Uganda, Kenya, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, and Tanzania – and parts of India and Nepal. It is also grown in southern Sudan and "as far south" in Africa as Mozambique.

Climate requirements
Finger millet is a short-day plant with a growing optimum 12 hours of daylight for most varieties. Its main growing area ranges from 20°N to 20°S, meaning mainly the semiarid to arid tropics. Nevertheless, finger millet is found to be grown at 30°N in the Himalaya region (India and Nepal). It is generally considered as a drought-tolerant crop, but compared with other millets, such as pearl millet and sorghum, it prefers moderate rainfall (500 mm annually). The majority of worldwide finger millet farmers grow it rainfed, although yields often can be significantly improved when irrigation is applied. In India, finger millet is a typical rabi (dry-winter season) crop. Heat tolerance of finger millet is high. For Ugandan finger millet varieties, for instance, the optimal average growth temperature ranges at about 27 °C, while the minimal temperatures should not be lower than 18 °C. Relative to other species (pearl millet and sorghum), finger millet has a higher tolerance to cool temperatures. It is grown from about 500 to 2400 m above sea level (e.g. in Himalaya region). Hence, it can be cultivated on higher elevations than most tropical crops. Finger millet can grow on various soils, including highly weathered tropical lateritic soils. It thrives in free-draining soils with steady moisture levels. Furthermore, it can tolerate soil salinity up to a certain extent. Its ability to bear waterlogging is limited, so good drainage of the soils and moderate water-holding capacity are optimal. Finger millet can tolerate moderately acidic soils (pH 5), but also moderately alkaline soils (pH 8.2).

Cropping systems

Finger millet monocrops grown under rainfed conditions are most common in drier areas of Eastern Africa. In addition, intercropping with legumes, such as cowpea or pigeon pea, are also quite common in East Africa. Tropical Central Africa supports scattered regions of finger millet intercropping mostly with legumes, but also with cassava, plantain, and vegetables.

Most common finger millet intercropping systems in South India are as follows:
 * With legumes: Finger millet/dolichos, finger millet/pigeonpea, finger millet/black gram, finger millet/castor
 * With cereals: Finger millet/maize, finger millet/foxtail millet, finger millet/jowar, finger millet/little millet
 * With other species: Finger millet/brassicas, finger millet/mustard

Weeds
Weeds are the major biotic stresses for finger millet cultivation. Its seeds are very small, which leads to a relatively slow development in early growing stages. This makes finger millet a weak competitor for light, water, and nutrients compared with weeds. In East and Southern Africa, the closely related species Eleusine indica (common name Indian goose grass) is a severe weed competitor of finger millet. Especially in early growing stages of the crop and the weed and when broadcast seeding instead of row seeding is applied (as often the case in East Africa), the two species are very difficult to distinguish. Besides Eleusine indica, the species Xanthium strumarium, which is animal dispersed and the stolon-owning species Cyperus rotondus and Cynodon dactylon are important finger millet weeds. Measures to control weeds include cultural, physical, and chemical methods. Cultural methods could be sowing in rows instead of broadcast sowing to make distinction between finger millet seedlings and E. indica easier when hand weeding. ICRISAT promotes cover crops and crop rotations to disrupt the growing cycle of the weeds. Physical weed control in financial resource-limited communities growing finger millet are mainly hand weeding or weeding with a hand hoe.

Diseases and pests
Finger millet is generally seen as not very prone to diseases and pests. Nonetheless, finger millet blast, caused by the fungal pathogen Magnaporthe grisea (anamorph Pyricularia grisea), can locally cause severe damages, especially when untreated. In Uganda, yield losses up to 80% were reported in bad years. The pathogen leads to drying out of leaves, neck rots, and ear rots. These symptoms can drastically impair photosynthesis, translocation of photosynthetic assimilates, and grain filling, so reduce yield and grain quality. Finger millet blast can also infest finger millet weeds such as the closely related E. indica, E. africana, Digitaria spp., Setaria spp., and Doctylocterium spp. Finger millet blast can be controlled with cultural measures, chemical treatments, and the use of resistant varieties. Researchers in Kenya have screened wild relatives of finger millet and landraces for resistance to blast. Cultural measures to control finger millet blast suggested by ICRISAT for Eastern Africa include crop rotations with nonhost crops such as legumes, deep ploughing under of finger millet straw on infected fields, washing of field tools after use to prevent dissemination of the pathogen to uninfected fields, weed control to reduce infections by weed hosts, and avoiding of high plant densities to impede the pathogen dispersal from plant to plant. Chemical measures can be direct spraying of systemic fungicides, such as the active ingredients pyroquilon or seed dressings with fungicides, such as trycyclozole.

Striga, a parasitic weed which occurs naturally in parts of Africa, Asia, and Australia, can severely affect the crop and yield losses in finger millet and other cereals by 20 to 80%. Striga can be controlled with limited success by hand weeding, herbicide application, crop rotations, improved soil fertility, intercropping and biological control. The most economically feasible and environmentally friendly control measure would be to develop and use Striga-resistant cultivars. Striga resistant genes have not been identified yet in cultivated finger millet but could be found in crop wild relatives of finger millet. Another pathogen in finger millet cultivation is the fungus Helminthosporium nodulosum, causing leaf blight. Finger millet pests are bird predators, such as quelea in East Africa.

Insects
The pink stem borer (Sesamia inferens) and the finger millet shoot fly (Atherigona miliaceae) are considered as the most relevant insect pests in finger millet cultivation. Measures to control Sesamia inferens are uprooting of infected plants, destroying of stubbles, having a crop rotation, chemical control with insecticides, biological measures such as pheromone traps, or biological pest control with the use of antagonistic organisms (e.g. Sturmiopsis inferens).

Other insect pests include:

 * Root feeders
 * root aphid Tetraneura nigriabdominalis

 * Shoot and stem feeders
 * Atherigona miliaceae and Atherigona soccata
 * Sesamia inferens
 * stem weevil Listronotus bonariensis

 * Leaf feeders
 * hairy caterpillars, Amsacta albistriga, Amsacta transiens, and Amsacta moorei
 * cutworms, Agrotis ipsilon
 * armyworm larvae of Spodoptera exempta, Spodoptera mauritia, and Mythimna separata
 * leaf-folder Cnaphalocrocis medinalis larvae
 * skipper Pelopidas mathias larvae
 * grasshoppers, Chrotogonus hemipterus, Nomadacris septemfasciata, and Locusta migratoria
 * beetle grubs of Chnootriba similis
 * thrip, Heliothrips indicus

 * Sucking pests
 * aphids, Hysteroneura setariae, Metopolophium dirhodum, Rhopalosiphum maidis, and Sitobion miscanthi
 * mealy bug, Brevennia rehi
 * leaf hoppers Cicadulina bipunctella and Cicadulina chinai

Propagation and sowing
Propagation in finger millet farming is done mainly by seeds. In rainfed cropping, four sowing methods are used:
 * Broadcasting: Seeds are directly sown in the field. This is the common method because it is the easiest way and no special machinery is required. The organic weed management with this method is a problem, because it is difficult to distinguish between weed and crop.
 * Line Sowing: Improved sowing compared to broadcasting. Facilitates organic weed management due to better distinction of weed and crop. In this method, spacing of 22 cm to 30 cm between lines and 8 cm to 10 cm within lines should be maintained. The seeds should be sown about 3 cm deep in the soil.
 * Drilling in rows: Seeds are sown directly in the untreated soil by using a direct-seed drill. This method is used in conservation agriculture.
 * Transplanting the seedlings: Raising the seedlings in nursery beds and transplant to the main field. Leveling and watering of beds is required during transplanting. Seedlings with 4 weeks age should be transplanted in the field. For early Rabi and Kharif season, seedlings should be transplanted at 25 cm x 10 cm and for late Kharif season at 30 cm x 10 cm. Planting should be done 3 cm depth in the soil

Harvest
Crop does not mature uniformly and hence the harvest is to be taken up in two stages. When the earhead on the main shoot and 50% of the earheads on the crop turn brown, the crop is ready for the first harvest. At the first harvest, all earheads that have turned brown should be cut. After this drying, threshing and cleaning the grains by winnowing. The second harvest is around seven days after the first. All earheads, including the green ones, should be cut. The grains should then be cured to obtain maturity by heaping the harvested earheads in shade for one day without drying, so that the humidity and temperature increase and the grains get cured. After this drying, threshing and cleaning as after the first harvesting.

Storage
Once harvested, the seeds keep extremely well and are seldom attacked by insects or moulds. Finger millet can be kept for up to 10 years when it is unthreshed. Some sources report a storage duration up to 50 years under good storage conditions. The long storage capacity makes finger millet an important crop in risk-avoidance strategies as a famine crop for farming communities.

Milling
As a first step of processing finger millet can be milled to produce flour. However, finger millet is difficult to mill due to the small size of the seeds and because the bran is bound very tightly to the endosperm. Furthermore, the delicate seed can get crushed during the milling. The development of commercial mechanical milling systems for finger millet is challenging. Therefore, the main product of finger millet is whole grain flour. This has disadvantages, such as reduced storage time of the flour due to the high oil content. Furthermore, the industrial use of whole grain finger millet flour is limited. Moistening the millet seeds prior to grinding helps to remove the bran mechanically without causing damage to the rest of the seed. The mini millet mill can also be used to process other grains such as wheat and sorghum.

Malting
Another method to process the finger millet grain is germinating the seed. This process is also called malting and is very common in the production of brewed beverages such as beer. When finger millet is germinated, enzymes are activated, which transfer starches into other carbohydrates such as sugars. Finger millet has a good malting activity. The malted finger millet can be used as a substrate to produce for example gluten-free beer or easily digestible food for infants.

Nutrition
Finger millet is 11% water, 7% protein, 54% carbohydrates, and 2% fat (table). In a 100 gram (3.5 oz) reference amount, finger millet supplies 305 calories, and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of dietary fiber and several dietary minerals, especially iron at 87% DV (table).

Growing finger millet to improve nutrition
The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), a member of the CGIAR consortium, partners with farmers, governments, researchers and NGOs to help farmers grow nutritious crops, including finger millet. This helps their communities have more balanced diets and become more resilient to pests and drought. For example, the Harnessing Opportunities for Productivity Enhancement of Sorghum and Millets in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia (HOPE) project is increasing yields of finger millet in Tanzania by encouraging farmers to grow improved varieties.

Use
Finger millet can be ground into a flour and cooked into cakes, puddings or porridge. The flour is made into a fermented drink (or beer) in Nepal and in many parts of Africa. The straw from finger millet is used as animal fodder.

In India

Finger millet is a staple grain in many parts of India, especially Karnataka, where it is known as ragi (from Kannada ರಾಗಿ rāgi). It is malted and its grain is ground into flour. The flour is consumed with milk, boiled water, or yogurt. The flour is made into flatbreads, including thin, leavened dosa and thicker, unleavened roti.

There are numerous ways to prepare finger millet, including dosa, idli, and laddu. In southern India, on pediatrician's recommendation, finger millet is used in preparing baby food, because of millet's high nutritional content, especially iron and calcium. Satva, pole (dosa), bhakri, ambil (a sour porridge), and pappad are common dishes made using finger millet. In Karnataka, finger millet is generally consumed in the form of a porridge called ragi mudde in Kannada. It is the staple diet of many residents of South Karnataka. Mudde is prepared by cooking the ragi flour with water to achieve a dough-like consistency. This is then rolled into balls of desired size and consumed with sambar (huli), saaru (ಸಾರು), or curries. Ragi is also used to make roti, idli, dosa and conjee. In the Malnad region of Karnataka, the whole ragi grain is soaked and the milk is extracted to make a dessert known as keelsa. A type of flat bread is prepared using finger millet flour (called ragi rotti in Kannada) in Northern districts of Karnataka.

In Tamil Nadu, ragi is called kezhvaragu (கேழ்வரகு) and also has other names like keppai, ragi, and ariyam. Ragi is dried, powdered, and boiled to form a thick mass that is allowed to cool. This is the famed kali or keppai kali. This is made into large balls to quantify the intake. It is taken with sambar or kuzhambu. For children, ragi is also fed with milk and sugar (malt). It is also made in the form of pancakes with chopped onions and tomatoes. Kezhvaragu is used to make puttu with jaggery or sugar. Ragi is called koozh – a staple diet in farming communities, eaten along with raw onions and green chillies. In Andhra Pradesh, ragi sankati or ragi muddha – ragi balls – are eaten in the morning with chilli, onions, and sambar. In Kerala, puttu, a traditional breakfast dish, can be made with ragi flour and grated coconut, which is then steamed in a cylindrical steamer. In the tribal and western hilly regions of Odisha, ragi or mandiaa is a staple food. In the Garhwal and Kumaon regions of Uttarakhand, koda or maduwa is made into thick rotis (served with ghee), and also made into badi, which is similar to halwa but without sugar. In the Kumaon region, ragi is traditionally fed to women after child birth. In some parts of Kumaon region the ragi flour is used to make various snacks like namkeen sev, mathri and chips.

In South and Far East Asia
In Nepal, a thick dough (ḍhĩḍo) made of millet flour (kōdō) is cooked and eaten by hand. The dough, on other hand, can be made into thick bread (rotee) spread over flat utensil and heating it. Fermented millet is used to make a beer chhaang and the mash is distilled to make a liquor (rakśiशी). Whole grain millet is fermented to make tongba. Its use in holy Hindu practices is barred especially by upper castes. In Nepal, the National Plant Genetic Resource Centre at Khumaltar maintains 877 accessions (samples) of Nepalese finger millet (kodo).

In Sri Lanka, finger millet is called kurakkan and is made into kurakkan roti – an earthy brown thick roti with coconut and thallapa – a thick dough made of ragi by boiling it with water and some salt until like a dough ball. It is then eaten with a spicy meat curry and is usually swallowed in small balls, rather than chewing. It is also eaten as a porridge (kurrakan kenda) and as a sweet called 'Halape'. In northwest Vietnam, finger millet is used as a medicine for women at childbirth. A minority use finger millet flour to make alcohol.

As beverage
Ragi malt porridge is made from finger millet which is soaked and shadow dried, then roasted and ground. This preparation is boiled in water and used as a substitute for milk powder-based beverages.

title: Finger millet


text:
Gas sculpture

Gas sculpture is a concept introduced by Joan Miró to make sculptures out of gaseous materials. The idea of a gas sculpture also appeared in the book Gog, by Giovanni Papini (1881–1956).

An example of pure water fog sculpture is in the sculpture garden at the National Gallery of Australia in Canberra. A large bank of very small nozzles is arrayed on the edge of a small rush-filled pond, and when the power is switched on a fine mist of fog billows out. The "sculpture" has a continuously changing shape as it is affected by the water, the rushes, and the air currents in the area.

Technology
Cold water fog nozzle technologies were developed by industry in the late 1960s for factory air particulate control and agricultural orchard freeze prevention. These high pressure systems force filtered water at 1500 to(-) through custom nozzles to atomize the water into billions of ultra-fine droplets below 10 um in size. In industrial applications this also provides cooling due to rapid evaporation.

Artists use this cold water fog technology to make experimental artworks that allow the viewer to safely interact and become fully immersed in the fog.

High temperature steam fog from underground steam utility lines used for commercial heat transfer, and small boiler sources, are also used by artists for atmospheric visual displays, and as a dynamic projection surfaces.

In the commercial entertainment industry these various water fog systems are used for special effects in movies, and for theme park atmospherics.

Some kinetic sculptures contain other gaseous elements, such as the sculptures of Jean-Paul Riopelle's La Joute, which includes natural gas fire jets, a water fountain, and bronze sculptural elements.

Contemporary fog sculptures
A large scale use of cold water fog is the Blur Building (2002), an exhibition pavilion built for Swiss Expo.02 on Lake Neuchatel by architects Diller Scofidio + Renfro. This is an architecture described as "an inhabitable cloud whirling above a lake", built with an atmosphere of fog surrounding a lightweight tensegrity structure 20 by.

The primary visible building material is water. Water pumped from the lake is filtered and atomized to a fine mist through an array of 31,400 high-pressure nozzles. The nozzle pressures are regulated by a computer processor and a smart weather system that reads temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction. The fog created is thus in constant change, an interplay of natural and man-made forces.

Two bridges connect the building with the shore, four hundred visitors at a time can enter the building and be within the fog mass. Inside the fog, one's normal spatial references are lost when immersed within an optical “whiteout”, and the “white noise” of hissing nozzles.

Artistic use of steam fog was pioneered in the collaborative Center Beam artwork by the Center for Advanced Visual Studies at MIT. First shown in 1977 at documenta 6 in Kassel, Germany, it included steam works by Joan Brigham, Otto Piene, and Paul Earls. For Center Beam, a low pressure hot water steam fog became a medium to project lasers, holograms, films and text onto.

The Children's Museum of Pittsburgh is planning a new park with a fog sculpture created by Ned Kahn. Set for completion in 2012, the sculpture will be a 30 by grid of stainless steel poles outfitted with fog nozzles. Kahn said of the sculpture, "When the fog is on, it will appear like a 20-foot-diameter sphere [20 ft] of fog spinning inside the poles."

Other contemporary sculptures in which fog is used as a medium of expression are: Harbor Fog, a viewer responsive artwork in the parkland above Boston's Big Dig highway; Cloud RIngs (2006) by Ned Kahn at the 21c Museum Hotel in Louisville, Kentucky; and the interactive landscape of Dilworth Plaza at Philadelphia City Hall (completion date 2013).

title: Gas sculpture