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Oscar Niemeyer

Oscar Ribeiro de Almeida Niemeyer Soares Filho (15 December 1907 – 5 December 2012), known as Oscar Niemeyer, was a Brazilian architect considered to be one of the key figures in the development of modern architecture. Niemeyer was best known for his design of civic buildings for Brasília, a planned city that became Brazil's capital in 1960, as well as his collaboration with other architects on the headquarters of the United Nations in New York. His exploration of the aesthetic possibilities of reinforced concrete was highly influential in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.

Both lauded and criticized for being a "sculptor of monuments", Niemeyer was hailed as a great artist and one of the greatest architects of his generation by his supporters. He said his architecture was strongly influenced by Le Corbusier, but in an interview, assured that this "didn't prevent [his] architecture from going in a different direction". Niemeyer was most famous for his use of abstract forms and curves and wrote in his memoirs:

"I am not attracted to straight angles or to the straight line, hard and inflexible, created by man. I am attracted to free-flowing, sensual curves. The curves that I find in the mountains of my country, in the sinuousness of its rivers, in the waves of the ocean, and on the body of the beloved woman. Curves make up the entire Universe, the curved Universe of Einstein."

Niemeyer was educated at the Escola Nacional de Belas Artes at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, and after graduating, he worked at his father's typography house and as a draftsman for local architectural firms. In the 1930s, he interned with Lúcio Costa, with the pair collaborating on the design for the Palácio Gustavo Capanema in Rio de Janeiro. Niemeyer's first major project was a series of buildings for Pampulha, a planned suburb north of Belo Horizonte. His work, especially on the Church of Saint Francis of Assisi, received critical acclaim and drew international attention. Throughout the 1940s and 1950s, Niemeyer became one of Brazil's most prolific architects, working both domestically and overseas. This included the design of the Edifício Copan (a large residential building in São Paulo) and a collaboration with Le Corbusier (and others) on the United Nations Headquarters, which yielded invitations to teach at Yale University and the Harvard Graduate School of Design.

In 1956, Niemeyer was invited by Brazil's new president, Juscelino Kubitschek, to design the civic buildings for Brazil's new capital, Brasília. His designs for the National Congress of Brazil, the Cathedral of Brasília, the Palácio da Alvorada, the Palácio do Planalto, and the Supreme Federal Court, all designed by 1960, were experimental and linked by common design elements. This work led to his appointment as inaugural head of architecture at the University of Brasília, as well as honorary membership of the American Institute of Architects. Due to his largely left-wing ideology, and involvement with the Brazilian Communist Party (PCB), Niemeyer left the country after the 1964 military coup and opened an office in Paris. He returned to Brazil in 1985, and was awarded the prestigious Pritzker Architecture Prize in 1988. A socialist and atheist from an early age, Niemeyer had spent time in both Cuba and the Soviet Union during his exile, and on his return served as the PCB's president from 1992 to 1996. Niemeyer continued working at the end of the 20th and early 21st century, notably designing the Niterói Contemporary Art Museum (1996) and the Oscar Niemeyer Museum (2002). Over a career of 78 years he designed approximately 600 projects. Niemeyer died in Rio de Janeiro on 5 December 2012 at the age of 104.

Early life and education

Niemeyer was born in the city of Rio de Janeiro on 15 December 1907. His great-grandfather was a Portuguese immigrant who, in turn, was the grandson of a German soldier who had settled in Portugal. Niemeyer spoke about it: "my name ought to have been Oscar Ribeiro de Almeida de Niemeyer Soares, or simply Oscar de Almeida Soares, but the foreign surname prevailed and I am known simply as Oscar Niemeyer". He spent his youth as a typical young Carioca of the time: bohemian and relatively unconcerned with his future. In 1928, at age 21, Niemeyer left school (Santo Antonio Maria Zaccaria priory school) and married Annita Baldo, daughter of Italian immigrants from Padua.

He pursued his passion at the National School of Fine Arts in Rio de Janeiro (Escola Nacional de Belas Artes) and graduated with a BA in architecture in 1934.

Early career
After graduating, he worked in his father's typography house. Even though he was not financially stable, he insisted on working in the architecture studio of Lúcio Costa, Gregori Warchavchik and Carlos Leão, even though they could not pay him. Niemeyer joined them as a draftsman, an art that he mastered (Corbusier himself would later compliment Niemeyer's 'beautiful perspectives' ). The contact with Costa would be extremely important to Niemeyer's maturation. Costa, after an initial flirtation with the Neocolonial movement, realized that the advances of the International Style in Europe were the way forward for architecture. His writings on the insights that could unite Brazil's traditional colonial architecture (such as that in Olinda) with modernist principles would be the basis of the architecture that he and his contemporaries, such as Affonso Eduardo Reidy, would later realize.

In 1936, at 29, Lúcio Costa was appointed by Education Minister Gustavo Capanema to design the new headquarters of the Ministry of Education and Health in Rio de Janeiro. Costa himself, although open to change, was unsure of how to proceed. He assembled a group of young architects (Carlos Leão, Affonso Eduardo Reidy, Jorge Moreira and Ernani Vasconcellos) to design the building. He also insisted that Le Corbusier himself should be invited as a consultant. Though Niemeyer was not initially part of the team, Costa agreed to accept him after Niemeyer insisted. During the period of Le Corbusier's stay in Rio, he was appointed to help the master with his drafts, which allowed him a close contact with the Swiss. After his departure, Niemeyer's significant changes to Corbusier's scheme impressed Costa, who allowed him to progressively take charge of the project, of which he assumed leadership in 1939.

Brazilian modernism
The Ministry of Education had assumed the task of shaping the "novo homem, Brasileiro e moderno" (new man, Brazilian and modern). It was the first state-sponsored modernist skyscraper in the world, of a much larger scale than anything Le Corbusier had built until then. Completed in 1943, when he was 36 years old, the building that housed the regulator and manager of Brazilian culture and cultural heritage developed the elements of what was to become recognized as Brazilian modernism. It employed local materials and techniques, like the azulejos linked to the Portuguese tradition; the revolutionized Corbusian brises-soleil, made adjustable and related to the Moorish shading devices of colonial architecture; bold colors; the tropical gardens of Roberto Burle Marx; the Imperial Palm (Roystonea oleracea), known as the Brazilian order; further allusions to the icons of the Brazilian landscape; and specially commissioned works by Brazilian artists. This building is considered by some architects as one of the most influential of the 20th century. It was taken as a model on how to blend low- and high-rise structures (Lever House).

1939 New York World's Fair
In 1939, at age 32, Niemeyer and Costa designed the Brazilian pavilion for the New York World's Fair (executed in collaboration with Paul Lester Wiener). Neighbouring the much larger French pavilion, the Brazilian structure contrasted with its heavy mass. Costa explained that the Brazilian Pavilion adopted a language of 'grace and elegance', lightness and spatial fluidity, with an open plan, curves and free walls, which he termed 'Ionic', contrasting it to the mainstream contemporary modernist architecture, which he termed 'Doric'. Impressed by its avant-garde design, Mayor Fiorello La Guardia awarded Niemeyer the keys to the city of New York.

In 1937, Niemeyer was invited by a relative to design a nursery for philanthropic institution which catered for young mothers, the Obra do Berço. It would become his first finalised work. However, Niemeyer has said that his architecture really began in Pampulha, Minas Gerais, and as he explained in an interview, ''Pampulha was the starting point of this freer architecture full of curves which I still love even today. It was in fact, the beginning of Brasília ...''.

Pampulha Project
In 1940, at 33, Niemeyer met Juscelino Kubitschek, who was at the time the mayor of Belo Horizonte, capital of the state of Minas Gerais. Kubitschek, together with the state's governor Benedito Valadares, wanted to develop a new suburb to the north of the city called Pampulha and commissioned Niemeyer to design a series of buildings which would become known as the "Pampulha architectural complex". The complex included a casino, a restaurant/dance hall, a yacht club, a golf club and a church, all of which would be distributed around a new artificial lake. A weekend retreat for the mayor was built near the lake.

The buildings were completed in 1943 and received international acclaim following the 1943 'Brazil Builds' exhibition, at the New York Museum of Modern Art (MoMA). Most of the buildings show Niemeyer's particular approach to the Corbusian language. In the casino, with its relatively rigid main façade, Niemeyer departed from Corbusian principles and designed curved volumes outside the confinement of a rational grid. He also expanded upon Corbusier's idea of a promenade architecturale with his designs for floating catwalk-like ramps which unfold open vistas to the occupants.

The small restaurant (Casa do Baile), which is perhaps the least bourgeois of the complex, is built on its own artificial island and comprises an approximately circular block from which a free-form marquee follows the contour of the island. Although free form had been used even in Corbusier's and Mies's architecture, its application on an outdoors marquee was Niemeyer's innovation. This application of free-form, together with the butterfly roof used at the Yacht Club and Kubitschek's house became extremely fashionable from then on.

The Saint Francis of Assisi church is considered the masterpiece of the complex. When it was built, reinforced concrete was used in traditional ways, such as in pillar, beam and slab structures. Auguste Perret, in Casablanca and Robert Maillart in Zurich had experimented with the plastic freedom of concrete, taking advantage of the parabolic arch's geometry to build extremely thin shells. Niemeyer's decision to use such an economical approach, based on the inherent plasticity allowed by reinforced concrete was revolutionary. According to Joaquim Cardoso, the unification of wall and roof into a single element was revolutionary for fusing vertical and horizontal elements. The church's exuberance added to the integration between architecture and art. The church is covered by Azulejos by Portinari and tile murals by Paulo Werneck. It led to the church being seen as baroque. Though some European purists condemned its formalism, the fact that the form's idea was directly linked to a logical, structural reason placed the building in the 20th century, while refusing to break completely from the past.

Due to its importance in the history of architecture, the church was the first listed modern building in Brazil. This fact did not influence the conservative church authorities of Minas Gerais, who refused to consecrate it until 1959, in part because of its unorthodox form and in part because of Portinari's altar mural, which depicts Saint Francis as the savior of the ill, the poor and, most importantly, the sinner.

Niemeyer stated that Pampulha offered him the opportunity to 'challenge the monotony of contemporary architecture, the wave of misinterpreted functionalism that hindered it and the dogmas of form and function that had emerged, counteracting the plastic freedom that reinforced concrete introduced. I was attracted by the curve – the liberated, sensual curve suggested by the possibilities of new technology yet so often recalled in venerable old baroque churches. [...] I deliberately disregarded the right angle and rationalist architecture designed with ruler and square to boldly enter the world of curves and straight lines offered by reinforced concrete. [...] This deliberate protest arose from the environment in which I lived, with its white beaches, its huge mountains, its old baroque churches and the beautiful suntanned women.'

The experience also marked the first collaborations between Niemeyer and Roberto Burle Marx, considered the most important modern landscape architect. They would be partners in many projects in the next 10 years.

1940s and 1950s
With the success of Pampulha and the Brazil Builds exhibition, Niemeyer achieved international recognition. His architecture further developed the Brazilian style that the Saint Francis of Assisi Church and, to a lesser extent (due to its primary Corbusian language) the Ministry building, had pioneered. Works of this period shows the traditional modernist method in which form follows function, but Niemeyer's (and other Brazilian architects) handling of scale, proportion and program allowed him to resolve complex problems with simple and intelligent plans. Stamo Papadaki in his monography on Niemeyer mentioned the spatial freedom that characterized his work. The headquarters of the Banco Boavista, inaugurated in 1948 show such an approach. Dealing with a typical urban site, Niemeyer adopted creative solutions to enliven the otherwise monolithic high rise, thus challenging the predominant solidity which was the norm for bank buildings. The glazed south façade (with least insulation) reflects the 19th century Candelária Church, showing Niemeyer's sensitivity to the surroundings and older architecture. Such austere designs to high rises within urban grids can also be seen in the Edifício Montreal (1951–1954), Edifício Triângulo (1955) and the Edifício Sede do Banco Mineiro da Produção.

In 1947, Niemeyer returned to New York City to integrate the international team working on the design for the United Nations headquarters. Niemeyer's scheme 32 was approved by the Board of Design, but he eventually gave in to pressure by Le Corbusier, and together they submitted project 23/32 (developed with Bodiansky and Weissmann), which combined elements from Niemeyer's and Le Corbusier's schemes. Despite Le Corbusier's insistence to remain involved, the design was carried forward by the Director of Planning, Wallace Harrison and Max Abramovitz, then a partnership.

Tremaine House (unbuilt)
This stay in the United States also facilitated contact regarding the unbuilt Burton G. Tremaine house project, one of Niemeyer's boldest residential designs. Amidst gardens by Roberto Burle Marx, it featured an open plan in Montecito, California on the Pacific Ocean. In February–April 1949, the Museum of Modern Art exhibited From Le Corbusier to Niemeyer: Savoye House – Tremaine House 1949. According to the museum, "The theme of this show is based on Henry Russell-Hitchcock's book on the Miller Company Collection of Abstract Art, Painting toward architecture...". In 2010, Berry Bergdoll, a curator at MoMA asserted the importance of the exhibition as fusing strands of the geometric and organic soon after WWII. Hitchcock's seminal essay in the Painting toward architecture book included an illustration of Niemeyer's design, and in an associated 28-venue exhibition, Burle-Marx's Design for a garden (1948) was exhibited in several shows, as was a photo mural of Church at Pampulha.

Niemeyer produced very few designs for the United States because his affiliation to the Communist Party usually prevented him from obtaining a visa. This happened in 1946 when he was invited to teach at Yale University, when his political views cost him a visa. In 1953, at 46, Niemeyer was appointed dean of the Harvard Graduate School of Design, but because of his political views the United States government denied his visa therefore preventing him from entering the country.

In 1950 the first book about his work to be published in the United States, The Work of Oscar Niemeyer by Stamo Papadaki, was released. It was the first systematic study of his architecture, which significantly contributed to the awareness of his work abroad. It would be followed in 1956 by Oscar Niemeyer: Works in Progress, by the same author. By this time, Niemeyer was already self-confident and following his own path internationally. In 1948 Niemeyer departed from the parabolic arches he had designed in Pampulha to further explore his signature material, concrete.

Niemeyer's formal creativity has been compared to that of sculptors. In the 1950s, a time of intensive construction in Brazil produced numerous commissions. Yves Bruand stressed that Niemeyer's 1948 project for a theatre next to the Ministry of Education and Health allowed him to develop his vocabulary. In 1950 he was asked to design São Paulo's Ibirapuera Park for the city's 400th anniversary celebration. The plan, which consisted of several porticoed pavilions related via a gigantic free form marquee, had to be simplified due to cost. The resulting buildings were less interesting individually, which meant that the ensemble effect became the dominant aesthetic experience. Niemeyer developed V-shaped pilotis for the project, which became fashionable for a time. A variation on that theme was the W-shaped piloti which supports the Governador Juscelino Kubitschek housing complex (1951), two large buildings containing around 1,000 apartments. Its design was based on Niemeyer's scheme for the Quitandinha apartment hotel in Petrópolis designed one year earlier, but never realised. At 33 stories and over 400 meters long, it was to contain 5,700 living units together with communal services such as shops, schools etc., his version of Corbusier's Unité d'Habitation.

A similar program was realized in the centre of São Paulo, the Copan apartment building (1953–66). This landmark represents a microcosm of the diverse population of the city. Its horizontality, which is emphasized by the concrete brise-soleil, together with the fact that it was a residential building made it an interesting approach to popular housing, given that in the 1950s suburbanization had begun and city centres were being occupied primarily by business, usually occupying vertical "masculine" buildings, as opposed to Niemeyer's "feminine" approach. In 1954 Niemeyer also designed the "Niemeyer apartment building" at the Praça da Liberdade, Belo Horizonte. The building's completely free form layout is reminiscent of Mies van der Rohe's 1922 glass skyscraper, although with a much more material feel than the airy German one. Also in 1954 as part of the same plaza Niemeyer built a library the (Biblioteca Pública Estadual).

During this period Niemeyer built several residences. Among them were a weekend house for his father, in Mendes (1949), developed from a chicken coop, the Prudente de Morais Neto house, in Rio (1943–49), based on Niemeyer's original design for Kubitschek's house in Pampulha, a house for Gustavo Capanema (1947) (the minister who commissioned the Ministry of Education and Health building), the Leonel Miranda house (1952), featuring two spiral ramps which provide access to the butterfly-roofed first floor, lifted up on oblique piloti. These houses featured the same inclined façade used in the Tremaine design, which allowed good natural lighting. In 1954 he built the famous Cavanelas house, with its tent-like metallic roof and which, with the help of Burle Marx's gardens, is perfectly adapted to its mountainous site. However, his residential (and free-form architecture) masterpiece is considered to be the 1953 Canoas House Niemeyer built for himself. The house is located on sloped terrain overlooking the ocean from afar. It comprises two floors, the first of which is under a free form roof, supported on thin metallic columns. The living quarters is located on the floor below and is more traditionally divided. The design takes advantage of the uneven terrain so that the house seems not to disturb the landscape. Although the house is extremely well-suited to its environment, it did not escape criticism. Niemeyer recalled that Walter Gropius, who was visiting the country as a jury in the second Biennial exhibition in São Paulo, argued that the house could not be mass-produced, to which Niemeyer responded that the house was designed with himself in mind and for that particular site, not a general flat one. For Henry-Russell Hitchcock, the house at Canoas was Niemeyer's most extreme lyrical statement, placing rhythm and dance as the antithesis of utility.

Depoimento
In 1953 modern Brazilian architecture, which had been praised since Brazil Builds, became the target of international criticism, mainly from rationalists. Niemeyer's architecture in particular was criticised by Max Bill in an interview for Manchete Magazine. He attacked Niemeyer's use of free-form as purely decorative (as opposed to Reidy's Pedregulho housing), his use of mural panels and the individualistic character of his architecture which "is in risk of falling in a dangerous anti-social academicism". He even belittled Niemeyer's V piloti, as purely aesthetic.

Niemeyer's first response was denial, followed by a counterattack based on Bill's patronizing attitude, which prevented him from considering the differing social and economic realities of Brazil and European countries. Costa also stressed that Brazilian (and Niemeyer's) architecture was based on unskilled work which allowed for a crafted architecture based on concrete, expressing a tradition of (Brazilian) church builders, as opposed to (Swiss) clock builders.

Although it was badly received and to an extent an exaggeration, Bill's words were effective in bringing to attention the mediocre architecture coming from less talented architects, who employed Niemeyer's vocabulary in the decorative fashion that Bill had criticised. Niemeyer himself admitted that for a certain period he had "handled too many commissions, executing them in a hurry, trusting the improvisational skills he believed to have". The Califórnia Building (Edifício Califórnia) in São Paulo is an example. Usually neglected by its creator, it features the V piloti which had worked so well in isolated buildings, creating a different treatment to that space without the need for two separate structural systems as Corbusier had done in Marseille. Its use in a typical urban context was formalistic and even compromised the building's structural logic in that it required many different sized supports.

Berlin's 1957 Interbau exhibition gave Niemeyer the chance to build an example of his architecture in Germany along with the chance to visit Europe for the first time. The contact with the monuments of the old world had a lasting impact on Niemeyer's views, which he now believed was completely dependent on its aesthetic qualities. Together with his own realisations of how Brazilian architecture had been harmed by untalented architects, this trip led Niemeyer to revise his approach, which he published as a text named Depoimento in his Módulo Magazine. He proposed a simplification, discarding multiple elements such as brises, sculptural piloti and marquees. His architecture from then on would be a pure expression of structure as a representation of solid volumes. His design method would also change, prioritizing aesthetic impact over programmatic functions, given that for him "when form creates beauty, it has in beauty itself its justification".

In 1955, at 48, Niemeyer designed the Museum of Modern Art in Caracas. The design of this museum was the material realization of his work revision. Meant to rise from the top of a cliff overlooking central Caracas, the museum had an inverted pyramid shape which dominated and overpowered its surroundings. The opaque prismatic building had almost no connection to the outside through its walls, although its glass ceiling allowed natural light to enter. An electronic system was used to keep lighting conditions unchanged throughout the day using artificial light to complement it. The interior, however, was more recognizably done in Niemeyer's mode, with cat-walk ramps linking the different levels and the mezzanine made as a free-form slab hung from ceiling beams.

This aesthetic simplicity would culminate in his work in Brasília, where the qualities of the buildings are expressed by their structural elements alone.

Design of Brasília

Juscelino Kubitschek visited Niemeyer at the Canoas House in September 1956, soon after he assumed the Brazilian presidency. While driving back to the city, the politician spoke to the architect about his most audacious scheme: "I am going to build a new capital for this country and I want you to help me [...] Oscar, this time we are going to build the capital of Brazil."

Niemeyer organized a competition for the lay-out of Brasília, the new capital, and the winner was the project of his old master and great friend, Lúcio Costa. Niemeyer would design the buildings, Lúcio the layout of the city.

In the space of a few months, Niemeyer designed residential, commercial and government buildings. Among them were the residence of the President (Palácio da Alvorada), the chamber of deputies, the National Congress of Brazil, the Cathedral of Brasília (a hyperboloid structure), diverse ministries. Viewed from above, the city can be seen to have elements that repeat themselves in every building, achieving a formal unity.

Behind the construction of Brasília lay a monumental campaign to construct an entire city in the barren center of the country, hundreds of kilometers from any major city. The brainchild of Kubitschek, Niemeyer had as aims included stimulating industry, integrating the country's distant areas, populating inhospitable regions and bringing progress to a region where only cattle ranching then existed. Niemeyer and Costa used it to test new concepts of city planning: streets without transit, buildings floating off the ground supported by columns and allowing the space underneath to be free and integrated with nature.

The project adopted a socialist ideology: in Brasília all the apartments would be owned by the government and rented to employees. Brasília did not have "nobler" regions, meaning that top ministers and common laborers would share the same building. Many of these concepts were ignored or changed by other presidents with different visions in later years. Brasília was designed, constructed, and inaugurated within four years. After its completion, Niemeyer was named chief of the college of architecture of the University of Brasília. In 1963, he became an honorary member of the American Institute of Architects in the United States; the same year, he received the Lenin Peace Prize from the USSR.

Niemeyer and his contribution to the construction of Brasília are portrayed in the 1964 French film L'homme de Rio (The Man from Rio), starring Jean-Paul Belmondo.

In 1964, at 57, after being invited by Abba Hushi, the mayor of Haifa, Israel, to plan the campus of the University of Haifa on Mount Carmel, he came back to a completely different Brazil. In March President João Goulart, who succeeded President Jânio Quadros in 1961, was deposed in a military coup. General Castelo Branco assumed command of the country, which would remain a dictatorship until 1985.

In 1987, Brasília was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Niemeyer is the first person to have received such recognition for one of his works during his lifetime.

Exile and projects overseas
Niemeyer's politics cost him during the military dictatorship. His office was pillaged, the headquarters of the magazine he coordinated were destroyed and clients disappeared. In 1965, two hundred professors, Niemeyer among them, resigned from the University of Brasília, to protest against the government's treatment of universities. In the same year he traveled to France for an exhibition in the Louvre.

The following year, Niemeyer moved to Paris. In 1962 he visited Tripoli, Lebanon to design the International Permanent Exhibition Centre. Despite completing construction, the start of the civil war in 1975 in Lebanon disrupted its launch.

He opened an office on the Champs-Élysées and found customers in diverse countries, especially in Algeria where he designed the University of Science and Technology-Houari Boumediene. In Paris he created the Headquarters of the French Communist Party, Place du Colonel Fabien, and in Italy that of the Mondadori publishing company. In Funchal on Madeira, he designed a casino.

While in Paris, Niemeyer began designing furniture that was produced by Mobilier International. He created an easy chair and ottoman composed of bent steel and leather in limited numbers for private clients. Later, in 1978, this chair and other designs, including the "Rio" chaise-longue were produced in Brazil by Tendo company, then Tendo Brasileira. The easy chairs and ottomans were made of bent wood and were placed in Communist party headquarters around the world. Much like his architecture, Niemeyer's furniture designs evoked the beauty of Brazil, with curves mimicking the female form and the hills of Rio de Janeiro.

Later life and death
The Brazilian dictatorship lasted until 1985. Under João Figueiredo's rule it softened and gradually turned towards democracy. At this time Niemeyer returned to his country. During the 1980s, he made the Memorial Juscelino Kubitschek (1980), the Pantheon (Panteão da Pátria e da Liberdade Tancredo Neves, 1985) and the Latin America Memorial (1987) (described by The Independent of London to be "an incoherent and vulgar construction"). The memorial sculpture represents a wounded hand, whose wound bleeds in the shape of Central and South America. In 1988, at 81, Niemeyer was awarded the Pritzker Architecture Prize, architecture's most prestigious award. From 1992 to 1996, Niemeyer was the president of the Brazilian Communist Party (PCB). As a lifelong activist, Niemeyer was a powerful public figure who could be linked to the party at a time when it appeared to be in its death throes after the USSR's demise. Although not politically active, his image helped the party survive its crisis, after the 1992 split and to remain as a political force on the national scene, which eventually led to its renewal. He was replaced by Zuleide Faria de Mello in 1996. He designed at least two more buildings in Brasília, the Memorial dos Povos Indigenas ("Memorial for the Indigenous People") and the Catedral Militar, Igreja de N.S. da Paz. In 1996, at the age of 89, he was responsible for the design of the Niterói Contemporary Art Museum in Niterói, a city next to Rio de Janeiro. The building cantilevers out from a sheer rock face, offering a view of Guanabara Bay and the city of Rio de Janeiro.

Niemeyer maintained his studio in Rio de Janeiro into the 21st century. In 2002, the Oscar Niemeyer Museum complex was inaugurated in the city of Curitiba, Paraná. In 2003, at 96, Niemeyer was called to design the Serpentine Gallery Summer Pavilion in Hyde Park, London, a gallery that each year invites a famous architect, who has never previously built in the UK, to design this temporary structure. He was still involved in diverse projects at the age of 100, mainly sculptures and adjustments of previous works. On Niemeyer's 100th birthday, Russia's president Vladimir Putin awarded him the Order of Friendship.

Grateful for the Prince of Asturias Award of Arts received in 1989, he collaborated on the 25th anniversary of the award with the donation to Asturias of the design of a cultural centre. The Oscar Niemeyer International Cultural Centre (also known in Spain as Centro Niemeyer), is located in Avilés and was inaugurated in 2011. In January 2010, the Auditorium Oscar Niemeyer Ravello was officially opened in Ravello, Italy, on the Amalfi Coast. The Auditorium's concept design, drawings, model, sketches and text were made by Niemeyer in 2000 and completed under the guidance of his friend, Italian sociologist Domenico de Masi. The project was delayed for several years due to objections arising from its design, siting, and clear difference from the local architecture; since its inauguration the project has experienced problems and was closed for a year.

After reaching 100, Niemeyer was regularly hospitalized. In 2009, after a four-week hospitalization for the treatment of gallstones and an intestinal tumour, he was quoted as saying that hospitalization is a "very lonely thing; I needed to keep busy, keep in touch with friends, maintain my rhythm of life." His daughter and only child, Anna Maria, died of emphysema in June 2012, aged 82. Niemeyer died of cardiorespiratory arrest on December 5, 2012, at the Hospital Samaritano in Rio de Janeiro. He had been hospitalised with a respiratory infection prior to his death.

The BBC's obituary of Niemeyer stated that he "built some of the world's most striking buildings – monumental, curving concrete and glass structures which almost defy description", describing him as "one of the most innovative and daring architects of the last 60 years". The Washington Post said he was "widely regarded as the foremost Latin American architect of the last century".

Personal life
Niemeyer married Annita Baldo in 1928. They had one daughter, Anna Maria, in 1929 (she predeceased her father on June 6, 2012). Niemeyer subsequently had five grandchildren, thirteen great-grandchildren, and seven great-great-grandchildren. Annita died in 2004, at 93, after 76 years of marriage. In 2006, shortly before his 99th birthday, Niemeyer married for the second time, to his longtime secretary Vera Lucia Cabreira at his apartment, a month after he had fractured his hip in a fall.

Oscar Niemeyer was a keen smoker of cigars, smoking more in later life. His architectural studio was a smoking zone.

Political and religious views
Niemeyer had a left-wing political ideology. In 1945, many communist militants who were arrested under the Vargas' dictatorship were released, and Niemeyer sheltered some of them at his office. He met Luís Carlos Prestes, perhaps the most important left-winger in Brazil. After several weeks, he gave up the house to Prestes and his supporters, who founded the Brazilian Communist Party. Niemeyer joined the party in 1945 and became its president in 1992.

During the military dictatorship of Brazil his office was raided and he was forced into exile in Europe. The Minister of Aeronautics of the time reportedly said that "the place for a communist architect is Moscow." He subsequently visited the Soviet Union, meeting with a number of the country's leaders, and in 1963 was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize. Niemeyer was a close friend of Fidel Castro, who often visited his apartment and studio in Brazil. Castro was once quoted as saying "Niemeyer and I are the last communists on this planet." Niemeyer was regularly visited by Hugo Chávez. Some critics pointed out that Niemeyer's architecture was often in opposition to his views. His first major work, the Church of Saint Francis of Assisi, informally known also as the Church of Pampulha, had a bourgeois character and Brasília was famous for its palaces. Niemeyer never saw architecture in the same way as Walter Gropius, who defended a rational and industrial architecture capable of molding society to make it suitable for the new industrial era. Skeptical about architecture's ability to change an "unjust society", Niemeyer defended that such activism should be undertaken politically. Using architecture for such purposes would be anti-modern (as it would be limiting constructive technology). Niemeyer says: "Our concern is political too – to change the world ... Architecture is my work, and I've spent my whole life at a drawing board, but life is more important than architecture. What matters is to improve human beings."

Niemeyer was a lifelong atheist, basing his beliefs both on the "injustices of this world" and on cosmological principles: "It's a fantastic Universe which humiliates us, and we can't make any use of it. But we are amazed by the power of the human mind … in the end, that's it—you are born, you die, that's it!". Such views never stopped him from designing religious buildings, which included small Catholic chapels, huge Orthodox churches and large mosques. He also catered to the spiritual beliefs of the public who facilitated his religious buildings. In the Cathedral of Brasília, he intended for the large glass windows "to connect the people to the sky, where their Lord's paradise is."

He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a world constitution. As a result, for the first time in human history, a World Constituent Assembly convened to draft and adopt a Constitution for the Federation of Earth.

Criticism
Nicolai Ouroussoff, the architecture critic of The New York Times, published an article asking whether Niemeyer's last work had been affected by advanced age. Ouroussoff found the "Niterói Contemporary Art Museum" to be of significantly lower quality than the architect's earlier works. He argued that "the greatest threat to Mr. Niemeyer's remarkable legacy may not be the developer's bulldozer or insensitive city planners, but Mr. Niemeyer himself." He considers iconic works at "Esplanada dos Ministérios" to "have been marred by the architect's own hand."

Legacy
Since 1984 the Rio de Janeiro carnival parade is held in the Sambadrome designed by Oscar Niemeyer. In 2003 the Unidos de Vila Isabel Samba School celebrated the life of Niemeyer in their carnival parade. It was the first time that Vila Isabel paid tribute to a living historical figure. The parade's theme song – O Arquiteto no Recanto da Princesa – was composed by the Brazilian singer Martinho da Vila.

Oscar Niemeyer's projects have also been a major source of inspiration for the French painter Jacques Benoit. In 2006 Benoit presented in Paris a series of paintings entitled Three Traces of Oscar, paying tribute to the legacy of Niemeyer in France. In 2010 the Brasília Jubilee Commission chose Benoit's works for an exhibition that celebrated the 50th anniversary of the city. The exhibition – [http://jacquesbenoit.com/Brasilia_page_peintures%20-%20UK.html ''Brasilia. Flesh and Soul''] – displayed 27 canvas divided into three series, all of them inspired by the architectural landscape of Brasilia and the history of its construction.

Shortly before Niemeyer's death in 2012, artist Sarah Morris filmed Niemeyer in his office for her 2012 film Rio.

In 2013, soon after Niemeyer's death, the Brazilian street artist Eduardo Kobra and four other painters paid their tribute to the architect with a gigantic mural, covering the entire side of a skyscraper at Paulista Avenue in São Paulo's financial district. The artwork is inspired by Niemeyer's architecture, his love of concrete and Le Corbusier.

Niemeyer is featured in the film Urbanized discussing his design process and architectural philosophy.

During the homage to Oscar Niemeyer on December 15, 2012 (it would have been his 105th birthday), the citizens movement released "Sentimiento Niemeyer" at the Centro Niemeyer in Spain. The verses were written by different people through a Facebook event and put together by musicians. The song was released under a Creative Commons license (attribution, non-profit, no-variations) so that other artists who shared the feeling around the world could make their own cover of the song, keeping the melody and translating the lyrics.

In July 2015 the Museum of Contemporary Art Tokyo (MoT) organized the first major retrospective of Niemeyer in Japan, curated by Yuko Hasegawa in collaboration with Kazuyo Sejima and Ryue Nishizawa from SANAA.

Decorations and awards
• Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1949)

• Medal of the Order of Merit of Labour (Brazil, 1959)

• International Lenin Peace Prize (1963)

• Golden Lion of the Venice Biennale (Italy, 1963)

• Honorary Member of the American Institute of Architects (1963)

• Honorary Member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters (USA, 1964)

• Premio Benito Juarez on the occasion of the centennial of the Mexican Revolution (1964)

• Médaille Joliot-Curie (1965)

• Piece for strings, brass, pianos by the Swiss avant-garde composer Hermann Meier dedicated to Niemeyer (1967)

• Knight of the Legion of Honour (Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur) (France, 1970)

• Commander of the Order of Prince Henry (Portugal, March 3, 1975)

• Lorenzo il Magnifico Prize of the Accademia Internazionale Medicea (Italy, 1980)

• Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters (Ordre des Arts et des Lettres) (France, 1982)

• Honorary Member of the Academy of Arts of the USSR (1983)

• Pritzker Prize for Architecture (1988) (with Gordon Bunshaft)

• Prince of Asturias Award (1989)

• Honorary Doctor of the University of Brasília (1989)

• Chico Mendes Resistance Medal (1989)

• Gold Medal of the Colegio de Arquitectos de Barcelona (1990)

• Knight Commander of the Order of St. Gregory the Great, bestowed by Pope John Paul II (1990)

• Grand Cross of the Order of Saint James of the Sword (Portugal, November 26, 1994)

• Honorary doctorate from the University of São Paulo (1995)

• Doctor Honoris Causa from the Federal University of Minas Gerais (1995)

• Saurí Order, 1st class (Dominican Republic, 1996)

• Golden Lion at the Venice Biennale, VI International Architecture Exhibition (Italy, 1996)

• Royal Gold Medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects (1998)

• Order of Solidarity (Cuba, 2001)

• Darcy Ribeiro Medal of Merit (State Board of Education of the State of Rio de Janeiro, 2001)

• Unesco Award in the category of Culture (2001)

• Grand Officer of the Order of Merit Teaching and Cultural Gabriela Mistral (Ministry of Education of Chile, 2001)

• "20th century architect" (Superior Council of the Institute of Architects of Brazil, 2001)

• Konex Award (Argentina, 2002)

• Praemium Imperiale (Japan, 2004)

• Austrian Decoration for Science and Art (2005)

• Patron of Brazilian architecture, declared by Law No. 11,117, of May 18, 2005

• Order of Cultural Merit (Brazil, 2007)

• Commander of the Legion of Honour (Commandeur de la Légion d'Honneur) (France, 2007)

• Order of Friendship (Russia, 2007)

• Medal Oscar Niemeyer's Communist Party Marxist-Leninist (2007)

• ALBA Arts Award (Venezuela, 2008), Cuba, Bolivia, Nicaragua [78]

• Order of Arts and Letters of Spain (November 6, 2009)

• Doctor Honoris Causa of the Technical University of Lisbon (2009)

title: Oscar Niemeyer


text:
Talk:Israeli settlement

Haaretz article: "Secret 1970 document confirms first West Bank settlements built on a lie."
Haaretz - Yotam Berger - Secret 1970 document confirms first West Bank settlements built on a lie, 28 July 2016. — Preceding unsigned comment added by ZScarpia (talk • contribs)

Security isn't a "pretext"
Under 4.2 Settlement Policy, the article reads "The government abrogated the prohibition from purchasing occupied land by Israelis; the "Drobles Plan", a plan for large-scale settlement in the West Bank meant to prevent a Palestinian state under the pretext of security became the framework for its policy."

The dictionary definition of pretext is something that is put forward to conceal a true purpose or object; an ostensible reason; excuse.

The provided citation doesn't support the copy in the wiki article. The document doesn't say that security was a pretext. The document says security is one of several reasons to develop the settlements. The cited article reads, "The following are the principles which guided the plan: 1. Settlement throughout the entire Land of Israel is for security and by right, A strip of settlements at strategic sites enhances both internal and external security alike, as well as making concrete and realizing our right to Eretz Israel..."

So the article isn't even denying that it assumes that the Israelis have some sort of biblical or historical right to Israel, BUT it also argues that the settlements would improve security.

There is also the matter that the same section of this article implies that these cited documents were written by representatives of the Israeli government; they were not, they were written by departments of the World Zionist Organization which is an NGO and not directed by the Israeli government. It was essentially written by a think tank advocating a certain perspective but the article casts it as from the central government planning office. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 198.54.105.157 (talk)

Discussion on Gaza settlements
My understanding is that the settlements in Gaza had a huge effect on the economy for the years that they were there. It's probably worth while to have a section dedicated to the now removed settlements. Any issue with putting taht under "History" with the subsection title "Gaza Strip settlements"? DMH43 (talk) 19:51, 21 January 2024 (UTC)

 * Please be more specific and mention possible sources. "Had a huge effect on the economy" is too vague, and context matters as well (how is "economy" measured here?). TucanHolmes  (talk) 16:54, 23 January 2024 (UTC)
 * I have added a section under 'history' DMH43 (talk) 16:59, 23 January 2024 (UTC)

Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 15 May 2024
Can you please remove the source for the claim that Israeli withdrawl from Gaza was "More than compensated by transfers to the West Bank", and replace it with another? The source provided makes no mention of the issue.

If another source cannot be found, maybe the sentence should be removed, but I'd trust your discretion on that issue.

I'd suggest a source myself, but I was unable to find one which adequately supports that claim. Mr manor11 (talk) 17:16, 15 May 2024 (UTC)

I replaced the not so clear sentence with "Nevertheless, the total settler population continued to rise." which is supported by the source. Selfstudier (talk) 17:43, 15 May 2024 (UTC)

Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 23 May 2024
Location of correction: 3rd paragraph, 3rd sentence. Change "In total, over 450,000 Israeli settlers residing in the West Bank..." to "In total, over 450,000 Israeli settlers reside in the..." by changing the word "residing" to "reside". Goman1 (talk) 23:45, 23 May 2024 (UTC)

 * ✅. Rkieferbaum (talk) 02:30, 24 May 2024 (UTC)

Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 1 July 2024
the change must be made from six days war in 1967 to the nakba on 14 May 1948. 2601:640:CC80:6D90:B4AB:8AB:F3A2:7A62 (talk) 20:43, 1 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. Jamedeus (talk) 03:20, 2 July 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Israeli settlement


text:
CT

CT or ct may refer to:

In arts and media

 * c't (Computer Technik), a German computer magazine
 * Freelancer Agent Connecticut (C.T.), a fictional character in the web series Red vs. Blue
 * Christianity Today, an American evangelical Christian magazine

Businesses and organizations

 * CT Corp, an Indonesian conglomerate
 * CT Corporation, an umbrella brand for two businesses: CT Corporation and CT Liena
 * C/T Group, formerly Crosby Textor Group, social research and political polling company
 * Canadian Tire, a Canadian company engaged in retailing, financial services and petroleum
 * Calgary Transit, the public transit service in Calgary, Alberta, Canada
 * Central Trains (National Rail abbreviation), a former train operating company in the United Kingdom
 * Česká televize, the public television broadcaster in the Czech Republic
 * Community Transit, the public transit service in Snohomish County, Washington, U.S.
 * Comunión Tradicionalista, a former Spanish political party
 * CT (TV channel), a Filipino cable and satellite television network

Finance

 * Centime (ct), the French for "cent", used in English in several Francophone countries
 * Stotinki (ст), the currency of Bulgaria

Places

 * CT postcode area, for Canterbury and surrounding areas in south-eastern England
 * Connecticut (United States postal abbreviation)

 * Province of Catania (vehicle registration code), Sicily, Italy

 * Central African Republic (FIPS Pub 10-4 code and obsolete NATO diagram)
 * Canton and Enderbury Islands (obsolete ISO 3166 country code), part of the Phoenix Islands in the Pacific Ocean
 * Cape Town (capital city of the Western Cape, South Africa)

 * Ct, for "Court"; a street suffix as used in the US

Biology and medicine

 * Haplogroup CT, Y-DNA haplogroup.
 * CT scan or X-ray computed tomography, a medical imaging method
 * Calcitonin (symbol CT), a hormone produced in the thyroid gland
 * Calibrated automated thrombogram (CT or CAT), a coagulation test
 * Cardiothoracic surgery, the field of medicine specializing in chest surgery
 * Chemotype (ct.), a chemically distinct entity in a plant or microorganism
 * Cognitive therapy, a type of psychotherapy
 * Connective tissue, a type of biological tissue
 * Chelation therapy
 * Chemotherapy
 * Cholera toxin, a toxic protein secreted by Vibrio cholerae
 * Threshold Cycle (Ct), see cycle of quantification/qualification
 * COVID-19 test

Computing

 * Intel Ct, a SIMD multithreading programming model developed by Intel
 * Certificate Transparency, in network security

Other uses in science and technology

 * CT Value, in drinking water disinfection
 * Threshold cycle (Ct), a measure in the cycle of quantification/qualification of a real-time polymerase chain reaction
 * Carat (purity) (ct), a measure of the purity of gold and platinum alloys
 * Carat (mass) (ct), a unit of mass used for measuring gems and pearls
 * Continuous-time signal, a varying quantity (a signal) whose domain is a continuum
 * Center tap, a wire that is connected halfway along one of the windings of a transformer, inductor or a resistor
 * Compliant Tower, a deepwater offshore oil platform
 * Convective temperature, in atmospheric science
 * Current transformer, a kind of transformer used in the electrical power industry

Transportation

 * Lexus CT, an automobile
 * Honda CT series, a series of Honda bikes
 * Crawler-transporter, a tracked vehicle used to transport the Space Shuttle from Vehicle Assembly Building to Launch Complex 39
 * Civil Air Transport (IATA code)
 * Training cruiser, a U.S. Navy hull classification

Other uses

 * Ct, a typographic ligature
 * c. t. (cum tempore, Latin for "with time"), indicates that a lecture will begin a quarter-hour after the stated time; see Academic quarter
 * Central Time Zone, a time zone in Canada, the United States, and Mexico
 * Coffin Texts
 * Conspiracy theory or theorist
 * Counter-terrorism
 * Cryptologic technician, a United States Navy enlisted rating or job specialty
 * Chinese Taipei, the name used by Taiwan in some international organizations due to political pressure from the People's Republic of China
 * ct followed by a number means the number of items contained in a cardboard (e.g. zucchini 3 ct)
 * Corps Turd, etymologically "Cadet in Training", member of the Texas A&M Corps of Cadets that is not in the band

title: CT


text:
Triple DES

In cryptography, Triple DES (3DES or TDES), officially the Triple Data Encryption Algorithm (TDEA or Triple DEA), is a symmetric-key block cipher, which applies the DES cipher algorithm three times to each data block. The 56-bit key of the Data Encryption Standard (DES) is no longer considered adequate in the face of modern cryptanalytic techniques and supercomputing power; Triple DES increases the effective security to 112 bits. A CVE released in 2016, CVE-2016-2183, disclosed a major security vulnerability in the DES and 3DES encryption algorithms. This CVE, combined with the inadequate key size of 3DES, led to NIST deprecating 3DES in 2019 and disallowing all uses (except processing already encrypted data) by the end of 2023. It has been replaced with the more secure, more robust AES.

While US government and industry standards abbreviate the algorithm's name as TDES (Triple DES) and TDEA (Triple Data Encryption Algorithm), RFC 1851 referred to it as 3DES from the time it first promulgated the idea, and this namesake has since come into wide use by most vendors, users, and cryptographers.

History
In 1978, a triple encryption method using DES with two 56-bit keys was proposed by Walter Tuchman; in 1981, Merkle and Hellman proposed a more secure triple-key version of 3DES with 112 bits of security.

Standards
The Triple Data Encryption Algorithm is variously defined in several standards documents:

 * RFC 1851, The ESP Triple DES Transform (approved in 1995)
 * ANSI ANS X9.52-1998 Triple Data Encryption Algorithm Modes of Operation (approved in 1998, withdrawn in 2008 )
 * FIPS PUB 46-3 Data Encryption Standard (DES) (approved in 1999, withdrawn in 2005 )
 * NIST Special Publication 800-67 Revision 2 Recommendation for the Triple Data Encryption Algorithm (TDEA) Block Cipher (approved in 2017, withdrawn in 2024 )
 * ISO/IEC 18033-3:2010: Part 3: Block ciphers (approved in 2005)

Algorithm
The original DES cipher's key size of 56 bits was considered generally sufficient when it was designed, but the availability of increasing computational power made brute-force attacks feasible. Triple DES provides a relatively simple method of increasing the key size of DES to protect against such attacks, without the need to design a completely new block cipher algorithm.

A naive approach to increase the strength of a block encryption algorithm with a short key length (like DES) would be to use two keys $$(K1, K2)$$ instead of one, and encrypt each block twice: $$E_{K2}(E_{K1}(\textrm{plaintext}))$$. If the original key length is $$n$$ bits, one would hope this scheme provides security equivalent to using a key $$2n$$ bits long. Unfortunately, this approach is vulnerable to the meet-in-the-middle attack: given a known plaintext pair $$(x, y)$$, such that $$y = E_{K2}(E_{K1}(x))$$, one can recover the key pair $$(K1, K2)$$ in $$2^{n+1}$$ steps, instead of the $$2^{2n}$$ steps one would expect from an ideally secure algorithm with $$2n$$ bits of key.

Therefore, Triple DES uses a "key bundle" that comprises three DES keys, $$K1$$, $$K2$$ and $$K3$$, each of 56 bits (excluding parity bits). The encryption algorithm is:
 * $$\textrm{ciphertext} = E_{K3}(D_{K2}(E_{K1}(\textrm{plaintext}))).$$

That is, encrypt with $$K1$$, decrypt with $$K2$$, then encrypt with $$K3$$.

Decryption is the reverse:
 * $$\textrm{plaintext} = D_{K1}(E_{K2}(D_{K3}(\textrm{ciphertext}))).$$

That is, decrypt with $$K3$$, encrypt with $$K2$$, then decrypt with $$K1$$.

Each triple encryption encrypts one block of 64 bits of data.

In each case, the middle operation is the reverse of the first and last. This improves the strength of the algorithm when using keying option 2 and provides backward compatibility with DES with keying option 3.

Keying options
The standards define three keying options:
 * Keying option 1
 * All three keys are independent. Sometimes known as 3TDEA or triple-length keys. This is the strongest, with 3 × 56 = 168 independent key bits. It is still vulnerable to the meet-in-the-middle attack, but the attack requires 22 × 56 steps.
 * Keying option 2
 * K1 and K2 are independent, and K3 = K1. Sometimes known as 2TDEA or double-length keys. This provides a shorter key length of 56*2 or 112 bits and a reasonable compromise between DES and keying option 1, with the same caveat as above. This is an improvement over "double DES" which only requires 256 steps to attack. NIST disallowed this option in 2015.
 * Keying option 3
 * All three keys are identical, i.e. K1 = K2 = K3. This is backward-compatible with DES, since two of the operations cancel out. ISO/IEC 18033-3 never allowed this option, and NIST no longer allows K1 = K2 or K2 = K3.

Each DES key is 8 odd-parity bytes, with 56 bits of key and 8 bits of error-detection. A key bundle requires 24 bytes for option 1, 16 for option 2, or 8 for option 3.

NIST (and the current TCG specifications version 2.0 of approved algorithms for Trusted Platform Module) also disallows using any one of the 64 following 64-bit values in any keys (note that 32 of them are the binary complement of the 32 others; and that 32 of these keys are also the reverse permutation of bytes of the 32 others), listed here in hexadecimal (in each byte, the least significant bit is an odd-parity generated bit, which is discarded when forming the effectively 56-bit key): 01.01.01.01.01.01.01.01, FE.FE.FE.FE.FE.FE.FE.FE, E0.FE.FE.E0.F1.FE.FE.F1, 1F.01.01.1F.0E.01.01.0E, 01.01.FE.FE.01.01.FE.FE, FE.FE.01.01.FE.FE.01.01, E0.FE.01.1F.F1.FE.01.0E, 1F.01.FE.E0.0E.01.FE.F1, 01.01.E0.E0.01.01.F1.F1, FE.FE.1F.1F.FE.FE.0E.0E, E0.FE.1F.01.F1.FE.0E.01, 1F.01.E0.FE.0E.01.F1.FE, 01.01.1F.1F.01.01.0E.0E, FE.FE.E0.E0.FE.FE.F1.F1, E0.FE.E0.FE.F1.FE.F1.FE, 1F.01.1F.01.0E.01.0E.01, 01.FE.01.FE.01.FE.01.FE, FE.01.FE.01.FE.01.FE.01, E0.01.FE.1F.F1.01.FE.0E, 1F.FE.01.E0.0E.FE.01.F1, 01.FE.FE.01.01.FE.FE.01, FE.01.01.FE.FE.01.01.FE, E0.01.01.E0.F1.01.01.F1, 1F.FE.FE.1F.0E.FE.FE.0E, 01.FE.E0.1F.01.FE.F1.0E, FE.01.1F.E0.FE.01.0E.F1, E0.01.1F.FE.F1.01.0E.FE, 1F.FE.E0.01.0E.FE.F1.01, 01.FE.1F.E0.01.FE.0E.F1, FE.01.E0.1F.FE.01.F1.0E, E0.01.E0.01.F1.01.F1.01, 1F.FE.1F.FE.0E.FE.0E.FE, 01.E0.01.E0.01.F1.01.F1, FE.1F.FE.1F.FE.0E.FE.0E, E0.1F.FE.01.F1.0E.FE.01, 1F.E0.01.FE.0E.F1.01.FE, 01.E0.FE.1F.01.F1.FE.0E, FE.1F.01.E0.FE.0E.01.F1, E0.1F.01.FE.F1.0E.01.FE, 1F.E0.FE.01.0E.F1.FE.01, 01.E0.E0.01.01.F1.F1.01, FE.1F.1F.FE.FE.0E.0E.FE, E0.1F.1F.E0.F1.0E.0E.F1, 1F.E0.E0.1F.0E.F1.F1.0E, 01.E0.1F.FE.01.F1.0E.FE, FE.1F.E0.01.FE.0E.F1.01, E0.1F.E0.1F.F1.0E.F1.0E, 1F.E0.1F.E0.0E.F1.0E.F1, 01.1F.01.1F.01.0E.01.0E, FE.E0.FE.E0.FE.F1.FE.F1, E0.E0.FE.FE.F1.F1.FE.FE, 1F.1F.01.01.0E.0E.01.01, 01.1F.FE.E0.01.0E.FE.F1, FE.E0.01.1F.FE.F1.01.0E, E0.E0.01.01.F1.F1.01.01, 1F.1F.FE.FE.0E.0E.FE.FE, 01.1F.E0.FE.01.0E.F1.FE, FE.E0.1F.01.FE.F1.0E.01, E0.E0.1F.1F.F1.F1.0E.0E, 1F.1F.E0.E0.0E.0E.F1.F1, 01.1F.1F.01.01.0E.0E.01, FE.E0.E0.FE.FE.F1.F1.FE, E0.E0.E0.E0.F1.F1.F1.F1, 1F.1F.1F.1F.0E.0E.0E.0E With these restrictions on allowed keys, Triple DES was reapproved with keying options 1 and 2 only. Generally, the three keys are generated by taking 24 bytes from a strong random generator, and only keying option 1 should be used (option 2 needs only 16 random bytes, but strong random generators are hard to assert and it is considered best practice to use only option 1).

Encryption of more than one block
As with all block ciphers, encryption and decryption of multiple blocks of data may be performed using a variety of modes of operation, which can generally be defined independently of the block cipher algorithm. However, ANS X9.52 specifies directly, and NIST SP 800-67 specifies via SP 800-38A, that some modes shall only be used with certain constraints on them that do not necessarily apply to general specifications of those modes. For example, ANS X9.52 specifies that for cipher block chaining, the initialization vector shall be different each time, whereas ISO/IEC 10116 does not. FIPS PUB 46-3 and ISO/IEC 18033-3 define only the single-block algorithm, and do not place any restrictions on the modes of operation for multiple blocks.

Security
In general, Triple DES with three independent keys (keying option 1) has a key length of 168 bits (three 56-bit DES keys), but due to the meet-in-the-middle attack, the effective security it provides is only 112 bits. Keying option 2 reduces the effective key size to 112 bits (because the third key is the same as the first). However, this option is susceptible to certain chosen-plaintext or known-plaintext attacks, and thus it is designated by NIST to have only 80 bits of security. This can be considered insecure; as a consequence, Triple DES's planned deprecation was announced by NIST in 2017.

The short block size of 64 bits makes 3DES vulnerable to block collision attacks if it is used to encrypt large amounts of data with the same key. The Sweet32 attack shows how this can be exploited in TLS and OpenVPN. Practical Sweet32 attack on 3DES-based cipher-suites in TLS required $$2^{36.6}$$ blocks (785 GB) for a full attack, but researchers were lucky to get a collision just after around $$2^{20}$$ blocks, which took only 25 minutes.

"The security of TDEA is affected by the number of blocks processed with one key bundle. One key bundle shall not be used to apply cryptographic protection (e.g., encrypt) more than $2^{20}$ 64-bit data blocks."

OpenSSL does not include 3DES by default since version 1.1.0 (August 2016) and considers it a "weak cipher".

Usage
As of 2008, the electronic payment industry uses Triple DES and continues to develop and promulgate standards based upon it, such as EMV.

Earlier versions of Microsoft OneNote, Microsoft Outlook 2007 and Microsoft System Center Configuration Manager 2012 use Triple DES to password-protect user content and system data. However, in December 2018, Microsoft announced the retirement of 3DES throughout their Office 365 service.

Firefox and Mozilla Thunderbird use Triple DES in CBC mode to encrypt website authentication login credentials when using a master password.

Implementations
Below is a list of cryptography libraries that support Triple DES:

 * Botan
 * Bouncy Castle
 * cryptlib
 * Crypto++
 * Libgcrypt
 * Nettle
 * OpenSSL
 * wolfSSL
 * Trusted Platform Module (TPM)

Some implementations above may not include 3DES in the default build, in later or more recent versions.

title: Triple DES


text:
Talk:Hans Holbein the Elder

Ambrosius
Whatever else he was, Ambrosius is not famous. I removed that sentence.MichaelTinkler

kris livingstone
i'm pretty sure from research readily available to me that hans holbein the elder did not work on in praise of folly, i believe that was holbein the younger.-dan fessenden

Durer
Was there a connection between Holbein and Albrecht Durer? 67.49.8.228 (talk) 18:53, 30 June 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hans Holbein the Elder


text:
346 BC

Year 346 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Corvus and Visolus (or, less frequently, year 408 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 346 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Greece

 * The Peace of Philocrates is signed between Macedonia and Athens. The document agrees to a return to the status quo, but Philip II of Macedon keeps the right to punish the Phocians for starting the Sacred War.
 * The Athenian politicians, Demosthenes and Timarchus, prepare to prosecute Aeschines for treason after he has sought to reconcile the Athenians to Macedonia's expansion into Greece. Eubulus loses his influence on Athenian affairs.
 * Demosthenes, though condemning the terms of the Peace of Philocrates, argues that it has to be honoured.
 * Following the conclusion of the Peace of Philocrates, Philip II's army moves through the pass of Thermopylae and subdues Phocis. Athens makes no move to support the Phocians.

Sicily

 * Dionysius II is restored to power in Syracuse.

title: 346 BC


text:
Circuit Paul Ricard

The Circuit Paul Ricard is a French motorsport race track built in 1969 at Le Castellet, Var, near Marseille, with finance from pastis magnate Paul Ricard. Ricard wanted to experience the challenge of building a racetrack. The circuit has hosted the FIA Formula One French Grand Prix intermittently from to.

First years (1970–1990)
Opened on 19 April 1970, the circuit's innovative facilities made it one of the safest motor racing circuits in the world at the time of its opening. The circuit had three track layout permutations, a large industrial park and an airstrip. The combination of modern facilities, mild winter weather and an airstrip made it popular amongst racing teams for car testing during the annual winter off-season.

The original track was dominated by the 1.8 km long Mistral Straight that is followed by the high-speed right hand Signes corner. The long main straight and other fast sections made the track very hard on engines as they ran at full revs for extended spells. Engine failures were common, such as Ayrton Senna's huge crash during the 1985 French Grand Prix after the Renault engine in his Lotus failed and he went off backwards at Signes on his own oil and crashed heavily, with only light bruising to the driver. Nigel Mansell crashed at the same place in the same weekend during practice and suffered a concussion which kept him out of the race. Mansell's crash was the result of a slow puncture in his left rear tyre causing it to explode at over 320 km/h, which detached his Williams FW10's rear wing. The Honda powered FW10 holds the race lap record for the original circuit when Mansell's teammate Keke Rosberg recorded a time of 1:39.914 during the 1985 French Grand Prix. During qualifying for the 1985 race, Swiss driver Marc Surer clocked what was at the time the highest speed recorded by a Formula One car on the Mistral when he pushed his turbocharged, 1000 bhp Brabham-BMW to 338 km/h. This compared to the slowest car in the race, the 550 bhp naturally aspirated Tyrrell-Ford V8 of Stefan Bellof which could only manage 277 km/h. Bellof qualified 9 seconds slower than Surer and 12 seconds slower than pole winner Rosberg.

Paul Ricard was inaugurated with a 2-litre sports car race; during the 1970s and the 1980s the track developed some of the best French drivers of the time including four time World Drivers' Champion Alain Prost who won the French Grand Prix at the circuit in 1983, 1988, 1989 and 1990. The circuit hosted the Formula One French Grand Prix on many occasions, the first of which was the 1971 French Grand Prix.

The circuit was also extensively used for testing, especially in Formula One. In 1986, Brabham Formula One driver Elio de Angelis was killed in a testing accident at the fast first turn after the rear wing of his Brabham BT55 had broken off. Although the circuit was not the cause of the crash, it was modified in order to make it safer. The length of the Mistral Straight was reduced from 1.8 km in length to just over 1.0 km, and the fast sweeping Verrerie curves where de Angelis had crashed were bypassed. Effectively, after the start, instead of heading into the left hand Verrerie sweeper, cars now braked hard and turned sharp right into a short run that connected the pit straight to the Mistral. This changed the circuit length for a Grand Prix from 5.809 km to just 3.812 km. This also had the effect of cutting lap times from Keke Rosberg's 1985 pole time of 1:32.462 in his Williams-Honda turbo, to Nigel Mansell's 1990 pole time of 1:04.402 in his V12 Ferrari.

From 1990 the French Grand Prix was moved to Magny-Cours where it ran until 2008. Paul Ricard hosted the French Grand Prix on 14 occasions between 1971 and 1990. The Long Circuit was used from 1971 to 1985, with the Club Circuit used from 1986 to 1990. On six occasions (1971, 1975, 1976, 1978, 1980 and 1989) the winner at Paul Ricard went on to win the World Championship in the same year. Ronnie Peterson (1973 and 1974) and René Arnoux (1982) are the only Ricard winners who never won the championship.

Recent times (1990–present)
In the 1990s the circuit's use was limited to motorcycle racing and French national racing, most notably until 1999, the Bol d'or 24-hour motorcycle endurance race. The track was also the home of the Oreca F3000 team. After Ricard's death, the track was sold to Excelis, a company owned by Formula One promoter Bernie Ecclestone, in 1999. The track was rebuilt into an advanced test track, and was for a time known as the Paul Ricard High Tech Test Track (Paul Ricard HTTT) before changing its name back to Circuit Paul Ricard.

An aircraft landing strip suitable for private jets is amongst the circuit's facilities. There is a Karting Test Track (KTT) that features the same type of abrasive safety zones as the car track. The track has also hosted some races, including the 2006 Paul Ricard 500km, a round of the FIA GT Championship. Other GT championships have run races here, most notably the Ferrari Challenge and races organized by Porsche clubs of France and Italy.

On 5 December 2016, it was announced that the French Grand Prix would return to the Formula 1 calendar for the 2018 season at Paul Ricard. It was the first French Grand Prix since 2008 (last held at Magny-Cours) and the first at Circuit Paul Ricard since 1990. On 19 June 2017, the FIA's World Motor Sport Council in Geneva published its 2018 provisional calendar with the French Grand Prix scheduled for 24 June at Circuit Paul Ricard with the race itself followed immediately by the Austrian Grand Prix at the Red Bull Ring and then the British Grand Prix at Silverstone Circuit. Pirelli Motorsport has planned for a two-day tyre testing for its 2018 Formula 1 tyres at Circuit Paul Ricard in the months of May, June and September 2017. The track remained on the F1 calendar until the 2022 season, after which it disappeared from the calendar again.

Paul Ricard has the 3-star FIA Environmental Accreditation. In a 2021 report, it was ranked the second most sustainable racetrack in the world, together with Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya and behind Mugello Circuit.

Track

The track is characterised by its 1.8 km long Mistral straight and elongated track design. The track is also unusual in that it is built on a plateau: it is very flat. In 1986 the track was modified to shorten the circuit, by adding shortcut through to the middle of the Mistral Straight. This shorter circuit was also known as the GP short circuit and was 3.812 km long. After the modifications in 2000–2005, the track offers 247 possible configurations from 0.828 km to the full 5.858 km. The track's elevation ranges from 408 to 441 m above sea level. Its flexibility and mild winter weather mean that it is used for testing by several motorsport teams, including Formula One teams.

The track is known for its distinctive black and blue run-off areas known as the Blue Zone. The runoff surface consists of a mixture of asphalt and tungsten, used instead of gravel traps, as common at other circuits. A second, deeper run-off area is the Red Zone, with a more abrasive surface designed to maximize tyre grip and hence minimize braking distance, although at the cost of extreme tyre wear. The final safeguard consists of Tecpro barriers, a modern improvement on tyre barriers.

In 2019 the pitlane entry was moved following safety concerns. The entry, which was previously accessed via the main straight, is now situated between the final two corners (turns 14 and 15).

Events

 * Current

 * March: Ultimate Cup Series
 * April: GT World Challenge Europe 3 Hours of Paul Ricard, BOSS GP Grand Prix de France historique, GT2 European Series, GT4 European Series
 * May: European Le Mans Series 4 Hours of Castellet, Le Mans Cup, Porsche Carrera Cup France, Ligier European Series, Grand Prix Camions du Castellet, Sunday Rides Classic
 * July: International GT Open, Formula Regional European Championship, Euroformula Open Championship, Eurocup-3, Ferrari Challenge Europe, GT Cup Open Europe, Italian F4 Championship, F4 Spanish Championship
 * September: FIM Endurance World Championship Bol d'Or, Classic Endurance Racing Dix Mille Tours, French Superbike Championship
 * October: Alpine Elf Europa Cup SRO Racing Festival, FFSA GT Championship, French F4 Championship, Renault Clio Cup Europe
 * November: Ultimate Cup Series

 * Former

 * 24H Series (2015–2017, 2021)
 * Auto GP (2014)
 * BPR Global GT Series (1994–1996)
 * British Formula 3 International Series (1978, 2011)
 * Eurocup Clio (2011–2014)
 * Eurocup Mégane Trophy (2011–2013)
 * European Touring Car Championship (1971–1973)
 * European Touring Car Cup (2014–2016)
 * European Truck Racing Championship (1985–1999)
 * F1 Academy (2023)
 * Ferrari Challenge Italy (2007–2009)
 * FIA European Formula 3 Championship (1977)
 * FIA European Formula 3 Cup (1985)
 * FIA Formula 2 Championship (2018–2019, 2022)
 * FIA Formula 3 Championship (2019, 2021)
 * FIA Formula 3 European Championship (2016)
 * FIA GT Championship (2006, 2009)
 * FIA GT1 World Championship (2010–2011)
 * FIA GT3 European Championship (2009–2011)
 * FIA Motorsport Games (2022)
 * FIA Touring Car World Cup (1995)
 * Formula 3 Euro Series (2010–2011)
 * Formula 750 (1978)
 * Formula One
 * French Grand Prix (1971, 1973, 1975–1976, 1978, 1980, 1982–1983, 1985–1990, 2018–2019, 2021–2022)
 * Formula Renault 2.0 Alps (2011)
 * Formula Renault Eurocup (1998, 2011–2014, 2016–2020)
 * French Formula Renault Championship (1971–1972, 1975–1983, 1986–1990, 1992–1998)
 * French Formula Three Championship (1971–1973, 1980–1983, 1985–1990, 1992–1998)
 * Grand Prix motorcycle racing
 * French motorcycle Grand Prix (1973, 1975, 1977, 1980–1981, 1984, 1986, 1988, 1991, 1996–1999)
 * GT4 Scandinavia (2023)
 * International Sports Racing Series (1998)
 * Italian GT Championship (1998, 2014, 2018)
 * Italian Superturismo Championship (2014, 2018)
 * JK Racing Asia Series (2012)
 * Lamborghini Super Trofeo Europe (2009–2017, 2020–2023)
 * Porsche Carrera Cup Benelux (2016, 2018)
 * Porsche Carrera Cup Italia (2014, 2018)
 * Porsche Supercup (2022)
 * Renault Sport Trophy (2016)
 * Sidecar World Championship (1973, 1975, 1977, 1979–1981, 1984, 1986, 1988, 1991)
 * Superbike World Championship (1989)
 * Superstars GTSprint Series (2010)
 * Superstars Series (2010)
 * TCR Europe Series (2018, 2020–2023)
 * Trofeo Maserati (2015)
 * World Series Formula V8 3.5 (2011–2014, 2016)
 * World Sportscar Championship (1974)
 * World Touring Car Championship
 * FIA WTCC Race of France (2014–2016)
 * W Series (2022)

Lap records
The official lap record for the current F1 circuit layout (1C-V2) is 1:32.740, set by Sebastian Vettel during the 2019 French Grand Prix. While the unofficial all-time track record is 1:28.319, set by Lewis Hamilton during final qualifying for the aforementioned 2019 race. As of May 2024, the fastest official race lap records at the Circuit Paul Ricard are listed as:

title: Circuit Paul Ricard


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Talk:Daniel Schultz

A famous painter?
G.D. Scultz (known to the internet as Daniel Schultz) is NOT a famous painter. I find him in NONE of my reference books in my office - I am a professional art historian who specializes in another period. Therefore the 17th century artists included in reference books in my office tend to be the actually famous. He is, by this simple test, a 'minor painter'. There are many, many minor baroque painters whose names are known. VERY few of them belong on Wikipedia. —Preceding unsigned comment added by MichaelTinkler (talk • contribs)  11:32, 9 April 2002

 * Well, maybe you should have searched for "Schultz". -- Matthead Discuß   10:53, 24 June 2008 (UTC)

Nationality

 * Schultz was born in Gdansk/Danzig, a city with a huge influx of Germans, especially at the "Upper class". (I presume a baroque painter is rather a member of a wealthy family)
 * "Schultz" is not what I would call a typical Polish name.
 * Poland at that time was a multi - national kingdom, so not everybody born as a subject of the Polish King is Polish.
 * it´s not necessary to classify him as Polish, it´s quiet obvious that he worked at Warsaw for the Polish King.
 * Nationality wasn´t a criteria in the 17th century as it is understood today, so we shouldn´t decide about it with our modern comprehension.(217.184.130.184 (talk) 10:23, 29 March 2008 (UTC))

Schultz at Danzig, Borussia=Prussia
You are right, that he was not Polish. He was not born in Poland either but he did paintings for the Swedish (and Lithuanian) Wasa king(s), also kings of Poland. Probably around 1615 Schultz was born in the Hanse city state of Danzig. Danzig is listed in the imperial cities (Liber Civitates Imperiales  list: Dantiscum=Gedanum, Borussia = Danzig, Prussia [*. To become a member of this Hanseatic city state of Danzig one had to be a German language speaker. (Since 1945 Soviet conquest until now it is Gdańsk, Poland).  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.137.201.57 (talk) 23:49, 23 April 2008 (UTC)

Schultz was not born in Poland
As mentioned already on this page, Schultz was not born in Poland; he was born in Danzig (which has to be written as "Danzig (Gdańsk)"), but not in Poland. If a country needs to be mentioned —and I don't think id does— then it is the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth; adding this would confuse most readers and add nothing to the understanding of the painter.

I suggest that the word Polish be removed from the article's lead section. Regards, -- Michael Bednarek (talk) 02:57, 25 June 2008 (UTC)

 * See Category:People from Gdańsk, List of people living or working in Gdańsk, List of people from Danzig, most bios listed there are affected by the same neverending edit wars. The Danzig/Gdansk vote double naming was introduced to point out that the city shares German/Polish history, yet some editors are not satisfied with it, alsways trying to add a country, or some other nationalistic claim. I do reject such editwarring on a city's controversial history in biographies. -- Matthead Discuß   10:17, 25 June 2008 (UTC)

 * I have no problem with the Danzig/Gdańsk rule; I only think it's incorrect to refer to the city in Schultz's day as Polish — that's all. Thanks for your understanding. Regards, -- Michael Bednarek (talk) 02:09, 26 June 2008 (UTC)
 * In biographies, it should only be referred to as "Danzig (Gdańsk)" (resp. "Gdańsk (Danzig)"), yet some use biographies as surrogate battlefield for edit wars about the city. -- Matthead Discuß   08:08, 26 June 2008 (UTC)

 * I did notice the behaviour you describe, but I'm not interested to pursue this. History: I came to this article because I added minimal details to each entry on the Schultz page, which until then was not much more than a naked list of names. When I checked out Daniel Schultz, I noticed some minor —but to me glaring— oddities which I fixed. I have since learned about the Danzig/Gdańsk rule, but I still can't understand why this article needs to mention Poland — it seems anachronistic and wrong to me. I have also learned that this very same discussion occurred on other similar biographies, e.g. Jeremias Falck. As for Space_Cadet's cause célèbre: I'm going to apply Hanlon's razor and leave. Regards, -- Michael Bednarek (talk) 10:23, 26 June 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Daniel Schultz


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Astronomical coordinate systems

In astronomy, coordinate systems are used for specifying positions of celestial objects (satellites, planets, stars, galaxies, etc.) relative to a given reference frame, based on physical reference points available to a situated observer (e.g. the true horizon and north to an observer on Earth's surface). Coordinate systems in astronomy can specify an object's relative position in three-dimensional space or plot merely by its direction on a celestial sphere, if the object's distance is unknown or trivial.

Spherical coordinates, projected on the celestial sphere, are analogous to the geographic coordinate system used on the surface of Earth. These differ in their choice of fundamental plane, which divides the celestial sphere into two equal hemispheres along a great circle. Rectangular coordinates, in appropriate units, have the same fundamental ($x, y$) plane and primary ($x$-axis) direction, such as an axis of rotation. Each coordinate system is named after its choice of fundamental plane.

Coordinate systems
The following table lists the common coordinate systems in use by the astronomical community. The fundamental plane divides the celestial sphere into two equal hemispheres and defines the baseline for the latitudinal coordinates, similar to the equator in the geographic coordinate system. The poles are located at ±90° from the fundamental plane. The primary direction is the starting point of the longitudinal coordinates. The origin is the zero distance point, the "center of the celestial sphere", although the definition of celestial sphere is ambiguous about the definition of its center point.

Horizontal system
The horizontal, or altitude-azimuth, system is based on the position of the observer on Earth, which revolves around its own axis once per sidereal day (23 hours, 56 minutes and 4.091 seconds) in relation to the star background. The positioning of a celestial object by the horizontal system varies with time, but is a useful coordinate system for locating and tracking objects for observers on Earth. It is based on the position of stars relative to an observer's ideal horizon.

Equatorial system
The equatorial coordinate system is centered at Earth's center, but fixed relative to the celestial poles and the March equinox. The coordinates are based on the location of stars relative to Earth's equator if it were projected out to an infinite distance. The equatorial describes the sky as seen from the Solar System, and modern star maps almost exclusively use equatorial coordinates.

The equatorial system is the normal coordinate system for most professional and many amateur astronomers having an equatorial mount that follows the movement of the sky during the night. Celestial objects are found by adjusting the telescope's or other instrument's scales so that they match the equatorial coordinates of the selected object to observe.

Popular choices of pole and equator are the older B1950 and the modern J2000 systems, but a pole and equator "of date" can also be used, meaning one appropriate to the date under consideration, such as when a measurement of the position of a planet or spacecraft is made. There are also subdivisions into "mean of date" coordinates, which average out or ignore nutation, and "true of date," which include nutation.

Ecliptic system
The fundamental plane is the plane of the Earth's orbit, called the ecliptic plane. There are two principal variants of the ecliptic coordinate system: geocentric ecliptic coordinates centered on the Earth and heliocentric ecliptic coordinates centered on the center of mass of the Solar System.

The geocentric ecliptic system was the principal coordinate system for ancient astronomy and is still useful for computing the apparent motions of the Sun, Moon, and planets. It was used to define the twelve astrological signs of the zodiac, for instance.

The heliocentric ecliptic system describes the planets' orbital movement around the Sun, and centers on the barycenter of the Solar System (i.e. very close to the center of the Sun). The system is primarily used for computing the positions of planets and other Solar System bodies, as well as defining their orbital elements.

Galactic system
The galactic coordinate system uses the approximate plane of the Milky Way Galaxy as its fundamental plane. The Solar System is still the center of the coordinate system, and the zero point is defined as the direction towards the Galactic Center. Galactic latitude resembles the elevation above the galactic plane and galactic longitude determines direction relative to the center of the galaxy.

Supergalactic system
The supergalactic coordinate system corresponds to a fundamental plane that contains a higher than average number of local galaxies in the sky as seen from Earth.

Converting coordinates
Conversions between the various coordinate systems are given. See the notes before using these equations.

Notation

 * Horizontal coordinates
 * $A$, azimuth
 * $a$, altitude
 * Equatorial coordinates
 * $α$, right ascension
 * $δ$, declination
 * $h$, hour angle
 * Ecliptic coordinates
 * $λ$, ecliptic longitude
 * $β$, ecliptic latitude
 * Galactic coordinates
 * $l$, galactic longitude
 * $b$, galactic latitude
 * Miscellaneous
 * $a$, observer's longitude
 * $A$, observer's latitude
 * $ε$, obliquity of the ecliptic (about 23.4°)
 * $δ$, local sidereal time
 * $α$, Greenwich sidereal time

Hour angle ↔ right ascension

 * $$\begin{align}

h &= \theta_\text{L} - \alpha & &\mbox{or} &     h &= \theta_\text{G} + \lambda_\text{o} - \alpha \\ \alpha &= \theta_\text{L} - h     & &\mbox{or} & \alpha &= \theta_\text{G} + \lambda_\text{o} - h \end{align}$$

Equatorial ↔ ecliptic
The classical equations, derived from spherical trigonometry, for the longitudinal coordinate are presented to the right of a bracket; dividing the first equation by the second gives the convenient tangent equation seen on the left. The rotation matrix equivalent is given beneath each case. This division is ambiguous because tan has a period of 180° ($\pi$) whereas cos and sin have periods of 360° (2π).

 * $$\begin{align}

\tan\left(\lambda\right) &= {\sin\left(\alpha\right) \cos\left(\varepsilon\right) + \tan\left(\delta\right) \sin\left(\varepsilon\right) \over \cos\left(\alpha\right)}; \qquad\begin{cases} \cos\left(\beta\right) \sin\left(\lambda\right) = \cos\left(\delta\right) \sin\left(\alpha\right) \cos\left(\varepsilon\right) + \sin\left(\delta\right) \sin\left(\varepsilon\right); \\ \cos\left(\beta\right) \cos\left(\lambda\right) = \cos\left(\delta\right) \cos\left(\alpha\right). \end{cases} \\ \sin\left(\beta\right) &= \sin\left(\delta\right) \cos\left(\varepsilon\right) - \cos\left(\delta\right) \sin\left(\varepsilon\right) \sin\left(\alpha\right) \\[3pt] \begin{bmatrix} \cos\left(\beta\right)\cos\left(\lambda\right) \\ \cos\left(\beta\right)\sin\left(\lambda\right) \\ \sin\left(\beta\right) \end{bmatrix} &= \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0                            & 0                            \\    0 &  \cos\left(\varepsilon\right) & \sin\left(\varepsilon\right) \\ 0 & -\sin\left(\varepsilon\right) & \cos\left(\varepsilon\right) \end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix} \cos\left(\delta\right)\cos\left(\alpha\right) \\ \cos\left(\delta\right)\sin\left(\alpha\right) \\ \sin\left(\delta\right) \end{bmatrix} \\[6pt] \tan\left(\alpha\right) &= {\sin\left(\lambda\right) \cos\left(\varepsilon\right) - \tan\left(\beta\right) \sin\left(\varepsilon\right) \over \cos\left(\lambda\right)} ; \qquad \begin{cases} \cos\left(\delta\right) \sin\left(\alpha\right) = \cos\left(\beta\right) \sin\left(\lambda\right) \cos\left(\varepsilon\right) - \sin\left(\beta\right) \sin\left(\varepsilon\right); \\ \cos\left(\delta\right) \cos\left(\alpha\right) = \cos\left(\beta\right) \cos\left(\lambda\right). \end{cases} \\[3pt] \sin\left(\delta\right) &= \sin\left(\beta\right) \cos\left(\varepsilon\right) + \cos\left(\beta\right) \sin\left(\varepsilon\right) \sin\left(\lambda\right). \\[6pt] \begin{bmatrix} \cos\left(\delta\right)\cos\left(\alpha\right) \\ \cos\left(\delta\right)\sin\left(\alpha\right) \\ \sin\left(\delta\right) \end{bmatrix} &= \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0                           &  0                            \\    0 & \cos\left(\varepsilon\right) & -\sin\left(\varepsilon\right) \\ 0 & \sin\left(\varepsilon\right) & \cos\left(\varepsilon\right) \end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix} \cos\left(\beta\right)\cos\left(\lambda\right) \\ \cos\left(\beta\right)\sin\left(\lambda\right) \\ \sin\left(\beta\right) \end{bmatrix}. \end{align}$$

Equatorial ↔ horizontal
Azimuth ($A$) is measured from the south point, turning positive to the west. Zenith distance, the angular distance along the great circle from the zenith to a celestial object, is simply the complementary angle of the altitude: $h$.

 * $$\begin{align}

\tan\left(A\right) &= {\sin\left(h\right) \over \cos\left(h\right) \sin\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) - \tan\left(\delta\right) \cos\left(\phi_\text{o}\right)}; \qquad \begin{cases} \cos\left(a\right) \sin\left(A\right) = \cos\left(\delta\right) \sin\left(h\right) ;\\ \cos\left(a\right) \cos\left(A\right) = \cos\left(\delta\right) \cos\left(h\right) \sin\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) - \sin\left(\delta\right) \cos\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) \end{cases} \\[3pt] \sin\left(a\right) &= \sin\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) \sin\left(\delta\right) + \cos\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) \cos\left(\delta\right) \cos\left(h\right); \end{align}$$

In solving the $β$ equation for $λ$, in order to avoid the ambiguity of the arctangent, use of the two-argument arctangent, denoted $b$, is recommended. The two-argument arctangent computes the arctangent of $l$, and accounts for the quadrant in which it is being computed. Thus, consistent with the convention of azimuth being measured from the south and opening positive to the west,
 * $$A = -\arctan(x,y)$$,

where
 * $$\begin{align}

x &= -\sin\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) \cos\left(\delta\right) \cos\left(h\right) + \cos\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) \sin\left(\delta\right) \\ y &= \cos\left(\delta\right) \sin\left(h\right) \end{align}$$.

If the above formula produces a negative value for $SGB$, it can be rendered positive by simply adding 360°.

 * $$\begin{align}

\begin{bmatrix} \cos\left(a\right) \cos\left(A\right) \\ \cos\left(a\right) \sin\left(A\right) \\ \sin\left(a\right) \end{bmatrix} &= \begin{bmatrix} \sin\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) & 0 & -\cos\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) \\ 0                             & 1 &  0                              \\    \cos\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) & 0 &  \sin\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) \end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix} \cos\left(\delta\right)\cos\left(h\right) \\ \cos\left(\delta\right)\sin\left(h\right) \\ \sin\left(\delta\right) \end{bmatrix} \\ &= \begin{bmatrix} \sin\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) & 0 & -\cos\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) \\ 0                             & 1 &  0                              \\    \cos\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) & 0 &  \sin\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) \end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix} \cos\left(\theta_L\right) & \sin\left(\theta_L\right) & 0 \\ \sin\left(\theta_L\right) & -\cos\left(\theta_L\right) & 0 \\ 0           &  0            & 1  \end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix} \cos\left(\delta\right)\cos\left(\alpha\right) \\ \cos\left(\delta\right)\sin\left(\alpha\right) \\ \sin\left(\delta\right) \end{bmatrix}; \\[6pt] \tan\left(h\right) &= {\sin\left(A\right) \over \cos\left(A\right) \sin\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) + \tan\left(a\right) \cos\left(\phi_\text{o}\right)}; \qquad \begin{cases} \cos\left(\delta\right) \sin\left(h\right) = \cos\left(a\right) \sin\left(A\right); \\ \cos\left(\delta\right) \cos\left(h\right) = \sin\left(a\right) \cos\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) + \cos\left(a\right) \cos\left(A\right) \sin\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) \end{cases} \\[3pt] \sin\left(\delta\right) &= \sin\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) \sin\left(a\right) - \cos\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) \cos\left(a\right) \cos\left(A\right); \end{align}$$

Again, in solving the $SGL$ equation for $λ_{o}$, use of the two-argument arctangent that accounts for the quadrant is recommended. Thus, again consistent with the convention of azimuth being measured from the south and opening positive to the west,
 * $$h = \arctan(x, y)$$,

where
 * $$\begin{align}

x &= \sin\left(\phi_\text{o}\right)\cos\left(a\right) \cos\left(A\right) + \cos\left(\phi_\text{o}\right)\sin\left(a\right) \\ y &= \cos\left(a\right)\sin\left(A\right) \\[3pt] \begin{bmatrix} \cos\left(\delta\right)\cos\left(h\right) \\ \cos\left(\delta\right)\sin\left(h\right) \\ \sin\left(\delta\right) \end{bmatrix} &= \begin{bmatrix} \sin\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) & 0 & \cos\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) \\ 0                             & 1 & 0                              \\    -\cos\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) & 0 & \sin\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) \end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix} \cos\left(a\right) \cos\left(A\right) \\ \cos\left(a\right) \sin\left(A\right) \\ \sin\left(a\right) \end{bmatrix} \\ \begin{bmatrix} \cos\left(\delta\right) \cos\left(\alpha\right) \\ \cos\left(\delta\right) \sin\left(\alpha\right) \\ \sin\left(\delta\right) \end{bmatrix} &= \begin{bmatrix} \cos\left(\theta_L\right) & \sin\left(\theta_L\right) & 0 \\ \sin\left(\theta_L\right) & -\cos\left(\theta_L\right) & 0 \\ 0                        &  0                         & 1  \end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix} \sin\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) & 0 & \cos\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) \\ 0                             & 1 & 0                              \\    -\cos\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) & 0 & \sin\left(\phi_\text{o}\right) \end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix} \cos\left(a\right) \cos\left(A\right) \\ \cos\left(a\right) \sin\left(A\right) \\ \sin\left(a\right) \end{bmatrix}. \end{align}$$

Equatorial ↔ galactic
These equations are for converting equatorial coordinates to Galactic coordinates.

 * $$\begin{align}

\cos\left(l_\text{NCP} - l\right)\cos(b) &= \sin\left(\delta\right) \cos\left(\delta_\text{G}\right) - \cos\left(\delta\right)\sin\left(\delta_\text{G}\right)\cos\left(\alpha - \alpha_\text{G}\right) \\ \sin\left(l_\text{NCP} - l\right)\cos(b) &= \cos(\delta)\sin\left(\alpha - \alpha_\text{G}\right) \\ \sin\left(b\right) &= \sin\left(\delta\right) \sin\left(\delta_\text{G}\right) + \cos\left(\delta\right) \cos\left(\delta_\text{G}\right) \cos\left(\alpha - \alpha_\text{G}\right) \end{align}$$run_going

$$\alpha_\text{G}, \delta_\text{G}$$ are the equatorial coordinates of the North Galactic Pole and $$l_\text{NCP}$$ is the Galactic longitude of the North Celestial Pole. Referred to J2000.0 the values of these quantities are:
 * $$\alpha_G = 192.85948^\circ \qquad \delta_G = 27.12825^\circ \qquad l_\text{NCP}=122.93192^\circ$$

If the equatorial coordinates are referred to another equinox, they must be precessed to their place at J2000.0 before applying these formulae.

These equations convert to equatorial coordinates referred to B2000.0.

 * $$\begin{align}

\sin\left(\alpha - \alpha_\text{G}\right)\cos\left(\delta\right) &= \cos\left(b\right) \sin\left(l_\text{NCP} - l\right) \\ \cos\left(\alpha - \alpha_\text{G}\right)\cos\left(\delta\right) &= \sin\left(b\right) \cos\left(\delta_\text{G}\right) - \cos\left(b\right) \sin\left(\delta_\text{G}\right)\cos\left(l_\text{NCP} - l\right) \\ \sin\left(\delta\right) &= \sin\left(b\right) \sin\left(\delta_\text{G}\right) + \cos\left(b\right) \cos\left(\delta_\text{G}\right) \cos\left(l_\text{NCP} - l\right) \end{align}$$>laft_spasse>11.3

Notes on conversion

 * Angles in the degrees ( ° ), minutes ( ′ ), and seconds ( ″ ) of sexagesimal measure must be converted to decimal before calculations are performed. Whether they are converted to decimal degrees or radians depends upon the particular calculating machine or program. Negative angles must be carefully handled; –10° 20′ 30″ must be converted as −10° −20′ −30″.
 * Angles in the hours ( h ), minutes ( m ), and seconds ( s ) of time measure must be converted to decimal degrees or radians before calculations are performed. 1h = 15°; 1m = 15′; 1s = 15″
 * Angles greater than 360° (2π) or less than 0° may need to be reduced to the range 0°−360° (0–2π) depending upon the particular calculating machine or program.
 * The cosine of a latitude (declination, ecliptic and Galactic latitude, and altitude) are never negative by definition, since the latitude varies between −90° and +90°.
 * Inverse trigonometric functions arcsine, arccosine and arctangent are quadrant-ambiguous, and results should be carefully evaluated. Use of the second arctangent function (denoted in computing as atn2(y,x) or atan2(y,x), which calculates the arctangent of $ϕ_{o}$ using the sign of both arguments to determine the right quadrant) is recommended when calculating longitude/right ascension/azimuth. An equation which finds the sine, followed by the arcsin function, is recommended when calculating latitude/declination/altitude.
 * Azimuth ($θ_{L}$) is referred here to the south point of the horizon, the common astronomical reckoning. An object on the meridian to the south of the observer has $θ_{G}$ = $90° − a$ = 0° with this usage. However, n Astropy's AltAz, in the Large Binocular Telescope FITS file convention, in XEphem, in the IAU library Standards of Fundamental Astronomy and Section B of the Astronomical Almanac for example, the azimuth is East of North. In navigation and some other disciplines, azimuth is figured from the north.
 * The equations for altitude ($tan(A)$) do not account for atmospheric refraction.
 * The equations for horizontal coordinates do not account for diurnal parallax, that is, the small offset in the position of a celestial object caused by the position of the observer on the Earth's surface. This effect is significant for the Moon, less so for the planets, minute for stars or more distant objects.
 * Observer's longitude ($A$) here is measured positively westward from the prime meridian; this is contrary to current IAU standards.

title: Astronomical coordinate systems


text:
Eudoxus

Eudoxus may refer to:

 * Eudoxus of Cnidus (c. 395–390 BC – c. 342–337 BC), Greek astronomer and mathematician, student of Plato
 * Eudoxus of Cyzicus (fl. c. 130 BC), Greek navigator who explored the Arabian Sea for Ptolemy VIII of Egypt
 * Eudoxus (lunar crater)
 * Eudoxus (Martian crater)

title: Eudoxus