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Miller's Crossing

Miller's Crossing is a 1990 American neo-noir gangster film written, directed and produced by the Coen brothers and starring Gabriel Byrne, Marcia Gay Harden, John Turturro, Jon Polito, J. E. Freeman, and Albert Finney. The plot concerns a power struggle between two rival gangs and how the protagonist, Tom Reagan (Byrne), plays both sides against each other.

In 2005, Time chose Miller's Crossing as one of the 100 greatest films made since the inception of the periodical. Time critic Richard Corliss called it a "noir with a touch so light, the film seems to float on the breeze like the frisbee of a fedora sailing through the forest".

Plot
The year is 1929, Tom Reagan is the right-hand man for Irish mobster Leo O'Bannon, a political boss who runs an unnamed U.S. city during Prohibition. Leo sets off a mob war when he extends protection to his girlfriend Verna's brother, a bookie named Bernie Bernbaum, who is skimming off the match fixing scheme of Leo's rival, the Italian gangster Johnny Caspar. The situation is further complicated by the fact that behind Leo's back, Verna is also sleeping with Tom.

Despite his own relationship with Verna, Tom presses Leo to give up her brother to Caspar. When the war heats up, with an assassination attempt on Leo, Tom tries to persuade Leo that he is foolish to protect Bernie on Verna's behalf, making the point by revealing his affair with her. Leo publicly beats Tom and cuts ties with both him and Verna.

Cast out and needing work, Tom turns to Caspar. As a loyalty test, Caspar commands Tom to kill Bernie, an awkward request given Tom's relationship with Bernie's sister. With Caspar's henchmen in tow, Tom leads Bernie to his execution in the woods at a spot called Miller's Crossing. Bernie grovels for his life, pleading "Look in your heart". Tom fakes the killing by firing his gun into the ground and orders Bernie to leave town. Caspar's henchmen, who are within earshot but cannot see the two men, are fooled and neglect to check for the body before leaving with Tom.

With Leo weakened, Caspar takes his place as city boss, controlling the police and using them to destroy Leo's operations.

Within Caspar's gang, there is tension between Tom and Caspar's trusted enforcer, the brutal Eddie Dane ("the Dane"). Upon learning that his men didn't actually see Tom kill Bernie, the Dane takes Tom back to Miller's Crossing to verify that Bernie's body is there. Tom expects to find no corpse and to be executed for it, but instead the group finds a decomposing body that had been shot in the face and disfigured beyond recognition by birds. The Dane and his men assume the body is that of Bernie, but it is actually that of the Dane's lover, a man named Mink, whom Bernie had secretly killed and placed as a decoy where his own body should have been. Tom is now vulnerable if the Dane or Caspar discovers the identity of the body, a fact that Bernie uses in attempt to blackmail Tom into killing Caspar.

With Bernie supposedly dead, someone continues to cut into Caspar's match fix, and Tom and the Dane each try to convince Caspar that the other is behind it. Tom uses the sudden disappearance of Mink to sow suspicion about the Dane by insinuating that Mink has gone into hiding after he and the Dane betrayed Caspar. Caspar must decide between Tom and the Dane, a dilemma he resolves by shooting the Dane in the head as Tom looks on.

Tom then thins out his rivals by engineering a surprise meeting between Bernie and Caspar, knowing that the first one to be seen by the other is likely to be killed. Shortly after the arranged time, Tom arrives to discover that Bernie has killed Caspar. Tom tricks Bernie into surrendering his gun and declares his intent to kill him in retribution for his blackmail. Bernie again begs for mercy, saying, as he did at Miller's Crossing, "Look in your heart", but this time Tom asks rhetorically "What heart?" and shoots him dead.

With Caspar and the Dane dead, Leo resumes his post as the only boss in town. At Bernie's burial, Verna, now back in Leo's good graces, reacts coldly to Tom and walks back to her car. Leo notifies Tom that Verna has proposed to marry him. He offers Tom his job back but Tom turns him down and stays behind, watching Leo as he walks away.

Production
While writing the screenplay, the Coen brothers tentatively titled the film The Bighead—their nickname for Tom Reagan. The first image they conceived was that of a black hat coming to rest in a forest clearing; then, a gust of wind lifts it into the air, sending it flying down an avenue of trees. This image closes the film's opening credit sequence.

Because of the intricate, dense plot, the Coens suffered from writer's block with the script. They stayed with a close friend of theirs at the time, William Preston Robertson in Saint Paul, Minnesota, hoping that a change of scenery might help. After watching Baby Boom one night, they returned to New York City and wrote Barton Fink (in three weeks) before resuming the Miller's Crossing screenplay.

The budget was reported by film industry magazines as around $14 million, but the Coens have said that the film cost "substantially less" than that. According to Paul Coughlin, "The casting of Byrne allows for the psychological assurance, self-confidence and icy demeanour to be physically reproduced in the sturdy and unruffled presence of the tall and lean actor. Tom is 'a man who walks behind a man, whispers in his ear', he is the brains behind Leo's operation, and he is the heartless centre of Miller's Crossing." Although he was a native Irishman playing a lieutenant to an Irish mobster, the Coens did not originally want Gabriel Byrne to use his own accent in the film. Byrne argued that his dialogue was structured in such a way that it was a good fit for his accent and after he tried it, the Coens agreed.

During casting they had envisioned Trey Wilson (who played Nathan Arizona in their previous film Raising Arizona) as gangster boss Leo O'Bannon but two days before principal photography began, Wilson died from a brain hemorrhage and Finney was cast. Roger Westcombe calls Finney's portrayal of Leo "perfectly nuanced in a brilliant performance". Finney also appears in drag in a cameo as an elderly female ladies' room attendant.

The Coens cast family and friends in minor roles. Sam Raimi, director and friend of the Coens, appears as the snickering gunman at the siege of the Sons of Erin social club, while Frances McDormand, Joel Coen's wife, appears as the mayor's secretary. The role of The Swede was written for Peter Stormare but he could not be cast since he was playing Hamlet (a role often referred to as "the Dane"). J. E. Freeman was cast and the name of the character was changed to The Dane, while Stormare went on to be featured in Fargo and The Big Lebowski.

The city in which the story takes place is unidentified but the film was shot in New Orleans as the Coen Brothers were attracted to its look. Ethan Coen commented in an interview, "There are whole neighborhoods here of nothing but 1929 architecture. New Orleans is sort of a depressed city; it hasn't been gentrified. There's a lot of architecture that hasn't been touched, store-front windows that haven't been replaced in the last sixty years." Principal photography ran from January 27 to April 28, 1989.

Influences
Roger Westcombe finds in the opening title sequence of a fedora being blown off its bed of fallen leaves in the forest, a subtle homage to Jean-Pierre Melville's 1963 French crime film Le Doulos, which ends with the gangster protagonist's fate underlined wistfully by the shot of his fedora coming to rest, alone in the frame, in the soil of the forest floor.

Writing in The Atlantic, Christopher Orr sees in the opening scene, in which Johnny Caspar (Jon Polito) confronts Leo O'Bannon (Albert Finney) and Tom Reagan (Gabriel Byrne) "an obvious nod to the opening of The Godfather".

Miller's Crossing quotes many gangster films and films noir. Many situations, characters and dialogue are derived from the work of Dashiell Hammett, particularly his 1931 novel The Glass Key. There are some parallels between the two stories and many scenes and lines are lifted from this novel. The relationship between Tom and Leo in the film mirrors the relationship between Ned Beaumont and Paul Madvig, the principal characters of the Hammett novel.

Another important Hammett source was his 1929 novel Red Harvest, which details the story of a gang war in a corrupt Prohibition-era American city, a war initiated by the machinations of the main character. While Miller's Crossing follows the plot and main characters of The Glass Key fairly closely, the film has no direct scenes, characters, or dialogue from Red Harvest except for using a fixed boxing fight as a plot device.

Orr also notes, "The ending of Miller's Crossing makes even clearer reference to the immaculate final scene of The Third Man: a funeral, a protagonist abandoned by his car, who watches as the last person he cares for in the world walks away down a dirt road hemmed by trees".

Reception and legacy
Although there is no mention of this on the packaging, the Criterion Blu-ray edition released in 2022 is over two minutes shorter than the theatrical release version. Among the cuts are Frankie's line 'Jesus, Tom' after Tom hits him in the face with a chair, and the line 'Take care now' said by Lazzare's messenger after Tom is subjected to a beating.

Miller's Crossing opened in limited release in New York City on September 22, 1990, after premiering at the New York Film Festival the day before. It was a box-office failure at the time, making slightly more than $5 million, out of its $10–$14 million budget.

On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 93% based on 68 reviews, with an average rating of 8.2/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Though possibly more notable for its distinctive style than an airtight story, this Coen brothers' take on the classic gangster flick features sharp dialogue, impressive cinematography, and a typically quirky cast of characters." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 76 out of 100, indicating "generally favorable reviews".

Film critic David Thomson calls the film "a superb, languid fantasia on the theme of the gangster film that repays endless viewing". Of Turturro's performance he says "This could be the finest work of one of our best supporting actors". Roger Ebert gave it 3/4 stars, stating "It is likely to be most appreciated by movie lovers who will enjoy its resonance with films of the past".

Miller's Crossing won the Critic's Award at the 2nd Yubari International Fantastic Film Festival in February 1991. It was nominated for the Grand Prix of the Belgian Syndicate of Cinema Critics.

Frank Moraes says, "Gabriel Byrne does an excellent job in this film, ... this film lives and dies on his performance". Taking particular note of the work of cinematographer Barry Sonnenfeld and production designer Dennis Gassner, Christopher Orr observed, "Miller's Crossing is an aesthetic pleasure of the highest order on nearly every level".

Time and Total Film placed it in their top 100 list. In 2010, The Guardian called it the 24th best crime movie of all time.

Soundtrack
The score was written by Carter Burwell, his third collaboration with the Coen brothers. The main theme is based on the Irish folk ballad "Lament for Limerick". Burwell takes a traditional piece of music with some culturally relevant connection and uses it as the central motif of the broader arrangement. The main theme has been utilized in trailers for a number of other films, including The Shawshank Redemption, as well as in an ad for Caffrey's Irish Ale.

The soundtrack includes jazz tunes, such as "King Porter Stomp", reflective of the era in which the film is set. Other songs include "Danny Boy", sung by Frank Patterson, an Irish tenor, which is heard in Leo's house. Patterson can also be heard singing Jimmy Campbell's "Goodnight Sweetheart" in a scene in the Shenandoah Club.

Track listing

 * 1) "Opening Titles" – 1:53
 * 2) "Caspar Laid Out" – 1:57
 * 3) "A Man and His Hat" – 0:56
 * 4) "King Porter Stomp" (performed by Jelly Roll Morton) – 2:09
 * 5) "The Long Way Around" – 1:39
 * 6) "Miller's Crossing" – 2:35
 * 7) "After Miller's Crossing" – 0:42
 * 8) "Runnin' Wild" (performed by Joe Grey) – 3:06
 * 9) "Rage of the Dane" – 0:05
 * 10) "All a You Whores" – 0:24
 * 11) "Nightmare in the Trophy Room" – 1:37
 * 12) "He Didn't Like His Friends" – 0:24
 * 13) "Danny Boy" (performed by Frank Patterson) – 4:05
 * 14) "What Heart?" – 0:49
 * 15) "End Titles" – 4:44
 * 16) "Goodnight Sweetheart" (performed by Frank Patterson) – 0:54

title: Miller's Crossing


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810s BC

This article concerns the period 819 BC – 810 BC.

Events and trends

 * 817 BC—Pedubastis I declares himself king of Egypt, founding the Twenty-third Dynasty.
 * 814 BC—Carthage is founded by Phoenician colonists from modern-day Lebanon, led by queen Dido. The city developed into a maritime power that dominated the Mediterranean Sea.
 * 811 BC—Adad-nirari III succeeds his father Shamshi-Adad V as king of Assyria.

Significant People

 * Homer, semi-mythological Greek writer, born (approximate date)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 810s BC


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820s BC

This article concerns the period 829 BC – 820 BC.

Events and trends

 * 828 BC/827 BC (14th year in the era of Gònghé)—King Xuan of Zhou becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China, ending almost two decades of the Gonghe Regency.
 * 828 BC—Xiong Yan is replaced by his son Xiong Shuang as Viscount of Chu.
 * 825 BC—Takelot II, king of Egypt, dies. Crown Prince Osorkon III and Shoshenq III, sons of Takelot, battle for the throne.
 * 825 BC/824 BC—Ariphron, King of Athens, dies after a reign of 20 years and is succeeded by his son Thespieus.
 * 825 BC—Dido, founder of Carthage flees Tyre after the death of Acerbas
 * 823 BC—Death of Shalmaneser III, king of Assyria. He is succeeded by his son Shamshi-Adad V.
 * 821 BC—Xiong Xun, youngest brother of Xiong Shuang, ascends the throne of Chu after defeating his surviving brothers Xiong Xue and Xiong Kan.
 * 820 BC—Pygmalion ascends the throne of Tyre.

Significant People

 * Amaziah, king of Judah, born (approximate date).

title: 820s BC


text:
830s BC

This article concerns the period 839 BC – 830 BC.

Events and trends

 * 836 BC—Shalmaneser III of Assyria leads an expedition against the Tabareni.
 * 836 BC—Civil war breaks out in Egypt.

Significant People

 * Adad-nirari III, king of Assyria, is born (approximate date).
 * Shoshenq IV, pharaoh of Egypt is born (approximate date).

title: 830s BC


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840s BC

This article concerns the period 849 BC – 840 BC.

Events and trends

 * 845 BC—Pherecles, King of Athens, dies after a reign of 19 years and is succeeded by his son Ariphron.
 * 842 BC—Shalmaneser III devastates the territory of Damascus; Israel and the Phoenician cities send tribute.
 * 841 BC—Exile of King Li of the Zhou Dynasty of Ancient China, and the Gonghe Regency, began. Records of the Grand Historian (compiled by historian Sima Qian by 91 BC) regards this year as the first year of consecutive annual dating of Chinese history.

title: 840s BC


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850s BC

This article concerns the period 859 BC – 850 BC.

Events and trends

 * 859 BC—Assurnasirpal II dies.
 * 859 BC—Shalmaneser attacks Syria and Israel.
 * 858 BC—Aramu becomes king of Urartu.
 * 858 BC—Shalmaneser III succeeds Assurnasirpal II as king of Assyria.
 * 854 BC or 853 BC—Shalmaneser III battles a Syrian coalition (including king Ahab of Kingdom of Israel and Hadadezer) in the battle of Qarqar.
 * 850 BC—Takelot II succeeds Osorkon II as King of Egypt.
 * c. 850 BC—Homer composes the Iliad and Odyssey.
 * c. 850 BC—Mesha erects the Mesha Stele, the Moabite Stone; the story is 34 lines, nearly complete and reveals the name 'Israel', a story of Mesha's revolt against the Kingdom of ancient Israel.
 * Nazarites and Rechabites establish early temperance movement.

Births

 * Shamshi-Adad V, king of Assyria, is born (approximate date).

Deaths

 * Feizi, 1st Ruler of Qin

title: 850s BC


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860s BC

This article concerns the period 869 BC – 860 BC.

Events and trends

 * 865 BC—Kar Kalmaneser (also known as Tell Ahmar and Til Barsib), an independent Neo-Hittite kingdom located in current Syria on the banks of the Euphrates River, is conquered by the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II.
 * 864 BC—Diognetus, King of Athens, dies after a reign of 28 years (beginning 892 BC), and is succeeded by his son Pherecles.
 * 860 BC—The kingdom of Urartu is unified.

Significant People

 * Joash, king of Judah, is born (approximate date).

title: 860s BC


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Elizabeth Gaskell

Elizabeth Cleghorn Gaskell (née Stevenson; 29 September 1810 – 12 November 1865), often referred to as Mrs Gaskell, was an English novelist, biographer, and short story writer. Her novels offer a detailed portrait of the lives of many strata of Victorian society, including the very poor. Her first novel, Mary Barton, was published in 1848. Gaskell's The Life of Charlotte Brontë, published in 1857, was the first biography of Charlotte Brontë. In this biography, she wrote only of the moral, sophisticated things in Brontë's life; the rest she omitted, deciding certain, more salacious aspects were better kept hidden. Among Gaskell's best known novels are Cranford (1851–1853), North and South (1854–1855), and Wives and Daughters (1864–1866), all of which were adapted for television by the BBC.

Early life
Gaskell was born Elizabeth Cleghorn Stevenson on 29 September 1810 in Lindsey Row, Chelsea, London, now 93 Cheyne Walk. The doctor who delivered her was Anthony Todd Thomson, whose sister Catherine later became Gaskell's stepmother. She was the youngest of eight children; only she and her brother John survived infancy. Her father, William Stevenson, a Unitarian from Berwick-upon-Tweed, was minister at Failsworth, Lancashire, but resigned his orders on conscientious grounds. He moved to London in 1806 on the understanding that he would be appointed private secretary to the Earl of Lauderdale, who was to become Governor General of India. That position did not materialise, however, and Stevenson was nominated Keeper of the Treasury Records.

His wife, Elizabeth Holland, came from a family established in Lancashire and Cheshire that was connected with other prominent Unitarian families, including the Wedgwoods, the Martineaus, the Turners and the Darwins. When she died 13 months after giving birth to Gaskell, her husband sent the baby to live with Elizabeth's sister, Hannah Lumb, in Knutsford, Cheshire.

Her father remarried to Catherine Thomson, in 1814. They had a son, William, in 1815, and a daughter, Catherine, in 1816. Although Elizabeth spent several years without seeing her father, to whom she was devoted, her older brother John often visited her in Knutsford. John was destined for the Royal Navy from an early age, like his grandfathers and uncles, but he did not obtain preferment into the Service and had to join the Merchant Navy with the East India Company's fleet. John went missing in 1827 during an expedition to India.

Character and influences
Much of Elizabeth's childhood was spent in Cheshire, where she lived with her aunt Hannah Lumb in Knutsford, the town she immortalized as Cranford. They lived in a large red-brick house called The Heath (now Heathwaite). Elizabeth grew to be a beautiful young woman, well-groomed, tidily dressed, kind, gentle, and considerate of others. Her temperament was calm and collected, joyous and innocent, she revelled in the simplicity of rural life.

From 1821 to 1826 she attended a school in Warwickshire run by the Misses Byerley, first at Barford and from 1824 at Avonbank outside Stratford-on-Avon, where she received the traditional education in arts, the classics, decorum and propriety given to young ladies from relatively wealthy families at the time. Her aunts gave her the classics to read, and she was encouraged by her father in her studies and writing. Her brother John sent her modern books, and descriptions of his life at sea and his experiences abroad.

After leaving school at the age of 16, Elizabeth travelled to London to spend time with her Holland cousins. She also spent some time in Newcastle upon Tyne (with the Rev William Turner's family) and from there made the journey to Edinburgh. Her stepmother's brother was the miniature artist William John Thomson, who in 1832 painted her portrait (see top right). A bust was sculpted by David Dunbar at the same time.

Married life and writing career
On 30 August 1832 Elizabeth married Unitarian minister William Gaskell, in Knutsford. They spent their honeymoon in North Wales, staying with her uncle, Samuel Holland, at Plas-yn-Penrhyn near Porthmadog. The Gaskells then settled in Manchester, where William was the minister at Cross Street Unitarian Chapel and longest-serving Chair of the Portico Library. Manchester's industrial surroundings and books borrowed from the library influenced Elizabeth's writing in the industrial genre. Their first daughter was stillborn in 1833. Their other children were Marianne (1834), Margaret Emily, known as Meta (1837), Florence Elizabeth (1842), and Julia Bradford (1846). Marianne and Meta boarded at the private school conducted by Rachel Martineau, sister of Harriet, a close friend of Elizabeth. Florence married Charles Crompton, a barrister and Liberal politician, in 1863.

In March 1835 Gaskell began a diary documenting the development of her daughter Marianne: she explored parenthood, the values she placed on her role as a mother; her faith, and, later, relations between Marianne and her sister, Meta. In 1836 she co-authored with her husband a cycle of poems, Sketches among the Poor, which was published in Blackwood's Magazine in January 1837. In 1840 William Howitt published Visits to Remarkable Places containing a contribution entitled Clopton Hall by "A Lady", the first work written and published solely by her. In April 1840 Howitt published The Rural Life of England, which included a second work titled Notes on Cheshire Customs.

In July 1841, the Gaskells travelled to Belgium and Germany. German literature came to have a strong influence on her short stories, the first of which she published in 1847 as Libbie Marsh's Three Eras, in Howitt's Journal, under the pseudonym "Cotton Mather Mills". But other influences including Adam Smith's Social Politics enabled a much wider understanding of the cultural milieu in which her works were set. Her second story printed under the pseudonym was The Sexton's Hero. And she made her last use of it in 1848, with the publication of her story Christmas Storms and Sunshine.

For some 20 years beginning in 1843, the Gaskells took holidays at Silverdale on Morecambe Bay, and in particular stayed at Lindeth Tower. Daughters Meta and Julia later built a house, "The Shieling", in Silverdale.

A son, William, (1844–45), died in infancy, and this tragedy was the catalyst for Gaskell's first novel, Mary Barton. It was ready for publication in October 1848, shortly before they made the move south. It was an enormous success, selling thousands of copies. Ritchie called it a "great and remarkable sensation." It was praised by Thomas Carlyle and Maria Edgeworth. She brought the teeming slums of manufacturing in Manchester alive to readers as yet unacquainted with crowded narrow alleyways. Her obvious depth of feeling was evident, while her turn of phrase and description was described as the greatest since Jane Austen.

In 1850, the Gaskells moved to a villa at 84 Plymouth Grove. She took her cow with her. For exercise, she would happily walk three miles to help another person in distress. In Manchester, Elizabeth wrote her remaining literary works, while her husband held welfare committees and tutored the poor in his study. The Gaskells' social circle included writers, journalists, religious dissenters, and social reformers such as William and Mary Howitt and Harriet Martineau. Poets, patrons of literature and writers such as Lord Houghton,  Charles Dickens and John Ruskin visited Plymouth Grove, as did the American writers Harriet Beecher Stowe and Charles Eliot Norton, while the conductor Charles Hallé, who lived close by, taught piano to one of their daughters. Elizabeth's friend Charlotte Brontë stayed there three times, and on one occasion hid behind the drawing room curtains as she was too shy to meet the Gaskells' other visitors.

In early 1850 Gaskell wrote to Charles Dickens asking for advice about assisting a girl named Pasley whom she had visited in prison. Pasley provided her with a model for the title character of Ruth in 1853. Lizzie Leigh was published in March and April 1850, in the first numbers of Dickens's journal Household Words, in which many of her works were to be published, including Cranford and North and South, her novella My Lady Ludlow, and short stories.

In June 1855, Patrick Brontë asked Gaskell to write a biography of his daughter Charlotte, and The Life of Charlotte Brontë was published in 1857. This played a significant role in developing Gaskell's own literary career. In the biography, Gaskell chose to focus more on Brontë as a woman than as a writer of Romantic fiction. In 1859 Gaskell travelled to Whitby to gather material for Sylvia's Lovers, which was published in 1863. Her novella Cousin Phyllis was serialized in The Cornhill Magazine from November 1863 to February 1864. The serialization of her last novel, Wives and Daughters, began in August 1864 in The Cornhill. She died of a heart attack in 1865, while visiting a house she had purchased in Holybourne, Hampshire. Wives and Daughters was published in book form in early 1866, first in the United States and then, ten days later, in Britain.

Her grave is near the Brook Street Chapel, Knutsford.

Reputation and re-evaluation
Gaskell's reputation from her death to the 1950s was epitomised by Lord David Cecil's assessment in Early Victorian Novelists (1934) that she was "all woman" and "makes a creditable effort to overcome her natural deficiencies but all in vain" (quoted in Stoneman, 1987, from Cecil, p. 235). A scathing unsigned review of North and South in The Leader accused Gaskell of making errors about Lancashire which a resident of Manchester would not make and said that a woman (or clergymen and women) could not "understand industrial problems", would "know too little about the cotton industry" and had no "right to add to the confusion by writing about it".

Gaskell's novels, with the exception of Cranford, gradually slipped into obscurity during the late 19th century; before 1950, she was dismissed as a minor author with good judgment and "feminine" sensibilities. Archie Stanton Whitfield said her work was "like a nosegay of violets, honeysuckle, lavender, mignonette and sweet briar" in 1929. Cecil (1934) said that she lacked the "masculinity" necessary to properly deal with social problems (Chapman, 1999, pp. 39–40).

However, the critical tide began to turn in Gaskell's favour when, in the 1950s and 1960s, socialist critics like Kathleen Tillotson, Arnold Kettle and Raymond Williams re-evaluated the description of social and industrial problems in her novels (see Moore, 1999 for an elaboration), and—realising that her vision went against the prevailing views of the time—saw it as preparing the way for vocal feminist movements. In the early 21st century, with Gaskell's work "enlisted in contemporary negotiations of nationhood as well as gender and class identities", North and South – one of the first industrial novels describing the conflict between employers and workers – was recognized as depicting complex social conflicts and offering more satisfactory solutions through Margaret Hale: spokesperson for the author and Gaskell's most mature creation.

In her introduction to The Cambridge Companion to Elizabeth Gaskell (2007), a collection of essays representing the current Gaskell scholarship, Jill L. Matus stresses the author's growing stature in Victorian literary studies and how her innovative, versatile storytelling addressed the rapid changes during her lifetime.

Literary style and themes
Gaskell's first novel, Mary Barton, was published anonymously in 1848. The best-known of her remaining novels are Cranford (1851–1853), North and South (1854–1855), and Wives and Daughters (1864–1866). She became popular for her writing, especially her ghost stories, aided by Charles Dickens, who published her work in his magazine Household Words. Her ghost stories are in the "Gothic" vein, making them quite distinct from her "industrial" fiction.

Even though her writing conforms to Victorian conventions, including the use of the name "Mrs. Gaskell", she usually framed her stories as critiques of contemporary attitudes. Her early works were highly influenced by the social analysis of Thomas Carlyle and focused on factory work in the Midlands. She usually emphasized the role of women, with complex narratives and realistic female characters. Gaskell was influenced by the writings of Jane Austen, especially in North and South, which borrows liberally from the courtship plot of Pride and Prejudice. She was an established novelist when Patrick Brontë invited her to write a biography of his daughter, though she worried, as a writer of fiction, that it would be "a difficult thing" to "be accurate and keep to the facts." Her treatment of class continues to interest social historians as well as fiction readers.

Themes
Unitarianism urges comprehension and tolerance toward all religions and even though Gaskell tried to keep her own beliefs hidden, she felt strongly about these values which permeated her works; in North and South, "Margaret the Churchwoman, her father the Dissenter, Higgins the Infidel, knelt down together. It did them no harm."

Dialect usage
Gaskell's style is notable for putting local dialect words into the mouths of middle-class characters and the narrator. In North and South Margaret Hale suggests redding up (tidying) the Bouchers' house and even offers jokingly to teach her mother words such as knobstick (strike-breaker). In 1854 she defended her use of dialect to express otherwise inexpressible concepts in a letter to Walter Savage Landor:

"... you will remember the country people's use of the word 'unked'. I can't find any other word to express the exact feeling of strange unusual desolate discomfort, and I sometimes 'potter' and 'mither' people by using it."

She also used the dialect word "nesh" (a person who feels the cold easily or often feels cold is said to be 'nesh'), which goes back to Old English, in Mary Barton:

"Sit you down here: the grass is well nigh dry by this time; and you're neither of you nesh folk about taking cold."

also in North and South:

"And I did na like to be reckoned nesh and soft,"

and later in "The Manchester Marriage" (1858):

"Now, I'm not above being nesh for other folks myself. I can stand a good blow, and never change colour; but, set me in the operating-room in the Infirmary, and I turn as sick as a girl."

and:

"At Mrs Wilson's death Norah came back to them, as a nurse to the newly-born little Edwin; into which post she was not installed without a pretty strong oration on the part of the proud and happy father; who declared that if he found out that Norah ever tried to screen the boy by falsehood, or to make him nesh either in body or mind, she should go that very day."

Publications
Source:

Novels

 * Mary Barton (1848)
 * Cranford (1851–1853)
 * Ruth (1853)
 * North and South (1854–1855)
 * My Lady Ludlow (1858–1859)
 * A Dark Night's Work (1863)
 * Sylvia's Lovers (1863)
 * Wives and Daughters: An Everyday Story (1864–1866)

Novellas and collections

 * The Moorland Cottage (1850)
 * Mr. Harrison's Confessions (1851)
 * Lizzie Leigh (1855)
 * Round the Sofa (1859)
 * Lois the Witch (1859; 1861)
 * Cousin Phillis (1863–1864)
 * The Grey Woman and Other Tales (1865)

Short stories

 * "Libbie Marsh's Three Eras" (1847)
 * "The Sexton's Hero" (1847)
 * "Christmas Storms and Sunshine" (1848)
 * "Hand and Heart" (1849)
 * "Martha Preston" (1850)
 * "The Well of Pen-Morfa" (1850)
 * "The Heart of John Middleton" (1850)
 * "Disappearances" (1851)
 * "Bessy's Troubles at Home" (1852)
 * "The Old Nurse's Story" (1852)
 * "Cumberland Sheep-Shearers" (1853)
 * "Morton Hall" (1853)
 * "Traits and Stories of the Huguenots" (1853)
 * "My French Master" (1853)
 * "The Squire's Story" (1853)
 * "Company Manners" (1854)
 * "Half a Life-time Ago" (1855)
 * "The Poor Clare" (1856)
 * "The Doom of the Griffiths" (1858)
 * "An Incident at Niagara Falls" (1858)
 * "The Sin of a Father" (1858), later republished as "Right at Last"
 * "The Manchester Marriage" (1858)
 * "The Haunted House" (1859)
 * "The Ghost in the Garden Room" (1859), later "The Crooked Branch"
 * "The Half Brothers" (1859)
 * "Curious If True" (1860)
 * "The Grey Woman" (1861)
 * "Six weeks at Heppenheim" (1862)
 * "The Cage at Cranford" (1863)
 * "How the First Floor Went to Crowley Castle" (1863), republished as "Crowley Castle"
 * "A Parson's Holiday" (1865)

Non-fiction

 * "Notes on Cheshire Customs" (1840)
 * An Accursed Race (1855)
 * The Life of Charlotte Brontë (1857)
 * "French Life" (1864)
 * "A Column of Gossip from Paris" (1865)

Poetry

 * Sketches Among the Poor (with William Gaskell; 1837)
 * Temperance Rhymes (1839)

Legacy
The house on Plymouth Grove remained in the Gaskell family until 1913, after which it stood empty and fell into disrepair. The University of Manchester acquired it in 1969 and in 2004 it was acquired by the Manchester Historic Buildings Trust, which then raised money to restore it. Exterior renovations were completed in 2011; it is now open to the public as a historic house museum. In 2010, a memorial to Gaskell was unveiled in Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey. The panel was dedicated by her great-great-great-granddaughter Sarah Prince and a wreath was laid. Manchester City Council have created an award in Gaskell's name, given to recognize women's involvement in charitable work and improvement of lives. A bibliomemoir Mrs. Gaskell and me: Two Women, Two Love Stories, Two centuries Apart, by Nell Stevens was published in 2018.

Her novel Wives and Daughters aired on BBC television in 1999. In 2004, a television film miniseries aired on BBC television of her 1854 novel North and South. In 2007, her three part novella Cranford starring Judi Dench aired on BBC television.

The Gaskell Memorial Hall, Silverdale's village hall, is so named because while funds were being raised for the building of the hall in 1928 a donor offered £50, or £100 if it was named thus: the conversation is recorded by novelist Willie Riley in his autobiography.

title: Elizabeth Gaskell


text:
870s BC

This article concerns the period 879 BC – 870 BC.

Events and trends

 * 879 BC—Death of Zhou yi wang, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
 * 879 BC—Kalhu is dedicated. Some historians say that Assurnasirpal II gives a banquet for 69,574 persons to celebrate it.
 * 878 BC—Zhou li wang becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
 * 877 BC—Parshvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankara of Jainism was born in India.
 * 874 BC—Osorkon II succeeds Takelot I as king of the Twenty-second dynasty of Egypt.
 * 874 BC—Ahab becomes king of Israel (approximate date).
 * 872 BC—An exceptionally high flood of the Nile covers the floors of the Temple of Luxor.
 * 871 BC—Asa the King of Judah dies after sitting on the throne for 41 years.
 * Jehu, king of Israel, is born (approximate date).
 * Ahaziah, king of Judah, is born (approximate date).

title: 870s BC


text:
880s BC

This article concerns the period 889 BC – 880 BC.

Events and trends

 * 887 BC—Soshenq II succeeds Osorkon I as king of Egypt.
 * 885 BC—Takelot I succeeds Soshenq II as king of Egypt.
 * 885 BC—King Yi of Zhou, son of King Yih, is restored to the throne.
 * 885 BC—Zimri king of Israel assassinates Elah and rules for 7 days. After suiciding, The people picks Omri as their king while others pick Tibni.
 * 883 BC—Ashurnasirpal II succeeds his father Tukulti-Ninurta II as king of Assyria.
 * 881 BC—Tibni the son of Ginath dies and Omri succeeds him.
 * 880 BC—Ashurnasirpal moves the Assyrian royal capital to Kalhu (modern Nimrud, Iraq). Human-headed winged lion (lamassu) gateway supports from the palace date from this period to 859 BC.

Significant People

 * Shalmaneser III, king of Assyria, is born (approximate date).
 * Ahaziah, king of Israel, is born (approximate date).
 * Jehoram, king of Judah, is born (approximate date).

title: 880s BC


text:
890s BC

This article concerns the period 899 BC – 890 BC.

Events and trends

 * 899 BC—The first year of King Yih of Zhou's reign is marked by a solar eclipse.
 * 892 BC—Megacles, King of Athens, dies after a reign of 30 years and is succeeded by his son Diognetus.
 * 892 BC—King Xiao of Zhou overthrows King Yih of Zhou and takes the throne.
 * 891 BC—Tukulti-Ninurta II succeeds his father Adad-nirari II as king of Assyria.

title: 890s BC


text:
900s BC (decade)

The 900s BC is a decade which lasted from 909 BC to 900 BC.

Events and trends

 * 909 BC — Jeroboam, the first king of the northern Hebrew kingdom of Israel, dies and is succeeded by his son Nadab. A alternate of this date is 910 BC.
 * c. 900 BC — the Adichanallur relics, from Tamilnadu Culture, India are 2,900 years old: The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
 * c. 900 BC — the Villanovan culture emerges in northern Italy (Villanovan II).
 * c. 900 BC - Foundation of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.
 * 900 BC — Kingdom of Kush.
 * c. 900 BC — Greek Dark Ages end.
 * c. 900 BC — Geometric period of vases starts in Ancient Greece.
 * c. 900 BC — The inhabitants of the Aegean region establish small, distinct groups in valleys, on coastal plains and on islands, living in self-sufficient, close-knit communities but all speaking some form of the same language.
 * c. 900 BC — San Lorenzo, the center of early Olmec culture, is destroyed, probably by migrating peoples from the north, and power passes to La Venta in Tabasco.
 * c. 900 BC - La Venta starts to thrive.
 * c. 900 BC - Colossal head (no. 4) from La Venta, Mexico, is made. Olmec culture. It is now kept at La Venta Park, Villahermosa, Tabasco, Mexico.
 * c. 900 BC - 600 BC - Great Pyramid and ball court, La Venta, Mexico, is built. Olmec culture.

Significant People

 * Jeroboam, the first king of the northern Hebrew kingdom of Israel, dies.
 * Osorkon II, king of Egypt, is born (approximate date).
 * Ahab, king of Israel, is born (approximate date).
 * Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, is born (approximate date).

title: 900s BC (decade)


text:
910s BC

The 910s BC is a decade which lasted from 919 BC to 910 BC.

Events and trends

 * 915 BC (by William F. Albright) – Death of Rehoboam, King of the ancient Kingdom of Judah.
 * 911 BC – Adad-nirari II succeeds his father Ashur-Dan II as king of Assyria.
 * 911 BC – Abijah, king of Judah, dies.
 * 910 BC – Nadab, king of Israel succeeds his father Jeroboam I after he reigns of 22 years and dies.

Significant people

 * Ashurnasirpal II, king of Assyria, is born (approximate date).
 * Omri, king of Israel, is born (approximate date).

title: 910s BC


text:
920s BC

The 920s BC is a decade which lasted from 929 BC to 920 BC.

Events and trends

 * 928 BC—On the death of King Solomon, his son Rehoboam is unable to hold the tribes of Israel together, and the northern part secedes to become the kingdom of Israel, making Jeroboam its king. Rehoboam was left to rule the kingdom of Judah.
 * 925 BC—Military conquest of Canaan by Shoshenq I.
 * 922 BC—Osorkon I succeeds his father Shoshenq I as king of Egypt.
 * 922 BC—Phorbas, Archon of Athens, dies after a reign of 30 years and is succeeded by his son Megacles.
 * 920 BC—A transit of Venus occurs.

Significant People
Años 920 a. C.

title: 920s BC


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Indigenous peoples in Brazil

Indigenous peoples once comprised an estimated 2,000 tribes and nations inhabiting what is now the country of Brazil, before European contact around 1500 AD.

At the time of European contact, some of the indigenous peoples were traditionally semi-nomadic tribes who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering and migrant agriculture. Many tribes suffered extinction as a consequence of the European settlement and many were assimilated into the Brazilian population.

The Indigenous population was decimated by European diseases, declining from a pre-Columbian high of 2 to 3 million to some 300,000, distributed among 200 tribes. By the 2022 IBGE census, 1,693,535 Brazilians classified themselves as Indigenous, and the same census registered 274 indigenous languages of 304 different indigenous ethnic groups.

On 18 January 2007, FUNAI reported 67 remaining uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 known in 2005. With this addition Brazil passed New Guinea, becoming the country with the largest number of uncontacted peoples in the world.

Origins
Questions about the original settlement of the Americas have produced a number of hypothetical models. The origins of these Indigenous people are still a matter of dispute among archaeologists.

Migration into the continents
Anthropological and genetic evidence indicates that most Amerindian people descended from migrant peoples from Siberia and Mongolia who entered the Americas across the Bering Strait and along the western coast of North America in at least three separate waves. In Brazil, particularly, most native tribes who were living in the land by 1500 are thought to be descended from the first Siberian wave of migrants, who are believed to have crossed the Bering Land Bridge at the end of the last Ice Age, between 13,000 and 17,000 years before the present. A migrant wave would have taken some time after initial entry to reach present-day Brazil, probably entering the Amazon River basin from the Northwest. (The second and third migratory waves from Siberia, which are thought to have generated the Athabaskan, Aleut, Inuit, and Yupik people, apparently did not reach farther than the southern United States and Canada, respectively.)

Y-chromosome DNA
An analysis of Amerindian Y-chromosome DNA indicates specific clustering of much of the South American population. The micro-satellite diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicate that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region.

Autosomal DNA
According to an autosomal DNA genetic study from 2012, Native Americans descend from at least three main migrant waves from Siberia. Most of it is traced back to a single ancestral population, called 'First Americans'. However, those who speak Inuit languages from the Arctic inherited almost half of their ancestry from a second Siberia migrant wave. And those who speak Na-dene, on the other hand, inherited a tenth of their ancestry from a third migrant wave. The initial settling of the Americas was followed by a rapid expansion south down the coast, with little gene flow later, especially in South America. One exception to this is the Chibcha speakers, whose ancestry comes from both North and South America.

mtDNA
Another study, focused on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), inherited only through the maternal line, revealed that the maternal ancestry of the Indigenous people of the Americas traces back to a few founding lineages from Siberia, which would have arrived via the Bering Strait. According to this study, the ancestors of Native Americans likely remained for a time near the Bering Strait, after which there would have been a rapid movement of settling of the Americas, taking the founding lineages to South America. According to a 2016 study, focused on mtDNA lineages, "a small population entered the Americas via a coastal route around 16.0 ka, following previous isolation in eastern Beringia for ~2.4 to 9 thousand years after separating from eastern Siberian populations. After rapidly spreading throughout the Americas, limited gene flow in South America resulted in a marked phylogeographic structure of populations, which persisted through time. All of the ancient mitochondrial lineages detected in this study were absent from modern data sets, suggesting a high extinction rate. To investigate this further, we applied a novel principal components multiple logistic regression test to Bayesian serial coalescent simulations. The analysis supported a scenario in which European colonization caused a substantial loss of pre-Columbian lineages".

Linguistic comparison with Siberia
Linguistic studies have backed up genetic studies, with ancient patterns having been found between the languages spoken in Siberia and those spoken in the Americas.

The Oceanic component in the Amazon region
Two 2015 autosomal DNA genetic studies confirmed the Siberian origins of the Natives of the Americas. However an ancient signal of shared ancestry with the Natives of Australia and Melanesia was detected among the Natives of the Amazon region. The migration coming out of Siberia would have happened 23,000 years ago.

Archaeological remains
Brazilian native people, unlike those in Mesoamerica and the Andean civilizations, did not keep written records or erect stone monuments, and the humid climate and acidic soil have destroyed almost all traces of their material culture, including wood and bones. Therefore, what is known about the region's history before 1500 has been inferred and reconstructed from small-scale archaeological evidence, such as ceramics and stone arrowheads.

The most conspicuous remains of these societies are very large mounds of discarded shellfish (sambaquis) found in some coastal sites which were continuously inhabited for over 5,000 years; and the substantial "black earth" (terra preta) deposits in several places along the Amazon, which are believed to be ancient garbage dumps (middens). Recent excavations of such deposits in the middle and upper course of the Amazon have uncovered remains of some very large settlements, containing tens of thousands of homes, indicating a complex social and economic structure.

Studies of the wear patterns of the prehistoric inhabitants of coastal Brazil found that the surfaces of anterior teeth facing the tongue were more worn than surfaces facing the lips, which researchers believe was caused by using teeth to peel and shred abrasive plants.

Marajoara culture
Marajoara culture flourished on Marajó island at the mouth of the Amazon River. Archeologists have found sophisticated pottery in their excavations on the island. These pieces are large, and elaborately painted and incised with representations of plants and animals. These provided the first evidence that a complex society had existed on Marajó. Evidence of mound building further suggests that well-populated, complex and sophisticated settlements developed on this island, as only such settlements were believed capable of such extended projects as major earthworks.

The extent, level of complexity, and resource interactions of the Marajoara culture have been disputed. Working in the 1950s in some of her earliest research, American Betty Meggers suggested that the society migrated from the Andes and settled on the island. Many researchers believed that the Andes were populated by Paleoindian migrants from North America who gradually moved south after being hunters on the plains.

In the 1980s, another American archeologist, Anna Curtenius Roosevelt, led excavations and geophysical surveys of the mound Teso dos Bichos. She concluded that the society that constructed the mounds originated on the island itself.

The pre-Columbian culture of Marajó may have developed social stratification and supported a population as large as 100,000 people. The Native Americans of the Amazon rain forest may have used their method of developing and working in Terra preta to make the land suitable for the large-scale agriculture needed to support large populations and complex social formations such as chiefdoms.

Xinguano Civilisation
The Xingu peoples built large settlements connected by roads and bridges, often bearing moats. The apex of their development was between 1200 CE to 1600 CE, their population inflating to the tens of thousands.

Distribution
On the eve of the Portuguese arrival in 1500, the coastal areas of Brazil had two major mega-groups – the Tupi (speakers of Tupi–Guarani languages), who dominated practically the entire length of the Brazilian coast, and the Tapuia (a catch-all term for non-Tupis, usually Jê language people), who resided primarily in the interior. The Portuguese arrived in the final days of a long pre-colonial struggle between Tupis and Tapuias, which had resulted in the defeat and expulsion of the Tapuias from most coastal areas.

Although the coastal Tupi were broken down into sub-tribes, frequently hostile to each other, they were culturally and linguistically homogeneous. The fact that the early Europeans encountered practically the same people and language all along the Brazilian coast greatly simplified early communication and interaction.

Coastal Sequence c. 1500 (north to south):
 * 1) Tupinambá (Tupi, from the Amazon delta to Maranhão)
 * 2) Tremembé (Tapuia, coastal tribe, ranged from São Luis Island (south Maranhão) to the mouth of the Acaraú River in north Ceará; French traders cultivated an alliance with them)
 * 3) Potiguara (Tupi, literally "shrimp-eaters"; they had a reputation as great canoeists and aggressive expansionists, inhabited a great coastal stretch from Acaraú River to Itamaracá island, covering the modern states of southern Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte and Paraíba.)
 * 4) Tabajara (tiny Tupi tribe between Itamaracá island and Paraíba River; neighbors and frequent victims of the Potiguara)
 * 5) Caeté (Tupi group in Pernambuco and Alagoas, ranged from Paraíba River to the São Francisco River; after killing and eating a Portuguese bishop, they were subjected to Portuguese extermination raids and the remnant pushed into the Pará interior)
 * 6) Tupinambá again (Tupi par excellence, ranged from the São Francisco River to the Bay of All Saints, population estimated as high as 100,000; hosted Portuguese castaway Caramuru)
 * 7) Tupiniquim (Tupi, covered the Bahian discovery coast, from around Camamu to São Mateus River; these were the first indigenous people encountered by the Portuguese, having met the landing of captain Pedro Álvares Cabral in April 1500)
 * 8) Aimoré (Tapuia (Jê) tribe; concentrated on a sliver of coast in modern Espírito Santo state)
 * 9) Goitacá (Tapuia tribe; once dominated the coast from the São Mateus River (in Espírito Santo state) down to the Paraíba do Sul River (in Rio de Janeiro state); hunter-gatherers and fishermen, they were a shy people that avoided all contact with foreigners; estimated at 12,000; they had a fearsome reputation and were eventually annihilated by European colonists)
 * 10) Temiminó (small Tupi tribe, centered on Governador Island in Guanabara Bay; frequently at war with the Tamoio around them)
 * 11) Tamoio (Tupi, an old branch of the Tupinambá, ranged from the western edge of Guanabara Bay to Ilha Grande)
 * 12) Tupinambá again (Tupi, indistinct from the Tamoio. Inhabited the Paulist coast, from Ilha Grande to Santos; main enemies of the Tupiniquim to their west. Numbered between six and ten thousand).
 * 13) Tupiniquim again (Tupi, on the São Paulo coast from Santos/Bertioga down to Cananéia; aggressive expansionists, they were recent arrivals imposing themselves on the Paulist coast and the Piratininga plateau at the expense of older Tupinambá and Carijó neighbors; hosted Portuguese castaways João Ramalho ('Tamarutaca') and António Rodrigues in the early 1500s; the Tupiniquim were the first formal allies of the Portuguese colonists, helped establish the Portuguese Captaincy of São Vicente in the 1530s; sometimes called "Guaianá" in old Portuguese chronicles, a Tupi term meaning "friendly" or "allied")
 * 14) Carijó (Guarani (Tupi) tribe, ranged from Cananeia all the way down to Lagoa dos Patos (in Rio Grande do Sul state); victims of the Tupiniquim and early European slavers; they hosted the mysterious degredado known as the 'Bachelor of Cananeia')
 * 15) Charrúa (Tapuia (Jê) tribe in modern Uruguay coast, with an aggressive reputation against intruders; killed Juan Díaz de Solís in 1516)

With the exception of the hunter-gatherer Goitacases, the coastal Tupi and Tapuia tribes were primarily agriculturalists. The subtropical Guarani cultivated maize, tropical Tupi cultivated manioc (cassava), and highland Jês cultivated peanut, as the staple of their diet. Supplementary crops included beans, sweet potatoes, cará (yam), jerimum (pumpkin), and cumari (capsicum pepper).

Behind these coasts, the interior of Brazil was dominated primarily by Tapuia (Jê) people, although significant sections of the interior (notably the upper reaches of the Xingu, Teles Pires and Juruena Rivers – the area now covered roughly by modern Mato Grosso state) were the original pre-migration Tupi-Guarani homelands. Besides the Tupi and Tapuia, it is common to identify two other indigenous mega-groups in the interior: the Caribs, who inhabited much of what is now northwestern Brazil, including both shores of the Amazon River up to the delta and the Nuaraque group, whose constituent tribes inhabited several areas, including most of the upper Amazon (west of what is now Manaus) and also significant pockets in modern Amapá and Roraima states.

The names by which the different Tupi tribes were recorded by Portuguese and French authors of the 16th century are poorly understood. Most do not seem to be proper names, but descriptions of relationship, usually familial – e.g. tupi means "first father", tupinambá means "relatives of the ancestors", tupiniquim means "side-neighbors", tamoio means "grandfather", temiminó means "grandson", tabajara means "in-laws" and so on. Some etymologists believe these names reflect the ordering of the migration waves of Tupi people from the interior to the coasts, e.g. first Tupi wave to reach the coast being the "grandfathers" (Tamoio), soon joined by the "relatives of the ancients" (Tupinamba), by which it could mean relatives of the Tamoio, or a Tamoio term to refer to relatives of the old Tupi back in the upper Amazon basin. The "grandsons" (Temiminó) might be a splinter. The "side-neighbors" (Tupiniquim) meant perhaps recent arrivals, still trying to jostle their way in. However, by 1870 the Tupi tribes' population had declined to 250,000 indigenous people and by 1890 had diminished to an approximate 100,000.

First contacts
Os Filhos de Pindorama. Cannibalism in Brazil in 1557.jpg in the Brazilian Tupinambá tribe, as described by

Hans Staden.]]

When the Portuguese explorers first arrived in Brazil in April 1500, they found, to their astonishment, a wide coastline rich in resources, teeming with hundreds of thousands of Indigenous people living in a "paradise" of natural riches. Pero Vaz de Caminha, the official scribe of Pedro Álvares Cabral, the commander of the discovery fleet which landed in the present state of Bahia, wrote a letter to the King of Portugal describing in glowing terms the beauty of the land.

In "Histoire des découvertes et conquestes des Portugais dans le Nouveau Monde", Lafiatau described the natives as people who wore no clothing but rather painted their whole bodies with red. Their ears, noses, lips and cheeks were pierced. The men would shave the front, the top of the head and over the ears, while the women would typically wear their hair loose or in braids. Both men and women would accessorize themselves with noisy porcelain collars and bracelets, feathers, and dried fruits. He describes the ritualistic nature of how they practiced cannibalism, and he even mentions the importance of the role of women in a household.

Before the arrival of the Europeans, the territory of current-day Brazil had an estimated population of between 1 and 11.25 million inhabitants. During the first 100 years of contact, the Amerindian population was reduced by 90%. This was mainly due to disease and illness spread by the colonists, furthered by slavery and European-brought violence. The indigenous people were traditionally mostly semi-nomadic tribes who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering, and migrant agriculture. For hundreds of years, the indigenous people of Brazil lived a semi-nomadic life, managing the forests to meet their needs. When the Portuguese arrived in 1500, the natives were living mainly on the coast and along the banks of major rivers. Initially, the Europeans saw native people as noble savages, and miscegenation of the population began right away. Portuguese claims of tribal warfare, cannibalism, and the pursuit of Amazonian brazilwood for its treasured red dye convinced the Portuguese that they should "civilize" the natives (originally, colonists called Brazil Terra de Santa Cruz, until later it acquired its name (see List of meanings of countries' names) from brazilwood). But the Portuguese, like the Spanish in their North American territories, had brought diseases with them against which many Amerindians were helpless due to lack of immunity. Measles, smallpox, tuberculosis, and influenza killed tens of thousands. The diseases spread quickly along the indigenous trade routes, and it is likely that whole tribes were annihilated without ever coming in direct contact with Europeans.

By 1800, the population of Colonial Brazil had reached approximately 2.33 million, among whom only approximately 174,900 were indigenous. By 1850, that number had dwindled to an estimated 78,400 people, out of 5.8 million.

Slavery and the bandeiras
The mutual feeling of wonderment and a good relationship was to end in the succeeding years. The Portuguese colonists, all males, started to have children with female Amerindians, creating a new generation of mixed-race people who spoke Amerindian languages (a Tupi language called Nheengatu). The children of these Portuguese men and Amerindian women formed the majority of the population. Groups of fierce pathfinders organized expeditions called "bandeiras" (flags) into the backlands to claim them for the Portuguese crown and to look for gold and precious stones.

Intending to profit from the sugar trade, the Portuguese decided to plant sugar cane in Brazil, and to use indigenous slaves as the workforce, as the Spanish colonies were successfully doing. But the indigenous people were hard to capture. They were soon infected by diseases brought by the Europeans against which they had no natural immunity, and began dying in great numbers.

The Jesuits
Jesuit priests arrived with the first Governor General as clerical assistants to the colonists, with the intention of converting the indigenous people to Catholicism. They presented arguments in support of the notion that the indigenous people should be considered human, and extracted a Papal bull (Sublimis Deus) proclaiming that, irrespective of their beliefs, they should be considered fully rational human beings, with rights to freedom and private property, who must not be enslaved. Jesuit priests such as fathers José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega studied and recorded their language and founded mixed settlements, such as São Paulo dos Campos de Piratininga, where colonists and Amerindians lived side by side, speaking the same Língua Geral (common language), and freely intermarried. They began also to establish more remote villages peopled only by "civilized" Amerindians, called Missions, or reductions (see the article on the Guarani people for more details).

By the middle of the 16th century, Catholic Jesuit priests, at the behest of Portugal's monarchy, had established missions throughout the country's colonies. They worked to both Europeanize them and convert them to Catholicism. Some historians argue that the Jesuits provided a period of relative stability for the Amerindians. Indeed, the Jesuits argued against using indigenous Brazilians for slave labour. However, the Jesuits still contributed to European imperialism. Many historians regard Jesuit involvement to be an ethnocide of indigenous culture where the Jesuits attempted to 'Europeanise' the Indigenous Peoples of Brazil.

In the mid-1770s, the indigenous peoples' fragile co-existence with the colonists was again threatened. Because of a complex diplomatic web between Portugal, Spain and the Vatican, the Jesuits were expelled from Brazil and the missions were confiscated and sold.

Wars
A number of wars between several tribes, such as the Tamoio Confederation, and the Portuguese ensued, sometimes with the Amerindians siding with enemies of Portugal, such as the French, in the famous episode of France Antarctique in Rio de Janeiro, sometimes allying themselves to Portugal in their fight against other tribes. At approximately the same period, a German soldier, Hans Staden, was captured by the Tupinambá and released after a while. He described it in a famous book, Warhaftige Historia und beschreibung eyner Landtschafft der Wilden Nacketen, Grimmigen Menschfresser-Leuthen in der Newenwelt America gelegen (True Story and Description of a Country of Wild, Naked, Grim, Man-eating People in the New World, America) (1557)

There are various documented accounts of smallpox being knowingly used as a biological weapon by New Brazilian villagers that wanted to get rid of nearby Amerindian tribes (not always aggressive ones). The most "classical", according to Anthropologist, Mércio Pereira Gomes, happened in Caxias, in south Maranhão, where local farmers, wanting more land to extend their cattle farms, gave clothing owned by ill villagers (that normally would be burned to prevent further infection) to the Timbira. The clothing infected the entire tribe, and they had neither immunity nor cure. Similar things happened in other villages throughout South America.

The rubber trade
The 1840s brought trade and wealth to the Amazon. The process for vulcanizing rubber was developed, and worldwide demand for the product skyrocketed. The best rubber trees in the world grew in the Amazon, and thousands of rubber tappers began to work the plantations. When the Amerindians proved to be a difficult labor force, peasants from surrounding areas were brought into the region. In a dynamic that continues to this day, the indigenous population was at constant odds with the peasants, who the Amerindians felt had invaded their lands in search of treasure.

The legacy of Cândido Rondon
In the 20th century, the Brazilian Government adopted a more humanitarian attitude and offered official protection to the indigenous people, including the establishment of the first indigenous reserves. Fortune brightened for the Amerindians around the turn of the 20th century when Cândido Rondon, a man of both Portuguese and Bororo ancestry, and an explorer and progressive officer in the Brazilian army, began working to gain the Amerindians' trust and establish peace. Rondon, who had been assigned to help bring telegraph communications into the Amazon, was a curious and natural explorer. In 1910, he helped found the Serviço de Proteção aos Índios – SPI (Service for the Protection of Indians, today the FUNAI, or Fundação Nacional do Índio, National Foundation for Indians). SPI was the first federal agency charged with protecting Amerindians and preserving their culture. In 1914, Rondon accompanied Theodore Roosevelt on Roosevelt's famous expedition to map the Amazon and discover new species. During these travels, Rondon was appalled to see how settlers and developers treated the indigenes, and he became their lifelong friend and protector.

Rondon, who died in 1958, is a national hero in Brazil. The Brazilian state of Rondônia is named after him.

SPI failure and FUNAI
After Rondon's pioneering work, the SPI was turned over to bureaucrats and military officers and its work declined after 1957. The new officials did not share Rondon's deep commitment to the Amerindians. SPI sought to address tribal issues by transforming the tribes into mainstream Brazilian society. The lure of reservation riches enticed cattle ranchers and settlers to continue their assault on Amerindians' lands – and the SPI eased the way. Between 1900 and 1967, an estimated 98 indigenous tribes were wiped out.

Mostly due to the efforts of the Villas-Bôas brothers, Brazil's first Indian reserve, the Xingu National Park, was established by the Federal Government in 1961.

During the social and political upheaval in the 1960s, reports of mistreatment of Amerindians increasingly reached Brazil's urban centers and began to affect Brazilian thinking. In 1967, following the publication of the Figueiredo Report, commissioned by the Ministry of the Interior, the military government launched an investigation into SPI. It soon came to light that the SPI was corrupt and failing to protect natives, their lands and culture. The 5,000-page report catalogued atrocities including slavery, sexual abuse, torture, and mass murder. It has been charged that agency officials, in collaboration with land speculators, were systematically slaughtering the Amerindians by intentionally circulating disease-laced clothes. Criminal prosecutions followed, and the SPI was disbanded. The same year the government established Fundação Nacional do Índio (National Indian Foundation), known as FUNAI which is responsible for protecting the interests, cultures, and rights of the Brazilian indigenous populations. Some tribes have become significantly integrated into Brazilian society. The unacculturated tribes which have been contacted by FUNAI, are supposed to be protected and accommodated within Brazilian society in varying degrees. By 1987 it was recognized that unessential contact with the tribes was causing illness and social disintegration. The uncontacted tribes are now supposed to be protected from intrusion and interference in their lifestyle and territory. However, the exploitation of rubber and other Amazonic natural resources has led to a new cycle of invasion, expulsion, massacres and death, which continues to this day.

The military government
Also in 1964, in a seismic political shift, the Brazilian military took control of the government and abolished all existing political parties, creating a two-party system. For the next two decades, Brazil was ruled by a series of generals. The country's mantra was "Brazil, the Country of the Future," which the military government used as justification for a giant push into the Amazon to exploit its resources, thereby beginning to transform Brazil into one of the leading economies of the world. Construction began on a transcontinental highway across the Amazon basin, aimed to encourage migration to the Amazon and to open up the region to more trade. With funding from World Bank, thousands of square miles of forest were cleared without regard for reservation status. After the highway projects came giant hydroelectric projects, then swaths of forest were cleared for cattle ranches. As a result, reservation lands suffered massive deforestation and flooding. The public works projects attracted very few migrants, but those few – and largely poor – settlers brought new diseases that further devastated the Amerindian population.

Contemporary situation
The 1988 Brazilian Constitution recognizes indigenous people's right to pursue their traditional ways of life and to the permanent and exclusive possession of their "traditional lands", which are demarcated as Indigenous Territories. In addition, indigenous peoples are legally recognized as one of a number of "traditional peoples". In practice, however, Brazil's indigenous people still face a number of external threats and challenges to their continued existence and cultural heritage. The process of demarcation is slow—often involving protracted legal battles—and FUNAI do not have sufficient resources to enforce the legal protection on indigenous land. Since the 1980s there has been a boom in the exploitation of the Amazon Rainforest for mining, logging and cattle ranching, posing a severe threat to the region's indigenous population. Settlers illegally encroaching on indigenous land continue to destroy the environment necessary for indigenous people's traditional ways of life, provoke violent confrontations and spread disease. People such as the Akuntsu and Kanoê have been brought to the brink of extinction within the last three decades. Deforestation for mining also affects the daily lives of indigenous tribes in Brazil. For instance, the Munduruku Amerindians have higher levels of mercury poisoning due to gold production in the area. On 13 November 2012, the national indigenous people association from Brazil APIB submitted to the United Nation a human rights document that complaints about new proposed laws in Brazil that would further undermine their rights if approved.

Much of the language has been incorporated into the official Brazilian Portuguese language. For example, 'Carioca' the word used to describe people born in the city of Rio de Janeiro, is from the indigenous word for 'house of the white (people)'. Within hours of taking office in January 2019, Bolsonaro made two major changes to FUNAI, affecting its responsibility to identify and demarcate indigenous lands: He moved FUNAI from under the Ministry of Justice to under the newly created Ministry of Human Rights, Family and Women, and he delegated the identification of the traditional habitats of indigenous people and their designation as inviolable protected territories − a task attributed to FUNAI by the constitution – to the Agriculture Ministry. He argued that those territories have tiny isolated populations and proposed to integrate them into the larger Brazilian society. Critics feared that such integration would lead the Brazilian natives to suffer cultural assimilation. Several months later, Brazil's National Congress overturned these changes.

The European Union–Mercosur free trade agreement, which would form one of the world's largest free trade areas, has been denounced by environmental activists and indigenous rights campaigners. The fear is that the deal could lead to more deforestation of the Amazon rainforest as it expands market access to Brazilian beef.

A 2019 report by the Indigenous Missionary Council on Violence against Indigenous Peoples in Brazil documented an increase in the number of invasions of indigenous lands by loggers, miners and land grabbers, recording 160 cases in the first nine months of 2019, up from 96 cases in the entirety of 2017. The number of reported killings in 2018, 135, had also increased from 110 recorded in 2017.

On 5 May 2020, post-HRW's investigation, Brazilian lawmakers released a report examining the violence against Indigenous people, Afro-Brazilian rural communities and others engaged in illegal logging, mining, and land grabbing.

Urban rights movement
The urban rights movement is a recent development in the rights of indigenous peoples. Brazil has one of the highest income inequalities in the world, and much of that population includes indigenous tribes migrating toward urban areas both by choice and by displacement. Beyond the urban rights movement, studies have shown that the suicide risk among the indigenous population is 8.1 times higher than the non-indigenous population.

Many indigenous rights movements have been created through the meeting of many indigenous tribes in urban areas. For example, in Barcelos, an indigenous rights movement arose because of "local migratory circulation. " This is how many alliances form to create a stronger network for mobilization. Indigenous populations also living in urban areas have struggles regarding work. They are pressured into doing cheap labor. Programs like Oxfam have been used to help indigenous people gain partnerships to begin grassroots movements. Some of their projects overlap with environmental activism as well.

Many Brazilian youths are mobilizing through the increased social contact, since some indigenous tribes stay isolated while others adapt to the change. Access to education also affects these youths, and therefore, more groups are mobilizing to fight for indigenous rights.

Dynamics favouring recognition
Many of the indigenous tribes' rights and rights claims parallel the environmental and territorial rights movement. Although indigenous people have gained 21% of the Brazilian Amazon as part of indigenous land, many issues still affect the sustainability of Indigenous territories today. Climate change is one issue that indigenous tribes attribute as a reason to keep their territory.

Some indigenous peoples and conservation organizations in the Brazilian Amazon have formed alliances, such as the alliance of the A'ukre Kayapo village and the Instituto SocioAmbiental (ISA) environmental organization. They focus on environmental, education and developmental rights. For example, Amazon Watch collaborates with various indigenous organizations in Brazil to fight for both territorial and environmental rights. "Access to natural resources by indigenous and peasant communities in Brazil has been considerably less and much more insecure," so activists focus on more traditional conservation efforts, and expanding territorial rights for indigenous people.

Territorial rights for the indigenous populations of Brazil largely fall under socio-economic issues. There have been violent conflicts regarding rights to land between the government and the indigenous population, and political rights have done little to stop them. There have been movements of the landless (MST) that help keep land away from the elite living in Brazil.

Dynamics opposing recognition
Environmentalists and indigenous peoples have been viewed as opponents to economic growth and barriers to development due to the fact that much of the land that indigenous tribes live on could be used for development projects, including dams, and more industrialization.

Groups self-identifying as indigenous may lack intersubjective recognition, thus claims to TIs, which can involve the demarcation of large areas of territory and threaten to dispossess established local communities, can be challenged by others, even neighbouring kinship groups, on the grounds that those making the claims are not 'real Indians', due to factors such as historical intermarriage (miscegenation), cultural assimilation, and stigma against self-identifying as indigenous. Claims to TIs can also be opposed by major landowning families from the rubber era, or by the peasants that work the land, who may instead prefer to support the concept of the extractive reserve.

Education
The Afro-Brazilian and Indigenous History and Culture Law (Law No. 11.645/2008) is a Brazilian law mandating the teaching of Afro-Brazilian and Indigenous History and Culture. The law was passed, and came into effect, on 10 March 2008. It amends Law No. 9.394, of 20 December 1996, modified by Law No. 10.639, of 9 January 2003, which established the guidelines and bases of Brazilian national education, to include in the official curriculum of the education system the mandatory theme of Afro-Brazilian and Indigenous History and Culture.

Major ethnic groups
For a complete list, see List of Indigenous peoples in Brazil.

 * Amanayé
 * Atikum
 * Awá-Guajá
 * Baniwa
 * Botocudo
 * Bará
 * Enawene Nawe
 * Guaraní
 * Kadiwéu
 * Kaingang
 * Kamayurá (Kamaiurá)
 * Karajá
 * Kayapo
 * Kubeo
 * Kaxinawá
 * Kokama
 * Korubo
 * Kulina Madihá
 * Mbya
 * Makuxi
 * Matsés
 * Mayoruna
 * Munduruku
 * Mura people
 * Nambikwara
 * Ofayé
 * Pai Tavytera
 * Panará
 * Pankararu
 * Pataxó
 * Pirahã
 * Paiter
 * Potiguara
 * Sateré Mawé
 * Suruí do Pará
 * Tapirape
 * Terena
 * Ticuna
 * Tremembé
 * Tupi
 * Waorani
 * Wapixana
 * Wauja
 * Witoto
 * Xakriabá
 * Xavante
 * Xokleng
 * Xukuru
 * Yanomami

title: Indigenous peoples in Brazil


text:
930s BC

The 930s BC is a decade which lasted from 939 BC to 930 BC.

Events and trends

 * 935 BC—Death of Zhou gong wang, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
 * 935 BC—Death of Tiglath-Pileser II king of Assyria.
 * 934 BC—Ashur-dan II succeeds his father as King of Assyria.
 * 934 BC—Zhou yi wang becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
 * 931 BC—Solomon died in Jerusalem. The country split into two kingdoms: Israel (including the cities of Shechem and Samaria) in the north and Judah (containing Jerusalem) in the south.

Significant People

 * Baasha, king of Israel, is born (approximate date).

title: 930s BC


text:
940s BC

The 940s BC is a decade which lasted from 949 BC to 940 BC.

Events and trends

 * 949 BC Mahaparinirvana of the historical Buddha Shakyamuni Siddharta, according to far eastern schools of Buddhism.
 * 947 BC—Death of Zhou mo wang, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
 * 946 BC—Zhou gong wang becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
 * 945 BC—Egypt: Psusennes III dies, the last king of the Twenty-first Dynasty. Shoshenq I succeeds him, the founder of the Twenty-second Dynasty.
 * 940 BC—The Temple of Solomon was finished being built.

Significant People

 * Adad-nirari II, king of Assyria, is born (approximate date).
 * Nadab, king of Israel, is born (approximate date).
 * Abijah, king of Judah, is born (approximate date).
 * Asa, king of Judah, is born (approximate date).

title: 940s BC


text:
950s BC

The 950s BC is a decade which lasted from 959 BC to 950 BC.

Events and trends

 * 959 BC—Psusennes II succeeds Siamun as king of Egypt.
 * 957 BC–Solomon's Temple is completed. 959 BC is also a proposed date.
 * 957 BC—The reign of Mu Wang of the Zhou Dynasty begins.
 * 952 BC—Thersippus, King of Athens dies after a reign of 41 years and is succeeded by his son Phorbas.
 * 950 BC—Northern Egypt starts to be ruled by Libyan pharaohs. The Libyans build cities and for the first time a sturdy urban life grows up in the Nile Delta.
 * c. 950 BC–800 BC—Some early parts of the Bible are written.
 * c. 950 BC Kurukshetra War

Births

 * Osorkon I, pharaoh of Egypt, is born (approximate date).
 * King Parikshit of Kuru Dynasty is born.

Deaths

 * King Zhao of Zhou, drowned in 957 BC

title: 950s BC


text:
960s BC

The 960s BC is a decade which lasted from 969 BC to 960 BC.

Events and trends

 * 967 BC—Tiglath-Pileser II becomes King of Assyria.
 * 967 BC—Solomon becomes king of the Israelites. (962 BC—traditional date)
 * 965 BC—David, king of the ancient Israelites, died.

Significant People

 * Solomon becomes king of the Kingdom of Israel
 * Snake Spine, Ajaw of Palenque, semi legendary (967 BC-?)
 * Ashur-Dan II, king of Assyria, is born (approximate date).
 * Jereboam, king of Israel, is born (approximate date).
 * Rehoboam, king of Judah, is born (approximate date).

title: 960s BC


text:
970s BC

The 970s BC is a decade which lasted from 979 BC to 970 BC.

Events and trends

 * Possible date of the death of King David. Coronation of King Solomon [According to Bible].

Significant People

 * King Zhao of Zhou (reign 977/75-957) fourth king of the Chinese Zhou dynasty ascended the throne.
 * Shoshenq I, pharaoh of Egypt. is born (approximate date); "Shishak" of 1 Kings 14:25.

title: 970s BC


text:
980s BC

The 980s BC is a decade which lasted from 989 BC to 980 BC.

Events and trends

 * 984 BC—Osorkon the Elder succeeds Amenemope as king of Egypt.
 * 982 BC—The end of first period (1197 BC–982 BC) by Sau Yung's concept of the I Ching and history.
 * c.980 BC—The kingdom of Dʿmt is founded in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia.

title: 980s BC


text:
990s BC

The 990s BC is a decade which lasted from 999 BC to 990 BC.

Events and trends

 * 998 BC—King David establishes Jerusalem as the capital of the Kingdom of Israel.
 * 994 BC—Archippus, Archon of Athens dies after a reign of 19 years and is succeeded by his son Thersippus.
 * 993 BC—Amenemope succeeds Psusennes I as king of Egypt.

Significant People

 * Tiglath-Pileser II, king of Assyria, is born (approximate date).
 * Solomon, king of Israel, is born (approximate date).

title: 990s BC


text:
NeWS

NeWS (Network extensible Window System) is a discontinued windowing system developed by Sun Microsystems in the mid-1980s. Originally known as "SunDew", its primary authors were James Gosling and David S. H. Rosenthal. The NeWS interpreter was based on PostScript (as was the later Display PostScript, although the two projects were otherwise unrelated) extending it to allow interaction and multiple "contexts" to support windows. Like PostScript, NeWS could be used as a complete programming language, but unlike PostScript, NeWS could be used to make complete interactive programs with mouse support and a GUI.

Design
NeWS started by implementing a PostScript interpreter running in a cooperative multitasking fashion, since, unlike PostScript in a printer, NeWS would be displaying a number of PostScript programs at the same time on one screen. It also added a complete view hierarchy, based on viewports known as canvases, and a synchronous event distribution system, supporting events, interests, threads and monitors.

Like the view system in most GUIs, NeWS included the concept of a tree of embedded views along which events were passed. For instance, a mouse click would generate an event that would be passed to the object directly under the mouse pointer, say a button. If this object did not respond to the event, the object "under" the button would then receive the message, and so on. NeWS included a complete model for these events, including timers and other automatic events, input queues for devices such as mice and keyboards, and other functionality required for full interaction. The input handling system was designed to provide strong event synchronization guarantees that were not possible with asynchronous protocols like X.

To support user interface widgets, NeWS expanded the original PostScript stack-based language into a complete object-oriented (OO) programming style with inheritance. This eliminated the need for an external OO language to build a complete application. Since all of these additions were implemented as extensions to PostScript, it was possible to write simple PostScript code that would result in a running, onscreen, interactive program. Two popular demonstration programs were an onscreen clock, which required about two pages of code, and a program which drew a pair of eyes that followed the cursor as it moved around the screen. The eyeball program was shown at SIGGRAPH in 1988 and was the inspiration for the later well-known X application xeyes.

NeWS included several libraries of user interface elements (widgets), themselves written in NeWS. These widgets ran all of their behavior in the NeWS interpreter, and only required communications to an outside program (or more NeWS code) when the widget demanded it. For example, a toggle button's display routine can query the button's state (pressed or not) and change its display accordingly. The button's PostScript code can also react to mouse clicks by changing its state from "pressed" to "not pressed" and vice versa. All this can happen in the windowing server without interaction with the client program, and only when the mouse is released on the button will an event be sent off for handling. This was more sophisticated than the X Window System server model, which can only report "mouse button was clicked down here", "mouse is now here", "mouse button was released here" events to a client, which then has to figure out if the event is in the button, switch the state, and finally instruct the server to display the new state. If client and server are not on the same machine, these interactions must travel over the network, which results in a delay in responding.

The best example of such a library is TNT (The NeWS Toolkit) which Sun released in 1989. Sun also shipped an earlier "Lite" toolkit intended for example purposes and making small programs.

Porting
Although adoption was never widespread, several companies and universities licensed NeWS and adapted it for various uses, creating both commercial and non-commercial ports.

 * SGI used a version of it named 4Sight to replace their proprietary MEX windowing system.
 * Grasshopper Group created a Macintosh port called MacNeWS.
 * Parallax extended it to be able to deal with live video.
 * Architech Corporation ported NeWS to OS/2, calling it NeWS/2
 * Columbia University ported it on HP 9000 series 3000
 * Los Alamos National Laboratory ported it on a Cray XMP-24
 * TGV ported X11/NeWS on a VAXstation 2000 running VMS
 * Wedge Computer Inc. ported it to MacOS
 * Whitechapel ported it to their MIPS workstations
 * Acorn ported it to their computers
 * Ameristar ported it on the Amiga 2000
 * Alliant ported X11/NeWS on their Visualization minisupercomputers
 * University of Michigan ported it on Apollo workstations, in monochrome mode
 * Pixar ported it to their Image Computer

Applications
The OPEN LOOK version of the FrameMaker desktop publishing program, developed by Frame Technology Corp. with funding mainly from Sun Microsystems and NSA, was one of the few commercial products that ran on NeWS. HyperLook, developed by Arthur van Hoff at The Turing Institute, was an interactive application design system. Don Hopkins developed a NeWS version of SimCity that was built with HyperLook.

A commercial drawing program, Altsys Virtuoso, was produced for NeWS; it was a port of FreeHand with additional functionality that took advantage of the PostScript environment. Unfortunately Sun announced the end of support for NeWS just as Virtuoso became ready to ship.

Competition with X Window System
Compared to X, NeWS was vastly more powerful, but also slower (especially for local connections). The C API was very low level and difficult to use, so most NeWS programs tended to be entirely written in PostScript. Another factor in the popularity was that Sun charged a fee to license the NeWS source code, while the MIT X11 code was free of cost.

The first versions of NeWS emulated the X10 protocol by translating the calls into NeWS PostScript. Speed problems plus the existence of programs that relied on the exact pixel results of X10 calls, and the obsolescence of X10, forced Sun to release an X11/NeWS hybrid called Xnews which ran an X11 server in parallel with the PostScript interpreter. This seriously degraded the NeWS interpreter performance and was not considered a very good X11 server either. Sun also implemented the OPEN LOOK user interface specification in several toolkits: The NeWS Toolkit (TNT) was an OPEN LOOK toolkit written in PostScript that ran in the NeWS server. OLIT was built on the same Xt (X Intrinsics) base as Motif, and XView used the same APIs as Sun's earlier SunView window system.

After it was clear that OPEN LOOK had lost out to Motif in popularity, and after Adobe acquired FrameMaker, Sun stopped supporting NeWS. Products based on NeWS stopped being developed.

title: NeWS


text:
Abdul Nasser

Abdul Nasser (عبد الناصر) is a male Muslim given name, and in modern usage, surname. It is built from the Arabic words Abd, al- and Nasser. The name means "servant of the Helper", An-Nasser being a Muslim theophoric name.

The letter a of the al- is unstressed, and can be transliterated by almost any vowel, often by u. The short "u" is taken from the classical Arabic nominative case ending, whereby the first element of the name is "'Abdu". Because the letter n is a sun letter, the letter l of the al- can be assimilated to it. Thus, although the name is written in Arabic with letters corresponding to Abd al-Nasser, the pronunciation can correspond to Abd an-Nasser. Alternative transliterations of the last element include Naaser, Nasir and others, with the whole name subject to variable spacing and hyphenation.

It may refer to:

 * Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918–1970), president of Egypt
 * Khalid Abdel Nasser (1949–2011), his son, activist
 * Abdul Nasser Bani Hani (died 2013), Jordanian politician
 * Abdonnaser Hemmati (born 1956), Iranian Politician
 * Abdinasir Haji Ahmed (1957-2022) Somali cleric and Islamic preacher for Dawah
 * Abdul Nacer Benbrika (born c. 1960), Algerian-Australian Muslim activist
 * Abd Al Nasir Mohammed Abd Al Qadir Khantumani (born 1960), Syrian held in Guantanamo Bay
 * Abdel Nasser Tawfik (born 1967), Egyptian physicist
 * Abdelnasser Ouadah (born 1975), Algerian footballer
 * Abdulnaser Slil (born 1981), Libyan footballer
 * Abdul Nasir (Guantanamo detainee 874) (born 1981), Afghan
 * Abdoul Nassirou Omouroun (born 1987), Togolese footballer
 * Abdinasir Said Ibrahim (born 1989), Somali athlete
 * Abd Al Naser Hasan (born 1990), Syrian footballer
 * Abd al-Nasir al-Janabi, Iraqi politician
 * Abdul Nasir (cricketer, born 1983), Pakistani cricketer
 * Abdul Nasir (cricketer, born 1998), Pakistani cricketer
 * Abdul Nasir bin Amer Hamsah, a Malay Singaporean who was sentenced to a total of 38 years in jail for his involvement in the 1994 Oriental Hotel Murder and the kidnapping of two police officers in 1996.
 * Khalil Mamut (born 1977), Uyghur refugee imprisoned at Guantanamo Bay, also known as Abdul Nasser
 * Abdel Nasser El-Gohary (born 1970), Egyptian poet
 * Abdel Nasser Ould Ethmane, founding member of SOS Slaves
 * Abdel Nasser Barakat (born 1974), Palestinian football manager
 * Abdul Nasser Qardash, Iraqi militant
 * Abdulnasser Al-Obaidly (born 1972), Qatari footballer
 * Abdul Nasser El Hakim (born 1960), Curaçaoan businessman and politician
 * Abdul Nasser Al-Sayegh (born 1959), Kuwaiti fencer
 * Abdul Nazer Mahdani (born 1966), Indian politician
 * Abdulnasser Mugali, Yemeni poet and writer
 * Abdinasir Ali Hassan, Somali Kenyan entrepreneur
 * Muhammad Abdul Nasir, Indian politician
 * Abdelnasser Rashid, American politician

title: Abdul Nasser