text:
Scale (zoology)

In zoology, a scale (λεπίς; squāma) is a small rigid plate that grows out of an animal's skin to provide protection. In lepidopterans (butterflies and moths), scales are plates on the surface of the insect wing, and provide coloration. Scales are quite common and have evolved multiple times through convergent evolution, with varying structure and function.

Scales are generally classified as part of an organism's integumentary system. There are various types of scales according to the shape and class of an animal.

Fish scales
Fish scales are dermally derived, specifically in the mesoderm. This fact distinguishes them from reptile scales paleontologically. Genetically, the same genes involved in tooth and hair development in mammals are also involved in scale development.

Cosmoid scales
True cosmoid scales can only be found on the Sarcopterygians. The inner layer of the scale is made of lamellar bone. On top of this lies a layer of spongy or vascular bone and then a layer of dentine-like material called cosmine. The upper surface is keratin. The coelacanth has modified cosmoid scales that lack cosmine and are thinner than true cosmoid scales.

Ganoid scales
Ganoid scales can be found on gars (family Lepisosteidae), bichirs, and reedfishes (family Polypteridae). Ganoid scales are similar to cosmoid scales, but a layer of ganoin lies over the cosmine layer and under the enamel. Ganoin scales are diamond shaped, shiny, and hard. Within the ganoin are guanine compounds, iridescent derivatives of guanine found in a DNA molecule. The iridescent property of these chemicals provide the ganoin its shine.

Placoid scales
Placoid scales are found on cartilaginous fish including sharks and stingrays. These scales, also called denticles, are similar in structure to teeth, and have one median spine and two lateral spines. The modern jawed fish ancestors, the jawless ostracoderms and later jawed placoderms, may have had scales with the properties of both placoid and ganoid scales.

Leptoid scales
Leptoid scales are found on higher-order bony fish. As they grow they add concentric layers. They are arranged so as to overlap in a head-to-tail direction, like roof tiles, allowing a smoother flow of water over the body and therefore reducing drag. They come in two forms:
 * Cycloid scales have a smooth outer edge, and are most common on fish with soft fin rays, such as salmon and carp.
 * Ctenoid scales have a toothed outer edge, and are usually found on fish with spiny fin rays, such as bass and crappie.

Reptilian scales

Reptile scale types include: cycloid, granular (which appear bumpy), and keeled (which have a center ridge). Scales usually vary in size, the stouter, larger scales cover parts that are often exposed to physical stress (usually the feet, tail and head), while scales are small around the joints for flexibility. Most snakes have extra broad scales on the belly, each scale covering the belly from side to side.

The scales of all reptiles have an epidermal component (what one sees on the surface), but many reptiles, such as crocodilians and turtles, have osteoderms underlying the epidermal scale. Such scales are more properly termed scutes. Snakes, tuataras and many lizards lack osteoderms. All reptilian scales have a dermal papilla underlying the epidermal part, and it is there that the osteoderms, if present, would be formed.

Avian scales

Birds' scales are found mainly on the toes and metatarsus, but may be found further up on the ankle in some birds. The scales and scutes of birds were thought to be homologous to those of reptiles, but are now agreed to have evolved independently, being degenerate feathers.

Mammalian scales
An example of a scaled mammal is the pangolin. Its scales are made of keratin and are used for protection, similar to an armadillo's armor. They have been convergently evolved, being unrelated to mammals' distant reptile-like ancestors (since therapsids lost scales), except that they use a similar gene.

On the other hand, the musky rat-kangaroo has scales on its feet and tail. The precise nature of its purported scales has not been studied in detail, but they appear to be structurally different from pangolin scales.

Anomalures also have scales on their tail undersides.

Foot pad epidermal tissues in most mammal species have been compared to the scales of other vertebrates. They are likely derived from cornification processes or stunted fur much like avian reticulae are derived from stunted feathers.

Arthropod scales
Butterflies and moths - the order Lepidoptera (Greek "scale-winged") - have membranous wings covered in delicate, powdery scales, which are modified setae. Each scale consists of a series of tiny stacked platelets of organic material, and butterflies tend to have the scales broad and flattened, while moths tend to have the scales narrower and more hair like. Scales are usually pigmented, but some types of scales are iridescent, without pigments; because the thickness of the platelets is on the same order as the wavelength of visible light the plates lead to structural coloration and iridescence through the physical phenomenon described as thin-film optics. The most common color produced in this fashion is blue, such as in the Morpho butterflies.

Some types of spiders also have scales. Spider scales are flattened setae that overlay the surface of the cuticle. They come in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and colors. At least 13 different spider families are known to possess cuticular scales, although they have only been well described for jumping spiders (Salticidae) and lynx spiders (Oxyopidae).

Some crustaceans such as Glyptonotus antarcticus have knobbly scales. Some crayfish have been shown to use antennal scales that are activated in rapid response movements.

title: Scale (zoology)


text:
Scale (music)

In music theory, a scale is "any consecutive series of notes that form a progression between one note and its octave", typically by order of pitch or fundamental frequency.

The word "scale" originates from the Latin scala, which literally means "ladder". Therefore, any scale is distinguishable by its "step-pattern", or how its intervals interact with each other.

Often, especially in the context of the common practice period, most or all of the melody and harmony of a musical work is built using the notes of a single scale, which can be conveniently represented on a staff with a standard key signature.

Due to the principle of octave equivalence, scales are generally considered to span a single octave, with higher or lower octaves simply repeating the pattern. A musical scale represents a division of the octave space into a certain number of scale steps, a scale step being the recognizable distance (or interval) between two successive notes of the scale. However, there is no need for scale steps to be equal within any scale and, particularly as demonstrated by microtonal music, there is no limit to how many notes can be injected within any given musical interval.

A measure of the width of each scale step provides a method to classify scales. For instance, in a chromatic scale each scale step represents a semitone interval, while a major scale is defined by the interval pattern W–W–H-W-W–W–H, where W stands for whole step (an interval spanning two semitones, e.g. from C to D), and H stands for half-step (e.g. from C to D♭). Based on their interval patterns, scales are put into categories including pentatonic, diatonic, chromatic, major, minor, and others.

A specific scale is defined by its characteristic interval pattern and by a special note, known as its first degree (or tonic). The tonic of a scale is the note selected as the beginning of the octave, and therefore as the beginning of the adopted interval pattern. Typically, the name of the scale specifies both its tonic and its interval pattern. For example, C major indicates a major scale with a C tonic.

Scales, steps, and intervals
Scales are typically listed from low to high pitch. Most scales are octave-repeating, meaning their pattern of notes is the same in every octave (the Bohlen–Pierce scale is one exception). An octave-repeating scale can be represented as a circular arrangement of pitch classes, ordered by increasing (or decreasing) pitch class. For instance, the increasing C major scale is C–D–E–F–G–A–B–[C], with the bracket indicating that the last note is an octave higher than the first note, and the decreasing C major scale is C–B–A–G–F–E–D–[C], with the bracket indicating an octave lower than the first note in the scale.

The distance between two successive notes in a scale is called a scale step.

The notes of a scale are numbered by their steps from the first degree of the scale. For example, in a C major scale the first note is C, the second D, the third E and so on. Two notes can also be numbered in relation to each other: C and E create an interval of a third (in this case a major third); D and F also create a third (in this case a minor third).

Pitch
A single scale can be manifested at many different pitch levels. For example, a C major scale can be started at C4 (middle C; see scientific pitch notation) and ascending an octave to C5; or it could be started at C6, ascending an octave to C7.

Types of scale
Scales may be described according to the number of different pitch classes they contain:

Scales may also be described by their constituent intervals, such as being hemitonic, cohemitonic, or having imperfections. Many music theorists concur that the constituent intervals of a scale have a large role in the cognitive perception of its sonority, or tonal character.
 * Chromatic, or dodecatonic (12 notes per octave)
 * Nonatonic (9 notes per octave): a chromatic variation of the heptatonic blues scale
 * Octatonic (8 notes per octave): used in jazz and modern classical music
 * Heptatonic (7 notes per octave): the most common modern Western scale
 * Hexatonic (6 notes per octave): common in Western folk music
 * Pentatonic (5 notes per octave): the anhemitonic form (lacking semitones) is common in folk music, especially in Asian music; also known as the "black note" scale
 * Tetratonic (4 notes), tritonic (3 notes), and ditonic (2 notes): generally limited to prehistoric ("primitive") music

"The number of the notes that make up a scale as well as the quality of the intervals between successive notes of the scale help to give the music of a culture area its peculiar sound quality." "The pitch distances or intervals among the notes of a scale tell us more about the sound of the music than does the mere number of tones."

Scales may also be described by their symmetry, such as being palindromic, chiral, or having rotational symmetry as in Messiaen's modes of limited transposition.

Harmonic content
The notes of a scale form intervals with each of the other notes of the chord in combination. A 5-note scale has 10 of these harmonic intervals, a 6-note scale has 15, a 7-note scale has 21, an 8-note scale has 28. Though the scale is not a chord, and might never be heard more than one note at a time, still the absence, presence, and placement of certain key intervals plays a large part in the sound of the scale, the natural movement of melody within the scale, and the selection of chords taken naturally from the scale.

A musical scale that contains tritones is called tritonic (though the expression is also used for any scale with just three notes per octave, whether or not it includes a tritone), and one without tritones is atritonic. A scale or chord that contains semitones is called hemitonic, and without semitones is anhemitonic.

Scales in composition
Scales can be abstracted from performance or composition. They are also often used precompositionally to guide or limit a composition. Explicit instruction in scales has been part of compositional training for many centuries. One or more scales may be used in a composition, such as in Claude Debussy's L'Isle Joyeuse. To the right, the first scale is a whole-tone scale, while the second and third scales are diatonic scales. All three are used in the opening pages of Debussy's piece.

Western music
Scales in traditional Western music generally consist of seven notes and repeat at the octave. Notes in the commonly used scales (see just below) are separated by whole and half step intervals of tones and semitones. The harmonic minor scale includes a three-semitone step; the anhemitonic pentatonic includes two of those and no semitones.

Western music in the Medieval and Renaissance periods (1100–1600) tends to use the white-note diatonic scale C–D–E–F–G–A–B. Accidentals are rare, and somewhat unsystematically used, often to avoid the tritone.

Music of the common practice periods (1600–1900) uses three types of scale:
 * The diatonic scale (seven notes)—this includes the major scale and the natural minor
 * The melodic and harmonic minor scales (seven notes)

These scales are used in all of their transpositions. The music of this period introduces modulation, which involves systematic changes from one scale to another. Modulation occurs in relatively conventionalized ways. For example, major-mode pieces typically begin in a "tonic" diatonic scale and modulate to the "dominant" scale a fifth above. In the 19th century (to a certain extent), but more in the 20th century, additional types of scales were explored:

A large variety of other scales exists, some of the more common being:
 * The chromatic scale (twelve notes)
 * The whole-tone scale (six notes)
 * The pentatonic scale (five notes)
 * The octatonic or diminished scales (eight notes)

Scales such as the pentatonic scale may be considered gapped relative to the diatonic scale. An auxiliary scale is a scale other than the primary or original scale. See: modulation (music) and Auxiliary diminished scale.
 * The Phrygian dominant scale (a mode of the harmonic minor scale)
 * The Arabic scales
 * The Hungarian minor scale
 * The Byzantine music scales (called echoi)
 * The Persian scale

Note names
In many musical circumstances, a specific note of the scale is chosen as the tonic—the central and most stable note of the scale. In Western tonal music, simple songs or pieces typically start and end on the tonic note. Relative to a choice of a certain tonic, the notes of a scale are often labeled with numbers recording how many scale steps above the tonic they are. For example, the notes of the C major scale (C, D, E, F, G, A, B) can be labeled {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, reflecting the choice of C as tonic. The expression scale degree refers to these numerical labels. Such labeling requires the choice of a "first" note; hence scale-degree labels are not intrinsic to the scale itself, but rather to its modes. For example, if we choose A as tonic, then we can label the notes of the C major scale using A = 1, B = 2, C = 3, and so on. When we do so, we create a new scale called the A minor scale. See the musical note article for how the notes are customarily named in different countries.

The scale degrees of a heptatonic (7-note) scale can also be named using the terms tonic, supertonic, mediant, subdominant, dominant, submediant, subtonic. If the subtonic is a semitone away from the tonic, then it is usually called the leading-tone (or leading-note); otherwise the leading-tone refers to the raised subtonic. Also commonly used is the (movable do) solfège naming convention in which each scale degree is denoted by a syllable. In the major scale, the solfège syllables are: do, re, mi, fa, so (or sol), la, ti (or si), do (or ut).

In naming the notes of a scale, it is customary that each scale degree be assigned its own letter name: for example, the A major scale is written A–B–C♯–D–E–F♯–G♯ rather than A–B–D♭–D–E–E𝄪–G♯. However, it is impossible to do this in scales that contain more than seven notes, at least in the English-language nomenclature system.

Scales may also be identified by using a binary system of twelve zeros or ones to represent each of the twelve notes of a chromatic scale. The most common binary numbering scheme defines lower pitches to have lower numeric value (as opposed to low pitches having a high numeric value). Thus a single pitch class n in the pitch class set is represented by 2^n. This maps the entire power set of all pitch class sets in 12-TET to the numbers 0 to 4095. The binary digits read as ascending pitches from right to left, which some find discombobulating because they are used to low to high reading left to right, as on a piano keyboard. In this scheme, the major scale is 101010110101 = 2741. This binary representation permits easy calculation of interval vectors and common tones, using logical binary operators. It also provides a perfect index for every possible combination of tones, as every scale has its own number.

Scales may also be shown as semitones from the tonic. For instance, 0 2 4 5 7 9 11 denotes any major scale such as C–D–E–F–G–A–B, in which the first degree is, obviously, 0 semitones from the tonic (and therefore coincides with it), the second is 2 semitones from the tonic, the third is 4 semitones from the tonic, and so on. Again, this implies that the notes are drawn from a chromatic scale tuned with 12-tone equal temperament. For some fretted string instruments, such as the guitar and the bass guitar, scales can be notated in tabulature, an approach which indicates the fret number and string upon which each scale degree is played.

Transposition and modulation
Composers transform musical patterns by moving every note in the pattern by a constant number of scale steps: thus, in the C major scale, the pattern C–D–E might be shifted up, or transposed, a single scale step to become D–E–F. This process is called "scalar transposition" or "shifting to a new key" and can often be found in musical sequences and patterns. (It is D-E-F♯ in Chromatic transposition). Since the steps of a scale can have various sizes, this process introduces subtle melodic and harmonic variation into the music. In Western tonal music, the simplest and most common type of modulation (or changing keys) is to shift from one major key to another key built on the first key's fifth (or dominant) scale degree. In the key of C major, this would involve moving to the key of G major (which uses an F♯). Composers also often modulate to other related keys. In some Romantic music era pieces and contemporary music, composers modulate to "remote keys" that are not related to or close to the tonic. An example of a remote modulation would be taking a song that begins in C major and modulating (changing keys) to F♯ major.

Jazz and blues
Through the introduction of blue notes, jazz and blues employ scale intervals smaller than a semitone. The blue note is an interval that is technically neither major nor minor but "in the middle", giving it a characteristic flavour. A regular piano cannot play blue notes, but with electric guitar, saxophone, trombone and trumpet, performers can "bend" notes a fraction of a tone sharp or flat to create blue notes. For instance, in the key of E, the blue note would be either a note between G and G♯ or a note moving between both.

In blues, a pentatonic scale is often used. In jazz, many different modes and scales are used, often within the same piece of music. Chromatic scales are common, especially in modern jazz.

Equal temperament
In Western music, scale notes are often separated by equally tempered tones or semitones, creating 12 intervals per octave. Each interval separates two tones; the higher tone has an oscillation frequency of a fixed ratio (by a factor equal to the twelfth root of two, or approximately 1.059463) higher than the frequency of the lower one. A scale uses a subset consisting typically of 7 of these 12 as scale steps.

Other
Many other musical traditions use scales that include other intervals. These scales originate within the derivation of the harmonic series. Musical intervals are complementary values of the harmonic overtones series. Many musical scales in the world are based on this system, except most of the musical scales from Indonesia and the Indochina Peninsulae, which are based on inharmonic resonance of the dominant metalophone and xylophone instruments.

Intra-scale intervals
Some scales use a different number of pitches. A common scale in Eastern music is the pentatonic scale, which consists of five notes that span an octave. For example, in the Chinese culture, the pentatonic scale is usually used for folk music and consists of C, D, E, G and A, commonly known as gong, shang, jue, chi and yu.

Some scales span part of an octave; several such short scales are typically combined to form a scale spanning a full octave or more, and usually called with a third name of its own. The Turkish and Middle Eastern music has around a dozen such basic short scales that are combined to form hundreds of full-octave spanning scales. Among these scales Hejaz scale has one scale step spanning 14 intervals (of the middle eastern type found 53 in an octave) roughly similar to 3 semitones (of the western type found 12 in an octave), while Saba scale, another of these middle eastern scales, has 3 consecutive scale steps within 14 commas, i.e. separated by roughly one western semitone either side of the middle tone.

Gamelan music uses a small variety of scales including Pélog and Sléndro, none including equally tempered nor harmonic intervals. Indian classical music uses a moveable seven-note scale. Indian Rāgas often use intervals smaller than a semitone. Turkish music Turkish makams and Arabic music maqamat may use quarter tone intervals. In both rāgas and maqamat, the distance between a note and an inflection (e.g., śruti) of that same note may be less than a semitone.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Scale (music)


text:
Leigh Brackett

Leigh Douglass Brackett (December 7, 1915 – March 24, 1978) was an American science fiction writer known as "the Queen of Space Opera." She wrote the screenplays for The Big Sleep (1946), Rio Bravo (1959), and The Long Goodbye (1973). She worked on an early draft of The Empire Strikes Back (1980), elements of which remained in the film; she died before it went into production. In 1956, her book The Long Tomorrow made her the first woman ever shortlisted for the Hugo Award for Best Novel, and, along with C. L. Moore, one of the first two women ever nominated for a Hugo Award.

In 2020, she posthumously won a Retro Hugo for her novel The Nemesis From Terra, originally published as "Shadow Over Mars" (Startling Stories, Fall 1944).

Early life and education
Leigh Brackett was born and raised in Los Angeles, California. Her father died when she was very young; her mother did not remarry. She was a tomboy, "tall" and "athletic". She attended a private girls' school in Santa Monica, California, where she was involved in theater and began writing.

Fiction writer
Brackett first published in her mid-20s; the science fiction story "Martian Quest" appeared in the February 1940 issue of Astounding Science Fiction. Her earliest years as a writer (1940–1942) were her most productive. Some of her stories have social themes, such as "The Citadel of Lost Ships" (1943), which considers the effects on alien cultures of Earth's expanding trade empire. At the time, she was an active member of the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society (LASFS), and participated in local science fiction fandom by contributing to the second issue of Pogo's STF-ETTE, an all-female science fiction fanzine (probably the first such).

Brackett's first novel, No Good from a Corpse (1944), was a hard-boiled mystery novel in the tradition of Raymond Chandler. The book led to her first big screenwriting assignment. After this, Brackett's science fiction stories became more ambitious. Shadow Over Mars (1944) was her first novel-length story; though rough-edged, it marked the beginning of a new style influenced by the characterization of the 1940s detective story and film noir. It won a Retro Hugo for best novel in 2020.

Planet Stories published the novella "Lorelei of the Red Mist", in which the protagonist is a thief named Hugh Starke. Brackett finished the first half before turning it over to her close friend Ray Bradbury, so that she could leave to work on the screenplay of The Big Sleep.

Brackett returned to science fiction writing in 1948 after her movie work. Between 1948 and 1951, she produced a series of science fiction adventure stories that were longer than her previous work, including classic representations of her planetary settings as "The Moon that Vanished" and the novel Sea-Kings of Mars (1949). The latter was later published as The Sword of Rhiannon.

In "Queen of the Martian Catacombs" (1949), Brackett created the character of Eric John Stark. Stark, an orphan from Earth, is raised by the semi-sentient aboriginals of Mercury, who are later killed by Earthmen. He is saved by a Terran official, who adopts and mentors Stark. When threatened, Stark reverts to the primitive N'Chaka, the "man without a tribe", who he was on Mercury. From 1949 to 1951, Brackett featured Stark (whose name echoes that of the hero in "Lorelei of the Red Mist") in three stories published in Planet Stories: "Queen of the Martian Catacombs", "Enchantress of Venus", and "Black Amazon of Mars". With this last story, Brackett's high adventure period ended.

Brackett adopted an elegiac tone in her stories, no longer celebrating the conflicts of frontier worlds but lamenting the passing of civilizations, and concentrating more on mood than plot. The stories' reflective, introspective nature is indicated in the titles: "The Last Days of Shandakor", "Shannach—the Last", and "Last Call from Sector 9G".

"Last Call" was published in the final issue (Summer 1955) of Planet Stories, which had been her most reliable publisher. After Planet Stories folded, and then Startling Stories and Thrilling Wonder Stories, Brackett lost her magazine market. The first phase of her career as a science fiction author ended. She produced other stories over the next decade, and revised and published some as novels. A new production of this period was The Long Tomorrow (1955), one of Brackett's more critically acclaimed novels. It describes an agrarian, technophobic society that develops after a nuclear war.

After 1955, Brackett concentrated on writing for the more lucrative film and television markets. In 1963 and 1964, she briefly returned to her old Martian milieu with a pair of stories. "The Road to Sinharat" was an affectionate farewell to the world of "Queen of the Martian Catacombs", and the other, with the intentionally ridiculous title of "Purple Priestess of the Mad Moon", borders on parody.

Brackett and her husband shared Guest of Honor duties at the 22nd World Science Fiction Convention in 1965 in Oakland, California.

After another decade-long hiatus, Brackett returned to science fiction in the 1970s with the publication of The Ginger Star (1974), The Hounds of Skaith (1974), and The Reavers of Skaith (1976), collected as The Book of Skaith in 1976. This trilogy brought Eric John Stark back for adventures on the extra-solar planet of Skaith (rather than his old haunts, Mars and Venus).

Brackett's solar system
Often called the "Queen of Space Opera", Brackett also wrote planetary romance. Almost all her planetary romances take place in the Leigh Brackett solar system, which contains richly detailed fictional versions of the consensus Mars and Venus of science fiction from the 1930s to the 1950s. Mars appears as a marginally habitable desert world, populated by ancient, decadent and mostly humanoid races, and Venus as a primitive, wet jungle planet, occupied by vigorous, primitive tribes and reptilian monsters. Brackett's Skaith combines elements of her other worlds with fantasy elements.

Though Edgar Rice Burroughs' influence is apparent in Brackett's Mars stories, her Mars is set firmly in a world of interplanetary commerce and competition. A prominent theme of her stories is the clash of planetary civilizations; they illustrate and criticize the effects of colonialism on civilizations that are either older or younger than those of the colonizers. Burroughs' heroes set out to remake entire worlds according to their own codes; Brackett's heroes (often antiheroes) are at the mercy of trends and movements far bigger than they are.

After the Mariner missions indicated there was no life on Mars, Brackett never returned to her solar system. When she started to write planetary romance again in the 1970s, she invented a new solar system outside our own.

Screenwriter
Shortly after Brackett broke into science fiction writing, she wrote her first screenplays. Hollywood director Howard Hawks was so impressed by her novel No Good from a Corpse that he had his secretary call in "this guy Brackett" to help William Faulkner write the script for The Big Sleep (1946). The film was written by Brackett, Faulkner, and Jules Furthman, and starred Humphrey Bogart.

After getting married, Brackett took a break from screenwriting. When she returned to screenwriting in the mid-1950s, she wrote for TV and movies. Howard Hawks hired her to write or co-write several John Wayne pictures, including Rio Bravo (1959), Hatari! (1962), El Dorado (1966), and Rio Lobo (1970). Because of her background with The Big Sleep, she later adapted Raymond Chandler's novel The Long Goodbye for the screen.

The Empire Strikes Back
Brackett worked on the screenplay for The Empire Strikes Back, the first Star Wars sequel. The film won the Hugo Award in 1981. This script was a departure for Brackett; until then, all her science fiction had been in the form of novels and short stories. George Lucas said that he asked Brackett to write the screenplay based on his story outline. Brackett wrote a finished first draft, titled "Star Wars sequel", that was delivered to Lucas shortly before her death from cancer on March 18, 1978, but her version was rejected and Lucas wrote two drafts of a new screenplay and, following the delivery of the screenplay for Raiders of the Lost Ark, turned them over to Lawrence Kasdan to rework some dialogue. Brackett and Kasdan (but not Lucas) were credited for the final screenplay. Brackett was credited in tribute despite not being involved in the final film.

Laurent Bouzereau, in Star Wars: The Annotated Screenplays, said that Lucas disliked the direction of Brackett's screenplay, discarded it, and produced two more screenplays before turning the results over to Kasdan. io9's co-founder Charlie Jane Anders has written that while "It's fashionable to disparage Brackett's contributions to Empire", "it's not true that none of Brackett's storyline winds up in the final movie—the basic story beats are the same."

For over 30 years, Brackett's screenplay could be read only at the Jack Williamson Special Collections library at Eastern New Mexico University in Portales, New Mexico, and at Lucasfilm's archives in California. It was officially published in February 2016. In this draft, there is a love triangle between Luke, Leia and Han Solo. Yoda is named Minch, Luke has a hidden sister named Nellith, Lando Calrissian is Lando Kaddar, Luke's father is still a distinct character from Darth Vader and appears as a Force ghost on Dagobah, and Han Solo, at the end of the script, leaves to search for his uncle Ovan Marek, the most powerful man in the universe after the Emperor Palpatine.

John Saavedra of Den of Geek website wrote: "Most importantly, you see that Brackett's draft, while definitely in need of a rewrite and several tweaks, holds all of the big moments we'd eventually see on screen. We still get a version of the Battle of Hoth (a much more ridiculous one), the wise words of an old Jedi Master, the excitement of zooming through a deadly asteroid field, a love triangle (a MUCH more overt one), a majestic city in the clouds, unexpected betrayals, and the climactic duel between Luke Skywalker and Darth Vader that we would reenact on playgrounds for years to come."

Personal life and death
On December 31, 1946, at age 31, Brackett married another science fiction writer, Edmond Hamilton, in San Gabriel, California. Fellow LASFS member Ray Bradbury served as best man. Bradbury and Robert Heinlein were longtime close friends of Brackett's. She moved with Hamilton to Kinsman, Ohio.

Edmond Hamilton died in February 1977 in Lancaster, California, of complications following kidney surgery. Brackett died there in March 1978, of cancer, at age 62.

1940–1941

 * "Martian Quest" (Astounding Science Fiction, February 1940)
 * "The Treasure of Ptakuth" (Astounding Science Fiction, April 1940)
 * "The Stellar Legion" (Planet Stories, Winter 1940)
 * "The Tapestry Gate" (Strange Stories, August 1940)
 * "The Demons of Darkside" (Startling Stories, January 1941)
 * "Water Pirate" (Super Science Stories, January 1941)
 * "Interplanetary Reporter" (Startling Stories, May 1941)
 * "The Dragon-Queen of Jupiter" (Planet Stories, Summer 1941), also published as "The Dragon-Queen of Venus"
 * "Lord of the Earthquake" (novelette; Science Fiction, June 1941)
 * "No Man's Land in Space" (novelette; Amazing Stories July 1941)
 * "A World Is Born" (Comet Stories July 1941)
 * "Retreat to the Stars" (Astonishing Stories, November 1941)

1942–1944

 * "Child of the Green Light" (Super Science Stories, February 1942)
 * "The Sorcerer of Rhiannon" (novelette; Astounding Science Fiction, February 1942)
 * "Child of the Sun" (novelette; Planet Stories, Spring 1942)
 * "Out of the Sea" (novelette; Astonishing Stories, June 1942)
 * "Cube from Space" (Super Science Stories, August 1942)
 * "Outpost on Io" (Planet Stories, Winter 1942)
 * "The Halfling" (novelette; Astonishing Stories, February 1943)
 * "The Citadel of Lost Ships" (Planet Stories, March 1943)
 * "The Blue Behemoth" (Planet Stories, May 1943)
 * "Thralls of the Endless Night" (Planet Stories, Fall 1943)
 * "The Jewel of Bas" (novelette; Planet Stories, Spring 1944)
 * "The Veil of Astellar" (novelette; Thrilling Wonder Stories, Spring 1944)
 * "Terror Out of Space" (Planet Stories, Summer 1944)
 * "Shadow Over Mars" (Startling Stories, Fall 1944), published in book form as The Nemesis from Terra, winner of a best novel Retro Hugo in 2020.

1945–1950

 * "The Vanishing Venusians" (novelette; Planet Stories, Spring 1945)
 * "Lorelei of the Red Mist", with Ray Bradbury (novella; Planet Stories, Summer 1946)
 * "The Moon That Vanished" (novelette; Thrilling Wonder Stories, October 1948)
 * "The Beast-Jewel of Mars" (novelette; Planet Stories, Winter 1948)
 * "Quest of the Starhope" (Thrilling Wonder Stories, April 1949)
 * "Sea-Kings of Mars" (Thrilling Wonder Stories, June 1949), published in book form as The Sword of Rhiannon
 * "Queen of the Martian Catacombs" (Planet Stories, Summer 1949), expanded and published in book form as The Secret of Sinharat
 * "Enchantress of Venus" (novella; Planet Stories, Fall 1949), also published as "City of the Lost Ones"
 * "The Lake of the Gone Forever" (novelette; Thrilling Wonder Stories, October 1949)
 * "The Dancing Girl of Ganymede" (novelette; Thrilling Wonder Stories, February 1950)
 * "The Truants" (novelette; Startling Stories, July 1950)
 * "The Citadel of Lost Ages" (novella; Thrilling Wonder Stories, December 1950)

1951–1955

 * "Black Amazon of Mars" (Planet Stories, March 1951), expanded and published in book form as People of the Talisman
 * "The Starmen of Llyrdis" (Startling Stories, March 1951)
 * "The Woman from Altair" (novelette; Startling Stories, July 1951)
 * "The Shadows" ( Startling Stories, February 1952)
 * "The Last Days of Shandakor" (novelette; Startling Stories, April 1952)
 * "Shannach – The Last" (novelette; Planet Stories, November 1952)
 * "The Ark of Mars" (Planet Stories, September 1953), later published as part of the book Alpha Centauri or Die!
 * "Mars Minus Bisha" (Planet Stories, January 1954)
 * "Runaway" (Startling Stories, Spring 1954)
 * "Teleportress of Alpha C" (Planet Stories, Winter 1954/1955), later published as part of the book Alpha Centauri or Die!
 * "The Tweener" (The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, February 1955)
 * "Last Call from Sector 9G" (Planet Stories, Summer 1955)

After 1955

 * "The Other People" (novelette; Venture Science Fiction Magazine March 1957), also published as "The Queer Ones"
 * "All the Colors of the Rainbow" (novelette; Venture Science Fiction Magazine, November 1957)
 * "The Road to Sinharat" (novelette; Amazing Stories, May 1963)
 * "Purple Priestess of the Mad Moon" (The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, October 1964)
 * "Come Sing the Moons of Moravenn" (The Other Side of Tomorrow, 1973)
 * "How Bright the Stars" (Flame Tree Planet: An Anthology of Religious Science-Fantasy, 1973)
 * "Mommies and Daddies" (Crisis, 1974)
 * "Stark and the Star Kings", with Edmond Hamilton (in the collection of the same name, 2005)

Science fiction novels

 * Shadow Over Mars (1951) – first published 1944; published in the U.S. as The Nemesis from Terra (1961)
 * The Starmen (1952) – also published as The Galactic Breed (1955, abridged), The Starmen of Llyrdis (1976)
 * The Sword of Rhiannon (1953) – first published as Sea-Kings of Mars (1949)
 * The Big Jump (1955)
 * The Long Tomorrow (1955)
 * Alpha Centauri or Die! (1963) – fixup of The Ark of Mars (1953) and Teleportress of Alpha C (1954)
 * The Secret of Sinharat and People of the Talisman (1964)
 * The Ginger Star (1974) – first published as a two-part serial in Worlds of If, February and April 1974
 * The Hounds of Skaith (1974)
 * The Reavers of Skaith (1976)

Science fiction collections

 * The Coming of the Terrans (1967)
 * The Halfling and Other Stories (1973)
 * The Book of Skaith (1976) – omnibus edition of the three Skaith novels
 * The Best of Leigh Brackett (1977), ed. Edmond Hamilton
 * Martian Quest: The Early Brackett (2000) – Haffner Press
 * Stark and the Star Kings (2005), with Edmond Hamilton
 * Sea-Kings of Mars and Otherworldly Stories (2005) – #46 in the Fantasy Masterworks series
 * Lorelei of the Red Mist: Planetary Romances (2007) – Haffner Press
 * Shannach–the Last: Farewell to Mars (2011) – Haffner Press

Science fiction, as editor

 * The Best of Planet Stories No. 1 (anthology; 1975)
 * The Best of Edmond Hamilton (collection; 1977)

Screenplays

 * The Vampire's Ghost (with John K. Butler), 1945
 * Crime Doctor's Manhunt (with Eric Taylor), 1946
 * The Big Sleep (with William Faulkner and Jules Furthman), 1946
 * Rio Bravo (with Jules Furthman and B.H. McCampbell), 1959
 * Gold of the Seven Saints (with Leonard Freeman), 1961
 * Hatari! (with Harry Kurnitz), 1962
 * Man's Favorite Sport? (uncredited), 1964
 * El Dorado, 1966
 * Rio Lobo (with Burton Wohl), 1970
 * The Long Goodbye, 1973
 * The Empire Strikes Back (with George Lucas and Lawrence Kasdan), 1980

Other genres

 * No Good from a Corpse (crime novel; 1944)
 * "I Feel Bad Killing You" (noir short story) - New Detective Magazine, November 1944
 * Stranger at Home (crime novel; 1946) – ghost-writer for the actor George Sanders
 * An Eye for an Eye (crime novel; 1957) – adapted for television as Suspicion series episode (1958)
 * The Tiger Among Us (crime novel; 1957; UK 1960 as Fear No Evil), filmed as 13 West Street (1962; dir. Philip Leacock)
 * Follow the Free Wind (western novel; 1963) – received the Spur Award from Western Writers of America
 * Rio Bravo (western novel; 1959) – novelization based on the screenplay by Jules Furthman and Leigh Brackett
 * Silent Partner (crime novel; 1969)
 * No Good from a Corpse (mystery collection; Dennis McMillan Publications, 1999) – reprints the titular novel featuring PI Ed Clive, and eight shorter crime stories

title: Leigh Brackett


text:
13th century BC

The 13th century BC was the period from 1300 to 1201 BC.

Asia

 * c. 1300–1046 BC: in China, the Shang dynasty flourishes as it settles its capital, Yin, near Anyang. Chinese settlers swarm in compact groups to create new clearing areas towards the Yangtze basin in the south, the Shanxi terraces in the northwest and the Wei River valley. The Shang then seem to frequently wage war with the still non-Sinicized populations who inhabit the Huai River valley. Graves in the form of cruciform pits have been discovered in Anyang containing chariots with their yokes, numerous bronze vases and the remains of human sacrifices, as well as the first Chinese inscriptions on oracle bones (Jiaguwen) or bronze vases. China's Shang armies are organized into infantry and archers in companies of one hundred men, supporting sections of five chariots.
 * c. 1300 BC: the Aryans dominate northwest India as far as the Sarasvati River. The Vedas mention the Dasas (slaves) as their enemies. Dasas are interpreted as being a North Iranian tribe, Dahae. The Aryans are organized in tribal monarchies headed by a raja (king), who shares power with two councils or assemblies that will differentiate over time, the sabhā (court of justice) and the samiti (council of war). Only one raja is named in the Rigveda: Sudas of the Bharatas, a tribe established on the upper reaches of the Sarasvatî. He is described as the victor of the coalition of ten kings, the most powerful of which was Pûru. Subsequently, the Kurus take control of the Bharatas.
 * c. 1260 BC: Lapita pottery discovered at the Bourewa site southwest of Viti Levu dates back to this period.

Middle East

 * c. 1350–1210 BC: the Igihalkid dynasty in Elam. They resume the title of "Kings of Anshan and Susa".
 * c. 1306–1186 BC: the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt. Memphis, then Pi-Ramesses, are the capitals of the New Kingdom of Egypt. It is a period of relative prosperity. During the reign of Ramesses II, the construction of the Great Hypostyle Hall of the temples of Karnak, the Luxor Temple and the temples of Abu Simbel are completed.
 * 1307–1275 BC: the first Assyrian mention of the Ahlamu, proto-Aramaic people, during the reign of Adad-nirari I, in the region of the north of the Euphrates. The Aramaeans, a Semitic people reported from the 14th century BC by the archives of Amarna and then Ugarit, settled in North Mesopotamia, then in Aram (now Syria) and Lebanon where they formed kingdoms in the 11th century BC. The biblical tradition of the sons of Jacob, apparently originating from the Aram Naharayim or "Aram of the two rivers", in the loop of the Euphrates, around the towns of Harran and Nahur, seems to confirm that this region was populated by Proto-Aramaic pastors around the 13th century BC.
 * 1274 BCE: the Egyptian and Hittite Empires clash in the Battle of Kadesh, with heavy losses to each side but no decisive outcome.
 * 1207 BC: Merneptah repels attacks by northern invaders (the "Sea-Peoples") in the 8th year of his reign, according to the Great Karnak Inscription. Eric Cline closely links this event with the beginning of the Late Bronze Age collapse.

Europe

 * c. 1300–1200 BC: Bronze IIIB in Greece. The Lion Gate and the Treasury of Atreus are built in Mycenae. It is a time of peace and prosperity in the Aegean. Mycenaean imports to the Levant peak. A wreck found on the southern coast of Anatolia contained ingots of copper, tin, ivory, Syrian, Cypriot and Mycenaean vases, and pieces of elephant and hippo ivory. The Acropolis of Athens is developed: towards the end of the century, a Cyclopean wall four to six meters thick, known as the “pelasgic wall” (Pelargikon), is constructed, as well as a well to supply the citadel with water. Linear B tablets are created in Pylos.
 * c. 1300–1200 BC: approximately 4,000 men fight a battle at a causeway over the Tollense valley in Northern Germany, the largest known prehistoric battle north of the Alps.
 * c. 1300–500 BC: the Lusatian culture in Poland, parts of the Czech Republic and Slovakia, eastern Germany and northern Ukraine.
 * c. 1250–850 BC: the Urnfield culture, characterized by vast cemeteries housing urns with the ashes of the deceased and offerings, marks the Late Bronze Age in Western Europe.
 * c. 1250–1000 BC: the culture of Pantalica develops inland in Sicily.
 * 1225–1190 BC: Late Helladic IIIB2 in mainland Greece. The perimeters of the defense systems of the Mycenaean palaces (Mycenae, Tiryns, Midea) are widely extended, a sign that insecurity is increasing. The end of the period was marked by widespread destruction on most sites: Mycenae, Tyrinth, Midéa, Thebes, Orchomenus, Dimini, and Pylos, whose unfortified palaces have not been rebuilt.

Sovereign states
List of sovereign states in the 13th century BC.

title: 13th century BC


text:
14th century BC

The 14th century BC was the century that lasted from the year 1400 BC until 1301 BC.

Events

 * 1350 – 1250 BC: the Bajío phase of the San Lorenzo site in Mexico; large public buildings are constructed.
 * Pastoral nomadism develops in the steppes of Central Asia; cattle are watched on horseback.

Middle East and Africa

 * 1400 – 1250 BC: the heyday of the Phoenician city of Ugarit. A written alphabet is attested by Ugaritic texts.
 * c. 1380 – 1336 BC: the reign of Šuppiluliuma I, who leads the Hittite Empire to its peak. Šuppiluliuma I conquers the weakened Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni in the second half of the century. Assyria is emancipated under Ashur-uballit I.
 * 1372 – 1350 BC: Akhetaton (Amarna) is constructed as the ephemeral capital of the pharaoh Akhenaten and dedicated to the sun god Aten. It is abandoned a few years after Akhenaten's death.
 * c. 1325 BC: Pharaoh Tutankhamun dies and is buried in a richly furnished tomb in the Valley of the Kings.
 * c. 1320 – 1295 BC: the sinking of the Uluburun shipwreck in the Mediterranean Sea south of modern-day Kaş.
 * Lycian pirates from southwest Anatolia raid the kingdom of Alashiya in Cyprus. They are employed as mercenaries by the Hittites and take part in the Battle of Kadesh.
 * An Ugaritic patera, with its embossed decoration in concentric zones and hunting scenes, reveals an exceptional level in goldsmithing.

Europe

 * c. 1400 – 1300 BC:
 * A glacial rise is attested by the peat bog of the glacier of Tyrol.
 * Phase III A of the Greek Bronze Age. Contacts with the Mycenaean civilization are established at Thapsos, Syracuse, Scoglio del Tonno in the Gulf of Taranto, and Ischia on the Tyrrhenian coast.
 * 1400 – 1370 BC: phase III A1 of the Late Helladic period in Greece. Palaces are constructed in Tiryns and Pylos. Linear B, which transcribes an archaic form of Greek, appears in the palace of Knossos at the end of Phase III A1 of the Late Minoan period.
 * 1370 – 1340 BC: phase III A2 of the Late Helladic period in Greece.
 * 1340 – 1190 BC: phase III B of the Late Helladic period in Greece. Beehive tombs are constructed in Epirus and Thessaly, and a palace is constructed in Athens.
 * 1380 – 1120 BC: a Mycenaean sanctuary is built in Phylakopi.
 * c. 1370 BC: the Hagia Triada Sarcophagus is created in Crete.
 * c. 1350 – 1330 BC: the reconstruction of the palace and Cyclopean enclosure at Mycenae, then at its peak under the reign of the legendary king and queen Perseus and Andromeda.

title: 14th century BC


text:
15th century BC

The 15th century BC was the century that lasted from 1500 BC to 1401 BC.

Events

 * 1504 BC – 1492 BC: Egypt conquers Nubia and the Levant.
 * 1500 BC – 1400 BC: The Battle of the Ten Kings took place around this time.
 * 1500 BC: Coalescence of a number of cultural traits including undecorated pottery, megalithic burials, and millet-bean-rice agriculture indicate the beginning of the Mumun Pottery Period on the Korean peninsula.
 * c. 1490 BC: Cranaus, legendary King of Athens, is deposed after a reign of 10 years by his son-in-law Amphictyon of Thessaly, son of Deucalion and Pyrrha.
 * 1487 BC: Amphictyon, son of Deucalion and Pyrrha and legendary King of Athens, dies after a reign of 10 years and is succeeded by Erichthonius I of Athens, a grandson of Cranaus.
 * c. 1480 BC: Queen Hatshepsut succeeded by her stepson and nephew Thutmosis III. Period of greatest Egyptian expansion (4th Nile cataract to the Euphrates).
 * c. 1469 BC: In the Battle of Megiddo, Egypt defeats Canaan (Low Chronology).
 * c. 1460 BC: The Kassites overrun Babylonia and found a dynasty there that lasts for 576 years and nine months.

 * 1437 BC: Legendary King Erichthonius I of Athens dies after a reign of 50 years and is succeeded by his son Pandion I.
 * 1430 BC – 1178 BC: Beginning of Hittite empire.
 * c. 1420 BC: Crete conquered by Mycenae—start of the Mycenaean period. First Linear B tablets.
 * 1400 BC: In Crete the use of bronze helmets (discovery at Knossos).
 * 1400 BC: Palace of Minos destroyed by fire.
 * c. 1400 BC: Linear A reaches its peak of popularity.
 * c. 1400 BC: The height of the Canaanite town of Ugarit. Royal Palace of Ugarit is built.
 * Myceneans conquers Greece and border of Anatolia.
 * The Tumulus culture flourishes.
 * Earliest traces of Olmec civilization.

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

 * The Shang dynasty Chinese capital city at Ao had massive defensive walls of 20 m in width at the base and enclosed an area of some 2100 yd2.

Sovereign states
See: List of sovereign states in the 15th century BC.

title: 15th century BC


text:
Kingsbury Commitment

The Kingsbury Commitment is a 1913 out-of-court settlement of the United States government's antitrust challenge against the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) for the company's then-growing vertical monopoly in the telecommunication industry. In return for the government's agreement not to pursue legal action against the company as a monopolist, AT&T agreed to divest the controlling interest it had acquired in the Western Union Telegraph Company, and to allow non-competing independent telephone companies to interconnect with the AT&T long-distance network.

History

In 1907, Theodore N. Vail became president of AT&T for the second time. Immediately, he steered the company into a new direction, in terms of vision, company organization, and technology. He envisioned telephone service as a public utility, and the future of the American telephone industry as a unified system of companies under the lead of his company. This required technical standards understood and accepted by all players in the industry. He opened the market for the Western Electric Company, its manufacturing unit which the company had previously restricted to sell products only to the Bell System companies, so that independent operators could buy compatible apparatus. He organized a distinct research division within Western Electric to focus on basic research and development. AT&T had bought Bell-associated companies and organized them into new hierarchies. AT&T had also acquired many of the independents, and bought control of Western Union, giving it a monopolistic position in both telephone and telegraph communication. These efforts and Vail's vision were communicated to the public by marketing campaigns under the slogan One System — One Policy — Universal Service.

AT&T increasingly became a vertically integrated conglomerate. The government had been increasingly worried that AT&T and the other Bell companies were monopolizing the industry. A key strategy by the Bell System was to refuse to connect its long-distance network—technologically, by far the finest and most extensive in the nation—with independent carriers. Without the prospect of long-distance services, the market position of many independent operators became untenable. AT&T's strategies prompted complaints and attracted the attention of the Justice Department.

Agreement
Faced with a government investigation and a possible suit for antitrust violations, AT&T entered into negotiations that carried on for several months in 1913. The conclusion came in form of a voluntary commitment in form of a letter by AT&T's Vice President Nathan Kingsbury, who secured approval by executives and the government representatives before submittal. In the letter, dated December 19, 1913, AT&T agreed with Attorney General James Clark McReynolds to divest itself of Western Union, to provide long-distance services to independent exchanges under certain conditions, and to refrain from acquisitions if the Interstate Commerce Commission objected. Justice Department officials opined that the plan gave the government everything and more than they could have hoped to obtain in court, and it found the approval of President Woodrow Wilson, who expressed his admiration for the attitude and vision of the telephone company:

"My Dear Mr. Attorney General, Thank you, for letting me see the letter from the American Telephone and Telegraph Company. It is gratifying that the company should thus volunteer to adjust its business to the conditions of competition. I gain the impression more and more, from week to week, that the business men of the country are sincerely desirous of conforming with the law, and it is gratifying, indeed, to have occasion, as in this instance, to deal with them in complete frankness and to be able to show them that all that we desire is an opportunity to co-operate with them. So long as we are dealt with in this spirit, we can help to build up the business of the country upon sound and permanent lines.

Cordially and sincerely yours,

Woodrow Wilson"

The Commitment did not settle all differences between independents and Bell companies, but it did avert the federal takeover many had expected. AT&T was allowed to buy market-share, as long as it sold an equal number of subscribers to independents. Crucially, while the Kingsbury Commitment obliged it to connect its long-distance service to independent local carriers, AT&T did not agree to interconnect its local services with other local providers. Nor did AT&T agree to any interconnection with independent long-distance carriers. AT&T's connection with the Western Electric Company was not addressed and the independent manufacturers still could not sell into Bell's market place, but operators had to buy Bell equipment for standard trunks to be able to connect to the Long Lines network.

Continued monopoly
Consequently, AT&T was able to consolidate its control over both the most profitable urban markets and long-distance traffic.

All telephone networks in the United States were nationalized during World War I from June 1918 to July 1919. Following re-privatization, AT&T resumed its near-monopoly position. The Willis Graham Act of 1921 allowed AT&T to acquire more local telephone systems with the genial oversight of the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), effectively declaring the telephone business as a natural monopoly. By 1924, the ICC approved AT&T's acquisition of 223 of the 234 independent telephone companies. Between 1921 and 1934, the ICC approved 271 of the 274 purchase requests of AT&T. With the creation of the Federal Communications Commission by the Communications Act of 1934, the government regulated the rates charged by AT&T.

In 1956, AT&T and the Justice Department agreed on a consent decree to end an antitrust suit brought against AT&T in 1949. Under the decree, AT&T restricted its activities to those related to running the national telephone system and agreed to license patents it had developed without royalties.

In 1968, FCC regulators intervened when the Bell System tried to prevent a mobile communications system, the Carterfone, from connecting to telephone lines. That decision established the principle that customers could connect any lawful device to the telephone network, even to offer a competing service. In the mid 1970s, emerging long-distance competitors like MCI and Sprint faced the same tactic of denying interconnection, which regulators quashed, followed by a series of efforts by the Bell System phone companies to escalate the costs of interconnection as an indirect means of excluding competition. These battles resulted a large amount of antitrust litigation and ultimately led to the 1982 breakup of the Bell System.

In 1982, AT&T and the Justice Department agreed on tentative terms for settlement of antitrust suit filed against AT&T in 1974, under which AT&T divested itself of its local telephone operations, which became known as the "Baby Bells." In return, the Justice Department agreed to lift the restrictions on AT&T activities contained in the 1956 consent decree.

title: Kingsbury Commitment


text:
Talk:Venice

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 1 April 2019 and 14 June 2019. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Sackhy.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 12:18, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Update on the MOSE anti-flooding project (in use)
https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-solutions/2022/11/26/venice-floods-mose-barrier-climate/ Jo3sampl (talk) 14:54, 27 November 2022 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 05:50, 8 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Rialto Gondoliers.jpg

Inconsistent text: 126 or 118 islands?
Thanks. Apokrif (talk) 19:46, 6 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Venice


text:
Talk:Hijackers in the September 11 attacks

The Pakistan Connection
Why is there no mention of the involvement of members of Pakistan's Secret Service and Army?

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/jul/22/usa.september11 — Preceding unsigned comment added by DrLeonP (talk • contribs) 08:17, 4 February 2018 (UTC)

Merge discussion

 * The result of the discussion was: Not merge. Zeke, the Mad Horrorist  (Speak quickly) (Follow my trail) 15:38, 6 September 2020 (UTC)

Per WP:BIO1E and WP:NOTMEMORIAL. The articles about the majority of the hijackers should be merged into this article and it should be expanded. This is a more centralized discussion to one started at Talk:Wail al-Shehri. This is similar to how content about deceased American individuals of the 2012 Benghazi attack who received significant coverage, were merged into an article American fatalities and injuries of the 2012 Benghazi attack. Individuals on that page, who received significant coverage beyond their connection to the event, retained individual biography articles such as the deceased ambassador. Thus and therefore, it can be argued that a few of the hijackers are notable for things not related to the September 11 attacks, but I think it can be successfully argued that most only received significant coverage due to their relation to the September 11 attacks. Otherwise, if each of the hijackers received significant coverage because of their connection to the September 11 attacks are notable and BIO1E does not apply, then it could be argued that each of the deceased in each hijacked flights, and that each of the deceased in each of the buildings impacted by those flights, also received significant coverage, and should all have stand alone biography articles.-- RightCow LeftCoast ( Moo ) 02:18, 26 February 2020 (UTC)
 * I am not sure that NOTMEMORIAL is app;licalbe as this is not being used as a memorial. But yes I can see an argument for merge as most of them are only notable due to this one event.Slatersteven (talk) 14:31, 26 February 2020 (UTC)

 * Two of those articles—Wail al-Shehri and Khalid al-Mihdhar—are featured content, so of course you couldn't make any substantial changes to them even if you wanted too (per policy). As for the others, I've no particular opinion, except that they all seem to satisfy WP:N and WP:V, being generally backed by WP:RS, and so = WP:ARTICLE.I'm not sure if I've misinterpreted your last sentence—if each of the hijackers received significant coverage because of their connection to the September 11 attacks are notable and BIO1E does not apply, then it could be argued that each of the deceased in each hijacked flights, and that each of the deceased in each of the buildings impacted by those flights, also received significant coverage, and should all have stand-alone biography articles—but if the suggestion is that if X has received sufficient coverage to satisfy N, then Y must have too, then, no. Each topic is notable (or otherwise) on its own merits. Which is not to say that none of the victims isn't notable, but if they are, it for themselves. It is, unfortunately, the attacks that were covered in reliable sources; the attackers are an extension of that. The coverage does provide notability for some of the victims; Madeline Amy Sweeney, Betty Ong and Todd Beamer for example.WP:BIO1E is certainly a possibility, although of course it's governed by WP:WEIGHT and qualifies itself extensively. Still, interesting discussion though, thanks for raising it. ——  SN  54129  14:51, 26 February 2020 (UTC)

 * If there is enough content to write a detailed multi-decade bio about one of the hijackers, then that person is 100000% notable. 1E is mostly about low profile people. -- In actu (Guerillero) Parlez Moi 19:35, 27 February 2020 (UTC)

 * Per Guerillero, yea, let's just delete Charles Mansen, Sirhan Sirhan, Lee Harvey Oswald too, because they didn't kill thousands of people as the 9/11 terrorists did. I understand the "memorial" aspect is troubling, but WP:1E says (emphasis mine):  I believe the conditions are met to have articles on these fellows.  Sandy Georgia  (Talk)  19:50, 27 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Here is a clue as to why they are not the same "Ziad Jarrah" [], not one book about him on the first page. Lee Harvey Oswald [] multiple, bios of him.Slatersteven (talk) 18:30, 28 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Factor in 40 years time difference. Sandy Georgia (Talk)  18:43, 28 February 2020 (UTC)
 * That is an assumption, [] 1967, [] 1967. So they were writing about him (not just the assassination) within 5 years.Slatersteven (talk) 19:06, 28 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Your google book links show multiple books on the 9/11 hijackers. When one person assassinates a world leader, it is not surprising for bios about that one person to be written. When a group of people murder a larger group of people, it is not surprising for books to combine their biographical information together, as your google search indicates.  This apples and oranges brings us back to my quote of WP:1E and that I think these bios meet the conditions given.  Otherwise, all hijackers would be in one article (as in the books you cite), which would be a too-large article.  Sandy Georgia  (Talk)  23:14, 28 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Not all of the hijackers are notable outside of the context of the September 11 attacks, and not all hijackers have significant coverage in multiple reliable sources even within the context of the September 11 attacks. There maybe a few that do, and those can and would then should have a summary in this article, with a link to their sub-article of this article. However, this article is not even 30k bytes, far smaller that WP:TOOBIG.-- RightCow LeftCoast ( Moo ) 04:51, 29 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Yes, its called notability. Yes there are multiple books about the attackers, very few (If any) about each attacker as a individual. that is what "However, if media coverage of both the event and the individual's role grow larger, separate articles may become justified." is about, the "individual's role".Slatersteven (talk) 09:31, 29 February 2020 (UTC)

 * Question How big would this merged article be? Perhaps a draft article can be produced so we have a rough idea? If the proposed merged article is going to be so big that it would need to be split again anyway, this whole discussion would seem to be moot. FDW777 (talk) 18:05, 4 March 2020 (UTC)
 * Here is the current size measured in prose (I can't speak to how much overlap there is, but don't think simply adding them up is representative):

So, while some of that is repeated wording across articles, that is likely offset by the amount that probably could be added to the smaller articles if one searched for more reliable sources. Still uncertain if merely adding these up gives a representative number, but it clearly would be a larger article than WP:SIZE recommends. Sandy Georgia (Talk)  19:21, 4 March 2020 (UTC)
 * 1,468 words, this (the main) article:
 * 6,685 words, Mohamed Atta
 * 1)    782 words, Abdulaziz al-Omari
 * 2,236 words, Wail al-Shehri Featured
 * 1,648 words, Waleed al-Shehri
 * 1)    823 words, Satam al-Suqami
 * 2,343 words, Marwan al-Shehhi
 * 1)    659 words, Fayez Banihammad
 * 2)    576 words, Mohand al-Shehri
 * 3)    689 words, Hamza al-Ghamdi
 * 4)    667 words, Ahmed al-Ghamdi
 * 2,918 words, Hani Hanjour
 * 3,539 words, Khalid al-Mihdhar Featured
 * 1)    877 words, Majed Moqed
 * 3,422 words, Nawaf al-Hazmi
 * 1)    871 words, Salem al-Hazmi
 * 2,818 words, Ziad Jarrah
 * 1,046 words, Ahmed al-Haznawi
 * 1,260 words, Ahmed al-Nami
 * 1,047 words, Saeed al-Ghamdi
 * Oppose pending evidence the proposed article definitely wouldn't need splitting. Thank you . FDW777 (talk) 11:35, 8 March 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose per "When an individual is significant for his or her role in a single event, it may be unclear whether an article should be written about the individual, the event or both. In considering whether or not to create separate articles, the degree of significance of the event itself and of the individual's role within it should both be considered. The general rule is to cover the event, not the person. However, if media coverage of both the event and the individual's role grow larger, separate articles may become justified." in the cited policy. 9/11 is the biggest event of the century so far and a defining event in world history (because of the way the world changed), the nomination seems to be in response to the fact the Benghazi attack victims don't have individual articles but there's a MASSIVE difference in the scope/scale of 9/11. If this passes than articles like Madeline Amy Sweeney, Betty Ong, Todd Beamer, Jeremy Glick, Mark Bingham, Welles Crowther, LeRoy Homer Jr., Kevin Cosgrove, Tom Burnett, John Ogonowski, Lauren Grandcolas and Melissa Doi and many others will have to be deleted under the same "Per WP:BIO1E and WP:NOTMEMORIAL" rationale and merged into a "Victims of 9/11" article, does that sound good?. We don't play favourites to the good vs bad people, especially considering the perpetrators are more essential to covering the attack than the victims and will still be written about in 2500. A mega, world changing event means that normal rules are thrown away. Why merge featured articles into a bland article? It boils down to this; the 2012 Benghazi attack won't be written about in 2800, heck Libyan Civil War (2011) probably won't be either - but 9/11 will define this century forever. Just like St. Bartholomew's Day massacre is still written about. GuzzyG (talk) 23:08, 21 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose merge per SandyGeorgia and others above; just one article would not be appropriate and would likely be too long. PCN02WPS  ( talk  |  contribs ) 18:19, 5 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose merge per SandyGeorgia and GuzzyG just one article will be too long.September 11 attacks is too significant and given the scale of the event and degree of significance of the event itself and of the individual's role within it clearly justify it.Just as Lee Harvey Oswald has a separate article and not merely mentioned in the Assassination of John F. KennedyPharaoh of the Wizards (talk) 18:00, 30 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose: the profiles are famous and sourced enough for stand-alone articles. Like John Wilkes Booth—there's was no American who didn't know these people. --Foghe (talk) 16:59, 5 July 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose: WP:NOTMEMORIAL is made moot by WP:PERPETRATOR and WP:BIO1E states that If the event is highly significant, and the individual's role within it is a large one, a separate article is generally appropriate. Alcaios (talk) 17:03, 7 July 2020 (UTC)

 * Oppose: That two of the hijackers' articles are FA is proof enough that these articles have potential on their own. Furthermore, there's enough notable information on each hijacker that having one big article for all 19 of them would be unnecessarily gargantuan in size. Maybe some of these articles are and will remain perpetually small, but they should be decided on a case-by-case basis; one blanket solution for all 19 is highly inappropriate. Zeke, the Mad Horrorist  (Speak quickly) (Follow my trail) 20:52, 19 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose We should be guided by GNG.
 * Nominator argues for this merge under the authority of BIO1E, but then wrote
 * {| class="wikitable"

 * ''... it can be argued that a few of the hijackers are notable for things not related to the September 11 attacks, but I think it can be successfully argued that most only received significant coverage due to their relation to the September 11 attacks.
 * ''... it can be argued that a few of the hijackers are notable for things not related to the September 11 attacks, but I think it can be successfully argued that most only received significant coverage due to their relation to the September 11 attacks.

 * }
 * This is not how BLP1E and BIO1E have always been interpreted. (1) individuals known for multiple events are not BLP1E, even if one event has received much more RS scrutiny than the other events; (2) BLP1E and BIO1E have always said that if individuals are known for one event, but their role was central, they may still merit a standalone article.
 * One of the great strengths of the wikipedia is that richly interlinked articles give our readers choices over how to walk the tree of human knowledge. Each wikilink is a choice for the reader - keep reading here, or jump to the related article.  Proposals like this would strip our readers of this freedom.  Geo Swan (talk) 02:17, 23 August 2020 (UTC)

Militant Islamist Group Al Qaeda Attacked On 9/11
I added... militant Islamist group al Qaeda. Militant Islam was the cause of the terrorist attack on 9/11. 2601:589:4801:5660:B1C7:7A45:9E90:1C31 (talk) 11:45, 24 May 2021 (UTC)

Intro paragraph includes conspiracy theories
The second introductory paragraph now includes conspiracy theories about Hani Hanjour. Khatores (talk) 09:53, 10 August 2022 (UTC)

 * Deleted unsourced conspiracy nonsense. Thank you, David J Johnson (talk) 10:39, 10 August 2022 (UTC)


text:
USS Merrimack

USS Merrimack, or variant spelling USS Merrimac, may be any one of several ships commissioned in the United States Navy and named after the Merrimack River.

 * USS Merrimack (1798), a ship placed in service in 1798 and sold into mercantile service in 1801, renamed Monticello as a merchant ship and later sunk off Cape Cod
 * USS Argus (1803), a brig laid down as USS Merrimack in 1803 but renamed prior to completion
 * USS Merrimack (1855) a screw frigate commissioned in 1856, decommissioned in 1860, and burned in 1861 to prevent capture by the Confederate States of America, best known as the hull upon which the Confederate States Navy ironclad CSS Virginia was built during the American Civil War
 * USS Merrimac (1864), a side-wheel steamer purchased in 1864 that foundered in 1865
 * USS Merrimac (1894), a collier purchased in April 1898 and sunk as a blockship in June 1898 during the Spanish–American War
 * USS Merrimack (AO-37), a Kennebec-class fleet oiler in commission from 1942 to 1950 and again from 1950 to 1954 which served in both the Atlantic and Pacific during World War II
 * USS Merrimack (AO-179), a Cimarron-class fleet oiler in commission from 1981 to 1998

title: USS Merrimack