text:
Talk:Land Rover

Rhinos
Removed:

 * Rhinos are often associated with Land Rovers - specifically Rovers being charged by rhinos. This is mainly due to the popularity of Land Rovers in Africa.  The reason rhinos charge Rovers is not because they're angry, but because they're trying to mate - the vehicle is about the right size, and rhinos have very small brains!

Is this really true or just a cute piece of marketing? --Robert Merkel

From what I understand, this is actually true. Changed to "it is said..." and copyedit and reinsterted. --User:Justfred -- LOL There is no evidence that Land Rovers will get charged more than any other vehicle, what complete tripe. The likelyhood of getting charged has to do with the inclination and temperament of the Rhino at hand and how sensible the driver of the vehicle is and diddly squat to do with the marque of vehicle. For instance Black Rhinos are very much more aggressive and bad tempered than White Rhinos and require much more caution. I live in South Africa and travel very frequently thorought Southern Africa and have heard no special association of LR with Rhinos. Oh and Rhinos are rather rare in Africa especially black rhinos. Most are in Southern Africa.

The popularity of the Land Rover in Africa is a myth. True, you see a goodly few in Kenya but in most African countries the Land Rover is outsold by the Toyota Land Cruiser which is ubiquitous, especially in the more remote areas. Indeed in some countries, such as Botswana and Namibia Land Rover is practically a swear word! There are hugely more Toyota Dealers in Africa than LR dealers making parts and back up much easier. Go check the respective websites for LR and Toyota in Botswana, Namibia, Mosambique, Zambia and see what I mean.

Same thing in Australia, you only see Land Rovers in any numbers in town driven by urbanite yuppies. In the outback it's literally mainly Cruisers because Cruisers outsell all other marques, including LR.

None of the aid agencies use Land Rovers, UNHCR, UN Medicines Sans Frontiers its mainly Cruisers with the occassional Nissan Patrol.

>According to some estimates, 80% of all Land Rovers manufactured (since 1947) are still in use< I think this is a myth, an urban legend. I've heard this many times but I'd yet to see a reliable source?

>They are also used by military forces worldwide. < Not true, they are used by military forces in many countries that were part of the British sphere of influence, such as Botswana. However it is notable that in the UK armed forces the very expensive Pinzgauer is appearing increasingly in the roles formerly occupied by the Land Rover Defender.

BJS - 11th Sep, 2005: LR's are actually used quite extensively around the world, and are currently enjoying a renaissance of sorts. The author of this article obviously has a bent towards Toyotas. LR's last. That's why they're used. Many countries still under British inlfuence still use LR's. The negative tone of this article is simply without merit or justification. --

This section: "Challenge of Japanese makes" does appear to be oddly biased towards the Toyota Land Cruiser and not entirely relevant to the article. One of the reasons you see these vehicles as opposed to Land Rovers is simply because they are cheaper. There are some tasks that the Land Rover Defender (because of the low-down torque) can undertake that other vehicles cannot. So people use them. I've often seen Land Cruisers being winched out of ruts by Land Rovers, but if I was writing a piece on The Toyota I would not not necessarily mention it.

-- "Many of the service problems can be traced to the obsolete power train of the Discovery and Defender models. Produced under license by Land Rover, the Discovery's and Defender's engine was designed in the late 1950s by General Motors for Buick. Buick stopped production of the engine in the early 1960s because of faulty head gaskets, which remains a major problem today."

I would like some source to support the above assertion that the current and recent V8, TD5 and TDI engines are derived from General motors or Buick power plants. By far and away most Discos and Defenders sold in the UK are diesels and I don’t think the previous TDI and current TD5 powerplant has any connection with GM whatsoever.

It therefore follows that this would make the quoted paragraph erroneous because hardly any of the problems with the LR marque in the UK in various Which/ JD Powers etc surveys (and one recent one from JD Powers in Germany I've just noticed not yet quoted in the Land Rover ‘hall of shame’ list)  would relate to the ‘obsolete power train’ derived from a GM product.--Nick-in-South-Africa 17:05, 22 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Please pardon my mistake, I was only referring to the petrol Land Rovers (diesel Land Rovers are not imported to North America). The petrol V8 engine is GM/Buick engineered, and is an absolute nightmare in terms of reliability (as a Land Rover service advisor, I observed that almost every engine needed at least some major work in the lifetime of the vehicle, as opposed to more reliable makes.) I am not downplaying other service issues such as the common air suspension faults or electrical/computer issues, these should probably become more satisfactory once Land Rover is more integrated with the Ford/Jaguar product line. --"D ICK " C HENEY 19:09, 22 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Dick interesting that you are a service advisor so you have a powerful anecdotal handle on the problems in LR, I will qualify your remarks for the US market. Also didn’t mention the problems with the Softroader Freelander which has the Td4 Diesel engine, this is essentially the same engine as in the BMW 3.2 which I don’t think you get in the US but is very popular in Europe, the UK and South Africa.

 * All that said Defenders and Discos from my anecdotal experience, are rife with QA and design quality issues, many not related to power plants. One example they pop half shafts under tough conditions all too easily. I’ve toned my comment way, way down and not mentioned a massive catalogue of anecdotes because I am well aware of the problems with anacdotal evidence. So I have only referred to published surveys to keep the entry very NPOV, however this list is still not complete. I do hope that Ford can pull the thing together, they have done pretty well with other niche players such Jag, Volvo and Aston Martin. However they have their work cut out - BMW execs according to Fortune magazine described the Rover Group as 'the English Patient'; a rare piece of Teutonic humour.

 * After going over my edit, I think it would be best if I did not edit this article further. Since my knowledge is very specific, and North America centric, I think obtaining the information from an Internet source rather than first hand experience would be more NPOV. However, since pictures aren't biased, I will take some for this article. --H C HENEY 02:50, 24 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * I think you are too harsh on your self, if you know about Land Rovers and their history you should write stuff, for instance I dont know what deignation of the US petrol engines are. Oh one point your comment 'picutures arent biased' is definitely a subverted support fallacy, some of the most misleading propoganda is pictorial :). But Im most certainly not saying you shouldnt post photos, I think that,s a great idea --Nick-in-South-Africa 04:39, 24 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Defender 147"
Please add reference to the Defender 147" as well

Birmabright?
The article says "their most distinctive feature has been their bodies, constructed of a lightweight proprietary alloy of aluminium and magnesium called Birmabright (being rustproof, this contributes to the vehicle's longevity)", but aren't they nowdays made of orinary steel? // Liftarn

 * I believe Series / Defender models have always been aluminum-bodied. I don't think all other models have been.  Experts? —Morven 20:47, Oct 27, 2004 (UTC)

The Defender is still made with an aluminium body with external rivets. The Defender is no longer sold in the US, its still however available in the UK, Australia, South Africa and other territories. The Disco, Freelander and Range Rover are of a conventional pressed steel construction--Nick-in-South-Africa 05:53, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Could this be regional variation Nick?

Older Range Rovers (Pre-2002) and Disco 2's here (UK) seem to be aluminium skinned and a magnet, examination of accident damage or a typical internet search will confirm this. 'Some' - but not all - Range Rovers do appear to have steel bonnets and tailgates.

Range Rovers 2002 onwards are extensively boron steel (rather than conventional pressed steel) with doors, including frames, impact beams and skin, bonnet and front wings in aluminium. http://www.channel4.com/4car/road-tests/L/landrover/rangerover02-/rangerover02--factfile-1.html

Typical internet reference for Early Range Rover - "Body panels are aluminium" http://www.lrm.co.uk/archive/Range%20Rover/buyingrangerover.html

This is what I have for the Disco 3 "The bonnet, a characteristic Land Rover clamshell design, is aluminium upper and lower tailgates are made from lightweight aluminium. All four doors are wide and provide easy access. Made of steel, they have boron steel-reinforced side intrusion beams to improve impact performance. Alloy structures, which are inherently corrosion resistant, are treated to prevent electrolytic interaction with adjoining steel components.

Significant use is made of high-strength steels, while enormously strong boron steel is used for the A- and B-pillars, for added strength in front and side impacts." http://www.carpages.co.uk/land_rover/land_rover_discovery_3_structure_25_06_04.asp

--Daedelus 10:54, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Bodies
All 'Defenders' are and always have hade aluminium alloy bodies. Prior to the current all aluminium construction Range Rovers had a 14 guage steel chassis with an aluminium alloy bodies. The resulting corrosion resistance is part of the reason why after nearly sixty years over half the Land Rover ever built are still running. —Daedelus

 * Daedelus Please quote a reliable source for this 60% if all Defenders ever built are still running story. Ive heard it often, sometimes the percentage are different. Regardless, it looks suspiciously like a myth, Ive never seen one reference on this 'factoid' that is not itself a mere assertion. By reliable source I mean a proper sampling study in all key markets to back this up, not a mere assertion by LR Marketing or such like. Personally I think it a tad of a questionable claim to say the least as it rather contradicts the attrition rate I see in the Defender living in Africa. I will delete the reference to this in the article if this is not forthcoming. Extrodinary claims require extrodinary evidence and this is an extraordinary claim and an assertion does not a supporting case make --Nick-in-South-Africa 16:00, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Nick-in-South-Africa. It's difficult to produce a NPOV on this without having the complete systematic registration records of every Land Rover produced. Even so many old Land Rovers are used off the public roads and therefore off the records and untaxed or uncertified. I've quoted and linked to some sources - which is generally the convention in scholarly work - and I'll add a disclaimer - but obviously the information that you say is mandatory would require in-depth document searchs of the government records of over a hundred countries and collation and inspection of approximately million separate vehicle records. At that level almost any comment on this Wiki (including the whole Land Rover article) could be considered a 'factoid' or mere assertion and therefore deleted.

 * Your POV comment on you local south african situation may reflect relative market condition (harsh conditions, poor quality mechanics, relative affluence allowing them to be replaced by cheap short lived, car-like far-eastern imports) - on the other hand I could walk out of my front door right now and find two or three, working thirty to forty year old Land Rovers where I live in a few minutes, and the only third-world government department that I have direct contact with still runs its Series 3s but this is direct experience rather than being linked to official figures.

 * bbbbbbObviously if we feature all articles that feature people who find that their my Land Rover isn't as easy to maintain as a Nissan Sunny (or the equivalent) and delete all those from people who have been using or running thirty or forty year old vehicles we are moving towards a particular POV.

 * If we are looking for a forensic POV then LR Marketing are legally bound in their claims by the Trade Descriptions Act 1968.

--Daedelus 13:56, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Daedelus I duly note the POV charge and the implicit barb within the claim. Let me perhaps step back and put it in mild terms, but with a quiet insistence on credibility and objectivity fitting of an encyclopedia.

 * Daedelus wrote >It's difficult to produce a NPOV on this without having the complete systematic registration records of every Land Rover produced< Exactly my point, if one can't back up the claim with hard evidence such as sales records cross referenced with those still registered deriving a percentage then the claim is simply not worthy, it's simply an assertion. It begs the question 'How the hell was this claim derived, is it hard numbers or a thumb suck? If it's a thumb suck, who made it and on what basis and how was this extrapolated Globally? If it is a thumb suck its just an unsupported assertion, the claim then simply isn't credible or worthy of inclusion, or at least not without very clear caveats on this point to the extent that would make their inclusion in the article rather moot. This is very simple logic.

 * I am simply asking for sources that are not just assertions. If you can't provide source materiel supporting your claim that about 60% of all Defenders ever produced are still on the road, then the claim is simply  hearsay and as such not fitting materiel for an encyclopedia. So please feel free to back the claim up by citing source materiel detailing exactly how this figure was derived and in each territory. As soon as you do this I am more than happy to gladly concede this point.

 * Daedelus wrote>LR Marketing are legally bound in their claims by the Trade Descriptions Act 1968 < The first point this is UK legislation, the 60% claim did not just relate to the UK. It was a Global claim. In the UK it should be possible to cross reference Land Rover sales with current DVLC records (annual vehicle road tax) and come up with a number. If this has been done and is properly cited I will concede the point, but on the UK only. Second point - to argue that a cliam is true because LR have not been prosecuted under the UK Trade Descriptions Act is at best rather thin. As far as I know Land Rover have not been taken to court aon their marketing catch phrase 'The Best 4x4 by far', The fact that LR have not been taken to court and lost over this does not make the claim in this phrase true or even provide a half decent argument that it is true, again an assertion does not an argument make --Nick-in-South-Africa 06:29, 8 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Kevin in Costa Rica>  I'm not sure about the rest of the world but.  Here in Central America.  Especially Costa Rica.  The Land Rover is the best thing on the road.  It's like the Ford F-150 of Costa Rica.  Finding some in Junk yards are hard to come by.  That and Land Cruisers.  But all the Land Cruisers here have extensive body rust and underbody rust.  Due to heavy rains 6 months of the year. Aluminum Diamond Plating is common for LC.   There are quite a few Nissan Patrols here to.  But mostly used by Officals and such.   The Santana which is also popular model here has some legends about it.  Not using 100% Aluminum on the body panels,  smaller rivets,  And thin Aluminum.  Poor Galvanized metals.  etc.   On all Land Rover models for saftely reasons they have a steel firewall that is between the door and the front fenders.  Even all new model Defenders.  It is common they rust in those areas.  However in a third world almost 2nd world counrty like Costa Rica.   They can fabricate anything.  So just about any part for a land rover can be made here.  Or made in Brazil.  Even for Land Cruisers.  The popularity of the Land Rover and Land cruiser has been around before these counrties had roads.  Just because it was the only thing that got you around.  After 40-50 years of tests.  they all sell like hot cakes here.  i would say from my personal view.  (Maybe Biased)   90% of all Land Rovers are still running today in Costa Rica.  i personally know 8 people that use a 1978 or older model rover as a daily driver.  (Oh and mostly all diesel here too).   As far as Defender and Discovery.  I know 4 people.  For Land Cruiser  2,  and Mercedes G class sport utily 2, Unimog 1. Nissan Patrol 1.    Oh  and I have 2 1978 88 SIII Land Rovers.  1 Fully restored.

_kevin

Semi-protected edit request on 12 June 2023
In the Clubs section, add to the end of the sixth paragraph...

Other than ALRC and the short lived Association of North American Rover Clubs (ANARC), which was created 1998 to celebrate Land Rover's 50th anniversary and disbanded in 2001, other groups of Land Rover clubs have affiliated with each other. In 2022, ANARC was reformed as a non profit to promote fellowship among Land Rover Clubs, owners, and enthusiasts in North America and to celebrate the 75th anniversary of Land Rover. John Kostuch (talk) 02:49, 12 June 2023 (UTC)

 * please provide reliable secondary sources to support the requested addition.  𝙳𝚛𝚎𝚊𝚖𝚁𝚒𝚖𝚖𝚎𝚛  𝚍𝚒𝚜𝚌𝚞𝚜𝚜  12:00, 18 June 2023 (UTC)

Not done: it's been nearly a week since you were asked to find reliable sources to support the text you want added. I'm closing this request as not done so that other editors don't waste their time waiting on you to fulfill your obligation. If and when you do find supporting documentation, you can reopen this request by setting the "answered" parameter in the request template to "no". Xan747 (talk) 19:15, 1 July 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Land Rover


text:
Talk:Gold standard

Dates of adoption of a gold standard

 * 1717: Kingdom of Great Britain 'de facto' following Isaac Newton's revision of the mint ratio, at 21 shillings to a guinea of 129.438 grains (8.38 g), 22 karat crown gold.
 * 1760: The Bremen thaler gold worth $1/undefined$th a gold pistole of 6.0 g fine gold; the only state within the German Confederacy to introduce the gold standard before the introduction of the 1873 mark.
 * 1821: United Kingdom de jure at 20 shillings (£1) to a sovereign of 123.27447 grains (7.98805 g), 22 karat gold.
 * 1854: Portugal at 1000 réis to 1.62585 g gold.
 * 1858: Canadian dollar, at par with the U.S. gold dollar (1.50463 g gold), and with the British gold sovereign worth $4.86$2/3$.
 * 1865: Newfoundland, the only country in the British Empire to introduce its own gold coin apart from the British gold sovereign.
 * 1873: German Empire at 2,790 Marks (ℳ) to 1 kg gold.
 * 1873: United States dollar de facto from bimetallic to gold only, at 1.50463 g gold or 20.67 dollars to 1 troy oz (31.1 g) gold. See Coinage Act of 1873.
 * 1873: Latin Monetary Union (Belgium, Italy, Switzerland, France), from bimetallic to gold only, at 31 francs to 9.0 g gold
 * 1875: Scandinavian monetary union (Denmark, Norway and Sweden) at 2,480 kroner to 1 kg gold.
 * 1875: Dutch guilder at 0.6048 g gold.
 * 1876: Spain at 31 pesetas to 9.0 g gold.
 * 1878: Grand Duchy of Finland at 31 marks to 9.0 g gold.
 * 1881: Argentina at 1 peso to 1.4516 g gold.
 * 1885: Egypt.
 * 1892: Austrian Empire at 3,280 Austro-Hungarian kronen to 1 kg gold.
 * 1897: Russia at 31 rubles to 24.0 g gold.
 * 1897: Japan at 1 yen devalued to 0.75 g gold.
 * 1898: India at £1 to 15 Indian rupees.
 * 1900: United States, de jure (see Gold Standard Act).
 * 1903: The Philippines at US$1 = 2 pesos.
 * 1905: Mexico at 1 peso to 0.75 g gold.
 * 1906: The Straits dollar at £1 to 8$4/7$ dollars.
 * 1908: Siam Gold Exchange/pound sterling.

English POV
Based on French franc, I gather that since 1800, France has been on the gold standard, using a bimetallic standard where silver was used for small change. Even timeline in the discussion fails to note that. Similarly, the Spanish real page indicates that Spain has been using a fixed gold equivalent for its currency since 1566, when the value of silver was also fixed. Can anyone improve the article, so that a reader could understand how did Newton's bimetallism innovated beyond the Spanish bimetallism, and why was the British pound more of a gold standard than the gold napoleons? As is, it seems the article was written with a British POV.

Reversion of my edit about disagreements with the view that the gold standard caused the great depression
User Thenightaway reverted my edit with the note:

> does not relate to the consensus view about the role of the gold standard

This is nonsensical. There is no reason my edit needs to relate to the consensus view. The purpose is to make it clear that it isn't a unanimous view. I have added multiple sources for this. Don't just delete things on wikipedia because you don't agree with it. Fresheneesz (talk) 20:50, 21 August 2022 (UTC)

 * Your addition of the line "but many disagree with this view" is not supported by the sources you're adding. Thenightaway (talk) 20:58, 21 August 2022 (UTC)
 * If that is your only concern, it could easily have been recorded.  SPECIFICO talk 21:14, 21 August 2022 (UTC)
 * OK I had a closer look. There are not RS to support any statement at all about the gold standard, as far as I can tell. SPECIFICO talk 22:05, 21 August 2022 (UTC)
 * I think the statement that none of the sources that I included reliably support the very short clarifying statement I added deserves to have some reasoning given. One of my sources is David Wheelock, and economist at the St Louis Federal Reserve, and the source I referenced from him is published on their website. He says 'Economists continue to study the Great Depression because they still disagree on what caused it.' Thenightaway claims that the Journal of Business & Economic Policy is "predatory". I see no evidence of that, so it would be great if some could be supplied if its to be claimed that its not a reliable source.
 * I'm not inserting any extraordinary claim here, only the clarification that many economists disagree with the view that gold standard caused the great depression . There are other major schools of thought about the causes of the great depression, so its highly misleading to simply say "the idea that gold caused the great depression is the consensus view" without qualification. Ignoring other views because this is an article about the gold standard is not reasonable when considering the misleading quality of the current wording.
 * Furthermore, Thenightaway also reverted my edits improving the readability of the references in the source. This is just adding insult to injury and is completely inappropriate. Thenightaway, you are edging on edit warring. Edit warring is not acceptable on wikipedia. You should not have reverted my edits without attempting to engage in a discussion. And you certainly shouldn't have done it twice. You should be aware that doing this only a couple more times could earn you a temporary ban.
 * Fresheneesz (talk) 01:21, 23 August 2022 (UTC)
 * I could come up with a number of sources to support the idea that many economists disagree the gold standard caused the great depression. The fact that some people have claimed this to be the "consensus view" is indisputable, but whether it is actually the consensus view or not is quite disputable. Friedman and Schwartz famously disagreed - and they weren't fringe economists. A paper from Berkeley economists Hsieh and Romer concur. Here's a whole article about this. Fresheneesz (talk) 03:19, 23 August 2022 (UTC)

 * The consensus view is that the gold standard made the Great Depression worse. The quote "Economists continue to study the Great Depression because they still disagree on what caused it" does not have anything to do with the consensus view on whether the gold standard made the Great Depression worse. The Forbes op-ed by a guy in a creationist think tank is not a RS per WP:FORBESCON. The Hsieh and Romer article can be added to the page as long as the findings of the article are covered accurately. Thenightaway (talk) 10:12, 23 August 2022 (UTC)

Political issue
Let's be sure we maintain a neutral point of view. This topic is once again a political issue. There's a bill in play in the US House of Representatives to re-establish the gold standard (H.R. 9157). Same guy tried the same thing in 2019 (H.R. 2558). And then there was Senator Ron Paul years ago. Cordially, BuzzWeiser196 (talk) 14:41, 19 November 2022 (UTC)
 * New Bill Introduced to Bring the US Back to the Gold Standard. BuzzWeiser196 (talk) 14:56, 19 November 2022 (UTC)

Reignition of Gold Standard
Hello! I don't see any mention in this article about current advocate of the gold standard Keith Weiner and his company Monetary Metals which pays a yield on gold, paid in gold, in an attempt to give individuals and institutions a way to start their own personal gold standard. Should this be noted on this page as the most recent attempt by a private company to restart a gold based ecosystem? The first Gold Bond in 87 years would be noteworthy for this page I would think? Gold good (talk) 22:10, 25 January 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 12 July 2023
Minor edit (grammar), under section Great Depression, change "... Central European banking crisis led Germany and Austria suspend gold convertibility and impose exchange controls." to "... Central European banking crisis led Germany and Austria to suspend gold convertibility and impose exchange controls." Anodeunheard (talk) 18:09, 12 July 2023 (UTC)
 * ✅ - FlightTime  ( open channel ) 18:27, 12 July 2023 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Gold standard


text:
International auxiliary language

An international auxiliary language (sometimes acronymized as IAL or contracted as auxlang) is a language meant for communication between people from all different nations, who do not share a common first language. An auxiliary language is primarily a foreign language and often a constructed language. The concept is related to but separate from the idea of a lingua franca (or dominant language) that people must use to communicate. The study of international auxiliary languages is interlinguistics.

The term "auxiliary" implies that it is intended to be an additional language for communication between the people of the world, rather than to replace their native languages. Often, the term is used specifically to refer to planned or constructed languages proposed to ease international communication, such as Esperanto, Ido and Interlingua. It usually takes words from widely spoken languages. However, it can also refer to the concept of such a language being determined by international consensus, including even a standardized natural language (e.g., International English), and has also been connected to the project of constructing a universal language.

Languages of dominant societies over the centuries have served as lingua francas that have sometimes approached the international level. Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, Persian, Tamil and the Mediterranean Lingua Franca were used in the past. In recent times, Standard Arabic, Standard Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, Russian and Spanish have been used as such in many parts of the world. However, as lingua francas are traditionally associated with the very dominance—cultural, political, and economic—that made them popular, they are often also met with resistance. For this and other reasons, some have turned to the idea of promoting a constructed language as a possible solution, by way of an "auxiliary" language, one example of which being Esperanto.

History
The use of an intermediary auxiliary language (also called a "working language", "bridge language", "vehicular language" or "unifying language") to make communication possible between people not sharing a first language, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues, may be almost as old as language itself. Certainly they have existed since antiquity. Latin and Greek (or Koine Greek) were the intermediary language of all areas of the Mediterranean; Akkadian, and then Aramaic, remained the common languages of a large part of Western Asia through several earlier empires. Such natural languages used for communication between people not sharing the same mother tongue are called lingua francas.

Lingua francas (natural international languages)
Lingua francas have arisen around the globe throughout human history, sometimes for commercial reasons (so-called "trade languages") but also for diplomatic and administrative convenience, and as a means of exchanging information between scientists and other scholars of different nationalities. The term originates with one such language, Mediterranean Lingua Franca, a pidgin language used as a trade language in the Mediterranean area from the 11th to the 19th century. Examples of lingua francas remain numerous, and exist on every continent. The most obvious example as of the early 21st century is English. Moreover, a special case of English is that of Basic English, a simplified version of English which shares the same grammar (though simplified) and a reduced vocabulary of only 1,000 words, with the intention that anyone with a basic knowledge of English should be able to understand even quite complex texts.

Constructed languages
Since all natural languages display a number of irregularities in grammar that make them more difficult to learn, and they are also associated with the national and cultural dominance of the nation that speaks it as its mother tongue, attention began to focus on the idea of creating an artificial or constructed language as a possible solution. The concept of simplifying an existing language to make it an auxiliary language was already in the Encyclopédie of the 18th century, where Joachim Faiguet de Villeneuve, in the article on Langue, wrote a short proposition of a "laconic" or regularized grammar of French.

Some of the philosophical languages of the 17th–18th centuries could be regarded as proto-auxlangs, as they were intended by their creators to serve as bridges among people of different languages as well as to disambiguate and clarify thought. However, most or all of these languages were, as far as can be told from the surviving publications about them, too incomplete and unfinished to serve as auxlangs (or for any other practical purpose). The first fully developed constructed languages we know of, as well as the first constructed languages devised primarily as auxlangs, originated in the 19th century; Solresol by François Sudre, a language based on musical notes, was the first to gain widespread attention although not, apparently, fluent speakers.

Volapük
During the 19th century, a bewildering variety of such constructed international auxiliary languages (IALs) were proposed, so Louis Couturat and Léopold Leau in Histoire de la langue universelle (1903) reviewed 38 projects.

Volapük, first described in an article in 1879 by Johann Martin Schleyer and in book form the following year, was the first to garner a widespread international speaker community. Three major Volapük conventions were held, in 1884, 1887, and 1889; the last of them used Volapük as its working language. André Cherpillod writes of the third Volapük convention,"In August 1889 the third convention was held in Paris. About two hundred people from many countries attended. And, unlike in the first two conventions, people spoke only Volapük. For the first time in the history of mankind, sixteen years before the Boulogne convention, an international convention spoke an international language." However, not long after, the Volapük speaker community broke up due to various factors including controversies between Schleyer and other prominent Volapük speakers, and the appearance of newer, easier-to-learn constructed languages, primarily Esperanto.

Idiom Neutral and Latino sine flexione
Answering the needs of the first successful artificial language community, the Volapükists established the regulatory body of their language, under the name International Volapük Academy (Kadem bevünetik volapüka) at the second Volapük congress in Munich in August 1887. The Academy was set up to conserve and perfect the auxiliary language Volapük, but soon conflicts arose between conservative Volapükists and those who wanted to reform Volapük to make it a more naturalistic language based on the grammar and vocabulary of major world languages. In 1890 Schleyer himself left the original Academy and created a new Volapük Academy with the same name, from people completely loyal to him, which continues to this day.

Under Waldemar Rosenberger, who became the director in 1892, the original Academy began to make considerable changes in the grammar and vocabulary of Volapük. The vocabulary and the grammatical forms unfamiliar to Western Europeans were completely discarded, so that the changes effectively resulted in the creation of a new language, which was named "Idiom Neutral". The name of the Academy was changed to Akademi Internasional de Lingu Universal in 1898 and the circulars of the Academy were written in the new language from that year.

In 1903, the mathematician Giuseppe Peano published his completely new approach to language construction. Inspired by the idea of philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, instead of inventing schematic structures and an a priori language, he chose to simplify an existing and once widely used international language, Latin. This simplified Latin, devoid of inflections and declensions, was named Interlingua by Peano but is usually referred to as "Latino sine flexione".

Impressed by Peano's Interlingua, the Akademi Internasional de Lingu Universal effectively chose to abandon Idiom Neutral in favor of Peano's Interlingua in 1908, and it elected Peano as its director. The name of the group was subsequently changed to Academia pro Interlingua (where Interlingua stands for Peano's language). The Academia pro Interlingua survived until about 1939. It was Peano's Interlingua that partly inspired the better-known Interlingua presented in 1951 by the International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA).

Esperanto
After the emergence of Volapük, a wide variety of other auxiliary languages were devised and proposed in the 1880s–1900s, but none except Esperanto gathered a significant speaker community. Esperanto was developed from about 1873–1887 (a first version was ready in 1878), and finally published in 1887, by L. L. Zamenhof, as a primarily schematic language; the word-stems are borrowed from Romance, West Germanic and Slavic languages. The key to the relative success of Esperanto was probably the highly productive and elastic system of derivational word formation which allowed speakers to derive hundreds of other words by learning one word root. Moreover, Esperanto is quicker to learn than other languages, usually in a third up to a fifth of the time. From early on, Esperantists created their own culture which helped to form the Esperanto language community.

Within a few years this language had thousands of fluent speakers, primarily in eastern Europe. In 1905 its first world convention was held in Boulogne-sur-Mer. Since then world congresses have been held in different countries every year, except during the two World Wars. Esperanto has become "the most outlandishly successful invented language ever" and the most widely spoken constructed international auxiliary language. Esperanto is probably among the fifty languages which are most used internationally.

In 1922 a proposal by Iran and several other countries in the League of Nations to have Esperanto taught in member nations' schools failed. Esperanto speakers were subject to persecution under Stalin's regime. In Germany under Hitler, in Spain under Franco for about a decade, in Portugal under Salazar, in Romania under Ceaușescu, and in half a dozen Eastern European countries during the late forties and part of the fifties, Esperanto activities and the formation of Esperanto associations were forbidden. In spite of these factors more people continued to learn Esperanto, and significant literary work (both poetry and novels) appeared in Esperanto in the period between the World Wars and after them. Esperanto is spoken today in a growing number of countries and it has multiple generations of native speakers, although it is primarily used as a second language. Of the various constructed language projects, it is Esperanto that has so far come closest to becoming an officially recognized international auxiliary language; China publishes daily news in Esperanto.

Ido and the Esperantidos
The Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language was founded in 1900 by Louis Couturat and others; it tried to get the International Association of Academies to take up the question of an international auxiliary language, study the existing ones and pick one or design a new one. However, when the meta-academy declined to do so, the Delegation decided to do the job itself. Among Esperanto speakers there was a general impression that the Delegation would of course choose Esperanto, as it was the only auxlang with a sizable speaker community at the time; it was felt as a betrayal by many Esperanto speakers when in 1907 the Delegation came up with its own reformed version of Esperanto, Ido. Ido drew a significant number of speakers away from Esperanto in the short term, but in the longer term most of these either returned to Esperanto or moved on to other new auxlangs. Besides Ido, a great number of simplified Esperantos, called Esperantidos, emerged as concurrent language projects; still, Ido remains today one of the more widely spoken auxlangs.

Interlingue (Occidental)
Edgar de Wahl's Occidental of 1922 was in reaction against the perceived artificiality of some earlier auxlangs, particularly Esperanto. Inspired by Idiom Neutral and Latino sine flexione, de Wahl created a language whose words, including compound words, would have a high degree of recognizability for those who already know a Romance language. However, this design criterion was in conflict with the ease of coining new compound or derived words on the fly while speaking. Occidental was most active from the 1920s to the 1950s, and supported some 80 publications by the 1930s, but had almost entirely died out by the 1980s. Its name was officially changed to Interlingue in 1949. More recently Interlingue has been revived on the Internet.

Novial
In 1928 Ido's major intellectual supporter, the Danish linguist Otto Jespersen, abandoned Ido, and published his own planned language, Novial. It was mostly inspired by Idiom Neutral and Occidental, yet it attempted a derivational formalism and schematism sought by Esperanto and Ido. The notability of its creator helped the growth of this auxiliary language, but a reform of the language was proposed by Jespersen in 1934 and not long after this Europe entered World War II, and its creator died in 1943 before Europe was at peace again.

Interlingua
The International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA) was founded in 1924 by Alice Vanderbilt Morris; like the earlier Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language, its mission was to study language problems and the existing auxlangs and proposals for auxlangs, and to negotiate some consensus between the supporters of various auxlangs. However, like the Delegation, it finally decided to create its own auxlang. Interlingua, published in 1951, was primarily the work of Alexander Gode, though he built on preliminary work by earlier IALA linguists including André Martinet, and relied on elements from previous naturalistic auxlang projects, like Peano's Interlingua (Latino sine flexione), Jespersen's Novial, de Wahl's Interlingue, and the Academy's Idiom Neutral. Like Interlingue, Interlingua was designed to have words recognizable at sight by those who already know a Romance language or a language like English with much vocabulary borrowed from Romance languages; to attain this end the IALA accepted a degree of grammatical and orthographic complexity considerably greater than in Esperanto or Interlingue, though still less than in any natural language.

The theory underlying Interlingua posits an international vocabulary, a large number of words and affixes that are present in a wide range of languages. This already existing international vocabulary was shaped by social forces, science and technology, to "all corners of the world". The goal of the International Auxiliary Language Association was to accept into Interlingua every widely international word in whatever languages it occurred. They conducted studies to identify "the most generally international vocabulary possible", while still maintaining the unity of the language. This scientific approach of generating a language from selected source languages (called control languages) resulted in a vocabulary and grammar that can be called the highest common factor of each major European language.

Interlingua gained a significant speaker community, perhaps roughly the same size as that of Ido (considerably less than the size of Esperanto). Interlingua's success can be explained by the fact that it is the most widely understood international auxiliary language by virtue of its naturalistic (as opposed to schematic) grammar and vocabulary, allowing those familiar with a Romance language, and educated speakers of English, to read and understand it without prior study. Interlingua has some active speakers currently on all continents, and the language is propagated by the Union Mundial pro Interlingua (UMI), and Interlingua is presented on CDs, radio, and television.

After the creation of Interlingua, the enthusiasm for constructed languages gradually decreased in the years between 1960 and 1990.

Internet age
All of the auxlangs with a surviving speaker community seem to have benefited from the advent of the Internet, Esperanto more than most. The CONLANG mailing list was founded in 1991; in its early years discussion focused on international auxiliary languages. As people interested in artistic languages and engineered languages grew to be the majority of the list members, and flame-wars between proponents of particular auxlangs irritated these members, a separate AUXLANG mailing list was created in 1997, which has been the primary venue for discussion of auxlangs since then. Besides giving the existing auxlangs with speaker communities a chance to interact rapidly online as well as slowly through postal mail or more rarely in personal meetings, the Internet has also made it easier to publicize new auxlang projects, and a handful of these have gained a small speaker community, including Kotava (published in 1978), Lingua Franca Nova (1998), Slovio (1999), Interslavic (2006), Pandunia (2007), Sambahsa (2007), Lingwa de Planeta (2010), and Globasa (2019).

Zonal auxiliary languages
Not every international auxiliary language is necessarily intended to be used on a global scale. A special subgroup are languages created to facilitate communication between speakers of related languages. The oldest known example is a Pan-Slavic language written in 1665 by the Croatian priest Juraj Križanić. He named this language Ruski jezik ("Russian language"), although in reality it was a mixture of the Russian edition of Church Slavonic, his own Southern Chakavian dialect of Serbo-Croatian, and, to a lesser degree, Polish.

Most zonal auxiliary languages were created during the period of romantic nationalism at the end of the 19th century; some were created later. Particularly numerous are the Pan-Slavic language projects. However, similar efforts at creating umbrella languages have been made for other language families as well: Tutonish (1902), Folkspraak (1995) and other pan-Germanic languages for the Germanic languages; Romanid (1956) and several other pan-Romance languages for the Romance languages; and Afrihili (1973) for the African continent.

Notable among modern examples is Interslavic, a project first published in 2006 as Slovianski and then established in its current form in 2011 after the merger of several other projects. In 2012 it was reported to have several hundred users.

Scholarly study
In the early 1900s auxlangs were already becoming a subject of academic study. Louis Couturat et al. described the controversy in the preface to their book International Language and Science:

 * The question of a so-called world-language, or better expressed, an international auxiliary language, was during the now past Volapük period, and is still in the present Esperanto movement, so much in the hands of Utopians, fanatics and enthusiasts, that it is difficult to form an unbiased opinion concerning it, although a good idea lies at its basis. (1910, p. v).

Leopold Pfaundler wrote that an IAL was needed for more effective communication among scientists:

 * All who are occupied with the reading or writing of scientific literature have assuredly very often felt the want of a common scientific language, and regretted the great loss of time and trouble caused by the multiplicity of languages employed in scientific literature.

For Couturat et al., Volapükists and Esperantists confounded the linguistic aspect of the question with many side issues, and they considered this a main reason why discussion about the idea of an international auxiliary language has appeared unpractical.

Some contemporaries of Couturat, notably Edward Sapir saw the challenge of an auxiliary language not as much as that of identifying a descriptive linguistic answer (of grammar and vocabulary) to global communicative concerns, but rather as one of promoting the notion of a linguistic platform for lasting international understanding. Though interest among scholars, and linguists in particular, waned greatly throughout the 20th century, such differences of approach persist today. Some scholars and interested laymen make concrete language proposals. By contrast, Mario Pei and others place the broader societal issue first. Yet others argue in favor of a particular language while seeking to establish its social integration.

Writing systems
Whilst most IALs use the Latin script, some of them, also offer an alternative in the Cyrillic script.

Latin script
The vast majority of IALs use the Latin script. Several sounds, e.g. /n/, /m/, /t/, /f/ are written with the same letter as in IPA.

Some consonant sounds found in several Latin-script IAL alphabets are not represented by an ISO 646 letter in IPA. Three have a single letter in IPA, one has a widespread alternative taken from ISO 646: Four are affricates, each represented in IPA by two letters and a combining marker. They are often written decomposed:
 * /ʃ/ (U+0283, IPA 134)
 * /ʒ/ (U+0292, IPA 135)
 * /ɡ/ (U+0261, IPA 110, single storey g) = g (U+0067, double storey g)
 * /t͡s/ = /ts/
 * /t͡ʃ/ = /tʃ/; Note: Polish distinguishes between them
 * /d͡z/ = /dz/
 * /d͡ʒ/ = /dʒ/

That means that two sounds that are one character in IPA and are not ISO 646, also have no common alternative in ISO 646: ʃ, ʒ.

Classification
The following classification of auxiliary languages was developed by Pierre Janton in 1993:

 * A priori languages are characterized by largely artificial morphemes (not borrowed from natural languages), schematic derivation, simple phonology, grammar and morphology. Some a priori languages are called philosophical languages, referring to their basis in philosophical ideas about thought and language. These include some of the earliest efforts at auxiliary language in the 17th century. Some more specific subcategories:
 * Taxonomic languages form their words using a taxonomic hierarchy, with each phoneme of a word helping specify its position in a semantic hierarchy of some kind; for example, Solresol.
 * Pasigraphies are purely written languages without a spoken form, or with a spoken form left at the discretion of the reader; many of the 17th–18th century philosophical languages and auxlangs were pasigraphies. This set historically tends to overlap with taxonomic languages, though there is no inherent reason a pasigraphy needs to be taxonomic.
 * A posteriori languages are based on existing natural languages. Nearly all the auxiliary languages with fluent speakers are in this category. Most of the a posteriori auxiliary languages borrow their vocabulary primarily or solely from European languages, and base their grammar more or less on European models. (Sometimes these European-based languages are referred to as "euroclones", although this term has negative connotations and is not used in the academic literature.) Interlingua was drawn originally from international scientific vocabulary, in turn based primarily on Greek and Latin roots. Glosa did likewise, with a stronger dependence of Greek roots. Although a posteriori languages have been based on most of the families of European languages, the most successful of these (notably Esperanto, Ido and Interlingua) have been based largely on Romance elements.
 * Schematic (or "mixed") languages have some a priori qualities. Some have ethnic morphemes but alter them significantly to fit a simplified phonotactic pattern (e.g., Volapük) or both artificial and natural morphemes (e.g., Perio). Partly schematic languages have partly schematic and partly naturalistic derivation (e.g. Esperanto and Ido). Natural morphemes of languages in this group are rarely altered greatly from their source-language form, but compound and derived words are generally not recognizable at sight by people familiar with the source languages.
 * Naturalistic languages resemble existing natural languages. For example, Interlingue, Interlingua, and Lingua Franca Nova were developed so that not only the root words but their compounds and derivations will often be immediately recognized by large numbers of people. Some naturalistic languages do have a limited number of artificial morphemes or invented grammatical devices (e.g. Novial).
 * Simplified, or controlled versions of natural languages reduce the full extent of the vocabulary and partially regularize the grammar of a natural language (e.g. Basic English and Special English).

Comparison of sample texts
Some examples of the best known international auxiliary languages are shown below for comparative purposes, using the Lord's Prayer (a core Christian prayer, the translated text of which is regularly used for linguistic comparisons).

As a reference for comparison, one can find the Latin, English, French, and Spanish versions here:

Methods of propagation
As has been pointed out, the issue of an international language is not so much which, but how. Several approaches exist toward the eventual full expansion and consolidation of an international auxiliary language.
 * 1) Laissez-faire. This approach is taken in the belief that one language will eventually and inevitably "win out" as a world auxiliary language (e.g. International English) without any need for specific action.
 * 2) Institutional sponsorship and grass-roots promotion of language programs. This approach has taken various forms, depending on the language and language type, ranging from government promotion of a particular language to one-on-one encouragement to learn the language to instructional or marketing programs.
 * 3) National legislation. This approach seeks to have individual countries (or even localities) progressively endorse a given language as an official language (or to promote the concept of international legislation).
 * 4) International legislation. This approach involves promotion of the future holding of a binding international convention (perhaps to be under the auspices of such international organizations as the United Nations or Inter-Parliamentary Union) to formally agree upon an official international auxiliary language which would then be taught in all schools around the world, beginning at the primary level. This approach, an official principle of the Baháʼí Faith, seeks to put a combination of international opinion, linguistic expertise, and law behind a to-be-selected language and thus expand or consolidate it as a full official world language, to be used in addition to local languages. This approach could either give more credibility to a natural language already serving this purpose to a certain degree (e.g. if English were chosen) or to give a greatly enhanced chance for a constructed language to take root. For constructed languages particularly, this approach has been seen by various individuals in the IAL movement as holding the most promise of ensuring that promotion of studies in the language would not be met with skepticism at its practicality by its would-be learners.

Pictorial languages
There have been a number of proposals for using pictures, ideograms, diagrams, and other pictorial representations for international communications. Examples range from the original Characteristica Universalis proposed by the philosopher Leibniz in the 17th century, to suggestions for the adoption of Chinese writing, to recent inventions such as Blissymbol, first published in 1949.

Within the scientific community, there is already considerable agreement in the form of the schematics used to represent electronic circuits, chemical symbols, mathematical symbols, and the Energy Systems Language of systems ecology. We can also see the international efforts at regularizing symbols used to regulate traffic, to indicate resources for tourists, and in maps. Some symbols have become nearly universal through their consistent use in computers and on the Internet.

Sign languages
An international auxiliary sign language has been developed by deaf people who meet regularly at international forums such as sporting events or in political organisations. Previously referred to as Gestuno but now more commonly known simply as 'international sign', the language has continued to develop since the first signs were standardised in 1973, and it is now in widespread use. International sign is distinct in many ways from spoken IALs; many signs are iconic, and signers tend to insert these signs into the grammar of their own sign language, with an emphasis on visually intuitive gestures and mime. A simple sign language called Plains Indian Sign Language was used by indigenous peoples of the Americas.

Gestuno is not to be confused with the separate and unrelated sign language Signuno, which is essentially a Signed Exact Esperanto. Signuno is not in any significant use, and is based on the Esperanto community rather than based on the international Deaf community.

Criticism
There has been considerable criticism of international auxiliary languages, both in terms of individual proposals, types of proposals, and in more general terms.

Much criticism has been focused either on the artificiality of international auxiliary languages, or on the argumentativeness of proponents and their failure to agree on one language, or even on objective criteria by which to judge them. However, probably the most common criticism is that a constructed auxlang is unnecessary because natural languages such as English are already in wide use as auxlangs.

One criticism already prevalent in the late 19th century, and still sometimes heard today, is that an international language might hasten the extinction of minority languages. One response has been that, even if this happens, the benefits would outweigh the costs.

Although referred to as international languages, most of these languages have historically been constructed on the basis of Western European languages. Esperanto and other languages such as Interlingua and Ido have been criticized for being too European and not global enough. The term "Euroclone" was coined to refer to such languages in contrast to "worldlangs" with global vocabulary sources.

title: International auxiliary language


text:
Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki

Michael I (Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki, Mykolas I Kaributas Višnioveckis; 31 May 1640 – 10 November 1673) was the ruler of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 29 September 1669 until his death in 1673.

Michael was chosen partly because of the merit of his father, prince Jeremi Wiśniowiecki, a powerful border magnate who had helped suppress the rebellious Cossacks during the Khmelnytsky Uprising. After Michael's early death, these setbacks were reversed at the Battle of Khotyn in 1673 by his successor, John III Sobieski, who defeated an Austrian candidate in the election.

In 1670 Michael I was married to Eleonora Maria of Austria (1653–1697), daughter of Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor, by his third wife Eleonora Gonzaga.

Biography
Michael was the son of Jeremi Wiśniowiecki and his wife Gryzelda Konstancja Zamoyska. His parents likely met each other in September 1637 in Warsaw during the crowning of Cecilia Renata of Austria, the Queen of Poland and consort to Władysław IV. They were engaged on 13 February 1638, over a month after the death of Gryzelda's father, Tomasz Zamoyski.

The wedding took place in Zamość on 27 February 1639, and over a year later, on 31 May 1640, Michael Korybut was most likely born in the village of Biały Kamień as Michał Tomasz Wiśniowiecki. The infant was then taken to Zamość, where he spent first two years of his life under care of his grandmother Katarzyna Zamoyska (née Ostrogska). In 1642, Michał was taken by his mother to Lubny. During the Khmelnytsky Uprising, he fled Left-bank Ukraine with his family and first settled in Wiśniowiec in Volhynia, before arriving in Zamość in autumn 1648.

Jeremi Wiśniowiecki died in 1651, when most of his enormous estate remained under Cossack or Russian control. From 1651 – 1655, young Michał was under the care of Karol Ferdynand Vasa, the bishop of Wrocław and Płock. The boy stayed at the residence of the Bishops of Płock, in the town of Brok. After the death of Bishop Vasa on 9 May 1655, he was taken in by his wealthy uncle, Jan Zamoyski, Voivode of Sandomierz, who funded his education. Sometime in mid-1655, Michał found himself at the court of King John II Casimir.

Following the Swedish invasion of Poland, Michael, together with the royal court, fled to Głogówek in Upper Silesia. On 18 November 1655, following the request of the king, he went to Nysa, to study at the Jesuit College Carolinum and stayed there until March 1656.

In mid-1656, thanks to the support of Queen Marie Louise Gonzaga, Michał Korybut began studying at Charles University in Prague. He returned to Poland in June 1660, but soon afterwards, headed to Dresden and Vienna to meet Empress Eleonora Gonzaga. There he saw his future wife Eleanor of Austria, who was a child at that time, for the first time. On this trip, Michael improved his knowledge of languages; he spoke Latin, German, Italian, French and also likely Tatar and Turkish as well.

In 1663, Michel took part in the Russo-Polish War, and during the Lubomirski Rebellion, he loyally supported the king.

Election
On 16 September 1668, John II Casimir abdicated the Polish throne and left the country to live in France, making a new election necessary. The Bishop of Chełmno, Andrzej Olszowski, suggested that Michał Korybut should be listed as one of candidates for the throne. Wiśniowiecki was supported by the Polish nobility, who sensed that a poor and inexperienced prince would not pose a threat to their rights enshrined in the Golden Liberty.

The Free election of 1669 took place in May and June of that year. Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki was elected King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania on 19 June and became known as Michael I. Most of the gathered nobility voted for him as they wished to choose a native, Polish candidate (the so-called "Piast"), over foreign candidates. Wiśniowiecki won 11,271 votes and was crowned on 29 September 1669 in Kraków.

His election was immediately opposed by the pro-French camp, led by Primate of Poland Mikołaj Prazmowski and Crown Hetman John Sobieski.

On 27 February 1670 Michael I married Austrian princess Eleanor, and the ceremony was celebrated by Papal Nuncio, Cardinal Galeazzo Marescotti, as Primate Prazmowski refused to attend. The reception took place at the Denhoff Palace in Kruszyna.

Internal conflicts
Following the 1669 election, the Commonwealth was divided between two camps – pro-French, and royal. The pro-French camp had several influential members, including Primate Prazmowski, Hetman Sobieski, Andrzej Morsztyn, Voivode of Kraków Aleksander Michał Lubomirski, Voivode of Ruthenia Stanisław Jan Jabłonowski, Voivode of Poznań Krzysztof Grzymultowski, and Bishop of Kraków Andrzej Trzebicki.

In November 1669, the French camp broke the Coronation Sejm, hoping to dethrone Michael and elect Count Charles-Paris d'Orléans-Longueville. In 1670, the internal struggle moved to the local sejmiks, during which the nobility demanded to bring a Sejm lawsuit against Hetman Sobieski. To defend their commander, Sobieski's soldiers formed a Confederation near Trembowla.

To make matters worse, the divided Commonwealth was under constant Turkish threat. In 1671, the king supported a rebellion of a unit of Stanisław Wyżycki, who, against the explicit order of Sobieski, abandoned Volhynia, leaving the province defenceless. King Michael ordered Wyżycki and his men to spend the winter of 1671/72 in the wealthy starostwo of Sambor, and paid them their salaries, while Sobieski and his soldiers did not receive any money.

In 1672, the Ottoman Empire declared war on the Commonwealth, and the Polish–Ottoman War of 1672–76 began. Despite this, the situation in the Polish Crown was still chaotic, with the danger of a civil war. The nobility formed a confederation near Gołąb, demanding the removal of Primate Prazmowski. Its members looted real estate owned by Hetman Sobieski and his family. On 22 November 1672 Lithuanian soldiers formed their own confederation in Kobryń, declaring their support for the Gołąb confederation. In response, soldiers under Sobieski formed a confederation in Szczebrzeszyn. John Sobieski, together with his troops, headed to Łowicz, to meet Primate Prazmowski.

Negotiations between the two factions were carried out by Papal Nuncio Francesco Buonvisi and Bishop of Kraków Andrzej Trzebicki. Furthermore, Sultan Mehmed IV of the Ottoman Empire sent an offensive letter to Warsaw, demanding complete subordination of the Commonwealth. This greatly enraged the Poles but due to chaotic internal situation of the Commonwealth, both sides of the conflict reached an agreement in March 1672.

War with the Ottoman Empire
In June 1672, a 100,000-strong Ottoman army, under Mehmed IV, besieged the city of Kamieniec Podolski, which capitulated after 26 days. The invaders then approached Lwów, which paid a ransom. Mounted Crimean Tatar units penetrated as far as Hrubieszów, Jasło and Biecz.

In October 1672, Hetman John Sobieski, upon request of the senators, tried to stop the invaders, defeating them in the Battle of Niemirów, Battle of Komarno, and Battle of Petranka. Meanwhile, the Treaty of Buchach was signed on 18 October, in which the king ceded Podolia to the Ottomans and agreed to pay a yearly tribute. Under these terms, the once mighty Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was humbled by the Turks.

Soon afterwards, Michael I began preparation for a new military campaign against the Ottomans. On 8 October 1673 at Skwarzawa near Złoczów, some 40,000 Polish soldiers concentrated, with 50 cannons. Due to poor health, the king handed the command of the army to Sobieski, and the Poles marched southwards, to Chocim.

Death, funeral, and legacy
King Michael I Korybut died in the Palace of the Archbishops of Lwów, on 10 November 1673. His early demise seems to have been brought about by a severe case of food poisoning, although rumours persisted that he had been murdered by traitorous generals angered at the declining power of the Commonwealth.

The day after his death, John Sobieski won the Battle of Chocim, which reversed some of the losses under Michael I's reign. On 19 May 1674 Hetman John Sobieski was elected the new monarch after the Free election of 1674.

After the funeral, the heart of the king was buried at a Camedule Monastery in the Bielany district of Warsaw. The bowels were placed in a wall of the Latin Cathedral in Lwów, while the body was buried in Wawel Cathedral in Kraków on 31 January 1676, the same day that John Sobieski was crowned as John III.

Michael's reign was considered to be less than successful as his ability to be a capable monarch were greatly hurt by Poland's quarrelling factions. His father's military fame notwithstanding, Michael lost the first phase of the Polish–Ottoman War of 1672–1676.

Royal titles

(citation from one contemporary document: "Michael primvs, Dei gratia rex Poloniae, magnus dvx Lituaniae, Russiae, Prussiae, Masouiae, Samogitiae, Kiiouiae, Volhyniae, Podlachiae, Podoliae, Liuoniae, Smolensciae, Seueriae Czernihouiaeque etc")
 * Official Latin version: Michael I, Dei Gratia rex Poloniae, magnus dux Lithuaniae, Russiae, Prussiae, Masoviae, Samogitiae, Livoniae, Smolensciae, Kijoviae, Volhyniae, Podoliae, Podlachiae, Severiae, Czernichoviaeque, etc.

 * English translation: Michael I, by the Grace of God, King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania, Ruthenia, Prussia, Masovia, Samogitia, Livonia, Smolensk, Kiev, Volhynia, Podolia, Podlaskie, Severia and Chernihiv, etc.

title: Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki


text:
Marburg

Marburg is a university town in the German federal state (Bundesland) of Hesse, capital of the Marburg-Biedenkopf district (Landkreis). The town area spreads along the valley of the river Lahn and has a population of approximately 76,000.

Having been awarded town privileges in 1222, Marburg served as capital of the landgraviate of Hessen-Marburg during periods of the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries. The University of Marburg was founded in 1527 and dominates the public life in the town to this day.

Marburg is a historic centre of the pharmaceutical industry in Germany, and there is a plant in the town (by BioNTech) to produce vaccines to tackle Covid-19.

Founding and early history
Like many settlements, Marburg developed at the crossroads of two important early medieval highways: the trade route linking Cologne and Prague and the trade route from the North Sea to the Alps and on to Italy, the former crossing the river Lahn here. A first mention of the settlement dates from 822 in the Reinhardsbrunner Chronik. The settlement was protected and customs were raised by a small castle built during the ninth or tenth century by the Giso. Marburg has been a town since 1140, as proven by coins. From the Gisos, it fell around that time to the Landgraves of Thuringia, residing on the Wartburg above Eisenach.

St. Elizabeth of Hungary
In 1228, the widowed princess-landgravine of Thuringia, Elizabeth of Hungary, chose Marburg as her dowager seat, as she did not get along well with her brother-in-law, the new landgrave. The countess dedicated her life to the sick and would become after her early death in 1231, aged 24, one of the most prominent female saints of the era. She was canonized in 1235.

Capital of Hessen
In 1264, St Elizabeth's daughter Sophie of Brabant, succeeded in winning the Landgraviate of Hessen, hitherto connected to Thuringia, for her son Henry. Marburg (alongside Kassel) was one of the capitals of Hessen from that time until about 1540. Following the first division of the landgraviate, it was the capital of Hessen-Marburg from 1485 to 1500 and again between 1567 and 1605. Hessen was one of the more powerful second-tier principalities in Germany. Its "old enemy" was the Archbishopric of Mainz, the seat of one of the prince-electors, who competed with Hessen in many wars and conflicts for coveted territory, stretching over several centuries.

After 1605, Marburg became just another provincial town, known mostly for the University of Marburg. It became a virtual backwater for two centuries after the Thirty Years' War (1618–48), when it was fought over by Hessen-Darmstadt and Hesse-Kassel. The Hessian territory around Marburg lost more than two-thirds of its population, which was more than in any later wars (including World War I and World War II) combined.

Reformation
Marburg is the seat of the oldest existing Protestant-founded university in the world, the University of Marburg (Philipps-Universität-Marburg), founded in 1527. It is one of the smaller "university towns" in Germany. These include Greifswald, Erlangen, Jena, and Tübingen, as well as the city of Gießen, which is located 30 km south of Marburg.

In 1529, Philipp I of Hesse arranged the Marburg Colloquy, to propitiate Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli.

Romanticism
Owing to its neglect during the entire 18th century, Marburg – like Rye or Chartres – survived as a relatively intact Gothic town, simply because there was no money spent on any new architecture or expansion. When Romanticism became the dominant cultural and artistic paradigm in Germany, Marburg became a centre of activities once again, and many of the leaders of the movement lived, taught, or studied in Marburg. They formed a circle of friends that was of great importance, especially in literature, philology, folklore, and law.

The group included Friedrich Carl von Savigny, the most important jurist of his day and father of the Roman Law adaptation in Germany, as well as the poets, writers, and social activists Achim von Arnim, Clemens Brentano, and especially Bettina von Arnim, Clemens Brentano's sister, who became Achim von Arnim's wife. Most famous internationally, however, were the Brothers Grimm, who collected many of their fairy tales here. The best-known illustrations for the fairy tale editions are by the painter Otto Ubbelohde, who also lived in and near Marburg. The original building inspiring his drawing Rapunzel's Tower stands in Amönau near Marburg. Across the Lahn hills, in the area called Schwalm, the costumes of little girls included a red hood.

Prussian town
In the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the Prince-elector of Hessen had backed Austria. Prussia won and took the opportunity to invade and annex the Electorate of Hessen (as well as Hanover, the city of Frankfurt, and other territories) north of the Main River. However, the pro-Austrian Hesse-Darmstadt remained independent. For Marburg, this turn of events was very positive, because Prussia decided to make Marburg its main administrative centre in this part of the new province Hessen-Nassau and to turn the University of Marburg into the regional academic centre. Thus, Marburg's rise as an administrative and university city began. As the Prussian university system was one of the best in the world at the time, Marburg attracted many respected scholars. However, there was hardly any industry to speak of, so students, professors, and civil servants – who generally had enough but not much money and paid very little in taxes – dominated the town.

Early 20th century
Franz von Papen, vice-chancellor of Germany in 1934, delivered an anti-Nazi speech at the University of Marburg on 17 June.

From 1942 to 1945, the whole city of Marburg was turned into a hospital, with schools and government buildings turned into wards to augment the existing hospitals. By the spring of 1945, there were over 20,000 patients – mostly wounded German soldiers. As a result of its designation as a hospital city, and because of a lack of important industrial sites, there was not much damage from bombings except along the railroad tracks.

In May 1945, the Monuments men officer Walker Hancock set up the first so-called Central Collecting Point in the Marburg State Archives. But since the capacity of the archive building was not sufficient to store the many objects and since other collecting points, for example in Munich, had been set up in the American occupation zone in the meantime, the Marburg facility was closed after more than a year in favor of the Wiesbaden Collecting Point. With the relocation of the sarcophagus of Field Marshal and President Paul von Hindenburg (1847-1934) to the Elisabethkirche in August 1946 the project ended.

Marburg from 1945
Post-war developments included a population growth first due to war refugees, then to increasing significance of the pharmaceutical industry based in Marburg, and an increase in staff and students for the university. The historic town was in danger of thorough decay, but was renovated from 1972. The university now has about 21 000 students (2023).

Geography
Marburg lies on the river Lahn, 25 km north of Gießen. The federal road Bundesstraße 3 connects it with Gießen and Kassel. It is served by Marburg (Lahn) station (long-distance and local trains) and Marburg Süd station (local trains).

The city is divided into the following 25 boroughs (Ortsbezirke):

 * Altstadt
 * Bauerbach
 * Bortshausen
 * Campusviertel
 * Cappel
 * Cyriaxweimar
 * Dagobertshausen
 * Dilschhausen
 * Elnhausen
 * Ginseldorf
 * Gisselberg
 * Haddamshausen
 * Hermershausen
 * Marbach
 * Michelbach
 * Moischt
 * Ockershausen
 * Richtsberg
 * Ronhausen
 * Schröck
 * Südviertel
 * Waldtal
 * Wehrda
 * Wehrshausen
 * Weidenhausen

Politics
As a larger mid-sized city, Marburg, like six other such cities in Hessen, has a special status as compared to the other municipalities in the district. This means that the city takes on tasks more usually performed by the district so that in many ways it is comparable to an urban district (kreisfreie Stadt). Before 1974, the city was a district-free city.

The mayor of Marburg, Thomas Spies, in office since December 2015, and his predecessor Egon Vaupel (directly elected in January 2005), are members of the Social Democratic Party of Germany. His deputy, the head of the building and youth departments, Nadine Bernshausen, is from Alliance '90/The Greens. Following the city parliament elections of March 2021, the majority in the 59-seat city parliament is held by a coalition of Green party (15 seats), SPD (14 seats) and Klimaliste (4 seats) members. Also represented are the factions of the Christian Democratic Union (13 seats), The Left (7 seats), the Free Democratic Party (2 seats), a CDU splinter group MBL (Marburger Bürgerliste – 2 seats), the BfM (Bürger für Marburg – 2 seats), Alternative für Deutschland (1 seat), and the Pirate Party (1 seat).

Among the left wing groups are ATTAC, the Worldshop movement, an autonomist-anarchist scene, and a few groups engaged in ecological or human-rights concerns.

The city of Marburg, similar to the cities of Heidelberg, Tübingen and Göttingen, has a rich history of student fraternities or Verbindungen of various sorts, including Corps, Landsmannschaften, Burschenschaften, Turnierschaften, etc.

Twin towns – sister cities
Marburg is twinned with:

 * 🇫🇷 Poitiers, France (1961)
 * 🇸🇮 Maribor, Slovenia (1969)
 * 🇹🇳 Sfax, Tunisia (1971)
 * 🇩🇪 Eisenach, Germany (1988)
 * 🏴 Northampton, England, UK (1992)
 * 🇷🇴 Sibiu, Romania (2005)

Coat of arms
Marburg's coat of arms shows a Hessian landgrave riding a white horse with a flag and a shield on a red background. The shield shows the red-and-white-striped Hessian lion, also to be seen on Hessen's state arms, and the flag shows a stylized M, blue on gold (or yellow). The arms are also the source of the city flag's colors. The flag has three horizontal stripes colored, from top to bottom, red (from the background), white (from the horse) and blue (from the shield).

The coat of arms, which was designed in the late nineteenth century, is based on a landgrave seal on a municipal document. It is an example of a very prevalent practice of replacing forgotten coats of arms, or ones deemed not to be representative enough, with motifs taken from seals.

Marburg virus
The city's name is connected to a filovirus, the Marburg virus, because this disease, a viral hemorrhagic fever resembling ebola, was first recognized and described during an outbreak in the city. In 1967, workers were accidentally exposed to infected green monkey tissue at the city's former industrial plant, the Behring-Werke, then part of Hoechst and today of CSL Behring, founded by Marburg citizen and first Nobel Prize in Medicine winner, Emil Adolf von Behring. During the outbreak, 31 people became infected and seven of them died. The virus is named after the city following the custom of naming viruses after the location of their first recorded outbreak.

Green city
Many homes have solar panels and in 2008 a law was passed to make the installation of solar systems on new buildings or as part of renovation projects mandatory. 20 percent of heating system requirements ought to have been covered by solar energy in new buildings. Anyone who fails to install solar panels would have been fined €1,000. The new law, approved on 20 June 2008, should have taken effect in October 2008, however, this law was stopped by the Regierungspräsidium Giessen in September 2008.

Landmarks
Marburg remains a relatively unspoilt, spire-dominated, castle-crowned Gothic or Renaissance city on a hill partly because it was isolated between 1600 and 1850. Architecturally, it is famous both for its castle Marburger Schloss and its medieval churches. The Elisabethkirche, as one of the two or three first purely Gothic churches north of the Alps outside France, is an archetype of Gothic architecture in Germany.

Much of the physical attractiveness of Marburg is due to Hanno Drechsler who was Lord Mayor between 1970 and 1992. He promoted urban renewal, the restoration of the Oberstadt (uptown), and he established one of the first pedestrian zones in Germany. Marburg's Altstadtsanierung (since 1972) has received many awards and prizes.

Parks in the town include the Old Botanical Garden, as well as the new Botanical Garden outside the town proper.

The Marktplatz is the heart of Marburg's old town. In the center is a fountain dedicated to St Georg, a popular meeting place for the youths. To the south is the old town hall and the path running north leads to the palace overlooking the town.

The University of Marburg, founded in 1527, is one of Germany's oldest universities. It is spread over two campuses: Firmanei at the centre of Marburg, and Lahnberge to the east of the town at the Botanischer Garten (Botanical Garden).

Notable people

 * Ernst Wachler (1803–1888), lawyer and politician
 * Karl Theodor Bayrhoffer (1812–1888), professor of philosophy at the University of Marburg and freethinker
 * Karl Gustav Adolf Knies (1821–1898), economist
 * Adolf Gaston Eugen Fick (1852–1937), ophthalmologist and inventor of the contact lens
 * Walter von Boetticher (1853–1945), historian and physician studied medicine at Marburg
 * Juan Gundlach (1810-1896), naturalist and taxonomist of Cuba and Puerto Rico
 * Ernst von Harnack (1888–1945), politician and resistance fighter against Nazism
 * Ernst-Günther Schenck (1904–1998), doctor
 * Otto John (1909–1997), President of the Federal Office for Constitutional Protection
 * Hans Mommsen (1930–2015), historian
 * Wolfgang Mommsen (1930–2004), historian
 * Reinhard Hauff (born 1939), film director and screenwriter
 * Richard Wiese (born 1953), professor of linguistics
 * Stefan Gradmann (born 1958), university professor
 * Margot Käßmann (born 1958), Lutheran theologian and pastor
 * Hank Levine (born 1965), film director and producer
 * Dirk Kaftan (born 1971), conductor
 * Lars Weißenfeldt (born 1980), footballer
 * Lena Gercke (born 1988), photo model and TV host
 * Lukas Wenig (born 1994), dart player
 * Theodora Sayn-Wittgenstein (born 1986), aristocrat

title: Marburg


text:
Talk:Lime

Links
Query - should the Lime page be a crosslink page sending users to Lime (cooking) and Lime (industrial)? ATM Lime the plant is on this page and another entry needs to be created for Lime the chemical (calcium carbonate).

 * This is now done. Does anyone know what type of lime Aphrodite is associated with? ( 13:33 5 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * No, but I'd guess it's the Tilia. The citrus fruit was unknown to the Ancient Greeks. --Angr/undefined 13:21, 24 September 2005 (UTC)
 * That's correct - it is the tree. --138.38.32.84 18:03, 2 February 2006 (UTC)

Acid / alkali
With regards to the pH value of lime, this is rather confusing as lime as a fruit is sourish (hence lower pH value), whereas lime as a agricultural tool is alkaline (higher pH value). Could anyone kindly highlight the history behind why two different substances having different pH value can share the same name? I was considering that a small kid, overhearing his or her parents mentioning that they should add lime to neutralise the acidity in their garden would take lime as fruit and start squeezing the lime juice into the garden. This would really worsen the soil acidity. :)

218.186.8.11 03:12, 24 June 2007 (UTC)Tzu Hao
 * one is old english, one from spanish.82.35.115.3 (talk) 20:53, 25 August 2008 (UTC)

Plumbing
What about that white scaley stuff that forms around sink fixtures. That stuff is called "lime" - but I see no reference to it here. Rklawton (talk) 22:14, 16 November 2008 (UTC)

"Limes"
There is a discussion at Talk:Limes about moving an article about a frontier and redirecting the plural here.  Crouch, Swale  ( talk ) 17:51, 21 March 2020 (UTC)
 * The above link does not lead to a discussion. And I also could not find any discusion elswhere. This merge is/was compleatly unnessesary and not helfull.--Fano (talk) 08:23, 13 October 2021 (UTC)
 * The above link should have been fixed to link to Talk:Limes_(Roman_Empire). Which is absolutly fine as this was the consesnsus to create the disambigues page. --Fano (talk) 08:30, 13 October 2021 (UTC)

Merging Limes
I bold moved this redundant dabpage and was reverted. Opening for discussion. 162 etc. (talk) 03:57, 1 November 2021 (UTC)

 * I think these should indeed remain separate since Limes (Roman Empire) and Limes (magazine) are not the plural of lime. There's no need to duplicate the singlular lime entries on the Limes page though, the Lime (disambiguation) link under See also should suffice. Lennart97 (talk) 20:11, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

 * Agreed, a single link from singular to plural here should be quite clear enough. --Joy [shallot] (talk) 09:20, 3 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lime


text:
IAL

IAL may refer to:

 * Intel Architecture Labs, a research arm of Intel Corporation during the 1990s
 * International Advanced Levels, an academic qualification offered by Edexcel
 * International Algebraic Language or ALGOL 58
 * International Artists' Lodge, trade union in Germany
 * International auxiliary language, a language for communication between people who do not share a native language
 * Institute for Adult Learning, an autonomous institute based in Singapore.
 * Iâl or Ial or Yale, a commote in Medieval Wales.

title: IAL