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Road transport

Road transport or road transportation is a type of transport using roads. Transport on roads can be roughly grouped into the transportation of goods and transportation of people. In many countries licensing requirements and safety regulations ensure a separation of the two industries. Movement along roads may be by bike, automobile, bus, truck, or by animal such as horse or oxen. Standard networks of roads were adopted by Romans, Persians, Aztec, and other early empires, and may be regarded as a feature of empires. Cargo may be transported by trucking companies, while passengers may be transported via mass transit. Commonly defined features of modern roads include defined lanes and signage. Various classes of road exist, from two-lane local roads with at-grade intersections to controlled-access highways with all cross traffic grade-separated.

The nature of road transportation of goods depends on, apart from the degree of development of the local infrastructure, the distance the goods are transported by road, the weight and volume of an individual shipment, and the type of goods transported. For short distances and light small shipments, a van or pickup truck may be used. For large shipments even if less than a full truckload a truck is more appropriate. (Also see Trucking and Hauling below). In some countries cargo is transported by road in horse-drawn carriages, donkey carts or other non-motorized mode. Delivery services are sometimes considered a separate category from cargo transport. In many places, fast food is transported on roads by various types of vehicles. For inner city delivery of small packages and documents bike couriers are quite common.

People are transported on roads. Special modes of individual transport by road such as cycle rickshaws may also be locally available. There are also specialist modes of road transport for particular situations, such as ambulances.

Early roads
The first methods of road transport were horses, oxen or even humans carrying goods over dirt tracks that often followed game trail. The Persians later built a network of Royal Roads across their empire.

With the advent of the Roman Empire, there was a need for armies to be able to travel quickly from one region to another, and the roads that existed were often muddy, which greatly delayed the movement of large masses of troops. To resolve this issue, the Romans built solid and lasting roads. The Roman roads used deep roadbeds of crushed stone as an underlying layer to ensure that they kept dry, as the water would flow out from the crushed stone, instead of becoming mud in clay soils. The Islamic Caliphate later built tar-paved roads in Baghdad.

New road networks
As states developed and became richer, especially with the Renaissance, new roads and bridges began to be built, often based on Roman designs. Although there were attempts to rediscover Roman methods, there was little useful innovation in road building before the 18th century.

Starting in the early 18th century, the British Parliament began to pass a series of acts that gave the local justices powers to erect toll-gates on the roads, in exchange for professional upkeep. The toll-gate erected at Wade's Mill became the first effective toll-gate in England. The first scheme that had trustees who were not justices was established through a turnpike act in 1707, for a section of the London-Chester road between Foothill and Stony Stafford. The basic principle was that the trustees would manage resources from the several parishes through which the highway passed, augment this with tolls from users from outside the parishes and apply the whole to the maintenance of the main highway. This became the pattern for the turnpiking of a growing number of highways, sought by those who wished to improve flow of commerce through their part of a county.

In 18th century West Africa, road transport throughout the Ashanti Empire was maintained via a network of well-kept roads that connected the Ashanti capital with territories within its jurisdiction and influence. After significant road construction undertaken by the kingdom of Dahomey, toll roads were established with the function of collecting yearly taxes based on the goods carried by the people of Dahomey and their occupation. The Royal Road was built in the late 18th century by King Kpengla which stretched from Abomey through Cana up to Ouidah.

The quality of early turnpike roads was varied. Although turnpiking did result in some improvement to each highway, the technologies used to deal with geological features, drainage, and the effects of weather were all in their infancy. Road construction improved slowly, initially through the efforts of individual surveyors such as John Metcalf in Yorkshire in the 1760s. British turnpike builders began to realize the importance of selecting clean stones for surfacing while excluding vegetable material and clay, resulting in more durable roads.

Industrial civil engineering
By the late 18th and early 19th centuries, new methods of highway construction had been pioneered by the work of three British engineers, John Metcalf, Thomas Telford and John Loudon McAdam, and by the French road engineer Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet.

The first professional road builder to emerge during the Industrial Revolution was John Metcalf, who constructed about 180 mi of turnpike road, mainly in the north of England, from 1765. He believed a good road should have good foundations, be well drained and have a smooth convex surface to allow rainwater to drain quickly into ditches at the side. He understood the importance of good drainage, knowing it was rain that caused most problems on the roads.

Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet established the first scientific approach to road building in France at the same time. He wrote a memorandum on his method in 1775, which became general practice in France. It involved a layer of large rocks, covered by a layer of smaller gravel. The lower layer improved on Roman practice in that it was based on the understanding that the purpose of this layer (the sub-base or base course) is to transfer the weight of the road and its traffic to the ground, while protecting the ground from deformation by spreading the weight evenly. Therefore, the sub-base did not have to be a self-supporting structure. The upper running surface provided a smooth surface for vehicles while protecting the large stones of the sub-base.

The surveyor and engineer Thomas Telford also made substantial advances in the engineering of new roads and the construction of bridges. His method of road building involved the digging of a large trench in which a foundation of heavy rock was set. He also designed his roads so that they sloped downwards from the centre, allowing drainage to take place, a major improvement on the work of Trésaguet. The surface of his roads consisted of broken stone. He also improved on methods for the building of roads by improving the selection of stone based on thickness, taking into account traffic, alignment and slopes. During his later years, Telford was responsible for rebuilding sections of the London to Holyhead road, a task completed by his assistant of ten years, John MacNeill.

It was another Scottish engineer, John Loudon McAdam, who designed the first modern roads. He developed an inexpensive paving material of soil and stone aggregate (known as macadam). His road building method was simpler than Telford's, yet more effective at protecting roadways: he discovered that massive foundations of rock upon rock were unnecessary, and asserted that native soil alone would support the road and traffic upon it, as long as it was covered by a road crust that would protect the soil underneath from water and wear.

Also unlike Telford and other road builders, McAdam laid his roads as level as possible. His 30 ft road required only a rise of three inches from the edges to the center. Cambering and elevation of the road above the water table enabled rainwater to run off into ditches on either side. Size of stones was central to the McAdam's road building theory. The lower 200 mm road thickness was restricted to stones no larger than 75 mm. The upper 50 mm layer of stones was limited to 20 mm size and stones were checked by supervisors who carried scales. A workman could check the stone size himself by seeing if the stone would fit into his mouth. The importance of the 20 mm stone size was that the stones needed to be much smaller than the 100 mm width of the iron carriage tyres that traveled on the road. Macadam roads were being built widely in the United States and Australia in the 1820s and in Europe in the 1830s and 1840s.

20th century

Macadam roads were adequate for use by horses and carriages or coaches, but they were very dusty and subject to erosion with heavy rain. The Good Roads Movement occurred in the United States between the late 1870s and the 1920s. Advocates for improved roads led by bicyclists turned local agitation into a national political movement.

Outside cities, roads were dirt or gravel; mud in the winter and dust in the summer. Early organizers cited Europe where road construction and maintenance was supported by national and local governments. In its early years, the main goal of the movement was education for road building in rural areas between cities and to help rural populations gain the social and economic benefits enjoyed by cities where citizens benefited from railroads, trolleys and paved streets. Even more than traditional vehicles, the newly invented bicycles could benefit from good country roads. Later on, they did not hold up to higher-speed motor vehicle use. Methods to stabilise macadam roads with tar date back to at least 1834 when John Henry Cassell, operating from Cassell's Patent Lava Stone Works in Millwall, patented "Pitch Macadam". This method involved spreading tar on the subgrade, placing a typical macadam layer, and finally sealing the macadam with a mixture of tar and sand. Tar-grouted macadam was in use well before 1900 and involved scarifying the surface of an existing macadam pavement, spreading tar, and re-compacting. Although the use of tar in road construction was known in the 19th century, it was little used and was not introduced on a large scale until the motorcar arrived on the scene in the early 20th century.

Modern tarmac was patented by British civil engineer Edgar Purnell Hooley, who noticed that spilled tar on the roadway kept the dust down and created a smooth surface. He took out a patent in 1901 for tarmac. Hooley's 1901 patent involved mechanically mixing tar and aggregate prior to lay-down and then compacting the mixture with a steamroller. The tar was modified by adding small amounts of Portland cement, resin, and pitch.

The first version of modern controlled-access highways evolved during the first half of the 20th century. The Long Island Motor Parkway on Long Island, New York, opened in 1908 as a private venture, was the world's first limited-access roadway. It included many modern features, including banked turns, guard rails and reinforced concrete tarmac. Traffic could turn left between the parkway and connectors, crossing oncoming traffic, so it was not a controlled-access highway (or "freeway" as later defined by the federal government's Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices).

Modern controlled-access highways originated in the early 1920s in response to the rapidly increasing use of the automobile, the demand for faster movement between cities and as a consequence of improvements in paving processes, techniques and materials. These original high-speed roads were referred to as "dual highways" and have been modernized and are still in use today.

Italy was the first country in the world to build controlled-access highways reserved for fast traffic and for motor vehicles only. The Autostrada dei Laghi ("Lakes Motorway"), the first built in the world, connecting Milan to Lake Como and Lake Maggiore, and now parts of the A8 and A9 motorways, was devised by Piero Puricelli and was inaugurated in 1924. This motorway, called autostrada, contained only one lane in each direction and no interchanges. The Bronx River Parkway was the first road in North America to utilize a median strip to separate the opposing lanes, to be constructed through a park and where intersecting streets crossed over bridges. The Southern State Parkway opened in 1927, while the Long Island Motor Parkway was closed in 1937 and replaced by the Northern State Parkway (opened 1931) and the contiguous Grand Central Parkway (opened 1936). In Germany, construction of the Bonn-Cologne Autobahn began in 1929 and was opened in 1932 by Konrad Adenauer, then the mayor of Cologne.

In Canada, the first precursor with semi-controlled access was The Middle Road between Hamilton and Toronto, which featured a median divider between opposing traffic flow, as well as the nation's first cloverleaf interchange. This highway developed into the Queen Elizabeth Way, which featured a cloverleaf and trumpet interchange when it opened in 1937 and until the Second World War boasted the longest illuminated stretch of roadway built. A decade later, the first section of Highway 401 was opened, based on earlier designs. It has since become North America's busiest highway.

The word freeway was first used in February 1930 by Edward M. Bassett. Bassett argued that roads should be classified into three basic types: highways, parkways, and freeways. In Bassett's zoning and property law-based system, abutting property owners have the rights of light, air and access to highways but to not parkways and freeways; the latter two are distinguished in that the purpose of a parkway is recreation, while the purpose of a freeway is movement. Thus as originally conceived, a freeway is a strip of public land devoted to movement to which abutting property owners do not have rights of light, air or access.

Trucking and haulage

Trucking companies (in American English terminology) or haulage companies / hauliers (in British English) accept cargo for road transport. Truck drivers operate either independently – working directly for the client – or through freight carriers or shipping agents. Some big companies (e.g. grocery store chains) operate their own internal trucking operations. The market size for general freight trucking was nearly $125 billion in 2010.

In the U.S. many truckers own their truck (rig), and are known as owner-operators. Some road transportation is done on regular routes or for only one consignee per run (full truckload), while others transport goods from many different loading stations/shippers to various consignees per run (less-than-truckload). On some long runs only cargo for one leg of the route (to) is known when the cargo is loaded. Truckers may have to wait at the destination for a backhaul.

A bill of lading issued by the shipper provides the basic document for road freight. On cross-border transportation the trucker will present the cargo and documentation provided by the shipper to customs for inspection (for EC see also Schengen Agreement). This also applies to shipments that are transported out of a free port.

Hours of service
To avoid accidents caused by fatigue, truckers have to adhere to strict rules for drive time and required rest periods. In the United States and Canada, these regulations are known as hours of service, and in the European Union as drivers working hours. One such regulation is the Hours of Work and Rest Periods (Road Transport) Convention, 1979. Tachographs or Electronic on-board recorders record the times the vehicle is in motion and stopped. Some companies use two drivers per truck to ensure uninterrupted transportation; with one driver resting or sleeping in a bunk in the back of the cab while the other is driving.

Licenses
Truck drivers often need special licenses to drive, known in the U.S. as a commercial driver's license. In the U.K. a large goods vehicle licence is required. For transport of hazardous materials (see dangerous goods) truckers need a licence, which usually requires them to pass an exam (e.g. in the EU). They have to make sure they affix proper labels for the respective hazard(s) to their vehicle. Liquid goods are transported by road in tank trucks (in American English) or tanker lorries (in British English) (also road-tankers) or special tank containers for intermodal transport. For transportation of live animals special requirements have to be met in many countries to prevent cruelty to animals (see animal rights). For fresh and frozen goods refrigerator trucks or reefers are used.

Weights
Some loads are weighed at the point of origin and the driver is responsible for ensuring weights conform to maximum allowed standards. This may involve using on-board weight gauges (load pressure gauges), knowing the empty weight of the transport vehicle and the weight of the load, or using a commercial weight scale. In route weigh stations check that gross vehicle weights do not exceed the maximum weight for that particular jurisdiction and will include individual axle weights. This varies by country, states within a country, and may include federal standards. The United States uses FMCSA federal standards that include bridge law formulas. Many states, not on the national road system, use their own road and bridge standards. Enforcement scales may include portable scales, scale houses with low speed scales or weigh-in-motion (WIM) scales.

The European Union uses the International Recommendation, OIML R 134-2 (2009). The process may involve a scale house and low-speed scales or higher-speed WIM road or bridge scales with the goal of public safety, as well as road and bridge safety, according to the Bridges Act.

Modern roads
Today, roadways are primarily asphalt or concrete. Both are based on McAdam's concept of stone aggregate in a binder, asphalt cement or Portland cement respectively. Asphalt is known as a flexible pavement, one which slowly will "flow" under the pounding of traffic. Concrete is a rigid pavement, which can take heavier loads but is more expensive and requires more carefully prepared subbase. So, generally, major roads are concrete and local roads are asphalt. Concrete roads are often covered with a thin layer of asphalt to create a wearing surface.

Modern pavements are designed for heavier vehicle loads and faster speeds, requiring thicker slabs and deeper subbase. Subbase is the layer or successive layers of stone, gravel and sand supporting the pavement. It is needed to spread out the slab load bearing on the underlying soil and to conduct away any water getting under the slabs. Water will undermine a pavement over time, so much of pavement and pavement joint design are meant to minimize the amount of water getting and staying under the slabs.

Shoulders are also an integral part of highway design. They are multipurpose; they can provide a margin of side clearance, a refuge for incapacitated vehicles, an emergency lane, and parking space. They also serve a design purpose, and that is to prevent water from percolating into the soil near the main pavement's edge. Shoulder pavement is designed to a lower standard than the pavement in the traveled way and won't hold up as well to traffic, so driving on the shoulder is generally prohibited.

Pavement technology is still evolving, albeit in not easily noticed increments. For instance, chemical additives in the pavement mix make the pavement more weather resistant, grooving and other surface treatments improve resistance to skidding and hydroplaning, and joint seals which were once tar are now made of low maintenance neoprene.

Traffic control
Nearly all roadways are built with devices meant to control traffic. Most notable to the motorist are those meant to communicate directly with the driver. Broadly, these fall into three categories: signs, signals or pavement markings. They help the driver navigate; they assign the right-of-way at intersections; they indicate laws such as speed limits and parking regulations; they advise of potential hazards; they indicate passing and no passing zones; and otherwise deliver information and to assure traffic is orderly and safe.

Two hundred years ago these devices were signs, nearly all informal. In the late 19th century signals began to appear in the biggest cities at a few highly congested intersections. They were manually operated, and consisted of semaphores, flags or paddles, or in some cases colored electric lights, all modeled on railroad signals. In the 20th century signals were automated, at first with electromechanical devices and later with computers. Signals can be quite sophisticated: with vehicle sensors embedded in the pavement, the signal can control and choreograph the turning movements of heavy traffic in the most complex of intersections. In the 1920s traffic engineers learned how to coordinate signals along a thoroughfare to increase its speeds and volumes. In the 1980s, with computers, similar coordination of whole networks became possible.

In the 1920s pavement markings were introduced. Initially they were used to indicate the road's centerline. Soon after they were coded with information to aid motorists in passing safely. Later, with multi-lane roads they were used to define lanes. Other uses, such as indicating permitted turning movements and pedestrian crossings soon followed.

In the 20th century traffic control devices were standardized. Before then every locality decided on what its devices would look like and where they would be applied. This could be confusing, especially to traffic from outside the locality. In the United States standardization was first taken at the state level, and late in the century at the federal level. Each country has a Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) and there are efforts to blend them into a worldwide standard.

Besides signals, signs, and markings, other forms of traffic control are designed and built into the roadway. For instance, curbs and rumble strips can be used to keep traffic in a given lane and median barriers can prevent left turns and even U-turns.

Toll roads
Early toll roads were usually built by private companies under a government franchise. They typically paralleled or replaced routes already with some volume of commerce, hoping the improved road would divert enough traffic to make the enterprise profitable. Plank roads were particularly attractive as they greatly reduced rolling resistance and mitigated the problem of getting mired in mud. Another improvement, better grading to lessen the steepness of the worst stretches, allowed draft animals to haul heavier loads.

A toll road in the United States is often called a turnpike. The term turnpike probably originated from the gate, often a simple pike, which blocked passage until the fare was paid at a toll house (or toll booth in current terminology). When the toll was paid the pike, which was mounted on a swivel, was turned to allow the vehicle to pass. Tolls were usually based on the type of cargo being transported, not the type of vehicle. The practice of selecting routes so as to avoid tolls is called shunpiking. This may be simply to avoid the expense, as a form of economic protest (or boycott), or simply to seek a road less traveled as a bucolic interlude.

Companies were formed to build, improve, and maintain a particular section of roadway, and tolls were collected from users to finance the enterprise. The enterprise was usually named to indicate the locale of its roadway, often including the name of one of both of the termini. The word turnpike came into common use in the names of these roadways and companies, and is essentially used interchangeably with toll road in current terminology.

In the United States, toll roads began with the Lancaster Turnpike in the 1790s, within Pennsylvania, connecting Philadelphia and Lancaster. In the state of New York, the Great Western Turnpike was started in Albany in 1799 and eventually extended, by several alternate routes, to near what is now Syracuse, New York.

Toll roads peaked in the mid 19th century, and by the turn of the twentieth century most toll roads were taken over by state highway departments. The demise of this early toll road era was due to the rise of canals and railroads, which were more efficient (and thus cheaper) in moving freight over long distances. Roads wouldn't again be competitive with rails and barges until the first half of the 20th century when the internal combustion engine replaces draft animals as the source of motive power.

With the development, mass production, and popular embrace of the automobile, faster and higher capacity roads were needed. In the 1920s limited access highways appeared. Their main characteristics were dual roadways with access points limited to (but not always) grade-separated interchanges. Their dual roadways allowed high volumes of traffic, the need for no or few traffic lights along with relatively gentle grades and curves allowed higher speeds.

The first limited access highways were Parkways, so called because of their often park-like landscaping and, in the metropolitan New York City area, they connected the region's system of parks. When the German autobahns built in the 1930s introduced higher design standards and speeds, road planners and road-builders in the United States started developing and building toll roads to similar high standards. The Pennsylvania Turnpike, which largely followed the path of a partially built railroad, was the first, opening in 1940.

After 1940 with the Pennsylvania Turnpike, toll roads saw a resurgence, this time to fund limited access highways. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, after World War II interrupted the evolution of the highway, the US resumed building toll roads. They were to still higher standards and one road, the New York State Thruway, had standards that became the prototype for the U.S. Interstate Highway System. Several other major toll-roads which connected with the Pennsylvania Turnpike were established before the creation of the Interstate Highway System. These were the Indiana Toll Road, Ohio Turnpike, and New Jersey Turnpike.

Interstate Highway System
In the United States, beginning in 1956, Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways, commonly called the Interstate Highway System was built. It uses 12 foot (3.65m) lanes, wide medians, a maximum of 4% grade, and full access control, though many sections don't meet these standards due to older construction or constraints. This system created a continental-sized network meant to connect every population center of 50,000 people or more.

By 1956, most limited access highways in the eastern United States were toll roads. In that year, the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 was passed, funding non-toll roads with 90% federal dollars and 10% state match, giving little incentive for states to expand their turnpike system. Funding rules initially restricted collections of tolls on newly funded roadways, bridges, and tunnels. In some situations, expansion or rebuilding of a toll facility using Interstate Highway Program funding resulted in the removal of existing tolls. This occurred in Virginia on Interstate 64 at the Hampton Roads Bridge-Tunnel when a second parallel roadway to the regional 1958 bridge-tunnel was completed in 1976.

Since the completion of the initial portion of the Interstate Highway System, regulations were changed, and portions of toll facilities have been added to the system. Some states are again looking at toll financing for new roads and maintenance, to supplement limited federal funding. In some areas, new road projects have been completed with public-private partnerships funded by tolls, such as the Pocahontas Parkway (I-895) near Richmond, Virginia.

The newest policy passed by Congress and the Obama administration regarding highways is the Surface and Air Transportation Programs Extension Act of 2011.

Pneumatic tyres
As the horse-drawn carriage was replaced by the car, bus and lorry or truck, and speeds increased, the need for smoother roads and less vertical displacement became more apparent, and pneumatic tyres were developed to decrease the apparent roughness. Wagon and carriage wheels, made of wood, had a tyre in the form of an iron strip that kept the wheel from wearing out quickly. Pneumatic tyres, which had a larger footprint than iron tyres, also were less likely to get bogged down in the mud on unpaved roads.

title: Road transport


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Coen de Koning

Coen de Koning (30 March 1879 – 29 July 1954) was a speed skater and cyclist. He started his sports career as a cyclist, but switched to speed skating and became the second Dutch speed skater to win a world title, in 1905. He finished second in 500 m, and won the 1500, 5000 and 10,000 m events. De Koning won the national all-around title in 1903, 1905 and 1912, and set national records in the 500 m and 10,000 m in 1905; these records stood until 1926 and 1929. De Koning also set a world record in one-hour skating, at 32,370 m in 1906, and won the Elfstedentocht in 1912 and 1917.

Family
De Koning came from a speed skating family. His brother Jacobus "Sjaak" Petrus de Koning won the national all-around title in 1914. His son Jacobus Petrus Coenradus de Koning (born 1907) competed at the 1942 national championships, and his cousin Aad de Koning took part in the 1948 Winter Olympics. His more distant relatives on the brother's side, Truus Dijkstra and Jacques de Koning were also prominent Dutch speed skaters.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Coen de Koning


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International E-road network

The international E-road network is a numbering system for roads in Europe developed by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). The network is numbered from E1 up and its roads cross national borders. It also reaches Central Asian countries like Kyrgyzstan, since they are members of the UNECE.

Main international traffic arteries in Europe are defined by ECE/TRANS/SC.1/2016/3/Rev.1 which consider three types of roads: motorways, limited access roads, and ordinary roads.

In most countries, the roads carry the European route designation alongside national designations. Belgium, Norway and Sweden have roads which only have the European route designations (examples: E18 and E6). The United Kingdom, Albania and the Asian part of Russia only use national road designations and do not show the European designations at all. All route numbers in Andorra are unsigned. Denmark only uses the European designations on signage, but also has formal names for every motorway (or part of such), by which the motorways are referred to, for instance in news and weather forecasts. In Asia, Turkey and Russia show the European designations on signage; this is not the case in many other Asian countries.

Other continents have similar international road networks, e.g., the Pan-American Highway in the Americas, the Trans-African Highway network, and the Asian Highway Network.

History
UNECE was formed in 1947, and their first major act to improve transport was a joint UN declaration no. 1264, the Declaration on the Construction of Main International Traffic Arteries, signed in Geneva on 16 September 1950, which defined the first E-road network. Originally it was envisaged that the E-road network would be a motorway system comparable to the US Interstate Highway System. The declaration was amended several times until 15 November 1975, when it was replaced by the European Agreement on Main International Traffic Arteries or "AGR", which set up a route numbering system and improved standards for roads in the list. The AGR last went through a major change in 1992 and in 2001 was extended into Central Asia to include the Caucasus nations. There were several minor revisions since, last in 2008.

Numbering system
The route numbering system is as follows:
 * Reference roads and intermediate roads, called Class-A roads, have numbers from 1 to 129.
 * North–south routes have odd numbers; east–west routes have even numbers. The two main exceptions are E4 and E6, both north–south routes.
 * The allocation of numbers progresses upwards from west to east and from north to south, with some exceptions.
 * Branch, link and connecting roads, called Class-B roads, have three-digit numbers above 130.
 * Reference roads are roads numbered 5–95 ending with 0 or 5 or having odd numbers 101–129. They generally go across Europe and are usually several thousand kilometres long.
 * North–south reference roads have numbers that end with the digit 5 from 5 to 95, or odd numbers from 101 to 129, increasing from west to east.
 * East-west reference roads have two-digit numbers that end with the digit 0, increasing from north to south.
 * Intermediate roads are roads numbered 1 to 99 that are not reference roads. They are usually considerably shorter than the reference roads. They have numbers between those of the reference roads between which they are located. Like reference roads, north–south intermediate roads have odd numbers; east–west roads have even numbers.
 * Class-B roads have three-digit numbers: the first digit is that of the nearest reference road to the north, the second digit is that of the nearest reference road to the west, and the third digit is a serial number.
 * North–south Class-A roads located eastwards of road E99 have three-digit odd numbers from 101 to 129. Other rules for Class-A roads above apply to these roads.
 * Class-B roads located eastwards of E101 have 3-digit numbers beginning with 0, from 001 to 099.

Exceptions

In the first established and approved version, the road numbers were well ordered. Since then a number of exceptions to this principle have been allowed.

Two Class-A roads, E6 and E4 were originally scheduled to be renamed into E47 and E55, respectively. However, since Sweden and Norway have integrated the E-roads into their national networks, signposted as E6 and E4 throughout, a decision was made to keep the pre-1992 numbers for the roads in those two countries. These exceptions were granted because of the excessive expense connected with re-signing not only the long routes themselves, but also the associated road network in the area. The new numbers are, however, used from Denmark and southward, though, as do other European routes within Scandinavia. These two roads are the most conspicuous exceptions to the rule that even numbers signify west–east E-roads.

Further exceptions are: These irregularities exist just because it is hard to maintain good order when extending the network, and the UNECE want to avoid changing road numbers.
 * E67, going from Finland to the Czech Republic (wrong side of E75 and E77), assigned around year 2000, simply because it was best available number for this new route.
 * Most of E63 in Finland (wrong side of E75)
 * Part of E8 in Finland on the wrong side of E12 after a lengthening around 2002
 * E82 (Spain and Portugal, wrong side of E80).

Because the Socialist People's Republic of Albania refused to participate in international treaties such as the AGR, it was conspicuously excluded from the route scheme, with E65 and E90 making noticeable detours to go around it. In the 1990s, Albania opened up to the rest of Europe, but only ratified the AGR in August 2006, so its integration into the E-road network remains weak.

Signage
Where the European routes are signed, green signs with white numbers are used.

There are different strategies for determining how frequently to signpost the roads.
 * Sweden, Norway and Denmark have integrated the E-road numbers into their networks, meaning that the roads usually have no other national number.
 * In Belgium, E-numbers are traditionally associated with highways, even though other grade E-roads pass through the country. As a result, the E-number is signposted (and referred to) only on the highway portions of the E-road network, while for non-motorways only the national number (if any) is shown. On the highway portions of the E-network, the E-numbers are the standard and thus referred to in news bulletins rather than the national number. Serbia and Italy have a similar principle.
 * In most countries the E-roads form a network on top of the national network. The green signs are frequent enough to show how to follow the roads, but do not usually show how to reach them.
 * In some countries, like Croatia and Bulgaria, E-roads are well signposted, but they sometimes follow older routes instead of highways.
 * In some countries, like Germany, Italy and Greece, E-roads are signposted only on motorways and main road itineraries.
 * In Ireland the signposting of E-roads is specified in Chapter 2 of the 2010 Traffic Signs Manual published by the Department of Transport, and specifies that E-roads are to be signed on route confirmation signs only. The first E-road numbers were signed in July 2007 on the N11 bypass in Gorey. Since then they have gradually spread across the E-road network in Ireland.
 * In a few European countries such as the United Kingdom, Albania, and many Asian countries such as Uzbekistan, the E-roads are not signposted at all.

Road design standards
The following design standards should be applied to Euroroutes unless there are exceptional circumstances (such as mountain passes etc.):
 * Built-up areas shall be by-passed if they constitute a hindrance or a danger.
 * The roads should preferably be motorways or express roads (unless traffic density is low so that there is no congestion on an ordinary road).
 * They should be homogeneous and be designed for at least 80 km/h (see Design speed). The motorways should be at least 100 km/h.
 * Gradients should not exceed 8% on roads designed for 80 km/h, decreasing to 4% on roads designed for 120 km/h traffic.
 * The radius of curved sections of road should be a minimum of 120 m on roads designed for 60 km/h rising to 1000 m on roads designed for 140 km/h.
 * "Stopping distance visibility" should be at least 70 m on roads designed for 60 km/h, rising to 300 m on roads designed for 140 km/h.
 * Lane width should be at least 3.5 m on straight sections of road. This guarantees adequate clearance for any vehicle having a superstructure of width 2.5 m which is the maximum specified width in Directive 2002/7/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council which recognise some specific tolerances for some specific countries.
 * The shoulder is recommended to be at least 2.5 m on ordinary roads and 3.25 m on motorways.
 * Central reservations should be at least 3 m unless there is a barrier between the two carriageways.
 * Overhead clearance should be not less than 4.5 m.
 * Railway intersections should be at different levels.

These requirements are meant to be followed for road construction. When new E-roads have been added these requirements have not been followed stringently. For example, the E45 in Sweden, added in 2006, has long parts with 6 m width or the E22 in eastern Europe forcing drivers to slow down to 30 km/h by taking the route through villages. In Norway, parts of the E10 are 5 m wide and in Central Asia even some gravel roads have been included.

Cultural significance
In Belgium, for example, motorway E-numbers have taken on the same kind of persistent cultural integration and significance as M-numbers in the UK, or Interstate numbers in the United States. Local businesses will refer to, or even incorporate the road designator in their business name. The annual road cycling race "E3 Harelbeke" takes part of its name from the former E3 (the part between Antwerp and Lille was renamed E17 in 1992). The same applies to the retail chain "E5-mode" (E5-fashion) that started with shops easily accessible from the former E5 (renamed E40 in 1992).

In Sweden, the ice hockey games between HV71 from Jönköping and Linköping HC from Linköping have come to be called "the E4-derby". It's about 130 km between the cities, and they are situated in different provinces and counties, so the "derby" denomination is really far fetched, and it's often joked about that HV71's meetings with the teams from Stockholm or even as far north as Luleå would be an "E4 derby" just as much.

In Norway, the band D.D.E. released a song named after E6.

Notes to the listings
In the road listings below, a dash ('–') indicates a land road connection between two towns/cities—the normal case—while an ellipsis ('...') denotes a stretch across water. Not all such places are connected by ferry, and operating ferry connections are usually run by private companies without support from the respective governments, i.e. they may cease operating at any time.

North–South reference

 * Tabliczka E5.svg – 2960 km: Greenock – Glasgow – Preston – Birmingham – Southampton ... Le Havre – Paris – Orléans – Bordeaux – San Sebastián – Burgos – Madrid – Seville – Algeciras
 * Tabliczka E15.svg – 3590 km: Inverness – Perth – Edinburgh – Newcastle – London – Folkestone – Dover ... Calais – Paris – Lyon – Orange – Narbonne – Girona – Barcelona – Tarragona – Castellón de la Plana – Valencia – Alicante – Murcia – Almería – Málaga – Algeciras
 * Tabliczka E25.svg – 1830 km: Hook of Holland – Rotterdam – Eindhoven – Maastricht – Liège – Bastogne – Arlon – Luxembourg – Metz – Saint-Avold – Strasbourg – Mulhouse – Basel – Olten – Bern – Lausanne – Geneva – Mont Blanc – Aosta – Ivrea – Vercelli – Alessandria – Genoa ... Bastia – Porto-Vecchio – Bonifacio ... Porto Torres – Sassari – Cagliari ... Palermo
 * Tabliczka E35.svg – 1660 km: Amsterdam – Utrecht – Arnhem – Emmerich – Oberhausen – Cologne – Frankfurt am Main – Heidelberg – Karlsruhe – Offenburg – Basel – Olten – Lucerne – Altdorf – Gotthard Pass – Bellinzona – Lugano – Chiasso – Como – Milan – Piacenza – Parma – Modena – Florence – Rome
 * Tabliczka E45.svg – 5190 km: Alta – Kautokeino – Karesuvanto – Arvidsjaur – Östersund – Mora – Säffle – Gothenburg ... Frederikshavn – Aalborg – Aarhus – Horsens - Vejle – Kolding – Flensburg – Hamburg – Hanover – Göttingen – Kassel – Fulda – Würzburg – Nuremberg – Munich – Rosenheim – Wörgl – Innsbruck – Brenner – Fortezza – Bolzano – Trento – Verona – Modena – Bologna – Cesena – Perugia – Fiano Romano – Naples – Salerno – Sicignano degli Alburni – Cosenza – Villa San Giovanni ... Messina – Catania – Siracusa – Rosolini – Gela
 * Tabliczka E55.svg – 2920 km: Helsingborg ... Helsingør – Copenhagen – Køge – Vordingborg – Farø – Nykøbing Falster – Gedser ... Rostock – Berlin – Lübbenau – Dresden – Ústí nad Labem – Prague – Tábor – Linz – Salzburg – Villach – Tarvisio – Udine – Palmanova – Mestre – Ravenna – Cesena – Rimini – Fano – Ancona – Pescara – Canosa di Puglia – Bari – Brindisi ... Igoumenitsa – Preveza – Rhion – Patras – Pyrgos – Kalamata (E4 was meant to be part of this route, but kept old number)
 * Tabliczka E65.svg – 3800 km: Malmö – Ystad ... Świnoujście – Wolin – Goleniów – Szczecin – Gryfino – Pyrzyce – Myślibórz – Gorzów Wielkopolski – Skwierzyna – Międzyrzecz – Świebodzin – Zielona Góra – Legnica – Jelenia Góra – Harrachov – Železný Brod – Turnov – Mladá Boleslav – Prague – Jihlava – Brno – Bratislava – Rajka – Csorna – Szombathely – Zalaegerszeg – Nagykanizsa – Letenye – Zagreb – Karlovac – Rijeka – Split – Dubrovnik – Petrovac – Podgorica – Bijelo Polje – Pristina – Skopje – Kičevo – Ohrid – Bitola – Niki – Vevi – Kozani – Larissa – Domokos – Lamia – Bralos – Itea – Antirrio – Rhion – Aigio – Corinth – Tripoli – Kalamata ... Kissamos – Chania
 * Tabliczka E75.svg – 4340 km: Vardø – Vadsø – Varangerbotn – Utsjoki – Inari – Ivalo – Sodankylä – Rovaniemi – Kemi – Oulu – Jyväskylä – Heinola – Lahti – Helsinki ... Gdańsk – Świecie – Łódź – Częstochowa – Katowice – Žilina – Bratislava – Győr – Budapest – Szeged – Subotica – Novi Sad – Belgrade – Niš – Kumanovo – Skopje – Veles – Gevgelija – Evzoni – Thessaloniki – Katerini – Larissa – Lamia – Athens ... Chania – Heraklion – Agios Nikolaos – Sitia
 * Tabliczka E85.svg – 2300 km: Klaipėda – Kaunas – Vilnius – Lida – Slonim – Kobryn – Dubno – Ternopil – Chernivtsi – Siret – Suceava – Roman – Urziceni – Bucharest – Giurgiu – Ruse – Byala – Veliko Tarnovo – Stara Zagora – Haskovo – Svilengrad – Ormenio – Kastanies – Didymoteicho – Alexandroupoli
 * Tabliczka E95.svg – 1790 km: Saint Petersburg – Pskov – Gomel – Kyiv – Odesa ... Samsun – Merzifon
 * Tabliczka E101.svg – 850 km: Moscow – Kaluga – Bryansk – Hlukhiv – Kyiv
 * Tabliczka E105.svg – 3770 km: Kirkenes – Murmansk – Petrozavodsk – Saint Petersburg – Moscow – Tula – Orel – Kharkiv – Simferopol – Alushta – Yalta
 * Tabliczka E115.svg – 1730 km: Yaroslavl – Moscow – Voronezh – Novorossiysk
 * Tabliczka E117.svg – 1050 km: Mineralnye Vody – Nalchik – Vladikavkaz – Stepantsminda – Mtskheta – Tbilisi – Marneuli – Bolnisi – Yerevan – Goris – Megri
 * Tabliczka E119.svg – 2630 km: Moscow – Tambov – Povorino – Volgograd – Astrakhan – Makhachkala – Quba – Baku – Alyat – Astara
 * Tabliczka E121.svg – 2700 km: Samara – Oral – Atyrau – Beineu – Shetpe – Zhetybai – Fetisovo – Bekdash – Türkmenbaşy – Serdar – Border of the Islamic Republic of Iran
 * Tabliczka E123.svg – 2840 km: Chelyabinsk – Kostanay – Esil – Derzhavinsk – Arkalyk – Jezkazgan – Kyzylorda – Shymkent – Tashkent – Ayni – Dushanbe – Panji Poyon
 * Tabliczka E125.svg – 2600 km: Ishim – Petropavl – Kokshetau – Astana – Karaganda – Balkhash – Burubaytal – Almaty – Bishkek – Naryn – Torugart Pass
 * Tabliczka E127.svg – 1330 km: Omsk – Pavlodar – Semey – Georgiyevka – Maikapshagai

West–East reference

 * Tabliczka E10.svg – 880 km: Å – Svolvær – Lødingen – Bogen – Narvik – Kiruna – Töre – Luleå
 * Tabliczka E20.svg – 1880 km: Shannon – Limerick – Dublin ... Liverpool – Manchester – Leeds – Kingston upon Hull ... Esbjerg – Copenhagen – Malmö – Helsingborg – Halmstad – Gothenburg – Skara – Örebro – Stockholm ... Tallinn – Narva – Saint Petersburg
 * Tabliczka E30.svg – 6050 km: Cork – Waterford – Wexford – Rosslare ... Fishguard – Swansea – Bridgend – Cardiff – Newport – Bristol – London – Colchester – Ipswich – Felixstowe ... Hook of Holland – The Hague – Gouda – Utrecht – Amersfoort – Oldenzaal – Osnabrück – Bad Oeynhausen – Hanover – Braunschweig – Magdeburg – Berlin – Świebodzin – Poznań – Warsaw – Brest – Minsk – Smolensk – Moscow – Ryazan – Penza – Samara – Ufa – Chelyabinsk – Kurgan – Ishim – Omsk
 * Tabliczka E40.svg – 8690 km: Calais – Bruges – Ghent – Brussels – Leuven – Liège – Eupen – Aachen – Cologne – Olpe – Wetzlar – Gießen – Bad Hersfeld – Eisenach – Erfurt – Gera – Chemnitz – Dresden – Görlitz – Legnica – Wrocław – Opole – Gliwice – Zabrze – Katowice – Kraków – Rzeszów – Jarosław – Korczowa – Lviv – Rivne – Zhytomyr – Kyiv – Kharkiv – Luhansk – Volgograd – Astrakhan – Atyrau – Beyneu – Qo‘ng‘irot – Nukus – Daşoguz – Bukhara – Navoiy – Samarkand – Jizzakh – Tashkent – Shymkent – Zhambyl – Bishkek – Almaty – Sary-Ozek – Taldykorgan – Ucharal – Taskesken – Ayagoz – Georgiyevka – Oskemen – Ridder
 * Tabliczka E50.svg – 5100 km: Brest – Rennes – Le Mans – Paris – Reims – Metz – Saarbrücken – Mannheim – Heilbronn – Nuremberg – Rozvadov – Plzeň – Prague – Jihlava – Brno – Trenčín – Prešov – Košice – Vyšné Nemecké – Uzhhorod – Mukachevo – Stryj – Ternopil – Khmelnytskyi – Vinnytsia – Uman – Kropyvnytskyi – Dnipro – Donetsk – Rostov-on-Don – Armavir – Mineralnye Vody – Makhachkala
 * Tabliczka E60.svg – 8200 km: Brest – Lorient – Vannes – Nantes – Angers – Tours – Orléans – Montargis – Auxerre – Beaune – Dole – Besançon – Belfort – Mulhouse – Basel – Zürich – Winterthur – St. Gallen – St. Margrethen – Bregenz – Lauterach – Feldkirch – Landeck – Imst – Telfs – Innsbruck – Wörgl – Rosenheim – Bad Reichenhall – Salzburg – Sattledt – Linz – Sankt Pölten – Vienna – Nickelsdorf – Mosonmagyaróvár – Budapest – Szolnok – Püspökladány – Oradea – Cluj-Napoca – Turda – Târgu Mureş – Braşov – Ploieşti – Bucharest – Urziceni – Slobozia – Hârşova – Constanţa – Agigea ... Poti – Senaki – Samtredia – Kutaisi – Khashuri – Gori – Tbilisi – Rustavi – Ganja – Yevlakh – Baku ... Türkmenbaşy – Serdar – Ashgabat – Tejen – Mary – Türkmenabat – Alat – Bukhara – Karshi – G‘uzor – Sherobod – Termez – Dushanbe – Jirgatal – Sary Tash – Irkeshtam – China
 * Tabliczka E70.svg – 4550 km: A Coruña – Gijón – Bilbao – San Sebastián – Bordeaux – Clermont-Ferrand – Lyon – Chambéry – Susa – Turin – Alessandria – Tortona – Brescia – Verona – Mestre – Palmanova – Trieste – Postojna – Ljubljana – Zagreb – Slavonski Brod – Belgrade – Pančevo – Vršac – Timișoara – Drobeta-Turnu Severin – Craiova – Alexandria – Bucharest – Giurgiu – Ruse – Razgrad – Shumen – Varna ... Samsun – Ordu – Giresun – Trabzon – Batumi – Poti
 * Tabliczka E80.svg – 5600 km: Lisbon – Valladolid – Burgos – San Sebastián – Toulouse – Nice – Genoa – Rome – Pescara ... Dubrovnik – Podgorica – Pristina – Niš – Sofia – Plovdiv – Istanbul – İzmit – Gerede – Amasya – Erzurum – Gürbulak – Iran
 * Tabliczka E90.svg – 4770 km: Lisbon – Madrid – Barcelona ... Mazara del Vallo – Palermo – Messina ... Reggio Calabria – Metaponto – Taranto – Brindisi ... Igoumenitsa – Ioannina – Kozani – Thessaloniki – Alexandroupoli – Gelibolu ... Lapseki – Bursa – Ankara – Adana – Nusaybin – Khabur River – Iraq

North–South intermediate

 * Tabliczka E1.svg – 1460 km: Larne – Belfast – Newry – Dublin – Wicklow – Rosslare ... A Coruña – Pontevedra – Vigo – Valença – Porto – Lisbon – Albufeira – Castro Marim – Huelva – Seville
 * Tabliczka E3.svg – 470 km: Cherbourg-Octeville – La Rochelle
 * The E4 and E6 run north–south, but are listed as west–east routes
 * Tabliczka E7.svg – 250 km: Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques – Jaca – Zaragoza
 * Tabliczka E9.svg – 967 km: Orléans – Toulouse – Barcelona
 * Tabliczka E11.svg – 540 km: Vierzon – Montluçon – Clermont-Ferrand – Montpellier
 * Tabliczka E13.svg – 230 km: Leeds – Doncaster – Sheffield – Nottingham – Leicester – Northampton – London
 * Tabliczka E17.svg – 670 km: Antwerp – Beaune
 * Tabliczka E19.svg – 520 km: Amsterdam – Brussels – Paris
 * Tabliczka E21.svg – 540 km: Metz – Geneva
 * Tabliczka E23.svg – 390 km: Metz – Lausanne
 * Tabliczka E27.svg – 350 km: Belfort – Bern – Martigny – Aosta
 * Tabliczka E29.svg – 290 km: Cologne – Sarreguemines – E25 (towards Strasbourg)
 * Tabliczka E31.svg – 520 km – Rotterdam – Ludwigshafen
 * Tabliczka E33.svg – 100 km: Parma – La Spezia
 * Tabliczka E37.svg – 290 km: Bremen – Cologne
 * Tabliczka E39.svg – 1330 km: Trondheim – Orkanger – Vinjeøra – Halsa ... Straumsnes – Kristiansund Mainland Connection – Batnfjordsøra – Molde ... Vestnes – Sjøholt – Ålesund ... Volda – Grodås - Nordfjordeid ... Sandane – Førde – Lavik ... Instefjord – Knarvik – Bergen – Osøyro ... Leirvik – Førde – Aksdal – Føresvik ... Vikevåg – Grødem – Stavanger – Sandnes – Ålgård - Helleland – Flekkefjord – Lyngdal – Mandal – Kristiansand ... Hirtshals – Hjørring – Nørresundby – Aalborg
 * Tabliczka E41.svg – 760 km: Dortmund – Wetzlar – Aschaffenburg – Würzburg – Stuttgart – Schaffhausen – Winterthur – Zürich – Altdorf
 * Tabliczka E43.svg – 510 km: Würzburg – Ulm – Lindau – Bregenz – St. Margrethen – Buchs – Chur – San Bernardino – Bellinzona
 * Tabliczka E47.svg – 290 km: Helsingborg ... Helsingør – Copenhagen – Køge – Vordingborg – Farø – Rødby ... Puttgarden – Oldenburg in Holstein – Lübeck (Most of the E6 route in Norway and Sweden was meant to be part of this route, but kept its old number)
 * Tabliczka E49.svg – 740 km: Magdeburg – Halle – Plauen – Schönberg – Vojtanov – Cheb – Karlovy Vary – Plzeň – České Budějovice – Halámky – Vienna
 * Tabliczka E51.svg – 410 km: Berlin – Leipzig – Gera – Hirschberg – Hof – Bayreuth – Nuremberg
 * Tabliczka E53.svg – 270 km: Plzeň – Bayerisch Eisenstein – Deggendorf – Munich
 * Tabliczka E57.svg – 380 km: Sattledt – Liezen – Sankt Michael – Graz – Maribor – Ljubljana
 * Tabliczka E59.svg – 660 km: Prague – Jihlava – Vienna – Graz – Spielfeld – Maribor – Zagreb
 * Tabliczka E61.svg – 240 km: Villach – Karawanks Tunnel – Naklo – Ljubljana – Trieste – Rijeka
 * Tabliczka E63.svg – 1110 km: Sodankylä – Kemijärvi – Posio – Kuusamo – Kajaani – Iisalmi – Kuopio – Jyväskylä – Tampere – Turku
 * Tabliczka E67.svg – 1630 km: Helsinki ... Tallinn – Riga – Kaunas – Suwałki – Warsaw – Piotrków Trybunalski – Wrocław – Kłodzko – Kudowa-Zdrój – Náchod – Hradec Králové – Prague; also known as the Via Baltica
 * Tabliczka E69.svg – 130 km: Nordkapp (North Cape) – Olderfjord
 * Tabliczka E71.svg – 970 km: Košice – Miskolc – Budapest – Balatonvilágos – Nagykanizsa – Zagreb – Karlovac – Knin – Split
 * Tabliczka E73.svg – 679 km: Budapest – Szekszárd – Mohács – Osijek – Odžak – Zenica – Sarajevo – Mostar – Metković
 * Tabliczka E77.svg – 1690 km: Pskov – Riga – Šiauliai – Tolpaki – Kaliningrad ... Gdańsk – Elbląg – Warsaw – Radom – Kraków – Trstená – Ružomberok – Zvolen – Budapest
 * Tabliczka E79.svg – 1160 km: Miskolc – Debrecen – Berettyóújfalu – Oradea – Beiuș – Deva – Petroșani – Târgu Jiu – Craiova – Calafat – Vidin – Vraca – Botevgrad – Sofia – Blagoevgrad – Serres – Thessaloniki
 * Tabliczka E81.svg – 990 km: Mukachevo – Halmeu – Satu Mare – Zalău – Cluj-Napoca – Turda – Sebeș – Sibiu – Pitești – Bucharest – Constanţa
 * Tabliczka E83.svg – 250 km: Byala – Pleven – Jablanica – Botevgrad – Sofia
 * Tabliczka E87.svg – 2030 km: Odesa – Izmail – Reni – Galaţi – Tulcea – Constanţa – Varna – Burgas – Malko Tarnovo – Dereköy – Kırklareli – Babaeski – Havsa – Keşan – Gelibolu – Ayvalık – İzmir – Selçuk – Aydın – Denizli – Acıpayam – Korkuteli – Antalya
 * Tabliczka E89.svg – 130 km: Gerede – Kızılcahamam – Ankara
 * Tabliczka E91.svg – 170 km: Toprakkale – İskenderun – Antakya – Yayladağı – Syria
 * Tabliczka E97.svg – 1150 km: Kherson – Dzhankoy – Novorossiysk – Sochi – Sokhumi – Zugdidi – Senaki
 * Tabliczka E99.svg – 750 km: Şanlıurfa – Diyarbakır – Bitlis – Doğubayazıt – Iğdır – Dilucu – Sadarak

West–East intermediate

 * Tabliczka E4.svg – 1590 km: Helsingborg – Jönköping – Linköping – Norrköping – Nyköping – Södertälje – Stockholm – Uppsala – Sundsvall – Örnsköldsvik – Umeå – Luleå – Haparanda – Tornio (runs north–south, but listed as west–east. Was to be numbered as part of E55, but kept old number)
 * Tabliczka E6.svg – 3120 km: Trelleborg – Malmö – Helsingborg – Halmstad – Gothenburg – Oslo – Hamar – Lillehammer – Dombås – Trondheim – Stjørdalshalsen – Steinkjer – Mosjøen – Mo i Rana – Rognan – Fauske ... Ballangen – Narvik – Setermoen – Alta – Olderfjord – Lakselv – Karasjok – Varangerbotn – Kirkenes (runs mostly north–south, but listed as west–east. Helsingborg - Alta was to be part of the E47, but kept old number)
 * Tabliczka E8.svg – 1410 km: Tromsø – Nordkjosbotn – Skibotn – Kilpisjärvi – Kolari – Tornio – Kemi – Oulu – Kokkola – Vaasa – Pori – Turku
 * European route E12.svg – 910 km: Mo i Rana – Umeå ... Vaasa – Tampere – Hämeenlinna – Helsinki
 * Tabliczka E14.svg – 449 km: Trondheim – Östersund – Sundsvall
 * Tabliczka E16.svg – 710 km: Derry – Belfast ... Glasgow – Edinburgh ... Bergen – Indre Arna – Vossevangen – Lærdalsøyri – Tyin – Fagernes – Hønefoss – Sandvika – Oslo – Gardermoen – Kongsvinger – Torsby – Malung – Borlänge – Falun – Sandviken – Gävle
 * Tabliczka E18.svg – 1890 km: Craigavon – Belfast – Larne ... Stranraer – Gretna – Carlisle – Newcastle ... Kristiansand – Arendal – Porsgrunn – Larvik – Sandefjord – Horten – Drammen – Oslo – Askim – Karlstad – Örebro – Västerås – Stockholm/Kapellskär ... Mariehamn ... Turku/Naantali – Helsinki – Kotka – Vaalimaa – Vyborg – Saint Petersburg
 * Tabliczka E22.svg – 5320 km: Holyhead – Chester – Warrington – Manchester – Leeds – Doncaster – Immingham ... Amsterdam – Groningen – Bremen – Hamburg – Lübeck – Rostock – Sassnitz ... Trelleborg – Malmö – Kalmar – Norrköping ... Ventspils – Riga – Rēzekne – Velikiye Luki – Moscow – Vladimir – Nizhny Novgorod – Cheboksary – Kazan – Yelabuga – Perm – (Asia) – Yekaterinburg – Tyumen – Ishim
 * Tabliczka E24.svg – 230 km: Birmingham – Cambridge – Ipswich
 * Tabliczka E26.svg – 280 km: Hamburg – Berlin
 * Tabliczka E28.svg – 1230 km: Berlin – Szczecin – Goleniów – Koszalin – Słupsk – Gdynia – Gdańsk – Kaliningrad – Tolpaki – Nesterov – Marijampolė – Vilnius – Minsk
 * Tabliczka E32.svg – 30 km: Colchester – Harwich
 * Tabliczka E34.svg – 470 km: Zeebrugge – Antwerp – Eindhoven – Venlo – Oberhausen – Dortmund – Bad Oeynhausen
 * Tabliczka E36.svg – 220 km: Berlin – Lübbenau – Cottbus – Legnica
 * Tabliczka E38.svg – 3400 km: Hlukhiv – Kursk – Voronezh – Saratov – Oral – Aktobe – Karabulak – Aral – Novokazalinsk – Kyzylorda – Shymkent
 * Tabliczka E42.svg – 620 km: Dunkirk – Lille – Mons – Charleroi – Namur – Liège – St. Vith – Wittlich – Bingen – Wiesbaden – Frankfurt am Main – Aschaffenburg
 * Tabliczka E44.svg – 780 km: Le Havre – Amiens – Charleville-Mézières – Luxembourg – Trier – Koblenz – Wetzlar – Gießen
 * Tabliczka E46.svg – 720 km: Cherbourg-Octeville – Caen – Rouen – Reims – Charleville-Mézières – Liège
 * Tabliczka E48.svg – 350 km: Schweinfurt – Bayreuth – Marktredwitz – Cheb – Karlovy Vary – Prague
 * Tabliczka E52.svg – 520 km: Strasbourg – Appenweier – Karlsruhe – Stuttgart – Ulm – Munich – Salzburg
 * Tabliczka E54.svg – 860 km: Paris – Chaumont – Mulhouse – Basel – Waldshut – Lindau – Munich
 * Tabliczka E56.svg – 310 km: Nuremberg – Regensburg – Passau – Wels – Sattledt
 * Tabliczka E58.svg – 2200 km: Vienna – Bratislava – Zvolen – Košice – Uzhhorod – Mukachevo – Halmeu – Suceava – Iași – Sculeni – Chişinău – Odesa – Mykolaiv – Kherson – Melitopol – Taganrog – Rostov-on-Don
 * Tabliczka E62.svg – 1290 km: Nantes – Poitiers – Mâcon – Geneva – Lausanne – Martigny – Sion – Simplon – Gravellona Toce – Milan – Tortona – Genoa
 * Tabliczka E64.svg – 240 km: Turin – Milan – Brescia
 * Tabliczka E66.svg – 650 km: Fortezza – Innichen – Spittal an der Drau – Villach – Klagenfurt – Graz – Veszprém – Székesfehérvár
 * Tabliczka E68.svg – 510 km: Szeged – Arad – Deva – Sibiu – Braşov
 * Tabliczka E72.svg – 250 km: Bordeaux – Toulouse
 * Tabliczka E74.svg – 240 km: Nice – Cuneo – Asti – Alessandria
 * Tabliczka E76.svg – 80 km: Pisa – Migliarino – Florence
 * Tabliczka E78.svg – 270 km: Grosseto – Arezzo – Sansepolcro – Fano
 * Tabliczka E82.svg – 380 km: Porto – Vila Real – Bragança – Zamora – Tordesillas
 * Tabliczka E84.svg – 150 km: Keşan – Tekirdağ – Silivri
 * Tabliczka E86.svg – 200 km: Krystallopigi – Florina – Vévi – Géfira
 * Tabliczka E88.svg – 640 km: Ankara – Yozgat – Sivas – Refahiye
 * Tabliczka E92.svg – 320 km): Igoumenitsa – Ioannina – Trikala – Larissa – Volos
 * Tabliczka E94.svg – 110 km: Corinth – Megara – Attiki Odos (Elefsina – Athens Suburbs – Markopoulo Mesogeas).
 * Tabliczka E96.svg – 440 km: İzmir – Usak – Afyonkarahisar – Sivrihisar
 * Tabliczka E98.svg – 60 km: Topboğazi – Kırıkhan – Reyhanlı – Cilvegözü → Syria

B Class roads

 * Tabliczka E134.svg – 460 km: Haugesund – Røldal – Haukeli – Seljord – Kongsberg – Drammen – Drøbak - Vassum
 * Tabliczka E136.svg – 176 km: Ålesund – Tresfjord – Åndalsnes – Dombås
 * Tabliczka E201.svg – 170 km: Cork – Portlaoise
 * Tabliczka E231.svg – 40 km: Amsterdam – Amersfoort
 * Tabliczka E232.svg – 172 km: Amersfoort – Hoogeveen – Groningen
 * Tabliczka E233.svg – 132 km: Hoogeveen – Haselünne – Cloppenburg
 * Tabliczka E234.svg – 162 km: Cuxhaven – Bremerhaven – Bremen – Walsrode
 * Tabliczka E251.svg – 281 km: Sassnitz – Stralsund – Neubrandenburg – Berlin
 * Tabliczka E261.svg – 350 km: Świecie – Poznań – Wrocław
 * Tabliczka E262.svg – 417 km: Kaunas – Ukmergė – Daugavpils – Rēzekne – Ostrov
 * Tabliczka E263.svg – 280 km: Tallinn – Tartu – Võru – Luhamaa
 * Tabliczka E264.svg – 340 km: Jõhvi – Tartu – Valga – Valka – Valmiera – Incukalns
 * Tabliczka E265.svg – 60 km: Tallinn – Keila – Paldiski ... Kapellskär
 * Tabliczka E271.svg – 296 km: Minsk – Babruysk – Gomel (formerly began Klaipėda – Kaunas – Vilnius)
 * Tabliczka E272.svg – 380 km: Klaipėda – Palanga – Šiauliai – Panevėžys – Ukmergė – Vilnius
 * Tabliczka E311.svg – 67 km: Breda – Gorinchem – Utrecht
 * Tabliczka E312.svg – 160 km: Flushing – Breda – Eindhoven
 * Tabliczka E313.svg – 112 km: Antwerp – Liège
 * Tabliczka E314.svg – 125 km: Leuven – Hasselt – Heerlen – Aachen
 * Tabliczka E331.svg – 150 km: Dortmund – Kassel
 * Tabliczka E371.svg – 358 km: Radom – Rzeszów – Barwinek – Vyšný Komárnik – Svidník – Prešov
 * Tabliczka E372.svg – 367 km: Warsaw – Lublin – Lviv
 * Tabliczka E373.svg – 590 km: Lublin – Kovel – Rivne – Kyiv
 * Tabliczka E391.svg – 160 km: Trosna – Hlukhiv
 * Tabliczka E401.svg – 200 km: Saint-Brieuc – Caen
 * Tabliczka E402.svg – 425 km: Calais – Rouen – Le Mans
 * Tabliczka E403.svg – 96 km: Zeebrugge – Bruges – Roeselare – Kortrijk – Tournai
 * Tabliczka E404.svg – 0 km: Jabbeke – Zeebrugge (road never built)
 * Tabliczka E411.svg – 270 km: Brussels – Metz
 * Tabliczka E420.svg – 187 km: Nivelles – Charleroi – Reims
 * Tabliczka E421.svg – 153 km: Eynatten – Eupen – St. Vith – Luxembourg
 * Tabliczka E422.svg – 82 km: Trier – Saarbrücken
 * Tabliczka E429.svg – 65 km: Tournai – Halle
 * Tabliczka E441.svg – 110 km: Chemnitz – Plauen – Hof (E51)
 * Tabliczka E442.svg – 568 km: Karlovy Vary – Teplice – Turnov – Hradec Králové – Olomouc – Žilina
 * Tabliczka E451.svg – 125 km: Gießen – Frankfurt am Main – Mannheim
 * Tabliczka E461.svg – 190 km: Svitavy – Brno – Vienna
 * Tabliczka E462.svg – 310 km: Brno – Olomouc – Český Těšín – Katowice – Kraków
 * Tabliczka E471.svg – 210 km: Mukachevo – Lviv
 * Tabliczka E501.svg – 90 km: Le Mans – Angers
 * Tabliczka E502.svg – 90 km: Le Mans – Tours
 * Tabliczka E511.svg – 100 km: Courtenay – Troyes
 * Tabliczka E512.svg – 80 km: Remiremont – Mulhouse
 * Tabliczka E531.svg – 95 km: Offenburg – Donaueschingen
 * Tabliczka E532.svg – 70 km: Memmingen – Füssen
 * Tabliczka E533.svg – 125 km: Munich – Garmisch-Partenkirchen – Mittenwald – Seefeld – Innsbruck
 * Tabliczka E551.svg – 110 km: České Budějovice – Humpolec
 * Tabliczka E552.svg – 230 km: Munich – Braunau am Inn – Wels – Linz
 * Tabliczka E571.svg – 403 km: Bratislava – Zvolen – Košice
 * Tabliczka E572.svg – 101 km: Trenčín – Žiar nad Hronom
 * Tabliczka E573.svg – 193 km: Püspökladány – Nyíregyháza – Chop – Uzhhorod
 * Tabliczka E574.svg – 416 km: Bacău – Brașov – Pitești – Craiova
 * Tabliczka E575.svg – 95 km: Bratislava – Dunajská Streda – Medveďov – Vámosszabadi – Győr
 * Tabliczka E576.svg – 58 km: Cluj-Napoca – Dej (formerly continued Bistriţa – Suceava)
 * Tabliczka E577.svg – 75 km: Ploieşti – Buzău
 * Tabliczka E578.svg – 228 km: Sărățel – Reghin – Toplița – Gheorgheni – Miercurea-Ciuc – Sfântu Gheorghe – Chichiș
 * Tabliczka E579.svg – 100 km: Görbeháza – Nyíregyháza – Vásárosnamény – Beregdaróc
 * Tabliczka E581.svg – 441 km: Tișița – Tecuci – Albița – Leușeni – Chișinău – Odesa
 * Tabliczka E583.svg – 628 km: Săbăoani – Iași – Bălți – Mohyliv-Podilskyi – Vinnytsia – Zhytomyr
 * Tabliczka E584.svg – 938 km: Poltava – Kropyvnytskyi – Chişinău – Giurgiuleşti – Galaţi – Slobozia
 * Tabliczka E591.svg – 415 km: Novorossiysk – junction Tabliczka E115.svg south of Rostov-on-Don
 * Tabliczka E592.svg – 113 km: Krasnodar – Dzhubga
 * Tabliczka E601.svg – 61 km: Niort – La Rochelle
 * Tabliczka E602.svg – 195 km: La Rochelle – Saintes
 * Tabliczka E603.svg – 172 km: Saintes – Angoulême – Limoges (formerly to Sculeni)
 * Tabliczka E604.svg – 128 km: Tours – Vierzon
 * Tabliczka E606.svg – 120 km: Angoulême – Bordeaux
 * Tabliczka E607.svg – 88 km: Digoin – Chalon-sur-Saône
 * Tabliczka E611.svg – 58 km: Lyon – Pont-d'Ain
 * Tabliczka E612.svg – 54 km: Ivrea – Turin
 * Tabliczka E641.svg – 106 km: Wörgl – St. Johann in Tirol – Lofer – Salzburg
 * Tabliczka E651.svg – 73 km: Altenmarkt im Pongau – Liezen
 * Tabliczka E652.svg – 52 km: Klagenfurt – Loiblpass – Naklo
 * Tabliczka E653.svg – 107 km: Letenye – Tornyiszentmiklós
 * Tabliczka E661.svg – 447 km: Balatonkeresztúr – Nagyatád – Barcs – Virovitica – Okučani – Banja Luka – Jajce – Donji Vakuf – Zenica
 * Tabliczka E662.svg – 121 km: Subotica – Sombor – Osijek
 * Tabliczka E671.svg – 322 km: Timișoara – Arad – Oradea – Satu Mare
 * Tabliczka E673.svg – 103 km: Lugoj – Ilia
 * Tabliczka E675.svg – 59 km: Agigea – Negru Vodă – Kardam
 * Tabliczka E691.svg – 460 km: Ashtarak – Gyumri – Ashotsk – Akhalkalaki – Akhaltsikhe – Vale, Georgia – Türkgözü – Posof – Kars – Horasan
 * Tabliczka E692.svg – 113 km: Supsa – Lanchkhuti – Samtredia
 * Tabliczka E711.svg – 111 km: Lyon – Grenoble
 * Tabliczka E712.svg – 452 km: Geneva – Chambéry – Marseille
 * Tabliczka E713.svg – 92 km: Valence – Grenoble
 * Tabliczka E714.svg – 117 km: Orange – Marseille
 * Tabliczka E717.svg – 141 km: Turin – Savona
 * Tabliczka E751.svg – 160 km: Rijeka – Pula – Koper
 * Tabliczka E761.svg – 742 km: Bihać – Jajce – Donji Vakuf – Zenica – Sarajevo – Užice – Čačak – Kraljevo – Kruševac – Pojate – Paraćin – Zaječar
 * Tabliczka E762.svg – 328 km: Sarajevo – Podgorica → Albania
 * Tabliczka E763.svg – 348 km: Belgrade – Čačak – Nova Varoš – Bijelo Polje
 * Tabliczka E771.svg – 225 km: Drobeta-Turnu Severin – Niš
 * Tabliczka E772.svg – 258 km: Yablanitsa – Veliko Tarnovo – Shumen
 * Tabliczka E773.svg – 273 km: Popovica – Stara Zagora – Burgas
 * Tabliczka_E801.svg – 262 km: Coimbra – Viseu – Vila Real – Chaves – Verín
 * Tabliczka E802.svg – 599 km: Bragança – Guarda – Castelo Branco – Portalegre – Évora – Beja – Ourique
 * Tabliczka E803.svg – 463 km: Salamanca – Mérida – Seville
 * Tabliczka E804.svg – 292 km: Bilbao – Logroño – Zaragoza
 * Tabliczka E805.svg – 124 km: Vila Nova de Famalicão – Chaves
 * Tabliczka E806.svg – 209 km: Torres Novas – Abrantes – Castelo Branco – Guarda
 * Tabliczka E821.svg – 36 km: Rome – San Cesareo
 * Tabliczka E840.svg – 105 km: Sassari – Olbia ... Civitavecchia – ends at E80
 * Tabliczka E841.svg – 38 km: Avellino – Salerno
 * Tabliczka E842.svg – 257 km: Naples – Avellino – Benevento – Canosa di Puglia
 * Tabliczka E843.svg – 96 km: Bari – Taranto
 * Tabliczka E844.svg – 24 km: Spezzano Albanese – Sybaris
 * Tabliczka E846.svg – 112 km: Cosenza – Crotone
 * Tabliczka E847.svg – 159 km: Sicignano degli Alburni – Potenza – Metaponto
 * Tabliczka E848.svg – 38 km: Sant'Eufemia Lamezia – Catanzaro
 * Tabliczka E851.svg – 323 km: Petrovac → Albania → Prizren – Pristina
 * Tabliczka E852.svg – 29 km: Ohrid → Albania
 * Tabliczka_E853.svg – 61 km: Ioannina → Albania
 * Tabliczka E871.svg – 194 km: Sofia – Kyustendil – Kumanovo
 * Tabliczka E881.svg – 550 km: İzmit – Bursa – Balıkesir – Manisa – İzmir – Çeşme
 * Tabliczka E901.svg – 352 km: Madrid – Valencia
 * Tabliczka E902.svg – 280 km: Jaén – Granada – Málaga
 * Tabliczka E903.svg – 672 km: Mérida – Ciudad Real – Albacete – Alicante
 * Tabliczka E931.svg – 187 km: Mazara del Vallo – Gela
 * Tabliczka E932.svg – 161 km: Buonfornello – Enna – Catania
 * Tabliczka E933.svg – 50 km: Alcamo – Trapani
 * Tabliczka E951.svg – 193 km: Ioannina – Arta – Agrinio – Missolonghi
 * Tabliczka E952.svg – 247 km: Aktio – Vonitsa – Amfilochia – Karpenisi – Lamia
 * Tabliczka E961.svg – 101 km: Tripoli – Sparti – Gytheio
 * Tabliczka E962.svg – 51 km: Eleusina – Thebes
 * Tabliczka E981.svg – 403 km: Afyon – Konya – Junction (Aksaray-Pozantı) (on the State road linking Ankara and Mersin on E90)
 * Tabliczka E982.svg – 66 km: Mersin – Junction Tarsus East (on the motorway linking Ankara and Adana on E90)
 * Tabliczka E001.svg – 117 km: Tbilisi – Marneuli – Sadakhlo – Bagratashen – Vanadzor
 * Tabliczka E002.svg – 481 km: Alyat – Saatly Rayon – Megri – Ordubad – Julfa – Nakhchivan – Sadarak
 * Tabliczka E003.svg – 1120 km: Uchkuduk – Daşoguz – Ashgabat – Gaudan
 * Tabliczka E004.svg – 700 km: Kyzylorda – Uchkuduk – Bukhara (NB: most of road not built)
 * Tabliczka E005.svg – 154 km: G‘uzor – Samarkand
 * Tabliczka E006.svg – 298 km: Ayni – Kokand
 * Tabliczka E007.svg – 590 km: Tashkent – Kokand – Andijan – Osh – Irkeshtam
 * Tabliczka E008.svg – 970 km: Dushanbe – Kulob – Kalaikhumb – Khorugh – Murghab – Kulma Pass – border of China (see Pamir Highway)
 * Tabliczka E009.svg – 666 km: Jirgatal – Khorugh – Ishkoshim – Lyanga – China
 * Tabliczka E010.svg – 650 km: Osh – Bishkek
 * Tabliczka E011.svg – 179 km: Kokpek – Kegen – Tyup
 * Tabliczka E012.svg – 360 km: Almaty – Kokpek – Chundzha – Koktal – Khorgas
 * Tabliczka E013.svg – 180 km: Sary-Ozek – Koktal
 * Tabliczka E014.svg – 182 km: Usharal – Druzhba
 * Tabliczka E015.svg – 193 km: Taskesken – Bakhty
 * Tabliczka E016.svg – 495 km: Zapadnoe – Zhaksy – Atbasar – Astana
 * Tabliczka E017.svg – 320 km: Yelabuga – Ufa
 * Tabliczka E018.svg – 1071 km: Jezkazgan – Karaganda – Pavlodar – Uspenovka
 * Tabliczka E019.svg – 289 km: Petropavl – Zapadnoe

Notable E-roads

 * E80, together with Asian Highway 1, crosses all of Europe and Asia, linking Lisbon with Tokyo.
 * The longest E-road is E40, which is more than 8500 km long, connecting France with Kazakhstan.
 * The shortest E-road is E844, 22 km, in the Italian region of Calabria
 * Northernmost is E69, North Cape, Norway, 71°10' N
 * Westernmost is E1, Lisbon, Portugal, 9°10' W
 * Southernmost is E75, Crete, Greece, 35°6' N
 * Easternmost is E127, Maykapshagay, Kazakhstan, 85°36' E
 * The highest E-road is E008 which reaches 4272 m altitude in the Pamir Mountains in Tajikistan.
 * The highest E-road in Europe is E62 reaching 2005 m at the Simplon Pass, Switzerland.
 * The lowest E-road is E39 which reaches 262 m below sea level in the Bømlafjord Tunnel, Norway.
 * The longest bridge on an E-road is the Crimean Bridge on E97 which is 16900 m.
 * The longest tunnel on an E-road is the Lærdal Tunnel (in Norway) on E16 which is 24510 m, the longest road tunnel in the world. E16 includes 60 tunnels, covering about 15% of the road's 630 km within Norway.
 * The E39 includes 9 ferry crossings.
 * The E39 includes 90 tunnels, 6% of the road's 1140 km within Norway.

Historical numbering
These were the historical roads before 1975:

title: International E-road network


text:
Propulsion

Propulsion is the generation of force by any combination of pushing or pulling to modify the translational motion of an object, which is typically a rigid body (or an articulated rigid body) but may also concern a fluid. The term is derived from two Latin words: pro, meaning before or forward; and pellere, meaning to drive. A propulsion system consists of a source of mechanical power, and a propulsor (means of converting this power into propulsive force).

Plucking a guitar string to induce a vibratory translation is technically a form of propulsion of the guitar string; this is not commonly depicted in this vocabulary, even though human muscles are considered to propel the fingertips. The motion of an object moving through a gravitational field is affected by the field, and within some frames of reference physicists speak of the gravitational field generating a force upon the object, but for deep theoretic reasons, physicists now consider the curved path of an object moving freely through space-time as shaped by gravity as a natural movement of the object, unaffected by a propulsive force (in this view, the falling apple is considered to be unpropelled, while the observer of the apple standing on the ground is considered to be propelled by the reactive force of the Earth's surface).

Biological propulsion systems use an animal's muscles as the power source, and limbs such as wings, fins or legs as the propulsors. A technological system uses an engine or motor as the power source (commonly called a powerplant), and wheels and axles, propellers, or a propulsive nozzle to generate the force. Components such as clutches or gearboxes may be needed to connect the motor to axles, wheels, or propellers. A technological/biological system may use human, or trained animal, muscular work to power a mechanical device.

Small objects, such as bullets, propelled at high speed are known as projectiles; larger objects propelled at high speed, often into ballistic flight, are known as rockets or missiles.

Influencing rotational motion is also technically a form of propulsion, but in speech, an automotive mechanic might prefer to describe the hot gasses in an engine cylinder as propelling the piston (translational motion), which drives the crankshaft (rotational motion), the crankshaft then drives the wheels (rotational motion), and the wheels propel the car forward (translational motion). In common speech, propulsion is associated with spatial displacement more strongly than locally contained forms of motion, such as rotation or vibration. As another example, internal stresses in a rotating baseball cause the surface of the baseball to travel along a sinusoidal or helical trajectory, which would not happen in the absence of these interior forces; these forces meet the technical definition of propulsion from Newtonian mechanics, but are not commonly spoken of in this language.

Air propulsion

An aircraft propulsion system generally consists of an aircraft engine and some means to generate thrust, such as a propeller or a propulsive nozzle.

An aircraft propulsion system must achieve two things. First, the thrust from the propulsion system must balance the drag of the airplane when the airplane is cruising. And second, the thrust from the propulsion system must exceed the drag of the airplane for the airplane to accelerate. The greater the difference between the thrust and the drag, called the excess thrust, the faster the airplane will accelerate.

Some aircraft, like airliners and cargo planes, spend most of their life in a cruise condition. For these airplanes, excess thrust is not as important as high engine efficiency and low fuel usage. Since thrust depends on both the amount of gas moved and the velocity, we can generate high thrust by accelerating a large mass of gas by a small amount, or by accelerating a small mass of gas by a large amount. Because of the aerodynamic efficiency of propellers and fans, it is more fuel efficient to accelerate a large mass by a small amount, which is why high-bypass turbofans and turboprops are commonly used on cargo planes and airliners.

Some aircraft, like fighter planes or experimental high speed aircraft, require very high excess thrust to accelerate quickly and to overcome the high drag associated with high speeds. For these airplanes, engine efficiency is not as important as very high thrust. Modern combat aircraft usually have an afterburner added to a low bypass turbofan. Future hypersonic aircraft may use some type of ramjet or rocket propulsion.

Ground

Ground propulsion is any mechanism for propelling solid bodies along the ground, usually for the purposes of transportation. The propulsion system often consists of a combination of an engine or motor, a gearbox and wheel and axles in standard applications.

Maglev

Maglev (derived from magnetic levitation) is a system of transportation that uses magnetic levitation to suspend, guide and propel vehicles with magnets rather than using mechanical methods, such as wheels, axles and bearings. With maglev a vehicle is levitated a short distance away from a guide way using magnets to create both lift and thrust. Maglev vehicles are claimed to move more smoothly and quietly and to require less maintenance than wheeled mass transit systems. It is claimed that non-reliance on friction also means that acceleration and deceleration can far surpass that of existing forms of transport. The power needed for levitation is not a particularly large percentage of the overall energy consumption; most of the power used is needed to overcome air resistance (drag), as with any other high-speed form of transport.

Marine

Marine propulsion is the mechanism or system used to generate thrust to move a ship or boat across water. While paddles and sails are still used on some smaller boats, most modern ships are propelled by mechanical systems consisting of a motor or engine turning a propeller, or less frequently, in jet drives, an impeller. Marine engineering is the discipline concerned with the design of marine propulsion systems.

Steam engines were the first mechanical engines used in marine propulsion, but have mostly been replaced by two-stroke or four-stroke diesel engines, outboard motors, and gas turbine engines on faster ships. Nuclear reactors producing steam are used to propel warships and icebreakers, and there have been attempts to utilize them to power commercial vessels. Electric motors have been used on submarines and electric boats and have been proposed for energy-efficient propulsion. Recent development in liquified natural gas (LNG) fueled engines are gaining recognition for their low emissions and cost advantages.

Space

Spacecraft propulsion is any method used to accelerate spacecraft and artificial satellites. There are many different methods. Each method has drawbacks and advantages, and spacecraft propulsion is an active area of research. However, most spacecraft today are propelled by forcing a gas from the back/rear of the vehicle at very high speed through a supersonic de Laval nozzle. This sort of engine is called a rocket engine.

All current spacecraft use chemical rockets (bipropellant or solid-fuel) for launch, though some (such as the Pegasus rocket and SpaceShipOne) have used air-breathing engines on their first stage. Most satellites have simple reliable chemical thrusters (often monopropellant rockets) or resistojet rockets for orbital station-keeping and some use momentum wheels for attitude control. Soviet bloc satellites have used electric propulsion for decades, and newer Western geo-orbiting spacecraft are starting to use them for north–south stationkeeping and orbit raising. Interplanetary vehicles mostly use chemical rockets as well, although a few have used ion thrusters and Hall-effect thrusters (two different types of electric propulsion) to great success.

Cable
A cable car is any of a variety of transportation systems relying on cables to pull vehicles along or lower them at a steady rate. The terminology also refers to the vehicles on these systems. The cable car vehicles are motor-less and engine-less and they are pulled by a cable that is rotated by a motor off-board.

Animal

Animal locomotion, which is the act of self-propulsion by an animal, has many manifestations, including running, swimming, jumping and flying. Animals move for a variety of reasons, such as to find food, a mate, or a suitable microhabitat, and to escape predators. For many animals the ability to move is essential to survival and, as a result, selective pressures have shaped the locomotion methods and mechanisms employed by moving organisms. For example, migratory animals that travel vast distances (such as the Arctic tern) typically have a locomotion mechanism that costs very little energy per unit distance, whereas non-migratory animals that must frequently move quickly to escape predators (such as frogs) are likely to have costly but very fast locomotion. The study of animal locomotion is typically considered to be a sub-field of biomechanics.

Locomotion requires energy to overcome friction, drag, inertia, and gravity, though in many circumstances some of these factors are negligible. In terrestrial environments gravity must be overcome, though the drag of air is much less of an issue. In aqueous environments however, friction (or drag) becomes the major challenge, with gravity being less of a concern. Although animals with natural buoyancy need not expend much energy maintaining vertical position, some will naturally sink and must expend energy to remain afloat. Drag may also present a problem in flight, and the aerodynamically efficient body shapes of birds highlight this point. Flight presents a different problem from movement in water however, as there is no way for a living organism to have lower density than air. Limbless organisms moving on land must often contend with surface friction, but do not usually need to expend significant energy to counteract gravity.

Newton's third law of motion is widely used in the study of animal locomotion: if at rest, to move forward an animal must push something backward. Terrestrial animals must push the solid ground; swimming and flying animals must push against a fluid (either water or air). The effect of forces during locomotion on the design of the skeletal system is also important, as is the interaction between locomotion and muscle physiology, in determining how the structures and effectors of locomotion enable or limit animal movement.

title: Propulsion


text:
Wolfram Mathematica

Wolfram Mathematica is a software system with built-in libraries for several areas of technical computing that allow machine learning, statistics, symbolic computation, data manipulation, network analysis, time series analysis, NLP, optimization, plotting functions and various types of data, implementation of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs written in other programming languages. It was conceived by Stephen Wolfram, and is developed by Wolfram Research of Champaign, Illinois. The Wolfram Language is the programming language used in Mathematica. Mathematica 1.0 was released on June 23, 1988 in Champaign, Illinois and Santa Clara, California.

Notebook interface
Mathematica is split into two parts: the kernel and the front end. The kernel interprets expressions (Wolfram Language code) and returns result expressions, which can then be displayed by the front end.

The original front end, designed by Theodore Gray in 1988, consists of a notebook interface and allows the creation and editing of notebook documents that can contain code, plaintext, images, and graphics.

Alternatives to the Mathematica front end include Wolfram Workbench—an Eclipse-based integrated development environment (IDE) that was introduced in 2006. It provides project-based code development tools for Mathematica, including revision management, debugging, profiling, and testing.

There is also a plugin for IntelliJ IDEA-based IDEs to work with Wolfram Language code that in addition to syntax highlighting can analyze and auto-complete local variables and defined functions. The Mathematica Kernel also includes a command line front end.

Other interfaces include JMath, based on GNU Readline and WolframScript which runs self-contained Mathematica programs (with arguments) from the UNIX command line.

The file extension for Mathematica files is .nb and .m for configuration files.

Mathematica is designed to be fully stable and backwards compatible with previous versions.

High-performance computing
Capabilities for high-performance computing were extended with the introduction of packed arrays in version 4 (1999) and sparse matrices (version 5, 2003), and by adopting the GNU Multiple Precision Arithmetic Library to evaluate high-precision arithmetic.

Version 5.2 (2005) added automatic multi-threading when computations are performed on multi-core computers. This release included CPU-specific optimized libraries. In addition Mathematica is supported by third party specialist acceleration hardware such as ClearSpeed.

In 2002, gridMathematica was introduced to allow user level parallel programming on heterogeneous clusters and multiprocessor systems and in 2008 parallel computing technology was included in all Mathematica licenses including support for grid technology such as Windows HPC Server 2008, Microsoft Compute Cluster Server and Sun Grid.

Support for CUDA and OpenCL GPU hardware was added in 2010.

Extensions
As of Version 14, there are 6,602 built-in functions and symbols in the Wolfram Language. Stephen Wolfram announced the launch of the Wolfram Function Repository in June 2019 as a way for the public Wolfram community to contribute functionality to the Wolfram Language. At the time of Stephen Wolfram's release announcement for Mathematica 13, there were 2,259 functions contributed as Resource Functions. In addition to the Wolfram Function Repository, there is a Wolfram Data Repository with computable data and the Wolfram Neural Net Repository for machine learning.

Wolfram Mathematica is the basis of the Combinatorica package, which adds discrete mathematics functionality in combinatorics and graph theory to the program.

Connections to other applications, programming languages, and services
Communication with other applications can be done using a protocol called Wolfram Symbolic Transfer Protocol (WSTP). It allows communication between the Wolfram Mathematica kernel and the front end and provides a general interface between the kernel and other applications.

Wolfram Research freely distributes a developer kit for linking applications written in the programming language C to the Mathematica kernel through WSTP using J/Link., a Java program that can ask Mathematica to perform computations. Similar functionality is achieved with .NET /Link, but with .NET programs instead of Java programs.

Other languages that connect to Mathematica include Haskell, AppleScript, Racket, Visual Basic, Python, and Clojure.

Mathematica supports the generation and execution of Modelica models for systems modeling and connects with Wolfram System Modeler.

Links are also available to many third-party software packages and APIs.

Mathematica can also capture real-time data from a variety of sources and can read and write to public blockchains (Bitcoin, Ethereum, and ARK).

It supports import and export of over 220 data, image, video, sound, computer-aided design (CAD), geographic information systems (GIS), document, and biomedical formats.

In 2019, support was added for compiling Wolfram Language code to LLVM.

Version 12.3 of the Wolfram Language added support for Arduino.

Computable data
Mathematica is also integrated with Wolfram Alpha, an online answer engine that provides additional data, some of which is kept updated in real time, for users who use Mathematica with an internet connection. Some of the data sets include astronomical, chemical, geopolitical, language, biomedical, airplane, and weather data, in addition to mathematical data (such as knots and polyhedra).

Reception
BYTE in 1989 listed Mathematica as among the "Distinction" winners of the BYTE Awards, stating that it "is another breakthrough Macintosh application ... it could enable you to absorb the algebra and calculus that seemed impossible to comprehend from a textbook". Mathematica has been criticized for being closed source. Wolfram Research claims keeping Mathematica closed source is central to its business model and the continuity of the software.

title: Wolfram Mathematica


text:
Expendable launch system

An expendable launch system (or expendable launch vehicle/ELV) is a launch vehicle that can be launched only once, after which its components are either destroyed during reentry or discarded in space. ELVs typically consist of several rocket stages that are discarded sequentially as their fuel is exhausted and the vehicle gains altitude and speed. As of 2024, fewer and fewer satellites and human spacecraft are launched on ELVs in favor of reusable launch vehicles. However, there are many instances where a ELV may still have a compelling use case over a reusable vehicle. ELVs are simpler in design than reusable launch systems and therefore may have a lower production cost. Furthermore, an ELV can use its entire fuel supply to accelerate its payload, offering greater payloads. ELVs are proven technology in widespread use for many decades.

ISRO
During the 1960s and 1970s, India initiated its own launch vehicle program in alignment with its geopolitical and economic considerations. In the 1960s–1970s, the country India started with a sounding rocket in the 1960s and 1970s and advanced its research to deliver the Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 and the more advanced Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), complete with operational supporting infrastructure by the 1990s.

United States
Several governmental agencies of the United States purchase ELV launches. NASA is a major customer with the Commercial Resupply Services and Commercial Crew Development programs, also launching scientific spacecraft. The vast majority of launch vehicles for its missions, from the Redstone missile to the Delta, Atlas, Titan and Saturn rocket families, have been expendable. As its flagship crewed exploration replacement for the partially reusable Space Shuttle, NASA's newest ELV, the Space Launch System flew successfully in November 2022 after delays of more than six years. It is planned to serve in a major role on crewed exploration programs going forward.

The United States Air Force is also an ELV customer, having designed the Titan, Atlas, and Delta families. The Atlas V from the 1994 Evolved ELV (EELV) program remains in active service, operated by the United Launch Alliance. The National Security Space Launch (NSSL) competition has selected two EELV successors, the expendable Vulcan Centaur and partially reusable Falcon 9, to provide assured access to space.

title: Expendable launch system