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Mold health issues

Mold health issues refer to the harmful health effects of molds ("moulds" in British English) and their mycotoxins. However, recent research has shown these adverse health effects are caused not exclusively by molds, but also other microbial agents and biotoxins associated with dampness, mold, and water-damaged buildings, such as gram-negative bacteria that produce endotoxins, as well as actinomycetes and their associated exotoxins. Approximately 47% of houses in the United States have substantial levels of mold, with over 85% of commercial and office buildings found to have water damage predictive of mold. As many as 21% of asthma cases may result from exposure to mold. Substantial and statistically significant increases in the risks of both respiratory infections and bronchitis have been associated with dampness in homes and the resulting mold.

Molds and many related microbial agents are ubiquitous in the biosphere, and mold spores are a common component of household and workplace dust. While the most molds in the outdoor environment are not hazardous to humans, many found inside buildings are known to be and affect indoor air quality. Reaction to molds can vary between individuals, from relatively minor allergic reactions through to severe multi-system inflammatory effects, neurological problems, and death.

Mold spores and associated toxins can cause harm primarily via inhalation, ingestion, and contact. In higher quantities such as those found in water-damaged buildings, they can present especially hazardous health risks to humans after sufficient exposure, with three generally accepted mechanisms of harm and a fourth probable mechanism:

 * 1) Allergic reactions, including allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis
 * 2) Invasive mold infections (mycosis)
 * 3) Toxicity (poisoning by mycotoxins)
 * 4) Innate immune dysfunction.

Health effects
People who are atopic (sensitive), already have allergies, asthma, or compromised immune systems and occupy damp or moldy buildings are at an increased risk of health problems such as inflammatory responses to mold spores, metabolites such as mycotoxins, and other components. Other problems are respiratory and/or immune system responses including respiratory symptoms, respiratory infections, exacerbation of asthma, and rarely hypersensitivity pneumonitis, allergic alveolitis, chronic rhinosinusitis and allergic fungal sinusitis. A person's reaction to mold depends on their sensitivity and other health conditions, the amount of mold present, length of exposure, and the type of mold or mold products.

Some molds also produce mycotoxins, which, in sufficient quantity, can pose serious health risks to humans and animals. The colloquial term toxic mold (or more accurately, toxigenic mold) refers to molds that produce mycotoxins known to harm humans, not to all molds. Exposure to high levels of mycotoxins can lead to neurological problems and, in some cases, death. Prolonged exposure, e.g., daily workplace exposure, can be particularly harmful.

The five most common genera of indoor molds are Cladosporium, Penicillium, Aspergillus, Alternaria, and Trichoderma.

Damp environments that allow mold to grow can also allow the proliferation of bacteria and release volatile organic compounds.

Symptoms of mold exposure
Symptoms of mold exposure can include:
 * Nasal and sinus congestion, runny nose
 * Respiratory problems, such as wheezing and difficulty breathing, chest tightness
 * Cough
 * Throat irritation
 * Sneezing / sneezing fits

Health effects linking to asthma
Adverse respiratory health effects are associated with occupancy in buildings with moisture and mold damage. Infants in homes with mold have a much greater risk of developing asthma and allergic rhinitis. Infants may develop respiratory symptoms due to exposure to a specific type of fungal mold, called Penicillium. Signs that an infant may have mold-related respiratory problems include (but are not limited to) a persistent cough and wheeze. Increased exposure increases the probability of developing respiratory symptoms during their first year of life.

Mold exposures have a variety of health effects depending on the person. Some people are more sensitive to mold than others. Exposure to mold can cause several health issues such as; throat irritation, nasal stuffiness, eye irritation, cough, and wheezing, as well as skin irritation in some cases. Exposure to mold may also cause heightened sensitivity depending on the time and nature of exposure. People at higher risk for mold allergies are people with chronic lung illnesses and weak immune systems, which can often result in more severe reactions when exposed to mold.

There has been sufficient evidence that damp indoor environments are correlated with upper respiratory tract symptoms such as coughing, and wheezing in people with asthma.

Flood-specific mold health effects
Among children and adolescents, the most common health effect post-flooding was lower respiratory tract symptoms, though there was a lack of association with measurements of total fungi. Another study found that these respiratory symptoms were positively associated with exposure to water damaged homes, exposure included being inside without participating in clean up. Despite lower respiratory effects among all children, there was a significant difference in health outcomes between children with pre-existing conditions and children without. Children with pre-existing conditions were at greater risk that can likely be attributed to the greater disruption of care in the face of flooding and natural disaster.

Although mold is the primary focus post flooding for residents, the effects of dampness alone must also be considered. According to the Institute of Medicine, there is a significant association between dampness in the home and wheeze, cough, and upper respiratory symptoms. A later analysis determined that 30% to 50% of asthma-related health outcomes are associated with not only mold, but also dampness in buildings.

While there is a proven correlation between mold exposure and the development of upper and lower respiratory syndromes, there are still fewer incidences of negative health effects than one might expect. Barbeau and colleagues suggested that studies do not show a greater impact from mold exposure for several reasons: 1) the types of health effects are not severe and are therefore not caught; 2) people whose homes have flooded find alternative housing to prevent exposure; 3) self-selection, the healthier people participated in mold clean-up and were less likely to get sick; 4) exposures were time-limited as result of remediation efforts and; 5) the lack of access to health care post-flooding may result in fewer illnesses being discovered and reported for their association with mold. There are also certain notable scientific limitations in studying the exposure effects of dampness and molds on individuals because there are currently no known biomarkers that can prove that a person was exclusively exposed to molds. Thus, it is currently impossible to prove correlation between mold exposure and symptoms.

Mold-associated conditions
Health problems associated with high levels of airborne mold spores include allergic reactions, asthma episodes, irritations of the eye, nose and throat, sinus congestion, and other respiratory problems. Several studies and reviews have suggested that childhood exposure to dampness and mold might contribute to the development of asthma. For example, residents of homes with mold are at an elevated risk for both respiratory infections and bronchitis. When mold spores are inhaled by an immunocompromised individual, some mold spores may begin to grow on living tissue, attaching to cells along the respiratory tract and causing further problems. Generally, when this occurs, the illness is an epiphenomenon and not the primary pathology. Also, mold may produce mycotoxins, either before or after exposure to humans, potentially causing toxicity.

Fungal infection
A serious health threat from mold exposure for immunocompromised individuals is systemic fungal infection (systemic mycosis). Immunocompromised individuals exposed to high levels of mold, or individuals with chronic exposure may become infected. Sinuses and digestive tract infections are most common; lung and skin infections are also possible. Mycotoxins may or may not be produced by the invading mold.

Dermatophytes are the parasitic fungi that cause skin infections such as athlete's foot and tinea cruris. Most dermatophyte fungi take the form of mold, as opposed to a yeast, with an appearance (when cultured) that is similar to other molds.

Opportunistic infection by molds such as Talaromyces marneffei and Aspergillus fumigatus is a common cause of illness and death among immunocompromised people, including people with AIDS or asthma.

Mold-induced hypersensitivity
The most common form of hypersensitivity is caused by the direct exposure to inhaled mold spores that can be dead or alive or hyphal fragments which can lead to allergic asthma or allergic rhinitis. The most common effects are rhinorrhea (runny nose), watery eyes, coughing and asthma attacks. Another form of hypersensitivity is hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Exposure can occur at home, at work or in other settings. It is predicted that about 5% of people have some airway symptoms due to allergic reactions to molds in their lifetimes.

Hypersensitivity may also be a reaction toward an established fungal infection in allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis.

Mycotoxin toxicity
Some molds excrete toxic compounds called mycotoxins, secondary metabolites produced by fungi under certain environmental conditions. These environmental conditions affect the production of mycotoxins at the transcription level. Temperature, water activity and pH, strongly influence mycotoxin biosynthesis by increasing the level of transcription within the fungal spore. It has also been found that low levels of fungicides can boost mycotoxin synthesis. Certain mycotoxins can be harmful or lethal to humans and animals when exposure is high enough.

Extreme exposure to very high levels of mycotoxins can lead to neurological problems and, in some cases, death; fortunately, such exposures rarely to never occur in normal exposure scenarios, even in residences with serious mold problems. Prolonged exposure, such as daily workplace exposure, can be particularly harmful.

It is thought that all molds may produce mycotoxins, and thus all molds may be potentially toxic if large enough quantities are ingested, or the human becomes exposed to extreme quantities of mold. Mycotoxins are not produced all the time, but only under specific growing conditions. Mycotoxins are harmful or lethal to humans and animals only when exposure is high enough.

Mycotoxins can be found on the mold spore and mold fragments, and therefore they can also be found on the substrate upon which the mold grows. Routes of entry for these insults can include ingestion, dermal exposure, and inhalation.

Aflatoxin is an example of a mycotoxin. It is a cancer-causing poison produced by certain fungi in or on foods and feeds, especially in field corn and peanuts.

Toxic effects from mold were thought to be the result of exposure to the mycotoxins of some mold species, such as Stachybotrys chartarum. In 1927, Ismailson, a Soviet scientist, noted a form of mycotoxicosis in employees in a binder twine factory. In the 1940s, "Stachybotryotoxicosis" was identified in Ukraine as a new disease in humans in close contact with moldy hay, including inhalation of the associated dust, which caused, among other symptoms, a "haemorrhagic exúdate". Following cases of pulmonary hemorrhage in infants in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1993–94, several related studies suggested a causal relationship between exposure to S. chartarum and the disease. An anonymous panel from within the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) revisited the cases and argued that the link was not proven. Subsequent studies with mice and rats exposed to S. chartarum and associated mycotoxins showed that pulmonary hemorrhage could occur, suggesting the link is plausible. The American Academy of Pediatrics also found the link plausible, and subsequent analysis and case studies with humans have further noted the association. As well, a 1987 report by the United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases suggested that the effects of "trichothecene mycotoxins are more than 10 times greater via inhalation than via intravenous exposure." The presumed mechanism of action is that Stachybotrys produces a compound, stachylysin, which is a hemolysin that disintegrates (lyses) red blood cells.

Innate immune activation
The health hazards produced by mold have been associated with sick building syndrome (SBS), but previously, controversy existed around whether studies had sufficiently demonstrated that indoor exposures to these common organisms posed a significant threat. In 1986, a study noted an airborne outbreak of toxicosis from trichothecenes associated with Stachybotrys atra in a Chicago house affecting a family including their maid; symptoms included diarrhea, headaches, fatigue, dermatitis, malaise, and severe leg pains, which resolved following remediation of the mold contamination. This study drew attention to how mycotoxins in indoor environments might impact health. In the early 2000s, several small studies concluded that individuals with significant dampness and mold exposure displayed cognitive and neurological deficits on par with mild-to-moderate traumatic brain injury along with immunological changes. These studies were criticised for their methodologies, such as by not showing a possible mechanism of action for the harm, and not controlling for the possibility of malingering by mold-exposed individuals involved in litigation, although the associated critiques were also problematic. Researchers also contested whether the amount of spores that could be breathed in by humans would be sufficient to cause a toxic effect and that no association between spore counts and adverse health effects existed. However, when also considering spore fragments (that have more surface area to carry mycotoxins) as well as whole spores, the amount of exposure was estimated to be 1,000 to 1,000,000 times higher than previously thought. Moreover, inhalational exposure "provides a pathway to the central nervous system along the olfactory and trigeminal nerve axons in the nasal sensory epithelium that bypasses the blood–brain barrier."

Despite these early studies, a 2003 position paper by the American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine (ACOEM) claimed the link between mold and building-related symptoms was "weak and unproven". Further to this, the Center for Legal Policy at the Manhattan Institute paid $40,000 to Globaltox (later, Veritox),  a company associated with two of the same authors of the ACOEM paper, to produce a "lay translation" of their study that would be "more assessable ... to judges". This lay paper claimed that the notion that human health could be adversely affected by inhaled molds or their toxins was "junk science" and was referenced in legal cases in the United States to deny related legal claims. The United States Chamber of Commerce, the largest lobbying group in the U.S., also promoted this paper (and is still doing so as of 2020).

A 2006 position paper by the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology (AAAAI) maintained a similarly sceptical position as the ACOEM paper in denying that mold in indoor environments could cause severe effects. In 2008, the United States Government Accountability Office published a report on indoor mold, reviewing the literature to date and acknowledging the possibility of immune and toxic effects, while calling for further research. By 2009, the WHO noted a strong association between dampness and inflammatory responses, while also recognising that "synergistic interactions among microbial agents" might make it "difficult to detect and implicate specific exposures in the causation of damp building-associated adverse health effects." Gram-negative bacteria, which create endotoxins known to produce inflammatory responses, might also be partly responsible, as might actinomycetes and their associated exotoxins. While it may be difficult to determine the relative contributions of the molds, bacteria, and dust particles to which people are exposed, studies clearly show that such combinations activate stronger, synergistic immune responses than predicted by adding the effects of the individual stimuli.

Later in 2009, a carefully controlled, seminal study published by Kilburn demonstrated that mold exposure was associated with extensive adverse effects on multiple physiological systems. He compared the responses of 105 mold-exposed individuals to those of 202 unexposed controls, as well as those of 100 people exposed to a wide variety of chemicals. Rather than asking people how they felt, Kilburn measured physiological and mental function. He found highly significant abnormalities in the responses of mold-exposed individuals compared to controls on 12 of the 14 physiological functions quantified and 10 of the 13 psychological tests administered. These abnormalities included extreme problems with balance correlated with cerebellar abnormalities, decreased grip strength, impaired color vision, impaired visual fields, slowed reaction times, slowed performance on perceptual motor tasks, impaired memory, and decreased performance on problem-solving tasks as well as a variety of respiratory problems. Chemical-exposed individuals had similar abnormalities.

Like many researchers, Kilburn attributed the adverse effects of mold exposure primarily to the toxins some molds produce. Currently available data suggest mold's effects are more the result of chronic activation of the immune system, leading to chronic inflammation. Such immune activation does not necessarily require toxin exposure; rather, exposure to non-toxic mold stimuli or fungal skeletal elements is sufficient to activate immune responses and trigger inflammation. Nineteen innate-immune pattern-recognition receptors have been identified that recognize common components of fungal cell walls or fungal RNA/DNA, activating inflammatory responses. Studies exposing mice to controlled doses of S. chartarum spores show activation of the innate immune system, along with neural, cognitive, and emotional dysfunction, even when mycotoxins were removed and mice were exposed only to spore skeletal elements.

In 2012, a ten-year longitudinal study found that dampness and mold seemed to be an underlying cause of sick building syndrome. A 2018 review of 16 associated studies, including Kilburn's, concluded that people exposed to molds and mycotoxins had "symptoms affecting multiple organs, including the lungs, musculoskeletal system, as well as the central and peripheral nervous systems" and also noted that such exposure has now been implicated in the pathogenesis of autism spectrum disorder. An in vitro study of human neurological system cells showed damage caused by inflammatory and immune processes (along with disruption of the blood–brain barrier) in response to mycotoxins at exposure levels that would be expected in water-damaged buildings. Ex vivo studies of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells showed inflammatory and innate immune responses upon exposure to specific molds and mycotoxins, such as S. chartarum (and an associated mycotoxin, Satratoxin G) and various strains of Aspergillus. Furthermore, children living in water-damaged homes show systemic inflammation, immune activation, and probably poorer cognitive function, too. Tellingly, many of the affected biomarkers, hormones, and pathways in individuals affected by inhaled mycotoxins are consistent with studies of ingested mycotoxins, such as trichothecene exposure.

The WHO estimates the prevalence of significant dampness and mold in buildings to be at least 20%, while other estimates of US homes suggest a prevalence as high as 47%. Sleeping disorders are also associated with exposure to dampness and mold, consistent with the decrease in α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH) associated with this syndrome. Patients may also present with psychological symptoms given the neuroinflammatory markers and growth factors involved.

Exposure sources and prevention
The primary sources of mold exposure are from the indoor air in buildings with substantial mold growth and the ingestion of food with mold growths.

Air
While mold and related microbial agents can be found both inside and outside, specific factors can lead to significantly higher levels of these microbes, creating a potential health hazard. Several notable factors are water damage in buildings, the use of building materials which provide a suitable substrate and source of food to amplify mold growth, relative humidity, and energy-efficient building designs, which can prevent proper circulation of outside air and create a unique ecology in the built environment. A common issue with mold hazards in the household can be the placement of furniture, resulting in a lack of ventilation of the nearby wall. The simplest method of avoiding mold in a home so affected is to move the furniture in question.

More than half of adult workers in moldy/humid buildings suffer from nasal or sinus symptoms due to mold exposure.

Prevention of mold exposure and its ensuing health issues begins with the prevention of mold growth in the first place by avoiding a mold-supporting environment. Extensive flooding and water damage can support extensive mold growth. Following hurricanes, homes with greater flood damage, especially those with more than 3 ft of indoor flooding, demonstrated far higher levels of mold growth compared with homes with little or no flooding.

It is useful to perform an assessment of the location and extent of the mold hazard in a structure. Various practices of remediation can be followed to mitigate mold issues in buildings, the most important of which is to reduce moisture levels. Removal of affected materials after the source of moisture has been reduced and/or eliminated may be necessary, as some materials cannot be remediated. Thus, the concept of mold growth, assessment, and remediation is essential in preventing health issues arising due to the presence of dampness and mold.

Molds may excrete liquids or low-volatility gases, but the concentrations are so low that frequently they cannot be detected even with sensitive analytical sampling techniques. Sometimes, these by-products are detectable by odor, in which case they are referred to as "ergonomic odors", meaning the odors are noticeable but do not indicate toxicologically significant exposures.

Food
Molds that are often found on meat and poultry include members of the genera Alternaria, Aspergillus, Botrytis, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Geotrichum, Mortierella, Mucor, Neurospora, Paecilomyces, Penicillium, and Rhizopus. Grain crops in particular incur considerable losses both in field and storage due to pathogens, post-harvest spoilage, and insect damage. A number of common microfungi are important agents of post-harvest spoilage, notably members of the genera Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium. A number of these produce mycotoxins (soluble, non-volatile toxins produced by a range of microfungi that demonstrate specific and potent toxic properties on human and animal cells ) that can render foods unfit for consumption. When ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through skin, mycotoxins may cause or contribute to a range of effects from reduced appetite and general malaise to acute illness or death in rare cases. Mycotoxins may also contribute to cancer. Dietary exposure to the mycotoxin aflatoxin B1, commonly produced by growth of the fungus Aspergillus flavus on improperly stored ground nuts in many areas of the developing world, is known to independently (and synergistically with Hepatitis B virus) induce liver cancer. Mycotoxin-contaminated grain and other food products have a significant impact on human and animal health globally. According to the World Health Organization, roughly 25% of the world's food may be contaminated by mycotoxins.

Prevention of mold exposure from food is generally to consume food that has no mold growths on it. Also, mold growth in the first place can be prevented by the same concept of mold growth, assessment, and remediation that prevents air exposure. Also, it is especially useful to clean the inside of the refrigerator and to ensure dishcloths, towels, sponges, and mops are clean.

Ruminants are considered to have increased resistance to some mycotoxins, presumably due to the superior mycotoxin-degrading capabilities of their gut microbiota. The passage of mycotoxins through the food chain may also have important consequences on human health. For example, in China in December 2011, high levels of carcinogen aflatoxin M1 in Mengniu brand milk were found to be associated with the consumption of mold-contaminated feed by dairy cattle.

Bedding
Bacteria, fungi, allergens, and particle-bound semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) can all be found in bedding and pillows with possible consequences for human health given the high amount of exposure each day. Over 47 species of fungi have been identified in pillows, although the typical range of species found in a single pillow varied between four and sixteen. Compared to feather pillows, synthetic pillows typically display a slightly greater variety of fungal species and significantly higher levels of β‐(1,3)‐glucan, which can cause inflammatory responses. The authors concluded that these and related results suggest feather bedding might be a more appropriate choice for asthmatics than synthetics. Some newer bedding products incorporate silver nanoparticles due to their antibacterial,  antifungal, and antiviral properties; however, the long-term safety of this additional exposure to these nanoparticles is relatively unknown, and a conservative approach to the use of these products is recommended.

Flooding
Flooding in houses causes a unique opportunity for mold growth, which may be attributed to adverse health effects in people exposed to the mold, especially children and adolescents. In a study on the health effects of mold exposure after hurricanes Katrina and Rita, the predominant types of mold were Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Cladosporium with indoor spore counts ranging from 6,142 – 735,123 spores m−3. Molds isolated following flooding were different from mold previously reported for non-water damaged homes in the area. Further research found that homes with greater than three feet of indoor flooding demonstrated significantly higher levels of mold than those with little or no flooding.

Mitigation
Recommended strategies to prevent mold include avoiding mold-contamination; utilization of environmental controls; the use of personal protective equipment (PPE), including skin and eye protection and respiratory protection; and environmental controls such as ventilation and suppression of dust. When mold cannot be prevented, the CDC recommends clean-up protocol including first taking emergency action to stop water intrusion. Second, they recommend determining the extent of water damage and mold contamination. And third, they recommend planning remediation activities such as establishing containment and protection for workers and occupants; eliminating water or moisture sources if possible; decontaminating or removing damaged materials and drying any wet materials; evaluating whether space has been successfully remediated; and reassembling the space to control sources of moisture.

History
In 1698, the physician Sir John Floyer published the first edition of A Treatise of the Asthma, the first English textbook on the malady. In it, he describes how dampness and mold could trigger an asthmatic attack, specifically, "damp houses and fenny [boggy] countries". He also writes of an asthmatic "who fell into a violent fit by going into a Wine-Cellar", presumably due to the "fumes" in the air.

In the 1930s, mold was identified as the cause behind the mysterious deaths of farm animals in Russia and other countries. Stachybotrys chartarum was found growing on the wet grain used for animal feed. Illness and death also occurred in humans when starving peasants ate large quantities of rotten food grains and cereals heavily overgrown with the Stachybotrys mold.

In the 1970s, building construction techniques changed in response to changing economic realities, including the energy crisis. As a result, homes, and buildings became more airtight. Also, cheaper materials such as drywall came into common use. The newer building materials reduced the drying potential of the structures, making moisture problems more prevalent. This combination of increased moisture and suitable substrates contributed to increased mold growth inside buildings.

Today, the US Food and Drug Administration and the agriculture industry closely monitor mold and mycotoxin levels in grains and foodstuffs to keep the contamination of animal feed and human food supplies below specific levels. In 2005, Diamond Pet Foods, a US pet food manufacturer, experienced a significant rise in the number of corn shipments containing elevated levels of aflatoxin. This mold toxin eventually made it into the pet food supply, and dozens of dogs and cats died before the company was forced to recall affected products.

In November 2022, a UK coroner recorded that a two-year-old child, Awaab Ishak from Rochdale, England, died in 2020 of "acute airway oedema with severe granulomatous tracheobronchitis due to environmental mould exposure" in his home. The finding led to a 2023 change in UK law, known as Awaab's Law, which will require social housing providers to remedy reported damp and mould within certain time limits.

title: Mold health issues


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Celtic Tiger

[[File:Ireland GDP.webp|thumb|275px|Ireland GDP

]] The "Celtic Tiger" (An Tíogar Ceilteach) is a term referring to the economy of Ireland from the mid-1990s to the late 2000s, a period of rapid real economic growth fuelled by foreign direct investment. The boom was dampened by a subsequent property bubble which resulted in a severe economic downturn.

At the start of the 1990s, Ireland was a relatively poor country by Western European standards, with high poverty, high unemployment, inflation, and low economic growth. The Irish economy expanded at an average rate of 9.4% between 1995 and 2000, and continued to grow at an average rate of 5.9% during the following decade until 2008, when it fell into recession. Ireland's rapid economic growth has been described as a rare example of a Western country matching the growth of East Asian nations, i.e. the 'Four Asian Tigers'.

The economy underwent a dramatic reversal from 2008, hit hard by the global financial crisis and ensuing European debt crisis, with GDP contracting by 14% and unemployment levels rising to 14% by 2011. The economic and financial crisis lasted until 2014; the year 2015 with a growth rate of 6.7% marked the beginning of a new period of strong economic growth.

Term
The colloquial term "Celtic Tiger" has been used to refer to the country itself, and to the years associated with the boom. The first recorded use of the phrase is in a 1994 Morgan Stanley report by Kevin Gardiner. The term refers to Ireland's similarity to the East Asian Tigers: Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan during their periods of rapid growth between the early 1960s and late 1990s. An Tíogar Ceilteach, the Irish language version of the term, appears in the Foras na Gaeilge terminology database and has been used in government and administrative contexts since at least 2005.

The Celtic Tiger period has also been called "The Boom" or "Ireland's Economic Miracle". During that time, the country experienced a period of economic growth that transformed it from one of Western Europe's poorer countries into one of its wealthiest. The causes of Ireland's growth are the subject of some debate, but credit has been primarily given to state-driven economic development; social partnership among employers, government and trade unions; increased participation by women in the labour force; decades of investment in domestic higher education; targeting of foreign direct investment; a low corporation tax rate; an English-speaking workforce; and membership of the European Union, which provided transfer payments and export access to the Single Market.

By mid-2007, in the wake of the growing global financial crisis, the Celtic Tiger had all but died. Some critics, such as David McWilliams, who had been warning about impending collapse for some time, concluded: "The case is clear: an economically challenged government, perniciously influenced by the interests of the housing lobby, blew it. The entire Irish episode will be studied internationally in years to come as an example of how not to do things."

Historian Richard Aldous stated the Celtic Tiger has now gone the "way of the dodo". In early 2008, many commentators thought a soft landing was likely, but by January 2009, it seemed possible the country could experience a depression. In early January 2009, The Irish Times, in an editorial, declared: "We have gone from the Celtic Tiger to an era of financial fear with the suddenness of a Titanic-style shipwreck, thrown from comfort, even luxury, into a cold sea of uncertainty." In February 2010, a report by Davy Research concluded that Ireland had "largely wasted” its years of high income during the boom, with private enterprise investing its wealth "in the wrong places". It compared Ireland's growth to other small eurozone countries such as Finland and Belgium – noting that the physical wealth of those countries exceeds that of Ireland because of their "vastly superior" transport infrastructure, telecommunications network, and public services.

Tiger economy
From 1995 to 2000, GDP growth rate ranged between 7.8 and 11.5%; it then slowed to between 4.4 and 6.5% from 2001 to 2007. During that period, the Irish GDP per capita rose dramatically to equal, then eventually surpass, that of all but one state in Western Europe. Although GDP does not represent the standard of living, and the GNP remained lower than the GDP, in 2007, the GNP achieved the same level as of some other Western European countries'.

Causes
Historian R. F. Foster argues the cause was a combination of a new sense of initiative and the entry of American corporations such as Intel. He concludes the chief factors were low taxation, pro-business regulatory policies, and a young, tech-savvy workforce. For many multinationals, the decision to do business in Ireland was made easier still by generous incentives from the Industrial Development Authority. In addition European Union membership was helpful, giving the country lucrative access to markets that it had previously reached only through the United Kingdom, and pumping huge subsidies and investment capital into the Irish economy. Frederic Mishkin has also suggested that the economic boom partly resulted from the austerity plan of Charles Haughey (Taoiseach from 1987 to 1992). People and businesses expected a stable economy, boosting their confidence to spend and invest due to anticipated stability in output.

Tax policy
Many economists credit Ireland's growth to a low corporate taxation rate (10 to 12.5% throughout the late 1990s). Since 1956, successive Irish governments have pursued low-taxation policies.

European Union Structural and Cohesion Funds
Since joining the EU in 1973, Ireland has received over €17 billion in EU Structural and Cohesion Funds. These are made up of the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) and the European Social Fund (ESF) and were used to increase investment in the education system and to build physical infrastructure. These transfer payments from members of the European Union, such as Germany and France, were as high as 4% of Ireland's gross national product (GNP). Ireland is unique among cohesion countries, having allocated up to 35% of its Structural Funds to human resource investments, compared with an average of around 25% for other cohesion fund recipients. The Irish economy's increased productive capacity is sometimes attributed to these investments, which made Ireland more attractive to high-tech businesses, though the libertarian Cato Institute has suggested that the EU transfer payments were economically inefficient and may have actually slowed growth. The conservative Heritage Foundation also attributed to transfer payments no significant role in causing growth.

Trade within the European Union
Ireland's membership in the EU since 1973 helped the country gain access to Europe's large markets. Ireland's trade had previously been predominantly with the United Kingdom.

Industrial policies
In the 1990s, the provision of subsidies and investment capital by Irish state organisations (such as IDA Ireland) encouraged high-profile companies, such as Dell, Intel, and Microsoft, to locate in Ireland; these companies were attracted to Ireland because of its EU membership, relatively low wages, government grants, and low tax rates. Enterprise Ireland, a state agency, provides financial, technical, and social support to start-up businesses. Additionally, the building of the International Financial Services Centre in Dublin led to the creation of 14,000 high-value jobs in the accounting, legal, and financial management sectors.

In July 2003, the government established the Science Foundation Ireland on a statutory basis to promote education for highly skilled careers, particularly in biotechnology and information and communications technology, with the additional purpose to invest in science initiatives that aim to further Ireland's knowledge economy.

Geography and demographics
The time zone difference allows Irish and British employees to work the first part of each day while US workers sleep. US firms were drawn to Ireland by cheap wage costs compared to the UK, and by the limited government intervention in business compared to other EU members, and particularly to countries in Eastern Europe. Growing stability in Northern Ireland brought about by the Good Friday Agreement further established Ireland's ability to provide a stable business environment.

Irish workers can communicate effectively with Americans – especially compared to those in other low-wage, non-English-speaking EU nations, such as Portugal and Spain; this factor was vital to U.S. companies' choosing Ireland for their European headquarters. It has also been argued that the demographic dividend from the rising ratio of workers to dependents due to falling fertility, and increased female labour market participation, increased income per capita.

Impact of economic growth
Ireland was transformed from one of the poorest countries in Western Europe to one of the wealthiest. Disposable income soared to record levels, enabling a huge rise in consumer spending with foreign holidays accounting for over 91% of total holiday expenditure in 2004. However, the gap between the highest and lowest income households widened in the five-year period to 2004–2005; in response, the Economic and Social Research Institute (ESRI) stated in 2002: "On balance, budgets over the past 10 to 20 years have been more favourable to high income groups than low income groups, but particularly so during periods of high growth". Unemployment fell from 18% in the late 1980s to 4.5% by the end of 2007, and average industrial wages grew at one of the highest rates in Europe. Inflation brushed 5% per annum towards the end of the "Tiger" period, pushing Irish prices up to those of Nordic Europe, even though wage rates are roughly the same as in the UK. The national debt had remained constant during the boom, but the GDP to debt ratio rose, due to the dramatic rise in GDP.

The new wealth resulted in large investments in modernising Irish infrastructure and cities. The National Development Plan led to improvements in roads, and new transport services were developed, such as the Luas light rail lines, the Dublin Port Tunnel, and the extension of the Cork Suburban Rail. Local authorities enhanced city streets and built monuments such as the Spire of Dublin. An academic said in 2008 that the jumbo breakfast roll became "perhaps the ultimate symbol of our contemporary Celtic Tigerland", product of Irish conglomerate IAWS and eaten by busy workers buying food in filling station convenience stores.

Ireland's trend of net emigration was reversed as the republic became a destination for immigrants. This significantly changed Irish demographics and resulted in expanding multiculturalism, particularly in the Dublin, Cork, Limerick, and Galway areas. It was estimated in 2007 that 10% of Irish residents were foreign-born; most of the new arrivals were citizens of Poland and the Baltic states, many of whom found work in the retail and service sectors. A study conducted in 2006 found that many Irish people regarded immigration as an important factor for economic progress. Within Ireland, many young people left the rural countryside to live and work in urban centres. Many people in Ireland believe that the growing consumerism during the boom years eroded the country's culture, with the adoption of American capitalist ideals. While Ireland's historical economic ties to the UK had often been the subject of criticism, Peader Kirby argued that the new ties to the US economy were met with a "satisfied silence". Nevertheless, voices on the political left have decried the "closer to Boston than Berlin" philosophy of the Fianna Fáil-Progressive Democrat government. Writers such as William Wall, Mike McCormick, and Gerry Murphy have satirised these developments. Growing wealth was blamed for rising crime levels among youths, particularly alcohol-related violence resulting from increased spending power. However, it was also accompanied by rapidly increased life expectancy and very high quality of life ratings; the country ranked first in The Economist's 2005 quality of life index, dropping to 12th by 2013.

The growing success of Ireland's economy encouraged entrepreneurship and risk-taking, qualities that had been dormant during poor economic periods. However, whilst some semblance of a culture of entrepreneurship exists, foreign-owned companies account for 93% of Ireland's exports.

Slowdown in growth, 2001–2003
The Celtic Tiger's growth slowed along with the slowing in the world economy in 2002 after seven years of high growth.

The economy was adversely affected by a large reduction in investment in the worldwide information technology (IT) industry. The industry had over-expanded in the late 1990s, and its stock market equity declined sharply. Ireland was a major player in the IT industry: in 2002, it had exported US$10.4 billion worth of computer services, compared to $6.9 billion from the US. Ireland accounted for approximately 50% of all mass-market packaged software sold in Europe in 2002 (OECD, 2002; OECD, 2004).

Foot and mouth disease and the 11 September 2001 attacks damaged Ireland's tourism and agricultural sectors, deterring U.S. and British tourists. Several companies moved operations to Eastern Europe and the People's Republic of China because of a rise in Irish wage costs, insurance premiums, and a general reduction in Ireland's economic competitiveness. The rising value of the Euro hit non-EMU exports, particularly those to the U.S. and the United Kingdom.

At the same time, economies globally experienced a slowdown. The US economy grew only 0.3% in April, May, and June 2002 from a year earlier, and the Federal Reserve made 11 rate cuts that year in an attempt to stimulate the US economy. The EU scarcely grew throughout the whole of 2002, and many members' governments (notably in Germany and France) lost control of public finances, causing large deficits that broke the terms of the EMU Stability and Growth Pact.

The economic downturn in Ireland was not a recession but a slowdown in the rate of economic expansion. Signs of a recovery became evident in late 2003, as US investment levels increased once again. Many senior economists have heavily criticised the government for the economic imbalance in favour of the construction industry, and the prospect of sustaining economic growth in the future.

Post-2003 resurgence
After the slowdown in 2001 and 2002, Irish economic growth began to accelerate again in late 2003 and 2004. Some of the media considered that an opportunity to document the return of the Celtic Tiger – occasionally referred to in the press as the "Celtic Tiger 2" and "Celtic Tiger Mark 2". In 2004, Irish growth was the highest, at 4.5%, of the EU-15 states, and a similar figure was forecast for 2005. Those rates contrast with growth rates of 1% to 3% for many other European economies, including France, Germany, and Italy. The pace of expansion in lending to households from 2003 to 2007 was among the highest in the euro area

In 2006, there was a surge in Foreign Direct Investment and a net increase of 3,795 in IDA supported jobs, with International and Financial Services having the highest growth rate. The reasons for the continuation of the Irish economic boom were somewhat controversial within Ireland. Some Economists, Civil Rights Activists and Social Commentators have said that the growth throughout this period was merely due to a great increase in property values, and to catch-up growth in employment in the construction sector.

Globally, the U.S. recovery boosted Ireland's economy due to Ireland's close economic ties to the US. The decline in tourism as a result of foot and mouth disease and the 11 September 2001 attacks had reversed itself. The recovery of the global information technology industry was also a factor; Ireland produced 25% of all European PCs, and Apple, Dell (whose major European manufacturing plant was in Limerick), HP, and IBM all had sizeable Irish operations.

There had been a renewed investment by multinational firms. Intel had resumed its Irish expansion, Google created an office in Dublin, Abbott Laboratories was building a new Irish facility, and Bell Labs planned to open a future facility. Domestically, a new state body, Science Foundation Ireland, was established to promote new science companies in Ireland Maturing funds from the SSIA government savings scheme relaxed consumers' concerns about spending and thus fueled retail sales growth.

In September 2009, Tánaiste Mary Coughlan said Ireland had lost ground in international competitiveness every year since 2000.

Property market
The return of the boom in 2004 was claimed to be primarily the result of the large construction sector's catching up with the demand caused by the first boom. The construction sector represented nearly 12% of GDP and a large proportion of employment among young, unskilled men. A number of sources, including The Economist, warned of excessive Irish property values. 2004 saw the construction of 80,000 new homes, compared to the UK's 160,000 – a nation that has 15 times Ireland's population. House prices doubled between 2000 and 2006; tax incentives were a key driver of this price rise, and the Fianna Fáil-Progressive Democrats government subsequently received substantial criticism for these policies.

In January 2009, UCD economist Morgan Kelly predicted that house prices would fall by 80% from peak to trough in real terms.

Loss of competitiveness
Rising wages, inflation, and excessive public spending led to a loss of competitiveness in the Irish economy. Irish wages were substantially above the EU average, particularly in the Dublin region, though many poorer Eastern European states had joined the EU since 2004, substantially lowering the average EU wage below its 1995 level. Low-paid sectors, such as retail and hospitality, remained below the EU-15 average, however. The pressures primarily affect unskilled, semi-skilled, and manufacturing jobs. Outsourcing of professional jobs also increased, with Poland in 2008 gaining several hundred former Irish jobs from the accountancy divisions of Philips and Dell.

Promotion of indigenous industry
One of the major challenges facing Ireland is the successful promotion of indigenous industry. Although Ireland boasted a few large international companies, such as AIB, CRH, Élan, Kerry Group, Ryanair, and Smurfit Kappa, there are few companies with over one billion euros in annual revenue. The government has charged Enterprise Ireland with the task of boosting Ireland's indigenous industry and launched a website in 2003 with the objective of streamlining and marketing the process of starting a business in Ireland.

Reliance on foreign energy sources
Ireland relies on imported fossil fuels for over 80% of its energy. Ireland for many years in the middle twentieth century limited its dependence on external energy sources by developing its peat bogs, building various hydroelectric projects, including a dam at Ardnacrusha on the River Shannon in 1928, developing offshore gas fields, and diversifying into coal in the 1970s. As gas, peat, and hydroelectric power have been almost fully exploited in Ireland, there is a continuously increasing need for imported fossil fuels at a time of increasing concerns about security of supply and global warming. One solution is to develop alternative energy sources, including wind power and, to a lesser extent, wave power.

An offshore wind farm is currently under construction off the east coast near Arklow, and many remote locations in the west show potential for wind farm development. A report by Sustainable Energy Ireland indicated that if wind power were properly developed, Ireland could one day be exporting excess wind power if the natural difficulties of integrating wind power into the national grid are solved. Wind power by November 2009 already accounted for 15.4% of total installed generating capacity in the state. By 2020, the Irish government forecasts that 40% of the country's energy needs will come from renewable sources, well above the EU average.

Distribution of wealth
Ireland's new wealth is unevenly distributed. The United Nations reported in 2004 that Ireland was second only to the US in inequality among Western nations. There is some opposition to the theory that Ireland's wealth has been unusually unevenly distributed, among them economist and journalist David McWilliams. He cites Eurostat figures which indicate that Ireland is just above average in terms equality by one type of measurement. Moreover, Ireland's inequality persists by other measurements. According to an ESRI report published in December 2006, Ireland's child poverty level ranks 22nd out of the 26 richest countries, and it is the 2nd most unequal country in Europe.

Banking scandals
The New York Times in 2005 described Ireland as the "Wild West of European finance", a perception that helped prompt the creation of the Irish Financial Services Regulatory Authority. Despite its mandate for stricter oversight, the agency never imposed major sanctions on any Irish institution, even though Ireland had experienced several major banking scandals in overcharging of their customers. Industry representatives disputed the idea that Ireland may be home to unchecked financial frauds. In December 2008, irregularities in directors' loans that had been kept off one bank's balance sheet for eight years forced the resignation of the Financial Regulator. Economic commentator David McWilliams has described the collapse of Anglo Irish Bank as Ireland's Enron.

Contraction of the Tiger
Ireland bond prices.webp in 2011

]] [[File:European debt to GDP ratios.webp|thumb|300px|European debt to GDP ratios

]] In an economic analysis, the Economic and Social Research Institute (ESRI) on 24 June 2008 forecast the possibility the Irish economy would experience marginal negative growth in 2008. This would be the first time since 1983. Outlining possible prospects for the economy for 2008, the ESRI said output of goods and services might fall that year—which would have been the Irish definition of a mild recession. It also predicted a recovery in 2009 and 2010.

In September 2008, Ireland became the first eurozone country to officially enter recession. The recession was confirmed by figures from the Central Statistics Office showing the bursting of the property bubble and a collapse in consumer spending that terminated the boom that was the Celtic Tiger. The figures show the gross domestic product (GDP), which measures the value of all the goods and services produced in the State, fell 0.8% in the second three months of 2008 compared with the same quarter of 2007. That was the second successive quarter of negative economic growth, which is one definition of a recession. The Celtic Tiger was declared dead by October 2008.

In a November 2008 interview in Hot Press, in a grim assessment of where Ireland stood, then Taoiseach Brian Cowen said many people still did not realise how badly shaken the public finances were. By 30 January 2009, Ireland's government debt had become the riskiest in the euro zone, surpassing Greece's sovereign bonds, according to credit-default swap prices. In February 2009, Taoiseach Brian Cowen said that Ireland's economy appeared on course to contract by 6.5% in 2009.

Aftermath
Former Taoiseach Garret FitzGerald blamed Ireland's dire economic state in 2009 on a series of "calamitous" government policy errors. Between the years of 2000 and 2003 the then Finance Minister Charlie McCreevy boosted public spending by 48% while cutting income tax. A second problem occurred when government policies allowed, or even encouraged, a housing bubble to develop, "on an immense scale". However, he wrote nothing of the impact of the European Central Bank's low interest rates which funded the property bubble and further exacerbated the overheating economy

Nobel laureate Paul Krugman had a bleak prediction, “As far as responding to the recession goes, Ireland appears to be really, truly without options, other than to hope for an export-led recovery, if and when the rest of the world bounces back.”

The International Monetary Fund in mid-April 2009 forecast a very poor outlook for Ireland. It projected that the Irish economy would contract by 8 per cent in 2009 and by 3 per cent in 2010 – and that might be on the optimistic side.

On 19 November 2010, the Irish government began talks on a multibillion-dollar economic assistance package with experts from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the European Union. Unemployment in Ireland was forecasted to rise almost 17 per cent in 2010, the Economic and Social Research Institute (ESRI) stated in a report published on 28 April 2009, however, the unemployment rate in 2010 steadied at 14%. In 2010, the unemployment rate was at 14.8 per cent, and in order to escape economic downfall, Ireland requested €67.5 billion ($85.7 billion) from the International Monetary Fund and members of the euro area. Taking the money meant accepting austerity.

The economic contraction in Ireland ended in 2015, when the economy began growing. The economy began outpacing the rest of the European Union after this period. The economy of Ireland continued to grow in 2022 rising by 11%, although projected to slow with the global recession.

Cultural impact
The Celtic Tiger had more than just an economic impact, impacting also Ireland's social backdrop. 2007 research by the Economic and Social Research Institute, prior to the crash, found that fears over wider social inequality, declining community life, and a more selfish, materialist approach to life were largely unfounded, and that the social impact of the Celtic Tiger had largely been positive. The economic boom led to lower levels of emigration and higher immigration than had historically been the case, while the government of the time acknowledged the continuing strain on some public services and that the "provision of social housing, childcare and the integration of newcomers" remained political priorities.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Celtic Tiger


text:
1630s BC

The 1630s BC was a decade lasting from January 1, 1639 BC to December 31, 1630 BC.

Events and trends

 * 1633 BC—May 2—Lunar Saros 34 begins.
 * Before 1630 BC – 1500 BC—Landscape (Spring fresco), wall painting with areas of modern reconstruction from Akrotiri, Thera, Cyclades, is made. It is now at National Archaeological Museum, Athens.

Significant lifeforms

 * 1637 BC—Death of Abraham according to Jewish calculations (2,123 years after biblical creation)
 * 1634 BC—Death of Salah, son of Arpachshad, according to the Hebrew calendar

title: 1630s BC


text:
1640s BC

The 1640s BC was a decade lasting from January 1, 1649 BC to December 31, 1640 BC.

Significant people

 * Bazaya, King of Assyria, (r. 1650 – 1622)
 * Ammi-Ditana, King of Babylonia, (r. 1684 – 1647) (Middle chronology)
 * Ammi-Saduqa, King of Babylonia, (r. 1647 – 1626) (Middle chronology)
 * Tang, Shang dynasty king of China, (r. 1675 – 1646)
 * Tài Dīng, Shang dynasty king of China, (r. 1646 – 1644)
 * Bu Bing, Shang dynasty king of China, (r. 1644 – 1612)
 * Salitis, Fifteenth Dynasty pharaoh of Egypt, (r. undefined – undefined) c. 1648–1628 BC
 * Djehuti, Sixteenth Dynasty pharaoh of Egypt, (r. undefined – undefined) c. 1650–1647 BC
 * Sobekhotep VIII, Sixteenth Dynasty pharaoh of Egypt, (r. undefined – undefined) c. 1647–1631 BC
 * Kuk-Nashur II, King of Elam, (r. undefined – undefined) c.  1650–1635 BC
 * Hattusili I, King of the Hittites, (r. undefined – undefined) c. 1650–1620 BC (middle chronology)
 * Kashtiliash II, King of the Kassites, (r. 1650 – 1640)
 * Urzigurumash, King of the Kassites, (r. 1640 – 1630)
 * Ishkibal, King of the Sealand, (r. 1657 – 1642)
 * Shushshi, King of the Sealand, (r. 1642 – 1618)

title: 1640s BC


text:
1690s BC

The 1690s BC was a decade lasting from January 1, 1699, BC to December 31, 1690, BC.

Events and trends

 * The Minoan and Harappan Civilizations continue to exist in Crete and Ancient India respectively.
 * 1700–1500 BC—Hurrian conquests.
 * Second Intermediate Period, in which the Hyksos invades Egypt, continues.
 * 1698 BC- King Jie of China kills his minister Guan Longfeng according to Chinese legend.
 * The Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt, according to Thrasyllus of Mendes, an Egyptian mathematician and astronomer who lived in the reign of Tiberius (c. 1691 BC).
 * 1691 BC June—Lunar Saros 32 begins.

Significant people

 * Belu-bani, King of Assyria, r. 1700–1691 BC.
 * Libaia, King of Assyria r. 1691–1674 BC.
 * Abi-eshuh, King of Babylon, r. 1712–1684 (middle chronology)
 * Jie, Legendary King of the supposed Xia dynasty (existence disputed) in China, r. c.1728–1675 BC
 * Merneferre Ay, Pharaoh of Egypt, r. c.1714–1691 BC
 * Merhotepre Ini, Pharaoh of Egypt, r. c.1691–1689 BC
 * Fourteenth dynasty Pharaohs (see List of Pharaohs for details), 1705–1690 BC
 * Lila-Ir-Tash king of the Elamite Empire, r. c.1700–c.1698 BC.
 * Temti-Agun I king of the Elamite Empire, r. c.1698–c.1690 BC.
 * Tan-Uli king of the Elamite Empire, r. c.1690–c.1655 BC.
 * Agum I, King of the Kassites, r. 1705–1690 BC
 * Kashtiliash I, King of the Kassites, r. 1690–1680 BC
 * Itti-Ili-Nibi, King of the Sealand, r. c.1700–1683 BC
 * 1695 BC—Death of Sarah, wife of Abraham, according to the Hebrew Calendar
 * 1691 BC—Death of Merneferre Ay, Pharaoh of Egypt

title: 1690s BC


text:
1680s BC

The 1680s BC was a decade lasting from January 1, 1689 BC to December 31, 1680 BC.

Events and trends

 * Egypt—Start of the Sixteenth Dynasty.
 * Egypt—Development of leavened bread (date approximate).

Significant people

 * 1686 BC—Death of Hammurabi (short chronology)
 * 1684 BC—Death of Érimón, Irish legend

title: 1680s BC


text:
1670s BC

The 1670s BC was a decade lasting from January 1, 1679 BC to December 31, 1670 BC.

Events and trends

 * c. 1674 BC—End of Middle Kingdom in Ancient Egypt. Start of the Second intermediate period, the 15th–17th Dynasties.
 * Egypt—Start of the Fifteenth Dynasty.
 * 1674 BC—Hyksos invade Egypt.

Significant people

 * 1677 BC—Death of Terah, father of Abraham, according to the Hebrew Calendar
 * 1675 BC—Death of Niqmi-Epuh, Great King of Yamhad, according to the Middle chronology

title: 1670s BC


text:
1660s BC

The 1660s BC was a decade lasting from January 1, 1669 BC to December 31, 1660 BC.

Events and trends

 * 1664 BC: Gravitational interactions with Saturn result in the centaur Chiron being forced into a different orbit.
 * 1662 BC—May 22—Lunar Saros 33 begins.

Significant people

 * 1661 BC: Iptar-Sin became the King of Assyria.
 * 1664 BC: Death of Arpachshad, son of Shem, son of Noah, according to the Hebrew calendar.

title: 1660s BC


text:
1610s BC

The 1610s BC was a decade lasting from January 1, 1619 BC to December 31, 1610 BC.

Events and trends

 * 1610 - A volcanic eruption at Thera island destroyed the ancient city of Akrotiri.
 * 1618 - The Chinese records a famine accompanied with frost in July. They also recorded a dim sun and yellow fog during this time.

Significant people

 * King Tang of Shang dynasty China (1617 BC–1588 BC)

title: 1610s BC


text:
1620s BC

The 1620s BC was a decade lasting from January 1, 1629 BC to December 31, 1620 BC.

Events and trends

 * 1627 BC—Beginning of a period of cooling of the world climate lasting several years, recorded in tree-rings all over the world. Various volcanic eruptions have been suggested for the cause of this climatic event; the Minoan eruption of Thera, the Avellino eruption of Mount Vesuvius, or the eruption of Mount Aniakchak.
 * 1625 BC—Samsu-Ditana becomes King of Babylon (middle chronology).
 * 1621 BC—Lullaia becomes the King of Assyria.
 * 1620 BC—Mursili I becomes King of the Hittite Empire (middle chronology).

title: 1620s BC


text:
1600s BC (decade)

The 1600s BC was a decade lasting from January 1, 1609 BC to December 31, 1600 BC.

Events and trends

 * Egypt—End of Fourteenth Dynasty.
 * The creation of one of the oldest surviving astronomical documents, a copy of which was found in the Babylonian library of Ashurbanipal: a 21-year record of the appearances of Venus (which the early Babylonians called Nindaranna).
 * The end of the Indus Valley civilization.
 * The overthrow of the ruling Amorite dynasty in Aleppo, Syria.
 * The date of the earliest discovered rubber balls.
 * Egypt conquered by Asian tribes known as the Hyksos—see History of ancient Israel and Judah.
 * 1600 BC—Shang dynasty instituted in China.
 * 1600 BC—Tumulus culture started.
 * c. 1600 BC—Nebra skydisk created in what is now Germany.
 * c. 1600 BCThe foundations of the Olmec civilization in southern Mexico.
 * c. 1600 BC—Cycladic civilization ends.
 * c. 1600 BC–1550 BC—"Mask of Agamemnon" Funerary mask, from the royal tombs at Mycenae, Greece, is made. Grave Circle A. It is now at National Archaeological Museum of Athens.
 * c. 1600 BC–1200 BC—Hittite (Anatolia) iron tools and weapons.
 * c. 1600 BC – 1200 BC—Tiryns, Ancient Greece, is inhabited.
 * c. 1600 BC—Kings and princes on the mainland Greece have begun building large aboveground burial places commonly referred to as beehive tombs because of their rounded, conical shape.
 * c. 1600 BC—Hittites establish capital at Hattusa (near modern Boğazkale, Turkey).

Significant people

 * 1602 BC—Death of Shem, son of Noah, according to the Hebrew Calendar

title: 1600s BC (decade)


text:
1650s BC

The 1650s BC was a decade lasting from January 1, 1659 BC to December 31, 1650 BC.

Events and trends

 * c. 1655 BC—Tan-Uli, the ruler of the Elamite Empire, dies.
 * c. 1650 BC—Greeks start to live in Mycenae.
 * c. 1650 BC—Middle Kingdom ends in Ancient Egypt (other date is 1674 BC).
 * c. 1650 BC—Second Intermediate Period starts in Ancient Egypt (other date is 1674 BC).
 * c. 1650 BC — "Flotilla" fresco, from Room 5 of West House, Akrotiri (prehistoric city), Thera, is made. Second Palace period. It is now kept in National Archaeological Museum, Athens.
 * Egypt—Start of Seventeenth Dynasty.
 * c. 1650 BC—Between Rapperswil and Hurden, on the so-called Seedamm, a first wooden bridge was constructed on Lake Zürich in Switzerland
 * c. 1650 BC—The last Woolly mammoths die on Wrangel Island, rendering the species extinct.
 * c. 1650 BC—The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus is produced.

Significant lifeforms

 * c.1653 BC —Alerce Milenario is estimated to have germinated this year.

title: 1650s BC


text:
Talk:1980s

Broken Link at External Links
The Link (KCLibrary (Old Site(?)) appears to send users to found-not-help (Yahoo Search). I believe the link has been moved here: (Newer Site(?)).  18:23, 11 Mar 2009 (EST)  —Preceding unsigned comment added by KillerSociopath (talk • contribs)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 17:36, 17 May 2022 (UTC)
 * Madonna revistapelo 1985.jpg

Map Colours
Hi, would it make more sense for the map colours to have nonaffiliated countries as a more unique colour rather than blending in with the west. like green or maybe a more bolder orange as to differentiate. even grey or white would probably work. I don't know how to do this personally but I'm sure someone does. MishaQuinn (talk) 00:23, 20 May 2022 (UTC)

Collage
It appears an RFC on collages on Wikiproject years will be interpreted to also ban collages in decade articles. Users here may wish to participate. Koopinator (talk) 07:17, 24 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:1980s


text:
Talk:Hydra 70

The page contains a number of uses of the word "fuzes". Shouldn't it be "fuses"? Maybe the English dialect of whoever entered the text allows the former spelling, but since the topic is US-related, shouldn't the US spelling apply? I reali(z/s)e that as a Canadian, it is possible that the spelling with the "z" is correct but I doubt it.
 * "Fuse" is not spelt as "Fuze" in any English dialect I know of. --80.229.225.137 18:44, 22 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Well it is spelled "fuze" in American English. See here http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=fuze -- Thatguy96 19:22, 22 February 2007 (UTC)

That site is american of course, but!: 'fuze' is distinct in that it refers to an explosive triggering device, not an electrical component. I doubt different spellings are relevant here. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.24.134.243 (talk) 13:00, 1 February 2008 (UTC)

Found this as well... http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuse_%28explosives%29#Fuze Up to you to decide the correct/relevant spelling now. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.24.134.243 (talk) 16:17, 4 February 2008 (UTC)

Picture
The picture at the top of the article is an AH-1G which fired Mk40 2.75-inch FFAR rockets from the M200 19-shot rocket pod or launcher (2 shown). --Born2flie 19:46, 15 July 2007 (UTC)
 * It also says "missiles," a better picture should be located. -- Thatguy96 20:56, 15 July 2007 (UTC)

Did they?
Did they make a nuclear version of this rocket so that if anyone tries to attack a platform that has these rockets, they will be sorry? Mickman1234 (talk) 01:48, 9 August 2010 (UTC)

No. These rockets are too small for a nuclear warhead.Righteous9000 (talk) 06:34, 19 August 2010 (UTC)

Sky blue rockets are inert dummies
Sky blue aircraft rockets--be they Hydra 70s, Sidewinders or whatever--are inert dummies used only as mass simulators for training. This article needs to be illustrated with some close-up photos of real Hydra 70 rockets with live engines and fuses. Some Hydra 70 warheads are turquoise blue but can be easily distinguished from dummies by the presence of the fuse on the forward tip of the nose. The blue rockets in the first photo in this article are clearly labeled as dummies. The third photo also shows dummies. Keep looking. Good photos of real Hydra 70s are easy to find online. Magneticlifeform (talk) 05:04, 7 December 2010 (UTC)

Blacklisted Links Found on the Main Page
Cyberbot II has detected that page contains external links that have either been globally or locally blacklisted. Links tend to be blacklisted because they have a history of being spammed, or are highly innappropriate for Wikipedia. This, however, doesn't necessarily mean it's spam, or not a good link. If the link is a good link, you may wish to request whitelisting by going to the request page for whitelisting. If you feel the link being caught by the blacklist is a false positive, or no longer needed on the blacklist, you may request the regex be removed or altered at the blacklist request page. If the link is blacklisted globally and you feel the above applies you may request to whitelist it using the before mentioned request page, or request its removal, or alteration, at the request page on meta. When requesting whitelisting, be sure to supply the link to be whitelisted and wrap the link in nowiki tags. The whitelisting process can take its time so once a request has been filled out, you may set the invisible parameter on the tag to true. Please be aware that the bot will replace removed tags, and will remove misplaced tags regularly.

Below is a list of links that were found on the main page:

 * http://www.army-technology.com/projects/hydra-70-rocket-system-us/
 * Triggered by  on the local blacklist

If you would like me to provide more information on the talk page, contact User:Cyberpower678 and ask him to program me with more info.

From your friendly hard working bot.— cyberbot II NotifyOnline 12:45, 3 April 2014 (UTC)

✅ This issue has been resolved, and I have therefore removed the tag, if not already done. No further action is necessary.— cyberbot II NotifyOnline 19:11, 9 April 2014 (UTC)

Missing information
"10 	M442 	Air burst, Motor-Burnout Delay 	Discharges Flare at 3,281 yards (3,000 m), 17-22G required for arming"

What are these 17-22G? Are they a certain type of fuses or does "G" means some kind of acceleration, as in g-force? --37.24.9.229 (talk) 14:23, 3 December 2014 (UTC)

K, found it is g-force so it schould be put like 17 - 22 g and not with a capital "G". --37.24.9.229 (talk) 14:30, 3 December 2014 (UTC)

The map of countries that utilize the Hydra 70 highlights Columbia, but it's not included in the bulleted list. Depending on which source is accurate (the graphic or the list), the other should be brought into alignment.

CRV-7 2.75" rocket
The article states that the Hydra rocket is derived from the American FFAR rocket. I would suggest a look at the CRV-7 rocket, an earlier rocket, developed by Canada. Teknodweeb (talk) 13:08, 9 May 2015 (UTC)

Illustrations
I don't understand the politics here. I provided my own illustrations. But I am not allowed to publish them on the page because they are created by me or I have to give up copyright entirely. AkelaFreedom (talk) 10:30, 10 December 2022 (UTC)

 * It's not policy, but copyright law. You cannot post copyrighted images to Wikimedia Commons without clear permission from the copyright holder. BilCat (talk) 10:52, 10 December 2022 (UTC)
 * I am the copyright holder AkelaFreedom (talk) 11:01, 10 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Technically, my images are not registered on any copyright sites. AkelaFreedom (talk) 11:02, 10 December 2022 (UTC)
 * The DeviantArt site lists a copyright in your name for 2018-2022 on the image page. That's all that's needed. BilCat (talk) 11:08, 10 December 2022 (UTC)
 * I am not a specialist in jurisprudence, can you specifically explain what to do according to your rules - I am the author of these works and I want to provide them free of charge for publication in this article, what else is required of me? AkelaFreedom (talk) 11:12, 10 December 2022 (UTC)

Production Contractors
So, looking at an old Tom Clancy book; "Armored Cav", he lists in the Bibliography the the contractor is BEI Defense Systems. There isn't a wiki page for that, but I did find a fascinating source on the companies history:

{edit} the link was blocked for some reason, it was from "reference for business BEI-Technologies-Inc"

It was a former Piano/Organ Company (D.H.Baldwin), in WW2 it's woodworking abilities were used for aircraft manufacture. But post-war, it switched from Wood focus to Electronic focus in Next-Generation Musical Instruments. In the early 50's, this earned it the attention of the Military, then NASA (1963 Baldwin Electronics Inc.). It's unclear when it became contractor for the Hydra-70, as it doesn't seem to have had prior involvement in explosives or rocket engines.

By 1997, it seems to have shut down it's munitions manufacture, it's remaining Products being Sensors & Medical Technology. (As an aside, banking was a major part of it's early history as a piano maker/seller, the banking side was split in 1974, unclear what became of the instrument part of the company)

So I don't know who restarted rocket production after BEI left.

Thought this would be interesting!2603:7080:CB3F:5032:F195:44E2:9B42:EBDB (talk) 21:01, 26 March 2023 (UTC)

 * Since 1996, it seems that General Dynamics Ordnance and Tactical Systems was the Prime Contractor
 * Another source says it was "Lockheed Martin Ordnance Systems", that was then sold to General Dynamics in 1999 named "Armament and Technical Products" at the time?2603:7080:CB3F:5032:F195:44E2:9B42:EBDB (talk) 22:01, 26 March 2023 (UTC)

History?
When were they created? What conflicts have they seen service in? All the article says is "The Hydra 70 is derived from the 2.75-inch (70 mm) diameter Mk 4/Mk 40 Folding-Fin Aerial Rocket developed by the United States Navy for use as a free-flight aerial rocket in the late 1940s. The Mk 40 was used during the Korean and Vietnam wars". Okay, so that's when the FFAR was developed and used - when was the Hydra 70? 110.145.146.198 (talk) 01:01, 19 September 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hydra 70