text:
908

Year 908 (CMVIII) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Byzantine Empire

 * May 15 – The three-year-old Constantine VII, the son of Emperor Leo VI (the Wise), is crowned as co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire by Patriarch Euthymius I at Constantinople. The ceremony is held in the Hagia Sophia. After the rituals, Constantine is crowned (symbolically) and becomes Leo's successor.

Europe

 * August 3 – Battle of Eisenach: An invading Hungarian force defeats the East Frankish army under Duke Burchard, killing him, together with Duke Egino and Rudolf I, bishop of Würzburg. The Hungarians devastate Thuringia and Saxony as far north as Bremen, returning home with many spoils.
 * Duke Atenulf I (the Great) of Benevento attacks the Saracens at the Garigliano River, with the assistance of Naples and Amalfi. Crossing the river, Atenulf defeats an Arab army and reaches the walls of their fortified camp. However, the sudden withdrawal of the Neapolitans renders the siege useless.

Ireland

 * September 13 – Battle of Belach Mugna: In an alliance with the kings Cerball mac Muirecáin of Leinster, Cathal mac Conchobair of Connacht, and Cellach mac Cerbaill of Osraige, High King Flann Sinna defeats the forces of King Cormac mac Cuilennáin of Munster near Castledermot (County Kildare).

Arabian Empire

 * August 13 – Abbasid caliph al-Muktafi died and he was succeeded by his nominated heir, his younger brother Jafar (Al-Muqtadir).
 * December 17 – Husayn ibn Hamdan leads a revolt to depose the newly-appointed Abbasid Caliph Al-Muqtadir in Baghdad. He installs his uncle Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz and kills vizier Al-Abbas ibn al-Hasan al-Jarjara'i, but fails to murder Al-Muqtadir. This leads, finally, to the coup's collapse.
 * Winter – Snow falls in Baghdad. According to Arabic writings, even rivers are frozen.

China

 * March 26 – Emperor Taizu (Zhu Wen) of Later Liang has the 15-year-old Li Zhu, the last Tang Dynasty emperor, poisoned. Li Zhu receives the posthumous name of Ai ("lamentable").
 * May 1 – Emperor Wang Jian of Former Shu puts his adoptive son (and a potential successor) Wang Zongji (Prince of Shu) to death. He orders Wang Zongji's associates to be exiled.
 * June 9 – The generals Zhang Hao and Xu Wen assassinate Yang Wo (Prince of Hongnong). He is succeeded by his 11-year-old brother Yang Longyan as ruler of the Wu Kingdom.
 * June 18 – Xu Wen murders Zhang Hao and takes over as Yang Longyan's regent, and sole commander of the imperial guard. He becomes de facto ruler of the Wu Kingdom.

Births

 * Al-Muttaqi, Abbasid caliph (d. 968)
 * Guo Chong, Chinese general (approximate date)
 * Ibrahim ibn Sinan, Abbasid mathematician (d. 946)
 * Kiyohara no Motosuke, Japanese nobleman (d. 990)
 * Thankmar, Frankish prince (approximate date)

Deaths

 * February 23 – Li Keyong, Shatuo governor (b. 856)
 * March 25 – Li Kening, Chinese general
 * March 26 – Ai, emperor of the Tang Dynasty (b. 892)
 * April 25 – Zhang Wenwei, Chinese chancellor
 * May 1 – Wang Zongji, Chinese prince and pretender
 * June 9 – Yang Wo, emperor of Wu (b. 886)
 * June 18 – Zhang Hao, Chinese general
 * August 3
 * Burchard, duke of Thuringia
 * Egino, duke of Thuringia
 * Rudolf I, bishop of Würzburg
 * August 13 – Al-Muktafi, Abbasid caliph
 * September 13 – Cormac mac Cuilennáin, king of Munster (Ireland)
 * December 17
 * Al-Abbas ibn al-Hasan al-Jarjara'i, Abbasid vizier
 * Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz, Abbasid poet (b. 861)
 * Blaise of Amorion, Byzantine monk and missionary
 * Cléirchén mac Murchadh, king of Maigh Seóla (Ireland)
 * Denewulf, bishop of Winchester
 * Li Sijian, Chinese warlord and governor
 * Remigius of Auxerre, Frankish scholar
 * Wang Shifan, Chinese warlord (b. 874)
 * Xuefeng Yicun, Chinese Chan master (b. 822)

title: 908


text:
910

Year 910 (CMX) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * June 12 – Battle of Augsburg: The Hungarians defeat the East Frankish army under King Louis IV (the Child), using the famous feigned retreat tactic of the nomadic warriors. Count Gausbert, the actual commander of the East Frankish army (because Louis IV is only 16 years old at this time), is killed in the battle.
 * June 22 – Battle of Rednitz: The Hungarians defeat the East Frankish army near the Rednitz River, killing its leader Gebhard, Duke of Lotharingia (Lorraine). After the battle Louis IV, together with the East Frankish duchies Franconia, Lotharingia, Bavaria and Saxony, agrees to pay tribute to the Hungarian state.
 * Summer – King Alfonso III of Asturias is forced to abdicate the throne and partitions the kingdom among his three sons. The eldest son, García I, becomes king of León. The second son, Ordoño II, reigns in Galicia, while the third, Fruela II, receives Asturias with Oviedo as his capital.

Britain

 * August 5 – Battle of Tettenhall: King Edward the Elder attacks the joint-Kings Eowils and Halfdan of Norse York. All three Viking monarchs are killed in battle (one chronicle mentions a third brother) and the Viking army is decisively defeated by allied forces of Mercia and Wessex. The co-Kings are succeeded by Ragnall ua Ímair.

Religion

 * William I (the Pious) of Aquitaine, donates land in Burgundy for the building of a Benedictine monastery dedicated to the saints Peter and Paul. Hence the Abbey of Cluny, becomes the largest in the West. In the foundation charter, William renounces all rights to the monastery and nominates Berno as the first abbot of Cluny (Eastern France). He places the monastery directly under the control of the Papal See.
 * Gabriel I becomes Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church in Alexandria (Egypt).

Births

 * Adalbert, archbishop of Magdeburg (approximate date)
 * Eadgyth, Anglo-Saxon princess and queen of Germany (d. 946)
 * Fernán González, count of Castile (approximate date)
 * Fujiwara no Asatada, Japanese nobleman (d. 966)
 * Gamle Eirikssen, Norwegian Viking ruler (d. 955)
 * Gunnhild, Norwegian Viking queen (approximate date)
 * Hedwig of Saxony, Frankish noblewoman and regent (d. 965)
 * Helena Lekapene, Byzantine empress (approximate date)
 * Herbert III, Frankish nobleman (approximate date)
 * John XI, pope of the Catholic Church (d. 935)
 * Ma Yize, Muslim astronomer (approximate date)
 * Minamoto no Saneakira, Japanese nobleman (d. 970)
 * Nilus the Younger, Byzantine abbot (d. 1005)
 * Oda of Metz, German noblewoman (d. 963)
 * Sahl ben Matzliah, Jewish philosopher (d. 990)
 * Yan Xu, Chinese chancellor (d. 967)

Deaths

 * January 26 – Luo Yin, Chinese statesman and poet
 * June 2 – Richilde of Provence, Frankish empress
 * June 22
 * Gebhard, Frankish nobleman
 * Gerhard I, Frankish nobleman
 * July 4 – Luo Shaowei, Chinese warlord (b. 877)
 * July 31 – Feng Xingxi, Chinese warlord
 * August 5
 * Eowils and Halfdan, kings of Northumbria
 * Ingwær, king of Northumbria
 * December 20 – Alfonso III, king of Asturias
 * December 23 – Naum of Preslav, Bulgarian writer
 * Adelin, bishop of Séez (approximate date)
 * Andronikos Doukas, Byzantine general (approximate date)
 * Atenulf I (the Great), Lombard prince
 * Eustathios Argyros, Byzantine general
 * Isa al-Nushari, Abbasid governor
 * Ishaq ibn Hunayn, Abbasid physician (or 911)
 * Junayd Baghdadi, Persian Sufi mystic (b. 835)
 * Liu Shouwen, Chinese warlord and governor
 * Lu Guangchou, Chinese warlord
 * Mahendrapala I, king of Gurjara-Pratihara (India)
 * Muhammad ibn Tahir, Abbasid governor
 * Muncimir, duke (knyaz) of Croatia
 * Sosei, Japanese waka poet (b. 844)
 * Wei Zhuang, Chinese poet (b. 836)
 * Yasovarman I, ruler of the Angkor Empire

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 910


text:
AD 911

911 (CMXI) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Europe

 * September 24 – King Louis IV (the Child), the last Carolingian ruler of the East Frankish Kingdom, dies at Frankfurt am Main after an 11-year reign. The East Frankish dukes elect Conrad I at Forchheim as the king of the East Frankish Kingdom. Charles III is elected as king of Lotharingia. Conrad is chosen through the influence of Louis' guardian and regent, Hatto I, archbishop of Mainz.
 * Autumn – King Charles III (the Simple) and Rollo, leader of the Vikings, sign a peace agreement (Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte). In return for his homage and conversion to Christianity, Rollo becomes a vassal and is made Count of Rouen; this is the beginning of the duchy of Normandy. He divides the lands between the rivers Epte and Risle among his chieftains, and prevents any other Vikings sailing up the Seine to attack the West Frankish Kingdom.
 * The Hungarians cross Bavaria, and invade Swabia and Franconia. They plunder the territories from Minfeld to Aargau. After that, they cross the Rhine, and attack Burgundy for the first time.
 * The Fatimids begin the conquest of Sicily, over their Aghlabid archrivals. Fatimid Sicilian governor Ibn al-Khinzir raids the south Italian coast (approximate date).

Britain

 * Lord Æthelred of Mercia dies. He is buried in St. Oswald's Priory at Gloucester and is succeeded by his wife, Princess Æthelflæd, as Lady of the Mercians. Her brother, King Edward the Elder, insists on taking control of London and Oxford.

Africa

 * A rebellion of the Kutama Berbers against the Fatimid Caliphate occurs. The Kutama tribesmen were previously the main supporters of the Shia regime.

Religion

 * April 14 – Pope Sergius III dies at Rome after a 7-year reign. He is succeeded by Anastasius III as the 120th pope of the Catholic Church.

Births

 * Hassan ibn Ali Kalbi, Fatimid emir (d. 964)
 * Fan Zhi, chancellor of the Song dynasty (d. 964)
 * Gozlin, count of the Ardennes
 * Minamoto no Shitagō, Japanese waka poet (d. 983)
 * Willa of Tuscany, queen consort of Italy (or 912)
 * Yelü Lihu, prince of the Khitan Empire (d. 960)

Deaths

 * February 28 – Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i, Muslim Shia missionary
 * April 4 – Liu Yin, governor of Southern Han (b. 874)
 * April 14 – Sergius III, pope of the Catholic Church
 * August 18 – Al-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahya, first Zaydi Imam of Yemen (b. 859)
 * Æthelred, lord of Mercia and husband of Æthelflæd
 * Burchard I, Frankish nobleman
 * Ibn al-Rawandi, Muslim scholar and writer (b. 827)
 * Louis IV, king of the East Frankish Kingdom (b. 893)
 * Lu Yanchang, Chinese governor (jiedushi)
 * Tecpancaltzin Iztaccaltzin, ruler of the Toltec Empire
 * Wifred II, count of Barcelona

title: AD 911


text:
Neorealism (international relations)

Neorealism or structural realism is a theory of international relations that emphasizes the role of power politics in international relations, sees competition and conflict as enduring features and sees limited potential for cooperation. The anarchic state of the international system means that states cannot be certain of other states' intentions and their security, thus prompting them to engage in power politics.

It was first outlined by Kenneth Waltz in his 1979 book Theory of International Politics. Alongside neoliberalism, neorealism is one of the two most influential contemporary approaches to international relations; the two perspectives dominated international relations theory from the 1960s to the 1990s.

Neorealism emerged from the North American discipline of political science, and reformulates the classical realist tradition of E. H. Carr, Hans Morgenthau, George Kennan, and Reinhold Niebuhr. Neorealism is subdivided into defensive and offensive neorealism.

Origins
Neorealism is an ideological departure from Hans Morgenthau's writing on classical realism. Classical realism originally explained the machinations of international politics as being based on human nature and therefore subject to the ego and emotion of world leaders. Neorealist thinkers instead propose that structural constraints—not strategy, egoism, or motivation—will determine behavior in international relations. John Mearsheimer made significant distinctions between his version of offensive neorealism and Morgenthau in his book titled The Tragedy of Great Power Politics.

Theory
Structural realism holds that the nature of the international structure is defined by its ordering principle (anarchy), units of the system (states), and by the distribution of capabilities (measured by the number of great powers within the international system), with only the last being considered an independent variable with any meaningful change over time. The anarchic ordering principle of the international structure is decentralized, meaning there is no formal central authority; every sovereign state is formally equal in this system. These states act according to the logic of egoism, meaning states seek their own interest and will not subordinate their interest to the interests of other states.

States are assumed at a minimum to want to ensure their own survival as this is a prerequisite to pursue other goals. This driving force of survival is the primary factor influencing their behavior and in turn ensures states develop offensive military capabilities for foreign interventionism and as a means to increase their relative power. Because states can never be certain of other states' future intentions, there is a lack of trust between states which requires them to be on guard against relative losses of power which could enable other states to threaten their survival. This lack of trust, based on uncertainty, is called the security dilemma.

States are deemed similar in terms of needs but not in capabilities for achieving them. The positional placement of states in terms of abilities determines the distribution of capabilities. The structural distribution of capabilities then limits cooperation among states through fears of relative gains made by other states, and the possibility of dependence on other states. The desire and relative abilities of each state to maximize relative power constrain each other, resulting in a 'balance of power', which shapes international relations. It also gives rise to the 'security dilemma' that all nations face. There are two ways in which states balance power: internal balancing and external balancing. Internal balancing occurs as states grow their own capabilities by increasing economic growth and/or increasing military spending. External balancing occurs as states enter into alliances to check the power of more powerful states or alliances.

Neorealism sees states as "black boxes," as the structure of the international system is emphasized rather than the units and their unique characteristics within it as being causal.

Neorealists contend that there are essentially three possible systems according to changes in the distribution of capabilities, defined by the number of great powers within the international system. A unipolar system contains only one great power, a bipolar system contains two great powers, and a multipolar system contains more than two great powers. Neorealists conclude that a bipolar system is more stable (less prone to great power war and systemic change) than a multipolar system because balancing can only occur through internal balancing as there are no extra great powers with which to form alliances. Because there is only internal balancing in a bipolar system, rather than external balancing, there is less opportunity for miscalculations and therefore less chance of great power war. That is a simplification and a theoretical ideal.

Neorealists argue that processes of emulation and competition lead states to behave in the aforementioned ways. Emulation leads states to adopt the behaviors of successful states (for example, those victorious in war), whereas competition leads states to vigilantly ensure their security and survival through the best means possible. Due to the anarchic nature of the international system and the inability of states to rely on other states or organizations, states have to engage in "self-help."

For neorealists, social norms are considered largely irrelevant. This is in contrast to some classical realists which did see norms as potentially important. Neorealists are also skeptical of the ability of international organizations to act independently in the international system and facilitate cooperation between states.

Defensive realism
Structural realism has become divided into two branches, defensive and offensive realism, following the publication of Mearsheimer's The Tragedy of Great Power Politics in 2001. Waltz's original formulation of neorealism is now sometimes called defensive realism, while Mearsheimer's modification of the theory is referred to as offensive realism. Both branches agree that the structure of the system is what causes states to compete, but defensive realism posits that most states concentrate on maintaining their security (i.e. states are security maximizers), while offensive realism claims that all states seek to gain as much power as possible (i.e. states are power maximizers). A foundational study in the area of defensive realism is Robert Jervis' classic 1978 article on the "security dilemma." It examines how uncertainty and the offense-defense balance may heighten or soften the security dilemma. Building on Jervis, Stephen Van Evera explores the causes of war from a defensive realist perspective.

Offensive realism
Offensive realism, developed by Mearsheimer differs in the amount of power that states desire. Mearsheimer proposes that states maximize relative power ultimately aiming for regional hegemony.

In addition to Mearsheimer, a number of other scholars have sought to explain why states expand when opportunities to do so arise. For instance, Randall Schweller refers to states' revisionist agendas to account for their aggressive military action. Eric Labs investigates the expansion of war aims during wartime as an example of offensive behavior. Fareed Zakaria analyzes the history of US foreign relations from 1865 to 1914 and asserts that foreign interventions during this period were not motivated by worries about external threats but by a desire to expand US influence.

Within realist thought
While neorealists agree that the structure of the international relations is the primary impetus in seeking security, there is disagreement among neorealist scholars as to whether states merely aim to survive or whether states want to maximize their relative power. The former represents the ideas of Kenneth Waltz, while the latter represents the ideas of John Mearsheimer and offensive realism. Other debates include the extent to which states balance against power (in Waltz's original neorealism and classic realism), versus the extent to which states balance against threats (as introduced in Stephen Walt's 'The Origins of Alliances' (1987)), or balance against competing interests (as introduced in Randall Schweller's 'Deadly Imbalances' (1998)).

With other schools of thought
Neorealists conclude that because war is an effect of the anarchic structure of the international system, it is likely to continue in the future. Indeed, neorealists often argue that the ordering principle of the international system has not fundamentally changed from the time of Thucydides to the advent of nuclear warfare. The view that long-lasting peace is not likely to be achieved is described by other theorists as a largely pessimistic view of international relations. One of the main challenges to neorealist theory is the democratic peace theory and supporting research, such as the book Never at War. Neorealists answer this challenge by arguing that democratic peace theorists tend to pick and choose the definition of democracy to achieve the desired empirical result. For example, the Germany of Kaiser Wilhelm II, the Dominican Republic of Juan Bosch, and the Chile of Salvador Allende are not considered to be "democracies of the right kind" or the conflicts do not qualify as wars according to these theorists. Furthermore, they claim several wars between democratic states have been averted only by causes other than ones covered by democratic peace theory.

Advocates of democratic peace theory see the spreading of democracy as helping to mitigate the effects of anarchy. With enough democracies in the world, Bruce Russett thinks that it "may be possible in part to supersede the 'realist' principles (anarchy, the security dilemma of states) that have dominated practice ... since at least the seventeenth century." John Mueller believes that it is not the spreading of democracy but rather other conditions (e.g., power) that bring about democracy and peace. In consenting with Mueller's argument, Kenneth Waltz notes that "some of the major democracies—Britain in the nineteenth century and the United States in the twentieth century—have been among the most powerful states of their eras."

One of the most notable schools contending with neorealist thought, aside from neoliberalism, is the constructivist school, which is often seen to disagree with the neorealist focus on power and instead emphasises a focus on ideas and identity as an explanatory point for international relations trends. Recently, however, a school of thought called the English School merges neo-realist tradition with the constructivist technique of analyzing social norms to provide an increasing scope of analysis for international relations.

Criticism
Neorealism has been criticized from various directions. Other major paradigms of international relations scholarship, such as liberal and constructivist approaches have criticized neorealist scholarship in terms of theory and empirics. Within realism, classical realists and neoclassical realists have also challenged some aspects of neorealism.

Among the issues that neorealism has been criticized over is the neglect of domestic politics, race,  gains from trade, the pacifying effects of institutions, and the relevance of regime type for foreign policy behavior.

David Strang argues that neorealist predictions fail to account for transformations in sovereignty over time and across regions. These transformations in sovereignty have had implications for cooperation and competition, as polities that were recognized as sovereign have seen considerably greater stability.

In response to criticisms that neorealism lacks relevance for contemporary international policy and does a poor job explaining the foreign policy behavior of major powers, Charles Glaser wrote in 2003, "this is neither surprising nor a serious problem, because scholars who use a realist lens to understand international politics can, and have, without inconsistency or contradiction also employed other theories to understand issues that fall outside realism's central focus."

Notable neorealists

 * Robert J. Art
 * Richard K. Betts
 * Robert Gilpin
 * Robert W. Tucker
 * Joseph Grieco
 * Robert Jervis
 * Christopher Layne
 * Jack Snyder
 * John Mearsheimer
 * Stephen Walt
 * Kenneth Waltz
 * Stephen Van Evera
 * Barry Posen
 * Charles L. Glaser
 * Marc Trachtenberg
 * Gottfried-Karl Kindermann

Books

 * Waltz, Kenneth N. (1959). Man, The State, and War: A Theoretical Analysis ISBN 978-0231125376.
 * Walt, Stephen (1990). The Origins of Alliances ISBN 978-0801494185
 * Van Evera, Stephen. (2001). Causes of War ISBN 978-0801482953
 * Waltz, Kenneth N. (2008). Realism and International Politics ISBN 978-0415954785
 * Art, Robert J. (2008). America's Grand Strategy and World Politics ISBN 978-0415952347
 * Glaser, Charles L. (2010). Rational Theory of International Politics: The Logic of Competition and Cooperation ISBN 978-0691143729

Articles

 * Jervis, Robert (1978). Cooperation Under the Security Dilemma (World Politics, Vol. 30, No.2, 1978)
 * Art, Robert J. (1998). Geopolitics Updated: The Strategy of Selective Engagement (International Security, Vol. 23, No. 3, 1998–99)
 * Farber, Henry S.; Gowa, Jeanne (1995). Polities and Peace (International Security, Vol. 20, No. 2, 1995)
 * Gilpin, Robert (1988). The Theory of Hegemonic War (The Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 18, No. 4, 1988)
 * Posen, Barry (2003). Command of the Commons: The Military Foundations of U.S. Hegemony (International Security, Vol. 28, No. 1, 2003)

title: Neorealism (international relations)


text:
920

Year 920 (CMXX) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Byzantine Empire

 * December 17 – Romanos I has himself crowned co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire. He shares the throne with the 15-year-old Constantine VII (his son-in-law), and constructs an alternative palace at Constantinople with an adjoining monastery near the Great Palace. Though Constantine retains his formal position as first on the protocol list, Romanos becomes sole ruler.

Europe

 * The nobles of Lotharingia under Gilbert, duke of Lorraine, revolt against King Charles III ("the Simple"). They recognize King Henry I ("the Fowler") as their sovereign. Charles invades Lotharingia as far as Pfeddersheim (near Worms), but retreats when he learns that Henry is mobilizing an army to attack the West Frankish Kingdom.
 * Henry I conquers Utrecht (modern-day Netherlands), which has been in possession of the Vikings for 70 years. Balderic, bishop of Utrecht, moves his seat back from Deventer to Utrecht (approximate date).

Britain

 * High-Reeve Ealdred I, ruler of the former kingdom of Bernicia (Northumbria), and his brother Uhtred, submit to the overlordship of King Edward the Elder (approximate date).
 * The Welsh ruler Hywel Dda ("the Good") merges Dyfed and Seisyllwg, establishing a new kingdom known as Deheubarth.

Iberian Peninsula

 * July 26 — At the Battle of Valdejunquera, the Muslim forces of the Emir Abd-ar-Rahman III of Córdoba, defeat the Christian armies of King Ordoño II of León and King Sancho I of Pamplona. The decisive battle at the Val de Junquera takes place following the Emir's pre-emptive strike and his  invasion of the upper Douro valley and the capture of Osma.  The Arab army proceeds on to the upper Ebro, restoring and replenishing Umayyad garrisons in the region.

Africa

 * The Golden Age of the Ghana Empire begins in Africa (approximate date).

Asia

 * Emperor Taizu of the Khitan Empire orders the adoption of a written script by the Khitan, resulting in the creation of Khitan "Large Script."

Climate

 * Muslim chroniclers in Baghdad record an unusually cold summer.

Births

 * Adso of Montier-en-Der, Frankish Benedictine abbot (d. 992)
 * Athanasius the Athonite, Byzantine monk (approximate date)
 * Dunash ben Labrat, Spanish Jewish commentator (d. 990)
 * Fujiwara no Morotada, Japanese statesman (d. 969)
 * Gao Baorong, king of Nanping (Ten Kingdoms) (d. 960)
 * Goltregoda, Frankish countess and regent (d. 963)
 * Guntram the Rich, founder of the House of Habsburg (d. 973)
 * Haakon I, king of Norway (approximate date)
 * Hugh of Vermandois, Frankish archbishop (d. 962)
 * Li Jingsui, prince of Southern Tang (d. 958)
 * Liu Bin, emperor of Southern Han (d. 943)
 * Liu Sheng, emperor of Southern Han (d. 958)
 * Liutprand of Cremona, Lombard bishop (d. 972)
 * Louis IV, king of the West Frankish Kingdom (or 921)
 * Megingoz, count of Guelders (approximate date)
 * Menahem ben Saruq, Spanish Jewish philologist (d. 970)
 * Minamoto no Masanobu, Japanese nobleman (d. 993)
 * Miró III, count of Cerdanya and Besalú (d. 984)
 * Oliba Cabreta, Frankish nobleman (approximate date)
 * Ratna Pala, king of Kamarupa (India) (d. 960)
 * Reginar III, Frankish nobleman (approximate date)
 * Rogvolod, prince of Polotsk (approximate date)

Deaths

 * Abd-Allah Mikali, Abbasid governor
 * Abu Sa'id al-Janadi, Arab scholar
 * Æthelweard, son of Alfred the Great (or 922)
 * Ahmad ibn Sahl, Samanid governor
 * Brahma Pala, king of Kamarupa
 * Georgios I, ruler of Makuria (Egypt)
 * Harumichi no Tsuraki, Japanese poet
 * Mael Macduach, king of Hy Fiachrach (Ireland)
 * Raymond I, count of Pallars and Ribagorza (Spain)
 * Stephen of Liège, Frankish bishop
 * Yang Longyan, king of Wu (b. 897)

title: 920


text:
2 BC

Year 2 BC was a common year starting on Thursday or Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar (the sources differ, see leap year error for further information) and a common year starting on Wednesday of the Proleptic Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Augustus and Silvanus (or, less frequently, year 752 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 2 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Roman Empire

 * February 5 – Augustus is proclaimed pater patriae ("father of the country") by the Roman Senate. This bestowed title is the logical consequence and final proof of Augustus' supreme position as princeps, the first in charge over the Roman state.
 * Julia the Elder, daughter of Augustus, is exiled on charges of treason and adultery to Pandateria; her mother Scribonia accompanies her.
 * The Aqua Alsietina (or Aqua Augusta), a Roman aqueduct in Rome, is constructed during the reign of Augustus (approximate date).
 * Date of the birth of Jesus according to the writings of Tertullian, Eusebius and Epiphanius (probably after the statement of Jesus being "around 30 years old" in AD 29).
 * Dedication of the Forum Augustum.

Parthia

 * Phraates V and his mother Musa become rulers of the Parthian Empire following the murder of Phraates IV.

Armenia

 * Tigranes IV and Erato are restored to the throne after deposing Artavasdes III.

Births

 * Jesus, basis of Christianity (born in the month of Ethanim (Tishrei) (September–October) (approximate date, according to Eusebius of Caesarea and Jehovah's Witnesses)
 * Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, father of Nero

Deaths

 * Fu, Chinese Grand Empress of the Han dynasty
 * Iullus Antonius, Roman consul and son of Mark Antony (b. 43 BC)
 * Phraates IV, king of the Parthian Empire

title: 2 BC


text:
USS Hawes

USS Hawes (FFG-53) is a later model Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigate guided missile frigate. She is named for Rear admiral Richard E. Hawes (1894–1968) who was twice decorated with the Navy Cross for submarine salvage operations.

Construction
The contract to build Hawes was awarded to Bath Iron Works, Bath, Maine, 22 May 1981, and her keel was laid 26 August 1983. She was launched 18 February 1984; sponsored by Mrs. Ruth H. Watson, widow of the late Rear Adm. Hawes; delivered 1 February 1985, and commissioned 9 February 1985.

Service history

On 12 October 2000, Hawes was involved, along with USS Donald Cook (DDG-75), in providing repair and logistics support to USS Cole (DDG-67), shortly after she was attacked in Aden, Yemen. Two al-Qaeda terrorists brought an inflatable Zodiac-type speedboat that carried a bomb alongside guided missile destroyer Cole, while the ship refueled, and detonated their lethal cargo, killing 17 sailors and wounding 42 more. The crewmember's heroic damage control efforts saved Cole. Hawes, Cmdr. J. Scott Jones in command, joined (13 October – October) other ships that took part in Operation Determined Response to assist Cole including: amphibious assault ship USS Tarawa (LHA-1); dock landing ship USS Anchorage (LSD-36); amphibious transport dock USS Duluth (LPD-6); guided missile destroyer Donald Cook; and the Military Sealift Command-operated tug USNS Catawba (T-ATF-168); along with British frigates HMS Cumberland (F85) and HMS Marlborough (F233). The Navy subsequently enhanced global force protection training during crucial transits, and sailors qualified to fire M60 and Browning .50 caliber M2 machine guns to defend against assaults by low-slow flying aircraft and small boats.

Hawes, with Helicopter Antisubmarine Squadron (Light) HSL-48 Detachment 10 embarked, returned from a counter-narcotics deployment to the Caribbean and Western Atlantic to Naval Station Norfolk, Virginia, on 7 October 2009. The ship's operations resulted in the seizure of 200 barrels of cocaine.

In July 2010, Hawes docked for five days at Pier 4 of the Charlestown Navy Yard, participating in a Navy Week coordinated alongside Boston's Harborfest.

Hawes, operating with Destroyer Squadron 26 out of Norfolk, was decommissioned on 10 December 2010. She is moored, pending disposal, at the Naval Sea Systems Command (NavSea) Inactive Ships On-Site Maintenance Office, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

title: USS Hawes


text:
Toulon

Toulon (,,   ; Tolon (classical norm), Touloun (Mistralian norm), ) is a city on the French Riviera and a large port on the Mediterranean coast, with a major naval base. Located in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region, and the Provence province, Toulon is the prefecture of the Var department.

The Commune of Toulon has a population of 176,198 people (2018), making it France's 13th-largest city. It is the centre of an urban unit with 580,281 inhabitants (2018), the ninth largest in France by population Toulon is the second-largest French city by urban area on the Mediterranean coast after Marseille

Toulon is an important centre for naval construction, fishing, wine making, and the manufacture of aeronautical equipment, armaments, maps, paper, tobacco, printing, shoes, and electronic equipment.

The military port of Toulon is the major naval centre on France's Mediterranean coast, home of the French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle and her battle group. The French Mediterranean Fleet is based in Toulon.

Prehistory to the Roman era
Archaeological excavations, such as those at the Cosquer Cave near Marseille, show that the coast of Provence was inhabited since at least the Paleolithic era. Greek colonists came from Phocaea, Asia Minor, in about the 7th century BC and established trading depots along the coast, including one, called Olbia, at Saint-Pierre de l'Almanarre south of Hyères, to the east of Toulon. The Ligurians settled in the area beginning in the 4th century BC.

In the 2nd century BC, the residents of Massalia (present-day Marseille) called upon the Romans to help them pacify the region. The Romans defeated the Ligurians and began to start their own colonies along the coast. A Roman settlement was founded at the present location of Toulon, with the name Telo Martius – Telo, either for the local god of springs Telo or from the Latin tol, the base of the hill – and Martius, for the god of war. Telo Martius became one of the two principal Roman dye manufacturing centres, producing the purple colour used in imperial robes, made from the local sea snail called murex, and from the acorns of the oak trees. Toulon harbour became a shelter for trading ships, and the name of the town gradually changed from Telo to Tholon, Tolon, and Toulon.

Arrival of Christianity and the Counts of Provence
Toulon was Christianized in the 5th century, and the first cathedral built. Honoratus and Gratianus of Toulon (Gratien), according to the Gallia Christiana, were the first bishops of Toulon, but Louis Duchesne gives Augustalis as the first historical bishop. He assisted at councils in 441 and 442 and signed in 449 and 450 the letters addressed to Pope Leo I from the province of Arles.

A Saint Cyprian, disciple and biographer of St. Cæsarius of Arles, is also mentioned as a Bishop of Toulon. His episcopate, begun in 524, had not come to an end in 541; he converted to Catholicism two Visigothic chiefs, Mandrier and Flavian, who became anchorites and martyrs on the peninsula of Mandrier. As barbarians invaded the region and Roman power crumbled, the town was frequently attacked by pirates and the Saracens.

Royal port (15th–18th centuries)

In 1486, Provence became part of France. Soon afterwards, in 1494, Charles VIII of France, with the intention of making France a sea power on the Mediterranean, and to support his military campaign in Italy, began constructing a military port at the harbor of Toulon. His Italian campaign failed, and in 1497, the rulers of Genoa, who controlled commerce on that part of the Mediterranean, blockaded the new port.

In 1524, as part of his longtime battle against Emperor Charles V and the Holy Roman Empire, King François I of France completed a powerful new fort, the Tour Royale, Toulon, at the entrance of the harbour. However, a few months later the commander of the new fort sold it to the commander of an Army of the Holy Roman Empire, and Toulon surrendered.

In 1543, Francis I found a surprising new ally in his battle against the Holy Roman Empire. He invited the fleet of Ottoman Admiral Barbarossa to Toulon as part of the Franco-Ottoman alliance. The residents were forced to leave, and the Ottoman sailors occupied the town for the winter. See Ottoman occupation of Toulon.

In 1646, a fleet was gathered in Toulon for the major Battle of Orbetello, also known as the Battle of Isola del Giglio, commanded by France's first Grand Admiral, the young Grand Admiral Marquis of Brézé, Jean Armand de Maillé-Bréze of 36 galleons, 20 galleys, and a large complement of minor vessels. This fleet carried aboard an army of 8,000 infantry and 800 cavalry and its baggage under Thomas of Savoy, shortly before a general in Spanish service.

King Louis XIV was determined to make France a major sea power. In 1660, his Minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert ordered Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban to build a new arsenal and to fortify the town. In 1707, during the War of the Spanish Succession, Toulon successfully resisted a siege by the Imperial Army led by Duke Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia of Savoy and Prince Eugene. However, in 1720, the city was ravaged by the black plague, coming from Marseille. Thirteen thousand people, or half the population, died.

In 1790, following the French Revolution, Toulon became the administrative centre of the département of the Var. However, in 1793, the Jacobin administration of the city was swept from power, allowing Girondins and royalists to take their place; the city then rose up against the central administration of the First Republic and joined the Federalist revolts. The new Federalist administration surrendered the city and its fleet to the British. French Republican forces then undertook the siege of Toulon, forcing the British to withdraw, taking a number of ships with them and destroying the rest of them. Napoleon Bonaparte served as an artillery captain during the event. To punish Toulon for its rebellion, the town lost its status as department capital and was briefly renamed Port-la-Montagne, after The Mountain faction.

19th century
During the Napoleonic Wars, from 1803 until 1805 a British fleet led by Admiral Horatio Nelson blockaded Toulon.

In 1820, the statue which became known as the Venus de Milo was discovered on the Greek island of Milo and seen by a French naval officer, Emile Voutier. He persuaded the French Ambassador to Turkey to buy it, and brought it to Toulon on his ship, the Estafette. From Toulon it was taken to the Louvre.

20th century
In August 1935, a year before the reign of the Popular Front, violent uprisings of the workers of the Toulon shipyards opposed the policy of austerity. This resulted in a large number of deaths and injuries; a state of emergency was imposed.

During World War II, after the Allied landings in North Africa (Operation Torch) the German Army occupied southern France (Case Anton), leading French naval officers to scuttle the French Fleet based at Toulon on 27 November 1942. The city was bombed by the Allies in November of the following year, with much of the port destroyed and five hundred residents killed. In 1979, the University of Toulon opened. Toulon was one of four French cities where the extreme-right Front National won the local elections in 1995. The Front National was voted out of power in 2001.

Old Town
The old town of Toulon, the historic centre between the port, the Boulevard de Strasbourg and the Cours Lafayette, is a pedestrian area with narrow streets, small squares and many fountains. Toulon Cathedral is there. The area is also home of the celebrated Provençal market, which takes place every morning on the Cours Lafayette and features local products. The old town decayed in the 1980s and 1990s, but recently many of the fountains and squares have been restored and many new shops have opened.

Fountains of Old Toulon
The Old Town of Toulon is known for its fountains, found in many of the small squares, each with a different character. The original system of fountains was built in the late 17th century; most were rebuilt in the 18th or early 19th century and have recently been restored.

Upper Town of Georges-Eugène Haussmann
The upper town, between the Boulevard de Strasbourg and the railway station, was built in the mid-19th century under Louis Napoleon. The project was begun by Georges-Eugène Haussmann, who was prefect of the Var in 1849. Improvements to the neighbourhood included the Toulon Opera, the Place de la Liberté, the Grand Hôtel, the Gardens of Alexander I, the Chalucet Hospital, the Palais de Justice, the train station, and the building now occupied by Galeries Lafayette, among others. Haussmann went on to use the same style on a much grander scale in the rebuilding of central Paris.

Harbour and Arsenal

Toulon harbour is one of the best natural anchorages on the Mediterranean and one of the largest harbours in Europe. A naval arsenal and shipyard was built in 1599, and a small sheltered harbour, the Veille Darse, was built in 1604–1610 to protect ships from the wind and sea. The shipyard was greatly enlarged by Cardinal Richelieu, who wished to make France a Mediterranean naval power. Further additions were made by Jean-Baptiste Colbert and Vauban.

Le Mourillon
Le Mourillon is a small seaside neighbourhood to the east of Toulon, near the entrance of the harbour. It was once a fishing village, and then became the home of many of the officers of the French fleet. Mourillon has a small fishing port, next to a 16th-century fort, Fort Saint Louis, which was reconstructed by Vauban. In the 1970s, the city of Toulon built a series of sheltered sandy beaches in Mourillon, which today are very popular with the Toulonais and naval families. The Museum of Asian Art is in a house on the waterfront near Fort St. Louis.

Mount Faron
Mount Faron (584 m) dominates the city of Toulon. The top can be reached by cable car from Toulon or by a narrow road that ascends from the west side and descends on the east side. The road is one of the stages of the annual Paris–Nice and Tour Méditerranéen bicycle races.

At the top of Mount Faron is a memorial dedicated to the 1944 Allied landings in Provence (Operation Dragoon), and to the liberation of Toulon.

Vauban's fortifications
Beginning in 1678, Vauban constructed an elaborate system of fortifications around Toulon. Some parts, such as the section that once ran along the present-day Boulevard de Strasbourg, were removed in the mid-19th century so the city could be enlarged, but other parts remain. One part that can be visited is the Porte d'Italie, one of the old city gates. Napoleon Bonaparte departed on his triumphant Italian campaign from this gate in 1796.

Museums
Toulon has a number of museums.

The Museum of the French Navy (Musée national de la marine) is located on Place Monsenergue, next on the west side of the old port, a short distance from the Hotel de Ville. The museum was founded in 1814, during the reign of the Emperor Napoleon. It is located today behind what was formerly the monumental gate to the Arsenal of Toulon, built in 1738. The museum building, along with the clock tower next to it, is one of the few buildings of the port and arsenal which survived Allied bombardments during World War II. It contains displays tracing the history of Toulon as a port of the French Navy. Highlights include large 18th-century ship models used to teach seamanship and models of the aircraft carrier Charles De Gaulle.

The Museum of Old Toulon and its Region (Musée du vieux Toulon et de sa région). The Museum was founded in 1912, and contains a collection of maps, paintings, drawings, models and other artifacts showing the history of the city.

The Museum of Asian Arts (Musée des arts asiatiques), in Mourillon. Located in a house with garden which once belonged to the son and later the grandson of author Jules Verne, the museum contains a small but interesting collection of art objects, many donated by naval officers from the time of the French colonization of Southeast Asia. It includes objects and paintings from India, China, Southeast Asia, China Tibet and Japan.

The Museum of Art (Musée d'art) was created in 1888, and contains collections of modern and contemporary art, as well as paintings of Provence from the 17th century to the beginning of the 20th century. It owns works by landscape artists of Provence from the late 19th century (Paul Guigou, Auguste Aiguier, Vincent Courdouan, Félix Ziem), and the Fauves of Provence (Charles Camoin, Auguste Chabaud, Louis Mathieu Verdilhan). The contemporary collections contain works from 1960 to today representing the New Realism Movement (Arman, César, Christo, Klein, Raysse); Minimalist Art (Sol LeWitt, Donald Judd); Support Surface (Cane, Viallat côtoient Arnal, Buren, Chacallis) and an important collection of photographs by Henri Cartier-Bresson, Dieuzaide, Edouard Boubat, Willy Ronis and André Kertész).

The Memorial Museum to the Landings in Provence (Mémorial du débarquement de Provence) is located on the summit of Mount Faron, this small museum, opened in 1964 by President Charles De Gaulle, commemorates the Allied landing in Provence in August 1944 with photos, weapons and models.

The Museum of Natural History of Toulon and the Var (Musée d'histoire naturelle de Toulon et du Var) was founded in 1888, has a large collection of displays about dinosaurs, birds, mammals, and minerals, mostly from the region.

The Hôtel des arts was opened in 1998, presents five exhibits a year of works by well-known contemporary artists. Featured artists have included Sean Scully, Jannis Kounellis, Claude Viallat, Per Kirkeby, and Vik Muniz.

Other points of interest

 * Jardin d'acclimatation du Mourillon
 * Tour Royale, Toulon

Climate
Toulon is subtropical, featuring a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa), characterised by abundant and strong sunshine, dry summers, and rain which is rare but sometimes torrential; and by hot summers and mild winters. Because of its proximity to the sea, the temperature is relatively moderate.

The average temperature in January, the coldest month, is 9.9 °C, the warmest of any city in metropolitan France. In January, the maximum average temperature is 13.2 °C. and the average minimum temperature is 6.6 °C.

The average temperature in July, the warmest month, is 24.7 °C, with an average maximum of 29.5 °C. and an average minimal temperature of 19.9 °C.

According to data collected by Météo-France, Toulon is the second city (after Marseille) in metropolitan France with the most sunshine per year: an average of 2,854.1 hours a year from 1991 to 2020, compared with 2,695 hours a year for Nice and 2,472 hours for Perpignan. This is due to the wall of mountains that largely protects Toulon from the weather coming from the north. With a yearly average temperature of 16.7 °C, it is also one of the warmest cities in metropolitan France.

One distinctive feature of the Toulon climate is the wind, with 115 days a year of strong winds; usually either the cold and dry Mistral or the Tramontane from the north, the wet Marin; or the Sirocco sometimes bearing reddish sand from Africa; or the wet and stormy Levant from the east. (See Winds of Provence.) The windiest month is January, with an average of 12.5 days of strong winds. The least windy month is September, with 7 days of strong winds.

Education
Toulon has a conservatory (Conservatoire TPM, part of Conservatoire à rayonnement régional de Toulon) which taught music, theater, dance and circus and an art academy called École supérieure d'art et de design Toulon Provence Méditerranée. Toulon is also home to a number of institutes of the University of Toulon, known until 2013 as University of the South, Toulon-Var. Toulon has a campus of KEDGE Business School.

Literature
Toulon figures prominently in Victor Hugo's Les Misérables. It is the location of the infamous prison, the bagne of Toulon, in which the protagonist Jean Valjean spends nineteen years in hard labour. Toulon is also the birthplace of the novel's antagonist, Javert. One portion of the wall of the old bagne, or prison, where Jean Valjean was supposedly held still stands to the right of the entrance of the Old Harbour.

In Anthony Powell's novel What's Become of Waring the central characters spend a long summer holiday in Toulon's old town. Powell himself stayed at the Hotel du Port et des Negociants on two occasions in the early 1930s and writes in the second volume of his memoirs ''The naval port, with its small inner harbour, row of cafés along the rade, was quite separate from the business quarter of the town. A paddle steamer plied several times a day between this roadstead and the agreeably unsophisticated plage of Les Sablettes''.

Joseph Conrad's last novel, The Rover, is also set around Toulon.

The last half of Dewey Lambdin's historical fiction novel, H.M.S. Cockerel, (the sixth novel in his Alan Lewrie naval adventure series) details the Siege of Toulon from Lewrie's perspective, as he commands a commandeered French barge carrying sea mortars against Lieutenant-Colonel Bonaparte's forces.

Transport
Toulon is served by the Gare de Toulon railway station, offering suburban services to Marseille (1 train every 15 minutes during rush hour), Nice, Paris and regional destinations. The port of Toulon is the main port of departure for ferries to Corsica. The nearest airport is the regional Toulon-Hyères Airport. The A50 autoroute connects Toulon to Marseille, the A57 autoroute runs from Toulon to Le Luc, where it connects to the A8 autoroute.

The local bus service,, runs 60 routes and transports 30 million passengers annually.

Gastronomy
Local food highlights include:
 * cuisine from the Mediterranean and from Provence
 * the cade toulonnaise, a local speciality composed of chickpea flour and which is equivalent to the Socca of Nice
 * the Chichi Frégi, a type of donut from Provence.
 * Smash Sandwiches, a common sandwich available from street vendors throughout Toulon.

Sport
The most successful of the city's clubs are the rugby union team RC Toulon and the women's handball team Toulon St-Cyr Var Handball, both playing in the top division of their respective sports. The basketball team Hyères-Toulon Var Basket play in the second division of the French championship.

The city hosts the final four of the annual Toulon Tournament, an international under-21 football tournament.

Toulon's main football team is Sporting Club Toulon, which plays in Championnat National, the third level of French football. Famous players such as Delio Onnis, Jean Tigana, Christian Dalger, David Ginola and Sébastien Squillaci have all played for Sporting.

The city has been chosen by Groupama Team France as the venue for the fifth event in the Americas Cup World Series 2016, alongside international cities such as Portsmouth & New York.

Notable residents
Toulon is the birthplace of:
 * Jean Joseph Marie Amiot (1718–1793), Jesuit
 * Gilbert Bécaud (1927–2001), singer
 * Boris Bede (born 1989), gridiron football player
 * Jean Blondel (born 1929), political scientist
 * Jacques Borsarello (born 1951), violist
 * Robert Busnel (1914–1991), basketball player
 * Capucine, actress
 * François Étienne Victor de Clinchamp (1787–1880), painter and author
 * Émile Colonne (1885–1990), operatic baritone
 * Lúcio Costa (1902–1998), architect and urban planner
 * Mireille Darc (1938–2017), actress
 * Kaba Diawara (born 1975), footballer
 * Christophe Dominici (1972–2020), French international rugby player
 * Laurent Emmanuelli (born 1976), rugby player
 * Matar Fall (born 1982), footballer
 * Henri Ghys (1839–1908), composer and pianist
 * Anne Golon (1921–2017), author, wrote a series of novels about a heroine Angélique
 * Josuha Guilavogui, footballer
 * Loïc Jean-Albert (born 1978), expert parachuter
 * Maryse Joissains-Masini (born 1942), Mayor of Aix-en-Provence
 * Jacques Le Goff (1924–2014), historian
 * Ève Lavallière (1866–1929), stage actress
 * Félix Mayol (1972–1941), singer and entertainer, and namesake of RC Toulon's stadium
 * Guy du Merle (1908–1993), aeronautical engineer, test pilot and writer
 * Alain Mucchielli (born 1947), physician
 * Sabine Paturel (born 1965), singer and actress
 * Gabriel Péri (1902–1941), journalist and politician
 * Raimu (1883–1946), actor
 * LiLi Roquelin, singer-songwriter
 * Brigitte Roüan (born 1946), film director and actress
 * Bastien Salabanzi (born 1985), professional skateboarder
 * Cyril Saulnier (born 1975), tennis player
 * Sébastien Squillaci (born 1980), French international footballer
 * Didier Tarquin (born 1967), cartoonist and scenarist
 * Charles Thanaron (1809–1886), capitaine de frégate in the French Navy, member of Dumont d'Urville's second expedition
 * Jean Tournier (1926–2004), cinematographer
 * Joëlle Wintrebert (born 1949), writer

International relations
Toulon is twinned with:

 * La Spezia, Italy, since 1958
 * Mannheim, Germany, since 1958
 * Norfolk, United States, since 1988
 * Kronstadt, Russia, since 1996

title: Toulon


text:
Battle of Bannockburn

The Battle of Bannockburn (Blàr Allt nam Bànag or Blàr Allt a' Bhonnaich) was fought on 23–24 June 1314, between the army of Robert the Bruce, King of Scots, and the army of King Edward II of England, during the First War of Scottish Independence. It was a decisive victory for Robert Bruce and formed a major turning point in the war, which ended 14 years later with the de jure restoration of Scottish independence under the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton. For this reason, the Battle of Bannockburn is widely considered a landmark moment in Scottish history.

King Edward II invaded Scotland after Bruce demanded in 1313 that all supporters, still loyal to ousted Scottish king John Balliol, acknowledge Bruce as their king or lose their lands. Stirling Castle, a Scots royal fortress occupied by the English, was under siege by the Scottish army. King Edward assembled a formidable force of soldiers to relieve it—the largest army ever to invade Scotland. The English summoned 25,000 infantry soldiers and 2,000 horses from England, Ireland and Wales against 6,000 Scottish soldiers, that Bruce had divided into three different contingents. Edward's attempt to raise the siege failed when he found his path blocked by a smaller army commanded by Bruce.

The Scottish army was divided into four divisions of schiltrons commanded by (1) Bruce, (2) his brother Edward Bruce, (3) his nephew, Thomas Randolph, the Earl of Moray and (4) one jointly commanded by Sir James Douglas and the young Walter the Steward. Bruce's friend, Angus Og Macdonald, Lord of the Isles, brought thousands of Islesmen to Bannockburn, including galloglass warriors, and King Robert assigned them the place of honour at his side in his own schiltron with the men of Carrick and Argyll.

After Robert Bruce killed Sir Henry de Bohun on the first day of the battle, the English withdrew for the day. That night, Sir Alexander Seton, a Scottish noble serving in Edward's army, defected to the Scottish side and informed King Robert of the English camp's low morale, telling him they could win. Robert Bruce decided to launch a full-scale attack on the English forces the next day and to use his schiltrons as offensive units, as he had trained them. This was a strategy his predecessor William Wallace had not employed. The English army was defeated in a pitched battle which resulted in the deaths of several prominent commanders, including the Earl of Gloucester and Sir Robert Clifford, and capture of many others, including the Earl of Hereford.

The victory against the English at Bannockburn is one of the most celebrated in Scottish history, and for centuries the battle has been commemorated in verse and art. The National Trust for Scotland operates the Bannockburn Visitor Centre (previously known as the Bannockburn Heritage Centre). Though the exact location for the battle is uncertain, a modern monument was erected in a field above a possible site of the battlefield, where the warring parties are believed to have camped, alongside a statue of Robert Bruce designed by Pilkington Jackson. The monument, along with the associated visitor centre, is one of the most popular tourist attractions in the area.

Background
Edward I had wanted to expand England to prevent a foreign power such as France from capturing territories in the British Isles. But he needed Scotland's allegiance, which led to his campaign to capture Scotland. The Wars of Scottish Independence between England and Scotland began in 1296. Initially, the English were successful under the command of Edward I: they won victories at the Battle of Dunbar (1296) and at the Capture of Berwick (1296). The removal of John Balliol from the Scottish throne also contributed to the English success. However, the Scots defeated the English at the Battle of Stirling Bridge in 1297. This was countered by Edward I's victory at the Battle of Falkirk (1298). By 1304, Scotland had been conquered, but in 1306 Robert the Bruce seized the Scottish throne and the war was reopened.

After the death of Edward I in 1307, his son Edward II of England was crowned as king, but was incapable of providing the determined leadership his father had shown, and the English position soon became more difficult.

In 1313, Bruce demanded the allegiance of all remaining Balliol supporters, under threat of losing their lands. He also demanded the surrender of the English garrison at Stirling Castle, one of the most important castles held by the English, as it commanded the route north into the Scottish Highlands. It was besieged in 1314 by Bruce's younger brother Edward Bruce, and the English decided that if the castle was not relieved by mid-summer it would be surrendered to the Scots.

The English could not ignore this challenge, and prepared and equipped a substantial campaign. Edward II requested from England, Wales and Ireland 2,000 heavily armoured cavalry and 13,000 infantry. It is estimated that no more than half the infantry actually arrived, but the English army was still by far the largest ever to invade Scotland. The Scottish army probably numbered around 7,000 men, including no more than 500 mounted troops. Unlike the English, the Scottish cavalry was probably not equipped for charging enemy lines and suitable only for skirmishing and reconnaissance. The Scottish infantry was likely armed with axes, swords and pikes, and included only a few bowmen.

The precise numerical advantage of the English forces relative to the Scottish forces is unknown, but modern researchers estimate that the Scottish faced English forces one-and-a-half to three times their number.

Prelude
On the morning of 23 June 1314 it was still not certain if a battle was going to take place. The armies were still eight miles apart, giving King Robert the Bruce enough time to decide whether to move northwards beyond the Forth or westwards up the river into a district of mosses and hills. Robert knew that the latter decision would influence the plans of Edward II and his lords. Given the declared objective and the advancing march the previous week, it was obvious that the English would continue their advance on Stirling. In an effort to "rescue" Stirling, Edward II continued to hurry his troops: they marched seventy miles in one week. Many historians criticise Edward II for this move, as he was not acting as a leader of a well-trained army but was instead acting like a pilgrim. This bad decision-making by Edward II led to horses, horsemen, and infantry becoming extremely worn out with toil and hunger.

Now Edward II was within reach of Stirling. Edward II and his advisors began to make plans for the upcoming battle. Edward and his advisors knew the places where the Scots were likely to challenge them, and sent orders for their troops to prepare for an enemy established in boggy ground near the River Forth, near Stirling. The English appear to have advanced in four divisions. The Scots assembled defensive formations known as schiltrons, which were strong defensive squares of men with pikes. Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray, commanded the Scottish vanguard, which was stationed about a mile south of Stirling, near the church of St. Ninian, while the king commanded the rearguard at the entrance to the New Park. His brother Edward led the third division. The fourth division was nominally under the youthful Walter the Steward, but actually under the command of Sir James Douglas. The Scottish archers used yew-stave longbows and, while these were equal to English longbows in strength, there were probably fewer Scottish archers, possibly only 500 although there is no evidence as to their number. These archers played little part in the battle. There is first-hand evidence in a poem, written just after the battle by the captured Carmelite friar Robert Baston, that one or both sides employed slingers and crossbowmen.

Location of the battlefield
The exact site of the Battle of Bannockburn has been debated for many years, but most modern historians agree that the traditional site, where a visitor centre and statue have been erected, is not correct.

A large number of alternative locations have been considered, but modern researchers believe only two merit serious consideration:
 * An area of peaty ground outside the village of Balquhiderock, known as the Dryfield, about 0.75 mi east of the traditional site.
 * The Carse of Balquhiderock, about 1.5 mi north-east of the traditional site. This location is accepted by the National Trust as the most likely site.

Importance
This battle was an attempt by Robert the Bruce to legitimise his kingship through combat. An article by Medieval Warfare states, "Robert Bruce, King of Scots from 1306 until his death in 1329 aged around 55, was no stranger to the battlefield. He waged war to wear down his Scottish opponents and the English regime in Scotland, culminating in the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, to legitimise his kingship and free his kingdom. It was a battle that Robert the Bruce hoped would confirm his place on the throne of Scotland and force Edward II to recognize him King. Bruce also faced internal struggles for the crown of Scotland among the "Balliols, Bruces, and the Scottish political nation in a decades-long contest for the crown". As stated by W. M. Mackenzie, "The victory at Bannockburn is of more than national interest and had other results than those immediately affecting Scotland. With Falkirk and Courtrai (1302), where the flemish footman shattered the chivalry of France—and more than either of these it initiated the change which was to come over the mediaeval art of war, in demonstrating the superiority of infantry properly handled to the mounted men-at-arms upon whom the entire stress of fighting had hitherto been laid. The defeated were quick to learn their lesson and apply it in their own way. This shows the sheer importance of the Scottish spearman on the European stage as many countries began to adapt to this infantry dominated medieval battleground. They were moving away from cavalry and more towards the domination of the foot soldier. Another aspect is that this battle was for the rights to Stirling Castle essentially. Robert the Bruce did not want to give the castle up to the English as it was a major staging point. This is supported by Herbert Maxwell who stated that "Bruce's position was taken up to bar King Edwards access to Stirling."

First day of battle
Most medieval battles were short-lived, lasting only a few hours, so the Battle of Bannockburn is unusual in that it lasted two days. Shortly before the battle King Robert picked a flat field flanked by woodland known as New Park to set up camp for the upcoming battle. This was because the woodland gave Bruce and his foot soldiers an advantage since the English were very adept at cavalry. The Scots split their army into four divisions and the Bruce commanded the four divisions to form a diamond formation. Bruce covered the rear to the south, Douglas to the east, Randolph to the north (the direction of Stirling), with 500 horsemen under Keith to the west, in reserve. On 23 June 1314 two English cavalry formations advanced. The first was commanded by the Earl of Gloucester and by the Earl of Hereford. They followed behind a smaller detachment of roughly 300 soldiers led by Sir Robert Clifford and Sir Henry de Beaumont who marched closer to the River Forth. Both of these detachments marched in front of the main fighting force. These two detachments were tasked with lifting the siege on Stirling. The Hereford-Gloucester force was the first to cross over the Bannockburn and marched toward the woodlands that hid the Scots and stood in the way of the English on their way to Stirling. Little did the English know that Bruce had ventured ahead away from his natural protection. King Robert was not then fully armed for combat, but was instead armed for reconnaissance with only a small horse, light armour, and an axe to defend himself. The Earl of Hereford's nephew Henry de Bohun spotted the king so poorly equipped and took advantage. Henry de Bohun charged forward in full combat gear with his lance, encountering Bruce's troops. Bruce and de Bohun faced off in what became a celebrated instance of single combat. Bohun charged at Bruce and, when the two passed side by side, Bruce split Bohun's head with his axe. However the Vita Edwardi Secundi gives a different account:

"'On Sunday, which was the vigil of St John's day, as they [the English] passed by a certain wood and were approaching Stirling Castle, the Scots were seen straggling under the trees as if in flight, and a certain knight, Henry de Boune pursued them with the Welsh to the entrance of the wood. For he had in mind that if he found Robert Bruce there he would either kill him or carry him off captive. But when he had come thither, Robert himself came suddenly out of his hiding-place in the wood, and the said Henry seeing that he could not resist the multitude of Scots, turned his horse with the intention of regaining his companions; but Robert opposed him and struck him on the head with an axe that he carried in his hand. His squire, trying to protect or rescue his lord, was overwhelmed by the Scots.'"

The Scots then rushed the English forces under Gloucester's and Hereford's command, who retreated, struggling back over the Bannockburn.

This story is important because it was a reflection of Robert the Bruce's leadership. It is stated in an article by Sidney Dean that "While controversial among his peers, Bruce earned the respect of his soldiers by leading from the front and displaying physical courage."

The second English cavalry force was commanded by Robert Clifford and Henry de Beaumont. Their forces included Sir Thomas de Grey of Heaton, father of the chronicler Thomas Grey. The younger Grey described the battle:"Robert Lord de Clifford and Henry de Beaumont, with three hundred men-at-arms, made a circuit upon the other side of the wood towards the castle, keeping the open ground. Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray, King Robert's nephew, who was the leader of the Scottish advanced guard, hearing that his uncle had repulsed the advanced guard of the English on the other side of the wood, thought that he must have his share, and issuing from the wood with his division marched across the open ground towards the two afore-named lords.

Sir Henry de Beaumont called to his men: 'Let us wait a little; let them come on; give them room'.

'Sir,' said Sir Thomas Gray, 'I doubt that whatever you give them now, they will have all too soon'.

'Very well' exclaimed the said Henry, 'if you are afraid, be off'.

'Sir,' answered the said Thomas, 'it is not from fear that I shall fly this day.'

So saying, he spurred in between Beaumont and Sir William Deyncourt and charged into the thick of the enemy. William was killed, Thomas was taken prisoner, his horse being killed on the pikes, and he himself carried off with the Scots on foot when they marched off, having utterly routed the squadron of the said two lords. Some of the English fled to the castle, others to the king's army, which having already left the road through the wood had debouched upon a plain near the water of Forth beyond Bannockburn, an evil, deep, wet marsh, where the said English army unharnessed and remained all night, having sadly lost confidence and being too much disaffected by the events of the day."

Second day of battle
During the night the English forces crossed the stream known as the Bannockburn, establishing their position on the plain beyond it. A Scottish knight, Alexander Seton, who was fighting in the service of Edward II of England, deserted the English camp and told Bruce that English morale was low and encouraged him to attack.

In the morning the Scots advanced from New Park. Not long after daybreak, Edward was surprised to see the Scottish pikemen emerge from the cover of the woods and advance towards his position. As Bruce's army drew nearer, they paused and knelt in prayer. Edward reportedly said in surprise, "They pray for mercy!" "For mercy, yes," one of his attendants replied, "but from God, not you. These men will conquer or die."

The Earl of Gloucester had argued with the Earl of Hereford over who should lead the vanguard into battle. He had also tried to persuade the king that the battle should be postponed. This led the king to accuse him of cowardice. Goaded by the accusation, Gloucester advanced to meet the Scots. Few accompanied Gloucester and, when he reached the Scottish lines, he was quickly surrounded and killed.

The English were gradually pushed back and ground down by the Scots' schiltrons. The English longbowmen attempted to support the advance of the knights but were ordered to stop shooting to avoid additional friendly fire. The English then attempted to deploy their English and Welsh longbowmen to flank the advancing Scots, but they were dispersed by 500 Scottish cavalry under the marischal Sir Robert Keith. (Although the Scottish cavalry is sometimes described as light cavalry, this appears to be a misinterpretation of Barbour's statement that these were men-at-arms on lighter horses than those of their English counterparts. )

The English cavalry was hemmed in against the Bannockburn, making it difficult for them to manoeuvre. Unable to hold their formations, they broke rank. It soon became clear to Aymer de Valence and Giles d'Argentan (reputedly the third-best knight in Europe) that the English had lost the battle and Edward II needed at all costs to be led to safety. Seizing the reins of the king's horse, they dragged him away, closely followed by 500 knights of the royal bodyguard.

Once they were clear of the battle d'Argentan turned to the king and said: "Sire, your protection was committed to me, but since you are safely on your way, I will bid you farewell for never yet have I fled from a battle, nor will I now." He turned his horse to charge back into the ranks of Scottish, where he was overborne and slain.

English retreat
Edward fled with his personal bodyguard and panic spread among the remaining troops, turning their defeat into a rout. King Edward with about 500 men first fled for Stirling Castle where Sir Philip de Moubray, commander of the castle, turned him away as the castle would shortly be surrendered to the Scots. Then, pursued by James Douglas and a small troop of horsemen, Edward fled to Dunbar Castle, from which he took a ship to Berwick. From the carnage of Bannockburn, the rest of the army tried to escape to the safety of the English border, 90 mi south. Many were killed by the pursuing Scottish army or by the inhabitants of the countryside they passed through.

Historian Peter Reese wrote that "only one sizeable group of men—all foot soldiers—made good their escape to England." These were a force of Welsh spearmen who were kept together by their commander, Sir Maurice de Berkeley. The majority of them reached Carlisle. Weighing the available evidence, Reese concludes that "it seems doubtful if even a third of the foot soldiers returned to England." If his estimate is accurate, of 16,000 English infantrymen, about 11,000 were killed. The English chronicler Thomas Walsingham gave the number of English men-at-arms who were killed as 700, while 500 more men-at-arms were spared for ransom. The Scottish losses appear to have been comparatively light, with only two knights among those killed.

Aftermath
The immediate aftermath was the surrender of Stirling Castle, one of Scotland's most important fortresses, to King Robert. He then slighted (razed) it to prevent it from being retaken. Nearly as important was the surrender of Bothwell Castle, where a sizeable party of English nobles, including the Earl of Hereford, had taken refuge. At the same time the Edwardian strongholds of Dunbar and Jedburgh were also being captured. By 1315, only Berwick remained outside of Robert's control. In exchange for the captured nobles, Edward II released Robert's wife Elizabeth de Burgh, sisters Christina Bruce, Mary Bruce and daughter Marjorie Bruce, and Robert Wishart, Bishop of Glasgow, ending their eight-year imprisonment in England. Following the battle, King Robert rewarded Sir Gilbert Hay of Erroll with the office of hereditary Lord High Constable of Scotland.

The defeat of the English opened up the north of England to Scottish raids and allowed the Scottish invasion of Ireland. These finally led, after the failure of the Declaration of Arbroath to secure diplomatic recognition of Scotland's independence by the Pope, to the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton in 1328. Under the treaty, the English crown recognised the independence of the Kingdom of Scotland, and acknowledged Robert the Bruce as the rightful king.

Notable casualties
The following are the notable casualties and captives of the battle.

Deaths

 * Gilbert de Clare, 8th Earl of Gloucester
 * Sir Giles d'Argentan
 * John Lovel, 2nd Baron Lovel
 * John Comyn, Lord of Badenoch
 * Robert de Clifford, 1st Baron Clifford
 * Sir Henry de Bohun
 * William Marshal, Marshal of Ireland
 * Edmund de Mauley, King's Steward
 * Sir Robert de Felton of Litcham, 1st Lord
 * Malduin (Malcolm) MacGilchrist, 3rd Lord of Arrochar
 * William de Vescy of Kildare
 * John de Montfort, 2nd Baron Montfort
 * Payn Tibetoft, 1st Baron Tibotot
 * William de Hastelegh
 * Edmund Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings
 * Miles de Stapleton
 * Simon Ward
 * Michael de Poinyng
 * Thomas de Ufford
 * John de Elsingfelde
 * Ralph de Beauchamp

Captives

 * Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford
 * John Segrave, 2nd Baron Segrave
 * Maurice de Berkeley, 2nd Baron Berkeley
 * Thomas de Berkeley
 * Sir Marmaduke Tweng
 * Ralph de Monthermer, 1st Baron Monthermer
 * Robert de Umfraville, Earl of Angus
 * Sir Anthony de Luci
 * Sir Ingram de Umfraville
 * Sir John Maltravers, 1st Baron Maltravers
 * Sir Thomas de Grey of Heaton
 * William le Latimer
 * John Giffard
 * Giles de Beauchamp
 * Gilbert de Bohun
 * Thomas de Ferrers
 * Roger Corbet
 * John Bluwet
 * Bartholomew de Enefeld
 * John Cysrewast
 * John de Clavering

Bannockburn Visitor Centre

In 1932 the Bannockburn Preservation Committee, under Edward Bruce, 10th Earl of Elgin and Kincardine, presented lands to the National Trust for Scotland. Further lands were purchased in 1960 and 1965 to facilitate visitor access. A modern monument was erected in a field above the possible site of the battle, where the warring parties are believed to have camped on the night before the battle. The monument consists of two semicircular walls depicting the opposing parties. Nearby stands the 1960s statue of Bruce by Pilkington Jackson. Although the statue was conceived by Pilkington Jackson he commissioned Thomas Taylor Bowie of the Ontario College of Art in Toronto to create the statue. The monument, and the associated visitor centre, are some of the most popular tourist attractions in the area. The battlefield has been included in the Inventory of Historic Battlefields in Scotland and protected by Historic Scotland under the Historic Environment (Amendment) Act 2011.

The National Trust for Scotland operates the Bannockburn Visitor Centre (previously known as the Bannockburn Heritage Centre), which is open daily from March through October. On 31 October 2012 the original building was closed for demolition and replacement by a new design, inspired by traditional Scottish buildings, by Reiach and Hall Architects. The project is a partnership between the National Trust for Scotland and Historic Environment Scotland, funded by the Scottish Government and the Heritage Lottery Fund. The battlefield's new visitor centre—now rebranded as the Bannockburn Visitor Centre—opened in March 2014. One of the attractions created by a £9m redevelopment of the centre and the nearby battlefield memorial is a computerised multiplayer game.

On 11 June 2020, during the George Floyd protests in the United Kingdom, the statue was defaced with graffiti.

Music
In 2016 Swedish metal band Sabaton released a song, "Blood of Bannockburn", on their album The Last Stand about this battle.

Arts
"Scots Wha Hae" is the title of a patriotic poem by Robert Burns. The chorus of Scotland's unofficial national anthem Flower of Scotland refers to Scotland's victory over Edward and the English at Bannockburn.

Many artworks depict the battle. John Duncan and Eric Harald Macbeth Robertson both painted Bruce's encounter with de Bohun. John Phillip painted Bruce receiving the sacrament on the eve of the battle. John Hassall painted a similar theme. A painting by William Findlay depicts Bruce at the battle.

Primary

 * Barbour, John, The Brus, trans. A. A. M. Duncan, 1964.
 * Bower, Walter, Scotichronicon, ed. D. E. R. Watt, 1987–1993.
 * Lanercost Chronicle, edited and translated by H. Maxwell, 1913.
 * Vita Edwardi Secundi [Life of Edward the Second], ed. N. D. Young, 1957.
 * Walsingham, Thomas, Historia Anglicana.
 * Walsingham, Thomas, Historia Anglicana.

Secondary

 * Armstrong, Pete (illustrated by Graham Turner), Bannockburn 1314: Robert Bruce's Great Victory, Osprey Publishing, 2002 ISBN 1855326094
 * Barrow, G. W. S., Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland, 1988, ISBN 0852246048
 * Brown, C.A., "Bannockburn 1314", History Press, Stroud, 2008, ISBN 978-0752446004.
 * Brown, C.A., Robert the Bruce. A life Chronicled.
 * Brown, M., Wars of Scotland
 * Mackenzie, W. M., Bannockburn: A Study in Medieval Warfare, The Strong Oak Press, Stevenage 1989 (first published 1913), ISBN 1871048036
 * MacNamee, C., The Wars of the Bruces
 * Nicholson, R., Scotland-the Later Middle Ages, 1974.
 * Prestwich, M., The Three Edwards: War and State in England, 1272–1377, 1980
 * Ramsay, J. H., The Genesis of Lancaster, 1307–99, 1913.
 * Reese, P., Bannockburn, Canongate, Edinburgh, 2003, ISBN 1841954659
 * Prestwich, M., The Three Edwards: War and State in England, 1272–1377, 1980
 * Ramsay, J. H., The Genesis of Lancaster, 1307–99, 1913.
 * Reese, P., Bannockburn, Canongate, Edinburgh, 2003, ISBN 1841954659

title: Battle of Bannockburn


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Lelystad

Lelystad is a Dutch municipality and the capital city of the province of Flevoland in the central Netherlands. The city, built on reclaimed land, was founded in 1967 and was named after Cornelis Lely, who engineered the Afsluitdijk that made the reclamation possible. Lelystad is situated approximately three metres (10 feet) below sea level.

History
Lelystad is built on the seabed of the former Zuiderzee. About 6,500 years ago, this wetland was above high tide level and inhabited; the Netherlands have steadily subsided since. Near Lelystad at Swifterbant, the oldest human skeletons in Western Europe were discovered. Due to rising water levels and storms, the peatlands were washed away, and the Lacus Flevo (in Roman times) grew to be the Almere (Middle Ages) and became the Zuiderzee. The Zuiderzee (Southern Sea) was the main transport route from Amsterdam to the North Sea and the Hanseatic League cities. Due to the many shipwrecks in Flevoland, Lelystad now houses the National Centre for Maritime History, with a museum and the shipyard that has built the Batavia replica.

After the Second World War the Zuiderzee Works continued, constructing the polder of Eastern Flevoland. In 1950 work commenced on several construction islands in the middle of the IJsselmeer. Lelystad-Haven was the largest island, and its wooden barracks housed a community of dyke-builders. In 1955 they reached the mainland, which made it possible to drive to Lelystad by car. One of the three pumping stations, which drained the polder in June 1957, was the diesel-powered Wortman in Lelystad-Haven. Until 1967 the only inhabitants of Lelystad were technical engineers and laborers and superintendents, living on the former construction island.

Demographics
=== Ethnic composition ===
 * 65% of the population was of Dutch background (two parents born in the Netherlands)
 * 23% was of non-Western migration background (one or two parents born in a non-Western country)
 * 12% was of Western migration background (one or two parents born in a Western country)

Lelystad has a large population of Surinamese origin (5,225); most residents of a non-Western background live in the east of the city. Lelystad also has significant Moroccan (2,615) and Turkish (2,278) communities, most of whom reside in the northeastern part of the city. There were 2,059 residents with an Antillean background.

Landscape
Lelystad is the largest municipality in the Netherlands in area, but a large part of that area is water: Markermeer and IJsselmeer. Another major area is the internationally famous nature park of Oostvaardersplassen, which arose naturally when the polder of South Flevoland was drained. Lelystad is also surrounded by a square of woodlands and parks and flat farmland. The importance of the landscape and sky is emphasized by several pieces of land art: engineers' work and works such as the Observatorium by Robert Morris (see below).

The artificial islands of Marker Wadden lie immediately to the northwest of Lelystad. Construction started in 2016, and the first islands have already become important wildlife sites, with many species of birds coming to the islands during the breeding season.

Tourism
Lelystad has several tourist attractions, including:
 * The replica of the 17th-century ship Batavia at the Batavia Shipyard
 * Batavia Stad Fashion Outlet
 * Hanzestad Compagnie, a fleet of historical sailing ships
 * Lelystad Nature Park
 * National Aviation Theme Park Aviodrome
 * Modern architecture, for example the Zilverparkkade and Agora Theatre

Lelystad hosts many one-day events like the Lelystad Airshow, the Water Festival, the National Old Timer Day, Lelystad Speedway, Architecture day and several sports events. On the Midland Circuit many motor, kart and stock car racing events and several autoclub meetings are held. On the coast there are several marinas.

Transport
Lelystad can be reached by air, water, and land.

Air
Lelystad Airport is the biggest general aviation airport in the Netherlands. It is owned wholly by Schiphol Group. Lelystad Airport has undergone major expansion, including the construction of a passenger terminal for commercial flights, as well as an extension of the runway. The original plan for this airport was to become the main gateway for passengers into the country, to alleviate some of the pressure from Schiphol Airport in Amsterdam. In turn, Schiphol would be able to focus on its role as international hub for lay-overs. Although the expansion of Lelystad Airport has been finished, the airport has not yet opened for passengers due to various political reasons. As of 2022, the government has decided to delay the opening of the terminals with at least two years, and even then the opening will not be guaranteed.

Water
Lelystad has a small inland port, several marinas, and a canal system which also functions to aid in managing the water levels in the rest of the polder. The canal system connects to the Markermeer with a lock to the southwest of Lelystad, and connects the city and its industrial areas to all other towns and their respective industrial areas in the polder.

Rail
the Weesp–Lelystad railway (Flevolijn) extends south from Lelystad Centrum railway station and connects the city with Almere, and to the Randstad region beyond. The Lelystad–Zwolle railway (Hanzelijn) extends north from Lelystad and connects it with Dronten, Kampen and Zwolle.

Motorway
The A6 motorway runs along Lelystad on the eastern side of the city. There are three on-ramps connecting this motorway to Lelystad, allowing traffic to travel northbound to Emmeloord and the province of Friesland, or southbound to Almere and the Randstad region.

Provincial roads
The N302 provincial road connects Lelystad to the south-east with Harderwijk and the province of Gelderland beyond. The N307 connects Lelystad across the Houtribdijk to Enkhuizen and the province of North Holland beyond, and to Dronten and beyond that to Kampen in the province of Overijssel. The N309 connects Lelystad to Dronten and beyond that to Elburg in the province of Gelderland.

Shield and flag
The honeycomb grid in the arms of Lelystad represents the dykes, built with six-edged concrete or basalt blocks. The colour gold indicates the high costs of the project of making the polder. The centre shield is the arms of engineer Cornelis Lely. The sealions reflect the history of the land.

In the flag, the fleur-de-lis (lily) again takes a central point, referring to the name Lely. The yellow background reflects the precious land, and the blue lines the dykes and waterways. The flag of the province is similarly adorned with the fleur-de-lis to commemorate Lely.

Notable residents

 * Abraham Bueno de Mesquita (1918–2005) comedian and actor
 * Nancy van Overveldt (1930-2015), artist
 * Hans Gruijters (1931–2005), politician and journalist
 * Hubert Fermina (1948-2022), nurse and politician
 * Gylan Kain (1942-2024), American poet and playwright
 * Michiel van Hulten (born 1969), former politician and MEP (1999–2004)
 * Edsilia Rombley (born 1978), singer
 * Rianne ten Haken (born 1986), a Dutch model

Sport

 * Co Stompé (born 1962), retired professional darts player
 * Aron Winter (born 1967), retired footballer and football manager
 * Ivan Sokolov (born 1968), Dutch-Bosnian chess grandmaster
 * Chiel Warners (born 1978), former decathlete
 * Charles Zwolsman Jr. (born 1979), racing car driver
 * Karin Ruckstuhl (born 1980), former heptathlete
 * Guido van der Valk (born 1980), professional golfer
 * Ruben Schaken (born 1982), football player
 * Niels de Ruiter (born 1983), former darts player, current director of the Dutch Darts Federation
 * Thijs van Valkengoed (born 1983), breaststroke swimmer, competed at the 2004 and the 2008 Summer Olympics
 * Boy Waterman (born 1984), football goalkeeper
 * Daan Brandenburg (born 1987), chess grandmaster
 * Nathaniël Will (born 1989), footballer
 * Benjamin Bok (born 1995), chess grandmaster
 * Alex Vlaar (born 1996), Dutch-Bulgarian badminton player
 * Devyne Rensch (born 2003), football player for AFC Ajax and the Netherlands national football team

Twin city
Lelystad maintains international relations with the Suriname twin city of Lelydorp.

title: Lelystad


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IJsselmeer

The IJsselmeer (Iselmar, Iesselmeer), also known as Lake IJssel in English, is a closed-off inland bay in the central Netherlands bordering the provinces of Flevoland, North Holland and Friesland. It covers an area of 1100 km2 with an average depth of 4.5 m. The river IJssel, which the lake was named after, flows into the IJsselmeer.

History
Two thousand years ago Pomponius Mela, a Roman geographer, mentioned a complex of lakes at the current location of the IJsselmeer. He called it Lacus Flevo. Over the centuries, the lake banks crumbled away due to flooding and wave action and the lake, now called the Almere, grew considerably. During the 12th and 13th centuries, storm surges and rising sea levels flooded large areas of land between the lake and the North Sea, turning the lake into a bay of the North Sea, called the Zuiderzee. The Zuiderzee continued to be a threat to the Dutch, especially when northwesterly storms funnel North Sea waters towards the English Channel, creating very high tides along the Dutch coast. During the 17th century, Zuiderzee dykes collapsed several times and plans were drawn up to eliminate the threat by draining the bay. Later drainage plans focused on creating fertile farmland, but they never progressed beyond the planning stage. It was only after the flood of 1916 that the legislature approved the Zuiderzee Works, a major hydraulic engineering project that involved building dykes, draining parts of the Zuiderzee and constructing the Afsluitdijk to keep tides and high water out.

In 1932 the Zuiderzee was closed off by the Afsluitdijk, a 32 km dyke connecting Friesland and North Holland on either side of the Zuiderzee. The Zuiderzee was no longer a sea inlet and was renamed IJsselmeer (Lake IJssel) after the IJssel river that flows into it, which is also the namesake of the province of Overijssel. The continuing flow of fresh riverwater soon flushed out the saltwater. Part of the IJsselmeer was later closed off to form the Markermeer.

From 1929 till 1967, over half the IJsselmeer was drained, creating 1,979 km2 of polders: Wieringermeerpolder, Noordoostpolder, East and South Flevoland.

In 1975, a dyke was built between Enkhuizen and Lelystad as the northern boundary of the Markerwaard, a planned but never realized polder in the IJsselmeer. This dyke, the Houtribdijk or Markerwaarddijk, split the IJsselmeer in two parts. The former southern part of the IJsselmeer is now the hydrologically separate Markermeer. The proposed polderisation of the Markerwaard was abandoned after many of the Dutch population did not want the loss of the traditional seaside (now lakeside) environment and vistas.

In 1986 three polders in the IJsselmeer constituted the new province of Flevoland, the twelfth province of the Netherlands.

The water of the IJsselmeer is now almost completely fresh, the saline having long since been purged. This altered environment has had an impact upon the fish and plant ecosystems. The change has been beneficial for Dutch boats, many of which are steel, as the fresh water significantly reduces rusting of the hulls, and there is far less build-up of marine growth (such as algae and barnacles below the barges' waterlines). This has the knock-on benefit that barges and yachts in the IJsselmeer need far less antifouling, a coating which is inevitably somewhat toxic to wildlife.

Current use
Due to considerable amounts of water from the Rhine flowing through its distributary IJssel into the IJsselmeer, the closed off bay functions as a large freshwater reservoir, serving as a source for agriculture and drinking water. Outlet sluices in the Afsluitdijk regulate the water level of the IJsselmeer.

The IJsselmeer is used for transport and fishing. It also offers a number of opportunities for recreational activity, both on the water and on its shores. Due to the shallowness of the IJsselmeer, the Markermeer and the bordering lakes, its cities and fishing villages remained mostly unspoilt and have many historic buildings.

The IJsselmeer is home to the offshore segments of Windpark Noordoostpolder. In the future, Windpark Fryslan will also be built in this bay.

title: IJsselmeer


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Latins

The term "Latins" is a linguistic concept referring to an ancient Italic people whose language was Latin, native to the region of Latium in central Italy, and by extension to the native speakers of modern languages descended from Latin. Among the ancient Latins were the Romans, who united the whole Italian peninsula and built an empire covering the rest of the Mediterranean region. Eventually the Latin language replaced the indigenous languages in the western part of the Roman empire, known as the Latin West as opposed to the Greek East. This distinction continued after the fall of the western Roman empire, with those praying in Latin (as part of the Catholic Church) known as "Latins" and those praying in Greek (as part of the Orthodox Church) known as "Greeks". During the Middle Ages, vulgar Latin evolved into Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian and several other Romance (or Latin) languages. The concept of "Latin Europe" refers to the Romance-speaking countries of Europe, while the more widely used "Latin America" commonly refers to the Romance-speaking countries of the Americas. "Latin peoples" refers to both Latin Europeans and Latin Americans.

Antiquity

The Latins were an ancient Italic people of the Latium region in central Italy (Latium Vetus, "Old Latium"), in the 1st millennium BC. Although they lived in independent city-states, they spoke a common language (Latin), held common religious beliefs, and extended common rights of residence and trade to one another. Collectively, these Latin states were known as the Latin League.

A rupture between Rome, one of the Latin states, and the rest of the Latin League emerged as a result of the former's territorial ambitions. The Latin League fought against Rome in the Latin War (340-338 BC), which ended in a Roman victory. Consequently, some of the Latin states were incorporated within the Roman state, and their inhabitants were given full Roman citizenship. Others became Roman allies and enjoyed certain privileges.

The Roman Empire would go on to dominate the Mediterranean region for the next several centuries, spreading the Latin language and Roman culture. The Latin-speaking Western Roman Empire ended in AD 476, while the Greek-speaking eastern half survived on until 1453.

Middle Ages
In the Eastern Roman Empire, and the broader Greek-Orthodox world, Latins was a synonym for all people who followed the Roman Catholicism of Western Christianity, regardless of ethnicity. The term was related to the predominance of the Latin Church, which is the largest autonomous particular church within the broader Catholic Church, and took its name from its origins in the Latin-speaking world which had Rome as its center.

Latin was generally a negative characterization, especially after the 1054 schism. The term is still used by the Orthodox church communities, but only in a theological context. Nonetheless, it did not share this negative connotation in the West, where many self-identified with the term, such as Petrarch, when he states "Sumus enim non greci, non barbari, sed itali et latini." ("We are not Greeks or barbarians; we are Italians and Latins.").

Latin peoples
The various Romance-speaking groups, usually those of Latin Europe and Latin America, have sometimes been collectively referred to as "Latin peoples". Other synonymous terms are "Romance peoples" or "Romanic peoples". The designation has also specifically survived in the names of two Romance-speaking groups: the Ladin people (of northern Italy) and the Ladino people (of Central America).

Likewise, the Romance languages themselves are sometimes referred to as the Latin or Neo-Latin languages.

The term Latin Europe is sometimes used in reference to European nations and regions inhabited by Romance-speaking people.

Latin America is the region of the Americas that was colonized by Latin Europeans, and came to be called so in the 19th century. The term is usually used to refer to Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking countries, namely Hispanic America and Brazil. Latin Americans are called latinoamericanos and latino-americanos in Spanish and Portuguese, respectively; the shortening of this term resulted in the name for Latinos, who are themselves sometimes just called "Latin".

title: Latins