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Supercomputer

A supercomputer is a type of computer with a high level of performance as compared to a general-purpose computer. The performance of a supercomputer is commonly measured in floating-point operations per second (FLOPS) instead of million instructions per second (MIPS). Since 2017, supercomputers have existed which can perform over 1017 FLOPS (a hundred quadrillion FLOPS, 100 petaFLOPS or 100 PFLOPS). For comparison, a desktop computer has performance in the range of hundreds of gigaFLOPS (1011) to tens of teraFLOPS (1013). Since November 2017, all of the world's fastest 500 supercomputers run on Linux-based operating systems. Additional research is being conducted in the United States, the European Union, Taiwan, Japan, and China to build faster, more powerful and technologically superior exascale supercomputers.

Supercomputers play an important role in the field of computational science, and are used for a wide range of computationally intensive tasks in various fields, including quantum mechanics, weather forecasting, climate research, oil and gas exploration, molecular modeling (computing the structures and properties of chemical compounds, biological macromolecules, polymers, and crystals), and physical simulations (such as simulations of the early moments of the universe, airplane and spacecraft aerodynamics, the detonation of nuclear weapons, and nuclear fusion). They have been essential in the field of cryptanalysis.

Supercomputers were introduced in the 1960s, and for several decades the fastest was made by Seymour Cray at Control Data Corporation (CDC), Cray Research and subsequent companies bearing his name or monogram. The first such machines were highly tuned conventional designs that ran more quickly than their more general-purpose contemporaries. Through the decade, increasing amounts of parallelism were added, with one to four processors being typical. In the 1970s, vector processors operating on large arrays of data came to dominate. A notable example is the highly successful Cray-1 of 1976. Vector computers remained the dominant design into the 1990s. From then until today, massively parallel supercomputers with tens of thousands of off-the-shelf processors became the norm.

The US has long been the leader in the supercomputer field, first through Cray's almost uninterrupted dominance of the field, and later through a variety of technology companies. Japan made major strides in the field in the 1980s and 90s, with China becoming increasingly active in the field. As of May 2022, the fastest supercomputer on the TOP500 supercomputer list is Frontier, in the US, with a LINPACK benchmark score of 1.102 ExaFlop/s, followed by Fugaku. The US has five of the top 10; China has two; Japan, Finland, and France have one each. In June 2018, all combined supercomputers on the TOP500 list broke the 1 exaFLOPS mark.

History
In 1960, UNIVAC built the Livermore Atomic Research Computer (LARC), today considered among the first supercomputers, for the US Navy Research and Development Center. It still used high-speed drum memory, rather than the newly emerging disk drive technology. Also, among the first supercomputers was the IBM 7030 Stretch. The IBM 7030 was built by IBM for the Los Alamos National Laboratory, which then in 1955 had requested a computer 100 times faster than any existing computer. The IBM 7030 used transistors, magnetic core memory, pipelined instructions, prefetched data through a memory controller and included pioneering random access disk drives. The IBM 7030 was completed in 1961 and despite not meeting the challenge of a hundredfold increase in performance, it was purchased by the Los Alamos National Laboratory. Customers in England and France also bought the computer, and it became the basis for the IBM 7950 Harvest, a supercomputer built for cryptanalysis.

The third pioneering supercomputer project in the early 1960s was the Atlas at the University of Manchester, built by a team led by Tom Kilburn. He designed the Atlas to have memory space for up to a million words of 48 bits, but because magnetic storage with such a capacity was unaffordable, the actual core memory of the Atlas was only 16,000 words, with a drum providing memory for a further 96,000 words. The Atlas operating system swapped data in the form of pages between the magnetic core and the drum. The Atlas operating system also introduced time-sharing to supercomputing, so that more than one program could be executed on the supercomputer at any one time. Atlas was a joint venture between Ferranti and Manchester University and was designed to operate at processing speeds approaching one microsecond per instruction, about one million instructions per second.

The CDC 6600, designed by Seymour Cray, was finished in 1964 and marked the transition from germanium to silicon transistors. Silicon transistors could run more quickly and the overheating problem was solved by introducing refrigeration to the supercomputer design. Thus, the CDC6600 became the fastest computer in the world. Given that the 6600 outperformed all the other contemporary computers by about 10 times, it was dubbed a supercomputer and defined the supercomputing market, when one hundred computers were sold at $8 million each.

Cray left CDC in 1972 to form his own company, Cray Research. Four years after leaving CDC, Cray delivered the 80 MHz Cray-1 in 1976, which became one of the most successful supercomputers in history. The Cray-2 was released in 1985. It had eight central processing units (CPUs), liquid cooling and the electronics coolant liquid Fluorinert was pumped through the supercomputer architecture. It reached 1.9 gigaFLOPS, making it the first supercomputer to break the gigaflop barrier.

Massively parallel designs
The only computer to seriously challenge the Cray-1's performance in the 1970s was the ILLIAC IV. This machine was the first realized example of a true massively parallel computer, in which many processors worked together to solve different parts of a single larger problem. In contrast with the vector systems, which were designed to run a single stream of data as quickly as possible, in this concept, the computer instead feeds separate parts of the data to entirely different processors and then recombines the results. The ILLIAC's design was finalized in 1966 with 256 processors and offer speed up to 1 GFLOPS, compared to the 1970s Cray-1's peak of 250 MFLOPS. However, development problems led to only 64 processors being built, and the system could never operate more quickly than about 200 MFLOPS while being much larger and more complex than the Cray. Another problem was that writing software for the system was difficult, and getting peak performance from it was a matter of serious effort.

But the partial success of the ILLIAC IV was widely seen as pointing the way to the future of supercomputing. Cray argued against this, famously quipping that "If you were plowing a field, which would you rather use? Two strong oxen or 1024 chickens?" But by the early 1980s, several teams were working on parallel designs with thousands of processors, notably the Connection Machine (CM) that developed from research at MIT. The CM-1 used as many as 65,536 simplified custom microprocessors connected together in a network to share data. Several updated versions followed; the CM-5 supercomputer is a massively parallel processing computer capable of many billions of arithmetic operations per second.

In 1982, Osaka University's LINKS-1 Computer Graphics System used a massively parallel processing architecture, with 514 microprocessors, including 257 Zilog Z8001 control processors and 257 iAPX 86/20 floating-point processors. It was mainly used for rendering realistic 3D computer graphics. Fujitsu's VPP500 from 1992 is unusual since, to achieve higher speeds, its processors used GaAs, a material normally reserved for microwave applications due to its toxicity. Fujitsu's Numerical Wind Tunnel supercomputer used 166 vector processors to gain the top spot in 1994 with a peak speed of 1.7 gigaFLOPS (GFLOPS) per processor. The Hitachi SR2201 obtained a peak performance of 600 GFLOPS in 1996 by using 2048 processors connected via a fast three-dimensional crossbar network. The Intel Paragon could have 1000 to 4000 Intel i860 processors in various configurations and was ranked the fastest in the world in 1993. The Paragon was a MIMD machine which connected processors via a high speed two-dimensional mesh, allowing processes to execute on separate nodes, communicating via the Message Passing Interface.

Software development remained a problem, but the CM series sparked off considerable research into this issue. Similar designs using custom hardware were made by many companies, including the Evans & Sutherland ES-1, MasPar, nCUBE, Intel iPSC and the Goodyear MPP. But by the mid-1990s, general-purpose CPU performance had improved so much in that a supercomputer could be built using them as the individual processing units, instead of using custom chips. By the turn of the 21st century, designs featuring tens of thousands of commodity CPUs were the norm, with later machines adding graphic units to the mix.

In 1998, David Bader developed the first Linux supercomputer using commodity parts. While at the University of New Mexico, Bader sought to build a supercomputer running Linux using consumer off-the-shelf parts and a high-speed low-latency interconnection network. The prototype utilized an Alta Technologies "AltaCluster" of eight dual, 333 MHz, Intel Pentium II computers running a modified Linux kernel. Bader ported a significant amount of software to provide Linux support for necessary components as well as code from members of the National Computational Science Alliance (NCSA) to ensure interoperability, as none of it had been run on Linux previously. Using the successful prototype design, he led the development of "RoadRunner," the first Linux supercomputer for open use by the national science and engineering community via the National Science Foundation's National Technology Grid. RoadRunner was put into production use in April 1999. At the time of its deployment, it was considered one of the 100 fastest supercomputers in the world. Though Linux-based clusters using consumer-grade parts, such as Beowulf, existed prior to the development of Bader's prototype and RoadRunner, they lacked the scalability, bandwidth, and parallel computing capabilities to be considered "true" supercomputers.

Systems with a massive number of processors generally take one of two paths. In the grid computing approach, the processing power of many computers, organized as distributed, diverse administrative domains, is opportunistically used whenever a computer is available. In another approach, many processors are used in proximity to each other, e.g. in a computer cluster. In such a centralized massively parallel system the speed and flexibility of the interconnect becomes very important and modern supercomputers have used various approaches ranging from enhanced Infiniband systems to three-dimensional torus interconnects. The use of multi-core processors combined with centralization is an emerging direction, e.g. as in the Cyclops64 system.

As the price, performance and energy efficiency of general-purpose graphics processing units (GPGPUs) have improved, a number of petaFLOPS supercomputers such as Tianhe-I and Nebulae have started to rely on them. However, other systems such as the K computer continue to use conventional processors such as SPARC-based designs and the overall applicability of GPGPUs in general-purpose high-performance computing applications has been the subject of debate, in that while a GPGPU may be tuned to score well on specific benchmarks, its overall applicability to everyday algorithms may be limited unless significant effort is spent to tune the application to it. However, GPUs are gaining ground, and in 2012 the Jaguar supercomputer was transformed into Titan by retrofitting CPUs with GPUs.

High-performance computers have an expected life cycle of about three years before requiring an upgrade. The Gyoukou supercomputer is unique in that it uses both a massively parallel design and liquid immersion cooling.

Special purpose supercomputers
A number of special-purpose systems have been designed, dedicated to a single problem. This allows the use of specially programmed FPGA chips or even custom ASICs, allowing better price/performance ratios by sacrificing generality. Examples of special-purpose supercomputers include Belle, Deep Blue, and Hydra for playing chess, Gravity Pipe for astrophysics, MDGRAPE-3 for protein structure prediction and molecular dynamics, and Deep Crack for breaking the DES cipher.

Energy usage and heat management
Throughout the decades, the management of heat density has remained a key issue for most centralized supercomputers. The large amount of heat generated by a system may also have other effects, e.g. reducing the lifetime of other system components. There have been diverse approaches to heat management, from pumping Fluorinert through the system, to a hybrid liquid-air cooling system or air cooling with normal air conditioning temperatures. A typical supercomputer consumes large amounts of electrical power, almost all of which is converted into heat, requiring cooling. For example, Tianhe-1A consumes 4.04 megawatts (MW) of electricity. The cost to power and cool the system can be significant, e.g. 4 MW at $0.10/kWh is $400 an hour or about $3.5 million per year.

Heat management is a major issue in complex electronic devices and affects powerful computer systems in various ways. The thermal design power and CPU power dissipation issues in supercomputing surpass those of traditional computer cooling technologies. The supercomputing awards for green computing reflect this issue.

The packing of thousands of processors together inevitably generates significant amounts of heat density that need to be dealt with. The Cray-2 was liquid cooled, and used a Fluorinert "cooling waterfall" which was forced through the modules under pressure. However, the submerged liquid cooling approach was not practical for the multi-cabinet systems based on off-the-shelf processors, and in System X a special cooling system that combined air conditioning with liquid cooling was developed in conjunction with the Liebert company.

In the Blue Gene system, IBM deliberately used low power processors to deal with heat density. The IBM Power 775, released in 2011, has closely packed elements that require water cooling. The IBM Aquasar system uses hot water cooling to achieve energy efficiency, the water being used to heat buildings as well.

The energy efficiency of computer systems is generally measured in terms of "FLOPS per watt". In 2008, Roadrunner by IBM operated at 376 MFLOPS/W. In November 2010, the Blue Gene/Q reached 1,684 MFLOPS/W and in June 2011 the top two spots on the Green 500 list were occupied by Blue Gene machines in New York (one achieving 2097 MFLOPS/W) with the DEGIMA cluster in Nagasaki placing third with 1375 MFLOPS/W.

Because copper wires can transfer energy into a supercomputer with much higher power densities than forced air or circulating refrigerants can remove waste heat, the ability of the cooling systems to remove waste heat is a limiting factor. , many existing supercomputers have more infrastructure capacity than the actual peak demand of the machine – designers generally conservatively design the power and cooling infrastructure to handle more than the theoretical peak electrical power consumed by the supercomputer. Designs for future supercomputers are power-limited – the thermal design power of the supercomputer as a whole, the amount that the power and cooling infrastructure can handle, is somewhat more than the expected normal power consumption, but less than the theoretical peak power consumption of the electronic hardware.

Operating systems
Since the end of the 20th century, supercomputer operating systems have undergone major transformations, based on the changes in supercomputer architecture. While early operating systems were custom tailored to each supercomputer to gain speed, the trend has been to move away from in-house operating systems to the adaptation of generic software such as Linux.

Since modern massively parallel supercomputers typically separate computations from other services by using multiple types of nodes, they usually run different operating systems on different nodes, e.g. using a small and efficient lightweight kernel such as CNK or CNL on compute nodes, but a larger system such as a Linux-derivative on server and I/O nodes.

While in a traditional multi-user computer system job scheduling is, in effect, a tasking problem for processing and peripheral resources, in a massively parallel system, the job management system needs to manage the allocation of both computational and communication resources, as well as gracefully deal with inevitable hardware failures when tens of thousands of processors are present.

Although most modern supercomputers use Linux-based operating systems, each manufacturer has its own specific Linux-derivative, and no industry standard exists, partly due to the fact that the differences in hardware architectures require changes to optimize the operating system to each hardware design.

Software tools and message passing

The parallel architectures of supercomputers often dictate the use of special programming techniques to exploit their speed. Software tools for distributed processing include standard APIs such as MPI and PVM, VTL, and open source software such as Beowulf.

In the most common scenario, environments such as PVM and MPI for loosely connected clusters and OpenMP for tightly coordinated shared memory machines are used. Significant effort is required to optimize an algorithm for the interconnect characteristics of the machine it will be run on; the aim is to prevent any of the CPUs from wasting time waiting on data from other nodes. GPGPUs have hundreds of processor cores and are programmed using programming models such as CUDA or OpenCL.

Moreover, it is quite difficult to debug and test parallel programs. Special techniques need to be used for testing and debugging such applications.

Opportunistic approaches
Opportunistic supercomputing is a form of networked grid computing whereby a "super virtual computer" of many loosely coupled volunteer computing machines performs very large computing tasks. Grid computing has been applied to a number of large-scale embarrassingly parallel problems that require supercomputing performance scales. However, basic grid and cloud computing approaches that rely on volunteer computing cannot handle traditional supercomputing tasks such as fluid dynamic simulations.

The fastest grid computing system is the volunteer computing project Folding@home (F@h). , F@h reported 2.5 exaFLOPS of x86 processing power. Of this, over 100 PFLOPS are contributed by clients running on various GPUs, and the rest from various CPU systems.

The Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform hosts a number of volunteer computing projects. , BOINC recorded a processing power of over 166 petaFLOPS through over 762 thousand active Computers (Hosts) on the network.

, Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search's (GIMPS) distributed Mersenne Prime search achieved about 0.313 PFLOPS through over 1.3 million computers. The PrimeNet server has supported GIMPS's grid computing approach, one of the earliest volunteer computing projects, since 1997.

Quasi-opportunistic approaches
Quasi-opportunistic supercomputing is a form of distributed computing whereby the "super virtual computer" of many networked geographically disperse computers performs computing tasks that demand huge processing power. Quasi-opportunistic supercomputing aims to provide a higher quality of service than opportunistic grid computing by achieving more control over the assignment of tasks to distributed resources and the use of intelligence about the availability and reliability of individual systems within the supercomputing network. However, quasi-opportunistic distributed execution of demanding parallel computing software in grids should be achieved through the implementation of grid-wise allocation agreements, co-allocation subsystems, communication topology-aware allocation mechanisms, fault tolerant message passing libraries and data pre-conditioning.

High-performance computing clouds
Cloud computing with its recent and rapid expansions and development have grabbed the attention of high-performance computing (HPC) users and developers in recent years. Cloud computing attempts to provide HPC-as-a-service exactly like other forms of services available in the cloud such as software as a service, platform as a service, and infrastructure as a service. HPC users may benefit from the cloud in different angles such as scalability, resources being on-demand, fast, and inexpensive. On the other hand, moving HPC applications have a set of challenges too. Good examples of such challenges are virtualization overhead in the cloud, multi-tenancy of resources, and network latency issues. Much research is currently being done to overcome these challenges and make HPC in the cloud a more realistic possibility.

In 2016, Penguin Computing, Parallel Works, R-HPC, Amazon Web Services, Univa, Silicon Graphics International, Rescale, Sabalcore, and Gomput started to offer HPC cloud computing. The Penguin On Demand (POD) cloud is a bare-metal compute model to execute code, but each user is given virtualized login node. POD computing nodes are connected via non-virtualized 10 Gbit/s Ethernet or QDR InfiniBand networks. User connectivity to the POD data center ranges from 50 Mbit/s to 1 Gbit/s. Citing Amazon's EC2 Elastic Compute Cloud, Penguin Computing argues that virtualization of compute nodes is not suitable for HPC. Penguin Computing has also criticized that HPC clouds may have allocated computing nodes to customers that are far apart, causing latency that impairs performance for some HPC applications.

Capability versus capacity
Supercomputers generally aim for the maximum in capability computing rather than capacity computing. Capability computing is typically thought of as using the maximum computing power to solve a single large problem in the shortest amount of time. Often a capability system is able to solve a problem of a size or complexity that no other computer can, e.g. a very complex weather simulation application.

Capacity computing, in contrast, is typically thought of as using efficient cost-effective computing power to solve a few somewhat large problems or many small problems. Architectures that lend themselves to supporting many users for routine everyday tasks may have a lot of capacity but are not typically considered supercomputers, given that they do not solve a single very complex problem.

Performance metrics
In general, the speed of supercomputers is measured and benchmarked in FLOPS (floating-point operations per second), and not in terms of MIPS (million instructions per second), as is the case with general-purpose computers. These measurements are commonly used with an SI prefix such as tera-, combined into the shorthand TFLOPS (1012 FLOPS, pronounced teraflops), or peta-, combined into the shorthand PFLOPS (1015 FLOPS, pronounced petaflops.) Petascale supercomputers can process one quadrillion (1015) (1000 trillion) FLOPS. Exascale is computing performance in the exaFLOPS (EFLOPS) range. An EFLOPS is one quintillion (1018) FLOPS (one million TFLOPS). However, The performance of a supercomputer can be severely impacted by fluctuation brought on by elements like system load, network traffic, and concurrent processes, as mentioned by Brehm and Bruhwiler (2015).

No single number can reflect the overall performance of a computer system, yet the goal of the Linpack benchmark is to approximate how fast the computer solves numerical problems and it is widely used in the industry. The FLOPS measurement is either quoted based on the theoretical floating point performance of a processor (derived from manufacturer's processor specifications and shown as "Rpeak" in the TOP500 lists), which is generally unachievable when running real workloads, or the achievable throughput, derived from the LINPACK benchmarks and shown as "Rmax" in the TOP500 list. The LINPACK benchmark typically performs LU decomposition of a large matrix. The LINPACK performance gives some indication of performance for some real-world problems, but does not necessarily match the processing requirements of many other supercomputer workloads, which for example may require more memory bandwidth, or may require better integer computing performance, or may need a high performance I/O system to achieve high levels of performance.

The TOP500 list
Since 1993, the fastest supercomputers have been ranked on the TOP500 list according to their LINPACK benchmark results. The list does not claim to be unbiased or definitive, but it is a widely cited current definition of the "fastest" supercomputer available at any given time.

This is a recent list of the computers which appeared at the top of the TOP500 list, and the "Peak speed" is given as the "Rmax" rating. In 2018, Lenovo became the world's largest provider for the TOP500 supercomputers with 117 units produced.

Applications
The stages of supercomputer application may be summarized in the following table:

The IBM Blue Gene/P computer has been used to simulate a number of artificial neurons equivalent to approximately one percent of a human cerebral cortex, containing 1.6 billion neurons with approximately 9 trillion connections. The same research group also succeeded in using a supercomputer to simulate a number of artificial neurons equivalent to the entirety of a rat's brain.

Modern-day weather forecasting also relies on supercomputers. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration uses supercomputers to crunch hundreds of millions of observations to help make weather forecasts more accurate.

In 2011, the challenges and difficulties in pushing the envelope in supercomputing were underscored by IBM's abandonment of the Blue Waters petascale project.

The Advanced Simulation and Computing Program currently uses supercomputers to maintain and simulate the United States nuclear stockpile.

In early 2020, COVID-19 was front and center in the world. Supercomputers used different simulations to find compounds that could potentially stop the spread. These computers run for tens of hours using multiple paralleled running CPU's to model different processes.

Development and trends
In the 2010s, China, the United States, the European Union, and others competed to be the first to create a 1 exaFLOP (1018 or one quintillion FLOPS) supercomputer. Erik P. DeBenedictis of Sandia National Laboratories has theorized that a zettaFLOPS (1021 or one sextillion FLOPS) computer is required to accomplish full weather modeling, which could cover a two-week time span accurately. Such systems might be built around 2030.

Many Monte Carlo simulations use the same algorithm to process a randomly generated data set; particularly, integro-differential equations describing physical transport processes, the random paths, collisions, and energy and momentum depositions of neutrons, photons, ions, electrons, etc. The next step for microprocessors may be into the third dimension; and specializing to Monte Carlo, the many layers could be identical, simplifying the design and manufacture process.

The cost of operating high performance supercomputers has risen, mainly due to increasing power consumption. In the mid-1990s a top 10 supercomputer required in the range of 100 kilowatts, in 2010 the top 10 supercomputers required between 1 and 2 megawatts. A 2010 study commissioned by DARPA identified power consumption as the most pervasive challenge in achieving Exascale computing. At the time a megawatt per year in energy consumption cost about 1 million dollars. Supercomputing facilities were constructed to efficiently remove the increasing amount of heat produced by modern multi-core central processing units. Based on the energy consumption of the Green 500 list of supercomputers between 2007 and 2011, a supercomputer with 1 exaFLOPS in 2011 would have required nearly 500 megawatts. Operating systems were developed for existing hardware to conserve energy whenever possible. CPU cores not in use during the execution of a parallelized application were put into low-power states, producing energy savings for some supercomputing applications.

The increasing cost of operating supercomputers has been a driving factor in a trend toward bundling of resources through a distributed supercomputer infrastructure. National supercomputing centers first emerged in the US, followed by Germany and Japan. The European Union launched the Partnership for Advanced Computing in Europe (PRACE) with the aim of creating a persistent pan-European supercomputer infrastructure with services to support scientists across the European Union in porting, scaling and optimizing supercomputing applications. Iceland built the world's first zero-emission supercomputer. Located at the Thor Data Center in Reykjavík, Iceland, this supercomputer relies on completely renewable sources for its power rather than fossil fuels. The colder climate also reduces the need for active cooling, making it one of the greenest facilities in the world of computers.

Funding supercomputer hardware also became increasingly difficult. In the mid-1990s a top 10 supercomputer cost about 10 million euros, while in 2010 the top 10 supercomputers required an investment of between 40 and 50 million euros. In the 2000s national governments put in place different strategies to fund supercomputers. In the UK the national government funded supercomputers entirely and high performance computing was put under the control of a national funding agency. Germany developed a mixed funding model, pooling local state funding and federal funding.

In fiction
Examples of supercomputers in fiction include HAL 9000, Multivac, The Machine Stops, GLaDOS, The Evitable Conflict, Vulcan's Hammer, Colossus, WOPR, AM, and Deep Thought. The Cray X-MP was mentioned as the supercomputer used to sequence the DNA extracted from preserved parasites in the Jurassic Park series.

title: Supercomputer


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Coxsackie A virus

Coxsackie A virus (CAV) is a cytolytic Coxsackievirus of the Picornaviridae family, an enterovirus (a group containing the polioviruses, coxsackieviruses, and echoviruses).

Viral structure and genome
Coxsackie A virus is a subgroup of enterovirus A, which are small, non-enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses. Its protective, icosahedral capsid has an external portion that contains sixty copies of viral proteins (VP1,-2,-3) and an internal portion surrounding the RNA genome containing sixty copies of VP4 viral proteins. This capsid mediates cell entry and elicits the humoral immune responses. Enteroviruses have a depression encircling each fivefold axis (canyon), which is their binding site for immunoglobulin-like receptors. This binding can trigger viral expansion and release of its genome.

A complete genome analysis of Coxsackie virus A2, A4, A5, and A10 strains isolated from individuals with hand-foot-mouth disease showed that natural recombination is frequent in the virus's evolution. Its strains in China were related to strains in Mongolia, Taiwan, likely to those that circulated in Europe, and form a distinct lineage from strains imported from Japan and South Korea.

Replication cycle
Replication of the coxsackie virus happens through contributions of the host and virus components. The virus enters the cell where it is internalized into endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus. After viral un-coating, viral RNA is released. Ribosomes on the rough endoplasmic reticulum translate the RNA into viral polyprotein. This polyprotein is processed into structural protein P1 and non-structural proteins P2 and P3. Via the virus-encoded proteinase, P1 is processed into the viral capsid subunit proteins VP0, -1, -3. The 5'-non-coding region contains sequences that control genome replication and translation, while the 3'-non-coding region contains polyA tail needed for virus infectivity.

Diseases
The most well known Coxsackie A disease is hand, foot and mouth disease (unrelated to foot-and-mouth disease), a common childhood illness which affects mostly children aged 5 or under, often produced by Coxsackie A16. In most individuals, infection is asymptomatic or causes only mild symptoms. In others, infection produces short-lived (7–10 days) fever and painful blisters in the mouth (a condition known as herpangina), on the palms and fingers of the hand, or on the soles of the feet. There can also be blisters in the throat, or on or above the tonsils. Adults can also be affected. The rash, which can appear several days after high temperature and painful sore throat, can be itchy and painful, especially on the hands/fingers and bottom of feet.

Other diseases include acute haemorrhagic conjunctivitis (A24 specifically), herpangina, and aseptic meningitis (both Coxsackie A and B viruses). Coxsackievirus A7 is associated with neurological diseases and can cause paralytic poliomyelitis.

Signs and Symptoms
Coxsackie A virus leads to a number of diseases, however the most common signs and symptoms that appear with infection are fever and flu-like symptoms, mouth sores, and skin rashes. People who are infected may present with a mild fever and sore throat, and a general discomfort three to six days subsequent to exposure. Painful mouth sores (herpangina) may be present in the back of the mouth. These sores usually appear 24 hours after the flu like symptoms begin, and may blister, causing further discomfort when eating or drinking. A flat, red skin rash may appear, commonly accompanied by fluid filled blisters and scabbing. Rash will commonly present on the bottom of the feet, palm of hands, and other areas of the body, and persists upwards to ten days.

When the symptoms are incredibly severe, some may require hospitalization due to dehydration caused by inability to swallow food or water without pain, or seizures and convulsions can occur due to high fever. Signs of dehydration include dry skin, unintentional weight loss, or decreased urine output/darkened urine and if present should refer to a health care provider for intervention. Other serious complications include inflammatory brain conditions, such as viral meningitis or encephalitis, which require medical intervention. A professional health care may need to monitor if the someone infected is immunocompromised, or the symptoms do not improve within ten days.

The diagnosis of this disease centers around the appearance and behavior of fever, rash and mouth sores. Outside of the symptoms, age is also taken into consideration as the most common age of infection is under five years of age. A healthcare professional may choose to confirm the diagnosis through collecting samples from mouth sores and skin blisters, or a stool sample may also be ordered to rule out any other causes.

Outbreaks
Since 2008, coxsackievirus A6 (CVA6) has been associated with several worldwide outbreaks of hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD). In Finland, the initial HFMD case caused by the CVA6 lead to its identification of being the responsible pathogen of the outbreaks in Europe, North America, and Asia. Coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16) has also been linked to HFMD.

Outbreaks are more commonly seen amongst children (those seven and younger) compared to outbreaks rates amongst adults. Due to this, there are outbreaks within daycares, summer camps, and early autumn.

Pregnancy
Serious pregnancy complications due to hand, foot, and mouth disease are rare due to its limited data. However, HFMD is concerning if the mother contracts the virus at the end of her pregnancy. CVA16 infection has been associated with third trimester massive perivillous fibrin deposition leading to intrauterine death. It has also led to first trimester spontaneous abortions. Overall, there is limited information about the Coxsackievirus A strain in pregnant women.

On the other hand, there has been some reports of the Coxsackievirus B (CVB) with regards to pregnant women. Contraction of the CVB are not associated with a higher risk of spontaneous abortions. Although, complications at the end of the pregnancy carries an increased risk of stillbirth or HFMD in the child. There have been reports of congenital heart defects and urogenital anomalies within the newborns of women who seroconverted to CVB during pregnancy. CVB is responsible for up to half of all individuals with pediatric myocarditis. In the past, it has been stated that newborns who have contracted CVB have a 75% mortality from myocarditis.

Transmission
The Coxsackie A Virus is a highly contagious virus that commonly causes the mild hand, foot, and mouth disease but complications may lead to more serious diseases that can affect the heart, lungs, muscles, and more. The modes of transmission of the Coxsackie virus is primarily through contact between people, respiratory droplets (fluid from coughing and sneezing), and contaminated surfaces. All age groups can become infected with the Coxsackie virus, however it occurs most frequently in young children under the age of 10 and in who have a weakened immune system.

The main ways the Coxsackie Virus spreads are:

Although adults are less susceptible to infection, it is still possible for an adult to get infected with the Coxsackie virus. If a pregnant mother is infected, there is a 30-50% chance the infection will be passed on to the infant.
 * By direct transmission (when an infected person coughs or sneezes into any mucous membranes of the face i.e. eyes, nose, and mouth)
 * Fecal-oral transmission (virus in the fecal matter of an infected individual end up in the mouth of another person)
 * Via surface contact (when an infected person touches their face then a surface, the surface is contaminated with that virus. The next person comes along and touches the same surface then touches their face)
 * Via airborne transmission (when an uninfected person inhales respiratory droplets of an infected person)

Prevention
There is no vaccine to reduce the chances of infection and spread. It is critical to use non-pharmacological interventions to reduce the spread and transmission of Coxsackie virus. The best and most effective strategy for prevention is adopting proper hand hygiene, avoiding contact with the infected, abstain from touching mucous membranes of the face, and sanitizing frequently touched surfaces.

Prognosis
Some of those who are infected with the Coxsackie virus may have complications that may lead to more serious issues. Complications include stomatitis, meningitis, pulmonary edema, myocarditis, pneumonia, and possibly spontaneous abortions.

Treatment
Treatment is dependent on the disease process initiated by the virus. There is no known cure or vaccine against this virus.

Most Coxsackie A virus infections are mild and self-limiting meaning the infection has the ability to resolve on its own without requiring treatment. Symptoms of a Coxsackie A infection tend to dissipate on their own within 7–10 days. Treatment tends to focus on supportive care where the symptoms of the infection are targeted but not the virus itself. NSAIDs such as ibuprofen/naproxen and acetaminophen can be used to manage the flu-like symptoms, fever, and any other pain the infected individual may be feeling. Do not give a child aspirin as it may increase the risk of Reye syndrome. Fluids are recommended as to decrease the chances of dehydration. Mouth sores will make eating and drinking painful and may potentially lead to loss of appetite and refusing to eat in order to prevent mouth and throat pain. Severe dehydration may lead to hospitalization. Additionally, topical oral analgesic medications or salt water rinses can be used to help numb the sores and ease the throat pain. Since Coxsackie A is a viral infection, antibiotics will have no effect on the infection as they only work on bacterial infections.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Coxsackie A virus


text:
User:Chato/Wikipedia Usability Report

(2002/January/31) In the following, i point some usability problems with wikipedia and suggest solutions for them. Please:

 * 1) Take it with a grain of salt. Usability is not my main area.
 * 2) Some programmers get angry when other comment their works, hope it's not the case for wikipedia programmers.
 * 3) I've seen you don't like newbies to criticize the system. I'm not criticizing the whole thing, just the ui.
 * 4) Feel free to answer or add items in this page. Please put your name and the date.

The anatomy of a Wikipedia Web page seems to be the following:

TITLE                            USERNAME                    LOGO CREDIT                           MENU_USER_OPERATIONS MENU_ARTICLE_OPERATIONS          SEARCH_BOX ... MENU_NAVIGATION                                       MENU_SIDEBAR_1 ...                                                   MENU_SIDEBAR_2 CONTENT ...                                                   LINK_OTHER_NAMESPACES MENU_NAVIGATION PAGE_STATISTICS LINK_OTHER_NAMESPACES LAST_EDITED SEARCH_BOX    VALIDATE_LINK

Most of the usability issues i've seen are related to visual cluter, specifically because not all visual zones in the page are distinctively separated from other areas.

Important Problems
MENU_NAVIGATION too close to CONTENT

Problem: It's very close to the CONTENT, it tends to create a poor visualization, specially when the first or last lines of the text contain links.

Solution: Use a different color, or a different background, or a different font, or don't put it so close, or separate it with a hrule.

MENU_NAVIGATION inconsistent

Problem: The MENU_NAVIGATION includes items that are independent from context (main, recent, random, specials) and one item that is dependent from context (edit this page)

Solution: Move "edit this page" to MENU_ARTICLE_OPERATIONS. It should be in bold there, as the first item (or as the last item) to be very prominent. The link should disappear from MENU_SIDEBAR_1, or be put there as a separate, prominent item.

Normal Problems
Everything below the bottom MENU_NAVIGATION is poorly spaced

Problem: Below MENU_NAVIGATION, everything looks like a pudding of letters.

Solution: Some whitespace will greatly improve it. The "Validate this Page" is not necessary (you can take the parser output, then pass it through HTML tidy and then parse it back to wiki tags, that way you are sure pages are valid if your templates are valid). The search box at the bottom is not necessary, because the top search box is very prominent. At the very bottom of the page (separated from the rest, in small font and/or italics) a short statement about policies can be put like "This is a community project, see: Welcome to Wikipedia" or something like the bottom bar in dmoz.

 * I don't think that HTML Tidy always works very well as an automatic device. I agree with you about the community project explanation. -- Toby Bartels 2002/05/14

Links to other namespaces should be underlined

Problem: the "other namespaces" link is not underlined, and it's red, indicating something dangerous or wrong.

Solution: It should be underlined and in a different color: blue, magenta, orange, or anything but not red or green).

 * This link looks the same as links within the article. Depending on how you've set your user preferences, this may be blue and underlined if it exists, and red and ununderlined if it doesn't exist. I like this feature of knowing whether or not an article exists yet. -- Toby Bartels 2002/05/14

Watchlist usability be improved

Problem: "Watch this article for me" and "My watchlist" labels are not consistent. Watchlist is a user-associated feature but it appears in a global menu.

Solution: Change "Watch this article for me" to "Add to My Watchlist", move "My Watchlist" to the MENU_USER_OPERATIONS. This way, all in MENU_SIDEBAR_2 is not user-dependant.

Editor bottom has too much cluter

Problem: The copyleft notice is not clearly separated from text, i think sometimes can be "unnoticed". The Save and Preview buttons plus the Return without saving changes link are inconsistent.

Solution: Separate the copyleft notice, or put it with a different background. There should be a SAVE, PREVIEW and CANCEL button. That is easy to understand for all users.

Some inconsistencies in MENU_SIDEBAR_1 and MENU_SIDEBAR_2

Problem: MENU_SIDEBAR_1 looks very similar to MENU_NAVIGATION, but sometimes differ. That is confusing. MENU_SIDEBAR_2 labels are not consistent.

Solution: Make MENU_SIDEBAR_1 equivalent to MENU_NAVIGATION, or different. MENU_SIDEBAR_2 could be something more related with "Pages", like "Pages: All, Most Wanted, Newer, Random, All, Wikipedians"

Some Ideas
Clean look is a good thing

In my opinion, the clean, iconless look Wikipedia has is a good thing, keep it this way in future. Don't put too much features, icons, or text.

Eliminate features that take too much CPU

Performance is bad in the newer release. Maybe is some special page that is taking too much CPU, sacrifice for the sake of performance.

Customize through stylesheet

Customizing the user interface through a stylesheet is very easy. In particular,there could be a stylesheet for visually impaired people, another for heavy editors (that need many text in a single page), etc.

The upload thing is an important feature

I supose the idea of a global upload is a quick-and-dirty solution to something more deep, that is the idea of attach resources to particular articles. I think this is important, as it will be easier for a user to upload a file to a space that is more associated with a single article than global.

-- User:Chato

title: User:Chato/Wikipedia Usability Report


text:
Reinhard

Reinhard is a German, Austrian, Danish, and to a lesser extent Norwegian and Swedish surname (from Germanic ragin, counsel, and hart, strong), and a spelling variant of Reinhardt.

Persons with the given name

 * Reinhard of Blankenburg (after 1107 – 1123), German bishop
 * Reinhard Böhler (1945–1995), German sidecarcross racer
 * Reinhard Bonnke (1940–2019), German evangelist
 * Rainhard Fendrich (born 1955), Austrian singer-songwriter
 * Reinhard Gehlen (1902–1979), German spymaster
 * Reinhard Genzel (born 1952), German astrophysicist and Nobel Prize winner
 * Reinhard Heydrich (1904–1942), German Nazi leader
 * Reinhard Mey (born 1942), German singer
 * Reinhard Mohn (1921–2009), German media tycoon
 * Reinhard Odendaal (born 1980), South African award-winning winemaker
 * Reinhard Scheer (1863–1928), German admiral
 * Reinhard Selten (1930–2016), German economist
 * Reinhard Strohm (born 1942), German musicologist
 * Reinhard Stupperich (born 1951), German classical archaeologist
 * Reinhard Wendemuth (born 1948), German rower

Persons with the surname

 * Blaire Reinhard, American musician
 * Bob Reinhard (1920–1996), American football player
 * Charles-Frédéric Reinhard (1761–1837), French diplomat and politician
 * Christopher Reinhard (born 1985), German football (soccer) player
 * Franz Volkmar Reinhard (1753–1812), German theologian
 * Johan Reinhard (born 1943), American mountaineer and archaeologist
 * Kurt Reinhard (1914–1979), German ethnomusicologist and composer
 * Kurt Reinhard, Austrian Righteous among the Nations
 * Wilhelm Reinhard (pilot) (1891-1918), German flying ace
 * Reinhardt family, sometimes spelled Reinhard, Austrian family of musicians that flourished in the 18th and 19th centuries

Fictional characters

 * Reinhard von Lohengramm, a character in the anime series Legend of the Galactic Heroes
 * Reinhard van Astrea, a character in the light novel series Re:Zero − Starting Life in Another World

title: Reinhard


text:
Fuel injection

Fuel injection is the introduction of fuel in an internal combustion engine, most commonly automotive engines, by the means of an injector. This article focuses on fuel injection in reciprocating piston and Wankel rotary engines.

All compression-ignition engines (e.g. diesel engines), and many spark-ignition engines (i.e. petrol (gasoline) engines, such as Otto or Wankel), use fuel injection of one kind or another. Mass-produced diesel engines for passenger cars (such as the Mercedes-Benz OM 138) became available in the late 1930s and early 1940s, being the first fuel-injected engines for passenger car use. In passenger car petrol engines, fuel injection was introduced in the early 1950s and gradually gained prevalence until it had largely replaced carburetors by the early 1990s. The primary difference between carburetion and fuel injection is that fuel injection atomizes the fuel through a small nozzle under high pressure, while carburetion relies on suction created by intake air accelerated through a Venturi tube to draw fuel into the airstream.

The term "fuel injection" is vague and comprises various distinct systems with fundamentally different functional principles. Typically, the only thing all fuel injection systems have in common is a lack of carburetion. There are two main functional principles of mixture formation systems for internal combustion engines: internal mixture formation and external mixture formation. A fuel injection system that uses external mixture formation is called a manifold injection system. There exist two types of manifold injection systems: multi-point injection (or port injection) and single-point injection (or throttle body injection). Internal mixture formation systems can be separated into several different varieties of direct and indirect injection, the most common being the common-rail injection system, a variety of direct injection. The term "electronic fuel injection" refers to any fuel injection system controlled by an engine control unit.

System functions
The fundamental functions of a fuel injection system are described in the following sections. In some systems, a single component performs multiple functions.

Pressurising fuel
Fuel injection is operated by spraying pressurised fuel into the engine. Therefore a device to pressurise the fuel is needed, such as a fuel pump.

Metering fuel
The system must determine the appropriate amount of fuel to be supplied and control the fuel flow to supply this amount.

Several early mechanical injection systems used relatively sophisticated helix-controlled injection pump(s) that both metered fuel and created injection pressure. Since the 1980s, electronic systems have been used to control the metering of fuel. More recent systems use an electronic engine control unit which meters the fuel, controls the ignition timing and controls various other engine functions.

Injecting fuel
The fuel injector is effectively a spray nozzle that performs the final stage in the delivery of fuel into the engine. The injector is located in the combustion chamber, inlet manifold or - less commonly - the throttle body.

Fuel injectors which also control the metering are called "injection valves", while injectors that perform all three functions are called unit injectors.

Direct injection systems
Direct injection means that the fuel is injected into the main combustion chamber of each cylinder. The air and fuel are mixed only inside the combustion chamber. Therefore, only air is sucked into the engine during the intake stroke. The injection scheme is always intermittent (either sequential or cylinder-individual).

This can be done either with a blast of air or hydraulically, with the latter method being more common in automotive engines. Typically, hydraulic direct injection systems spray fuel into the air inside the cylinder or combustion chamber. Direct injection can be achieved with a conventional helix-controlled injection pump, unit injectors, or a sophisticated common-rail injection system. The latter is the most common system in modern automotive engines.

Direct injection for petrol engines
During the 20th century, most petrol engines used either a carburettor or indirect fuel injection. Use of direct injection in petrol engines has become increasingly common in the 21st century.

Common-rail injection systems
In a common rail system, fuel from the fuel tank is supplied to a common header (called the accumulator), and then sent through tubing to the injectors, which inject it into the combustion chamber. The accumulator has a high-pressure relief valve to maintain pressure and return the excess fuel to the fuel tank. The fuel is sprayed with the help of a nozzle that is opened and closed with a solenoid-operated needle valve. Third-generation common rail diesels use piezoelectric injectors for increased precision, with fuel pressures up to 300 MPa.

The types of common-rail systems include air-guided injection and spray-guided injection.

Unit injector systems
Used by diesel engines, these systems include:
 * Pumpe-Düse
 * Pump-rail-nozzle system

Helix-controlled pump systems
This injection method was previously used in many diesel engines. Types of systems include:
 * Lanova direct injection
 * Afterchamber injection
 * G-System (sphere combustion chamber)
 * Gardner system (hemisphere combustion chamber)
 * Saurer system (torus combustion chamber)
 * Flat piston (combustion chamber between piston and head)

Other systems
The M-System, used in some diesel engines from the 1960s to the 1980s, sprayed the fuel onto the walls of the combustion chamber, as opposed to most other direct-injection systems which spray the fuel into the middle of the chamber.

Manifold injection
Manifold injection systems are common in petrol-fuelled engines such as the Otto engine and the Wankel engine. In a manifold injection system, air and fuel are mixed outside the combustion chamber so that a mixture of air and fuel is sucked into the engine. The main types of manifold injections systems are multi-point injection and single-point injection.

These systems use either a continuous injection or an intermittent injection design. In a continuous injection system, fuel flows at all times from the fuel injectors, but at a variable flow rate. The most common automotive continuous injection system is the Bosch K-Jetronic system, introduced in 1974 and used until the mid-1990s by various car manufacturers. Intermittent injection systems can be sequential, in which injection is timed to coincide with each cylinder's intake stroke; batched, in which fuel is injected to the cylinders in groups, without precise synchronization to any particular cylinder's intake stroke; simultaneous, in which fuel is injected at the same time to all the cylinders; or cylinder-individual, in which the engine control unit can adjust the injection for each cylinder individually.

Multi-point injection

Multi-point injection (also called 'port injection') injects fuel into the intake ports just upstream of each cylinder's intake valve, rather than at a central point within an intake manifold. Typically, multi-point injected systems use multiple fuel injectors, but some systems, such as GM's central port injection system, use tubes with poppet valves fed by a central injector instead of multiple injectors.

Single-point injection
Single-point injection (also called 'throttle-body injection') uses one injector in a throttle body mounted similarly to a carburettor on an intake manifold. As in a carburetted induction system, the fuel is mixed with the air before entering the intake manifold. Single-point injection was a relatively low-cost way for automakers to reduce exhaust emissions to comply with tightening regulations while providing better "driveability" (easy starting, smooth running, no engine stuttering) than could be obtained with a carburettor. Many of the carburettor's supporting components—such as the air filter, intake manifold, and fuel line routing—could be used with few or no changes. This postponed the redesign and tooling costs of these components. Single-point injection was used extensively on American-made passenger cars and light trucks during 1980–1995, and in some European cars in the early and mid-1990s. In the US, the G10 engine in the 2000 Chevrolet Metro became the last engine available on an American-sold vehicle to use throttle body injection.

Diesel engines
In indirect-injected diesel engines (as well as Akroyd engines), there are two combustion chambers: the main combustion chamber, and a pre-chamber (also called an ante-chamber) that is connected to the main one. The fuel is injected only into the pre-chamber (where it begins to combust), and not directly into the main combustion chamber. Therefore, this principle is called indirect injection. There exist several slightly different indirect injection systems that have similar characteristics.

Types of indirect injection used by diesel engines include:
 * Precombustion-chamber injection
 * Air-cell chamber injection

1870s – 1930s: early systems
In 1872, George Bailey Brayton obtained a patent on an internal combustion engine that used a pneumatic fuel injection system, also invented by Brayton: air-blast injection. In 1894, Rudolf Diesel copied Brayton's air-blast injection system for the diesel engine, but also improved it. He increased the air blast pressure from 4-5 kp/cm2 to 65 kp/cm2. In the meantime, the first manifold injection system was designed by Johannes Spiel in 1884, while working at Hallesche Maschinenfabrik in Germany.

In 1891, the British Herbert-Akroyd oil engine became the first engine to use a pressurised fuel injection system. This design, called a hot-bulb engine used a 'jerk pump' to dispense fuel oil at high pressure to an injector. Another development in early diesel engines was the pre-combustion chamber, which was invented in 1919 by Prosper l'Orange to avoid the drawbacks of air-blast injection systems. The pre-combustion chamber made it feasible to produce engines in size suitable for automobiles and MAN Truck & Bus presented the first direct-injected diesel engine for trucks in 1924. Higher pressure diesel injection pumps were introduced by Bosch in 1927.

In 1898, German company Deutz AG started producing four-stroke petrol stationary engines with manifold injection. The 1906 Antoinette 8V aircraft engine (the world's first V8 engine) was another early four-stroke engine that used manifold injection. The first petrol engine with direct-injection was a two-stroke aircraft engine designed by Otto Mader in 1916. Another early spark-ignition engine to use direct-injection was the 1925 Hesselman engine, designed by Swedish engineer Jonas Hesselman. This engine could run on a variety of fuels (such as oil, kerosene, petrol or diesel oil) and used a stratified charge principle whereby fuel is injected towards the end of the compression stroke, then ignited with a spark plug.

The Cummins Model H diesel truck engine was introduced in America in 1933. In 1936, the Mercedes-Benz OM 138 diesel engine (using a precombustion chamber) became one of the first fuel-injected engines used in a mass-production passenger car.

1940s – 1950s: WWII aircraft and early direct-injection petrol engines
During World War II, several petrol engines for aircraft used direct-injection systems, such as the European Junkers Jumo 210, Daimler-Benz DB 601, BMW 801, and the Shvetsov ASh-82FN (M-82FN). The German direct-injection systems were based on diesel injection systems used by Bosch, Deckel, Junkers and l'Orange. By around 1943, the Rolls-Royce Merlin and Wright R-3350 had switched from traditional carburettors to fuel-injection (called "pressure carburettors" at the time), however these engines used throttle body manifold injection, rather than the direct-injection systems of the German engines. From 1940, the Mitsubishi Kinsei 60 series engine used a direct-injection system, along with the related Mitsubishi Kasei engine from 1941. In 1943, a low-pressure fuel injection system was added to the Nakajima Homare Model 23 radial engine.

The first mass-produced petrol direct-injection system was developed by Bosch and initially used in small automotive two-stroke petrol engines. Introduced in the 1950 Goliath GP700 small saloon, it was also added to the Gutbrod Superior engine in 1952. This mechanically-controlled system was essentially a specially lubricated high-pressure diesel direct-injection pump of the type that is governed by the vacuum behind an intake throttle valve. A Bosch mechanical direct-injection system was also used in the straight-eight used in the 1954 Mercedes-Benz W196 Formula One racing car. The first four-stroke direct-injection petrol engine for a passenger car was released the following year, in the Mercedes-Benz 300SL sports car. However the engine suffered lubrication problems due to petrol diluting the engine oil, and subsequent Mercedes-Benz engines switched to a manifold injection design. Likewise, most petrol injection systems prior to the 2000s used the less-expensive manifold injection design.

1950s – 1970s: manifold injection for petrol engines
Throughout the 1950s, several manufacturers introduced their manifold injection systems for petrol engines. Lucas Industries had begun developing a fuel injection system in 1941 and by 1956 it was used in the Jaguar racing cars. At the 1957 24 Hours of Le Mans, the 1st to 4th placed cars were Jaguar D-Type entries using a Lucas fuel injection system. Also in 1957, General Motors introduced the Rochester Ramjet option, consisting of a fuel injection system for the V8 engine in the Chevrolet Corvette. During the 1960s, fuel injection systems were also produced by Hilborn, SPICA and Kugelfischer.

Up until this time, the fuel injection systems had used a mechanical control system. In 1957, the American Bendix Electrojector system was introduced, which used analogue electronics for the control system. The Electrojector was intended to be available for the Rambler Rebel mid-size car, however reliability problems meant that the fuel injection option was not offered. In 1958, the Chrysler 300D, DeSoto Adventurer, Dodge D-500 and Plymouth Fury offered the Electrojector system, becoming the first cars known to use an electronic fuel injection (EFI) system.

The Electrojector patents were subsequently sold to Bosch, who developed the Electrojector into the Bosch D-Jetronic. The D-Jetronic was produced from 1967-1976 and first used on the VW 1600TL/E. The system was a speed/density system, using engine speed and intake manifold air density to calculate the amount of fuel to be injected. In 1974, Bosch introduced the K-Jetronic system, which used a continuous flow of fuel from the injectors (rather than the pulsed flow of the D-Jetronic system). K-Jetronic was a mechanical injection system, using a plunger actuated by the intake manifold pressure which then controlled the fuel flow to the injectors.

Also in 1974, Bosch introduced the L-Jetronic system, a pulsed flow system which used an air flow meter to calculate the amount of fuel required. L-Jetronic was widely adopted on European cars during the 1970s and 1980s. As a system that uses electronically-controlled fuel injectors which open and close to control the amount of fuel entering the engine, the L-Jetronic system uses the same basic principles as modern electronic fuel injection (EFI) systems.

1980s – present: digital electronics and common-rail injection
Prior to 1979, the electronics in fuel injection systems used analogue electronics for the control system. The Bosch Motronic multi-point fuel injection system (also amongst the first systems where the ignition system is controlled by the same device as the fuel injection system) was the first mass-produced system to use digital electronics. The Ford EEC-III single-point fuel injection system, introduced in 1980, was another early digital fuel injection system. These and other electronic manifold injection systems (using either port injection or throttle-body injection) became more widespread through the 1980s, and by the early 1990s they had replaced carburettors in most new petrol-engined cars sold in developed countries.

The aforementioned injection systems for petrol passenger car engines - except for the 1954-1959 Mercedes-Benz 300 SL - all used manifold injection (i.e. the injectors located at the intake ports or throttle body, instead of inside the combustion chamber). This began to change when the first mass-produced petrol direct injection system for passenger cars was a common rail system introduced in the 1997 Mitsubishi 6G74 V6 engine. The first common-rail system for a passenger car diesel engine was the Fiat Multijet straight-four engine, introduced in the 1999 Alfa Romeo 156 1.9 JTD model. Since the 2010s, many petrol engines have switched to direct-injection (sometimes in combination with separate manifold injectors for each cylinder). Similarly, many modern diesel engines use a common-rail design.

Stratified charge injection was used in several petrol engines in the early 2000s, such as the Volkswagen 1.4 FSI engine introduced in 2000. However, the stratified charge systems were largely no longer in use by the late 2010s, due to increased exhaust emissions of NOx gasses and particulates, along with the increased cost and complexity of the systems.

title: Fuel injection


text:
Roland Freisler

Karl Roland Freisler (30 October 1893 – 3 February 1945) was a German jurist, judge and politician who served as the State Secretary of the Reich Ministry of Justice from 1934 to 1942 and as President of the People's Court from 1942 to 1945. As a prominent ideologist of Nazism, he influenced as a jurist the Nazification of Germany's legal system. He attended the 1942 Wannsee Conference, the event which set the Holocaust in motion. He was appointed President of the People's Court in 1942, overseeing the prosecution of political crimes as a judge, and became known for his aggressive personality, his humiliation of defendants, and frequent use of the death penalty in sentencing.

Although the death penalty was abolished with the creation of the Federal Republic in 1949, Freisler's 1941 definition of murder in German law, as opposed to the less severe crime of manslaughter, survives in the Strafgesetzbuch § 211.

Early life
Roland Freisler was born on 30 October 1893 in Celle, Lower Saxony, the son of Julius Freisler (b. 1862 in Klantendorf, Moravia), an engineer and teacher, and Charlotte Auguste Florentine Schwerdtfeger (1863–1932). He was baptized as a Protestant on 13 December 1893. He had a younger brother, Oswald, who became a lawyer, and another brother who became a doctor. He attended the Wilhelmsgymnasium Kassel and received his Abitur in 1912, graduating at the top of his class.

World War I
Freisler was attending law school at Kiel University upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914, which interrupted his studies. He saw active service in the German Imperial Army during the war after enlisting as a Fahnenjunker (officer cadet) in 1914 with the 167th Infantry Regiment (1st Upper Alsatian) in Kassel, and by 1915 he was a Leutnant. While serving on the front-line with the 22nd Division, he was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd class, for heroism in action. In October 1915, he was wounded in action on the Eastern Front and taken as a prisoner of war by Imperial Russian forces.

While a prisoner, Freisler learned to speak Russian and developed an interest in Marxism after the Russian Revolution had commenced. The Bolshevik provisional authority which took over responsibility for Freisler's prisoner of war camp made use of him as a camp "Commissar" (as he was described by them in his repatriated prisoner of war paperwork in 1918) administratively organizing the camp's food supplies from 1917 to 1918.

According to historian Georg Franz–Willig's Ursprung der Hitlerbewegung 3 volume set published by Schütz, Pr. Oldendorf, 1974, the SDP newspaper Vorwärts of 3 May 1924 ran an article entitled SPIRITUAL KINSHIP: JEWISH–COMMUNIST, POPULAR REICHSTAG CANDIDATE, in which it stated that Freisler had been "until rather recently a member of the German Communist Party" and that this was interesting because "his grandmother was a full Jewess." Another possibility is that after the Russian Revolution the description "Commissar" was merely an administrative title given by the Bolshevik authority for anyone employed in an administrative post in the prison camps without the political connotations that the title later acquired. However, in the early days of his Nazi Party career in the 1920s, Freisler was a part of the movement's left wing.

In the late 1930s, during Joseph Stalin's Great Purge in the Soviet Union, Freisler attended the Moscow Trials to watch the proceedings against the condemned. Freisler later rejected any insinuation that he had ever co-operated with the Soviets, the ideological nemesis of Nazi Germany, but his subsequent career as a political official in Germany was overshadowed by rumours about his time as a "Commissar" with the "Reds".

Post-war legal and political career
Freisler returned to Germany in 1919 to complete his law studies at the University of Jena, and he qualified as a Doctor of Law in 1922. In 1924, he began working as an Assessor in Kassel, and also was elected as a city councillor for the Völkisch-Social Bloc, an ultranationalist splinter party. He joined the Nazi Party in July 1925 (membership number 9,679) and immediately gained a position of authority within the organisation by using his legal training to defend Party members and SA men who were regularly facing prosecutions for acts of political violence. As an early Party member, or Alter Kämpfer, he would later be awarded the Golden Party Badge. From late 1925 to September 1927, Freisler was the Deputy Gauleiter in Gau Hessen-Nassau Nord under Walter Schultz. He was also a member of the Party's National Socialist Motor Corps (NSKK), attaining the rank of NSKK-Brigadeführer in 1942. As the Nazis transitioned from a fringe political beer hall and street fighting movement into a political party, Freisler was elected to the Hesse-Nassau provincial Landtag, a position he held between 1930 and 1933. In 1931, he joined the Association of National Socialist German Legal Professionals, founded by fellow Nazi lawyer Hans Frank. He was elected to the Prussian Landtag in April 1932 serving until the Landtag was dissolved in October 1933. At the November 1933 German parliamentary election he was elected as a deputy of the Reichstag, retaining his seat until his death. Reelected in 1936 and 1938, he represented electoral constituencies 19 (Hesse-Nassau), 13 (Schleswig-Holstein) and 35 (Mecklenburg), respectively.

In 1927, Karl Weinrich, a Nazi member of the Prussian Landtag along with Freisler, characterised his reputation in the rapidly expanding Nazi movement in the late 1920s: "Rhetorically Freisler is equal to our best speakers, if not superior; particularly on the broad masses he has influence, but thinking people mostly reject him. Party Comrade Freisler is usable as only a speaker though and is unsuitable for any position of authority because of his unreliability and moodiness."

Career in Nazi Germany
In February 1933, after the Nazi seizure of power, Freisler was appointed Ministerial Director in the Prussian Ministry of Justice under Hans Kerrl. He was placed in charge of the personnel office and used his authority to force out Jewish members of the staff. By June, he was promoted to State Secretary in the Ministry. On 31 July, Prussian Minister president Hermann Göring appointed him to the recently reconstituted Prussian State Council. On the founding of the Academy for German Law by Hans Frank in October 1933, Freisler was made a member. He was the chairman of its Criminal Law Committee, head of its department of scientific studies and editor of the Academy newspaper. When the Prussian Ministry of Justice was merged with the Reich Ministry of Justice on 1 April 1935, Friesler became the State Secretary in the unified Ministry, where he served until August 1942.

Freisler's mastery of legal texts, mental agility, dramatic courtroom verbal dexterity and verbal force, in combination with his zealous conversion to Nazi ideology, made him the most feared judge in Nazi Germany, and the personification of Nazism in domestic law. However, despite his talents and loyalty, Adolf Hitler never appointed him to any post beyond the legal system. That might have been because he was a lone figure, lacking support within the senior echelons of the Nazi hierarchy, but he had also been politically compromised by his brother, Oswald Freisler, also a lawyer. Oswald had acted as a defence counsel against the regime's authority several times during the increasingly politically driven trials by which the Nazis sought to enforce their tyrannical control of German society, and he had the habit of wearing his Nazi Party membership badge in court whilst doing so. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels reproached Oswald Freisler and reported his actions to Adolf Hitler who, in response, ordered Freisler's expulsion from the Party. (Oswald Freisler died, allegedly by suicide, in 1939.)

In 1941, in a discussion at the "Führer Headquarters" about whom to appoint to replace Franz Gürtner, the Reich Justice Minister, who had died, Goebbels suggested Roland Freisler as an option; Hitler's reply, referring to Freisler's alleged "Red" past, was: "That old Bolshevik? No!"

Contribution to the Nazification of the law
Freisler was a committed Nazi ideologist and used his legal skills to adapt its theories into practical law-making and judicature. He published a paper entitled Die rassebiologische Aufgabe bei der Neugestaltung des Jugendstrafrechts ("The racial-biological task involved in the reform of juvenile criminal law"). In this document he argued that "racially foreign, racially degenerate, racially incurable or seriously defective juveniles" should be sent to juvenile centres or correctional education centres and segregated from those who are "German and racially valuable".

He strongly advocated the creation of laws to punish Rassenschande ("race defilement", the Nazi term for sexual relations between "Aryans" and "inferior races"), to be classed as "racial treason". Freisler looked to racist laws in the United States states as a model for Nazi legislation to target Jews in Germany. Freisler considered Jim Crow racist legislation "primitive" for failing to provide a legal definition of the term black or negro person. Nevertheless, while some more conservative Nazi lawyers objected to the lack of precision with which a person could be defined as a "Jew," he argued that American judges were able to identify black people for purposes of laws in American states that prohibited "miscegenation" between black and white people, and laws that otherwise codified racial segregation, and, therefore, German laws could similarly target Jews even if the term "Jew" could not be given a precise legal definition.

In 1933, he published a pamphlet calling for the legal prohibition of "mixed-blood" sexual intercourse, which met with expressions of public unease in the dying elements of the German free press and non-Nazi political classes and, at the time, lacked public authorization from the policy of the Nazi Party, which had only just obtained dictatorial control of the state. It also led to a clash with his superior Franz Gürtner, but Freisler's ideological views reflected things to come, as was shown by the enactment of the Nuremberg Laws within two years.

In October 1939, Freisler introduced the concept of 'precocious juvenile criminal' in the "Juvenile Felons Decree". This "provided the legal basis for imposing the death penalty and penitentiary terms on juveniles for the first time in German legal history." Between 1933 and 1945, the Reich's courts sentenced at least 72 German juveniles to death, among them 17-year-old Helmuth Hübener, found guilty of high treason for distributing anti-war leaflets in 1942.

On the outbreak of World War II, Freisler issued a legal "Decree against National Parasites" (September 1939) introducing the term "perpetrator type", which was used in combination with another Nazi ideological term, "parasite". The adoption of racial biological terminology into law portrayed juvenile criminality as "parasitical", implying the need for harsher sentences to remedy it. He justified the new concept with: "in times of war, breaches of loyalty and baseness cannot find any leniency and must be met with the full force of the law."

On 8 July 1940, the Justice Ministry received a written complaint from a senior local court judge protesting against the euthanasia killings of physically or mentally disabled individuals that had claimed his wards. Freisler met with him and explained that the ministry was establishing orderly procedures for the program with "expert committees" and "grievance councils", but he did not dispute the legality of the killings, arguing that the Nazi state had brought about a new concept of law. The judge continued to protest and some months later, after a second meeting with Reichsminister Gürtner reinforced Freisler's position, the judge was forced to retire.

On 31 October 1941, Freisler issued a directive that Jewish inmates must wear the identifying yellow badge in Reich prisons. He also worked closely with the Reichsstatthalter of Reichsgau Wartheland, Arthur Greiser, on standardizing penalties for Jews and Poles in the occupied eastern territories. They concluded that the death penalty or concentration camp imprisonment, imposed by special courts-martial, were the only acceptable punishments for these categories of individuals, even for minor offenses. These penal regulations came into force in December 1941, and also were applied to Jews who were transported into the eastern territories.

Wannsee Conference
On 20 January 1942, Freisler, representing Acting Reichsminister of Justice Franz Schlegelberger, attended the Wannsee Conference of senior governmental officials in a villa on the southwestern outskirts of Berlin to provide expert legal advice for the planning of the destruction of European Jewry. The official minutes of the conference do not record any comments by Freisler. However, he had a history of antisemitism and knowledge of the regime's use of extrajudicial killing in other contexts, and was certainly aware that the purpose of the meeting was to discuss the extermination of the Jews.

Presidency of the People's Court

On 20 August 1942, Hitler promoted Otto Georg Thierack to Reich Justice Minister, replacing the retiring Schlegelberger, and named Freisler to succeed Thierack as president of the People's Court (Volksgerichtshof). This court had jurisdiction over a broad array of political offences, including black marketeering, work slowdowns and defeatism. These actions were viewed by Freisler as Wehrkraftzersetzung (undermining defensive capability) and were punished severely, with many death sentences. The People's Court under Freisler's domination almost always sided with the prosecuting authority, to the point that being brought before it was tantamount to a capital charge. Its separate administrative existence beyond the ordinary judicial system, despite its trappings, rapidly turned it into an executive execution arm and psychological domestic terror weapon of Nazi Germany's totalitarian regime, in the tradition of a revolutionary tribunal rather than a court of law.

He chaired the First Senate of the People's Court wearing a blood scarlet judicial robe, in a hearing chamber bedecked with scarlet swastika-draped banners and a large black sculpted bust of Adolf Hitler's head upon a high pedestal behind his chair, opening each hearing session with the Nazi salute from the bench. He acted as prosecutor, judge and jury combined, and also as his own recorder, thereby controlling the record of the written grounds for the sentences that he passed.

The frequency of death sentences rose sharply under Freisler's rule. Approximately 90% of all cases that came before him ended in guilty verdicts. Between 1942 and 1945, more than 5,000 death sentences were decreed by him, 2,600 of these through the court's First Senate, which Freisler controlled. He was responsible in his three years on the court for as many death sentences as all other senate sessions of the court combined in the court's existence between 1934 and 1945.

Freisler became known during this period for berating each member of the steady stream of defendants passing before him. He was known to be interested in Andrei Vyshinsky, the Chief Prosecutor of the Soviet purge trials, and had attended those show trials to watch Vyshinsky's courtroom performances in a similar capacity in Moscow in 1938.

White Rose show-trials
On 18 February 1943, Sophie Scholl and Hans Scholl were captured by the Gestapo. Through questioning, it became clear that the two siblings were part of a resistance group called the White Rose that was attempting to sow discord in Germany by the use of mailing pamphlets urging passive resistance. A third resistance member, Christoph Probst was soon arrested. On 22 February 1943, Freisler was flown into Munich for the sole purpose of presiding over their trial. The verdict was as expected: guilty. Freisler sentenced the three to death by hanging but, fearful of them being raised to martyrdom status if they were publicly killed, it was decided to execute them by guillotine instead.

On 19 April 1943, Freisler was flown back again to stand as judge over the second trial of the White Rose members. Out of the thirteen defendants, three were sentenced to death, nine were given prison sentences, and one was acquitted.

20 July Plot show-trials
In August 1944, some of the arrested perpetrators of the failed assassination of Adolf Hitler were brought before Freisler for punishment. The proceedings were filmed in order to be shown to the German public in cinema newsreels, and portray how Freisler ran his court; he would often alternate between questioning the defendants in an analytical manner, then suddenly launching into a furious verbal tirade, even going so far as to shout insults at the accused from the bench. The shift from cold, clinical interrogation to fits of screaming rage was designed to psychologically disarm, torment and humiliate those on trial while discouraging any attempt on their part to defend or justify their actions. At one point, Freisler yelled at Field Marshal Erwin von Witzleben, who was trying to hold up his trousers after being purposely given old, oversized and beltless clothing: "You dirty old man, why do you keep fiddling with your trousers?"

Another instance is from Freisler's public appearance during the trial of the defendant Ulrich-Wilhelm Graf Schwerin von Schwanenfeld. The footage taken shows Freisler drowning out Schwerin's weak and muted testimony, prompted by his concern over the Wehrmacht's "numerous murders in Poland", by roaring at him in an exaggerated and theatrical manner, declaring "Sie sind ja ein schäbiger Lump!" (roughly, "You really are a lousy piece of trash!").

Nearly all of the accused were sentenced to death by hanging, with some of the sentences being carried out within two hours of the verdict being delivered.

Death
On the morning of 3 February 1945, Freisler was conducting a Saturday session of the People's Court when United States Army Air Forces bombers attacked Berlin, led by the B-17 of Lieutenant Colonel Robert Rosenthal. Government and Nazi Party buildings were hit, including the Reich Chancellery, the Gestapo headquarters, the Party Chancellery and the People's Court. Hearing the air raid sirens, Freisler hastily adjourned the court and ordered that the prisoners be taken to an air raid shelter, but stayed behind to gather files before leaving. A bomb struck the court building at 11:08, causing a partial internal collapse, and a masonry column came loose whilst Freisler was distracted by his documents. The column came crashing down on Freisler, causing him to be crushed and killed instantly. Due to the column collapsing, a large portion of the courtroom also landed on Freisler's corpse.

Among the files was that of Fabian von Schlabrendorff, a 20 July Plot member who was on trial that day and facing execution. The flattened remains of Freisler were found beneath the rubble still clutching the files he had stopped to retrieve. A differing account stated that Freisler "was killed by a bomb fragment while trying to escape from his law court to the air-raid shelter," and "bled to death on the pavement outside the People's Court at Bellevuestrasse 15 in Berlin". Von Schlabrendorff was "standing near Freisler when the latter met his end". Von Schlabrendorff was re-tried, acquitted, and survived the war, and ultimately followed Freisler as a judge, on the Federal Constitutional Court.

A foreign correspondent reported, "Apparently nobody regretted his death". Luise Jodl, wife of General Alfred Jodl, recounted more than 25 years later that she had been working at the Lützow Hospital when Freisler's body was brought in, and that a worker commented, "It is God's verdict." According to Mrs. Jodl: "Not one person said a word in reply." His body was buried in the grave of his wife's family at the Waldfriedhof Dahlem Cemetery in Berlin. His name is not recorded on the gravestone.

Personal life
He married Marion Russegger on 24 March 1928; the couple had two sons, Harald and Roland.

Freisler in film and fiction
Freisler appears in a fictionalized form in the Hans Fallada novel Every Man Dies Alone (1947). In 1943, he tried and handed down death penalties to Otto and Elise Hampel, who were both guillotined for distributing anti-Nazi postcards, and whose true story inspired Fallada's novel.

In the novel Fatherland (1992) by Robert Harris, which takes place in an alternate 1964 in which Nazi Germany won World War II, Freisler is mentioned as having survived until winter 1954, when he is killed by a maniac with a knife on the steps of the Berlin People's Court. It is implied that his death was actually caused by the Gestapo, to ensure that the Wannsee Conference and the Holocaust remained a secret.

Freisler has been portrayed by screen actors at least eight times: by Rainer Steffen in the German television film Die Wannseekonferenz (1984), by Roland Schäfer (actor) in the Anglo-French-German film Reunion (1989), by Brian Cox in the British television film Witness Against Hitler (1996), by Owen Teale in the BBC/HBO film Conspiracy (2001), by André Hennicke in the film Sophie Scholl – The Final Days (2005), by Helmut Stauss in the film Valkyrie (2008) by Karl Knaup in Rommel (2012, uncredited) and by Arnd Klawitter in the German television film Die Wannseekonferenz (2022).

title: Roland Freisler


text:
User:Yargo

I don't want to retype everything, so in hope that the link to my old userpage still may work: go to User:Yargo/old! Or have a look at my homepage at http://yargo.andropov.org !

-Yargo

Yargo, I moved your old homepage here, and set up a redirect. Hope you don't mind! --Stephen Gilbert

Your old home page, with complete history, is now at User:Yargo/old. If you don't want it, see WP:SD for how to get it deleted. Noel (talk) 15:45, 30 Oct 2004 (UTC)

What is the meaning of "Yargo"?
As it looks like, "Yargo" is stemming from the same root as "George", or the old Greek "georgos", meaning "the one that is working with the ground/earth" (from "gae/gaia", earth, and "ergon", work).

About me
At this moment, I'm too lazy to write much about myself; you may have a look at my homepage. Ok, here some briefing:
 * born 1970
 * physicist
 * Amateur Radio operator HB9KNS - I love Morse code!
 * text fetishist (Tell me your thoughts, don't show me your face.)

 * panta rhei (Greek for "everything flows")

Hello! (Yargo was also a science fiction novel by Jacqueline Suzann, wasn't it?) -- User:RjLesch
 * Yes, I know, of course I read it... it's a bit romantical, but nevertheless funny. -Yargo

Welcome to Wikipedia, Yargo. I was hoping to see you show up here, I'm sure you'll have a lot to contribute. --JZ
 * Oh, I'd love to, just give me "The Time"... -Yargo

title: User:Yargo


text:
Grand Slam

Grand Slam or Grand slam may refer to:

Games and sports

 * Grand slam, winning category terminology originating in contract bridge and other whist family card games

Auto racing

 * Grand slam (Formula One), winning from pole position, leading every lap, and setting the fastest lap in a Grand Prix
 * Grand Slam (NASCAR), winning all NASCAR Cup Series majors in a calendar year

Brazilian jiu-jitsu

 * IBJJF Grand Slam, achievement of winning all four major championships

Baseball

 * Grand slam (baseball), a home run with all bases occupied
 * Grand Slam Single (October 17, 1999), the hit that ended Game 5 of the 1999 National League Championship Series between the New York Mets and Atlanta Braves, at Shea Stadium

Equestrian

 * Grand Slam (horse), an American thoroughbred
 * Equestrian Grand Slam, any of several events
 * Grand Slam of Eventing, three particular world horse trials competitions
 * Grand Slam of Show Jumping, one rider winning all three major annual competitions consecutively
 * Grand Slam of Thoroughbred racing, the US Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing plus either the Travers Stakes or the Breeders' Cup Classic

Golf

 * Grand Slam (golf), one player winning all four major annual tournaments
 * PGA Grand Slam of Golf, an annual off-season men's competition

Judo

 * Grand Slam series, international judo tournaments held by the International Judo Federation

Tennis

 * Grand Slam (tennis), one player or pair winning all four major annual tournaments in a calendar year, or the tournaments themselves
 * Pepsi Grand Slam, an annual men's professional tournament
 * Grand Slam Cup, an annual international tournament
 * Grand Slam (real tennis), a player or pair winning all four major annual real tennis tournaments

Wrestling

 * AEW Grand Slam, an All Elite Wrestling event
 * Wrestle Grand Slam in Tokyo Dome, a 2021 New Japan Pro-Wrestling event
 * Grand Slam (professional wrestling), an accomplishment after winning all professional wrestling championships in a company.

Other games and sports

 * Explorers Grand Slam or Adventurers Grand Slam, one person reaching the North Pole, South Pole, and all Seven Summits during a career
 * Ocean Explorers Grand Slam, performing open-water crossing on each of the five oceans using human-powered vessel
 * Grand Slam (Fly-Fishing Caribbean), one person catching a bonefish, tarpon, and permit during one day of Caribbean fly-fishing
 * Grand Slam of Curling, a series of annual curling bonspiels
 * Grand Slam of Darts, a major professional darts tournament organised by the Professional Darts Corporation
 * Grand Slam of Ultrarunning, for a person finishing four annual 100-mile footraces in the U.S.
 * Grand Slam (PBA), one team winning all three major Philippine Basketball Association tournaments in one season
 * Grand Slam (figure skating), winning all three major annual senior-level international competitions within a single season
 * Grand Slam (rugby union), one national team defeating all others in the Six Nations Championship
 * Grand Slam (shinty), one club winning four annual shinty trophies
 * Grand slam, in roller derby, a five-point scoring pass
 * Grand Slam of Keirin, for a cyclist to win all six GI events (or three for Girl's Keirin)
 * Grand slam, in ski jumping, winning all four events in the same edition of Four Hills Tournament
 * Grand slam, in contract bridge, a contract to win all thirteen tricks in one deal
 * S2 6.7 Grand Slam, an American racing sailboat design

Entertainment, arts and media

 * Grand Slam (G.I. Joe), a character
 * Grand Slam of Hollywood show business, winning Emmy, Grammy, Oscar, and Tony Awards in an American entertainment career (see List of people who have won Academy, Emmy, Grammy, and Tony Awards}
 * Grand Slam of Philippine film industry, winning category awards from four major film award-giving bodies in a year (see List of people who won the Philippine movie grand slam)

Films

 * Grand Slam (1933 film), an American comedy
 * Grand Slam (1967 film), an Italian heist movie
 * Grand Slam (1978 film), a Welsh TV comedy

Music

 * Grand Slam (band), a band formed by Phil Lynott
 * Grand Slam, a lineup of Juice Leskinen

Albums

 * Grand Slam (The Isley Brothers album)
 * Grand Slam (Magic Slim album)
 * Grand Slam (Spiderbait album)
 * Grand Slam (Spinners album)

Television

 * 50 Grand Slam, a 1976 American game show
 * Grand Slam (BBC TV), 1980s televised contract bridge tournaments
 * Grand Slam (TV series), a 1990 American action drama
 * Grand Slam (British game show), 2003
 * Grand Slam (American game show), a 2007 American remake

Video games

 * Golf Grand Slam (video game), for the Nintendo NES
 * Grand Slam Chess Association, a series of annual chess tournaments
 * Grand Slam Tennis, a 2009 game for the Nintendo Wii
 * Grand Slam (video game), a 1997 baseball game
 * Grandslam Entertainment, a video game company
 * Bilbao Chess Masters Final or Grand Slam Masters Final, a culminating annual chess tournament

Military

 * Grand Slam (bomb), a 10-tonne British "earthquake bomb" of World War II
 * Exercise Grand Slam, a 1952 NATO naval exercise in the Mediterranean Sea
 * Grand Slam Installation, a modification of the B-36 bomber to add nuclear weapons delivery capability
 * Operation Grand Slam, a Pakistan Army offensive plan during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965
 * Operation Grand Slam, the US espionage mission which triggered the 1960 U-2 incident

Other uses

 * Grand Slam breakfast, a dish at Denny's restaurants

title: Grand Slam


text:
Openlaw

Openlaw is a project at the Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society at Harvard Law School aimed at releasing case arguments under a copyleft license, in order to encourage public suggestions for improvement.

Berkman lawyers specialise in cyberlaw—hacking, copyright, encryption and so on—and the centre has strong ties with the EFF and the open source software community. In 1998 faculty member Lawrence Lessig, now at Stanford Law School, was asked by online publisher Eldritch Press to mount a legal challenge to US copyright law. Eldritch takes books whose copyright has expired and publishes them on the Web, but legislation called the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act extended copyright from 50 to 70 years after the author's death, cutting off its supply of new material. Lessig invited law students at Harvard and elsewhere to help craft legal arguments challenging the new law on an online forum, which evolved into Openlaw.

Normal law firms write arguments the way commercial software companies write code. Lawyers discuss a case behind closed doors, and although their final product is released in court, the discussions or "source code" that produced it remain secret. In contrast, Openlaw crafts its arguments in public and releases them under a copyleft license. "We deliberately used free software as a model," said Wendy Seltzer, who took over Openlaw when Lessig moved to Stanford. Around 50 legal scholars worked on Eldritch's case, and Openlaw has taken other cases, too.

"The gains are much the same as for software," Seltzer says. "Hundreds of people scrutinise the 'code' for bugs, and make suggestions how to fix it. And people will take underdeveloped parts of the argument, work on them, then patch them in." Armed with arguments crafted in this way, Openlaw took Eldritch's case—deemed unwinnable at the outset—right through the system to the Supreme Court. The case, Eldred v. Ashcroft, lost in 2003.

Among the drawbacks to this approach: the arguments are made in public from the start, so Openlaw can't spring a surprise in court. Nor can it take on cases where confidentiality is important. But where there's a strong public interest element, open sourcing has big advantages. Citizens' rights groups, for example, have taken parts of Openlaw's legal arguments and used them elsewhere. "People use them on letters to Congress, or put them on flyers," Seltzer says.

title: Openlaw


text:
Loris

Loris is the common name for the strepsirrhine mammals of the subfamily Lorinae (sometimes spelled Lorisinae ) in the family Lorisidae. Loris is one genus in this subfamily and includes the slender lorises, Nycticebus is the genus containing the slow lorises, and Xanthonycticebus is the genus name of the pygmy slow loris.

Description
Lorises are nocturnal and arboreal. They are found in tropical and woodland forests of India, Sri Lanka, and parts of southeast Asia. Their locomotion is a slow and cautious climbing form of quadrupedalism. Some lorises are almost entirely insectivorous, while others also include fruits, gums, leaves, and slugs in their diet.

Lorises, like most strepsirrhines, have a special adaptation called a "toothcomb" in their lower front teeth, which they use for grooming their fur and even injecting their venom.

Female lorises practice infant parking, leaving their infants behind in trees or bushes. Before they do this, they bathe their young with allergenic saliva that is acquired by licking patches on the insides of their elbows which produce a mild toxin that discourages most predators, though orangutans occasionally eat lorises.

Taxonomic classification
The family Lorisidae is found within the infraorder Lemuriformes and superfamily Lorisoidea, along with the family Galagidae, the galagos. This superfamily is a sister taxon of Lemuroidea, the lemurs. Within Lorinae, there are ten species (and several more subspecies) of lorises across three genera:
 * Family Lorisidae
 * Subfamily Perodicticinae
 * Subfamily Lorinae
 * Genus Loris
 * Gray slender loris, Loris lydekkerianus
 * Highland slender loris, L. lydekkerianus grandis
 * Mysore slender loris, L. lydekkerianus lydekkerianus
 * Malabar slender loris, L. lydekkerianus malabaricus
 * Northern Ceylonese slender loris, L. lydekkerianus nordicus
 * Red slender loris, L. tardigradus
 * Dry Zone slender loris, L. tardigradus tardigradus
 * Horton Plains slender loris, L. tardigradus nyctoceboides
 * Genus Xanthonycticebus
 * Pygmy slow loris, X. pygmaeus
 * Genus Nycticebus
 * Bangka slow loris, Nycticebus bancanus
 * Bengal slow loris, N. bengalensis
 * Bornean slow loris, N. borneanus
 * Sunda slow loris, N. coucang
 * Javan slow loris, N. javanicus
 * Kayan River slow loris, N. kayan
 * Philippine slow loris, N. menagensis
 * Sumatran slow loris, N. hilleri
 * †? N. linglom (fossil, Miocene)

title: Loris