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Paul Newman

Paul Leonard Newman (January 26, 1925 – September 26, 2008) was an American actor, film director, race car driver, philanthropist, and entrepreneur. He was the recipient of numerous awards, including an Academy Award, a BAFTA Award, three Golden Globe Awards, a Screen Actors Guild Award, a Primetime Emmy Award, a Silver Bear, a Cannes Film Festival Award, and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award.

Born in Shaker Heights, Ohio, a suburb of Cleveland, Newman showed an interest in theater as a child and at age 10 performed in a stage production of Saint George and the Dragon at the Cleveland Play House. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree in drama and economics from Kenyon College in 1949. After touring with several summer stock companies including the Belfry Players, Newman attended the Yale School of Drama for a year before studying at the Actors Studio under Lee Strasberg. His first starring Broadway role was in William Inge's Picnic in 1953.

Newman won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance in The Color of Money (1986). His Oscar-nominated performances were in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1958), The Hustler (1961), Hud (1963), Cool Hand Luke (1967), Absence of Malice (1981), The Verdict (1982), Nobody's Fool (1994), and Road to Perdition (2002). He also starred in such films as Harper (1966), Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969), The Sting (1973), The Towering Inferno (1974), Slap Shot (1977), and Fort Apache, The Bronx (1981). He also voiced of Doc Hudson in Cars (2006).

Newman won several national championships as a driver in Sports Car Club of America road racing. He was a co-founder of Newman's Own, a food company from which he donated all post-tax profits and royalties to charity. As of May 2021, these donations have totaled over US$570 million. Newman continued to found such charitable organizations such as the SeriousFun Children's Network in 1988 and the Safe Water Network in 2006. Newman was married twice and fathered six children. He was the husband of the actress Joanne Woodward.

Early life and family
Newman was born on January 26, 1925, in Cleveland Heights, Ohio, and raised in nearby Shaker Heights, the second son of Theresa Garth (née Fetzer, Fetzko, or Fetsko; Terézia Fecková; 1894–1982) and Arthur Sigmund Newman, Sr. (1893–1950), who ran a sporting goods store. His father was Jewish,  the son of Simon Newman and Hannah Cohn, Hungarian Jewish and Polish Jewish emigrants, from Hungary and Congress Poland, respectively. Paul's mother was a practitioner of Christian Science. She was born to a Roman Catholic family in Peticse, Zemplén county, in the Kingdom of Hungary, Austro-Hungarian Empire (present-day Ptičie, Slovakia). Newman's mother worked in his father's store, while raising Paul and his elder brother, Arthur.

Newman showed an early interest in the theater; his first role was at the age of seven, playing the court jester in a school production of Robin Hood. At age 10, Newman performed at the Cleveland Play House in a production of Saint George and the Dragon, and was a notable actor and alumnus of their Curtain Pullers children's theater program. Graduating from Shaker Heights High School in 1943, he briefly attended Ohio University in Athens, Ohio, where he was initiated into the Phi Kappa Tau fraternity.

Navy service
Newman served in the United States Navy in World War II, in the Pacific theater. Initially, he enrolled in the Navy V-12 pilot training program at Yale University, but was dropped when his colorblindness was discovered. He later recounted that it was "a bit more complicated" than colorblindness. He also "couldn't do the mathematical things that being a pilot requires." A subsequent test found that he was not colorblind. Boot camp followed, with training as a radioman and rear gunner. He performed poorly as a gunner, and a friend from the service recounted in Newman's posthumous memoir that his friends lied to Navy trainers so he could pass.

Qualifying in torpedo bombers in 1944, Aviation Radioman Third Class Newman was sent to Barbers Point, Hawaii. He was assigned to Pacific-based replacement torpedo squadrons VT-98, VT-99, and VT-100, responsible primarily for training replacement combat pilots and aircrewmen, with special emphasis on carrier landings. He later flew as a turret gunner in an Avenger torpedo bomber. As a radioman-gunner, his unit was assigned to the aircraft carrier USS Bunker Hill (CV-17), along with other replacements shortly before the Battle of Okinawa in the spring of 1945. The pilot of his aircraft had an earache and was grounded, as was his crew, including Newman. The rest of their squadron flew to the Bunker Hill. Days later, a kamikaze attack on the vessel killed several hundred crewmen and airmen, including other members of his unit.

In a 2011 interview, screenwriter Stewart Stern recounted that Newman drew on an incident from his Navy years as an "emotional trigger to express the character's trauma" when acting in the 1956 film The Rack. He said that Newman thought back to an incident in which his best friend was sliced to pieces on an aircraft carrier by a plane's propeller.

Education
After the war, Newman completed his Bachelor of Arts degree in drama and economics at Kenyon College in Gambier, Ohio, in 1949. Shortly after earning his degree, he joined several summer stock companies, most notably the Belfry Players in Wisconsin and the Woodstock Players in Illinois. He toured with them for three months, and developed his talents as a part of Woodstock Players. He later attended the Yale School of Drama for one year, before moving to New York City to study under Lee Strasberg at the Actors Studio. Oscar Levant wrote that Newman initially was hesitant to leave New York for Hollywood, and that Newman had said, "Too close to the cake. Also, no place to study." Newman arrived in New York City in 1951 with his first wife, Jackie Witte, taking up residence in the St. George section of Staten Island.

1953–1958: Early roles

He made his Broadway theatre debut in the original production of William Inge's Picnic with Kim Stanley in 1953. While working on the production, he met Joanne Woodward, an understudy. The two married in 1958. He also appeared in the original Broadway production of The Desperate Hours in 1955. In 1959, he was in the original Broadway production of Sweet Bird of Youth with Geraldine Page and three years later starred with Page in the film version. During this time Newman started acting in television. His first credited role was in a 1952 episode of Tales of Tomorrow entitled "Ice from Space". In the mid-1950s, he appeared twice on CBS's Appointment with Adventure anthology series.

In February 1954, Newman appeared in a screen test with James Dean, directed by Gjon Mili, for East of Eden (1955). Newman was tested for the role of Aron Trask, Dean for the role of Aron's twin brother Cal. Dean won his part, but Newman lost out to Richard Davalos. That same year, as a last-minute replacement for Dean, he co-starred with Eva Marie Saint and Frank Sinatra in a live, color television broadcast of Our Town which was a musical adaptation of Thornton Wilder's stage play. After Dean's death, Newman replaced Dean in the role of a boxer in a television adaptation of Hemingway's story "The Battler", written by A. E. Hotchner, that was broadcast live on October 18, 1955. That performance led to his breakthrough role as Rocky Graziano in the film Somebody Up There Likes Me in 1956. The Dean connection had additional resonance. Newman was cast as Billy the Kid in The Left Handed Gun which was a role originally earmarked for Dean. Additionally, Dean was originally cast to play the role of Rocky Graziano in Somebody Up There Likes Me; however, with his death, Newman got the role.

Newman's first film for Hollywood was The Silver Chalice (1954), co-starring Italian actress Pier Angeli. The film was a box-office failure, and the actor would later acknowledge his disdain for it. In 1956, Newman garnered much attention and acclaim for the role of Rocky Graziano in Robert Wise's biographical film Somebody Up There Likes Me. That year, he also played the lead in Arnold Laven's The Rack. In 1957, Newman worked again with director Wise in Until They Sail. Also that year, he acted in Michael Curtiz's The Helen Morgan Story.

1958–1979: Career stardom and acclaim
In 1958, he starred in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof opposite Elizabeth Taylor. The film was a box-office smash, and Newman garnered his first Academy Award nomination. Also in 1958, Newman starred in The Long, Hot Summer with his future wife Joanne Woodward, with whom he reconnected on the set in 1957 (they had first met in 1953). He won Best Actor at the 1958 Cannes Film Festival for this film. He and Woodward also appeared on screen earlier in 1958 in the Playhouse 90 television play The 80 Yard Run. The couple would go on to make a total of 16 films together.

In 1959, Newman starred in The Young Philadelphians, a film that co-starred Barbara Rush, Robert Vaughn and Alexis Smith, and was directed by Vincent Sherman. He also co-starred with Woodward in the film Rally Round the Flag, Boys!. In 1960, he starred in Exodus and co-starred with Woodward in From the Terrace.

In 1961, he starred in Robert Rossen's The Hustler. The film, which was based on a book of the same name by Walter Tevis, tells the story of small-time pool hustler "Fast Eddie" Felson (Newman), who challenges a legendary pool player (Jackie Gleason). The film was a critical and financial hit. In the best actor category Newman won the British Academy of Film and Television Arts and the Argentinian Film Festival, at the Academy Awards he was nominated. Stanley Kauffmann, writing for The New Republic, praised the principal cast, calling Newman "first-rate".

Also that year, he co-starred with Woodward in Paris Blues.

In 1963, he starred in Hud and co-starred with Woodward in A New Kind of Love. In 1966, he starred in Torn Curtain and Harper.

In 1967, he starred in Martin Ritt's Hombre. The film received many good reviews. Also that year, he starred in Stuart Rosenberg's Cool Hand Luke. Newman was nominated for Best Actor at the Academy Awards. In 2005, the United States Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in the National Film Registry, considering it "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant". Critic Roger Ebert wrote, "Luke is the first Newman character to understand himself well enough to tell us to shove off. He's through risking his neck to make us happy. With this film, Newman completes a cycle of five films over six years, and together they have something to say about the current status of heroism".

In 1968, Newman directed Rachel, Rachel starring Woodward and based on Margaret Laurence's A Jest of God. According to Woodward, Newman didn't like the book and had no intention of directing the film. He changed his mind when Woodward couldn't find any other director. To do the project, the pair accepted a deferred payment. The film was nominated for four Academy Awards including Best Picture and won two Golden Globes including Best Director.

In 1969, Newman co-starred with Woodward in James Goldstone's car racing film Winning. It was one of the top grossing film that year in the US reaching the thirteenth position and grossed $14,644,335.

Also that year, he teamed up with fellow actor Robert Redford and director George Roy Hill for Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid. Prior to even writing a script, scriptwriter William Goldman talked to Newman about his ideas on approaching the subject matter. Once a script was completed, actor Steve McQueen who read it called Newman suggesting that they star in it together. Newman, assuming he would play the character of Sundance, suggested that they jointly buy the intellectual property to which McQueen hesitated. It was eventually bought by producer Paul Monash, and Newman was cast as Butch, which created a title change and Redford as Sundance. Newman explain explain that for the scene where his character performs bicycle tricks a stuntman was hired who left director Hill unsatisfied; Newman had to perform the tricks. Furthermore, Newman explained that it was him and Goldman who developed the musical interlude. The film was a success, grossing over $15 million at the box office, and it was fourth highest grossing film of the year. At the Academy Awards it was nominated for Best Picture as well as winning and receiving nominations in other categories.

Finally that year, along with Barbra Streisand and Sidney Poitier, Newman formed First Artists Production Company so actors could secure properties and develop movie projects for themselves.

In 1970, Newman produced and co-starred with Woodward in Stuart Rosenberg's WUSA, based on Robert Stone's novel A Hall of Mirrors. Newman and his partner John Foreman purchased the rights for $50,000. The film flopped both commercially and critically. However, Newman later said that it is "the most significant film I've ever made and the best". In 1971, Newman directed and starred in Sometimes a Great Notion based on Ken Kesey's novel. Although several directors were considered, it was announced that Newman would direct. However, Richard A. Colla was signed to direct the film in May 1970. Five weeks after principal photography began, Colla left the project due to "artistic differences over photographic concept", as well as a required throat operation. At the same time, Newman broke his ankle and the production shut down on July 29. As co-executive producer, Newman considered replacing Colla with George Roy Hill, but Hill declined the offer, so when filming resumed two weeks later, Newman was directing. Also that year, Newman hosted David Winters' made-for-tv documentary Once Upon a Wheel. Winters said that at the time Newman had publicly stated he didn't want to do television and turned it down for this reason until he pitched his vision to him. Newman, a race car enthusiast, said, "The show gives me a chance to get close to a sport I'm crazy about, I love to test a car on my own, to see what I can do, but racing with 25 other guys is a whole different thing. There are so many variable, the skill demanded is tremendous." Bob Bondurant, Newman's driving instructor who appears in the film, explained that Once Upon a Wheel was a passion project for Newman "because he wanted to learn how to drive", and that he refused projects that would have paid him a much larger salary. The project marked Newman's return to television after a decade long absence, and his first time as the lead of a program. During post-production, Winters said that Newman, who liked what he saw, gave him the idea to add some footage to sell it as a theatrical film worldwide. Upon its release, the documentary generally received good reviews for its directing, pace, photography, music, and human interest stories.

In 1972, Newman's vehicles produced by First Artists included Pocket Money and The Life and Times of Judge Roy Bean. Also that year, Newman directed The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds, the screen version of the Pulitzer Prize-winning play of the same name. It was in competition at the Cannes Film Festival, and Joanne Woodward won the best actress award.

In 1973, Newman reunited with director George Roy Hill and fellow actor Robert Redford in The Sting. The film made over $68,000,000 in the North American box office, and was the highest grossing film of 1974. For his participation, Newman received top billing, $500,000 and a percentage of the profits. The film was awarded Best Picture at the Academy Awards.

In 1974, Newman co-starred with Steve McQueen in John Guillermin's disaster film The Towering Inferno. Newman plays an architect stuck in a skyscraper he designed that catches fire. Newman was paid $1,000,000 plus a percentage of the gross, and he insisted he do his own stunts. The film was a success and its North American gross was $55,000,000.

In 1975, his third film with First Artists was the Harper sequel The Drowning Pool, in which Woodward appeared.

In 1977, he reunited with director Hill in the hockey sport comedy Slap Shot. At the time of its release the film received mixed reviews, many saying that it was "setting a new standard in its use of obscenities". Years later on Home Video and cable showings the film gained a cult status.

1980–1999
In 1980, Newman directed the television screen version of the Pulitzer Prize-winning play The Shadow Box. In 1981, he acted in Sydney Pollack's Absence of Malice. He starred in Sidney Lumet's The Verdict in 1982. The film was nominated for Academy Award for Best Picture, and Newman received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor. In 1984, Newman starred in and directed Harry & Son.

In 1986, twenty-five years after The Hustler, Newman reprised his role of "Fast Eddie" Felson in the Martin Scorsese-directed film The Color of Money, for which he finally received the Academy Award for Best Actor. The film was a commercial success although it received mixed reviews. Newman starred alongside Tom Cruise, Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio, and John Turturro. In mid-1987, Newman sued Universal Pictures for allegedly failing to properly account for revenues from video distribution of four of his films made for Universal, and Universal owed him at least $1 million participation for the home video versions of The Sting, Slap Shot, Winning and Sometimes a Great Notion. The complaint claimed that Universal accounted for the cassette revenues in a way that improperly decreased amounts due to Newman, with the actor wanting a full accounting along with $2 million in damages.

Also in 1987, Newman directed a screen version of Tennessee Williams' The Glass Menagerie starring his wife Joanne Woodward, John Malkovich, and Karen Allen. The film was in competition at the Cannes Film Festival. Variety called it "a reverent record" of the Williams play "one watches with a kind of distant dreaminess rather than an intense emotional involvement", and cited the "brilliant performances ... well defined by Newman's direction".

In 1990, Newman co-starred with Woodward in the James Ivory film adaptation Mr. and Mrs. Bridge based off the Evan S. Connell novel of the same name. In 1994, Newman played alongside Tim Robbins as the character Sidney J. Mussburger in the Coen brothers' comedy The Hudsucker Proxy which received mixed received. Also that year, he acted in Robert Benton's Nobody's Fool earning yet another nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor.

2000–2008
In 2003, Newman appeared in a Broadway revival of Wilder's Our Town, receiving a Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play nomination for his performance. PBS and the cable network Showtime aired a taping of the production, and Newman was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or TV Movie. Newman's last live-action movie appearance was as a conflicted mob boss in the Sam Mendes directed film Road to Perdition (2002) opposite Tom Hanks, Jude Law, and Stanley Tucci. For his performance he was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor.

Although he continued to provide voice work for movies, Newman's last live-action appearance was in the 2005 HBO mini-series Empire Falls (based on the Pulitzer Prize-winning novel by Richard Russo), in which he played the dissolute father of the protagonist, Miles Roby, and for which he won a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film and a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie.

In keeping with his strong interest in car racing, he provided the voice of Doc Hudson, a retired anthropomorphic race car, in Pixar's Cars (2006). This was his final role in a major feature film, as well as his only animated film role. Almost nine years after his death, he received billing as Doc in Cars 3 (2017), his appearance made through the use of archive recordings. Newman retired from acting in May 2007, saying: "You start to lose your memory, you start to lose your confidence, you start to lose your invention. So I think that's pretty much a closed book for me." He came out of retirement to record narration for the 2007 documentary Dale, about the life of NASCAR driver Dale Earnhardt, and for the 2008 documentary The Meerkats, his final film role overall.

Marriage and family

Newman was married twice. His first marriage was to Jackie Witte from 1949 to 1958. They had a son, Scott (1950–1978), and two daughters, Susan (born 1953) and Stephanie Kendall (born 1954). Scott, who appeared in films including The Towering Inferno (1974), Breakheart Pass (1975), and the 1977 film Fraternity Row, died in November 1978 from a drug overdose. Newman started the Scott Newman Center for drug abuse prevention in memory of his son. Susan is a documentary filmmaker and philanthropist, and has Broadway and screen credits, including a starring role as one of four Beatles fans in I Wanna Hold Your Hand (1978), and also a small role opposite her father in Slap Shot. She also received an Emmy nomination as co-producer of his telefilm, The Shadow Box.

Newman met actress Joanne Woodward in 1953, on the production of Picnic on Broadway. It was Newman's debut; Woodward was an understudy. Shortly after filming The Long, Hot Summer in 1957, he divorced Witte to marry Woodward. The Newmans moved to East 11th Street in Manhattan, before buying a home and raising their family in Westport, Connecticut. They were one of the first Hollywood movie star couples to choose to raise their families outside California. They remained married for 50 years until his death in 2008. Woodward has said "He's very good looking and very sexy and all of those things, but all of that goes out the window and what is finally left is, if you can make somebody laugh... And he sure does keep me laughing." Newman has attributed their relationship success to "some combination of lust and respect and patience. And determination."

They had three daughters: Elinor "Nell" Teresa (b. 1959), Melissa "Lissy" Stewart (b. 1961), and Claire "Clea" Olivia (b. 1965). Newman was well known for his devotion to his wife and family. When once asked about his reputation for fidelity, he famously quipped, "Why go out for a hamburger when you have steak at home?" He also said that he never met anyone who had as much to lose as he did. In his profile on 60 Minutes, he admitted he once left Woodward after a fight, walked around the outside of the house, knocked on the front door and explained to Joanne he had nowhere to go. Newman directed Nell alongside her mother in the films Rachel, Rachel and The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds. Newman and Woodward also acted as mentors to Allison Janney. They met her while she was a freshman at Kenyon College during a play which Newman was directing. Film critic Shawn Levy, in his biography Paul Newman: A Life (2009), alleged that Newman had an affair in the late 1960s with divorcée Nancy Bacon, a Hollywood journalist, which lasted one and a half years. In an article in the Irish Independent, which stated also that Levy's claims "caused outrage" and were widely considered "an attempt to sully the image of a revered cinematic legend and committed philanthropist", the affair was reportedly denied by a friend of Newman's wife Joanne, who said she was upset by the claim. Levy criticised the tabloid newspaper, the New York Post, which had a long-standing feud with Newman, for focusing on and emphasizing this aspect of his biography.

He and Woodward were the subject of a 2022 docuseries by Ethan Hawke, The Last Movie Stars, which was broadcast on HBO Max. The docuseries was based upon tapes compiled by his friend, Stewart Stern, for a memoir that Newman abandoned but which was published in 2022 as The Extraordinary Life of An Ordinary Man. Laura Linney voiced Woodward and George Clooney voiced Newman.

Jewish identity
While Newman followed the Unitarian Universalist religion as an adult, he called himself a Jew, "because it's more of a challenge". When he applied to Kenyon College after the Navy he gave his religion as "Christian Scientist," but apart from that he did not deny that he was Jewish. He recounted in his posthumous memoirs having a "strong sense of otherness" as a youth because he was half-Jewish. His heritage "got in the way of my sitting at the 'A' table, which was important to me," but he received no instruction on his Jewish heritage. He only knew that "if you were Jewish, some avenues were shut to you," and that "hurt me and my brother a great deal." Newman deflected the pain with humor, sometimes doing Yiddish voices "for laughs." He was excluded from a high school fraternity because he was Jewish, and got into a "bloody fight" in the Navy because a sailor used an anti-Semitic slur. A family friend recounted that the "stigma" of being Jewish was strong in Shaker Heights at the time. "Paul didn't seem Jewish at all, but he paid a price, he had a rough time."

After he began appearing in films, Newman made a point of not changing his name. When he was being considered for the role of Terry Malloy in On the Waterfront, producer Sam Spiegel asked him to "get rid of 'Paul Newman'". Newman’s response to Spiegel, who sometimes was credited as "S.P. Eagle," was "What do you want me to change it to, 'S.P. Ewman'?"

Illness and death
Newman was scheduled to make his professional stage directing debut with the Westport Country Playhouse's 2008 production of John Steinbeck's Of Mice and Men, but he stepped down on May 23, 2008, citing his health concerns.

In June 2008, it was widely reported in the press that he had been diagnosed with lung cancer and was receiving treatment for the condition at the Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center in New York City. A. E. Hotchner, who partnered in the 1980s with Newman to start Newman's Own, told the Associated Press in an interview in mid-2008 that Newman had told him about being afflicted with the disease about 18 months earlier. Newman's spokesman told the press that the star was "doing nicely", but neither confirmed nor denied that he had cancer. The actor was a heavy cigarette smoker until he quit in 1986.

Newman died at his home in Westport, Connecticut on the morning of September 26, 2008, He was 83 years old. He was cremated after a private funeral service.

Philanthropy
With writer A. E. Hotchner, Newman founded Newman's Own, a line of food products, in 1982. The brand started with salad dressing and has expanded to include pasta sauce, lemonade, popcorn, salsa, and wine, among other things. Newman established a policy that all proceeds, after taxes, would be donated to charity. He co-wrote a memoir about the subject with Hotchner, Shameless Exploitation in Pursuit of the Common Good. Among other awards, Newman's Own co-sponsors the PEN/Newman's Own First Amendment Award, a $25,000 reward designed to recognize those who protect the First Amendment as it applies to the written word.

One beneficiary of his philanthropy is the Hole in the Wall Gang Camp, a residential summer camp for seriously ill children located in Ashford, Connecticut, which Newman co-founded in 1988. It is named after the gang in his film Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969), and the real-life, historic Hole-in-the-Wall outlaw hangout in the mountains of northern Wyoming. Newman's college fraternity, Phi Kappa Tau, adopted his Connecticut Hole in the Wall camp as their "national philanthropy" in 1995. The original camp has expanded to become several Hole in the Wall Camps in the U.S., Ireland, France, and Israel. In 1988, Newman founded the SeriousFun Children's Network, a global family of summer camps and programs for children with a serious illnesses. In 2006, Newman also co-founded Safe Water Network with John Whitehead, former chairman of Goldman Sachs, and Josh Weston, former chairman of ADP, to improve access to safe water to underserved communities around the world.

In 1983, Newman became a major donor for The Mirror Theater Ltd, alongside Dustin Hoffman and Al Pacino, matching a grant from Laurance Rockefeller. Newman was inspired to invest by his connection with Lee Strasberg, as Lee's then daughter-in-law Sabra Jones was the founder and producing artistic director of The Mirror. Paul Newman remained a friend of the company until his death and discussed at numerous times possible productions in which he could star with his wife, Joanne Woodward. In June 1999, Newman donated $250,000 to Catholic Relief Services to aid refugees in Kosovo.

On June 1, 2007, Kenyon College announced that Newman had donated $10 million to the school to establish a scholarship fund as part of the college's $230 million fund-raising campaign. Newman and Woodward were honorary co-chairs of a previous campaign.

Newman was one of the founders of the Committee Encouraging Corporate Philanthropy (CECP). Newman was named the Most Generous Celebrity of 2008 by Givingback.org. He contributed $20,857,000 for the year of 2008 to the Newman's Own Foundation, which distributes funds to a variety of charities.

Upon Newman's death, the Italian newspaper (a "semi-official" paper of the Holy See) L'Osservatore Romano published a notice lauding Newman's philanthropy. It also commented that "Newman was a generous heart, an actor of a dignity and style rare in Hollywood quarters."

Newman was responsible for preserving lands around Westport, Connecticut. He lobbied the state's governor for funds for the 2011 Aspetuck Land Trust in Easton. In 2011, Paul Newman's estate gifted land to Westport to be managed by the Aspetuck Land Trust.

Political activism
Newman was a lifelong Democrat, although he endorsed and voted for Independent candidate John B. Anderson in 1980, who was a liberal Republican, instead of the incumbent Democratic president, Jimmy Carter. For Newman's support of Eugene McCarthy in 1968 (and effective use of television commercials in California) and his opposition to the Vietnam War, Newman was placed nineteenth on Richard Nixon's enemies list, which Newman claimed was his greatest accomplishment. In 1964, he and his wife Joanne Woodward supported Lyndon B. Johnson for president. During the 1968 general election, Newman supported Democratic nominee Hubert Humphrey and appeared in a pre-election night telethon for him. He was also described as a "vocal supporter" of gay rights and same-sex marriage.

Newman linked with the so-called Malibu Mafia to promote progressive issues in politics. This was a group of wealthy men in the Greater Los Angeles area who met to discuss politics. Backed by them, Newman and his wife went to Washington in 1976 to speak in favor of breaking up Big Oil into separate components. Newman supported their 1980s effort to establish a bilateral Nuclear Freeze to stop the proliferation of nuclear weapons in the US and the Soviet Union. He said he would stand up for Walter Mondale in the 1984 presidential election as long as there was cold Budweiser and Nuclear Freeze involved.

In January 1995, Newman was the chief investor of a group, including the writer E.L. Doctorow and the editor Victor Navasky, that bought the progressive-left wing periodical The Nation. Newman was an occasional writer for the publication.

Consistent with his work for liberal causes, Newman publicly supported Ned Lamont's candidacy in the 2006 Connecticut Democratic Primary against Senator Joe Lieberman, and was even rumored as a candidate himself, until Lamont emerged as a credible alternative. He donated to Chris Dodd's presidential campaign. Newman earlier donated money to Bill Richardson's campaign for president in 2008.

Newman attended the March on Washington on August 28, 1963, and was also present at the first Earth Day event in Manhattan on April 22, 1970.

Newman was concerned about global warming and supported nuclear energy development as a solution.

Auto racing
Newman was an auto racing enthusiast, and first became interested in motorsports ("the first thing that I ever found I had any grace in") while training at the Watkins Glen Racing School for the filming of Winning, a 1969 film. According to his instructor Bob Bondurant, his love and passion for racing, Newman agreed in 1971 to star in and to host the television special, Once Upon a Wheel, on the history of auto racing. Newman's first professional event as a racer was in 1972 at Thompson International Speedway, quietly entered as "P. L. Newman", by which he continued to be known in the racing community.

He was a frequent competitor in Sports Car Club of America (SCCA) events for the rest of the decade, eventually winning four national championships. He later drove in the 1979 24 Hours of Le Mans in Dick Barbour's Porsche 935 and finished in second place. Newman reunited with Barbour in 2000 to compete in the Petit Le Mans.

From the mid-1970s to the early 1990s, he drove for the Bob Sharp Racing team, racing mainly Datsuns (later rebranded as Nissans) in the Trans-Am Series. He became closely associated with the brand during the 1980s, even appearing in commercials for them in Japan and having a special edition of the Nissan Skyline named after him. At the age of 70 years and eight days, Newman became the oldest driver to date to be part of a winning team in a major sanctioned race, winning in his class at the 1995 24 Hours of Daytona. Among his last major races were the Baja 1000 in 2004 and the 24 Hours of Daytona once again in 2005.

During the 1976 auto racing season, Newman became interested in forming a professional auto racing team and contacted Bill Freeman who introduced Newman to professional auto racing management, and their company specialized in Can-Am, Indy Cars, and other high-performance racing automobiles. The team was based in Santa Barbara, California and commuted to Willow Springs International Motorsports Park for much of its testing sessions.

Their Newman Freeman Racing team was very competitive in the North American Can-Am series in their Budweiser sponsored Chevrolet-powered Spyder NFs. Newman and Freeman began a long and successful partnership with the Newman Freeman Racing team in the Can-Am series which culminated in the Can-Am Team Championship trophy in 1979. Newman was associated with Freeman's established Porsche racing team which allowed both Newman and Freeman to compete in SCCA and IMSA racing events together, including the Sebring 12-hour endurance sports car race. This car was sponsored by Beverly Porsche/Audi. Freeman was Sports Car Club of America's Southern Pacific National Champion during the Newman Freeman period. Later Newman co-founded Newman/Haas Racing with Carl Haas, a Champ Car team, in 1983, going on to win eight drivers' championships under his ownership. Newman was also briefly an owner in the NASCAR Winston Cup Series when he co-founded a research-and-development #18 team with Hendrick Motorsports' Greg Sacks behind the wheel – the team shut down after two seasons after losing their primary sponsor. The 1996 racing season was chronicled in the IMAX film Super Speedway (1997), which Newman narrated. He was a partner in the Atlantic Championship team Newman Wachs Racing. Newman voiced Doc Hudson in Cars (2006).

Having said he would quit "when I embarrass myself", Newman competed into his 80s, winning at Lime Rock in what former co-driver Sam Posey called a "brutish Corvette" displaying his age as its number: 81. He took the pole in his last professional race, in 2007 at Watkins Glen International, and in a 2008 run at Lime Rock, arranged by friends, he reportedly still did 9/10ths of his best time.

Newman was posthumously inducted into the SCCA Hall of Fame at the national convention in Las Vegas, Nevada on February 21, 2009. Lime Rock Park's No Name Straight was renamed Paul Newman Straight in 2022.

Newman's racing life was chronicled in the documentary Winning: The Racing Life of Paul Newman (2015).

Motorsports career results

SCCA National Championship Runoffs

 Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results  (key)

Acting credits
Selected film credits:

 * Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1958)
 * The Hustler (1961)
 * Sweet Bird of Youth (1962)
 * Hud (1963)
 * Torn Curtain (1966)
 * Cool Hand Luke (1967)
 * Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969)
 * The Sting (1973)
 * The Towering Inferno (1974)
 * Slap Shot (1977)
 * Fort Apache, The Bronx (1981)
 * Absence of Malice (1981)
 * The Verdict (1982)
 * The Color of Money (1986)
 * Mr. and Mrs. Bridge (1990)
 * The Hudsucker Proxy (1994)
 * Nobody's Fool (1994)
 * Road to Perdition (2002)

Awards and honors
Newman was nominated for an Academy Award in five different decades. In addition to awards Newman won for specific roles, he received an honorary Academy Award in 1986 for his "many and memorable and compelling screen performances" and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award for his charity work in 1994.

In 1992, Newman and his wife Joanne Woodward were recipients of Kennedy Center Honors. In 1994, the couple received the Award for Greatest Public Service Benefiting the Disadvantaged, an award given annually by Jefferson Awards. Newman won Best Actor at the Cannes Film Festival for The Long, Hot Summer and the Silver Bear at the Berlin International Film Festival for Nobody's Fool.

In 1968, Newman was named Man of the Year by Harvard University's performance group, the Hasty Pudding Theatricals. The 2008 edition of Sport Movies & TV – Milano International FICTS Fest was dedicated to his memory. In 2015, the U.S. Postal Service issued a 'forever stamp' honoring Newman, which went on sale September 18, 2015. It features a 1980 photograph of Newman by photographer Steve Schapiro, accompanied by text that reads: 'Actor/Philanthropist'.

Since the 1970s, Newman Day is an event celebrated at Kenyon College, Bates College, Princeton University, and some other American colleges. On Newman Day, students try to drink 24 beers in 24 hours, based on a quote attributed to Newman about there being 24 beers in a case, and 24 hours in a day, and that this is surely not a mere coincidence. In 2004, Newman requested that Princeton University disassociate the event from his name, due to the fact that he did not endorse the behavior. He cited his creation in 1980 of the Scott Newman Center, "dedicated to the prevention of substance abuse through education". Princeton disavowed any responsibility for the event, responding that Newman Day is not sponsored, endorsed, or encouraged by the university itself and is solely an unofficial event among students.

On October 26, 2017, Paul Newman's Rolex Daytona wristwatch was auctioned in New York by Phillips Auctions for $17.5 million, making it one of the most expensive wristwatches ever sold at an auction. On September 3, 2022, Lime Rock Park, a road course in Lakeville, Connecticut, named the straight of the circuit past the Esses before The Uphill the Paul Newman Straight during the Historic Festival 40.

title: Paul Newman


text:
2015

2015 was designated by the United Nations as:
 * International Year of Light
 * International Year of Soil

January

 * January 1 – Lithuania officially adopts the euro as its currency, replacing the litas, and becomes the nineteenth Eurozone country.
 * January 3–7 – A series of massacres in Baga, Nigeria and surrounding villages by Boko Haram kills more than 2,000 people.
 * January 7 – Two gunmen belonging to Al-Qaeda's Yemen branch kill 12 people and injure 11 more at the Paris headquarters of satirical newspaper Charlie Hebdo, prompting an anti-terrorism demonstration attended by over a million people and more than 40 world leaders.
 * January 12 – A Boko Haram and Islamic State assault on Kolofata in the Far North Region of Cameroon is repelled by the Cameroonian Army, who kill 143 Boko Haram and Islamic State insurgents.
 * January 15 – The Swiss National Bank abandons the cap on the franc's value relative to the euro, causing turmoil in international financial markets.
 * January 22 – After Houthi forces seize the presidential palace, Yemeni President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi resigns after months of unrest.
 * January 25 – Legislative elections are held in Greece to elect all 300 members of the Hellenic Parliament and the SYRIZA party, led by Alexis Tsipras, comes out as the largest party winning 149 out of 300 seats.

February

 * February 12
 * Leaders from Russia, Ukraine, Germany and France reach an agreement on the war in eastern Ukraine that includes a ceasefire and withdrawal of heavy weapons. However, several days later, the Ukrainian government and pro-Russian rebels claim that, within its first day, the ceasefire was broken 139 times, as both sides failed to withdraw their heavy weapons and fighting had continued.
 * The United Nations Security Council adopts Resolution 2199 to combat terrorism.
 * February 14–15 – A lone gunman leaves 2 dead in a terrorist attack in Copenhagen, Denmark.
 * February 14–March 29 – The 2015 Cricket World Cup is held in Australia and New Zealand with Australia defeating New Zealand in the final.
 * February 16 – The Egyptian military begins conducting airstrikes against a branch of the Islamic militant group ISIL in Libya in retaliation for the group's beheading of over a dozen Egyptian Christians.

March

 * March 5–8 – The ancient city sites of Nimrud, Hatra and Dur-Sharrukin in Iraq are demolished by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.
 * March 6 – NASA's Dawn probe enters orbit around Ceres, becoming the first spacecraft to visit a dwarf planet.
 * March 12 – The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant becomes allies with fellow jihadist group Boko Haram, effectively annexing the group.
 * March 20 – A total solar eclipse was visible in the north Atlantic, Faroe Islands, and Svalbard. It was the 61st eclipse of the 120th saros cycle.
 * March 24 – An Airbus A320-211 operated by Germanwings is deliberately crashed in the French Alps, killing all 150 people on board.
 * March 25 – A Saudi Arabia-led coalition of Arab countries starts a military intervention in Yemen in order to uphold the Yemeni government in its fight against the Houthis' southern offensive.
 * March 29 – Australia wins the 2015 Cricket World Cup.

April

 * April 2 – 148 people are killed, the majority students, in a mass shooting at the Garissa University College in Kenya, perpetrated by the militant terrorist organization al-Shabaab.
 * April 4 – A total lunar eclipse was visible in Asia, Australia, Pacific and Americas. It was a shallow total lunar eclipse, with 0.08% of that diameter inside of Earth's umbral shadow, and it was the 30th eclipse of the 132nd saros cycle.
 * April 25 – A magnitude 7.8 earthquake strikes Nepal and causes 8,857 deaths in Nepal, 130 in India, 27 in China and 4 in Bangladesh with a total of 9,018 deaths.
 * April 29 – The World Health Organization (WHO) declares that rubella has been eradicated from the Americas.

May

 * May 1–October 31 – Expo 2015 is held in Milan, Italy.
 * May 7 – The 2015 UK General Election results in the first Conservative majority government in 18 years.
 * May 8 – A prison break occurred in the Iraqi town of Al Khalis, resulting in over fifty escapees.
 * May 10 – First round of the 2015 Polish presidential election is held.
 * May 11–12 – Version O of Les Femmes d'Alger by Pablo Picasso sells for US$179.3 million at Christie's auction in New York, while the sculpture L'Homme au doigt by Alberto Giacometti sells for US$141.3 million, setting a new world record for a painting and for a sculpture, respectively.
 * May 12 – A second major earthquake in Nepal, measuring 7.3 on the moment magnitude scale, results in 153 deaths in Nepal, 62 in India, 1 in China and 2 in Bangladesh with a total of 218 deaths.
 * May 19–23 – The Eurovision Song Contest 2015 is held in Vienna, Austria, and is won by Swedish entrant Måns Zelmerlöw with the song "Heroes".
 * May 21 – ISIS captures the ancient city of Palmyra in Syria.
 * May 24 – Second round of the 2015 Polish presidential election is held, with Andrzej Duda reigning victorious over then-incumbent president Bronisław Komorowski.
 * May 29 – In Tonga, the Mata ʻo e Laʻa Solar Facility is officially opened by King Tupou VI.

June

 * June 2 – FIFA President Sepp Blatter announces his intention to resign amidst an FBI-led corruption investigation, and calls for an extraordinary congress to elect a new president as soon as possible.
 * June 6 – The governments of India and Bangladesh officially ratify their 1974 agreement to exchange enclaves along their border.
 * June 12–28 – The inaugural European Games are held in Baku, Azerbaijan.
 * June 25–26 – ISIL claim responsibility for three attacks around the world during Ramadan:
 * Kobanî massacre: ISIL fighters detonate three car bombs, enter Kobanî, Syria, and open fire at civilians, killing more than 220.
 * Sousse attacks: 22-year-old Seifeddine Rezgui opens fire at a tourist resort at Port El Kantaoui, Tunisia, killing 38 people.
 * Kuwait mosque bombing: A suicide bomber attacks the Shia Mosque Imam Ja'far as-Sadiq at Kuwait City, Kuwait, killing 27 people and injuring 227 others.

 * June 30 – Cuba becomes the first country in the world to eradicate mother-to-child transmission of HIV and syphilis.

July

 * July 1 – Greek government-debt crisis: Greece becomes the first advanced economy to miss a payment to the International Monetary Fund in the 71-year history of the IMF.
 * July 5–13 – Greek government-debt crisis: After six months of clashes and futile negotiations between Greece's newly elected, leftist government and the country's creditors, over the austerity measures imposed through bailout programmes, tension peaks as Greece votes in a referendum to reject the terms offered in a third programme; however, the government eventually proceeds to concur to harsher terms than those offered before, in what was widely characterized as a coup on the creditors' part.
 * July 14
 * NASA's New Horizons spacecraft performs a close flyby of Pluto, becoming the first spacecraft in history to visit the distant world.
 * Iran agrees to long-term limits of its nuclear program in exchange for sanctions relief.
 * July 20 – Cuba and the United States, ending 54 years of hostility between the nations, reestablish full diplomatic relations.
 * July 24 – Turkey begins a series of airstrikes against PKK and ISIL targets after the 2015 Suruç bombing.
 * July 29 – Microsoft releases the desktop operating system Windows 10.
 * July 31 – The International Olympic Committee awards Beijing the right to host the 2022 Winter Olympics.

August

 * August 5 – Debris found on Réunion Island is confirmed to be that of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370, missing since March 2014.
 * August 12 and 15 – Large explosions in Tianjin, China kill 173 and injure more than 800 people. The causes of the explosions were found to be an overheated container of dry nitrocellulose and around 800 tonnes of ammonium nitrate.
 * August 17 – A bombing takes place inside the Erawan Shrine at the Ratchaprasong intersection in Pathum Wan District, Bangkok, Thailand, killing 20 people and injuring 125.
 * August 23 – A UAE military intelligence operation in the country of Yemen frees one British hostage.

September

 * September 9 – Queen Elizabeth II, having been on the throne for 63 years, 232 days, became the longest-reigning British monarch in history and the longest-serving head of state of any nation in modern history, surpassing Queen Victoria who had reigned for 63 years, 231 days upon her death on January 22, 1901.
 * September 10 – Scientists announce the discovery of Homo naledi, a previously unknown species of early human in South Africa.
 * September 13 – A partial solar eclipse was visible in South Africa, south Indian and Antarctica. It was the 54th eclipse of the 125th saros cycle.
 * September 14
 * First observation of gravitational waves: Gravitational waves are detected for the first time, by LIGO. This is not announced until February 11, 2016.
 * Malcolm Turnbull defeats Tony Abbott in a Liberal Party leadership ballot. Turnbull becomes Prime Minister of Australia, being sworn in the following day.
 * September 16 – An 8.4 earthquake strikes 46 km from Coquimbo (in Chile). 22 people are killed and 34 more injured.
 * September 18–October 31 – The 2015 Rugby World Cup is held in England and is won by New Zealand
 * September 18 – Automaker Volkswagen is alleged to have been involved in worldwide rigging of diesel emissions tests, affecting an estimated 11 million vehicles globally.
 * September 20 – Snap legislative elections are held in Greece, following the resignation of prime minister Alexis Tsipras, to elect all 300 members of the Hellenic Parliament and the SYRIZA party, led by Alexis Tsipras comes out as the largest party winning 145 out of 300 seats.
 * September 24 – A stampede during the Hajj pilgrimage in Mecca kills at least 2,200 people and injures more than 900 others, with more than 650 missing.
 * September 28 – NASA announces that liquid water has been found on Mars.
 * September 30 – Russia begins air strikes against ISIL and anti-government forces in Syria, in support of the Syrian government.

October

 * October 3 – A United States airstrike on a Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders) hospital in Afghanistan kills an estimated 20 people.
 * October 10 – A series of suicide bombings kills at least 100 people at a peace rally in Ankara, Turkey, and injures more than 400 others.
 * October 23 – Hurricane Patricia becomes the most intense hurricane ever recorded in the Western Hemisphere and the second strongest worldwide, with winds of 215 mph and a pressure of 872 mbar.
 * October 25 – The 2015 Polish parliamentary election is held for the Sejm of the Republic of Poland, with the election being won by the largest opposition party, the right-wing Law and Justice (PiS).
 * October 26 – A magnitude 7.5 earthquake strikes the Hindu Kush region and causes 398 deaths, with 279 in Pakistan, 115 in Afghanistan and 4 in India.
 * October 30 – Colectiv nightclub fire, a deadly fire killed 64 people, including 4 members of the metalcore band Goodbye to Gravity, in Colectiv nightclub in Bucharest, Romania
 * October 31 – Metrojet Flight 9268, an Airbus A321 airliner en route to Saint Petersburg from Sharm el-Sheikh, crashes near Al-Hasana in Sinai, killing all 217 passengers and 7 crew members on board. Later investigations revealed a bomb was likely responsible for the crash with Islamic State being the primary suspect.

November

 * November 4 – After a brief period of protests, triggered by the Colectiv nightclub fire, the Romanian prime-minister Victor Ponta resigns, ending a 3 years unrest period in Romania. The protests would continue until November 9.
 * November 9 – alignDRAW, first AI model to create images using prompts by Elman Mansimov.
 * November 7 – CPC general secretary Xi Jinping and ROC president Ma Ying-jeou formally meet for the first time.
 * November 12 – Two suicide bombers detonated explosives in Bourj el-Barajneh, Beirut, killing 43 people and injuring over 200 others.
 * November 13 – Multiple terrorist attacks claimed by Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) in Paris, France, result in 130 fatalities.
 * November 24 – Turkey shoots down a Russian fighter jet on the Turkish–Syrian border in the first case of a NATO member destroying a Russian aircraft since the 1950s.
 * November 30 – The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP 21) is held in Paris, attended by leaders from 147 nations.

December

 * December 2 – Two gunmen open fire at a workplace in San Bernardino, California, killing 14 before dying themselves in a shootout with police. ISIL claimed responsibility.
 * December 11 – OpenAI, a non-profit artificial intelligence research company, is founded.
 * December 12 – A global climate change pact is agreed at the COP 21 summit in Paris, committing all countries to reduce carbon emissions for the first time.
 * December 15 – The Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition is formed in order to fight terrorism.
 * December 22 – SpaceX lands an uncrewed Falcon 9 rocket, the first reusable rocket to successfully enter orbital space and return.

Nobel Prizes

 * Chemistry – Paul L. Modrich; Aziz Sancar and Tomas Lindahl
 * Economics – Angus Deaton
 * Literature – Svetlana Alexievich
 * Peace – Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet
 * Physics – Takaaki Kajita and Arthur B. McDonald
 * Physiology or Medicine – William C. Campbell, Satoshi Ōmura and Tu Youyou

New English words

 * aphantasia
 * aquafaba
 * cloud kitchen
 * extreme risk protection order
 * ghost kitchen
 * red flag law

Popular culture
In the time travel film Back to the Future Part II (1989), Doc Brown, Marty McFly, and Marty's girlfriend Jennifer Parker travel to October 21, 2015 to prevent Marty's son from being arrested.

The Japanese animated mecha television series Neon Genesis Evangelion (Released 1995) is set in the year 2015, in which earth is under attack from mysterious entities known as "angels".

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 2015


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Wikipedia talk:Highlighting conventions

Supporters of the "follow highlighting conventions" rule include: Ram-Man

Opponents include:

(Note: I combined and edited some previous entries to create this one, so I didn't think it was appropriate to carry forward the original list of supporters. There was no real opposition, except that one Wikipedian felt it was uneccesary and distacting to boldface a term that was already the title of the article).

You should separate the part about multiple links of the same term. This is a different issue from the one on highlighting rules. I always try to follow the highlighting rule presented here (and have edited some articles I've found to conform to that rule) but sometimes it is more sensible to link everything possible (for example, in a list of presidents, linking every "Republican" and "Democrat" makes more sense that nust picking one or a few to link them. -- BRG - The talk on birth and death dates was deleted. A standard and discussion took place on the Manual of Style. -- Ram-Man

Proposal to consolidate advice on writing better articles
At present there are many articles in the Wikipedia namespace that seek to give guidance on how to write better articles. I propose consolidating these into a much smaller number. On User:Jongarrettuk/Better writing guide I propose how these could be consolidated. The proposal is not to change advice, just to consolidate it. If I have inadvertently moved what you consider to be good advice that is currently in the Wikipedia namespace, please re-add it. I'm hope that the proposal to merge all these articles, in principle, will be welcomed. Of course, it may be preferred to have 2, 3 or 4 inter-connected articles than just one and would welcome advice on how this could be done. (In particular, perhaps all the guidance on layout should be spun off into one consolidated article on layout.) I'm also aware that putting lots of different bits of advice together may throw up anomalies or bits that people now disagree with (including bits that I myself disagree with:) ). I ask for support for the consolidation. Once the consolidation has happened, the advice can be changed in the normal way. Please feel free to improve on the current draft consolidation, but don't remove or add advice that is not currently on the Wikipedia namespace. If all goes well, I'll add a new Guide to writing better articles page on the 19th, though maybe some bits of the new article will need to be phased in over a longer period. I'll also take care to preserve all the archived discussion in one place. jguk 19:46, 11 Nov 2004 (UTC)

title: Wikipedia talk:Highlighting conventions


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22nd century BC

The 22nd century BC was a century that lasted from the year 2200 BC to 2101 BC.

Events

 * 4.2-kiloyear event: A severe aridification event that probably lasts the entire 22nd century BC and causes the collapse of several Old World civilizations.
 * 2217 BC–2193 BC: Nomadic invasions of the Mesopotamian city of Akkad.
 * c. 2200 BC: Austronesians reach the Batanes Islands of the Philippine Archipelago as part of the Austronesian Expansion.
 * c. 2218 BC: Ancient migrants from India reach Australia and mix with Indigenous Australians.
 * c. 2184 BC: Possible date for the death of Pharaoh Pepi II Neferkare of the Sixth Dynasty of Egypt, the longest reigning monarch of history with 94 years on the throne.
 * c. 2184 BC: Ephemeral rule of Merenre Nemtyemsaf II in Egypt.
 * c. 2184–2181 BC: Reign of Netjerkare Siptah, last pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty of Egypt, who will later give rise to the legendary figure of Nitocris.
 * c. 2181 BC: End of the Old Kingdom of Egypt and start of the First Intermediate Period, the doubtful Seventh Dynasty and the Eighth Dynasty of Egypt with Menkare (these periods may extend to c. 2160 BC or beyond). The fall of the Old Kingdom may have been caused by a conjunction of severe droughts, strong decentralization of the state and confusion following the extremely long reign of Pepi II.
 * c. 2180 BC: Akkadian Empire falls under attack by the Guti (Mesopotamia), a mountain people from the northeast.
 * c. 2160 BC: End of the reign of Pharaoh Neferirkare, last king of the Eighth Dynasty of Egypt. Beginning of the Ninth Dynasty, possibly after the overthrow of Neferirkare.
 * c. 2160 BC: Beginning of Middle Minoan period in Crete.
 * c. 2150 BC: City state of Lagash in Mesopotamia is established.
 * c. 2150–2030 BC: The Epic of Gilgamesh is written in Mesopotamia in Akkadian.
 * c. 2144 BC: Gudea, ruler (ensi) of Lagash, starts to reign.
 * 2138 BC: A solar eclipse on 9 May and a lunar eclipse on 24 May occur and are believed to be the double eclipse that takes place 23 years after the ascension of king Shulgi of Babylon by those holding to the long chronology.
 * c. 2125 BC–2055 BC: "Model of a house and garden, from Thebes", Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt.
 * 2124 BC: Gudea, ruler (ensi) of Lagash, dies.
 * c. 2120 BC: Votive statue of Gudea from Lagash (Iraq) is made.
 * 2119 BC–2113 BC (middle chronology): Utu-hengal, first king of the third dynasty of Ur, also called the Neo-Sumerian Empire.
 * 2116 BC–2110 BC: Uruk–Gutian war.
 * 2112 BC–2095 BC: Sumerian campaigns of Ur-Nammu.

title: 22nd century BC


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Programmable ROM

A programmable read-only memory (PROM) is a form of digital memory where the contents can be changed once after manufacture of the device. The data is then permanent and cannot be changed. It is one type of read-only memory (ROM). PROMs are used in digital electronic devices to store permanent data, usually low level programs such as firmware or microcode. The key difference from a standard ROM is that the data is written into a ROM during manufacture, while with a PROM the data is programmed into them after manufacture. Thus, ROMs tend to be used only for large production runs with well-verified data. PROMs may be used where the volume required does not make a factory-programmed ROM economical, or during development of a system that may ultimately be converted to ROMs in a mass produced version.

PROMs are manufactured blank and, depending on the technology, can be programmed at wafer, final test, or in system. Blank PROM chips are programmed by plugging them into a device called a PROM programmer. Companies can keep a supply of blank PROMs in stock, and program them at the last minute to avoid large volume commitment. These types of memories are frequently used in microcontrollers, video game consoles, mobile phones, radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags, implantable medical devices, high-definition multimedia interfaces (HDMI)  and in many other consumer and automotive electronics products. A typical PROM device is made up of an array of memory cells, each made up of a transistor, which is a bipolar transistor, connected to a fuse called a polyfuse in the emitter of the transistor. A PROM programmer is used to blow the polyfuse, programming the PROM.

History
The PROM was invented in 1956 by Wen Tsing Chow, working for the Arma Division of the American Bosch Arma Corporation in Garden City, New York. The invention was conceived at the request of the United States Air Force to come up with a more flexible and secure way of storing the targeting constants in the Atlas E/F ICBM's airborne digital computer. The patent and associated technology were held under secrecy order for several years while the Atlas E/F was the main operational missile of the United States ICBM force. The term burn, referring to the process of programming a PROM, is also in the original patent, as one of the original implementations was to literally burn the internal whiskers of diodes with a current overload to produce a circuit discontinuity. The first PROM programming machines were also developed by Arma engineers under Chow's direction and were located in Arma's Garden City lab and Air Force Strategic Air Command (SAC) headquarters.

One time programmable memory
OTP (one time programmable) memory is a special type of non-volatile memory (NVM) that permits data to be written to memory only once. Once the memory has been programmed, it retains its value upon loss of power (i.e., is non-volatile). OTP memory is used in applications where reliable and repeatable reading of data is required. Examples include boot code, encryption keys and configuration parameters for analog, sensor or display circuitry. OTP NVM is characterized, over other types of NVM like eFuse or EEPROM, by offering a low power, small area footprint memory structure. As such OTP memory finds application in products from microprocessors & display drivers to Power Management ICs (PMICs).

Commercially available semiconductor antifuse-based OTP memory arrays have been around at least since 1969, with initial antifuse bit cells dependent on blowing a capacitor between crossing conductive lines. Texas Instruments developed a MOS gate oxide breakdown antifuse in 1979. A dual-gate-oxide two-transistor (2T) MOS antifuse was introduced in 1982. Early oxide breakdown technologies exhibited a variety of scaling, programming, size and manufacturing problems that prevented volume production of memory devices based on these technologies.

Another form of one-time programmable memory device uses the same semiconductor chip as an ultraviolet-erasable programmable read-only memory (UV-EPROM), but the finished device is put into an opaque package, instead of the expensive ceramic package with transparent quartz window required for erasing. These devices are programmed with the same methods as the UV EPROM parts but are less costly. Embedded controllers may be available in both field-erasable and one-time styles, allowing a cost saving in volume production without the expense and lead time of factory-programmed mask ROM chips.

Although antifuse-based PROM has been available for decades, it wasn’t available in standard CMOS until 2001 when Kilopass Technology Inc. patented 1T, 2T, and 3.5T antifuse bit cell technologies using a standard CMOS process, enabling integration of PROM into logic CMOS chips. The first process node antifuse can be implemented in standard CMOS is 0.18 um. Since the gate oxide breakdown is less than the junction breakdown, special diffusion steps were not required to create the antifuse programming element. In 2005, a split channel antifuse device was introduced by Sidense. This split channel bit cell combines the thick (IO) and thin (gate) oxide devices into one transistor (1T) with a common polysilicon gate.

Programming
A typical PROM comes with all bits reading as "1". Burning a fuse bit during programming causes the bit to be read as "0" by "blowing" the fuses, which is an irreversible process. Some devices can be "reprogrammed" if the new data replaces "1"s with "0"s. Some CPU instruction sets (e.g. 6502) took advantage of this by defining a break (BRK) instruction with the operation code of '00'. In cases where there was an incorrect instruction, it could be "reprogrammed" to a BRK causing the CPU to transfer control to a patch. This would execute the correct instruction and return to the instruction after the BRK.

The bit cell is programmed by applying a high-voltage pulse not encountered during a normal operation across the gate and substrate of the thin oxide transistor (around 6V for a 2 nm thick oxide, or 30MV/cm) to break down the oxide between gate and substrate. The positive voltage on the transistor's gate forms an inversion channel in the substrate below the gate, causing a tunneling current to flow through the oxide. The current produces additional traps in the oxide, increasing the current through the oxide and ultimately melting the oxide and forming a conductive channel from gate to substrate. The current required to form the conductive channel is around 100μA/100nm$2$ and the breakdown occurs in approximately 100μs or less.

title: Programmable ROM


text:
Poynting vector

In physics, the Poynting vector (or Umov–Poynting vector) represents the directional energy flux (the energy transfer per unit area, per unit time) or power flow of an electromagnetic field. The SI unit of the Poynting vector is the watt per square metre (W/m2); kg/s3 in base SI units. It is named after its discoverer John Henry Poynting who first derived it in 1884. Nikolay Umov is also credited with formulating the concept. Oliver Heaviside also discovered it independently in the more general form that recognises the freedom of adding the curl of an arbitrary vector field to the definition. The Poynting vector is used throughout electromagnetics in conjunction with Poynting's theorem, the continuity equation expressing conservation of electromagnetic energy, to calculate the power flow in electromagnetic fields.

Definition
In Poynting's original paper and in most textbooks, the Poynting vector $$\mathbf{S}$$ is defined as the cross product $$\mathbf{S} = \mathbf{E} \times \mathbf{H},$$ where bold letters represent vectors and This expression is often called the Abraham form and is the most widely used. The Poynting vector is usually denoted by S or N.
 * E is the electric field vector;
 * H is the magnetic field's auxiliary field vector or magnetizing field.

In simple terms, the Poynting vector S depicts the direction and rate of transfer of energy, that is power, due to electromagnetic fields in a region of space that may or may not be empty. More rigorously, it is the quantity that must be used to make Poynting's theorem valid. Poynting's theorem essentially says that the difference between the electromagnetic energy entering a region and the electromagnetic energy leaving a region must equal the energy converted or dissipated in that region, that is, turned into a different form of energy (often heat). So if one accepts the validity of the Poynting vector description of electromagnetic energy transfer, then Poynting's theorem is simply a statement of the conservation of energy.

If electromagnetic energy is not gained from or lost to other forms of energy within some region (e.g., mechanical energy, or heat), then electromagnetic energy is locally conserved within that region, yielding a continuity equation as a special case of Poynting's theorem: $$\nabla\cdot \mathbf{S} = -\frac{\partial u}{\partial t}$$ where $$u$$ is the energy density of the electromagnetic field. This frequent condition holds in the following simple example in which the Poynting vector is calculated and seen to be consistent with the usual computation of power in an electric circuit.

Example: Power flow in a coaxial cable
Although problems in electromagnetics with arbitrary geometries are notoriously difficult to solve, we can find a relatively simple solution in the case of power transmission through a section of coaxial cable analyzed in cylindrical coordinates as depicted in the accompanying diagram. We can take advantage of the model's symmetry: no dependence on θ (circular symmetry) nor on Z (position along the cable). The model (and solution) can be considered simply as a DC circuit with no time dependence, but the following solution applies equally well to the transmission of radio frequency power, as long as we are considering an instant of time (during which the voltage and current don't change), and over a sufficiently short segment of cable (much smaller than a wavelength, so that these quantities are not dependent on Z). The coaxial cable is specified as having an inner conductor of radius R1 and an outer conductor whose inner radius is R2 (its thickness beyond R2 doesn't affect the following analysis). In between R1 and R2 the cable contains an ideal dielectric material of relative permittivity εr and we assume conductors that are non-magnetic (so μ = μ0) and lossless (perfect conductors), all of which are good approximations to real-world coaxial cable in typical situations.

The center conductor is held at voltage V and draws a current I toward the right, so we expect a total power flow of P = V · I according to basic laws of electricity. By evaluating the Poynting vector, however, we are able to identify the profile of power flow in terms of the electric and magnetic fields inside the coaxial cable. The electric fields are of course zero inside of each conductor, but in between the conductors ($$R_1 < r < R_2$$) symmetry dictates that they are strictly in the radial direction and it can be shown (using Gauss's law) that they must obey the following form: $$E_r(r) = \frac{W}{r}$$ W can be evaluated by integrating the electric field from $$r = R_2$$ to $$R_1$$ which must be the negative of the voltage V: $$-V = \int_{R_2}^{R_1} \frac{W}{r} dr = -W \ln \left(\frac{R_2}{R_1}\right)$$ so that: $$W = \frac{V}{\ln(R_2/R_1)}$$

The magnetic field, again by symmetry, can only be non-zero in the θ direction, that is, a vector field looping around the center conductor at every radius between R1 and R2. Inside the conductors themselves the magnetic field may or may not be zero, but this is of no concern since the Poynting vector in these regions is zero due to the electric field's being zero. Outside the entire coaxial cable, the magnetic field is identically zero since paths in this region enclose a net current of zero (+I in the center conductor and −I in the outer conductor), and again the electric field is zero there anyway. Using Ampère's law in the region from R1 to R2, which encloses the current +I in the center conductor but with no contribution from the current in the outer conductor, we find at radius r: $$\begin{align} I = \oint_C \mathbf{H} \cdot ds &= 2 \pi r H_\theta(r) \\ H_\theta(r) &= \frac {I}{2 \pi r} \end{align}$$ Now, from an electric field in the radial direction, and a tangential magnetic field, the Poynting vector, given by the cross-product of these, is only non-zero in the Z direction, along the direction of the coaxial cable itself, as we would expect. Again only a function of r, we can evaluate S(r): $$S_z(r) = E_r(r) H_\theta(r) = \frac{W}{r} \frac {I}{2 \pi r} = \frac{W \, I} {2 \pi r^2}$$ where W is given above in terms of the center conductor voltage V. The total power flowing down the coaxial cable can be computed by integrating over the entire cross section A of the cable in between the conductors: $$\begin{align} P_\text{tot} &= \iint_\mathbf{A} S_z (r, \theta)\, dA = \int_{R_2}^{R_1} 2 \pi r dr S_z(r) \\ &= \int_{R_2}^{R_1} \frac{W\, I}{r} dr = W\, I\, \ln \left(\frac{R_2}{R_1}\right). \end{align}$$

Substituting the earlier solution for the constant W we find: $$P_\mathrm{tot} = I \ln \left(\frac{R_2}{R_1}\right) \frac{V}{\ln(R_2/R_1)} = V \, I$$ that is, the power given by integrating the Poynting vector over a cross section of the coaxial cable is exactly equal to the product of voltage and current as one would have computed for the power delivered using basic laws of electricity.

Other similar examples in which the P = V · I result can be analytically calculated are: the parallel-plate transmission line, using Cartesian coordinates, and the two-wire transmission line, using bipolar cylindrical coordinates.

Other forms
In the "microscopic" version of Maxwell's equations, this definition must be replaced by a definition in terms of the electric field E and the magnetic flux density B (described later in the article).

It is also possible to combine the electric displacement field D with the magnetic flux B to get the Minkowski form of the Poynting vector, or use D and H to construct yet another version. The choice has been controversial: Pfeifer et al. summarize and to a certain extent resolve the century-long dispute between proponents of the Abraham and Minkowski forms (see Abraham–Minkowski controversy).

The Poynting vector represents the particular case of an energy flux vector for electromagnetic energy. However, any type of energy has its direction of movement in space, as well as its density, so energy flux vectors can be defined for other types of energy as well, e.g., for mechanical energy. The Umov–Poynting vector discovered by Nikolay Umov in 1874 describes energy flux in liquid and elastic media in a completely generalized view.

Interpretation
The Poynting vector appears in Poynting's theorem (see that article for the derivation), an energy-conservation law: $$\frac{\partial u}{\partial t} = -\mathbf{\nabla} \cdot \mathbf{S} - \mathbf{J_\mathrm{f}} \cdot \mathbf{E},$$ where Jf is the current density of free charges and u is the electromagnetic energy density for linear, nondispersive materials, given by $$u = \frac{1}{2}\! \left(\mathbf{E} \cdot \mathbf{D} + \mathbf{B} \cdot \mathbf{H}\right)\! ,$$ where
 * E is the electric field;
 * D is the electric displacement field;
 * B is the magnetic flux density;
 * H is the magnetizing field.

The first term in the right-hand side represents the electromagnetic energy flow into a small volume, while the second term subtracts the work done by the field on free electrical currents, which thereby exits from electromagnetic energy as dissipation, heat, etc. In this definition, bound electrical currents are not included in this term and instead contribute to S and u.

For linear, nondispersive and isotropic (for simplicity) materials, the constitutive relations can be written as $$\mathbf{D} = \varepsilon \mathbf{E},\quad \mathbf{B} = \mu\mathbf{H},$$ where Here ε and μ are scalar, real-valued constants independent of position, direction, and frequency.
 * ε is the permittivity of the material;
 * μ is the permeability of the material.

In principle, this limits Poynting's theorem in this form to fields in vacuum and nondispersive linear materials. A generalization to dispersive materials is possible under certain circumstances at the cost of additional terms.

One consequence of the Poynting formula is that for the electromagnetic field to do work, both magnetic and electric fields must be present. The magnetic field alone or the electric field alone cannot do any work.

Plane waves
In a propagating electromagnetic plane wave in an isotropic lossless medium, the instantaneous Poynting vector always points in the direction of propagation while rapidly oscillating in magnitude. This can be simply seen given that in a plane wave, the magnitude of the magnetic field H(r,t) is given by the magnitude of the electric field vector E(r,t) divided by η, the intrinsic impedance of the transmission medium: $$|\mathbf{H}| = \frac {|\mathbf{E}|}{\eta},$$ where |A| represents the vector norm of A. Since E and H are at right angles to each other, the magnitude of their cross product is the product of their magnitudes. Without loss of generality let us take X to be the direction of the electric field and Y to be the direction of the magnetic field. The instantaneous Poynting vector, given by the cross product of E and H will then be in the positive Z direction:

$$\left|\mathsf{S_z}\right| = \left|\mathsf{E_x} \mathsf{H_y}\right| = \frac{\left|\mathsf{E_x}\right|^2}{\eta}.$$

Finding the time-averaged power in the plane wave then requires averaging over the wave period (the inverse frequency of the wave): $$\left\langle\mathsf{S_z}\right\rangle = \frac{\left\langle\left|\mathsf{E_x}\right|^2\right\rangle}{\eta} = \frac{\mathsf{E_\text{rms}^2}}{\eta},$$ where Erms is the root mean square (RMS) electric field amplitude. In the important case that E(t) is sinusoidally varying at some frequency with peak amplitude Epeak, Erms is $$\mathsf{E_{peak}} / \sqrt{2}$$, with the average Poynting vector then given by: $$\left\langle\mathsf{S_z}\right\rangle = \frac{\mathsf{E_{peak}^2}}{2\eta}.$$ This is the most common form for the energy flux of a plane wave, since sinusoidal field amplitudes are most often expressed in terms of their peak values, and complicated problems are typically solved considering only one frequency at a time. However, the expression using Erms is totally general, applying, for instance, in the case of noise whose RMS amplitude can be measured but where the "peak" amplitude is meaningless. In free space the intrinsic impedance η is simply given by the impedance of free space η0 ≈377Ω. In non-magnetic dielectrics (such as all transparent materials at optical frequencies) with a specified dielectric constant εr, or in optics with a material whose refractive index $$\mathsf{n} = \sqrt{\epsilon_r}$$, the intrinsic impedance is found as: $$\eta = \frac{\eta_0}{\sqrt{\epsilon_r}}.$$

In optics, the value of radiated flux crossing a surface, thus the average Poynting vector component in the direction normal to that surface, is technically known as the irradiance, more often simply referred to as the intensity (a somewhat ambiguous term).

Formulation in terms of microscopic fields
The "microscopic" (differential) version of Maxwell's equations admits only the fundamental fields E and B, without a built-in model of material media. Only the vacuum permittivity and permeability are used, and there is no D or H. When this model is used, the Poynting vector is defined as $$\mathbf{S} = \frac{1}{\mu_0} \mathbf{E} \times \mathbf{B},$$ where
 * μ0 is the vacuum permeability;
 * E is the electric field vector;
 * B is the magnetic flux.

This is actually the general expression of the Poynting vector. The corresponding form of Poynting's theorem is $$\frac{\partial u}{\partial t} = - \nabla \cdot \mathbf{S} -\mathbf{J} \cdot \mathbf{E},$$ where J is the total current density and the energy density u is given by $$u = \frac{1}{2}\! \left(\varepsilon_0 |\mathbf{E}|^2 + \frac{1}{\mu_0} |\mathbf{B}|^2\right)\! ,$$ where ε0 is the vacuum permittivity. It can be derived directly from Maxwell's equations in terms of total charge and current and the Lorentz force law only.

The two alternative definitions of the Poynting vector are equal in vacuum or in non-magnetic materials, where B = μ0H. In all other cases, they differ in that S = (1/μ0) E × B and the corresponding u are purely radiative, since the dissipation term −J ⋅ E covers the total current, while the E × H definition has contributions from bound currents which are then excluded from the dissipation term.

Since only the microscopic fields E and B occur in the derivation of S = (1/μ0) E × B and the energy density, assumptions about any material present are avoided. The Poynting vector and theorem and expression for energy density are universally valid in vacuum and all materials.

Time-averaged Poynting vector
The above form for the Poynting vector represents the instantaneous power flow due to instantaneous electric and magnetic fields. More commonly, problems in electromagnetics are solved in terms of sinusoidally varying fields at a specified frequency. The results can then be applied more generally, for instance, by representing incoherent radiation as a superposition of such waves at different frequencies and with fluctuating amplitudes.

We would thus not be considering the instantaneous $E(t)$ and $H(t)$ used above, but rather a complex (vector) amplitude for each which describes a coherent wave's phase (as well as amplitude) using phasor notation. These complex amplitude vectors are not functions of time, as they are understood to refer to oscillations over all time. A phasor such as $E_{m}$ is understood to signify a sinusoidally varying field whose instantaneous amplitude $E(t)$ follows the real part of $E_{m} e^{jωt}$ where $ω$ is the (radian) frequency of the sinusoidal wave being considered.

In the time domain, it will be seen that the instantaneous power flow will be fluctuating at a frequency of 2ω. But what is normally of interest is the average power flow in which those fluctuations are not considered. In the math below, this is accomplished by integrating over a full cycle $T = 2π / ω$. The following quantity, still referred to as a "Poynting vector", is expressed directly in terms of the phasors as:

$$\mathbf{S}_\mathrm{m} = \tfrac{1}{2} \mathbf{E}_\mathrm{m} \times \mathbf{H}_\mathrm{m}^* ,$$

where ∗ denotes the complex conjugate. The time-averaged power flow (according to the instantaneous Poynting vector averaged over a full cycle, for instance) is then given by the real part of $S_{m}$. The imaginary part is usually ignored, however, it signifies "reactive power" such as the interference due to a standing wave or the near field of an antenna. In a single electromagnetic plane wave (rather than a standing wave which can be described as two such waves travelling in opposite directions), $E$ and $H$ are exactly in phase, so $S_{m}$ is simply a real number according to the above definition.

The equivalence of $Re(S_{m})$ to the time-average of the instantaneous Poynting vector $S$ can be shown as follows.

$$\begin{align}\mathbf{S}(t) &= \mathbf{E}(t) \times \mathbf{H}(t)\\ &= \operatorname{Re}\! \left(\mathbf{E}_\mathrm{m} e^{j\omega t}\right) \times \operatorname{Re}\!\left(\mathbf{H}_\mathrm{m} e^{j\omega t}\right)\\ &= \tfrac{1}{2}\! \left(\mathbf{E}_\mathrm{m} e^{j\omega t} + \mathbf{E}_\mathrm{m}^* e^{-j\omega t}\right) \times \tfrac{1}{2}\! \left(\mathbf{H}_\mathrm{m} e^{j\omega t} + \mathbf{H}_\mathrm{m}^* e^{-j\omega t}\right)\\ &= \tfrac{1}{4}\! \left(\mathbf{E}_\mathrm{m} \times \mathbf{H}_\mathrm{m}^* + \mathbf{E}_\mathrm{m}^* \times \mathbf{H}_\mathrm{m} + \mathbf{E}_\mathrm{m} \times \mathbf{H}_\mathrm{m} e^{2j\omega t} + \mathbf{E}_\mathrm{m}^* \times \mathbf{H}_\mathrm{m}^* e^{-2j\omega t}\right)\\ &= \tfrac{1}{2} \operatorname{Re}\! \left(\mathbf{E}_\mathrm{m} \times \mathbf{H}_\mathrm{m}^*\right) + \tfrac{1}{2}\operatorname{Re}\! \left(\mathbf{E}_\mathrm{m} \times \mathbf{H}_\mathrm{m} e^{2j\omega t}\right)\! . \end{align}$$

The average of the instantaneous Poynting vector S  over time is given by: $$\langle\mathbf{S}\rangle = \frac{1}{T} \int_0^T \mathbf{S}(t)\, dt = \frac{1}{T} \int_0^T\! \left[\tfrac{1}{2} \operatorname{Re}\! \left(\mathbf{E}_\mathrm{m} \times \mathbf{H}_\mathrm{m}^*\right) + \tfrac{1}{2} \operatorname{Re}\! \left({\mathbf{E}_\mathrm{m}} \times {\mathbf{H}_\mathrm{m}} e^{2j\omega t}\right)\right]dt.$$

The second term is the double-frequency component having an average value of zero, so we find: $$\langle \mathbf{S}\rangle = \operatorname{Re}\! \left(\tfrac{1}{2}{\mathbf{E}_\mathrm{m}} \times \mathbf{H}_\mathrm{m}^*\right) = \operatorname{Re}\! \left(\mathbf{S}_\mathrm{m}\right) $$

According to some conventions, the factor of 1/2 in the above definition may be left out. Multiplication by 1/2 is required to properly describe the power flow since the magnitudes of $E_{m}$ and $H_{m}$ refer to the peak fields of the oscillating quantities. If rather the fields are described in terms of their root mean square (RMS) values (which are each smaller by the factor $$\sqrt{2}/2$$), then the correct average power flow is obtained without multiplication by 1/2.

Resistive dissipation
If a conductor has significant resistance, then, near the surface of that conductor, the Poynting vector would be tilted toward and impinge upon the conductor. Once the Poynting vector enters the conductor, it is bent to a direction that is almost perpendicular to the surface. This is a consequence of Snell's law and the very slow speed of light inside a conductor. The definition and computation of the speed of light in a conductor can be given. Inside the conductor, the Poynting vector represents energy flow from the electromagnetic field into the wire, producing resistive Joule heating in the wire. For a derivation that starts with Snell's law see Reitz page 454.

Radiation pressure
The density of the linear momentum of the electromagnetic field is S/c2 where S is the magnitude of the Poynting vector and c is the speed of light in free space. The radiation pressure exerted by an electromagnetic wave on the surface of a target is given by $$P_\mathrm{rad} = \frac{\langle S\rangle}{\mathrm{c}}.$$

Uniqueness of the Poynting vector
The Poynting vector occurs in Poynting's theorem only through its divergence ∇ ⋅ S, that is, it is only required that the surface integral of the Poynting vector around a closed surface describe the net flow of electromagnetic energy into or out of the enclosed volume. This means that adding a solenoidal vector field (one with zero divergence) to S will result in another field that satisfies this required property of a Poynting vector field according to Poynting's theorem. Since the divergence of any curl is zero, one can add the curl of any vector field to the Poynting vector and the resulting vector field S′ will still satisfy Poynting's theorem.

However even though the Poynting vector was originally formulated only for the sake of Poynting's theorem in which only its divergence appears, it turns out that the above choice of its form is unique. The following section gives an example which illustrates why it is not acceptable to add an arbitrary solenoidal field to E × H.

Static fields

The consideration of the Poynting vector in static fields shows the relativistic nature of the Maxwell equations and allows a better understanding of the magnetic component of the Lorentz force, q(v × B). To illustrate, the accompanying picture is considered, which describes the Poynting vector in a cylindrical capacitor, which is located in an H field (pointing into the page) generated by a permanent magnet. Although there are only static electric and magnetic fields, the calculation of the Poynting vector produces a clockwise circular flow of electromagnetic energy, with no beginning or end.

While the circulating energy flow may seem unphysical, its existence is necessary to maintain conservation of angular momentum. The momentum of an electromagnetic wave in free space is equal to its power divided by c, the speed of light. Therefore, the circular flow of electromagnetic energy implies an angular momentum. If one were to connect a wire between the two plates of the charged capacitor, then there would be a Lorentz force on that wire while the capacitor is discharging due to the discharge current and the crossed magnetic field; that force would be tangential to the central axis and thus add angular momentum to the system. That angular momentum would match the "hidden" angular momentum, revealed by the Poynting vector, circulating before the capacitor was discharged.

title: Poynting vector