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Baltimore/Washington International Airport

Baltimore/Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport is an international airport in Anne Arundel County, Maryland, located 9 mi south of downtown Baltimore and 30 miles northeast of Washington, D.C.

BWI is one of three major airports that serve the Washington–Baltimore metropolitan area. Dulles International Airport (IAD), in Dulles, Virginia, and Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport (DCA), in Crystal City, Virginia, are the other two.

The airport serves as one of 12 U.S.-based operating bases for Southwest Airlines. In 2023, BWI recorded 12,849,636 passenger enplanements, making it the busiest airport in the Baltimore-Washington metropolitan area, ranked at #23 in passenger enplanements in the U.S., followed by Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport (#24) and Washington/Dulles Int'l Airport (#26).

In 2005, the airport was named in honor of Thurgood Marshall, a Baltimore native and the first African American to serve as a U.S. Supreme Court justice.

20th century
Planning for a new airport on 3200 acre to serve the Baltimore–Washington metropolitan area began in 1944, just prior to the end of World War II, when the Baltimore Aviation Commission announced its decision that the best location to build a new airport would be on a 2100 acre tract of land near Linthicum Heights, Maryland. The cost of building the airport was estimated at $9 million.

The site was chosen because it was a 15-minute drive from Downtown Baltimore, close to the Pennsylvania Railroad line, the Baltimore and Annapolis Railroad line, and the proposed Baltimore–Washington Parkway, and visibility at the site was generally good. An alternate site along Gov. Ritchie Highway at Furnace Branch was rejected by the United States Department of War, and another possible site at Lipin's Corner was deemed too far from Baltimore. The State Aviation Commission approved of the Linthicum Heights site in 1946.

Much of the land was purchased from Friendship Methodist Church in 1946, and ground was broken on May 2, 1947. Friendship Methodist Church held its last service on Easter Sunday in 1948. Friendship Methodist Church was razed to make room for the new airport. In addition, several pieces of land were bought, and 170 bodies buried in a cemetery were moved. Baltimore–Fort Meade Road was moved to the west to make way for the airport's construction.

Friendship International Airport was dedicated on June 24, 1950, by President Harry S. Truman. Truman arrived in a Douglas DC-6, then the official presidential airplane, from nearby Washington National Airport. Accompanying Truman were the Governor of Maryland, William Preston Lane Jr., and Baltimore Mayor Thomas D'Alesandro Jr., who was taking his first aircraft flight. The cost to construct the airport totaled $15 million. The following month, the airlines moved to the new airport from the old Baltimore Municipal Airport at Harbor Field in southeast Baltimore at 39.25°N, -76.53°W. Eastern Airlines flew the first scheduled flight, a DC-3, into the airport at 12:01 am on July 23, 1950. Seven minutes later, the same plane was also the first flight to depart from the airport. Three hundred spectators came to watch the first flights arrive and depart.

The Official Airline Guide reports 52 weekday departures from the airport as of April 1957: 19 Eastern, 12 Capital, 8 American, four National, three TWA, three United, two Delta, and one Allegheny. The departures included a couple nonstop flights to Miami, but westward nonstop flights did not reach beyond Ohio. The airport's reach expanded when jet service started. The early Boeing 707s and Douglas DC-8s could not use Washington National Airport, and Dulles International Airport, which opened in 1962, had not yet opened, so Baltimore became Washington, D.C.'s jet airport from May 1959 to June 1959, when American and TWA began transcontinental 707 flights. By 1963, Friendship Int'l Airport was equipped with a 9,450 foot (2,880 m) runway, which could handle any commercial jet aircraft at that time.

In 1972, the Maryland Department of Transportation (MDOT) purchased Friendship International Airport from the City of Baltimore for $36 million. Under MDOT, the Maryland State Aviation Administration took over airfield operations, and the airport grew from three employees to more than 200. Plans to upgrade, improve, and modernize all Maryland airport facilities were announced almost immediately by Harry Hughes, the U.S. Secretary of Transportation.

On November 16, 1973, in an effort to attract passengers from the Washington metropolitan area, particularly Montgomery and Prince George's counties in suburban Maryland, the airport was renamed Baltimore/Washington International Airport. Its IATA code, originally BAL, was changed to BWI by the International Air Transport Association on April 20, 1980, and the change became official six months later, on October 26. The BWI code had previously been used by an airport in Bewani, Papua New Guinea.

In 1974, the first phase of the airport's modernization was completed at a cost of $30 million. Upgrades included improved instrument landing capabilities and runway systems, and construction of three new air cargo terminals, expanding the airport's freight capacity to 2.53 acre.

In 1979, the terminal renovation program was completed, representing the most dramatic work of the airport's modernization, which was designed by DMJM along with Peterson & Brickbauer. The renovations more than doubled the size of BWI's terminal to 14.58 acre, and the number of gates increased from 20 to 27. The total cost was $70 million. To continue the work, the BWI Development Council was established to support initiatives for airport development.

In 1980, the BWI Rail Station opened, providing a connection for passengers on the Northeast Corridor through Amtrak. BWI was the first airport in the U.S. with a dedicated intercity rail station. The station provided rail transit access to Washington, D.C., something that Dulles International Airport did not achieve until late 2022.

In 1997, a new international terminal (Concourse E), designed by STV Group and William Nicholas Bodouva & Associates, was added, though Dulles continues to hold the lion's share of the region's international flights, and BWI has not attracted many long-haul international carriers.

The first transatlantic nonstops were on World Airways about 1981; British Airways arrived at BWI a few years later. Aer Lingus, Air Jamaica, Air Aruba, Air Greenland, El Al, Icelandair, KLM, Air Canada, Ladeco, and Mexicana previously flew to BWI. Military flights, operated by the U.S. Air Force's Air Mobility Command, continue to have a significant presence at BWI.

Over the first half of the 1990s, runway 15L/33R was extended 1,800 ft from 3,199 ft to its current length of 5,000 ft, allowing it to be used by small passenger jets like the Boeing 737.

Beginning in the 1980s and for much of the 1990s, BWI was a hub for Piedmont Airlines and successor US Airways, but that airline's financial problems in the wake of the dot-com bust, the September 11 attacks, and low fare competition forced it to cut back. The airport has been a haven for low-cost flights in the Baltimore/Washington Metropolitan Area since Southwest Airlines' arrival in September 1993 and subsequent expansion in the early 2000s. Southwest is the airport's largest carrier, accounting for 56.12% of the airport's passengers in 2011. Southwest Airlines currently serves on average 245 daily departures to the U.S., Mexico, and the Caribbean.

21st century
In July 2000, Ghana Airways began service from BWI to Accra. The airline operated the flight with McDonnell Douglas DC-10s and sought to serve the many people of West African origin residing in the region.

Four years later, in July 2004, the U.S. federal government prohibited Ghana Airways from flying to the U.S. According to officials, the company was operating on an expired license and had disobeyed orders to stop flying an unsafe plane.

In 2005, to accommodate Southwest's extensive presence at the airport, Concourses A and B were expanded, renovated, and integrated with one another to house all of that airline's operations there for their major operating base. The new facility, designed by URS Corporation, opened on May 22, 2005. On October 1 of that year, the airport was renamed Baltimore/Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport, to honor former U.S. Supreme Court justice Thurgood Marshall, a native of Baltimore.

In June 2006, North American Airlines introduced a link to Accra via Banjul, India, marking the restoration of direct flights between Baltimore and Africa. The carrier employed Boeing 767s on the route. Afterward, it made the Accra flight nonstop and added a route to Lagos. North American ended all scheduled service in May 2008.

In 2008, Health magazine named BWI the second-healthiest airport in the United States. In 2009 the airport had a six percent increase in air travelers due to the proliferation of discount flights. In a 2009 survey of airport service quality by Airports Council International, BWI was the world's top ranking airport in the 15-to-25-million-passenger category. BWI also ranked seventh, in medium-sized airports, based on customer satisfaction conducted by J.D. Power and Associates.

On August 5, 2014, the airport's little-used runway, 04–22, was permanently closed. It was 6,000 ft long and used primarily when the main runways needed to be closed for repairs. The last operation on the runway was a Southwest Airlines flight from Chicago Midway Airport, which arrived at 4:18 AM.

In 2015, Norwegian Air Shuttle announced it would begin flights from the airport to Guadeloupe and Martinique. In an interview with The Baltimore Sun, Norwegian Air Shuttle CEO Bjorn Kjos said, "Baltimore is high on the list for long-haul destinations", hinting at further expansion into Europe. In mid-2018, however, the airline ceased all flights out of Baltimore, attributing the cessation to heavy financial losses.

In early 2016, a partnership between the airport and Towson University's WTMD radio station was announced, including a new concert series that takes place at the terminal's baggage claim on the lower level. Local bands included Wye Oak and others. The new series followed the release event of Animal Collective's new album Painting With on November 25, 2015, where the new album was streamed throughout the airport.

In late 2018, construction began on a $60 million, five-gate expansion of terminal A for Southwest Airlines. The new expansion began operations in 2021. 2018 also marked a new annual record for passenger traffic at BWI Marshall Airport with over 27.1 million passengers.

In 2021, commuter airline Southern Airways Express ended its hub at BWI and switched its East Coast hub to Washington Dulles International Airport. In addition, the airport's international growth continued with the addition of a twice-weekly flight by Air Senegal to Blaise Diagne International Airport in Dakar, Senegal, via a stop in Kennedy International Airport in Queens, New York City. However, in January 2023, Air Senegal ceased the New York City to Baltimore portion of this route, dropping Baltimore back down to only two year-round transatlantic flights. In 2022, Play Airlines began daily nonstop flights from Baltimore to Reykjavík, Iceland, which was quickly followed a few weeks later by Icelandair also resuming flights from BWI to Reykjavík.

On January 26, 2023, Copa Airlines announced they would start operating direct flights to Panama City, making it the first Central America-based airline to operate out of the airport. The flights began as scheduled in late June 2023.

Runways
BWI Airport covers 3,160 acre of land and has three active runways:

 * 10/28: 10,503 x. Runway 28 is the main takeoff runway, unless wind conditions require takeoffs from Runway 15R. Runway 10 is equipped with ILS category IIIB, and runway 28 is equipped with ILS category I.
 * 15R/33L: 9501 x: Runway 33L is the main landing runway, unless wind or fog conditions require landings on Runway 10 with its higher ILS rating. Thomas A. Dixon Aircraft Observation Area at Friendship Park overlooks Runway 33L. Equipped with ILS category I in both directions.
 * 15L/33R: 5000 x. Main runway for general aviation and smaller commercial aircraft. Originally 3200 feet, it was extended in the 1990s and is able to handle emergency landings by Boeing 737 aircraft, by far the most popular plane at the airport. Equipped with ILS category I in both directions.
 * Runway 4/22 (defunct): 6000 x. Closed in 2014, this runway is now part of taxiways and aprons.

Terminal
Baltimore/Washington International Airport has five concourses with 78 gates. Of these, 14 are international (all 11 gates in Concourse E are international gates, four of E's gates are arrival-only, and three gates in Concourse D are also international gates).

 * Concourse A/B has 30 gates. Both are of exclusive use for Southwest.
 * Concourse C has 14 gates. Used by Southwest, American and Contour.
 * Concourse D has 23 gates. Used by all non-Southwest and American domestic flights, and Air Canada.
 * Concourse E has 11 gates. Used for all international flights; international flights from Southwest and Spirit arrive here.

Cargo concourse
The airport's cargo concourse covers a 395000 sqft area. Its facilities include a 60000 sqft cargo building in the Midfield Cargo Complex, including a 200,000 square feet warehouse used for Amazon Air, a foreign trade zone, a 17 acre air cargo ramp, and ramp parking for 17 aircraft with direct nose-in access for eight freighters.

Ground transportation
BWI was ranked one of the "Top 10 Easiest U.S. Airports to Get to" by Aviation.com in 2007.

BWI is located at the southeast terminus of Interstate 195, a spur route providing connections to the Baltimore–Washington Parkway and Interstate 95. The airport has a variety of parking options, ranging from a garage within walking distance to the concourses to remote parking lots that require shuttles to access.

A light rail station, with service to downtown Baltimore and other locations via Baltimore Light RailLink, is located next to Concourse E.

Amtrak and MARC trains regularly serve the BWI Rail Station, located on airport grounds but about a mile from the terminal, with free shuttle bus service connecting the destinations. Trains on Amtrak's Northeast Corridor, Acela and MARC's Penn Line stop at the station and proceed to destinations including Union Station in Washington, D.C. and Penn Station in Baltimore.

Local buses that stop at the airport terminal include the Maryland Transportation Authority's 75 route to Patapsco station on Light RailLink and Arundel Mills Mall, as well as route 201, which connects the airport to Shady Grove station on the Washington Metro.

Passenger van service to and from the Eastern Shore and Western Maryland is available through BayRunner Shuttle with services to and from BWI to Kent Island, Easton, Cambridge, Salisbury, Ocean Pines, and Ocean City (for the Eastern Shore) and Grantsville, Frostburg, Cumberland, Hancock, Hagerstown, and Frederick (for Western Maryland). There are also numerous private car, rental car, and cab services, as well as shuttles that go to and from BWI to local hotels; Baltimore and Washington and their suburbs; and Central and Western Maryland.

Some former ground transportation services have been discontinued, including bicycle-sharing system from the Boston-based company Zagster and the Washington Metro's B30 bus, which was an express service to Greenbelt station.

Other facilities
In 1985, the BWI Business District was established as a way to formalize businesses and hotels operating adjacent to the airport. The district comprises two smaller districts located to the north (West Nursery Hotel District) and west (Stoney Run District) of the airport. Numerous traveler resources and employment centers are located within both districts, such as the BWI Rail Station and BWI Rental Car Facility in the Stoney Run District, and the BWI Business District Light Rail Station, the NSA Friendship Annex, and dozens of hotel facilities in the West Nursery District.

A U.S. Department of Homeland Security facility is located in the lower level of the main terminal, near the international arrivals area / Concourse E Baggage Claim. This facility also includes a Global Entry Enrollment Center, as well as a TSA PreCheck enrollment facility.

In the early 1990s, BWI Airport opened the Thomas A. Dixon Aircraft Observation Area at Friendship Park. The observation plaza features a playground and a terrace overlooking the southern approach to the airport's 15R-33L runway. From this vantage point, several planes can be viewed simultaneously as they prepare for landing. The southern loop of the 13.3 mile BWI Trail travels through the park, providing cyclist and pedestrian access to the park.

In addition to the Thomas A. Dixon Aircraft Observation Area, which provides spotters with views of aircraft landing on runway 33L, spotters can use one of several parking garages to view arrivals to runway 15R, with some arrivals appearing to be below the spotter.

The Maryland Aviation Administration has its headquarters on the third floor of the terminal building.

Accidents and incidents at or near BWI

 * On March 25, 1953, a USAF North American B-25 Mitchell, aircraft serial # 44–29864, crashed 3 miles SE of Glen Burnie, Maryland on approach to then Friendship Int'l Airport because of weather factors. All three occupants on board were killed. This was the first fatal accident at or near the airport since its opening in July 1950.
 * On February 22, 1974, Samuel Byck entered BWI, shot and killed an aviation police officer and stormed onto Delta Air Lines Flight 523. He killed the first officer and severely wounded the captain. He intended to hijack the plane and crash it into the White House. A gunfight ensued, and Byck was mortally wounded by a police officer from outside the aircraft. Byck killed himself before police stormed the aircraft. The attempted hijacking was later portrayed in the 2004 film, The Assassination of Richard Nixon, with Sean Penn and Naomi Watts.
 * On December 10, 1992, a Volpar Turboliner operated by Connie Kalitta Services crashed 3 mi west of BWI in Elkridge due to a shift in cargo in the aircraft during final approach. The sole occupant, the pilot, was killed.
 * On May 6, 2009, a World Airways DC-10-30 with registration N139WA operating as Flight 8535 from Leipzig, Germany for the Military Airlift Command experienced a hard landing at BWI. As a result of the captain's response to the hard landing, the plane's nose wheel struck the runway hard two times. The aircraft blew one of its front tires and had to execute a go-around before landing successfully. Several passengers were injured, including the first officer, who suffered back trauma. The age of the aircraft (29 years 11 months at the time of the accident) and the extent of damage to the front landing gear and fuselage resulted in the aircraft being written off. The aircraft was parted out and is now used on-site for fire/rescue training and practice purposes.

In popular culture
BWI has been a backdrop in six films, Goldfinger (1964), Broadcast News (1987), The Silence of the Lambs (1991), Company Business (1991), Home for the Holidays (1995), and Twelve Monkeys (1995).

It was also featured in the reality TV series Airline (2004–2005), an episode of the TV series House of Cards, and the TV documentaries Honor Flight (2007) and Eatin' Crabs Chesapeake Style (2009).


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Hans Holbein the Elder

Hans Holbein the Elder (, ;   Hans Holbein der Ältere; c. 1460 – 1524) was a German painter.

Life
Holbein was born in the free imperial city of Augsburg (Germany), and died in Issenheim, Alsace (now France). He belonged to a celebrated family of painters; his father was Michael Holbein; his brother was Sigmund Holbein (died 1540). He had two sons, both artists and printmakers: Ambrosius Holbein (c. 1494 – c. 1519) and Hans Holbein the Younger (c. 1497 – 1543), who both had their first painting lessons from their father.

The date of Holbein's birth is unknown. His name appears in the Augsburg tax books in 1494, superseding that of his father. As early as 1493, Holbein had a following, and he worked that year at the abbey at Weingarten, creating the wings of an altarpiece representing Joachim's Offering, the Nativity of the Virgin Mary's Presentation in the Temple, and the Presentation of Christ. Today they hang in separate panels in the cathedral of Augsburg.

Holbein painted richly colored religious works. His later paintings show how he pioneered and led the transformation of German art from the (Late) International Gothic to the Renaissance style. In addition to the altar paintings that are his principal works, he also designed church windows and woodcuts. The surviving prints that can be attributed to him are few and a new one has recently been added to the group, an Annunciation to the Virgin in the collection of the Universitätbibliothek in Erlangen. He also made a number of portrait drawings that foreshadow the work of his famous son, Hans Holbein the Younger.

Holbein first appears at Augsburg, partnered with his brother Sigismund (who died in 1540 at Bern, Switzerland). Augsburg, at the time of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, cultivated art with a Flemish style, and felt the influence of the schools of Bruges and Brussels, even though it was near Italy, with close commercial connections to Venice. Sigismund was also a painter, but Hans had the lead of the partnership and signed all the works they produced.

In 1514 his sons left Augsburg and eventually both settled in Basel. After 1516 Holbein was declared a tax defaulter in Augsburg, which forced him to accept commissions abroad. He had worked in Alsace in 1509, and he seemed to have maintained some contacts there. At Issenheim in Alsace, where Matthias Grünewald was employed at the time, Holbein found patrons and was contracted to complete an altarpiece. His brother Sigismund and others sued him in Augsburg for unpaid debts. Pursued by Augsburg authorities, he fled Issenheim, abandoning his work and equipment, and went to Basel. He died two years later at an unknown location. After 1524 his name no longer appeared on the register of the Augsburg guild.

Holbein the Elder portrayed himself and his two sons in the left-hand panel of the 1504 altar-piece triptych the Basilica of St. Paul.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Hans Holbein the Elder


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Ambrosius Holbein

Ambrosius Holbein (c. 1494 – c. 1519) was a German and later a Swiss artist in painting, drawing, and printmaking. He was the elder brother, by about three years, of Hans Holbein the Younger, but he appears to have died in his mid-twenties, leaving behind only a small body of work.

Biography
Like his younger brother, he was born in Augsburg (which today is in Bavaria, but then was a free imperial city), a center of art, culture, and trade at that time. His father Hans Holbein the Elder was a pioneer and leader in the transformation of German art from the Gothic to the Renaissance style. In his studio, both his sons, Ambrosius and Hans, received their first painting lessons as well as an introduction to the crafts of the goldsmith, jeweller, and printmaker.

The young Holbein, alongside his brother and his father, is pictured in the left-hand panel of Holbein the Elder's 1504 altarpiece triptych the Basilica of St. Paul, which is displayed at the Staatsgalerie in Augsberg.

In 1515, Ambrosius is assumed to have lived in the Swiss town of Stein am Rhein, where he helped a painter from Schaffhausen named Thomas Schmid with the murals in the main hall of the St. George monastery. The next year saw Ambrosius, as well as his brother Hans, in Basel, where he initially worked as a journeyman in Hans Herbster's studio. In 1517 he registered as a member of the Basel painters' guild, and on 6 June 1518 he was naturalized as a citizen of Basel. The goldsmith Jörg Schweiger, whom Holbein had portrayed before, was his guarantor. However, he disappears from records soon after and is assumed to have died around 1519. Franny Moyle writes, "There is no record of Ambrosius's death, but the abrupt cessation of his work in a year [1519] where so many were falling prey to sickness suggests that he either caught the disease that began with a headache, or the plague that came in its wake, and died. Another alternative is that his financial worries had pressed him into mercenary service ... though with the Italian Wars in momentary pause, this seems unlikely."

The Portrait of a Boy with Blond Hair and its companion, the Portrait of a Boy with Brown Hair, are among Ambrosius’ best works of this period. Both are now in the Basel Kunstmuseum.

Ambrosius Holbein ranks among the most important of Basel's illustrators and prominent "small format" artists.

Works
Also, Krannert Art Museum in Illinois has a painting labelled "Portrait of girl" by Ambrosius Holbein. The painting used to be a part of Austrian Imperial connection, and given the outfit of the young woman is an example of very early 16th century Spanish fashion, closely resembling tomb of Queen Juana I of Castille, it might be an unidentified portrait of her.
 * Virgin and Child (1514; Kunstmuseum, Basel)
 * Portrait of a Boy with Blond Hair (1516; Kunstmuseum, Basel)
 * Portrait of a Boy with Brown Hair (1517; Basel, Kunstmuseum, Basel)
 * Portrait of Jörg Schweiger (1518; Kunstmuseum, Basel)
 * Portrait of a Young Man (1515; Hessisches Landesmuseum, Darmstadt)
 * Nativity (1514; Fürstlich Fürstenbergische Gemäldegalerie, Donaueschingen)
 * Nativity (Klerikalseminar Georgianum, Munich)
 * Repose of Mary (Klerikalseminar Georgianum, Munich)
 * Frontispiece to the third edition of Thomas More's Utopia, 1518
 * Portrait of Johannes Xylotectus (Zimmermann) (1520; Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg)
 * Portrait of a Young Man (1518; Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg)
 * Portrait of a Young Man (often attributed to Hans Holbein the Younger) (1518; National Gallery of Art, Washington)
 * Repose of Mary (Gemäldegalerie der Akademie der bildenden Künste, Vienna)

title: Ambrosius Holbein


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Lagomorpha

The lagomorphs are the members of the taxonomic order Lagomorpha, of which there are two living families: the Leporidae (rabbits and hares) and the Ochotonidae (pikas). There are 110 recent species of lagomorph of which 109 are extant, including 10 genera of rabbits (42 species), 1 genus of hare (33 species) and 1 genus of pika (34 species). The name of the order is derived from the Ancient Greek lagos (λαγώς, "hare") + morphē (μορφή, "form").

Taxonomy and evolutionary history
Other names used for this order, now considered synonymous, include: Duplicidentata (Illiger, 1811); Leporida (Averianov, 1999); Neolagomorpha (Averianov, 1999); Ochotonida (Averianov, 1999); and Palarodentia (Haeckel, 1895; Lilian, 2016).

The evolutionary history of the lagomorphs is still not well understood. In the late 20th century, it was generally agreed that Eurymylus, which lived in eastern Asia and dates back to the late Paleocene or early Eocene, was an ancestor of the lagomorphs. Examination of the fossil evidence in the 21st century suggested that the lagomorphs may have instead descended from mimotonids, mammals present in Asia during the Paleogene with similar body size and dental structure to early European rabbits such as Megalagus turgidus, while Eurymylus was more closely related to rodents (although not a direct ancestor). The leporids first appeared in the late Eocene and rapidly spread throughout the Northern Hemisphere; they show a trend towards increasingly long hind limbs as the modern leaping gait developed. The pikas appeared somewhat later in the Oligocene of eastern Asia.

Lagomorphs were certainly more diverse in the past than in the present, with around 75 genera and over 230 species represented in the fossil record and many more species in a single biome. This is evidence that lagomorph lineages are declining.

A 2008 study suggests an Indian origin for the order, having possibly evolved in isolation when India was an island continent in the Paleocene.

Characteristics
Lagomorphs are similar to other mammals in that they all have hair, four limbs (i.e., they are tetrapods), and mammary glands and are endotherms. Lagomorphs possess a moderately fused postorbital process to the cranium, unlike other small mammals. They differ in that they have a mixture of "basal" and "derived" physical traits.

Differences between lagomorphs and other mammals
Lagomorphs and rodents form the clade or grandorder Glires. Despite the evolutionary relationship between lagomorphs and rodents, the two orders have some major differences.

Lagomorphs have four incisors in the upper jaw (smaller peg teeth behind larger incisors), whereas rodents only have two. They are similar to rodents in that their incisors grow continuously, thus necessitating constant chewing on fibrous food to prevent the teeth from growing too long. In addition, all lagomorph teeth grow continuously, while for most rodents, only the incisors grow continuously. Lagomorph and rodent incisors are structured differently. Lagomorphs have more cheek teeth than rodents. Both have a large diastema.

Lagomorphs are almost strictly herbivorous, unlike rodents, many of which will eat both meat and vegetable matter. Lagomorphs have no paw pads; instead, the bottoms of their paws are entirely covered with fur, a trait they share with red pandas. Similar to the rodents, bats, and some mammalian insectivores, they have a smooth-surfaced cerebrum. Lagomorphs are unusual among terrestrial mammals in that the females are larger than males.

Differences between families of lagomorphs
Rabbits and hares move by jumping, pushing off with their strong hind legs and using their forelimbs to soften the impact on landing. Pikas lack certain skeletal modifications present in leporids, such as a highly arched skull, an upright posture of the head, strong hind limbs and pelvic girdle, and long limbs. Also, pikas have a short nasal region and entirely lack a supraorbital foramen, while leporids have prominent supraorbital foramina and nasal regions.

Pikas
Pikas, also known as conies, are entirely represented by the family Ochotonidae and are small mammals native to mountainous regions of western North America and Central Asia. They are mostly about 15 cm long and have greyish-brown, silky fur, small rounded ears, and almost no tail. Their four legs are nearly equal in length. Some species live in scree, making their homes in the crevices between broken rocks, while others construct burrows in upland areas. The rock-dwelling species are typically long-lived and solitary, having one or two small litters each year contributing to stable populations. The burrowing species, in contrast, are short-lived, gregarious and have multiple large litters during the year. These species tend to have large swings in population size. The gestation period of the pika is around one month long, and the newborns are altricial (eyes and ears closed, no fur). The social behaviour of the two groups also differs: the rock dwellers aggressively maintain scent-marked territories, while the burrowers live in family groups, they interact vocally with each other and defend a mutual territory. Pikas are diurnal and are active early and late in the day during hot weather. They feed on all sorts of plant material. As they do not hibernate, they make "haypiles" of dried vegetation which they collect and carry back to their homes to store for use during winter.

Hares
Hares, members of genus Lepus of family Leporidae, are medium size mammals native to Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America. North American jackrabbits are actually hares. Species vary in size from 40 to 70 cm in length and have long powerful back legs, and ears up to 20 cm in length. Although usually greyish-brown, some species turn white in the winter. They are solitary animals. Newborns are precocial (eyes and ears open, fully furred). Several litters are born during the year in a form (a nest above ground, usually under a bush). They are preyed upon by large mammalian carnivores and birds of prey.

Rabbits
Rabbits, members of the Leporidae family (excluding Lepus (hares)) are generally much smaller than hares and include the rock hares and the hispid hare. They are native to Europe, parts of Africa, Central and Southern Asia, North America and much of South America. They inhabit both grassland and arid regions. They vary in size from 20 to 50 cm and have long, powerful hind legs, shorter forelegs and a tiny tail. The colour is some shade of brown, buff or grey and there is one black species and two striped ones. Domestic rabbits come in a wider variety of colours. Newborn rabbits are altricial (eyes and ears closed, no fur). Although most species live in burrows, the cottontails and hispid hares have forms (nests above ground, usually under a bush). Most of the burrowing species are colonial, and feed together in small groups. Rabbits play an important part in the terrestrial food chain, eating a wide range of forbs, grasses, and herbs, and being part of the staple diet of many carnivorous species. Domestic rabbits can be litter box trained, and—assuming they are given sufficient room to run and a good diet—can live long lives as house pets.

Distribution
Lagomorphs are widespread around the world and inhabit every continent except Antarctica. However, they are not found in most of the southern cone of South America, in the West Indies, Indonesia or Madagascar, nor on many islands. Although they are not native to Australia, humans have introduced them there and they have successfully colonized many parts of the country and caused disruption to native species.

Digestion

Easily digestible food is processed in the gastrointestinal tract and expelled as regular feces. But in order to get nutrients out of hard to digest fiber, lagomorphs ferment fiber in the cecum (in the GI tract) and then expel the contents as cecotropes, which are reingested (cecotrophy). The cecotropes are then absorbed in the small intestine to utilize the nutrients.

Like rodents, they are not able to vomit.

Birth and early life
Many lagomorphs breed several times a year and produce large litters. This is particularly the case in species that live in underground, protective environments, such as burrows. The young of rabbits and pikas (called kits) are born after a short gestation period and the mother can become pregnant again almost immediately after giving birth. The mothers are able to leave these young safely and go off to feed, returning at intervals to feed them with their unusually rich milk. In some species, the mother only visits and feeds the litter once a day but the young grow rapidly and are usually weaned within a month.

Hare young are called leverets. Adults have a strategy to prevent predators from tracking down their litter by following the adults' scent. They approach and depart from the nesting site in a series of immense bounds, sometimes moving at right angles to their previous direction. Each litter of hares have a small number of young and are born after a longer gestation period.

Sociality and safety
Many species of lagomorphs, particularly the rabbits and the pikas, are gregarious and live in colonies, whereas hares are generally solitary species, although many hares travel and forage in groups of two, three, or four. Many rabbits and pikas rely on their burrows as places of safety when danger threatens, but hares rely on their long legs, great speed and jinking gait to escape from predators.

Recent genera

 * Order Lagomorpha Brandt 1885
 * Family Leporidae Fischer de Waldheim 1817 (rabbits and hares)
 * Subfamily Leporinae Trouessart 1880
 * Genus Brachylagus
 * Genus Bunolagus
 * Genus Caprolagus Blyth 1845
 * Genus Lepus Linnaeus 1758 (hare)
 * Genus Nesolagus Forsyth Major 1899
 * Genus Oryctolagus Lilljeborg 1874
 * Genus Pentalagus Lyon 1904
 * Genus Poelagus
 * Genus Pronolagus Lyon 1904
 * Genus Romerolagus Merriam 1896
 * Genus Sylvilagus Gray 1867
 * Family Ochotonidae Thomas 1897 (pikas)
 * Genus Ochotona Link 1795
 * Genus †Prolagus Pomel 1853 (considered by some sources to be the sole member of the family Prolagidae)

Fossil genera

 * Order Lagomorpha Brandt 1885
 * Family Leporidae Fischer de Waldheim 1817 (rabbits and hares)
 * Subfamily † Archaeolaginae
 * Genus †Archaeolagus Dice 1917
 * Genus †Hypolagus Dice 1917
 * Genus †Notolagus Wilson 1938
 * Genus †Panolax Cope 1874
 * Subfamily Leporinae Trouessart 1880
 * Genus †Alilepus Dice 1931
 * Genus †Nuralagus Lilljeborg 1874
 * Genus †Pliolagus Kormos 1934
 * Genus †Pliosiwalagus Patnaik 2001
 * Genus †Pratilepus Hibbard 1939
 * Genus †Serengetilagus Dietrich 1941
 * Subfamily †Palaeolaginae Dice 1929
 * Tribe †Dasyporcina Gray 1825
 * Genus †Coelogenys Illiger 1811
 * Genus †Agispelagus Argyropulo 1939
 * Genus †Aluralagus Downey 1968
 * Genus †Austrolagomys Stromer 1926
 * Genus †Aztlanolagus Russell & Harris 1986
 * Genus †Chadrolagus Gawne 1978
 * Genus †Gobiolagus Burke 1941
 * Genus †Lagotherium Pictet 1853
 * Genus †Lepoides White 1988
 * Genus †Nekrolagus Hibbard 1939
 * Genus †Ordolagus de Muizon 1977
 * Genus †Paranotolagus Miller & Carranza-Castaneda 1982
 * Genus †Pewelagus White 1984
 * Genus †Pliopentalagus Gureev & Konkova 1964
 * Genus †Pronotolagus White 1991
 * Genus †Tachylagus Storer 1992
 * Genus †Trischizolagus Radulesco & Samson 1967
 * Genus †Veterilepus Radulesco & Samson 1967
 * Tribe incertae sedis
 * Genus †Litolagus Dawson 1958
 * Genus †Megalagus Walker 1931
 * Genus †Mytonolagus Burke 1934
 * Genus †Palaeolagus Leidy 1856
 * Family Ochotonidae Thomas 1897 (pikas)
 * Genus †Alloptox Dawson 1961
 * Genus †Amphilagus Tobien 1974
 * Genus †Bellatona Dawson 1961
 * Genus †Cuyamalagus Hutchison & Lindsay 1974
 * Genus †Desmatolagus Matthew & Granger 1923
 * Genus †Gripholagomys Green 1972
 * Genus †Hesperolagomys Clark et al. 1964
 * Genus †Kenyalagomys MacInnes 1953
 * Genus †Lagopsis Schlosser 1894
 * Genus †Ochotonoides Teilhard de Jardin & Young 1931
 * Genus †Ochotonoma Sen 1998
 * Genus †Oklahomalagus Dalquest et al. 1996
 * Genus †Oreolagus Dice 1917
 * Genus †Piezodus Viret 1929
 * Genus †Russellagus Storer 1970
 * Genus †Sinolagomys Bohlin 1937
 * Genus †Titanomys von Meyer 1843
 * Family incertae sedis
 * Genus †Eurolagus Lopez Martinez 1977
 * Genus †Hsiuannania Xu 1976
 * Genus †Hypsimylus Zhai 1977
 * Genus †Lushilagus Li 1965
 * Genus †Shamolagus Burke 1941

title: Lagomorpha


text:
Columbia, Maryland

Columbia is a census-designated place in Howard County, Maryland, United States. It is a planned community consisting of 10 self-contained villages. The census-designated place had a population of 104,681 at the 2020 census, making it the second most populous community in Maryland after Baltimore. Columbia, located between Baltimore and Washington, D.C., is officially part of the Baltimore metropolitan area.

Columbia proper consists only of that territory governed by the Columbia Association, but larger areas are included under its name by the U.S. Postal Service and the Census Bureau. These include several other communities which predate Columbia, including Simpsonville, Atholton, and in the case of the census, part of Clarksville. Columbia began with the idea that a city could enhance its residents' quality of life. Developer James Rouse attempted to create the new community in terms of human values, rather than economics and engineering. Opened in 1967, Columbia was intended to not only eliminate the inconveniences of then-current subdivision design, but also eliminate racial, religious and class segregation.

Origins
Prior to the European colonization of what is now Maryland in the 1600s, the area that is now Columbia served as farming and hunting grounds for indigenous peoples including the Piscataway and Susquehannock peoples. Columbia was founded by James W. Rouse (1914-1996), a native of Easton, Maryland. In 1935, Rouse obtained a job in Baltimore with the Federal Housing Administration, a New Deal agency whose purpose was to promote home ownership and home construction. This position exposed Rouse to all phases of the housing industry. Later in the 1930s he co-founded a Baltimore mortgage banking business, the Moss-Rouse Company. In the 1950s his company, by then known as James W. Rouse and Company, branched out into developing shopping centers and malls. In 1957, Rouse formed Community Research and Development, Inc. (CRD) for the purpose of building, owning and operating shopping centers throughout the country. Community Research and Development, Inc., which was managed by James W. Rouse and Company, became a publicly traded company in 1961. In 1966, Community Research and Development, Inc. changed its name to The Rouse Company, after it had acquired James W. Rouse and Company in exchange for company stock.

By the early 1950s Rouse was also active in organizations whose goals were to combat blight and promote urban renewal. Along the way, he came to recognize the importance of comprehensive planning and action to address housing issues. A talented public speaker, Rouse's speeches on housing matters attracted media attention. By the mid-1950s he was espousing his belief that in order to be successful, cities had to be places where people succeeded. In a 1959 speech he declared that the purpose of cities is for people, and that the objective of city planning should be to make a city into neighborhoods where men, women, and their families can live and work, and, most importantly, grow in character, personality, religious fulfillment, brotherhood, and the capacity for joyous living.

In the early 1960s, Rouse decided to develop a new model city. Rouse's ideas about what a new model city should be like were informed by a number of factors, including his personal Christian faith as well as the goal for his company to earn a profit, influences that he did not consider to be incompatible with one another. After exploring possible new city locations near Atlanta, Georgia, and Raleigh-Durham, North Carolina, Rouse focused his attention between Baltimore and Washington, D.C., in Howard County, Maryland.

Howard County land acquisition
In April 1962, Mel Berman, a longtime Howard County resident who was also a member of the CRD's Board of Directors, saw a sign on Cedar Lane in Howard County advertising 1309 acre for sale. Berman reported the option to the CRD and a decision was made to purchase the land. This was the first of 165 land purchases made by Rouse over the next year-and-a-half. In order to keep land costs low, Jack Jones, an attorney from Rouse's firm of Piper Marbury, set up a grid system to secretly buy land through dummy corporations like the "Alaska Iron Mines Company". Some of these straw purchasers included Columbia Industrial Development Corporation, 95-32 Corporation, 95-216 Corporation, Premble, Inc., Columbia Mall, Inc., Oakland Ridge Industrial Development Corporation, and Columbia Development Corporation. Robert Moxley's firm Security Realty Company (now Security Development Group Inc), negotiated many of the land deals for Jones, becoming his best client. CRD accumulated 14178 acre, 10 percent of Howard County, from 140 separate owners. Rouse was turned down in financing from David Rockefeller, who had recently cancelled a planned Rouse "Village" concept called Pocantico Hills. The $19,122,622 acquisition was then funded by Rouse's former employer Connecticut General Life Insurance in October 1962 at an average price of $1,500 per acre ($0.37/m2). The town center land of Oakland Manor was purchased from Isadore Guldesky who was turned down from building high-rises on the site by Rob Moxley's brother, County Commissioner and land developer Norman E. Moxley. Sensing that he had a key property, he requested $5 million for his 1000 acre, signing an agreement by hand on a land plat. The competition between Rouse and Guldesky carried over to the competing Tysons Corner Center and Tysons Galleria projects, with each hiring their competitor's employees.

By late 1962, citizens had elected an all-Republican three-member council. J. Hubert Black, Charles E. Miller, and David W. Force who campaigned on a low-density growth ballot, but later approved the Columbia project. The Howard County Planning Commission Chairman Wilmer Sanner declared, "if this adds to the orderly development of the county, that's what we are looking for." That July, Sanner sold the majority of his 73 acre Simpsonville farm to Howard Research prior to the public announcement. In October 1963, the acquisition was revealed to the residents of Howard County, putting to rest rumors about the mysterious purchases. These had included theories that the site was to become a medical research laboratory or a giant compost heap. Despite the moniker of being a "planned city", the planning for the city occupied Rouse officials for most of 1964 after the announcement while marketing director Scott Ditch was brought from Baltimore's Cross Keys development to promote the project to community groups. In December 1964 the zoning was rejected by planning director Tom Harris Jr. for handing nearly all planning control to the developer. A media push was instituted to approve the zoning by Dorris Thompson of The Howard County Times, Seymour Barondes of the Howard County Civic Association, and Anita Iribe of the League of Women Voters. In June 1965 zoning was approved for the project, and Howard Research and Development entered into a $37.5 million construction deed backed by the property. Development was temporarily stalled in October 1965 when James and Anna Hepding of Simpsonville sued the planning board, stating New Town zoning was a form of spot zoning benefiting a sole property owner. The case was dropped when developer Homer Gudelsky purchased the estate. Ten years later, former Councilman Charles E. Miller stated that if he could do it over again, he wouldn't have voted to approve Columbia. He felt exploited and felt the subsidized housing would become a problem for the rest of the county. Miller had been defeated in the November 1974 Howard County Council elections, in part as a result of the changed political landscape that Columbia's development brought. In early 1976, a Columbia Flier editorial charged that Miller was a fear-mongering reactionary who had a personal vendetta against Columbia, Rouse and Columbia residents.

Unveiling and growth
At the unveiling on June 21, 1967, James Rouse described Columbia as a planned new city which would avoid the leap-frog and spot-zoning development threatening the county. The new city would be complete with jobs, schools, shopping, and medical services, and a range of housing choices. Property taxes from commercial development would cover the additional services with which housing would burden the county. The urban planning process for Columbia included not only planners, but also a convened panel of nationally recognized experts in the social sciences, known as the Work Group. The fourteen member group of men and one woman, Antonia Handler Chayes, met for two days, twice a month, for half a year starting in 1963. The Work Group suggested innovations for planners in education, recreation, religion, and health care, as well as ways of improving social interactions. Columbia's open classrooms, interfaith centers, and the then-novel idea of a health maintenance organization (HMO) with a group practice of medical doctors (the Columbia Medical Plan) sprung from these meetings. The community's physical plan, with neighborhood and village centers, was also decided. Columbia's "New Town District" zoning ordinance gave developers great flexibility about what to put where, without requiring county approval for each specific project.

In 1968, vice-presidential candidate Spiro Agnew referenced Columbia to reporters, saying, "Government should act as a catalyst to encourage the local governments to encourage industry and business to move next to a planned community," and "I want to lessen the density in the ghettos, and concurrently rebuild the ghetto areas." In 1969, County Executive Omar J. Jones felt that the increase in tax base was lagging behind the need for infrastructure as the operating budget doubled to $15 million in three years. Crime rates shot up around the county by 30–50% a year, with hot spots around the development. By 1970, the project required additional financing to continue, borrowing $30 million from Connecticut General, Manufacturers Hanover Trust, and Morgan Guaranty. In 1972, amendments to New Town zoning proposing to place a maximum height for buildings and maintain the original density limit of 2.2 units per acre were opposed by Rouse allies including the Columbia Association, the Ellicott City Businessman's Association and the Columbia Democratic Club. By 1974, the amount owed reached $100,000 million, prompting partner Connecticut General to consider bankruptcy. An effort to create a special taxing district in 1978 and an effort to incorporate with a mayor in 1979 failed. In 1985 Cigna (Connecticut General) divested itself of the project for $120 million. By 1990 Howard Research and Development owed $125,162,689. In 2004 the project was sold to General Growth Properties, which went bankrupt in 2008. General Growth Properties submitted a plan for increasing density throughout Columbia in 2004 which was unanimously voted down. Ownership of the project fell to the previous Rouse subsidiary the Howard Hughes Corporation. Howard Hughes submitted a new plan to increase density in 2010 under the Ulman administration that passed unanimously.

Columbia has never incorporated; some governance, however, is provided by the non-profit Columbia Association, which manages common areas and functions as a homeowner association with regard to private property. The first boards were filled entirely with Rouse Company appointees. The first manager of the Columbia Association was John Estabrook Slayton (d. 1967). For Slayton's contributions to the early planning of Columbia, the community center in the Wilde Lake village, Slayton House, was named for him. Wilde Lake was the first village area to be developed in Columbia; accordingly, the town's first high school was Wilde Lake High School, which opened in 1971 as a "model school for the nation". Constructed in the open classroom style, it was razed in 1994 and reconstructed on the same site, reopening in 1996.

Master plan
To achieve the goals set forth by the Work Group, Columbia's Master Plan called for a series of ten self-contained villages, around which day-to-day life would revolve. The centerpiece of Columbia would be The Mall in Columbia and man-made Lake Kittamaqundi.

Villages and neighborhoods
The village concept aimed to provide Columbia a small-town feel (like Easton, Maryland, where James Rouse grew up). Each village comprises several neighborhoods. The village center may contain middle and high schools. All villages have a shopping center, recreational facilities, a community center, a system of bike/walking paths, and homes. Four of the villages have interfaith centers, common worship facilities which are owned and jointly operated by a variety of religious congregations working together.

Most of Columbia's neighborhoods contain single-family homes, townhomes, condominiums and apartments, though some are more exclusive than others. The original plan, following the neighborhood concept of Clarence Perry, would have had all the children of a neighborhood attend the same school, melding neighborhoods into a community and ensuring that all of Columbia's children get the same high-quality education. Rouse marketed the city as being "color blind" as a proponent of Senator Clark's fair housing legislation. If a neighborhood was filled with too many purchasers of a single race, houses would be blocked until the desired ratio was met.
 * Village – Neighborhoods (in order of residential opening)
 * Wilde Lake – (Est. 1967) Bryant Woods, Faulkner Ridge, Running Brook
 * Harper's Choice – (Est. 1968) Longfellow, Swansfield, Hobbit's Glen
 * Oakland Mills – (Est. 1969) Thunder Hill, Talbott Springs, Stevens Forest
 * Long Reach – (Est. 1971) Phelps Luck, Jeffers Hill, Locust Park, Kendall Ridge
 * Owen Brown – (Est. 1972) Dasher Green, Elkhorn, Hopewell
 * Town Center – (Est. 1974) Vantage Point, Banneker, Amesbury, Creighton's Run, and Warfield Triangle
 * Hickory Ridge – (Est. 1974) Clemens Crossing, Hawthorn, Clary's Forest
 * Kings Contrivance – (Est. 1977) Macgill's Common, Huntington, Dickinson
 * Dorsey's Search – (Est. 1980) Dorsey Hall, Fairway Hills
 * River Hill – (Est. 1990) Pheasant Ridge, Pointers Run

Columbia takes its street names from famous works of art and literature: for example, the neighborhood of Hobbit's Glen takes its street names from the work of J. R. R. Tolkien; Running Brook, from the poetry of Robert Frost; and Clemens Crossing, from the work of Mark Twain. The book Oh, You Must Live in Columbia! chronicles the artistic, poetic, and historical origins of the street and place names in Columbia.

Further expansion
"The Downtown Columbia Plan" is a 2010 amendment to the county's General Plan of expansion. It is a framework for the revitalization of Downtown Columbia over the next thirty years. Development plans for downtown projects in the years ahead will include details for that project such as neighborhood design guidelines, environmental restoration, public amenities and infrastructure. These development plans must adhere to the framework of the Downtown Columbia Plan as required by the zoning legislation. Over the life of the Downtown Columbia development project, as much as 13 million square feet of retail, commercial, residential, hotel and cultural development is planned.

To be accomplished in three phases, the plan calls for the formation of the non-profit Columbia Downtown Housing Corporation to build an additional 5,500 units of low income housing placed downtown in exchange for increased zoning density for other projects. Additional development includes 4.3 million square feet of commercial office space, 1.25 million square feet of retail space, 640 hotel rooms, Merriweather Post Pavilion redevelopment and a multi-modal transportation system.

Columbia's master developer, the Howard Hughes Corporation, is heading up the expansion project. The project is projected to cost $90 million and will outline development in the community for the next 40 years.

Geography
Because Columbia is unincorporated, there is confusion over its exact boundaries. In the strictest definition, Columbia comprises only the land governed under covenants by the Columbia Association. This is a considerably smaller area than the census-designated place (CDP) as defined by the United States Census Bureau. The CDP has a total area of 83.4 km2, of which 82.7 km2 are land and 0.7 km2, or 0.80%, are water. The CDP includes a number of older communities which do not lie within the CA's purview, including the Holiday Hills, Diamondback, and Allview subdivisions and the former town of Simpsonville, as well as some land on the east side of Clarksville. These areas are not part of the "new town", and are not directly served by its amenities. Some of these areas are included in Columbia ZIP codes by the post office, and some are not.

Columbia is located in central Maryland, 20 mi southwest of Baltimore, 25 mi northeast of Washington, D.C., and 30 mi northwest of Annapolis. The community lies in the Piedmont region of Maryland, with its eastern edge at the fall line. The climate tends to hot, humid summers and cool to cold and wet winters. There are occasional large amounts of snowfall that happen every year.

The primary landforms in Columbia are rolling hills and stream valleys; Columbia's road network is laid out to follow the terrain, with many winding streets and cul-de-sacs. Elevations range from about 200 to 500 ft above sea level. Most of Columbia is drained by the Middle Patuxent and Little Patuxent rivers. There are three artificial lakes, created by damming of tributary streams during community construction. In 1965, the Rouse Company leased 7000 acre of farmland staged for development, and earmarked 4000 acre of oak forest for timber harvesting. The company developed a sapling planter to replant sections of cleared land that would use Columbia's W.R. Grace-developed fertilizers. An outer ring of greenspace was abandoned early in the project because the combination with the already required river buffers would have reduced profitable land available for building. Along with Symphony Woods, many other stands of mature trees have been temporarily maintained in Columbia, including the large Middle Patuxent Environmental Area in the western part of the community between Harper's Choice and River Hill villages, protecting much of the river valley from development.

Climate
Columbia has a humid subtropical climate, with cool winters and hot, muggy summers.

2010 census
The 2009-2013 census estimates report the median income for a household in the CDP was $99,877. The per capita income for the CDP was $46,374. About 4.1% of families and 6.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.8% of those under age 18 and 6.4% of those age 65 or over.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 88,254 people, 34,199 households, and 23,118 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 3,202.0 PD/sqmi. There were 35,281 housing units at an average density of 1,280.0 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 66.52% White, 21.47% Black or African American, 0.26% Native American, 7.30% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 1.63% from other races, and 2.76% from two or more races. 4.12% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 14% of Columbia's residents were German, 11% Irish, 10% English, 5% Italian, 4% Polish, 2% Russian, 2% Scottish, 2% Indian, 2% Chinese, 2% Korean, 2% Sub-Saharan African, 2% French, and 2% West Indian.

There were 34,199 households, out of which 35.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.4% were married couples living together, 11.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.4% were non-families. 25.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.54 and the average family size was 3.09.

In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 26.3% under the age of 18, 6.7% from 18 to 24, 34.1% from 25 to 44, 25.5% from 45 to 64, and 7.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.7 males.

Economy
James Rouse conceived of a city, not a suburban bedroom community, and a large area on the eastern edge was allocated for industrial purposes. The centerpiece of this aspect of the development was a General Electric appliance plant on a 1125 acre site previously operated as a cattle farm. After an injunction attempt was blocked in 1969, the plant began operations in 1972, peaking at 2,300 of the predicted 12,000 jobs. It was closed in 1990, with all but 21 acre of the property being sold back to Howard Research and Development. One section of the property was subsequently redeveloped for big box retail; the remainder became the large Gateway Commerce office complex, still being expanded. In 1968, Bendix Field Engineering moved to a new 143000 sqft facility on the historic Woodlawn Plantation where it was used for engineering activity. Howard County purchased the vacant facility creating the Maryland Center for Entrepreneurship in 2011, which relocated to the vacant Patuxent Publishing building in 2014. There is still a smaller industrial area to the south of this, but by and large East Columbia is dominated by commercial real estate—office, retail, and wholesale—in contrast to the original plan, which saw the Town Center area as the commercial center of Columbia.

The U.S. federal government is the source of many jobs for Columbians. Several large U.S. Department of Defense installations and R&D facilities surround Columbia, the largest being the National Security Agency at Fort George G. Meade, and the Applied Physics Laboratory south of Columbia, both pre-dating the establishment of Columbia. Companies which have had research facilities in the area include W.R. Grace and Company. Further afield, many Columbians commute to government and government contractor jobs in the Baltimore and Washington, D.C. area.

Companies based in Columbia include W.R. Grace and Company, Sourcefire, PetMeds, MICROS Systems, Martek Biosciences, Integral Systems, GP Strategies Corporation, Corporate Office Properties Trust, and the consumer research company Nielsen Audio (formerly Arbitron). When MaggieMoo's was an independent company, its headquarters was in Columbia.

Shopping
The Mall in Columbia, located in Town Center, is a large regional shopping mall with three anchor department stores, a multiplex movie theater, and more than 200 stores and restaurants.

There are several other major competing shopping centers in East Columbia, including Dobbin Center strip mall opened in 1983, Snowden Square big box retail on the remainder of the GE industrial site, Columbia Crossing I and II big box retail started in 1997, and Gateway Overlook.

Columbia's nine "village centers" provide residents with nearby shopping as well, often including supermarkets, filling stations, liquor stores, dry cleaners, restaurants, and hair salons. The village centers are laid out so that individual stores are not visible from the road, unlike traditional strip malls. The arrangement is criticized because it makes it difficult for newcomers and non-residents to know what shopping is available; it is praised for eliminating much of the garishness of roadside America.

The village centers have evolved over time. Oakland Mills Village Center in Oakland Mills had a traditional layout—stores located off a central corridor—until its demolition in the late 1990s. The Rouse Company abandoned the village center concept in 2002, selling off the assets to Kimco Realty for $120 million. The Kings Contrivance Village Center in Kings Contrivance underwent major construction in 2007 and 2008 when a new supermarket was added to the center, but maintained the original character of stores around a central corridor and plaza. Owen Brown village center is now managed by GFS Realty, and the Long Reach Village center was declared blighted and purchased by Howard County for resale in 2014.

Entertainment and performing arts
In the absence of nightclubs, Columbia relies on local bars to bring in bands. Sonoma's (in Owen Brown) and Nottingham's Tavern and The Green Turtle (near Dobbin Center) regularly bring in groups to perform.

Merriweather Post Pavilion, a well-known outdoor concert venue, attracts many prominent performers. In addition, there are several performing arts organizations that present professional theater, including Toby's Dinner Theatre, Columbia Center for Theatrical Arts and the Young Columbians which have produced the area premieres of several musicals.

Columbia also offers chamber music concerts, children's programs, community outreach programs, master classes, and pre-concert lectures and discussions through the Candlelight Concert Society, a non-profit organization formed by Columbia residents to provide chamber music concerts since 1972.

Howard County Library System
Howard County Library System (HCLS) is consistently top rated among the nation's public library systems according to Hennen's American Public Library Ratings (HAPLR). Two of the six branches of the Howard County Library System are in Columbia, including the Central Branch in Town Center and the East Columbia Branch in Owen Brown.

Historic sites
Two historic buildings in Columbia, Dorsey Hall and Woodlawn, were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973. Both were once homes of prominent Howard County citizens. Most historic buildings, mills and plantations within Columbia that qualified for the register, such as Oakland Manor, were not submitted by Rouse company affiliates.

Religion
Rouse believed that individual churches were a waste of developable land. Dr. Stanley Hallet advised the 1964 work group to economically abandon "The extravagance of church life" in favor of ecumenical establishments that focused resources on retreat centers and non-profit religious corporations. The Rouse Company discouraged individual congregations from purchasing land from the company. In 1966 the Columbia Religious Facilities Corporation was founded to lease interfaith centers to congregations. On June 22, 1969, $2.5 million in church donations applied to the CFRC to purchase Columbia land and build an interfaith facility in the village of Wilde Lake. The organization formed the Interfaith Housing Corporation (now the Columbia Housing Corporation) to purchase 300 units of low and moderate income housing in the development with Federal Housing Authority funding.

Parks and recreation
Columbia has numerous recreation centers. The homeowners association, the Columbia Association, known to many in Howard County as "CA", builds, operates and maintains most of these facilities. CA operates a variety of recreational facilities, including 23 outdoor swimming pools, five indoor pools, two water slides, ice and roller skating rinks, an equestrian center, a sports park with miniature golf, a skateboard park, batting cages, picnic pavilions, clubhouse and playground, three athletic clubs, numerous indoor and outdoor tennis, basketball, volleyball, squash, pickleball, and racquetball courts, and running tracks.

There are three lakes (Lake Kittamaqundi, Lake Elkhorn, and Wilde Lake) surrounded by parkland for sailing, fishing, and boating; 80 mi of paths for jogging, strolling and biking; and 148 tot lots and play areas.

Nine village centers, 15 neighborhood centers, and four senior centers provide space for a large variety of community activities. There are a variety of fairs and celebrations throughout the year, including entertainment on the lakefront of Lake Kittamaqundi during the summer and the Columbia Festival of the Arts.

Columbia also has garden plots for rent, under the guidance of the Columbia Gardeners, which has been in existence since the 1970s. There are about 350 garden plots at three sites in Columbia, with each garden rented for a nominal fee (at one time $30 per year).

Chiara D'Amore's Community Ecology Institute's Freetown Farm, founded in 2016, uses hands-on gardening to educate people and cultivates communities where people thrive together. Freetown farm was built on the site of Columbia's last working farm. The name Freetown farm refers to the area's historical name and its ties to the Underground Railroad. It features a NAACP garden and donates much of the food that is raise to local food banks.

In 2017, Columbia FC, a soccer club based in Columbia was founded. Consisting of former Howard County students and transfer players, the sports club made their debut in Maryland's Major Soccer League Division I on September 8, 2019.

Education
Columbia's public schools are operated by the Howard County Public School System. As of the 2007–2008 school year, the following high schools served some part of Columbia:
 * Atholton
 * Centennial
 * Hammond
 * Howard
 * Long Reach
 * Oakland Mills
 * River Hill
 * Wilde Lake

Most of these schools also serve students from outside Columbia, as is also the case with some middle and elementary schools.

Colleges and universities
There are no conventional four-year colleges or universities in Columbia, but several other college-level programs have facilities there. Howard Community College is located near the town center, while the University of Phoenix, American Career Institute, Lincoln College of Technology, Loyola University Maryland, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Maryland University of Integrative Health, and Johns Hopkins University have facilities on the east side of town at Columbia Gateway Business Park.

In 1966, Howard Community College (HCC) was founded by the Board of Education in Howard County and formally authorized by the Howard County Commissioners Charles E. Miller, J. Hubert Black, and David W. Force. In addition to its original campus in Columbia, it now has satellite campuses in Mount Airy, Laurel, and East Columbia, in the Columbia Gateway Business Park.

Public transit
Columbia's initial plan called for a minibus system connecting the village centers on a distinct right-of-way that allowed denser development along the route. The routes were not constructed, though minibuses were operated by the Columbia Association under the name "ColumBus". These were eventually taken over by Howard County. Six Howard Transit bus routes served Columbia and connected it with its neighboring areas (such as Ellicott City and BWI Airport) until they were replaced by Regional Transportation Agency of Central Maryland (RTA) in 2014. Several Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) routes provide access to and from both Washington and Baltimore; MTA weekday commuter bus service connects Columbia to the Washington Metro system. There are no rail stations within Columbia, although the Dorsey MARC Train station is served by RTA buses.

RTA provides local bus service as well as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority and Maryland Transit Administration. RTA Bus Routes include: 401, 402, 403, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 501, and 503.

OurBus offers intercity bus service from Columbia to New Brunswick, New Jersey and New York City.

Roads
Columbia has a number of roadways that serve the community (see below). All of these highways allow Columbia access to nearby Baltimore, Washington, D.C. and Annapolis.
 * U.S. Route 29 Columbia Pike, runs north–south connecting Columbia to Ellicott City and Washington, D.C.
 * Interstate 95, runs north–south connecting Columbia to Baltimore and Washington, D.C.
 * MD 32 Patuxent Freeway, runs east–west connecting Columbia to Sykesville and Annapolis.
 * MD 100 Paul T. Pitcher Memorial Highway, runs east from U.S. Route 29 connecting Columbia to Glen Burnie.
 * MD 175 Rouse Parkway, a central artery that runs east–west from the Town Center to Jessup.
 * MD 108 Clarksville Pike-Waterloo Road, forms the northern boundary of the community by running east–west from Clarksville to Ellicott City.

Healthcare
Medical care is available at Howard County General Hospital, affiliated with Baltimore's Johns Hopkins Hospital. The Columbia Medical Plan was founded in 1967 as a health maintenance organization (HMO) available to citizens of Columbia. In more recent years, however, this plan has divided into separate medical groups that simply share the Twin Knolls buildings. Today, there is a Kaiser Permanente facility located in the Columbia Gateway industrial park. There are also a number of clinics, such as the Righttime Medical Care center and Patient First.

Notable people

 * Stephen Amidon, author, whose 2000 novel, The New City, is set in a fictionalized Columbia in the 1970s
 * Bob Beaumont (1932–2011), founder of Citicar, an electric automobile manufacturer from 1974 to 1977
 * Jayson Blair, disgraced former New York Times reporter
 * Zach Brown, linebacker for the NFL's Washington Redskins
 * Michael Chabon, Pulitzer Prize–winning author
 * Dan Charnas, journalist and author of "The Big Payback: The History of the Business of Hip-Hop"
 * Frank Cho, creator of Liberty Meadows comic strip
 * George Colligan, New York–based jazz pianist
 * Cristeta Comerford, White House executive chef
 * Jack Douglass, internet personality on YouTube
 * Mary Downing Hahn, award-winning author of young adult literature
 * Brent Faiyaz, singer and record producer
 * Kevin Frazier, journalist and TV broadcaster
 * Gallant, Grammy-nominated singer-songwriter
 * Alicia Graf Mack, dancer, director of dance division at Juilliard School
 * Justin Gorham (born 1998), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
 * Tom Green, ultra-runner
 * Greg Hawkes, keyboardist for new wave band The Cars
 * David Hobby, professional photographer and author of the Strobist.com lighting blog
 * Stephen Hunter, Pulitzer Prize-winning film critic and author
 * Julia Ioffe (born 1982), Russian-born American journalist
 * Kerry G. Johnson, award-winning caricaturist, cartoonist and children's book illustrator
 * Robert Kolker, author and editor
 * Mark Levine, New York City Council member
 * Laura Lippman, award-winning mystery author
 * Steve Lombardozzi, former professional baseball player
 * Steve Lombardozzi Jr., professional baseball player
 * Suzanne Malveaux, CNN reporter
 * Aaron Maybin, defensive end for NFL's New York Jets
 * Aaron McGruder, animator and cartoonist (The Boondocks)
 * Edward Norton, Academy Award–nominated actor and grandson of James Rouse, made his professional debut at age 8 at Toby's Dinner Theatre in the Town Center
 * Alexis Ohanian, co-founder of Reddit
 * Toby Orenstein, theater director and founder of Toby's Dinner Theatre, Columbia Center for Theatrical Arts, and the Young Columbians
 * Randy Pausch, professor of computer science at Carnegie Mellon University, author of The Last Lecture
 * Ian Jones-Quartey, writer, storyboard artist, animator and voice actor (OK K.O.! Let's Be Heroes)
 * Elise Ray, Olympic gymnast
 * James W. Rouse, urban planner, real estate developer and philanthropist; grandfather of actor Edward Norton
 * Peter Salett, singer-songwriter
 * Greg Saunier, drummer for Deerhoof
 * Christian Siriano, fashion designer, winner of fourth season of Project Runway (born in Columbia)
 * Dave Sitek, guitarist and music producer, member of the band TV on the Radio
 * Linda Tripp, central figure in the Monica Lewinsky scandal
 * Terry Virts, astronaut
 * Void, punk band
 * Greg Whittington, basketball player
 * David Byrne, musician
 * Air Commodore Sir Frank Whittle, OM, KBE, inventor of the jet engine
 * Oprah Winfrey, talk show host, television producer, actress, author, and philanthropist; Winfrey lived in Columbia during the time she worked at WJZ-TV in Baltimore between 1976 and 1983

Sister cities
Columbia is a sister city to Cergy-Pontoise, France, Tres Cantos, Spain, Tema, Ghana, Cap-Haïtien, Haiti, and Liyang, China. The Columbia Association International and Multicultural Programs Advisory Committee organizes a summer exchange program for French and Spanish students enrolled in Howard County Public Schools. In 2013, CA announced its new sister city relationship with Tema, a port city in Ghana. The occasion was marked with a Ghana Fest on November 17, 2013, and the official agreement was signed in 2014. In 2016, Cap-Haïtien, Haiti became a sister city followed by Liyang, China in 2018.
 * Cergy-Pontoise, France (1977)
 * Tres Cantos, Spain (1990)
 * Tema, Ghana (2014)
 * Cap-Haïtien, Haiti (2016)
 * Liyang, China (2018)

Related cities
The Rouse Company, now owned by the Howard Hughes Corporation, owns and operates multiple HUD Title VII-New Town planned community developments along with Columbia. These include The Woodlands, Texas, Bridgeland Community, Texas, and Summerlin, Nevada.

title: Columbia, Maryland


text:
Andrew Marvell

Andrew Marvell (31 March 1621 – 16 August 1678) was an English metaphysical poet, satirist and politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1659 and 1678. During the Commonwealth period he was a colleague and friend of John Milton. His poems range from the love-song "To His Coy Mistress", to evocations of an aristocratic country house and garden in "Upon Appleton House" and "The Garden", the political address "An Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland", and the later personal and political satires "Flecknoe" and "The Character of Holland".

Early life

Marvell was born in Winestead, East Riding of Yorkshire on 31 March 1621. He was the son of a Church of England clergyman also named Andrew Marvell. The family moved to Hull when his father was appointed Lecturer at Holy Trinity Church, and Marvell was educated at Hull Grammar School. Aged 13, Marvell attended Trinity College, Cambridge and eventually received a BA degree. A portrait of Marvell, attributed to Godfrey Kneller, hangs in Trinity College's collection.

From the middle of 1642 onwards, Marvell probably travelled in continental Europe. He may well have served as a tutor for an aristocrat on the Grand Tour, but the facts are not clear on this point. While England was embroiled in the civil war, Marvell seems to have remained on the continent until 1647. During his visit to Rome in 1645, he probably met the Villiers brothers, Lord Francis and the 2nd Duke of Buckingham, as well as Richard Flecknoe. He later wrote a satirical poem about Flecknoe. His travel route is unclear, except that Milton later reported that Marvell had mastered four languages, including French, Italian and Spanish.

First poems and Marvell's time at Nun Appleton
Marvell's first poems, which were written in Latin and Greek and published when he was still at Cambridge, lamented a visitation of the plague and celebrated the birth of a child to King Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria. He belatedly became sympathetic to the successive regimes during the Interregnum after Charles I's execution on 30 January 1649. His "Horatian Ode", a political poem dated to 1650, responds with sadness to the regicide, despite the overall praise towards Oliver Cromwell's return from Ireland.

Circa 1650–52, Marvell served as tutor to the daughter of the Lord General Thomas Fairfax, who had recently relinquished command of the Parliamentary army to Cromwell. During this period, Marvell lived at Nun Appleton Hall, near York, where he continued to write poetry. One poem, "Upon Appleton House, To My Lord Fairfax", uses a description of the estate as a way of exploring Fairfax's and Marvell's own social situation in a time of war and political change. Probably the best-known poem he wrote at this time is "To His Coy Mistress".

Anglo-Dutch War and employment as Latin secretary
During the period of increasing tensions leading up to the First Anglo-Dutch War of 1652, Marvell wrote the satirical "Character of Holland". It repeated the contemporary stereotype of the Dutch as "drunken and profane": "This indigested vomit of the Sea,/ Fell to the Dutch by Just Propriety."

He became a tutor to Cromwell's ward, William Dutton, in 1653, and moved to live with his pupil at John Oxenbridge's house in Eton. Oxenbridge previously made two trips to Bermuda, this most-likely inspired Marvell to write his poem Bermudas. He also wrote several poems praising Cromwell, who was Lord Protector of England at that point. In 1656 Marvell and Dutton travelled to France, to visit the Protestant Academy of Saumur.

In 1657, Marvell joined Milton (who was now blind) in service as Latin secretary to Cromwell's Council of State at a salary of £200 a year. This was enough for decent financial security. Oliver Cromwell died in 1658 and was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son Richard. In 1659 Marvell was elected Member of Parliament for Kingston upon Hull in the Third Protectorate Parliament. He was paid a rate of 6 shillings, 8 pence per day during sittings of parliament, a financial support derived from the contributions of his constituency. He was re-elected MP for Hull in 1660 for the Convention Parliament.

After the Restoration
The monarchy was restored in England in 1660 with Charles II as king. Marvell avoided punishment for his own co-operation with Cromwell and republicanism more broadly. Furthermore, he helped to convince the King not to execute John Milton for his anti-monarchical writings and revolutionary activities. The closeness of the relationship between the two former colleagues is indicated by the fact that Marvell contributed an eloquent prefatory poem, entitled "On Mr. Milton's Paradise Lost", to the second edition of Milton's epic Paradise Lost. According to a biographer: "Skilled in the arts of self-preservation, he was not a toady."

In 1661 Marvell was re-elected MP for Hull in the Cavalier Parliament. He eventually came to write several long and bitterly satirical verses against the corruption of the court. This work was mostly circulated in less public manuscript form, however some was anonymously published in print. The verses were too politically sensitive and too dangerous to be published under his name until well after the writer's death. Marvell took up opposition to the 'court party', and satirised them as his main target. In his longest verse of satire, Last Instructions to a Painter, written in 1667, Marvell responded to the political corruption that had contributed to English failures during the Second Anglo-Dutch War. The poem was only published in print after the Revolution of 1688–9. The poem instructs an imaginary painter on how to portray the state without a proper navy to defend them. The state is led by men without intelligence or courage, a corrupt and dissolute court, and dishonest officials. Of another such satire, Samuel Pepys, himself a government official, commented in his diary, "Here I met with a fourth Advice to a Painter upon the coming in of the Dutch and the End of the War, that made my heart ake to read, it being too sharp and so true."

From 1659 until his death in 1678, Marvell served as London agent for the Hull Trinity House shipmasters' guild. He went on two missions to the continent; one to the Dutch Republic, and the other encompassing Russia, Sweden, and Denmark. He spent some time living in a cottage on Highgate Hill in north London. His stay there is now recorded by a bronze plaque that bears the following inscription:"Four feet below this spot is the stone step, formerly the entrance to the cottage in which lived Andrew Marvell, poet, wit, and satirist; colleague with John Milton in the foreign or Latin secretaryship during the Commonwealth; and for about twenty years M.P. for Hull. Born at Winestead, Yorkshire, 31st March, 1621, died in London, 18th August, 1678, and buried in the church of St. Giles-in-the-Fields. This memorial is placed here by the London County Council, December, 1898." A floral sundial in the nearby Lauderdale House bears an inscription quoting lines from his poem "The Garden".

Andrew Marvell died suddenly in 1678, while attending a popular meeting of his old constituents at Hull. His health had been remarkably good; and some people theorised of his poisoning by his political or clerical enemies. This is unproven. Marvell was buried in the church of St Giles in the Fields in central London. His monument, erected by a very grateful constituency, bears the following inscription:"Near this place lyeth the body of Andrew Marvell, Esq., a man so endowed by Nature, so improved by Education, Study, and Travel, so consummated by Experience, that, joining the peculiar graces of Wit and Learning, with a singular penetration and strength of judgment; and exercising all these in the whole course of his life, with an unutterable steadiness in the ways of Virtue, he became the ornament and example of his age, beloved by good men, feared by bad, admired by all, though imitated by few; and scarce paralleled by any. But a Tombstone can neither contain his character, nor is Marble necessary to transmit it to posterity; it is engraved in the minds of this generation, and will be always legible in his inimitable writings, nevertheless. He having served twenty years successfully in Parliament, and that with such Wisdom, Dexterity, and Courage, as becomes a true Patriot, the town of Kingston-upon-Hull, from whence he was deputed to that Assembly, lamenting in his death the public loss, have erected this Monument of their Grief and their Gratitude, 1688."

Prose works
Marvell also wrote anonymous prose satires: criticizing the monarchy and Roman Catholicism, defending Puritan dissenters, and denouncing censorship.

The Rehearsal Transpros'd, an attack on Samuel Parker, was published in two parts in 1672 and 1673.

Mr. Smirke; or The Divine in Mode, (1676) criticised Church of England intolerance, and was published together with a "Short Historical Essay, concerning General Councils, Creeds, and Impositions, in matters of Religion."

Marvell's pamphlet An Account of the Growth of Popery and Arbitrary Government in England, published in late 1677, alleged that: "There has now for diverse Years, a design been carried on, to change the Lawfull Government of England into an Absolute Tyranny, and to convert the established Protestant Religion into down-right Popery". John Kenyon described it as "one of the most influential pamphlets of the decade" and G. M. Trevelyan called it: "A fine pamphlet, which throws light on causes provocative of the formation of the Whig party".

A 1678 work published anonymously ("by a Protestant") in defense of John Howe against the attack of his fellow-dissenter, the severe Calvinist Thomas Danson, is also probably by Marvell. Its full title is Remarks upon a late disingenuous discourse, writ by one T.D. under the pretence de causa Dei, and of answering Mr. John Howe's letter and postscript of God's prescience, &c., affirming, as the Protestant doctrine, that God doth by efficacious influence universally move and determine men to all their actions, even to those that are most wicked.

Views
Although Marvell became a Parliamentarian and was opposed to episcopacy, he was not a Puritan. Later in life especially, he seems to have been a conforming Anglican. Marvell positively identifies himself as "a Protestant" in pamphlets. He had flirted briefly with Catholicism as a youth, and was described in his thirties (on the Saumur visit) as "a notable English Italo-Machiavellian".

His strong Biblical influence is clear in poems such as "The Garden", the "Coronet" and "The Bermudas".

Vincent Palmieri noted that Marvell is sometimes known as the "British Aristides" for his incorruptible integrity in life and poverty at death. Many of his poems were not published until 1681, three years after his death, from a collection owned by Mary Palmer, his housekeeper. After Marvell's death she laid dubious claim to having been his wife, from the time of a secret marriage in 1667.

Marvell's poetic style
Marvell is said to have adhered to the established stylized forms of his contemporary neoclassical tradition. These include the carpe diem lyric tradition which also forms the basis of his famous lyric "To His Coy Mistress". He adopted familiar forms and infused them with his unique conceits, analogies, reflections and preoccupations with larger questions about life and death. T.S. Eliot wrote of Marvell's style that "It is more than a technical accomplishment, or the vocabulary and syntax of an epoch; it is, what we have designated tentatively as wit, a tough reasonableness beneath the slight lyric grace". He also identified Marvell and the metaphysical school with the "dissociation of sensibility" that occurred in 17th-century English literature; Eliot described this trend as "something which...happened to the mind of England...it is the difference between the intellectual poet and the reflective poet". Poets increasingly developed a self-conscious relationship to tradition, which took the form of a new emphasis on craftsmanship of expression and an idiosyncratic freedom in allusions to Classical and Biblical sources.

"To His Coy Mistress", Marvell's most celebrated poem, combines an old poetic conceit (the persuasion of the speaker's lover by means of a carpe diem philosophy) with Marvell's typically vibrant imagery and easy command of rhyming couplets. Other works incorporate topical satire and religious themes.

Legacy
A secondary school in Hull, the Andrew Marvell Business and Enterprise College, is named after him.

title: Andrew Marvell


text:
Talk:Sigismund Báthory

Untitled
What the HELL is this??? Lucy, you got some 'splainin' to do. This article is absolutely unreadable. I am doing my best to fix it, but it's likely I'll get stuff mixed up, since this is presently a bunch of genealogical mumbo jumbo...JHK

It also includes errors. See Battle of Giurgevo, Miahi of Moldavia (!?), battle of Suceava etc.

Cluj-Napoca
Why "diet of Kolozsvár" and not "diet of Cluj-Napoca" since the name of the city in Romanian is Cluj-Napoca? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Dicocodino (talk • contribs) 23:47, 18 March 2010 (UTC)
 * Because Cluj-Napoca is a modern day name adopted under Ceausescu. Learns some history, son. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 84.2.85.95 (talk) 00:25, 5 January 2019 (UTC)

Date of death
There seems to be some inconsistency in the article about his date of death. The lead sentence, infobox (at the top of the article), and "succession box" (at the bottom) all say it was 27 March 1613, while the "Last years" section claims 13 March 1613, apparently sourced from an encyclopedia entry. Unfortunately, I have been unable to verify this using Google Books (I can only search "blindly" in the text, not read full pages). OTOH, I have found the March 27th date in a different source. Can anyone verify that the cited source (from the article) actually contains the March 13th date? - dcljr (talk) 22:58, 26 March 2018 (UTC)
 * Thank you. 27 March is the correct date. I fixed it. Borsoka (talk) 03:01, 27 March 2018 (UTC)
 * OK, Borsoka, but you changed the date without changing the citation. Are you sure the source supports that date? (I cannot see more than small snippets of text from that work at Google Books.) - dcljr (talk) 03:19, 27 March 2018 (UTC)
 * Yes, I am sure. Borsoka (talk) 03:21, 27 March 2018 (UTC)

Portrait in full regalia
I added a 1595 engraving of Sigismund in full regalia. It is of particular historical importance since he is using the triple princely title (as overlord of Moldavia and Wallachia). In any case it is more martial and might replace the portrait previously used on some other pages and lists. I would also appreciate if someone took the time to publish this on hu.wiki. Plinul cel tanar (talk) 19:32, 8 June 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sigismund Báthory